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Gay student leaders: a narrative analysis on how lesbian and gay college students develop self-efficacy towards a leadership identity

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Gay student leaders: a narrative analysis on how lesbian and gay college students develop self-efficacy towards a leadership identity

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Content Running head: GAY STUDENT LEADERS i

GAY STUDENT LEADERS:
A NARRATIVE ANALYSIS ON HOW LESBIAN AND GAY COLLEGE STUDENTS
DEVELOP SELF-EFFICACY TOWARDS A LEADERSHIP IDENTITY

by
Sergio Ernesto Ramirez

________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Sergio Ernesto Ramirez
GAY STUDENT LEADERS ii

DEDICATION
To my Mom, brother and sisters. Your support, encouragement and laughter helped me
become the person I am today. For that, I am eternally grateful.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Growing up gay was never an easy journey. As this dissertation will explore,
family and peers play a major role in the self-efficacy and identity development of
lesbian and gays. Without those listed below, this dissertation would not be possible.

Dr. Adrianna Kezar
Who listened, shared her expertise, was patient and most of all cheered me on. I truly
consider it an honor and privilege to have shared this experience with her.

Dr. Shafiqa Ahmadi & Dr. Amy Johnson
Who offered their encouragement and curiosity

Jonas, David, Elisa, Cesar, Dana, Stephanie, Sarah, Jessica, Stan, Rob, Roberto, Hema,
Andy, Amin, Gabe, Jay, Sean, Daniel, Tammy, Max, Rob, Rebecca, Jordan, Joel, Aman
and Grace
Who openly shared their stories. I hope I have done your experience justice. Your
bravery and willingness to redefine how others view gay student leaders will have a
lasting impact in the communities we live in.

My friends, both now and then
Your acceptance and support has shaped me into the person I am today.

Celeste Sanchez, Diego Sanchez, Jr., and Dalilah Sanchez
Who give me hope on how society can change

Regina Marquez
Who has always shown her love and kindness

& of course,

Mark Weiss, my partner
Who fell asleep every night to the sound of a laptop clicking and who sacrificed our date
nights so that I could finish my interviews. The love you have shared with me was
something I never expected but consider truly blessed to have.

Amy Gomez, Diego Sanchez, Jenna Yzquierdo and Kady Yzquierdo, my brother and
sisters
Who helped me to find the laughter and confidence in the dark and scary places

Linda A Martinez, my mother
Who has loved and accepted me everyday of my life. The sacrifices you have made for
Amy, Diego, Jenna, Kady and I were not made in vain. I love you with all my heart and
hope I have made you proud.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract vi

Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 3
Brief History of LGBT Students in Higher Education
Leadership Development
Identity Development
Identity & Leadership Development
Marginalization of Lesbians and Gays
Distribution of Power for Lesbians and Gays
3
5
6
8
11
13
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Definition of Terms
Organization
16
19
20
21
22

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
Climate of the LGBT Students in Higher Education 23
Homophobia
Social Anxiety
Dual Minority Status
Lack of Visible Role Models
Importance of LGBT Involvement
24
25
26
28
29
Factors that Impact Identity Construction 30
Cass & D’Augelli 32
Leadership Identity Model 38
Developmental Influences
Group Influences
Changing View of Self With Others
Broadening View of Leadership
42
47
48
49
Analysis of Developmental Models 51
Power
Marginalization
52
53

Chapter 3: Research Methods
Rationale for Design 58
Narrative Approach 59
GAY STUDENT LEADERS v
Site Selection
Participants
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Role of the Researcher
Limitations of the Study
Trustworthiness
62
63
66
69
73
74
76

Chapter 4: Findings
Developmental Influences
Directional Relevance
Developing Self
Group Influences
Marginalization
Changing View of Self With Others
Leadership Identity
Motivation
Broadening View of Leadership
Power
Transitory Influences
80
87
91
92
94
96
97
102
108
111
112

Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications
Research Questions
Marginalization, Motivation & Power
Recommendations for Research
Recommendations for Practice
115
124
133
137

References 145

Appendices
Appendix A: Participant Profile
Appendix B: Solicitation of Participants
Appendix C: Participant Profile and Consent Form
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Participant Interviews
160
166
167
169

GAY STUDENT LEADERS vi
ABSTRACT
This dissertation focuses on how gay and lesbian students construct a leadership
identity. Lesbians and gays have long stood in the shadows of their heterosexual peers
thus hiding their sexual orientation as a means for survival. Up to this point, much of the
research on leadership has revolved around heterosexual individuals. The focus of this
study, in contrast to others, will explore the barriers and pathways to how gay and lesbian
college students construct a leadership identity.
Utilizing a narrative methodology, this study examines the ways in which each
participant constructs and later interprets her or his surroundings in relation to their
sexual identity and later leadership potential. Using Komives (2009) Leadership Identity
Development (LID) model as a basic framework, the reader is able to redefine and
translate this process when dealing with lesbians and gays.
The methods used in this study relate to qualitative research techniques in an
effort to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural and emotional conditions gay and
lesbian students are exposed to. The findings of this study uncover how salient
development influences are in constructing self-efficacy among gay and lesbian youth.
The level at which homosexual youth engage or disengage with their social surroundings
has a lasting impact in how they later translate their self-worth towards further
engagement. Ultimately, as this study will show, when there are high levels of self-worth
or efficacy that lesbians and gays have a greater chance of developing a sustainable
leadership identity. Further, this study begins to reconstruct the Leadership Identity
Development model to better reflect the experiences of gay and lesbian leaders.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 1

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The first known openly gay student to run for student body president was in 1977
at Princeton University (Dilley, 2002, p. 173). The first known openly gay student to be
elected student body president was Jack Baker of the University of Minnesota in 1978.
Since then, there have been a small known number of lesbian and gay students who have
served this role on their respective college campuses (e.g. Ryan Fournier, Ohio State
University 2007; Michael Tuso, University of North Carolina-Greensboro 2008; Tim
Andreadis, Dartmouth 2006; Mitchell Reich, Harvard Law Review 2011). In 2010, the
University of Michigan, for the first time in school history, elected an openly gay student,
Chris Armstrong, as their student body president. Despite the growing acceptance of
gays and lesbians in mainstream society, many homosexuals continue to “struggle
internally, quietly cautious about sharing too much of their personal lives,” (Dilley, 2002,
p.166) – especially when it comes to serving in a public office for a predominantly
heterosexual community.
In reflecting back at the case of Mr. Armstrong, he was met with great hostility to
serve in his role as student body president because of his sexual orientation. This
backlash stemmed from then assistant attorney general for the state of Michigan Andrew
Shirvel, a University of Michigan alum, who openly blogged about his distaste over the
election of an openly gay student body president. In his inaugural post, Shirvell stated
that the site was intended for “concerned University of Michigan alumni, students, and
others who oppose the recent election of Chris Armstrong – a RADICAL
HOMOSEXUAL ACTIVIST, RACIST, ELITIST, & LIAR – as the new head of student
government.” In several postings, Mr. Shirvell equated Mr. Armstrong to a “Nazi-like”
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 2
recruiter for “the cult that is homosexuality.” He also claimed Armstrong aimed “to
promote the radical homosexual agenda at the University of Michigan and to use his
position to promote that cause.” These repeated attacks against Mr. Armstrong continued
for months and went so far to plead to freshmen parents: “Parents of the University of
Michigan freshman beware: the University’s first openly “gay” student body president,
Chris Armstrong, is actively recruiting your sons and daughters to join the homosexual
“lifestyle…” (Shirvell, 2010). Mr. Shirvell’s contempt of a homosexual leading his alma
mater brings to question the significance and value of non-heterosexual college students
who serve in leadership positions.
The focus of this dissertation is intended to expand the literature related to lesbian
and gay college students in the context of leadership. How does one develop a leadership
identity? How does the marginalization of lesbian and gay students impact their ability to
take on a leadership identity? Why is it important for lesbians and gays to take on
leadership roles? While there has been a growing amount of research focused on identity
development of lesbians and gays (e.g., Dilley, 2005; Fassinger, 1998; Stevens, 2004)
coupled with studies on student involvement (e.g. Astin, 1993; Kuh, Hu, & Vesper, 2000)
very little has been done to examine the parallels and intersections of the two. The
direction of this first chapter will begin with a contextual understanding of the climate
and culture lesbians and gays are exposed to while in college - from past to present.
Later, it will introduce the notion of power and examine how the distribution of such
authority has impacted the advancement of lesbians and gays in society.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 3
Background of the Problem
Brief History of LGBT Students in Higher Education
For many years, gay and lesbian college students have often lived in the shadows
of their heterosexual peers. The concealment of their sexual identity was two pronged –
(1) inability to accept or acknowledge their sexual orientation and, 2) fear of backlash of
admitting their sexual orientation. The awareness and acceptance of gays and lesbians in
social media has grown, yet “despite increasing social acceptance of lesbians, gay males,
and bisexuals, heterosexist attitudes remain strong impediments to openness about sexual
orientation” (D’Augelli, Hershberger and Pilkington, 1998, p. 361). In some cases many
lesbian and gay individuals may not acknowledge or recognize their sexual orientation.
As D’Augelli and Hershberger (1993) submit, “the disclosure of lesbian, gay, or bisexual
orientation to someone else, and subsequently to significant others in one’s social
networks, can occur at nearly any point in the life-span” (p.422). Over the years, this
reluctance of disclosure has contributed to their lack of visibility and mobility on college
campuses. As with many other underrepresented groups, efforts to change these
conditions hit college campuses hard.
Political and social reform hitting college campuses in the 1960’s served as one of
the primary modes in which marginalized groups (e.g., women, Blacks and Latinos)
gained validation among their peers. The student protest movement began with civil-
rights, extended to women’s equality and has recently transcended into a variety of issues
not limited to abortion, marriage, drugs. The White-male dominated culture on college
campuses was no longer present. The growing need and changing landscape of college
campuses all across the country reinforced the need to challenge the status quo and create
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 4
environments that mirrored the general population. All students were exposed to the
racial discrimination and segregation, which was accepted and legally enforced on
college campuses and throughout society (Rosas, 2010) and had grown outraged. The
voice of gays and lesbians was no different.
Lesbian and gay college students began to recognize and push for equal rights on
their respective campuses. The intent behind this effort was to provide “equality and
access to, participation within, and funding for students organizations and governance,
reflecting the gay ideology of equality and inclusion” (Dilley 2002, p. 167). Many non-
heterosexual student groups formed in the months following the 1969 Stonewall Riots.
While there is still a great debate as to the actual dates of a specific organization being
formed for the purpose of the lesbian and gay movement, many agree that the “Student
Homophile League, which formed at Columbia University in 1967 was the first” (Dilley,
2000). These earlier efforts attempted to lay the groundwork towards creating a more
accepting and supportive climate on college campuses.
The social movements, and by extension student involvement, taking place on
college campuses indirectly impacted how students began to see their roles in society.
The call to act was strong and extended far beyond what was imaginable. The
significance of these actions went beyond the cause and more into the social construction
of each student’s identity. For those students who participated or witnessed these events,
each benefitted by constructing a social identity that was much different from their
predecessors. They begin to question their established beliefs (Kerr, 1970) and became
more cognizant of their social surroundings and their place in society. As Pascarella and
Terenzini (1997) submit, the college experience is enhanced by increased exposure to
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 5
individuals from diverse groups (e.g., sexual orientation) and engagement with issues of
diversity (e.g., racism). This continued exposure to activism and involvement translated
into how students began to develop their sense of leadership.
Leadership Development
The societal demands of our communities are changing at a rapid pace and extend
far beyond traditional practices of leadership to solve them. College presents a prime
opportunity for students to become actively engaged within settings that challenge their
social and cultural awareness and in-turn develop the capacity to respond to these
demands. In some cases researchers have acknowledged that, “contextual factors have
significant influence on the emergency, operation, and effectiveness” (Pawar & Eastman,
1997, p. 81) of leadership development. As a result, every experience offers a unique
opportunity to practice and construct an identity that is forthcoming of expanded
responsibilities and involvement in activities that impact their social lives. These
associations or exchanges one shares with others serves as the catalyst towards
constructing a leadership identity. Leadership can be seen as a “group process, which is
predicated on group values such as collaboration and shared purpose” (Astin & Astin,
1977, p. 28). As such, any opportunity that consistently brings students into contact with
one another provides a potential occasion to apply leadership skills and principles (Astin
& Astin, 1977, p. 28). Regardless of the level of involvement, students gain experience
in negotiating some of the leadership principles that contribute to a leadership identity
such as collaboration, commitment and shared purpose. These guiding principles
develop over a period of consistent and longstanding engagement during the student’s
tenure in college.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 6
For many college students, their ability to develop leadership skills does not
follow a prescribed path. As Astin (1984) puts forward, “different students manifest
different degrees of involvement in a given [activity], and the same student manifests
different degrees of involvement in different [activities] at different times” (p.519). The
evolution of a leadership identity or participatory action on behalf of the student greatly
depends on the level of self-knowing. The active involvement of the individual
contributes to a greater sense of self through an awareness of her or his abilities. Identity
plays a critical role in the individual’s ability to consolidate her or his self-efficacy
towards leadership.
Identity Development
The college experience provides some of the most formative years of a young
adult’s life (Astin, 1977, Pascarella, 1985b). For many students, college probes them into
becoming more “mature, knowledgeable, and focused individuals” (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005, p. 534). It is a time that offers a number of challenges, obstacles and
opportunities for one to develop a sense of identity and awareness. The concept of
development, relative to change, involves the “achievement of qualitatively different and
presumably more adequate degrees of integration” (Strange, 1994). The qualitative
experiences one is exposed to in college presents opportunities that deeply integrate and
challenge the individual to construct a purposeful identity. Establishing identity,
however, involves a “growing awareness of competencies, emotions and values,
confidence in standing alone and bonding with others, and moving beyond tolerance
toward openness and self-esteem” (Chickering & Reisser, 1993, p. 173). These repeated
exchanges have a strong ripple effect in how one is able to construct self-efficacy and
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 7
identity. Numerous researchers (Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Astin, 1999; and Pascarella
& Terenzini, 2005) emphasize that all college students encounter issues related to identity
development.
The product of achieving a stable identity is “a firm sense of who one is, a
purpose in life, a clear set of personal values, knowing what one wants out of life and
where one is headed, and having personal goals for the future (Lounsbury, Huffstetler,
Leong & Gibson, 2005, p. 502). As such, it is in college where students become fully
exposed to this transformational and transitional state of awareness with who they are,
which provides a sense of direction as to where they are going. In college, students
create a lens through which “cognitive, affective and behavioral actions are filtered”
(Fassinger, 1998). These four pivotal years expose students to experiences, people and
opinions that help shape who they will become. For many lesbian and gay students, there
is still a relative backlash of pervasive discrimination and harassment (Evans, 2001;
Rankin, 2003). Discrimination against lesbians and gays can be considered one of the
forms of bigotry that is considered acceptable. In many instances, the social climate has
become much more progressive with, most folks outgrowing the desire for “overt racist
and sexist attacks, for many people it’s still okay to take shots at homosexuals” (Birden,
Gaither, & Laird, 2000, p.639). While campus climates have been much more accepting
and inclusive of lesbian and gay students, there is still much more to be done.
Lesbian and gay students have wrestled with a high degree of marginalization and
stigma as a result of being open about their sexual orientation. Within the lesbian and
gay population, “gay male undergraduates are more likely than lesbians to face
harassment and discrimination, especially from their straight male counterparts” (DeVita,
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 8
2010, p.5). The growing stigma of lesbians and gays often precludes their ability to
develop a real sense of identity. For example, the process of coming out is “less likely to
occur because gay individuals can feel unwelcome or even unsafe” (DeVita, 2010, p. 5).
Homosexual students should not have to deny or withhold their sexual identity –
especially for the sake of participating in social activities or taking leadership roles. For
gays and lesbians that disclose their sexual orientation, they risk experiencing the
backlash of how their sexual orientation will be accepted among their peers. Those that
choose to conceal their sexual identity only deny a part of themselves and are forced to
lead a double-life. At what cost must lesbians and gays make in order to become a
leader? While sexual orientation should not be the main focus of gays and lesbians in
leadership positions it does define, to a certain degree, who they are. As such, it has
become increasingly apparent that sexual orientation has a significant impact on how an
LGBT student is able to negotiate their leadership potential.
Identity & Leadership Development
Understanding oneself greatly contributes to the potential of how an individual is
able to conceptualize her or his place in society and by extension how one constructs a
leadership identity. For many individuals, their identity develops through the social
interactions he or she exchanges with others. Leadership, as a result, is tethered by these
exchanges as they play a pivotal role in how individuals are able to develop self-efficacy
towards building skills that relate to becoming a leader. The role of a leader, however, is
loosely defined depending on the context to which the individual exists and for what
situation. As Kezar (2000) suggests, “leadership is socially constructed between people;
thus, it’s meaning is negotiated among individuals or group” (p. 724). The value of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 9
leadership in which others place on the individual carries with it great impact on shaping
her or his identity. Although there has been a considerable amount of research done on
leadership, much of it has focused on a “description of traits, behaviors, and influence
strategies” (Kezar, 2000, p. 724). These models, however have neglected the impact
identity has in developing a leadership identity. The significance of understanding
oneself in relation to leadership is that it allows the individual to better understand the
context of the situation they are reacting to. This information contributes to the,
“knowledge of the competencies one has and does not have, knowledge of one’s attitudes
and values, and knowledge of one’s likes and dislikes, and of what one aspires to
become” (van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer & Hogg, 2004, p. 827). As
this knowledge is nurtured, she or he is able to adapt and respond to situations with
greater meaning. What is important to recognize is that the self is not one-dimensional.
The distinct identities, however, are “typically tied to a particular social context” (van
Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer & Hogg, 2004, p. 827). It is important to
recognize the context in which leadership exists as it directly relates to the persons ability
to respond successfully to the situation.
One example of how identity is best expressed in terms of defining leadership
potential is highlighting the roles women have played in society. Given the social
inequalities that have plagued our society, women have often served a subservient role to
men especially when it comes to positions of authority. Studies (Ragins, Townsend &
Mattis, 1998; McCormik, Tanguma & Lopez-Forment, 2002) have shown that women
serving in leadership roles often have lower leadership self-efficacy and lower self-
confidence despite their skill-set and education compared to their male peers. This
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 10
reaction is often attributed to the social pressures instilled in many women at an early age
to adhere to the predetermined gender roles assigned by their peers. As a result, women
have not benefitted from the vast number of role models as their male counterparts, thus
limiting their access to mentors.
For lesbians and gays, sexual orientation and issues of disclosure have had a
damaging effect on their ability to take on leadership roles. While in college, there are
substantial challenges and risks for lesbian and gay students while they come to grips
with their sexual identity. In general, lesbians and gays are presented with a number of
obstacles when choosing to disclose their sexual orientation. As D’Augelli &
Hershberger (1993) suggest, “the disclosure of lesbian, gay or bisexual orientation to
someone else, and subsequently to significant others in one’s social networks…typically
have been presumed to begin in young adulthood” (p. 424). While this awareness is
often found to be during college and emotionally difficult, it is “worsened by the negative
reactions from significant others such as family and friends” (D’Augelli & Hershberger,
1993, p. 423). For lesbian and gay students, the risks associated with full disclosure of
their sexual identity are particularly important because it debilitates them from
maintaining meaningful relationships that, in the past, served as their support system.
Further, verbal harassment and physical assault of open lesbians and gays occurs
continues to be an added stressor (D’Augelli & Hershberger, 1993, p. 423). Because the
coming out process involves how one sees her or himself in relation to others, the
individual may be unable to effectively cope with “manifestations of antigay prejudice
and internalized homonegativty (i.e., application of anti-gay standards to the self)” (Mohr
& Fassinger, 2003, p. 483) which is closely tied to their levels of attachment with others.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 11
In some cases, full disclosure of ones sexual identity has translated into a higher risk of
suicide among gay males (D’Augelli & Hershbeger, 1993, p. 424). As such, this
alternative identity greatly impacts how one is able to see oneself as a leader. The dual
identity of lesbians and gays, similar to those of women, Blacks and Latinos, has plagued
their ability to break the divisive social structures of our society.
Marginalization of Lesbians and Gays
Our society has seen several manifestations of divisive social structures, in turn
marginalizing certain groups and debilitating them from advancing in society. These
structures often perpetuate the stigma of hierarchy and in turn decrease or increase levels
of empowerment and motivation. There have been a number of examples illustrating the
divisive nature in which hierarchical structures have plagued our educational system and
have transcended far beyond into society.
Many different groups have been exposed to a divisive nature of hierarchy and
segregation such as Latinos and women. Women have worked hard to attain an equal
level of access in higher education. In 1960, almost “half the women who received
bachelor’s degrees did so in one field, namely teaching, and over 75 percent of the
women received degrees in one of six fields: English, fine arts, history, home economics,
nursing, and teaching” (Jacobs, 1995, p. 84). The systemic impact this has had with
women is that while women have made significant advances in the fields of science and
engineering, their numbers fall far below that of men. For Latinos and Blacks, despite
the growth in college-age Latinos and Blacks over the last decade, “the pattern of college
access and choice remains unchanged since the 1970’s (Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, and
Rhee, 1997, p. 64). These examples illustrate the damaging effect segregated systems
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 12
have at regressing or repressing the cognitive development of students. The greater
damage is the lasting effect these systems of oppression have on the lives of students
affected by them. Because of the trajectory that these divisions set, they often debilitate
students’ ability to advance within society.
For lesbians and gays, these divisions exist at the point of disclosure of their
sexual orientation and transcend far beyond the college years. They carry a systemic
effect on how students are able to negotiate their mobility in a leadership position when
coupled with their identity. The personal and social stressors associated with coming out,
including victimization and rejection, which can be overwhelming for gay, lesbian, and
bisexual youths, and have been linked to problems such as high rates of school failure
and suicide for this group (Floyd & Stein, 2002). Coupled with the lack of visible role
models serving in leadership positions, lesbian and gay students learn to negotiate their
place on campus. The lack of lesbian and gay students in leadership roles in college
translates into a debilitating effort towards eliminating “sexual prejudice and the resulting
policies that discriminate against [lesbian and gay] people” (Duhigg, Rostosky, Gray &
Wimsatt, 2010, p.2). This lack of recognition and socialization has a debilitating and
long-term effect towards equalizing the basic rights of lesbians and gays all across the
country.
The lasting impact these constructions of marginalization have among lesbians
and gays is that they perpetuate a stigma of hierarchy and in turn decrease levels of
empowerment and motivation. This stigma relates to how individuals, in the case gays
and lesbians, translate their roles in society as subservient to their heterosexual peers. For
lesbians and gays, these divisions begin at the point of disclosure and transcend far
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 13
beyond the college years. As an example, in many states and local jurisdictions, lesbians
and gays lack the basic protections of nondiscrimination policies” (Duhigg, Rostosky,
Gray & Wimsatt, 2010, p.2). Lesbian and gay men have been repeated targets of
considerable prejudice, which has “manifested in a wide range of behaviors ranging from
verbal expressions of dislike to violent attacks” (Herek, 1988, p. 451). The continued
stigma and victimization of lesbians and gays may impede their ability to develop the
courage and self-efficacy to serve in leadership roles. In the long run, this divisive nature
creates a lasting impression on the unequal distribution of power for lesbians and gays.
Distribution of Power for Lesbians and Gays
The equal distribution of power plays an extremely important role towards
equalizing capital and influence in society. The concept of power as a social force is
often limited to an elite group of individuals who, “occupy important institutional
positions or take part in important decision-making groups” (Domhoff, 2005). Therefore,
the disproportionate distribution of capital carries an extremely damaging effect towards
the mobility of individuals not in power - namely lesbians and gays, and continues the
influence of the privileged elite.
The accumulation of capital students are exposed to in college provides the
needed foundation for them to successfully assimilate into elite social circles. According
to De Marrais and Le Compte (2000):
Education has been the key to upward mobility. It takes place in two stages. First,
one must acquire at least some of the characteristics of the upper class, most
important of which is a level of education that will provide competence in higher-
status jobs and give a luster to social and intellectual interaction. Second, one
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 14
must learn the language patterns, social graces, and habits of behavior of the class
to which one aspires. (p. 9)
For lesbians and gays, this means providing access to a world that offers resources and
opportunities thus opening doors to further advancement. All students enter higher
education with certain values and levels of capital that were instilled in them by their
families and society, but it is within this system of higher education that those values and
capital are challenged or reinforced. An understanding of these shared principles, as
Keohane (2001) suggests, equips an individual with the capital to successfully assimilate
with members of certain social networks. In a perfect world that fosters equality, the
distribution of this capital, or power, would be equal. Unfortunately for us, we do not
live in a perfect world.
The social disparities have a lasting effect on underrepresented social circles
through the influence of the elite. There is a social authority that comes from those with
an advanced level of education. Given the level of education one has attained, it places
her or him in a certain social strata. As such, “social relationships (or ties) and networks
are societal entities governed by social structure; [individuals] can regularly depend on
these entities for resources and support precisely because of their social structural
properties” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Individuals who possess this capital often serve as
advisors or critics of the policies and practices we use in our everyday lives. For
example, if we look at our current U.S. Supreme Court, comprised of nine justices who
serve as the overarching interpreters of the Constitution, one would find that every
member of the court in the past 82 years has graduated from one of the three most
exclusive graduate law schools in higher education. In this instance, the lives of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 15
individuals are greatly influenced and, in many ways, dictated by policies set forth by a
small group of individuals who, at present, do not openly identify as gay or lesbian.
Would it matter if they did? Would they even be confirmed to serve on the Court? It is
not the focus of this paper to argue for or against an openly gay or lesbian justice. This
reference is aimed to argue how these interpreters of the law are the same individuals that
dictate the lives of so many individuals. It raises the debate on how our society is greatly
influenced by those who have been privileged to exist in certain circles of authority. For
others who are not privy to that type of access, how much power or control do they have
over their own destiny? Thus is the struggle of gays and lesbians in leadership.
Individuals who are afforded the privilege of higher levels of capital develop a
sense of empowerment, which then translates to power. Kogan (2005) argues that power
derives “permanence and stability through techniques of legitimation, ideology,
hegemony, mobilization of bias, false consensus and so on which secure the willing
compliance of citizens through the manipulation of their beliefs” (p. 11). It is by
legitimizing these beliefs that lesbians and gays fall prey to comply. This compliance,
mainly through social or structural means of power, makes individuals vulnerable and
often targets for further oppression and segregation. If access to these social networks is
denied, then the inability to contest systems of oppression is perpetuated. Kogan’s
argument may also imply that there are continued efforts by the dominant group to
perpetuate a system of division that does not threaten their ability to maintain power
while also producing intended…effects on others (Domhoff, 2005). Therefore, it can be
implied that the use of power as a social force can have a long-term damaging effect.
The limiting of access to resources, opportunities, or capital through stigmatizing or
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 16
alienating a certain cultural or social group has a damaging effect on their ability to
successfully assimilate in society.
In today’s society, we exist in a world of social categorization. This system
“creates and defines an individuals’ own place in society” (Tajfel, 1972, p. 293). The
definition of social identity can best be described as “the individual’s knowledge that [she
or] he belongs to certain social groups together with some emotional and value
significance to him of this group membership” (Tajfel, 1972, p. 292). In relation to
marginalized groups, the categorization and hierarchy of these groups inherently
establishes a value to each group. For those who are fortunate and privileged to be a part
of the elite come a presumable amount of substantial rewards. For those less fortunate to
be identified with the latter, they become deprived of the social capital that comes from
being with the other group.
Statement of the Problem
In summary, as a result of the stigma placed on lesbians and gays and the high
number of them not becoming active members within the campus community, lesbian
and gay college students may face increased challenges in constructing their identity and
self-efficacy towards becoming a leader. There is a wide-range of research highlighting
the positive impact student engagement has in shaping an individual’s self-efficacy and
identity development in college (Astin, 1985, Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005, Tinto, 1993).
Yet, there are only a few issues that have such a reverberating effect than the disclosure
that one is lesbian, gay, or bisexual. The social and cultural stigmatization presents a
number of “challenges in core aspects of human development: the development of a
personal identity, the integration of identity into the family, the development of intimate
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 17
relationships, and the creation of a psychological sense of community within the larger
culture (D’Augelli, Hersberger & Pilkington, 1998, p. 361). While there is growing
social acceptance of lesbians and gays, heterosexist views still dominate college campus
culture. Further, there is growing evidence that “involvement in campus activities related
to a specific element of identity – such as race, sexual orientation, or gender – supports
exploration of identity construction” (Renn & Bilodeau, 2004, p.343). Failure to do so
impedes the individual’s ability to develop a substantive identity and value system. As
Posner submits, “leadership is driven by internal forces…and thus the development of
leaders is fundamentally the development of the inner-self” (Posner, 2009, p. 242). As
lesbian and gay students neglect their potential to become leaders, they void themselves
of developing the necessary social capital needed for advancement.
Therefore, the theories related to LGBT student development (Cass, 1979;
D’Augelli, 1994; Fassinger, 1991; Savin-Williams, 1988, 1990; Troiden, 1988) in concert
with those focused on leadership identity development (Porter, 1998; Komives et al.,
2005; Renn & Bilodeau, 2005) become extremely important. For one reason,
understanding the social and emotional constructs of developing ones sexual identity is
important as it relates strongly to how one is able to resolve her of his individual identity
and values in the context of their communities. Second, a greater understanding of these
transitions and stages are essential in providing support for lesbian and gay college
students. Failure to validate the potential of lesbian and gay leaders perpetuates the
systemic inequities that have plagued LGBT individuals in gaining equality.
Colleges and universities should begin to take responsibility in nurturing the
development of not just lesbians and gays but the larger community. Institutions of higher
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 18
education have long been understood to have a public responsibility towards advancing
society. In some sense, they have become social agents toward the public good. These
agents are expected to lay the foundation of a thorough education by helping students to
exercise, “all mental faculties as to form a proper balance of character” (Day, Silliman,
and Kingsley, 1828 [in Ohara, 2010]). This foundation should also include, but not be
limited to, advanced thought and awareness of self in and of society. Further, a college
education should provide a forum that inspires curiosity and challenges ideals. These
exercises contribute to a more inclusive and socially conscious society. As Keohane
(2001) asserts:
Members of large, complex modern communities who understand something
about science, technology, culture, human nature, and politics will be better
prepared to make well-informed decisions about what kinds of policies, or
political leaders, deserve support. They will be more cautious about accepting
bold claims that turn out to be false, less subject to manipulation by those
claiming superior knowledge (p. 245)
Creating a balanced character, equipped with the tools to assimilate and function in
society, is the key towards greater assimilation and an equal distribution of social capital
our colleges and universities should provide. Failure to do may perpetuate the inequities
that have plagued our society.
In summary, lesbians and gays have long been members of a marginalized group
within a dominant heterosexual culture. For some lesbian and gay students, they coexist
in the community by compartmentalizing their sexuality from their social identity by
“passing” as a member of the more dominant culture. Others who have been more open
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 19
about their sexual orientation have become targets of their heterosexual peers. Both
experiences have had a negative, and often damaging impact in how lesbians and gays
construct their social identity. While in college, many lesbian and gay students fall short
in developing a strong social identity as a result of the stigma placed on them via their
sexuality and risk becoming inactive members on campus. Their lack of participation in
turn, prevents them from developing the skills and capital necessary to become successful
leaders. As fewer and fewer lesbians and gays become active members of our society by
serving as role-models or advocates for equality, the community as a whole falls prey to
the continued marginalization and divisive social structures that have stunted their
mobility for equality. Therefore, it is imperative for college administrators to understand
and respond to the needs of lesbian and gay college students as a means of creating a
more equitable and inclusive campus community.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the conditions lesbian
and gay college students are exposed to while assuming an active role in campus
activities.
 Do lesbian and gay student leaders experience some level of marginalization
while serving openly as a college student leader?
 Does identifying as a homosexual impact her or his ability to serve in a leadership
position in comparison to their heterosexual peers?
 How has identifying as gay or lesbian impacted their ability to develop a
leadership identity?
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 20
 At what level does leadership involvement impact how lesbian and gay students
see themselves and where they will be in the future?
 What factors, if any, contribute to successful immersion as a lesbian or gay leader
on a predominantly heterosexual campus?
The overall goal of this study is to present lesbian and gay college students as
capable and effective leaders similar to their heterosexual peers. By extension, this
research is aimed at providing an impetus for further participatory action of lesbian and
gay students to develop self-efficacy and substantive leadership identity.
Significance of the Study
There is a limited amount of research related to lesbian and gay college students.
What does exist, however, focuses primarily on developmental issues related to LGBT
students. In the studies that were examined, the three general themes have revolved
around: (a) the identity development process, (b) experiences on campus, and (c) health-
related issues. Of the studies they classified as dealing with experiences on campus, one
study focused on the experiences of gay students in the classroom while the remaining
studies focused on the harassment of this same population. As a result, there is a pressing
need to expand research related to this population that attempts to de-stigmatize the
population and provide an outlet of congruence.
Exploring issues related to lesbian and gay college students on campus may
translate into how university administrators provide support and guidance for LGBT
students as well as other marginalized groups on campus. Working in student affairs, I
have become increasingly aware of the impact developing a leadership identity can have
on students – especially for gays and lesbians. Like all adolescents, gay students need
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 21
role models whom they can admire, look up to, and model themselves after. By not
having a diverse set of role models or campus leaders, it debilitates the campus
community from developing a strong sense of social capital through the lack of exposure
and recognition of LGBT students. The invisibility of gay and lesbian role models stalls
the progressive actions of creating a campus climate that is inclusive and understanding
of all members in the community. The long-term, and in some cases immediate effect
this has among lesbian and gay students is that it translates into a sense of devaluation in
the community thus stunting their interest in taking advantage and participating in
leadership positions.
Definition of Terms
The following definition of terms will provide the reader with a comprehensive
understanding of the language used throughout the dissertation.
Identity - The way we choose to present ourselves to others both personally and
professionally. It is a mixture of essentialism and constructionism that not only is
reconfigured over time and context but also occurs with the multiple and often conflicting
contexts in which our lives are played out” (Tierney, 1997).
Leader, or leadership - Are individuals who have influence, often through
possession of consensual prestige or the exercise of power, over the attitudes, behaviors,
and destiny of in-group members. (Fielding & Hogg, 1997)
Marginalization – The experience of differentness, of existing on the margins of
society because of minority status.
Sexuality - Is influenced by the interaction of a variety of factors including
biological, social, economic, cultural, political, ethical, legal, historical and religious or
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 22
spiritual and is expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values,
behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships. It encompasses how we self identify, such
as a gay man, lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, transgender, queer, or heterosexual. (Downs,
2006).
Social Capital: Resources defined in one’s social networks; resources that can be
accessed or mobilized through ties in one’s networks.
Organization
This chapter presented an overview of the issues related to lesbian and gay
student leaders and the increased marginalization they are exposed to on college
campuses. The delayed impact this has within the community is critical as it curbs the
development of these students towards becoming leaders and later members in society
with positions of authority. Chapter Two includes a comprehensive review of the
literature; historical and sociological perspectives of lesbian and gay identity
development along with various leadership models. Chapter Three includes a description
of the research design for this study; population sample; data collection methods and
instrumentation. Chapter Four includes a critical analysis of data collected. Chapter Five
includes the research findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 23
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In the previous chapter, I charged that there are long-term disadvantages and risks
when lesbian and gay college students become disengaged from developing a leadership
identity. The literature that follows provides three areas that relate to the social and
psychological identity development of lesbian and gay student leaders. To begin, I will
examine the current climate of LGBT students on college campuses. This survey is
important in order to understand the barriers and factors that curb the involvement of
LGBT students in leadership activities. Second, an overview of Cass’ work on gay and
lesbian identity formation is used to contextualize the cognitive and behavioral processes
of LGBT students. Third, the model of leadership identity development (LID) and
related literature is presented as a way of framing how students, in particular lesbians and
gays, construct a leadership identity in the context of their social conditions. In closing,
an analysis of these three areas and how they translate into levels of marginalization,
immersion, and power will be provided as a means of measuring LGBT students self-
efficacy and leadership identity development.
Climate of LGBT Students in Higher Education
Gays and lesbians have long been the target of divisive social structures and by
extension, have been relegated to a marginalized status through the various barriers they
are exposed to. In looking at higher education, one may propose that the college
environment serves as a microcosm of the larger society that perpetuates this divisive
social structure. Stereotypes of gays and lesbians are as prevalent on college campuses as
they are in society, producing “high incidence of negative consequences…that include
verbal and physical abuse” (DeVita, 2010). As a result, lesbians and gays have
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 24
reportedly been more apt to “feel isolated and lonely, and also express difficulty
maintaining friendships when compared to their straight peers” (Longerbeam, Inkelas,
Johnson & Lee, 2005). Because many LGBT individuals live in a “predominantly
heterosexual society that demands adherence to certain personal, relational, and social
norms” (D’Augelli, 1994, p. 393), it is important to assess the environmental barriers that
contribute to these levels of marginalization.
In many ways, lesbians and gays must create their own levels of normalcy in the
face of four powerful barriers: homophobia; social anxiety; dual-minority status and lack
of visible role models. Each barrier serves as a function that reinforces the social
invisibility of lesbians and gays while also highlighting the environment of heterosexual
privilege in which they must coexist. The intention behind this analysis is to
contextualize the often-negative repercussions of identity disclosure when it comes to
sexual orientation. Further, it is important to understand the strategies in which lesbians
and gays have developed evasive practices or coping mechanisms, such as “passing”
intended to avoid the alienation or stigma of shame and secrecy that comes with
identifying as lesbian or gay.
Homophobia
Although homosexuality has lost the status of a psychological disorder (Britton,
1990), there is still a consistent thread of homophobia that continues to exist in today’s
heterosexual society. The clouded truth in today’s society is that many Americans
believe homosexuality is not acceptable and morally wrong, “that homosexuality is a
matter of choice, and that gay men and lesbians should not serve in the military, teach in
schools, or parent children” (Crawford, Allison, Zamboni, and Soto, 2002, p. 179).
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 25
These feelings of “homophobia” present a clear fear and dislike of lesbians and gay men
(Britton, 1990) and have a direct correlation to how lesbians and gays individuals develop
a positive identity. As many see it, “homosexuals threaten traditional family and gender-
role values than any other minority group” (Basow and Johnson, 2000, p. 392). In
looking at the preexisting gender roles of today’s society, many would posit that the
fluidity at which lesbians and gays engage in, threaten the prescribed duties and
responsibilities of heterosexual couples. A large part of this belief stems from the
socialization of heterosexual identity formation from an early age. Like many
individuals, lesbians and gays have been conditioned since birth to see the normalcy in
heterosexual identity and in turn reject any social or emotional characteristics of
homosexual influence. Homophobic comments are common in schools and exploration
of same-sex physical and emotional interests are often severely punished by parents or
other members of the community (D’Augelli, 2004). As one matures, there is a growing
pressure to conform to heterosexual norms causing a great deal of social anxiety for many
lesbians and gays as they develop their own social identity.
Social Anxiety
Social anxiety plays a major role in the development of identity because of the
oppressive stigma it places on the individual. It is argued, “sexual minorities experience
proportionally more negative life events, as a result of living in a sexist, racist, and
heterosexual society” (Crawford, Allison, Zamboni, and Soto, 2002, p. 180). This
anxiety threatens the individual’s ability to assimilate into mainstream society. As
D’Augelli (1994) charges, “lesbians, gay men, and bisexually identified people live in a
predominantly heterosexual society that demands adherence to certain personal,
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 26
relational, and social norms” (p. 393). As such, the mandated identity of mainstream
culture impedes on the individual’s ability to construct and embrace their true sexual
orientation
Growing amounts of research suggests that gays and lesbians suffer higher rates
of social anxiety than their heterosexual peers (Safren & Pantalone, 2006). One of the
central themes to social anxiety disorder involves a fear and avoidance of situations
where others will focus negative attention to the individual. As Safren & Pantalone
(2006) charge, social anxiety translates into significant impairments – especially when it
comes to quality of life. At present, social anxiety is considered one of the “most
common types of anxiety disorder and overall third most common mental disorder
following major depression and alcohol dependence” (LaFarr, 2010). In many cases,
those that are affected by social anxiety become withdrawn in social settings and, by
extension, are subjected to further exclusion and an even heightened sense of failure.
Lesbians and gays, like many other underrepresented individuals, learn to “expect
negative and event hostile regard from the dominant culture” (LaFarr, 2010). To a
greater extent, lesbians and gays suffer greater consequence of these circumstances
because they “do not typically share their minority status” (Safren & Rogers, 2001).
There is no routine socialization for gays and lesbians like there is for their heterosexual
peers. There are no social institutions (e.g., Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts), practices or
traditions (e.g., school dances, marriage) that celebrate or encourage the development of
sexual minorities. To add, as our society becomes more intertwined and ethnically
diverse, there is a growing need to understand the challenges of dual-minority status.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 27
Dual Minority Status
Lesbians and gays represent a sexual minority, and like other minorities, these
individuals face experiences of marginalization. Unfortunately, the experiences of
oppression and discrimination for these minorities are doubled when taking into account
individuals who contend with a dual-minority status (i.e., black gay males). In exploring
the experience of black males, research has found that these individuals resist disclosing
their sexual identity out of fear of losing their “heterosexual privilege and ostracism form
their community that serves as their refuge against racism” (Goode-Cross, 2009, p. 103).
In cases where disclosure occurs, these individuals face the potential loss of an important
system of support, with limited opportunity to find an alternate community where they
feel accepted (Fukuyama & Ferguson, 2000). In many cases where educational levels
increased, black males where found to be less likely to associate with other lesbians and
gays. This feeling of alienation and shame has a damaging effect in breaking down the
internalized homophobia and “negative psychological outcomes such as depression, [and]
lower self-esteem” (Goode-Cross, 2009, p. 104). As such, the complexity of being a
double-minority is amplified for many individuals who are handed a dual-identity
because of the risks associated with developing successful relationships.
Due to the threat of social and emotional abandonment, many lesbians and gays
are forced to maintain a dual existence, which inhibits their ability to develop a positive
LGBT identity. In a study by Goode-Cross and Good (2009), their research of LGBT
black males reported that “although race, gender, and religion were consistently
identified as aspects of identity most influential in [their] lives…sexual orientation and
social class were less frequently viewed as salient” (p. 106). This concept brings to light
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 28
some of the damaging effects a dual-identity has in creating an LGBT community that is
able to foster a broad base of leaders. In many cases, individuals are first exposed to
resistance or marginalization because of their racial identity. As such, they grow up
learning to compartmentalize their existence within the community in order to avoid
further rejection. Those individuals who are not able to readily identity with their dual-
minority status foreclose their ability to develop a sense of loyalty with the lesbian and
gay community. (Crawford, Allison, Zamboni, and Soto, 2002). To add, they in turn
stunt their ability to developing a positive lesbian or gay identity. Sexual minorities are
different in their socialization with respect to their heterosexual peers given that they are
limited in the number of visible role models that identify as lesbians and gays.
Lack of Visible Role Models
Given the social backlash or heightened anxiety many lesbians and gays are
exposed to through the stigmas that exist in a generally heterosexual society, there are
few noticeable role models in the lesbian and gay community. Role models, however,
play an important role in establishing a presence and asserting behaviors, and by
extension provide a sense of value, that later translates into acceptable, or at the very least
tolerable norms for the general community. As Grossman and D’Augelli (2004) assert,
“socialization is the process of whereby new members of society are taught the
knowledge, rules, values, skills and roles according to which they are expected to
operate” (p.83). In the absence of positive role models, many lesbians and gays fail to
see themselves as active members of the community. As such, they fail to see their
sexual identity as a valued member in the community and continue to hide their same-sex
attraction from others and “live in an atmosphere of secrecy and myths” (Grossman &
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 29
D’Augelli, 2004, p. 83). The result of these repeated apprehensions of self-disclosure has
led to a general absence of visible lesbian and gay role models. And while there are a
growing number of public figures (e.g., Ellen DeGeneres, Elton John, Greg Louganis)
that have disclosed their identity, there is still a general fear of the reaction this will have
on their careers. There is evidence, however, that lesbians and gay youth are disclosing
their sexual orientation at a younger age (Savin-Williams, 1998), which suggests that
youth may have different socializing experiences, as they get older.
Given that sexual orientation is fundamentally social in character (D’Augelli,
2004), it is important to challenge some of the hetero-normative social structures that
exist in today’s society through presence and action. Lesbians and gays must begin to
break away from the non-heterosexualized myths or stereotypes of lesbians and gays and
create positive models. Some of these myths maintain that “lesbians and gay men do not
have long-lasting relationships, that their families reject them, that they can never be
engaged in child-rearing, and that they cannot have positions of power” (D’Augelli,
2004, p. 399). In looking at the hetero-normative and heterosexual culture that exists in
today’s society, it is increasingly important for lesbians and gays to challenge and
“demythologize” these assertions through increased social contact with their heterosexual
peers.
Importance of LGBT Involvement
Most people are able to conceptualize their experience along with the conditions
they are dealt with by observation. As Bandura (1997) posits, “most learning occurs
from observing other people” (p. 192). Given the social stigma homophobia has on many
LGBT individuals coupled with the social anxiety, dual-minority status and lack of role
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 30
models, it is seemingly difficult for lesbians and gays to see themselves as celebrated
members of the general community. In addition, given that most role models for many
lesbians and gays are heterosexual, it is difficult for them to contextualize their success in
various environments without a clear understanding of how sexual identity impacts this
mobility. As a result, many lesbians and gays may experience heightened personal and
institutionalized homophobia and further isolation and humiliation (Grossman &
D’Augelli, 2004).
In working with lesbians and gays students, it is important to understand the
context in which these individuals learn to coexist. These barriers are the realities they
face on a daily basis. Much like the realities of women, Latinos and blacks, these social
forces play a major role in when and how an individual develops her or his identity and in
what way they will become involved in the community. Failure to recognize and respond
to these barriers only alienates lesbians and gays, prolongs their development and impacts
their ability towards recognizing their potential.
Factors that Impact Identity Construction
Identity development is arguably one of the most important transformations that
students experience in college. While the impact of each experience (i.e., lecture, casual
discussion after class, participation in an organization) cannot fully be evaluated in the
immediate, as the impact of these experiences evolves over time, it is clear that college
influences the development of ones identity (Astin & Panos, 1969; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Chickering & Reisser (1993) suggest seven vectors that influence
identity development:
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 31
(1) Comfort with body & appearance, (2) Comfort with gender and sexual
orientation, (3) Sense of self in a social, historical and cultural context, (4)
Clarification of self-concept through roles and life-style, (5) Sense of self-in
response to feedback from valued others, (6) Self-acceptance and self-esteem, and
(7) Personal stability and integration. (p.49)
These seven vectors provide a framework to help understand the different dimensions
college student’s juggle when developing their personal identity. These experiences are
not static. For many students who have been historically underrepresented (e.g., women,
Latinos, blacks and lesbians and gays), there experiences are tangential from their White-
male heterosexual peers. For example, female college students, African Americans (e.g.,
Cross 1971, 1995) and Latinos (e.g., Ferdman & Gallegos, 2001) often follow a different
path from their traditional counterparts as researched by Hardiman (2001). The systemic
nature of these experiences is a result of the marginalization often found in the historical
references of these groups.
Lesbian and gay students wrestle with a high degree of marginalization and
stigma as a result of being open about their sexual orientation. Within the lesbian and
gay population, “gay male undergraduates are more likely than lesbians to face
harassment and discrimination, especially from their straight male counterparts” (DeVita,
2010, p.5). The growing stigma of lesbians and gays often precludes their ability to
develop a real sense of identity. For example, the process of coming out is “less likely to
occur because gay individuals can feel unwelcome or even unsafe” (DeVita, 2010, p. 5).
To help understand some of the factors related to identity construction, specifically
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 32
related to lesbian and gay students, we look to a few notable frameworks related to
lesbians and gays identity construction.
Cass & D’Augelli
The process of developing a lesbian-gay-bisexual identity is extensive and
complex. Growing up in a society with its’ constant etchings of heterosexual norms
presents a number of barriers towards conceptualizing and accepting ones alternative
sexual orientation. The act of recognition and acceptance is so difficult for lesbians and
gays because “heterosexual identity is not considered socially constructed but is rather
viewed as natural” (D’Augelli, 1994, p. 394). While there are surely some struggles
between heterosexual males and females with regards to gender roles, they are exempt
from defining their orientation. As a result, there is a clear “privileging and normalizing
of one set of socio-affectional characteristics” for heterosexuals over lesbians and gays.
Homosexuals, by extension, learn to cope with this presumed difference, which by many
accounts is transformed into a distinct deviance. This entire oppressive sequence of
discovery plays a major role in how lesbians and gays are able to come accept and
celebrate their sexual identity. There are a number of theoretical frameworks to help
conceptualize the experience of gay and lesbian identity development (Cass 1979, 1984;
D’Augelli, 1994; Fassinger, 1991; Savin-Williams, 1988, 1990; Troiden, 1988). These
approaches have attempted to understand the emotional and social trajectory of lesbians
and gays as a means for practitioners to better understand and develop programs for this
community.
One of the most frequently cited models of homosexual identity is based on the
work of Vivienne Cass (1979, 1983-1984). Cass’s model explored the complex
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 33
dimensions of psychology and social aspects. Given that her work set the groundwork
for later theories, as well as offers clear parallels to how identity is constructed in relation
to the environment, it was only fitting to focus this literature review using this
framework. Her model is based on the assumption that developing a homosexual identity
is a developmental process that is constructed by the individual in concert with her or his
environment. The model uses six stages of “perception and behavior,” beginning with
minimal awareness and growing towards acceptance of a homosexual identity in the final
stage where one finds full integration with all aspects of her or his life (Evans, Forney,
Guido-DiBrito, 1998). As described above, individuals begin with a heterosexual sense
of self. As the individual is exposed to increased “conflict,” their sense of self, behaviors
and perceptions of others is challenged. This exchange results in the individual being
able to move forward towards the new stage of identity or “retreating” to an earlier stage.
Identity, as noted by Cass (1983-1984), varies from “person to person, from
situation to situation, and from period to period” (p.111). For that reason, not all
individuals reach full integration of their sexual identity – mainly in part because each
person plays an active role in their development. Given that this framework stems from
environmental factors that individuals are exposed to, Cass suggested that, “movement
from one stage to the next is based in part on the individual’s attempt to resolve
inconsistencies between perceptions of self and others” (Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito,
1998). Cass also related this transition of sexual identity development to the historical or
period influences of the individual.
Cass’ (1979) stages present both a “cognitive” component allowing for self-
reflection and an “affective” component signaling how the individual feels about her or
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 34
his identity while reconciling other’ perceptions. The stages of Cass’s (1979) model are
as follows:
Stage 1: Identity Confusion
In stage one, the individual begins with a curiosity through “thoughts, feelings,
and attractions” resulting in an awareness that she or he is different from the heterosexual
norm. In many cases, these feelings are accompanied by a sense of fear, shame and often
anxiety. As Kogan suggests, social identities are selected from the various bases for self-
categorization available to an individual at a particular time. And specific social
identities may be activated at some times and not at others (Kogan, 2005). For some,
individuals recognize and embrace these differences with a curiosity for further
exploration allowing them to move to second stage. For others, they retreat or
“foreclose” their urges and reject and further development.
Stage 2: Identity Comparison
The transition from Stage One to Stage Two occurs at the point the individual
accepts the possibility that she or his may be lesbian or gay. In Stage Two, the individual
is now confronted with how to manage the “social alienation.” In some cases, the
individual may further explore this identity through actions of further experimentation as
way of assessing the backlash or response within the community or seek advice of other
lesbians or gays.
Stage 3: Identity Tolerance
Individuals moving towards Stage Three acknowledge their probable identity and
begin to seek the support of other lesbians and gays as a way of minimizing her or his
isolation. This transition and exchange presents a critical point in the individual’s
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 35
experience as they may have a negative or positive experience interaction to the
community. For example, given the wide-range of personalities many lesbians and gays
possess, along with her or his own level of integration and acceptance, the individual may
find it difficult to identify with the first lesbian or gay person they come into contact.
This experience may deter the individual from further exploration and in turn regress the
individual into questioning of her or his sexual orientation.
Stage 4: Identity Acceptance
Stage four presents a favorable sense-of-self given the positive contacts with other
lesbians and gay through frequent interaction and friendship development. As identified
by Cass (1979), “the norms and behaviors of individuals’ social groups influence how
they choose to present themselves, particularly in mainstream heterosexual society”
(Evans, Forney, Guido-DiBrito, 1998). It is at this stage we find many individuals
negotiating the disclosure of their sexual orientation to their environments. Much like
many of the earlier stages, this phase presents a serious evaluation of her or his social
setting in relation to how it will react to the individual’s sexual identity.
The act of disclosure varies from individual to individual. For some, there may be
cases of full disclosure without regard to environment. For many, they may exist in a
split world were their sexual identity is segmented. In the environments that are not
made aware of ones sexual orientation, the individual may revert to such approaches as
“passing.” Passing involves the individual’s ability to assimilate in a heterosexual
environment by mirroring many of the heterosexual behaviors. These instances are
largely found in situations or environments that the individual fears a negative reaction or
marginalization. “Despite its [presumed] positive effect on people’s perceptions of the
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 36
expectations others have of them, passing is likely to elicit negative emotions about the
self, and thus undermines self-confidence. That is, the act of passing violates the general
rule that one must be truthful” (Barreto et. al, 2006, p. 339). This act has a hidden
negative consequence on one’s ability to develop a full-sense of sexual identity. “People
with non-visible stigmas report lower psychological well-being than people with visible
stigmas” (Barreto et. al, 2006, p.339). In turn, the concept of passing carries with it a
negative self-inflicted emotion of guilt and shame, which may potentially translate into
lower self-confidence. For those who are able to consolidate their identity both internally
and externally, they are capable of moving to the next stage of identity pride.
Stage 5: Identity Pride
Developing a sense of identity pride involves individuals who reconcile the
historical nature of their identity and focus their attention on gay issues and activities
while minimizing contact with heterosexuals. There is a heightened sense of pride for all
things related to lesbians and gays while a growing sense of anger towards the oppressive
social structures exhibited in the heterosexual community. “Unconcerned with the
impressions of others, individuals are publicly and vocally out” (Evans, Forney, Guido-
DiBrito, 1998). For those individuals whose disclosures are met with resistance, they
may tend to retreat to a more assimilated identity.
The resistance an individual experiences as she or he celebrates their identity can
have a negative and often long-term impact on their ability to develop a sense of self-
efficacy. “Members of devalued or stigmatized groups are frequently exposed to
negative stereotypes and expectations” (Barreto et al., 2006). “These negative
impressions and expectations can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, resulting in low self-
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 37
confidence” (Barreto et al., 2006, p.337). In these moments, individuals learn to develop
a coping mechanism if they are going to succeed in further high-risk situations. As
Bandura (1982) asserts, the “mastery of problem situations further strengthens self-
regulatory efficacy” (p.129). This ability is critical for lesbians and gays to be able to
assert their identity in the context of heterosexuals and move forward to identity
synthesis.
Stage 6: Identity Synthesis
In the final stage of Cass’ (1979) model, the individual exists in a less
dichotomized world where individuals are based on their skills rather than their sexual
identity. “Individuals’ public and private identities become more congruent as they
become comfortable and secure in who they are” (Evans, Forney, and Guido-DiBrito,
1998, p. 94). This final transition balances the sexual identity of the individual with her
or his overall sense of self without fear of judgment.
In tandem to Cass’ model were various models that ran parallel to several of the
traits Cass outlined (Fassinger, 1991; Savin-Williams, 1988, 1990; Troiden, 1988). Most
notably, D’Augelli’s (1994) model, which provided a frame, that “accounted for the
intersections and complexities of non-heterosexual identity unlike some of the other
models (e.g., Cass, 1979, 1984)” (Bilodeau & Renn, 2005, p.28). D’Augelli (1994)
viewed “identity is a social construction” (D’Augelli, 1994, p. 393). In this view, we see
identity as a process of which the individual is shaped by social circumstances, which
vary from individual to individual over a period of time. These interactions ping-pong
back and forth between individuals and begin to construct the core of what that the
individual recognizes as her or his identity in contrast to others.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 38
D’Augelli’s (1994) Homosexual identity model was developed to frame how
lesbians and gays develop through the individual choices she or he makes coupled with
the context of their independent situations over their life-span. This approach allowed
D’Augelli to explore all of the different “intersections and complexities of non-
heterosexual identity” (Biloudeau & Renn, 2005, p. 28). This framework is structured
using six developmental processes: (1) Exiting heterosexual identity, (2) developing a
personal LGB identity status, (3) developing a LGB social identity status, (5) developing
a LGB intimacy status, and (6) entering a lesbian or gay community (D’Augelli, 1994).
In this approach, there is an emphasis on the role that “valued others” has in shaping the
identity of LGB individuals such as peers, family, and other peers. The integration of
others’ perceptions is strongly important in the context of D’Augelli’s (1994) model as it
allows the individual to exercise her or his identity through the reaction of others. As
such, we recognize how lesbians and gays contextualize their identity through the eyes of
others. In instances where there is a negative reaction to one’s identity, there are serious
repercussions towards that individual’s ability to develop a positive sense of self. As
such, it is important for lesbians and gays to develop meaningful relationships with other
homosexual individuals, who can attest, share and celebrate the lives of lesbians and
gays. Overall, these experiences, both positive and negative, have a direct correlation to
how lesbians and gays develop a sense of self, which later translates into their ability to
involve themselves in activities that spurs a leadership identity.
Leadership Identity Model (LID)
How does one develop a leadership identity? How is it defined when coupled
with a social and personal identity? For the purpose of this research study, and to provide
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 39
common ground, it is important to first define what leadership is. While there is a
growing amount of research focused on leadership, very little has devoted attention to
leadership development across an individual’s lifespan (Komives, 2009) or to an
individual’s construct of leadership as it pertains to self (Kezar & Lester, 2010; Komives,
Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen & Owen, 2009; van Knippenberg, B., van Knippenberg,
D., De Cremer, & Hogg, 2005). For the purpose of this dissertation, leadership will be
defined as “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action
required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p.3). By extension, it is someone
who, as a social and personal identity, acknowledges her or his ability to make a
difference by working with others to create change (Renn & Ozaki, 2010, p. 15). There
are two approaches to our understanding of leadership. The first stemmed from an
industrial era that focused on “traits, behavior, style, power and influence” (Kezar &
Lester, 2010, p. 164). A shift in our understanding of leadership has shown that a person
does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of traits. This idea of a trait-based
model, in effect, was perceived to have “low utility for explaining leadership emergence
and effectiveness” (Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader, 2003, p. 102). The second approach has
gained credence by examining the intersections identity and social context have towards
establishing a leadership persona.
Developing a leadership persona does not exist in a vacuum and does not happen
overnight. There is no formula for developing this persona given that it is nothing
tangible. This persona is vested to the individual by the environment in which they exist.
It is an accumulation of skills and experience that ultimately translates into developing a
sense of self-efficacy towards a leadership identity. A wide range of research has been
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 40
done on what defines a leader (e.g., Bass, 1990, Hogan, Curphy, and Hogan, 1994;
Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991). While there is no exact measure that defines a leader,
there is a “strong conclusion that leaders do differ from non-leaders on a number of
attributes, and that these differences contribute significantly to leader effectiveness”
(Zaccaro, Kemp & Bader, 2003, p. 119). At best, leadership can be defined as an,
Amalgamation of attributes reflecting cognitive capacities, personality
orientation, motives and values, social appraisal skills, problem-solving
competencies, and general and domain-specific expertise. (Zaccaro et al., 2003, p.
120).
An individual’s ability to respond to a given situation represents the effectiveness of that
particular leader. Leaders who are consistently challenged are often afforded with a
greater capacity to adapt and respond to situations. This continued exposure offers
greater awareness in how to deal with a crisis situation and be able to balance the
emotional and social intelligence that comes with navigating through these events. Those
with limited exposure lack many of the resources and “capital” to be able to successfully
negotiate these situations.
Past research of “leadership” has revolved mainly around what many would
consider to be “good management” (Rost, 1993). The intent behind building a more
engaged and reflective leader is for her or him to better understand who they are, clearly
recognize the individuals they serve and provide an effective approach towards
answering some of societies’ most challenging problems. In the post-industrial era, there
seems to be shift in how leadership is seen that focuses more on cognitive and
interpersonal model. “Rapid advancements in technology, increasing globalization,
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 41
complexity, and interconnectedness” reveal this shift towards a leader that is able to lead,
relate, learn and influence change (Komives et al., 2005, p. 593). The impact of this shift
has been felt and filtered through colleges and universities all across the country, which
in many ways, serve as the training ground for future leaders. In order for social change
to occur, their needs to be a clear sense of collaboration among individuals, groups, and
communities (Higher Education Research Institute, 1996). In this changing world, it is of
growing importance to recognize the various intersections of individuals as a way of
evaluating their leadership potential by way of, “inclusiveness, empowerment, ethics,
purposefulness, and process orientation” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 594) and ultimately
translating into their identity.
For the purposes of this research, we will explore the work of Komives, Owen,
Longerbeam, Mainella and Osteen (2005). The Leadership Identity Model is examined
for the purpose of this dissertation because it offers the single most comprehensive view
of leadership through multiple levels of analysis. The LID theory examines the life
experience of college students, in relation to other social identity theories and offers
constructive approaches towards applying it to various contexts. The LID theory is
expressed in six identity stages: 1. Awareness, 2. Exploration/Engagement, 3. Leader
Identified, 4. Leadership Differentiated, 5. Generativity, and 6. Integration/Synthesis.
Each of these stages continuously interacts, albeit at various levels and at different points
in ones life, with four categorical changes (Developing Self, Group Influences, Changing
View of Self with Others and Broadening View of Leadership) coupled with an
overarching reference to Developmental Influences.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 42
Developmental Influences
The four central thematic influences Komives et. al (2005) offered in this research
related to adult influences, peer, influences, meaningful involvement, and reflective
learning. Each of these four properties has different dimensions meaning, “they change
across the stages of the central category” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 596). The rationale
behind this is that individuals are impacted by these experiences in different ways
because of where in identifying themselves.
Adult influences. Adults serve as one of the primary examples of leadership
through role modeling and mentorship. In families, adults are regarded as extremely
important in “building confidence and being an early building block of support”
(Komives et al., 2005, p. 596). For lesbians and gay students, adult influences often are
the providers of safe spaces where students are able to learn to communicate and feel
comfortable expressing their identity which become so important in the student’s ability
to gain self-confidence. Adults also serve as role models, and later as mentors, for
individuals. The relationship that evolves between the individual and their adult
influence become critical as the individual begins to branch off and begin recognizing
their potential towards becoming a leader.
Peer influences. In early leadership identity stages, same-aged peers and friends
serve as a scaffold for individuals to begin emulating a leadership path. In some cases,
“modeling peers served as a motivator for involvement as well as a model of leadership”
(Komives et al., 2005, p. 537). This point in a student’s development is critical as it lays
the foundation towards building greater self-efficacy. For many lesbian and gay students,
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 43
the role of peer influences can often be the hardest relationship to negotiate depending on
the backlash of revealing ones identity with their peers.
Figure 1. The Leadership Identity Development model presented by Komives et al., (2005)

Meaningful involvement. Involvement in various activities serves a purpose by
helping “clarify personal values and interests, and help students experience diverse peers,
learn about self, and develop new skills” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 598). These points of
engagement are crucial for students, especially lesbians and gays, to be able to navigate
through as they serve as the training ground towards developing a leadership identity.
This stage provides a true transactional purpose and ultimately allows the individual to
negotiate what her or his strengths are.
Reflective learning. Reflective Learning, as posited by Komives et al. (2005)
suggests the importance of evaluation and exchange, mainly directed at ones self but
which is ongoing and coupled in different context.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 44
Developing Self. The category of developing self involves various dimensions of
personal growth that evolve throughout the development of a leadership identity. The
properties contained in this category include: deepening self-awareness, building self-
confidence, establishing interpersonal efficacy, applying new skills, and expanding
motivations.
Deepening self-awareness. In the early stages of developing a leadership
identity, “students often carry a high vague and diffuse sense of self” (Komives et al.,
2005, p. 596). In part, this is attributed to the exchanges that the individual has had with
their developmental influences such as adults, peers, family and friends. Over time, the
student is expected to develop a stronger sense of self as the categorical influences blend
with the various stages of leadership identity. This property of deepening self-awareness
is critical as it translates to an individual’s ability to negotiate their values and gain a
deeper understanding of who they are. For lesbians and gays, it is a major point because
of the social challenges they potentially face given the growing criticism of their sexual
orientation. In the study conducted by Komives et al. (2005), “gay students felt being
male was an asset to their leadership; however,…worried that their sexual orientation
could be a barrier to leadership based on what others thought” (p. 599).
Like lesbian and gays, other marginalized groups such as ethnic or racial
minorities and women may often recognize the need to identify with their paired identity.
For ethnic or racial minorities, they may feel a deeper motivation to present a “positive
image” of their racial or ethnic group, which would hope to breakdown some of the
stereotypes or negative images others may have of that particular group. This motivation
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 45
can also be translated into a deeper desire to achieve – especially if there is a point where
membership in a group is denied due to their identity.
The presence of deeper self-awareness allows the individual to be able to clearly
negotiate her or his experiences as they face various obstacles. At this time, individuals
begin to also question and interpret their personal values and sense of personal integrity
(Komives et al.). For lesbian and gay students, this point is one that serves great
importance as the student begins to develop an understanding and appreciate for their
identity compared to that of others.
Building self-confidence. Like many individuals, there are many periods in a
person’s life where one begins to question their abilities. Often times, these periods of
self-doubt and low esteem impact the individual’s ability to take risks and take on more
active roles. Over time, this may later translate into her or his inability to engage or “take
on unpopular issues, stand up for their values and not need peer affirmation” (Komives et
al., 2005, p. 600). The fear of alienation is overwhelming for an individual. Yet, for
those students interested in leadership positions, it is what defines them. Students who
are able to withstand and manage the effects of this gain greater self-confidence and
continue to take risks and challenge the status quo because of their understanding of how
to get through this experience. For lesbian and gay students, many recognize their sexual
orientation as a barrier. Others, on the other hand, use their experiences, both positive
and negative, as a motivator to move forward and take on leadership roles. Once they are
able to bare witness of their “leadership potential, they [begin] to incorporate their
identity into their sense of self” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 600).
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 46
Establishing interpersonal efficacy. The significance of establishing
interpersonal efficacy translates into how individuals learn to relate and communicate
with one another. This dimension allows the individual to gain greater perspective of
varied points and begin to develop a deeper appreciation of the diversity of thought.
These exchanges build an “acceptance of interdependence, developing trust in others,”
(Komives et al., 2005, p. 601) which is essential for any leader. Relative to lesbian and
gays, the concept of establishing interpersonal efficacy brings about how these students
are able to engage in discussion and offer feedback and their experiences to the larger
group.
Applying new skills. The application of these skills is essential for any leader to
develop a strong leadership identity. “When [students] become aware of
interdependence, they [come] to need new skills such as trusting others, and being open
to diverse ideas and perspectives” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 602) while working toward a
shared purpose.
Expanding motivations. The essence of any leader is their internal and external
motivation. How she or he is able to engage others towards a common goal is critical to
how effective she or he will be. As such, developing a strong leadership identity needs
continued opportunities to engage with others and exchange ideas. These opportunities
may have an expansive range at first, but as goals are refined they begin to narrow and
focus on what holds greater meaning towards the individual. Later, as a “participants’
commitments to a change or a passion emerged, they [take] on a catalyst or change agent
role” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 602). Lesbian and gay students need these opportunities
in order to develop their leadership identity. What is important to recognize is how
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 47
intertwined each of these categories are. Each one serves an important purpose towards
developing a leadership identity. Should one fail or fall short, it may greatly impact the
student’s ability to move forward through the developmental stages.
Group Influences
Developing self greatly interacts with the category of group influences. While
individuals such as adults or peers play an important role in developing a sense of self, it
is important to recognize the influence whole groups have towards establishing a
leadership identity. This category involves engaging groups, learning from membership
continuity, and changing perceptions of groups.
Engaging groups. For many college students, groups often serve to help offer a
“sense of place.” Adapting to the college environment presents a number of challenges
and is often a difficult transition for many teenagers. In order to ease this transition,
students often search for clubs or organizations that match their interests and often
contribute to the student’s “developing self-image” (Komives et al., p. 602). Gays and
lesbians, like many other minority groups on college campus, seek these groups for social
support and engagement with others who share the same experiences.
Learning from Membership Continuity. Over time, students begin to bargain
the value of the group in her or his life. As they become more involved, students “gain
relational skills such as dealing with conflict, handling transition issues, and sustaining
[the] organization” (Komives et. al, 2005, p. 603). This increased level of involvement
serves at the impetus towards building a leadership identity. By becoming more
involved, these students assume positional leadership roles.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 48
Changing Perceptions of Groups. Much like individuals, it is important for any
group or organization to establish a clear identity. Taken one step further, it is also
important for the organization to be clear about its role in society and the purpose it
serves. As such, people outside the group are able to clearly relate and interpret the role
the organization serves in the larger community. As Komives et al. (2005) asserts, “these
systems and the complexity of different groups within a system allow others to see the
contributions of diverse stake holders and the complexities of different groups within the
system” (p. 604).
The development of a strong leadership identity is deeply imbedded in the social
fabric of how an individual engages with various groups. Understanding oneself is key.
Being able to work with, understand and respect the view and opinions of others while
working towards a shared purpose is even more critical. If lesbian and gay students are
going to begin to assimilate in mainstream society and begin breaking down the barriers
that often impeded their ability to serve in leadership positions, they then learn how to
successful work with groups and recognize their influences towards their own
development.
Changing View of Self With Others
There is a glaring transition that happens in the individual at this phase of the
developmental process known as changing view of self with others. In the earlier
categories, individuals connected with one another in a more dependent fashion. When
developing personal efficacy, “many students tend to depend on adults and older peers
for sponsorship, affirmation, and support” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 604). As students
become more engaged, they begin the transition towards a more independent path as they
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 49
see the potential in themselves to take on a leadership position. This transition offers an
interesting outlook in how individuals, mainly lesbians and gays, begin to break away
from serving the cause or leading the cause. Student that choose an independent
approach are more apt to take on leadership positions but, as this all relates to the other
categories and phases, is all linked to how a student is able to define her or himself in the
context of the environment.
Broadening View of Leadership
The final categorical frame presented by Komives et al. (2005) illustrates how an
individual constructs their mental model of what and who a leader is. In the early
construction of a leader, it is taken as an external figure that one aspires to. Later, the
concept of a leader becomes closely connected by recognizing the daily functions of
serving a group and how it translates to serving in a position of leadership. As the
individual negotiates their dependence with the group or cause, they make a choice to
recognize their independence as a leader. Ultimately, the individual reaches a point
where she or he accepts the value they have in a leadership role while also submitting to
the fact that each member in the group offers something as well. A leadership identity, at
this point, became a more stable part of the self (Komives et al., 2005).
The central theme of this theory is that leadership identity is developed in six
stages. Each stage, as reported, “ended with a transition, which signaled leaving that
stage and beginning the next stage” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 606). The cyclical effect
this theory takes on illustrates the metamorphosis of the individual from someone without
an understanding of who they are towards an individual who a sense of purpose and
responsibility.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 50
Awareness. In this early phase, the view of leadership is purely external. The
individual recognizes and or admires the leadership qualities of those around her or him
and does not recognize their potential to serve in a leadership position.
Exploration or engagement. The second stage offers opportunities to become
involved and experience group settings while taking on various responsibilities. The
individuals enjoy their participation in the group but again, see their role as more
participatory without the any particular ties.
Leader identified. In the leader identified stage, the individual believed there to
be only one leader and that she or he was responsible for the group outcomes. This
“leader-centric” stage suggests that the individual recognizes there to be “one leader only
if one held a leadership position; indeed, one was the leader” (Komives et al., 2005, p.
605).
Leadership differentiated. In the fourth stage, “students differentiated
leadership beyond the role of the positional leader and recognized that anyone in the
group could do leadership and became aware that leadership was also a process between
and among people” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 606). This stage provided a new awareness
that leadership was happening all around in the organization. Each participant, as a
result, carried with them some type of responsibility, which had the potential to put them
in the role of leader.
Generativity. The second to last stage, “students become actively committed to
larger purposes and to the groups and individuals who sustained them” (Komives et al.,
2005, p. 607). This process evolved into a heightened sense of purpose and which later
aligned with their personal values and beliefs. At this stage, the individual begins to
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 51
enhance the capacity of leaders by encouraging more members to become actively
involved through mentoring.
Integration and synthesis. Stage 6, the final stage, is intended for continual and
active engagement in the organization while folding their new awareness of leadership
into their daily lives. Individuals in this stage typically understand “organizational
complexity and practiced systemic thinking” (Komives et al., 2005, p. 607). They are
comfortable with uncertainty because of the process they have gone through to internalize
leadership into their identity and can easily adapt to new situations.
Overall, the LID model provides a common understanding of how college
students, namely lesbians and gays, evolve into leadership positions. It is important to
recognize the earlier influences that individuals are exposed to as they lay the
groundwork for individuals to be able to successfully navigate through the rest of the
developmental stages. Moving forward, we will tie our understanding of leadership
development into the experiences of lesbians and gays in the college environment.
Analysis of Developmental Models
In recognizing the potential to be identified as a “leader,” there are a number of
complex factors such as “personal values, group norms, cognitive development, and
perceived need to realize a particular vision” (Renn & Biloudeau, 2004, p. 346). In using
Cass’ (1979) theory on gay and lesbian identity development, it was important to
contextualize the inherent impediments that lesbian and gay students are exposed to when
constructing their psychological and social identity. In tandem to this approach, the
Leadership Identity Development (LID) model provides a basic framework towards
recognizing some of the societal influences and cyclical patterns individuals follow when
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 52
constructing a leadership identity. Through these two approaches, my goal was to
examine the various points of intersection with respect to power, marginalization and
identity between the two models and hopefully identify unique aspects of lesbians and
gays leadership identity.
Power
One of the elements seemingly absent from the LID model is the issue of power and
privilege. Power and privilege can be systemic in nature and as a result carry long-term
implications towards the mobility of individuals. In relation to this current study, it was
important to understand the context of how power is used in relation to lesbians and gays.
Further, it was almost necessary to highlight the imposed power struggle lesbian and gay
students learn to navigate through as well as highlight how student engagement translates
into continued involvement beyond college. In using the LID model, there were no direct
correlations between power and identity development. One can see traces of power
through the generativity stage where the individual presumably accepts responsibility for
the development of others but there is nothing cemented in the model. I would argue that
there are systemic challenges both ethnic and sexual minorities face throughout their life
cycle via the normative behaviors established in a heterosexual environment. This is
further explored through the concept of positionality. “People’s positionality, or power
inherent in their immediate respective social positions, greatly influences the differences
in what individuals have access to in society.” (Misawa, 2010, p. 26). In using an
element of Critical Race Theory (CRT) as described by Delgado and Stefanic (2001), one
may suggest that there is a social force contributing to how hierarchical categories are
defined among different social and ethnic groups. While this theory relates specifically
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 53
to the racial tensions that exist in society, it does hint at the methods in which those with
power maintain the subordination and marginalization of people of color (Solorzano,
1997). It is important to recognize the influence power has in relation to leadership
identity development given the long-term effects it has among lesbians and gays. The
lack of power translates into the inability to break away from the hetero-normative
culture that exists in today’s society. By extension, a continuation of this divisive social
structure has the potential to impede the ability of lesbians and gays to construct not only
a leadership identity but also a social and psychological one.
Marginalization
As a member of a marginalized group, the on-going exchange an individual
presumably has with the various “influences” is lost when paired with the social stigmas
lesbians and gays are exposed do. In using Cass’ (1979) stages of lesbian and gay
student development theory, it brings to question how one negotiates these various social
influences. The LID model seems to ignore many of the cognitive, social and emotional
elements that lesbians and gays confront in constructing their sexual identity. As
described by Komives et. al. (2005), “the process of developing a leadership identity was
informed by the interaction of developing self through group influences that changed
one’s view of self with others and broadened the view of leadership in the context of the
supports of the developmental influences” (p. 606). In instances where the group
influences are positive and supportive, this model will serve an individual well. Yet,
seeing that many lesbians and gays are faced with negative stereotypes and often
relegated to exist in conditions of fear and shame (D’Augelli, 2004) it is important to
understand how these contextual instances fold into developing a leadership identity.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 54
Although the LID model provides a considerable framework towards understanding
how the constructs of leadership relate to the individual, it falls short in understanding the
impact power, marginalization, and sexual identity have in constructing such an identity.
The focus of Komives et. al. (2005) LID model was to break away from the previous
scholarship of leadership that focused on skill-building or short-term interventions and
explore the capacity in which leadership identity is created or changes over time
(Komives et. al, 2005). Komives et. al. (2005) offers that “as students develop
themselves through deepening their self-awareness, building self-confidence, establishing
interpersonal efficacy, learning to apply new skills, and expanding their motivations, they
changed their perceptions of groups and their role in groups.” (p.608). While their efforts
provide a substantial contribution, the research study that follows will look to expand this
model by testing the applicability of some of the major contextual factors that lesbians
and gays are exposed to.
The three contextual factors outlined in this updated version are increasingly
important when relating the model to lesbians and gays. This concept of power
permeates through every action lesbians and gays are exposed to. As a community,
lesbians and gays are relegated to the laws handed down to them by a heterosexual
society. In an effort to equalize these rights and privileges, such as marriage equality, it
is extremely important for lesbian and gay individuals to recognize the importance their
participation in positions of power have in changing the social landscape to which they
lead their lives. Failure to do so will continue the marginalization of lesbians and gays.
In exploring these different dimensions, it may be interesting to understand the
sustainability and transparency this leadership identity has beyond the college experience.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 55
Therefore, in order to truly understand how a leadership identity is constructed, it is
important to understand the contextual factors that influence how one is able to respond
to the LID model. In the original model, Komives et. al. (2005) provided a basic
framework that recognizes the exchange between the individual and the environment. In
this new framework, we acknowledge the influence power, marginalization and sexual
identity impact translates the experience of gays and lesbians into constructing self-
efficacy towards a leadership identity.

Figure 2. The proposed Leadership Identity Development model with the added stages of sexual identity,
marginalization and power.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 56
Conclusion
Overall, this chapter presents a framework that will be used to explore the self-
efficacy and leadership identity development of lesbian and gay college students through
the lens of marginalization, power and sexual identity. The principal framework of this
review used the Leadership Identity Development model to understand how leadership
identity is constructed. With respect to the contextual factors that lesbians and gays
grapple with, it was important to understand how these social forces influence the
construction of leadership persona. In using Cass’ (1979) lesbian and gay identity
development theory, it was important to expand the LID model to examine the
intersections between leadership and sexual identity. In recognizing how lesbians and
gays construct a leadership identity through, this study provides added insight that will
assist student affairs professionals in supporting lesbian and gay students to become more
active participants in the community while recognizing some of the deficiencies they are
exposed to. The following chapter will review the methodology used for this qualitative
research study.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 57
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS
In the preceding chapters, I argued the importance of this research, which was to
examine how lesbian and gay students construct their leadership identity. One approach
towards achieving this is to contextualize the meaning of the phenomenon through the
experiences of the individual. This chapter will focus on the methodology and research
design that was used in this qualitative study to understand the following:
 Do lesbian and gay student leaders experience some level of marginalization
while serving openly as a college student leader?
 Does identifying as a homosexual impact her or his ability to serve in a leadership
position in comparison to their heterosexual peers?
 How has identifying as gay or lesbian impacted their ability to develop a
leadership identity?
 At what level does leadership involvement impact how lesbian and gay students
see themselves and where they will be in the future?
 What factors, if any, contribute to successful immersion as a lesbian or gay leader
on a predominantly heterosexual campus?
Each question intends to help illustrate the context in which lesbian and gay students
coexist with their heterosexual peers. To add, it will help shape the reader’s
understanding of the various social forces that influence a leadership identity and the
impact of identifying as lesbian or gay leader. What follows is a rational for the design in
addition to the details of participants, recruitment strategies and measures of analysis.
The chapter will conclude by identify any bias or background influence towards the
motivation of this study.
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Rationale for Design
The chosen design for this research study is based on a qualitative approach. The
intention behind this was to gain a comprehensive understanding of the conditions that
shape lesbian and gay college students to pursue leadership roles while in college. By
extension, using qualitative research will help uncover some, if any, of the inhibitors that
lesbian and gay student leaders are exposed to on a predominantly heterosexual campus.
My intention behind using such an approach was to use interpretative analysis of the
context in which lesbian and gay college students coexist with non-homosexuals. The
value qualitative research has is that it allows the reader to deeply understand the
conditions in which the student constructs her or his social and psychological identity
through meaningful narratives. Cresswell (2007) outlines the function of qualitative
research as the practice of influencing society through a collection of data, followed by
in-depth analysis in an attempt to interpret a phenomena using the meanings people bring
to them. While this study will only use interviews, the process in which the data is
collected aligns with the intentions of qualitative analysis by helping the observer to
become deeply familiar with the setting and behaviors of the participant (Wolcott, 1999).
Qualitative research is inherently designed to be flexible and in many ways responsive to
context meaning that the questions asked evolve in response to the setting, data and its
analysis (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott & Davidson, 2002).
Qualitative research uses the voice of the participants as the main mechanism to
help contextualize and amplify the conditions being explored. In order to navigate
through and adequately analyze the context in which lesbian and gay students exist, it
was important to use an approach that would provide depth and detail about the opinions
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 59
and experiences of the participant. The individual students along with their experiences
during their tenure in college will be used for this study. The context in which these
students were examined included their level of involvement, their social and
psychological identity awareness and experiences as a leader. In mapping each
experience through each of these factors, the uniqueness of each individual is amplified.
This dissertation is based on the premise that the environment impacts how
lesbians and gays construct their social and psychological constructs in a hetero-
normative society. As Berry (1997) offers, the long-term psychological consequences of
social integration are highly variable, depending on social and personal constructs that
reside in the society of origin, the society of settlement and phenomena that both exist
prior to, and arise during, the course of assimilation. While each of the participants who
offered to take part in this study come from the same campus environment, each student
presents a unique and compelling story. One of the primary focuses of this study was to
examine the individual difference in how student leadership is constructed. Through
adaptive analysis of the research, keeping in mind the acculturation lesbians and gays are
exposed to, the development or awareness of a leadership identity is more accurately
examined. Thus, using a qualitative approach offers an optimal understanding of the
complexities in which identity exists through a thoughtful examination of the
underpinnings lesbian and gay college student leaders face.
Narrative Approach
The strategy of inquiry for this study follows a narrative approach. Narrative
research, “begins with the experiences expressed in lived and told stories of individuals”
(Creswell, 2007, p. 53) and, for the most part, these stories are based on assumptions.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 60
More precisely, the stories shared by the individuals involved in the study help
contextualize the phenomena being explored through chronology and examples. Through
the analysis, the researcher will be able to establish connections and begin mapping the
experiences of the participants thus providing in-depth analysis. The experiences of
lesbians and gays are often complex as there are multiple factors that contribute towards
their development. There are a variety of dimensions and intersections of power,
marginalization, identity and environment that are at play. As such, it is important to use
a narrative approach towards this research to critically analyze the context of each
individual and their experience while living in a homo-normative environment as a
student leader.
Narrative research provides an effective qualitative framework to help identify
indicators that underline various patterns and events. One of the main motivators for
using a narrative approach is that it allows for the opportunity to gather information in
greater depth as a means of mapping patterns as they relate to identity and leadership.
Narrative can also provide insight into the general problem by interweaving description
and explanation of the different processes and issues that lesbians and gays are exposed
to and how they relate to power, marginalization and identity development. As
participants share their experience, they not only provide the context of their story but,
frame the conditions and sequence in which their experience was allowed to exist through
time, place, attributes of the other players and the context for which they exist. Through
these experiences, it becomes easier to compare and contrast the patterns that have
evolved against other cases thus increasing the transferability and significance of the
study. Lastly, through the use of the individual stories shared by the participants one is
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 61
able to better understand the values and judgments that embody a sense of right and
wrong. It is acutely important to gain a sense of the cognitive and emotional impact these
stories have in relation to the participant. Through such exploration one can better
identify how the individual constructs their identity. Given the explicit attention to the
various dimensions explored in this study, it seemed most appropriate to use a narrative
approach.
Some critics would argue that the following research is better served as a case
study. I would charge that while this research study is focused on a single campus, the
sample participants provide a broad spectrum of individuals providing a certain level of
saturation with the population in question. To add, the criteria for site selection was
based on an evaluative model that mirrored institutions with similar traits. The intent
behind this was to avoid having to go into great detail about the environmental factors
that had the potential to impede on the participant’s leadership identity development.
One may see that a lack of support services creates a serious risk towards the
development and integration of any college student. For the purpose of this study, it was
important to understand how students construct a leadership identity when they are
afforded many of the necessary support services in their college environment. Further,
this narrative approach was based primarily on interviews rather than the extensive forms
of data collection necessary for a case study (e.g., forms, documents, records or
observations). As such, I feel confident that the reader will find the following site and
sample population broad enough to be defined in general terms rather than a single case
of phenomenon.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 62
Site Selection
The site chosen to conduct this narrative research study was at the University of
Port Charles (UPC). UPC is a major metropolitan research institution located in the heart
of Port Charles, California with more than 16,000 undergraduates enrolled in 17
professional schools and the College of Letters, Arts and Sciences. The reach of UPC
draws students from all 50 states and is the school of choice for more international
students than any other college in the United States. UPC’s size, program offerings as
well as campus location distinguish it from liberal arts colleges that are substantially
small, have few course offerings and tend to be located in more suburban areas. UPC
offers a “traditional, residentially based collegiate experience with a robust array of
campus activities” (Kaplan, 2010. P.56). UPC was chosen for three main reasons: 1. It
allowed access to a difficult to reach population; 2. It is a relatively typical campus with
no unusual history as it relates to gays and lesbians. While it has been rated as supportive
in the Lesbian and Gay Campus Climate Index (2011), it is not a campus with a history of
activism for gays and lesbians nor is it actively hostile, thus it is typical of many
campuses across the country; and, 3. I have specific knowledge of the campus resources
that can help with interpretation and insight.
Another reason why UPC was chosen as the research site for this study was
because of access and availability to students who would be available to participate.
Given the marginalization of lesbian and gay students on many college campuses, access
to individuals who serve in some type of leadership capacity and who identify as lesbian
or gay presented a number of presumable challenges. In looking at my professional
contacts, along with my understanding of the campus, I was able to approach individuals
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 63
who were willing to engage in this study. In a large part, my access to participants was
due to the trust and credibility of my background knowledge of the campus making this
the optimal choice towards gathering enough participants
There are those, however, who would challenge that UPC is not an ideal
environment to observe given the extensive amount of support services it offers its
homosexual students and because of the potential to limit my ability to view all of the
dimensions of the study given my connection with the environment. I contend that UPC
is the ideal environment given despite all of the services - there are still students who
feel as if they are marginalized member of the community. To add, Creswell (2007)
asserts, “the more diverse the characteristics of the individuals, the more difficult it will
be for the researcher to find common experiences, themes, and the overall essence of the
experience for all participants”(p. 122). As such, it was important for consistency
purposes that all participants in the study come from the same campus environment.
Participants
Participants for this study included 26 individuals who attend UPC full-time,
identify as lesbian or gay, and serve in some capacity as a leader on campus. Brief
descriptions of each of the participants can be found in Appendix A. Students who
identify openly as lesbian or gay as well as those who acknowledge their sexual identity
but who do not publicly share that within the community they exist were recruited for this
study. Students were solicited using positional and non-positional roles and in-turn
represented a broad sample of individuals with different contextual backgrounds. A
positional leader was defined as someone who assumed some type of administrative
position within the organization. This ranged from serving as a president of the club or
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 64
group to a liaison of the organization. Non-positional leaders were identified as members
that maintained some type of active membership of an organization. Each role allowed
the researcher to maximize access of lesbian or gay individuals yet confining the sample
to those who carry a stronger affinity to the organization rather than those who simply
attend a single meeting or event. Organizations, for the purpose of this research study,
were loosely defined as any club, team or position that involved interaction or visibility
with the broader campus community (i.e, resident advisor, orientation counselor, team
captain). The reason for this was intentional as it provided the maximum variation of
sampling for this grounded research study.
The sample of this study was intended to provide the broadest range of
individuals with the deepest contextual backgrounds possible (i.e., ethnicity, nationality,
major, organization). Given this research focused on lesbian and gay leaders, it was
important to recognize the values and contributions of all leaders. As such, regardless of
their positional or non-positional role in the organization, participants from all areas of
leadership were acknowledged and welcomed to be a part of this study. To add, each
individual needed to show some level of participation or action in the organization in
order to show that they were fully engaged (Creswell, 2007, p. 122). Lastly, it was
important to note that each open lesbian and gay member of the community, regardless of
their role in an organization, served as a role model for the lesbians and gays on campus.
Most participants were between the ages of 18-21. The only overarching criterion was,
that each participant had to be open about his or her sexuality. All criteria listed above
provided the widest net for access to these individuals.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 65
In order to recruit students to participate in this study, I solicited the support of the
Director of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Resource Center at UPC and the
Director of Student Activities. This was significant because it helped to reach out to a
broad sample of individuals who openly identify as a lesbian or gay and who serve in a
leadership role on campus. Given the anxiety many gay and lesbian students may feel
about serving openly in a leadership capacity, the attempt was also made to recruit
individuals who serve in some leadership capacity but who do not publicly acknowledge
their sexual orientation. The significance of this is to better understand the
marginalization and levels of power that perpetuate the student’s inability or
unwillingness to disclose their sexual minority status. Through these contacts, I was able
to send electronic communication (See Appendix A) based on the referrals made by both
directors to find candidates that fit the criterion. In addition, I posted flyers around
campus in locations that received the highest traffic (See Appendix A). The recruitment
and referral process continued until there was a level of saturation to “confirm or
disconfirm the conditions, both contextual and intervening, under which the model holds”
(Creswell, 2007, p. 128) representing a sample of some significance.
Participants who acknowledged their interest in being a part of the survey were
asked to complete a profile and consent form (See Appendix B). This informed each
participant of the purpose, significance and intent of this study. Each participant was
given the opportunity receive the form before hand to evaluate whether they wanted to
follow through with the process. Once a student agreed to participate, the individual was
contacted to schedule a date, time and location for the interview. Upon meeting at the
pre-scheduled interview time, each participant was then asked to complete the
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 66
confidentiality form, which followed the expectation and guidelines of the UPC
Institutional Review Board.
Data Collection
In order to better understand how lesbian and gay college students begin to
construct a leadership identity, I conducted a series of one-on-one interviews with 26
individuals that matched the prescribed criteria stated above. For one-on-one interviews,
“it was important to recruit individuals who are not hesitant to speak and share ideas”
(Creswell, 2007, p. 133). With the use of a fairly flexible and open-ended protocol (See
Appendix D), the interviews consisted of a series of questions addressing the following:
1) Do lesbian and gay student leaders experience some level of marginalization while
serving openly as a college student leader?; Does identifying as a homosexual impact her
or his ability to serve in a leadership position in comparison to their heterosexual peers?;
How has identifying as gay or lesbian impacted their ability to develop a leadership
identity?; At what level does leadership involvement impact how lesbian and gay
students see themselves and where they will be in the future?; and finally, what factors, if
any, contribute to successful immersion as a lesbian or gay leader on a predominantly
heterosexual campus? Each of the questions asked was intended to allow follow-up in
order to gain a clearer perspective of the participant’s experience.
The intent behind the questions asked in the protocol was to identify some of the
themes that emerged from the literature. In looking at Cass, lesbians and gays are said to
define their identity through their own self-image leading to a cognitive construct (1984).
This approach supports a composite of how the individual views themselves with regard
to social situations and is acquired through the interaction with others (Schlenker, 1982).
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 67
The intention behind asking how identifying as gay or lesbian impacts ability to lead was
to address the self-image of the individual in the context of their environment and sexual
identity. To add, using a qualitative approach helped to understand the sequence in
which the student was able to move through the “series of changes, growth points, or
stages” that Cass (1979) describes in her research. Through the lens of identity, further
exploration regarding the impact marginalization has on students becomes clearer.
The intersections of sexual identity, marginalization and power present some
unique challenges. At present, much of the literature focused on marginalization (Evans
2000; D’Augelli, 1998; De Surra and Church, 1994; Connolly, 1999) highlighting the
explicit and implicit acts that lesbians and gays endure. What sparked greater was how
implicit or explicit marginalization had on the student’s ability to coexist in a hetero-
normative environment? In some cases, was the student even aware of the level of
marginalized status she or he had in their respective environment? As such, questions
were constructed in relation to understanding their comfort level of disclosure with their
identity. While it may be easy to identify and explore explicit acts of marginalization,
there is deeper curiosity in how individuals process the implicit threats against their
sexual orientation. For example, how cognizant are individuals who hide their sexual
orientation aware of this impediment to their sexual identity development? How do they
compare to heterosexual individuals who are exposed to a seemingly similar college
environment? How is the concept of power woven into both explicit and implicit acts of
hetero-normative behavior? We acknowledge that power, much like identity, is socially
constructed and influenced by the environment. Therefore, it was important to
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 68
understand the level of influence lesbians and gays have on the college campus as the
potential to accomplish anything, requires interdependent action.
One of the final themes within the protocol focused on leadership. The approach
was to gauge at what level being a sexual minority impacts a student’s ability to develop
a leadership identity and how do lesbians and gays translate that identity into action given
the environmental factors they are exposed to. As Komives et. al. (2005) describes,
“leadership identity is the cumulative confidence in one’s ability to intentionally engage
with others to accomplish group objectives” (p. 608). Therefore, the questions were
direct in measuring how each student viewed their involvement in the organization (self-
identity), to what extent did peer influence have in negotiating their role in the
organization (confidence) and what impact do they perceive to have in the community
(influence). In closing the interview, each participant was asked to project her or his
professional interests with respect to their leadership experience. Given the fluidity of
the protocol, adjustments will be made to meet the needs of the study.
The approximate length of each interview ranged from 60-to-120 minutes and
was scheduled to fit the needs of the participant and researcher. As Creswell (2007)
asserts, it is important to “find a space that was quite and free from distractions” (p. 133).
To accommodate this, all but 1 interview was conducted an office building. This effort
was to ensure complete confidentiality, remain free from distractions, and outside noise.
The goal of each interview was intended to be informal. To help ease the presumed
apprehension of being a part of a research study, I began each interview offering a brief
background my experience at UPC in order to establish some sense of comfort. In every
interview, each participant was informed of the protective measures that would be taken
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 69
with her or his responses in order to ensure confidentiality and support as a participant in
this study. All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed.

NAME ETHNICITY GENDER AGE YEAR
1
Jonas Hispanic M 19 Sophomore
2
David White M 19 Junior
3
Elisa Asian F 20 Senior
4
Cesar Hispanic M 19 Sophomore
5
Dana White F 21 Senior
6
Stephanie White F 20 Junior
7
Sarah White F 20 Senior
8
Jessica White F 19 Junior
9
Stan Italian M 20 Senior
10
Rob White M 19 Sophomore
11
Roberto Hispanic M 19 Sophomore
12
Hema Indian F 20 Junior
13
Andy White M 21 Senior
14
Amin Pakistani M 20 Junior
15
Gabe Hispanic M 19 Junior
16
Jay Hispanic M 18 Sophomore
17
Sean White M 22 Senior
18
Daniel White M 20 Senior
19
Tammy Asian F 21 Senior
20
Max White M 20 Senior
21
Rob White M 20 Junior
22
Rebecca White F 21 Junior
23
Jordan White M 20 Junior
24
Joel Hispanic M 19 Sophomore
25
Aman Indian M 20 Junior
26
Grace Asian F 20 Junior

Figure 3. A list of all participants related to this study.

Data Analysis
Data analysis is at the core of being able to interpret each individual experience
and understand the patterns that frame the context of their environment. In using
narrative analysis, I used the stories in this study to describe and frame the human
experience of each participant. Creswell (2007) suggests that analysis should consist of
“restorying” the information gathered in the interviews. Through this process, the goal
was to gather all of the information, analyze each detail for key elements (e.g., time,
gathering place, plot, and scene) and then to place them within a chronological sequence
(Creswell, 2007, p. 56). In using the approach of a more postmodern narrative, an
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 70
element of the analysis consisted of, a deconstruction of the stories, unmasking the
dichotomies, examining the silences, and addressing the disruptions and contradictions
(Cresswell, 2007, p. 56). Through this postmodern analysis, I was able to better
recognize how identities and power are complex. The range of students varied as the
population of UPC includes an extremely diverse group of individuals. Some of students
seemed to feel empowered as gay and lesbian students because they come from high-
income families allowing them other levels of privilege whereas others who I sensed
came from more simple means may have felt doubly marginalized. In these cases,
postmodern analysis emphasizes the importance of looking at power and identity from
multiple vantage points. Given the social advances within the lesbian and gay
community, using a postmodern perspective absorbed the idea that many of these
individuals will be vacating established social constructions. Casey (1995) charges that a
postmodern approach recognizes the dilemmas and responses that individual’s
experience, which aligns closely with a narrative approach. In other cases, narrative
analysis helps illuminate purpose, plans and goals which form how students develop
direction, motivation and significance. Through these elements, the intent on this level of
analysis was to explore the social and emotional construction of lesbians and gays
running parallel to the conflicts or dilemmas expressed via identity and narrative. These
are all key elements towards understanding the interpretative value each participant in
this study has with their experience.
Creswell (2007) suggests that narrative analysis begins with an in-depth
examination of the text (e.g., field notes) in an effort to identify “salient categories of
information” (p. 160). In this approach, there is a need to identify common elements
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 71
within the personal experiences of the individual, retelling the story based on narrative
elements, rewriting the story into a chronological sequence, and then incorporating the
setting or place of participants (Creswell, 2007, p. 158). The description of themes using
stories, characters, settings and then being able to interpret them in a chronological way
serves to understand the sequence in which lesbians and gays conceptualize the sequence
of events leading up to their present selves. The intention is thus to help contextualize
how lesbian and gay students construct, through chronological order, their identity and
hopefully identify patterns or relationships. The added benefit of narrative analysis is
that it provides a plot to the student stories and thus helps define the meaning of each
experience. Narrative analysis can also provide purpose and organization to uncover how
we uncover meaning. In essence, narrative analysis is a retrospective synthesis that will
allow one to understand the context lesbians and gays truly live in.
In conducting 26 interviews with the various participants, I was able to examine
and interpret an alternative approach to Komives et al. (2005) research of leadership
identity development and translate it to better reflect the experiences of gays and lesbians.
More specifically, the interviews were conducted over a four-month period where each
participant took part in responding to prompts used in the interview protocols (see
Appendix C). Through the exchange, participants where afforded a great deal of liberty
in shaping the direction of the interview through open-ended questions.
The data analysis of this study involved the use of hermeneutics as described by
Gadamer (1981) and Heidegger (1962). Through this approach, it is believed that
“researchers could develop empathy with text, a relationship similar to what occurs when
listeners understand information conveyed by a speaker” (von Zweck, Paterson, and
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 72
Pentland, 2008, p. 120). In using the LID, I was able to extract common threads shared
by both homosexual and non-homosexual students as well as begin to redefine the model
to better reflect the experience of gays and lesbians. After each interview, I summarized
the exchange and highlighted several key points that emerged from the dialogue shared
by the participant. Once all of the interviews were completed, I then used all of the
summary sheets to begin a general coding of the data and then later refined the codes into
simpler interpretations of what was emerging. Once key concepts were identified, I then
reviewed all highlighted data to gather significant quotes that were shared by the
participants as support for the proposed themes and evolution of their experience.
In the summaries, I bring to light not only the events that each participant was
exposed to but also the way in which the participant contextualizes her or his experience.
The success of this research study was not solely dependent on the types of experiences
gays and lesbians have in comparison to their heterosexual peers but more on how these
incidents impact their ability construct a level of self-efficacy that allows for the
construction of a leadership identity. For example, David and Andy both expressed how
the support they received from their family members allowed them to feel as if socially,
they had something to contribute. In turn, these measures of self-confidence afforded
them the ability to explore and engage with varying levels of leadership. Yet, in the case
of Amin, we find that the cultural barriers that surrounds his identity has greatly impacted
his ability to be open about his sexual orientation and in many ways has altered his level
of engagement to fit a hetero-normative identity. These two examples offer a worthy
illustration towards understanding the various nuances that emerged and to a certain
degree have impacted how a leadership identity is constructed among gays and lesbians.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 73
Role of the Researcher
As a gay male student in the doctorate of education program at UPC, I have
seemingly been able to progress through the educational pipeline and leadership
successfully. Therefore, it was critical that I separate my experience from those of the
participants in order to truly understand and recognize the quality of experience each
participant had to offer. As a college administrator for the past five years, I have worked
with a broad-spectrum of student leaders who identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual and
consider myself aware of the individual value each member of the campus community
has. My goal was not aimed at any one particular result, but rather to begin to unmask
the experiences of lesbian and gay college students and identify themes related to how
they become leaders.
As with many research studies, there is a certain level of bias that exists between
the researcher and the subject of which they are exploring. My case was no different.
Although I identify as a gay male and, while in college, played an active role in various
organizations on campus, I did not disclose my sexual identity until my senior year. For
most of my tenure, my peers identified as heterosexual thus limiting myself to the gay
culture present on campus. While my involvement in student organizations on campus
allowed me access to develop a firm leadership identity, I struggled to blend my sexual
identity with my public persona.
One other potential bias centers on my role as a student affairs administrator.
Working as the Director of Academic & Student Services, I am able to witness the
everyday exchange between the student and the environment over a minimum of four
years. As such, I can easily recognize the value each student has to offer the broader
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 74
community in relation to how the campus environment contributes to the individual. I
have come into contact with numerous students, gay and straight, that have taken their
experience at UPC and used it to its fullest potential. To add, I have also worked with
students from the opposite side of the spectrum who have struggled to find their place in
the community. Understanding the broad range of potential that comes from the college
experience, I was able to contextualize each of the participant’s responses and offer
thoughtful consideration and analysis without the disruption of my own filters.
There is a one potential ethical consideration related to the research site. As an
institutional employee and a graduate student, I carry an affinity with UPC. As Creswell
(2007) suggests, “such studies raise issues of power and risk to the researcher” (p. 122).
Yet, the reason for continuing this study at my current place of employment is that I am
fairly disconnected from the population in which I will be interacting with. To add, given
my background knowledge of the institution, I have greater contextual knowledge to
understand the environment in which these students exist and which proved to be useful
during the data collection and analysis of this study.
Limitations of the Study
This study presents several potential limitations. Self-identification of one’s
sexuality was the primary way in which participants were selected. In recognizing that a
person’s journey to understand or be made aware of her of his sexuality is often complex
and an enduring process, this presented a challenge to who would be willing to
participate and at what level their sexual orientation impacted their college experience.
For many, this level of awareness comes late in life. For others, acknowledgement of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 75
ones sexual identity is often met with some level of internal or external conflict and
discovery as they begin to blend their sexual identity with their public persona.
One of the first identifiable limitations is, although the narratives presented in this
research offer insight into the lives of gay and lesbian student leaders, the conclusions
drawn from this research cannot be extended to a wider audience with a high-level of
certainty. As such, the findings of this research should be taken with some level of care
and further analysis. Although this research does not offer general findings to
significantly impact leadership theory, it does offer insightful and probing questions as to
how lesbians and gays develop a level of self-efficacy towards leadership.
Second, this research is limited by my own personal bias and subjectivity. The
main tenet of qualitative research is that the researcher is the central instrument of any
research project. With that said, this study is limited as a result of my own personal bias.
Although a number of measures were used to ensure objectivity such as using direct but
open-ended probing questions, there still exists some natural level of bias. My
experience as a gay student affairs professional who, while attending the institution in
which the research study was conducted, was heavily involved in a variety of
organizations impacts my ability objectivity when interpreting the data. While growing
up in a predominantly supportive household and feeling confident of my self-efficacy to
lead, the filter for which I summarized, interpreted, coded and justified the data presented
in this dissertation is somewhat skewed. For example, growing up gay, I did not have
very many role models to identify with. Yet, I always felt the need to get involved and
make a difference. Many of these experiences are expressed through the participant’s
narratives. For others who did not carry the same curiosity and ambition, I
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 76
subconsciously questioned their level of efficacy towards becoming a leader because of
my mentality that – “if I can do it, anyone can.” As the interviews progressed, however, I
did find myself becoming increasingly objective and consistent when evaluating the data.
The third limitation of this study is the sample size and data collection procedures.
Given the number of individuals involved in this study, I was afforded the opportunity to
connect with a diverse group of student leaders serving vary different leadership roles
across campus. Another dimension that is key to point out is the wide-range of cultural
identities the participants came with and used to filter their experience. However, given
the large sample size of this study and enormity of the data collected, it is well
understood that there is a great deal of information that has not been shared. While every
attempt to present the clearest picture of the student’s experience, it is natural that every
detail has not been shared, analyzed and presented. To add, the information submitted by
the individual has, in itself, been filtered. In all, while every effort was made to ensure
that all details and information is presented to the reader, it should be understood that not
every outlining and presenting all of the information would overload the reader and, in all
honesty, dilute the impact of this research study.
Trustworthiness
There were several strategies used to ensure the reliability and trustworthiness of
this study. First, I approached this study with a professional and ethical standard coupled
with a curiosity for the subject matter. I had no intentions of coming up with a desired
outcome other than uncovering how to better support lesbian and gay college students
towards fulfilling their greatest potential. In acknowledging my role on campus as a gay
administrator, I surrendered my assumed predispositions and acknowledged any potential
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 77
bias. In recognizing that “value-free inquiry is impossible” but recognize how my values
and preconceptions may have affected what I saw, heard, or recorded (Patton, 2002, p.
93). One way of mitigating any potential bias was through a series of validation
strategies.
The concept of validity and trustworthiness of the data relies in how accurately
the accounts represented in this study represent the participant’ realities. As such, there
were three strategies used to establish credibility:
Member checking - Information collected in the study as well as my
interpretations of what will be shared will taken to each participant so that they can
confirm the credibility of information and narrative account. Each of the participants will
be given an opportunity to evaluate the narrative and offer feedback, which will then be
imbedded into the final narrative of the study.
Researcher reflexivity - Through identifying my role as the researcher, the attempt
was to self-disclose any assumptions, beliefs and biases I have towards this study
(Cresswell, 2007). To add, it is important, as the reader, to understand the motivation for
which this study was conducted. Throughout the analysis of this study, this approach is
strengthened by member checking and most importantly, peer debriefing.
Peer debriefing - Throughout the process of this study, there have been several
points along this path where feedback was solicited towards ensuring the value of the
study. These peer reviewers comprise a set of reviewers familiar with different aspects of
themes used to research the topic and who intend to provide credible and consistent
feedback through the length of this study.
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Each of these efforts was intended to provide an opportunity to gain feedback and
ensure the validity in which the data was collected and then interpreted in order to ensure
the value of the study. Through the use of these approaches, I am confident that the value
of this study will be used to increase the scholarship of lesbian and gay college student
leaders.
Conclusion
In summary, this chapter provides the methodological design for this qualitative
research study. In order to understand and contextualize the experiences of lesbian and
gay college student leaders at UPC, it was important to conduct a phenomenological
study. The process of collecting data involved 26 one-on-one interviews using a broad
sample of student participants. In evaluating and analyzing the data, I surveyed the
responses in order to draw themes and dissect each of them into areas in which
contributed to their college experience as a leader on campus.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 79
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
Reflecting on the case of Chris Armstrong, the openly gay college student at the
University of Michigan who was elected as student body president, one can infer that
lesbians and gays are exposed to increased bias and ridicule when serving in a leadership
position. The purpose of this study was to gain a clearer perspective on how lesbian and
gay college students construct their leadership identity coupled with an understanding of
how their experience identifying as lesbian or gay impacts their ability to serve as a
leader. Much of the previous research related to gays and lesbians focused on racial or
ethnic transitory experiences yet failed to explore the impact of sexual identity. In order
to examine and address the intricacies of the lesbian and gay experience with respect to
leadership, I used the Leadership Identity Development (LID) model as a grounded
approach yet adjusted this model to better reflect the experiences of lesbians and gays.
The findings for this study will be presented by answering the research questions
presented in Chapter 1 of this study:
 Do lesbian and gay student leaders experience some level of marginalization
while serving openly as a college student leader?
 Does identifying as a homosexual impact her or his ability to serve in a leadership
position in comparison to their heterosexual peers?
 How has identifying as gay or lesbian impacted their ability to develop a
leadership identity?
 At what level does leadership involvement impact how lesbian and gay students
see themselves and where they will be in the future?
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 What factors, if any, contribute to successful immersion as a lesbian or gay leader
on a predominantly heterosexual campus?
The central focus of this dissertation was to examine how lesbian and gay students
develop self-efficacy and later construct a leadership identity. Relying on Komives’ et. al
(2005) Leadership Identity Development (LID) model, I developed an alternative
approach to this model that better reflects the experiences expressed in this study of gays
and lesbians. I begin by separating and re-aligning the initial phases of this model to
better reflect the early influences of homosexual college students. The chapter then
moves through the original model while breaking away at several points to more
accurately reflect the experience of the participants of this study. To close, I provide an
overview of the revised model and discuss some of the implications of this research.
Developmental Influences
Similar to heterosexuals, lesbians and gays first begin their identity construction
by developing some level of self-awareness. As Komives et al. (2005) describe, the
driving force behind this action is through the relationships of adult and peer influences
coupled with meaningful involvement and reflective learning. Yet, in examining the
experiences of gay and lesbian students, it was uncovered that homosexual students rely
solely on the influences of adults and peers in the early stages of their development. As
shared by some of the respondents, “my parents have always been a huge influence in my
life, I would never want to do anything to disappoint them” (Hema, 2011), “I know that
my family will always be there for me but you can never help stop to think ‘what if?”
(Joel, 2011). This departure from what was prescribed by Komives et al. (2005)
highlights the role public opinion has in shaping the individual’s identity. For gays and
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lesbians, acceptance and assimilation play an integral role in constructing a personal
identity. As such, it was important to reflect on the significance public opinion has in
relation to gays and lesbians as many seek to assimilate into mainstream society. As the
model unfolds, the reader will find that meaningful involvement and reflective learning,
the two other sub-phases of this stage, are better positioned to reflect the level of maturity
and context that is needed for them to carry greater meaning.

Figure 4. In the Leadership Identity Development model, Komives et al. (2005) describes the impact of
adults, peers, meaningful involvement and reflective learning as essential influences when constructing a
leadership identity. For this study, it was discovered that the developmental influences serve as the initial
source of impact and only include adult, as the primary, and peer influences, as the secondary sources of
influence. The other two, meaningful involvement and reflective learning come much later in the
development process.

Adult Influences. Komives et al. (2005) describes family, or adults, as “very
important in building confidence and being early building blocks of support. Adults
create safe spaces…where students learn to communicate and relate to peers” (p. 596).
Many respondents seemed to acknowledge that their adult influences played a large part
in how they began constructing their identity. Yet, each respondent seemed to struggle
with how to negotiate their perceived-self relative to their actual-self. Gabe offers the
following:
My mother always encouraged me to be involved in clubs and organizations -
most of all sports. I hated sports. When I was little, I had to play baseball even
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 82
though I lacked any kind of coordination needed for the sport. I would rather do
anything else other than sports but that is what most of the other boys my age did.
In Gabe’s case, there seems to exist a conflict between his desire and interest with those
of his parent’s expectations. While this theme is not an uncommon occurrence between
children and parent’s, the pressure to coexist or assimilate begins to surface. Throughout
his childhood, Gabe followed suit and continued to oblige his parents by tending to their
expectations. Yet, as Gabe grew older, it became increasingly difficult to appease his
parent’s expectations coupled with his own interests. He found himself conflicted with
managing his personal interests with those of his parents. Gabe offers an example of how
he suppressed his personal interests for the sake of gaining his father’s attention:
Although my parent’s never told me out loud, I knew they were proud of me for
doing good in school but it never seemed to compare to how they both were with
my brother if he did good in a game. A part of me wanted a little bit of that so I
decided to join football my freshman year. I knew I would hate it, but I figured it
may make my mom and dad happy along with the fact that all of the other guys
joined. I didn’t want to seem like the outcast.
Gabe’s need to gain his parent’s attention speaks to the heart of many gay and lesbian
teens. This need for acceptance carries over into many of the stories shared by the
respondents of this study. Through Sean’s experience, “while my parents never told me
how to act, they would always throw clues about how guys are supposed to act” (2012).
Through these stories, parents begin to emerge as an instrumental role in first establishing
value and direction for gays and lesbians – much like their heterosexual peers. As David
shares, the support of his mother allowed him to become confident in whom he was:
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 83
Growing up with just my mom, she was always really supportive of my interests.
My high school was big but there were not a lot of “gay” things to do. I just
became involved with a lot of the stuff my friends were involved with. My mom
always supported me, which is why I am here at PC. I don’t think that I could
have gone through half of the stuff I did in high school without her. Now being at
PC, I feel more confident in myself to become involved.
Through these examples, it becomes increasingly clear of the role parents have in shaping
the identity and values of gays and lesbians. While there may be other adult influences
such as a coach, teacher, or counselor, as described in the LID model (Komives, et al.,
2005), we find that the support gained from adult influences is the primary driving force
behind how gays and lesbians begin to construct their identity. This shift from the
original LID model expresses how gays and lesbians begin to see themselves through the
eyes of the adults in their lives. Given that a parent or caretaker is the primary source of
support and meaning making, it is fair to say that they serve as the principal influence of
what is acceptable and not. As Rob shared, “my mom and dad have always been an
important source of support” (2012). Unfortunately, gays and lesbians have often been
the victim of negative stereotypes and many adults, including parents, lack the social
awareness to contextualize the distorted images that have plagued gays and lesbians. To
add, parents often lack the emotional and psychological tools necessary to aid in this
transition of identity construction and thus transfer the responsibility to the youth’s peers.
Peer Influences. Peer influences are critical towards the exploration of
inhabiting a leadership identity – especially in cases when the parental figure is not
present or supportive. In some instances, peers add value to the emotional support of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 84
ones adult influences and in others they serve as the complete system when the latter is
no longer present. “Peers [serve] as sources of affirmation and support” (Komives, et al.,
2005). Through their early stages of college, many of the respondents expressed a sense
of relief when coming into contact with peers who they could identify with. Joel
remembers:
When I first arrived for orientation, I met this guy in my group who seemed to be
gay. I wasn’t out at the time and I didn’t really know too many people who were.
We started chatting and really hit it off. Mike was the first person who I felt I
could talk about anything to.
Peers are critical if or when there is no adult influence present. In an attempt to fill this
void, peer influences maintain and/or promote the awareness within the individual that he
or she is valued, can offer a meaningful contribution and provide support along the way
through each experience. On the other hand, peers can also be one of the driving forces
behind an individual’s inability to cope. Given the influence of peers among ones social
circle, many gays and lesbians are just as ambivalent about disclosing their sexual
orientation to their peers as they are to their parents. Out of 26 students who were
interviewed, 22 of the respondents indicated that the first person they came out to was to
a friend or peer. Fear of victimization, ridicule and neglect are some of the primary
motivators for lesbians and gays to avoid disclosure. As Andy shared, “growing up, I
never dared to share my sexual orientation because I was afraid of what the other guys
would do to me” (2012). While many of the respondents experience feelings of
difference, a large number of them felt the need to suppress these feelings out of fear of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 85
being labeled “gay” and thus becoming ostracized from their social network. As Jay
shares:
I knew that I was always different but I never thought to tell anyone. I was
always afraid that if I told anyone I was gay, they would make fun of me or worse
– not even talk to me. I just kept it a secret.
Jay’s willingness to disclose his identity was in large part to the visible actions and
responses he received from his peers. The social interactions Jay and other respondents
shared simply reinforces the social control peers and parents have in shaping the identity
of gays and lesbians. It is not until the individual becomes self-confident in their identity
that they begin to develop a sense of independence.
Evidence can be found to suggest that developmental influences of both adults
and peers is critical in how lesbians and gays are able to construct a leadership identity.
Through this research, it became clear that students who were exposed to at least one
adult or peer who carried a positive influence on the individual, the student has a stronger
chance at recognizing her or his leadership potential. It should be addressed, however,
that the participants of this study were considered because of their leadership
involvement in and around campus. Conceivably, it can be suggested that students, who
lack these positive role models also experience some level of delay towards their
development. When there is a positive role model in place that is supportive and
understanding towards ones sexual orientation, the student is better equipped to cope with
verbal or physical and other types of victimization. As Aman expresses:
My parents have always been a big part of my support system. They encouraged
me to do well in school and get involved. At first, when I was thinking of coming
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 86
out I was afraid that I would lose all of that. Surprisingly, everything has been
relatively the same. Even my parents, as much as I am sure it pains them that I
am not going to marry an Indian woman, accept who I am.
In another case, Daniel shared, “my mom always encouraged me to get involved. I guess
she made me feel like I could do anything” (2012). The support system expressed by
Amana and Daniel highlights how gays and lesbians can gain greater self-esteem and
ambition towards goal setting. This support allows gays and lesbians to manage the
potential negative backlash from their peers as a result of their sexual orientation more
effectively. As such, there is great care and attention played by the individual to maintain
these relationships. Many respondents expressed their fear of disclosing their identity
because of the risk of losing their support system. This notion begs the question - what
happens when these support systems, peer or adult, are not present?
In cases where there was very little to no visible support network, lesbians and
gays often found it difficult to cope with the alienation that often comes with coming out.
In this study, 7 out of 26 respondents shared that they had disclosed their sexual
orientation prior to attending UPC. Out of those respondents, all but one experienced
negative backlash from their peers or an immediate family member. In looking at their
overall leadership path, many of those students showed lower rates of participation in
comparison to their peers in this study.
One of the more salient themes this study uncovered is that students who
disclosed their sexual orientation prior to attending UPC were not as involved in campus
activities in comparison to those who exposed their sexual orientation while at UPC. One
key factor that frequently surfaced and thus distinguishing the two was the number of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 87
visible and consistent support systems. Through these networks, those that waited until
college to disclose her or his identity, often experienced a decreased amount of negative
backlash and felt more confident in their ability to explore and take advantage of
opportunities around campus. Therefore, it can be noted that positive developmental
influences are necessary if one is to begin constructing a leadership identity – without
one, the individual risks not being able to progress towards awareness.

Figure 5. For the students who had disclosed her or his sexual orientation prior to attending UPC, they
were involved in an average of two organizations in comparison to their peers with six. Out of those, an
average of 1 administrative position was held compared to two by their peers in the study who did not
disclose her or his sexual orientation until arriving at UPC.

Directional Relevance
In the leadership model devised by Komives, et al., (2005), developing a sense of
awareness plays a minor role in comparison to all of the other factors and transitions one
may experience via the process of establishing a leadership identity. As Komives, et al.,
(2005) describes, awareness refers to the individual’s ability to recognize that leaders
exist. In contrast to Komives, et al. (2005), it was uncovered that awareness plays a much
more salient role in the early stages of how lesbians and gays construct their leadership
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 88
identity. Through observing the influence of adults and peers, we now begin to
understand how lesbians and gays construct their social and emotional identity. Through
my observations, this early construction of a social and emotional identity translates into
how lesbians and gays focus their efforts and attention as they choose to disclose their
sexual orientation. It is at this point that the individual makes a conscious decision to
disclose her or his sexual orientation and begin the process of filtering their experiences
through this lens.

Figure 6. Given the developmental influences, there is a heightened sense of awareness that lesbians and
gays are exposed to in order to feel accepted in society. As such, these individuals make a conscious
choice to follow a path of disclosure or non-disclosure as a means of survival and assimilation.

Sexual Orientation Disclosed. For those students who choose to disclose their
sexual orientation, their interest in activities and awareness of their leadership potential is
driven by the conditions of their sexual minority status. As a member of a community
that is often subjected to ridicule, shame and in some cases violence, there is a curiosity
and desire to explore the possibility of making an impact and becoming a positive role
model in the community. In Cesar’s case, an openly gay college sophomore, he describes
his motivation to help other gays and lesbians be proud of their sexual identity:
Since coming out, I feel fortunate to have friends and people who I can connect
with and who make me feel happy about being who I am. I think that is one of
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 89
the main reasons I joined OUTReach. [OUTReach is a UPC student group that
promotes community service and awareness towards LGBT issues.
Cesar’s interest in connecting with his lesbian and gay peers expresses a level of
motivation towards becoming more involved. This interest and further curiosity begins
to take shape by focusing his time and effort into activities that acknowledge and
celebrate this sexual identity. Like Cesar, we find another student - Jordan, who
describes his involvement on campus intensified by shared stories of other lesbians and
gays. As Jordan states:
In high school, I was so scared for people to find out I was different that I did
everything I could to be normal. It didn’t matter. No matter how much I tried to
avoid it, the guys always found a way to make fun of me. It was like they could
sense that I was gay.
When I came to ‘PC, I thought things would be different. For the most part they
were as I started meeting people who were just like me and never really had any
personal issues with people like I did in high school. That was until I would hear
or read stories about how other gays were treated outside of campus. One day,
my friend told me a story about these two gay guys in New York, where he grew
up, who were chased by these homophobes. One was beat to death with a
baseball bat only because he was gay. It is stories like that that make me want to
get involved.
The awareness of this social injustice becomes clear to Jordan and in turn focuses his
attention and effort towards supporting this cause of equality. For both Jordan and Cesar,
there is a level of recognition that occurs in this stage that something must be done. This
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 90
interest to find an answer propels the individual away from her or his own self-interests
and toward a resolution. For others, however, there is a need to fit in and meet the
expectations set forth by the adults and peers in their lives. As such, those individuals
resort to a path of un-disclosure and filter their experience through the lens of their
heterosexual peers.
Sexual Orientation Un-disclosed. In contrast to Cesar and Jordan, there are
lesbian and gays who often attempt to simulate their experience to match that of their
heterosexual peers. One reason for such behavior is for lesbians and gays to escape the
ridicule and shame that often comes with being open about her or his sexual orientation.
As Amin, who has not openly disclosed his sexual orientation to his family, illustrates
that his interest in joining primarily heterosexual activities or organizations is driven by
his need to assimilate with his heterosexual peers:
I do a lot on campus but none of it really relates to me being gay. I don’t know
why that is. I guess I never felt as if I fit in with the people who are typically
attracted to the gay groups on campus. I am not a flamboyant person and don’t
need to show off my sexuality.
Amin goes on to mention that while he has not publicly denied his sexual orientation to
his friends and peers, it is not something that comes up in discussion. Further, Amin
acknowledges that not disclosing his sexual orientation to his family is not ideal but it is
something he has strongly considered doing in the near future. Stephanie shares that her
interest in activities is driven more about the cause, “I usually involve myself in things
that that have to do with social justice. If it relates to gay rights then fine but that is not
why I join” (2012). Amin & Stephanie’s story highlights the prioritization lesbian and
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 91
gay teens experience in relation to their social identity. One could speculate if Amin sees
his experience as no different from his heterosexual peers. As such, his cultural or social
awareness of lesbians and gays is limited to his personal experience along with that of his
homosexual peers. Unlike Jordan who cites his interest in creating greater awareness of
lesbians and gays, Amin’s interest is rooted in his own self-interest. This stage of
directional relevance is key as it serves as the social filter individuals use to make sense
of their experience and, moving forward, how they begin to develop their personal
identity.
Developing Self
In developing self, Komives et al. (2005) describes this stage as a point in which
the individual is able to expand their sense of self-awareness, self-confidence and
establish interpersonal efficacy by applying new skills and expanding her or his
motivations. Through this study, the positioning of this stage in this updated model
mirrors that of Komives et al. (2005). One key difference, however, is the impact
developmental influences (i.e., adults and peers) have in relation to establishing a sense
of self. Depending on the choice to disclose her or his sexual orientation, or not, the
ability to create a deeper self-awareness and self-confidence is dependent on the filter
used through directional relevance. As Andy shares,
Growing up, I was always told that I could do anything I put my mind to. The
support really gave me the confidence to get involved in clubs and activities –
even if people told me I couldn’t. I remember when I was in high school, I ran for
freshman class president. I didn’t win but I was elected to the executive board. I
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 92
ran every year and finally won during my senior year. I will always remember
that experience.
This persistence and confidence to move forward was shared by 14 of the 26 respondents
in this study. Stan shared how his mother would allow him to be, “as creative as he
wanted” often doing things that an outsider may perceive as feminine. Sarah offered how
she was always seen as the “class clown” and “most likely to succeed.” These two titles
allowed Sarah to feel confident in whom she was and allowed her to take more risks. As
each individual shared, they had a number of positive affirmations making them more
and more confident to take additional risks. These experiences were further enhanced by
group influences.

Figure 7. Much like the model developed by Komives et al. (2005), the stages of Developing Self and
Group Influences are closely tied to how the individual, more specifically lesbians and gays, are able to
contextualize their identity.

Group Influences
As the individual gains a deeper sense of self, they then translate that experience
to a wider audience that extends beyond themselves - as in the case with Sarah. Groups,
both academic and social, play an essential role in helping to construct a leadership
identity. What is key to this stage is the exchange that happens between the individual
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 93
and the audience. This association allows the individual to begin to define the type of
leadership role they will take. Integration is done primarily through academic and social
means. Through their research of academic and social integration, Hurtado and Carter
(1997) charge, “integrating experiences of involvement, engagement, and affiliation are
central to students’ development and progress in college” (p.324). For gays and lesbians,
these interactions were reciprocal in that their involvement allowed them to challenge
their curiosity and develop convictions while also develop their self-efficacy towards
working with others. As Cesar shares:
Each group I have been involved with had really helped me understand a little
more about what I want to do with my life. In some ways, I have also been able
to see how I should act in different groups.
As Stan shares, he describes how being involved has helped him manage who, how, and
when he discloses his sexual orientation. Stan:
In my fraternity I know that most of the guys are cool with me being gay but I still
feel awkward bringing someone to the house or inviting them to join me at an
event. I keep it pretty low-key in the social scene. In other groups, I feel
completely fine about me being gay. It just depends on the situation.
Through Cesar and Stan’s accounts, one can argue that there is a subconscious decision
to manage their identity depending on the context of involvement. In part, much of this is
attributed to how social status is defined and the filter to which they view their level of
acceptance. For these reasons, I found that group influences are indeed a secondary
experience to Developing Self but are also an influential one as it helps to support her or
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 94
his leadership identity. This feeling of assimilation, however, is often challenged through
a moment in which the individual experiences some level of marginalization.
Marginalization
For 22 of the 26 respondents, involvement in an organization or activity and being
open about her or his sexual orientation produced some level of marginalization. Much
of this was attributed to how vocal the individual was with regards to their sexual
minority status in tandem to the organization that he or she was involved with. To add, it
was expressed that the higher the level of rank of the individual within the organization,
the greater sense of ridicule and scrutiny. Each of these experiences contributed to a shift
in how the individual would later recognize their leadership role as their sexual minority
status came into question.

Figure 8. As the individual is able to contextualize her or his identity, there comes a point where their
social role is challenged through some level of marginalization.

For many participants involved in lesbian or gay-oriented organizations such as
the Queer and Ally Student Assembly (QuASA), Eagles for Equality and OutReach, there
seemed to exist a heightened awareness or sensitivity towards their surroundings given
the visibility of their association. As Dana shared, “when it comes to gay-related issues,
we are often looked at as the messenger when in fact we represent a small portion of the
gay community on campus” (2011). Max offers the following, “there is an underlying
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 95
fear that by associating yourself with [one of these organizations], you become a greater
target for harassment or ridicule (2011).” And finally Elisa expressed, “while it is
important to be part of a community that acknowledges you as normal human being, it is
a constant reminder that you are different from everyone else (2011).” For these
students, the value of being involved in an organization that supported and celebrated her
or his identity often collided with the fact that it also served to highlight their differences.
In the case of those who were not heavily involved in organizations that
specifically targeted gays and lesbians, many of the respondents expressed feelings of
social-anxiety, as they believed their sexual minority status to be in constant judgment.
Out of 26 respondents in this study, 15 individuals shared that they experienced some
level intimidation or disconnect when involved with groups or organizations around
campus. For Rebecca, being involved in UPC Patrons made her fearful of disclosing her
sexual orientation in an organization that does not actively promote a lesbian or gay
lifestyle. Rebecca:
I think that most of the girls I am close with in Helenes would be cool if I came
out to them, but it is not anything I really feel comfortable sharing. Joining was
something I felt was sort of a compromise. I always wanted to join a sorority and
even rushed my freshman year, but after going through all of the activities I didn’t
feel comfortable being around all of those girls who I felt would judge me if I
didn’t fit into some perfect mold. When I joined Eagles, I thought it would be a
great way to connect with other women. While it is not like being in a sorority, I
still feel there is a stereotype that I have to uphold.
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This feeling of trepidation to disclose one’s sexual orientation was a common theme as
students talked about their involvement around campus. The driving force behind this
resistance we due in large part to social cues expressed by their heterosexual peers. For
example, Stan who serves openly in his fraternity, remembered when he first felt
devalued because of his sexual minority status:
When I first joined [my fraternity], I was fairly comfortable with my sexual
orientation. It was not like I flaunted it all over the place - as one would assume.
I was pretty reserved but never denied being gay. It wasn’t until my sophomore
year when I overheard one of my frat brothers tell some pledges that he hoped we
didn’t bring any more “fags” into the house. It was then that I realized I was no
longer safe. While I was hurt by what he said, I felt angry and a little betrayed.
This sense of betrayal and loss are key points that highlight the significance of this stage
in the individuals’ progression towards establishing a leadership identity. When the
individual experiences conflict as a result of their sexual minority status, her or she
reevaluates their social role in comparison to their peers. Using Stan’s experience as an
example, the conflict or betrayal one may feel forces the individual to re-evaluate their
self-identity. For many respondents, they began to re-contextualize their social identity
and establish a deeper sense of purpose, identity and impact. This shifts translates into
how her or she sees their role in the organization relative to their peers.
Changing View of Self With Others
In the early stages of this model, the individual was dependent on contextualizing
their identity through adults and peers and later translated that experience to Developing
Self. The individual then moved to challenge her or his identity relative to others through
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Group Influences. In using these social drivers, the individual begins to frame his and
her identity through two primary pathways: dependent or independent. In the
independent path, students look towards becoming a positional leader and have a sincere
interest in creating change. As Gabe suggested when he first arrived to college, “I wanted
to involve myself in as many activities as I possibly could. Just like when I was in high
school, I knew that it would help connect me to campus and have some lasting impact.”
Those in the dependent phase came to the conclusion that they did not need to make some
immediate impact. They allowed the others in the group to do that and they saw their
role as more participatory. As one moved through this phase, Komives et al. (2005)
suggested that the student would reach a point where their involvement was more
differentiated in that they believed that “leadership came from anywhere in the group and
worked to develop their own and their peers’ capacity for leadership” (p. 605).
Collectively, these experiences contributed to how gays and lesbians begin to formulate
their leadership identity by creating a heightened sense of identity awareness through
application and involvement with others.
Leadership Identity
Unlike the original Leadership Identity Development model (2005), this version,
as it pertains to the experience of gays and lesbians, translates the formation of leadership
identity much later in the process. As Komives et al. (2005) describe, the process of
identity formation was, “informed by the interaction of developing self through group
influences that changed one’s view of self with others and broadened the view of
leadership” (p. 606). In contrast to what Komives et al. (2005) proposed, I have argued
that there are several more salient encounters prior to this point, which have shaped the
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identity of gays and lesbians. It is not until these experiences, such as Developing
Influences, Marginalization, and Changing View of Self with Others, that a more concrete
attempt at leadership identity construction can occur. At this point, we find that much of
what Komives et al. (2005) proposed in the original model aligns with the experience of
gays and lesbians. The positioning of this phase may be somewhat controversial in
that much of what follows seems to suggest that identity construction is reverting
backwards. I argue, however, that while many of these experiences may seem to have
played themselves out, this point of identity construction is seen now through the filter of
a more securely defined social identity. This newfound awareness begins to translate
what they previously believe to be true through an expression of new experiences.
Awareness. During the early stage, the individual acknowledges the existence of
leaders who now can relate to their sexual identity and provide a positive role model that
they can emulate. Rebecca said, “after all that I went through, I became angry and
wanted to do something about it. I started looking around to my peers but didn’t really
find people that could really share in my experience.” Rebecca goes on to mention how
she connected with mentors that soon identified as lesbian and could then begin to share
in her experience and provide some level of guidance. Stan offers insight into how he
developed a sense of awareness through action, “I never saw myself as the kind of person
that could be a leader. It wasn’t until I met Joey [Stan’s mentor] that I saw how simple
acts could have a real impact in someone’s life. (2011).” Through the positive exchanges
Stan had with his mentor, he began to develop a greater sense of purpose. The main
trigger in establishing awareness stems from the ability of the individual to relate her or
his level of efficacy to a manageable sense of action. When we think of leaders, the first
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example often relates to someone who extends beyond what we, as an individual, believe
our social and emotional capacity to be. As we become more and more exposed to
individuals who espouse leadership qualities, we begin to develop a sense of normalcy
and awareness of our own strengths.

Figure 7. Following the path set forth by Komives et al. (2005), the construction of a leadership identity
follows certain tangible experiences that are translated by the individuals past experiences with others

Exploration or engagement. In the second stage, lesbians and gays were found
to explore various opportunities that challenged their idea of leadership. Unlike their
heterosexual peers who saw their role as more participatory, the respondents expressed a
heightened curiosity to use their involvement as way of social positioning. Rob offered,
“getting involved was a way for me to prove that I could have the same experience as
everyone else even though I am gay.” Jay often found himself seeking opportunities for
him to meet people. While this is not an uncommon occurrence, Jay expressed his need
to maintain engagement with others as vital to developing a “strong professional network
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(2012).” Rob and Jay’s need to actively engage in organizations is driven by their need
to protect their social identity and in many ways mask their status as a sexual minority.
Leader identified. During this stage, lesbians and gays use their motivation to
assert stability of their social identity and begin to take full control of their involvement
within the organization. Gabe shared, “once I become one of the board members, I really
began to feel like I was making an impact (2011).” Tammy expressed how, “I felt it was
important for me to run for an office. I had been involved for three years and I knew how
to help grow the organization (2011).” As demonstrated, most students in this phase
acknowledge and accept the title of leader and begin to make a meaningful contribution
to the organization.
Leadership differentiated. As Komives et al. (2005) describes, leadership
differentiated stage brings the individual to an understanding that leadership is a
combined effort and not necessarily controlled by a single individual. For the
respondents of this study, this experience is enhanced by other members’ acceptance of
her or his sexual orientation coupled with the realization that leadership is not defined by
a title but more by the role the individual plays. As Jordan said, “I was always consumed
with taking on responsibility because I thought it was a way of proving something. It got
to the point where it was too much and I really needed to look around and find what was
most important and stick to that (2011).” Aman shared, “I always felt the pressure to be
successful. I am not sure if it had to do with me being gay. Once I became president, I
quickly realized that I could not do this alone (2011).” One interesting characteristic was
that these feelings of competition and success were more prevalent in gay respondents
rather than lesbians.
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Generativity. Much like Jordan and Aman’s’s experience, this conscious, and
sometimes unconscious, release of responsibility plays in large part to how the individual
begins to construct purpose, direction and sustainability. Through Sean’s case, he
became deeply aware of this transition as he shared, “after a while, when all is said and
done, you realize that you can only control what you can control. At some point, I just
became really comfortable with who I was and didn’t care what others thought.”
Rebecca offers the following, “while in school, I have learned to realize that each
experience comes with a lesson. What I decide to do with that information is up to me.”
As the individual finds confidence in him or herself and redefines their interests and
values, there begins a greater sense of awareness. This awareness translated into
lesbians and gays reconstructing their sense of self in relation to leadership.
Integration and synthesis. In the final stage, individuals come to an
understanding of their capacity to serve and begin to integrate these ideas into various
parts of their lives. Jordan expressed, “I realize that being a leader has nothing to do with
titles or tasks, it has to do with impact. Being a leader has to do with how we influence
the lives of those around us in all that we do.” Overall, many respondents shared
Stephanie’s sentiment, “after all of my involvement, I finally am able to see how my
experiences contribute to my ability to become an effective leader.”
Each of these experiences described above offer insight into how lesbians and
gays begin to negotiate their identity in the context of leadership. As the individual
becomes more and more aware of their potential to coexist with their heterosexual peers,
they are forced to decide how to respond to this newly defined role. Defining the
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motivation to proceed, however, serves as a critical step in establishing a leadership
identity.
Motivation
Through this research, it was uncovered that while Komives et al. (2005) provided
a constructive approach to building a leadership identity, they failed to address any
substantive factors related to why someone would actively pursue a leadership identity.
Much of what Komives et. al (2005) mentions in their analysis relates to the exchanges
one has with her or himself in relation to others. What is never addressed is how one
constructs the ability to motivate oneself to move forward with this identity. Specific to
the study of gays and lesbians, I will outline three primary sources of motivation that
where shared by the participants: acceptance and assimilation, feedback and self-efficacy.

Figure 8. In moving through the various leadership identity stages, the individual begins to explore some of
the underlying motivators as to why sustain their level of motivation towards pursuing a leadership identity.

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Understanding the interconnections of social behavior is complex and far beyond
the scope of this dissertation. Yet we find, through this research, that the constructs of
motivation are closely tied to social behavior. For many gays and lesbians, there is an
underlying need to attain a certain status among their heterosexual peers either through
acceptance or assimilation. Through these interactions, it is in the individual’s inherit
need to gain a sense of social standing which is often found through feedback. Feedback,
to some degree, is used in a way to legitimize her or his sexual orientation in contrast to
their heterosexual peers. Depending on the quality of feedback, the individual is then
able to build gauge their level of identity through acceptance or assimilation. As the
individual becomes more self-assured and less reliant on the feedback of others, they then
grow a heightened sense of self-efficacy, which will later translate into a heightened
sense of motivation.
Acceptance and Assimilation. We all want to fit in – gays and lesbians are no
different. Through the data analysis, there was a common thread shared by many of the
respondents indicating that the attainment of a certain social status was a driving force
behind taking on a leadership position. As Gabe describes:
I knew that I was different from early on in my childhood. I think, in the back of
my mind, I felt as if I needed to prove something to my parents and friends
because I knew that they would disapprove of me being gay. That was one of the
reasons I become so heavily involved in clubs. It was a way for all of them
[parents and friends] to see that I could actually make something of my life even
though I was gay. When I came out, I think it made it easier to take because I was
already in college and had achieved so much. What could they say?
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While involvement in leadership activities have the potential to carry a number of
intrinsic and extrinsic benefits such as, “commitment; common purpose; collaboration;
controversy with civility; and citizenship” (Dugan, 2006) the primary motivator for many
lesbians and gays is to feel accepted and valued. This need for acceptance is an attempt
to subjugate feelings of inadequacy or inferiority among their heterosexual peers.
According to Daniel:
When I first came to ‘PC, I felt the pressure, like all of my floor-mates, to try and
fit in. The only difference was that I knew I was different because I was gay. At
first, I was so scared that people would look at me differently if they found out so
I didn’t really make it something public. I just hung out with all of the guys and
made every attempt to just follow the crowd. For whatever reason, I just wanted
to be included.
The need for acceptance and assimilation was an integral part in how lesbians and gays
began to legitimize their existence. As some respondents described, involving
themselves in shared experiences with their heterosexual peers provided some sense of
normalcy. As their level of acceptance grew, the need to retain this sense of acceptance
increased their motivation and in turn helped sustain their level of frequency with the
organization. As Aman offers:
Being a part of URPC has made me feel like everyone else. I never really felt like
I could join any of the gay-related organizations. I am cool with being gay but I
don’t need to flaunt it. In URPC, I just like everyone else. When I was voted to
run program board, I really felt like people recognized my efforts.
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Through this passage, we find that feedback serves an important role in helping to create
a level of acceptance and assimilation among gays and lesbians. Feedback, designed to
provide some visible form of affirmation of an individuals’ contribution, is an underlying
motivator for many gays and lesbians serving in a leadership capacity. The need for
feedback, in many ways, serves as one of the motivating factors to gauge her or his level
of acceptance and assimilation.
Feedback. Feedback, both positive and negative, helps individuals contextualize
their level of acceptance and assimilation relative to their peers. For gays and lesbians,
their first experience with feedback is in the initial phase of their leadership identity
development via adults and peers. As one constructs a more integrated leadership
identity, feedback then takes shape as their self-efficacy is measured in comparison to
others. Sean shares the impact feedback has had in developing his self-efficacy:
In high school, I was always picked on. I wasn’t out but I wasn’t the typical jock
that you would see at my school. Coming to UPC, I joined groups that really fit
my interests. As I became more involved, I took on more and more
responsibilities. I remember when I was nominated to run one of our major
events how awesome it felt to feel like I finally fit in.
In some ways, the feedback Sean receives through his peers helps him translate his level
of self-efficacy towards taking on a leadership identity. David added, “I think positive
reinforcement is really important. In high school, my teachers always made me feel like I
was smart which made me want to take more honors classes. Ultimately, I think that is
why I felt like I could apply to a place like UPC for college.” As these experiences
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evolve, gays and lesbians continue to define their level of self-confidence and push
themselves to pursue other, and often more challenging, opportunities.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, as defined by Wood and Bandura (1989), refers to
“beliefs in one’s capabilities to mobilize motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of
action needed to meet given situational demands” (p. 408). In essence, it is the measure
at which individuals weigh their level of intellectual, social, and emotional capacity
towards a particular task. For the purposes of this research, however, we interpret self-
efficacy to help understand the level of self-regulation gays and lesbians go through as
they compare themselves to their heterosexual peers. Self-evaluation and self-monitoring
is a common practice among gays and lesbians. As Max, a resident advisor (RA) at UPC,
offers - no matter how comfortable one is with her or his sexual orientation, there is
always an underlying feeling to self-monitor:
How open I am about my sexual orientation is something I think about all the
time – especially when I meet the residents on my floor for the first time. You
never know how comfortable people will be about having a gay RA, which is why
it is not how I really identify myself. That being said, I don’t really censor myself
when it comes to being open about my sexual orientation.
Max goes on to express his motivation towards identifying as an openly gay resident
advisor stemmed from not having visible role models:
During my freshman year, I was not out. I knew that people always suspected
because a few even brought it up in a not so comfortable way. When they would
ask, I would just deny it. There was one guy on my floor, however, who was out.
I felt so bad for him because he was matched with a roommate who was really
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conservative and who did not make it easy to share a room with. When we all
first moved in [Shaun] was always around but as time went on you rarely saw him
on the floor. Looking back, I feel bad that I was not open about being gay.
Maybe if there was some other person on the floor that he connected with, he
would have had a different experience his freshman year.
This internal struggle of negotiating a public persona while in the company of
heterosexuals is an ongoing battle many lesbians and gays face – especially as commit to
increased levels of responsibility and visibility. Yet, as one emerges with increased
responsibility visibility, he or she begins to redefine their social identity to match their
self-efficacy.
In the final phase of this motivation stage, we find that individuals no longer
agree with using societal constructs as a way of defining their role in society. For many
of the respondents, there was a point at which the individual recognized their capacity to
be self-reliant and no longer needed their peers to give credence to their skills and
abilities to lead. As Sarah states:
At some point, I don’t know when, that I stopped caring what others thought of
me. I just did what I felt was right and if people didn’t agree, I didn’t need them
in my life. I didn’t want to hide who I was anymore and pretend to fit some type
of mold. I just wanted to be myself.
This level of awareness expressed by Sarah brings to the light the breaking point gays
and lesbians feel when their public persona no longer matches their personal interests.
Their need to feel accepted and valued has been met through various affirmations via
their involvement with the activities they are a part of. Yet, as they begin to gain a
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stronger sense of self-efficacy through their leadership experience, the individual moves
from a place of dependence towards individuality.
As outlined above, the original model developed by Komives et al. (2005) failed
to truly address any motivating factors, which would inhibit individuals to actively
pursue a leadership identity. According to what was uncovered through this study, there
are three key motivators, which drive gays and lesbians to actively pursue leadership
roles – acceptance and assimilation, feedback and self-efficacy. At first, the individuals
were motivated by the need for acceptance. Using much of what they believed to be
acceptable by their peers, their efforts to take on leadership roles were driven by their
need to assimilate into the mainstream hetero-normative society. As one developed and
took on roles that allowed for this level of acceptance, the individual was then propelled
to gain acceptance through feedback. It is at this phase that the individual begins to re-
define and assert their personal identity towards establishing a level of self-efficacy that
is genuine to them and not connected to others. Through this renewed sense of self, gays
and lesbians are then able to move forward to uncover a broadening view of leadership.
Broadening View of Leadership
In weaving through the various stages Komives et al. (2005) have set forth in the
original LID model, it was described that the individual, in their final phase of
development, begins to construct a broadened view of leadership. Relative to the
experience of gays and lesbians, I propose that the individual, after moving through the
phases of Leadership Identity, use all of their prior experiences as way of deconstructing
their motivation for pursuing a leadership role. It is only after they have come to terms
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with how to sustain motivation irrespective of others that they can then move towards
broadening their view of leadership.
In taking the collective experience up to this point, gay and lesbians, much like
their heterosexual peers, reach a point of passage that enables them to broaden their view
and personal definition of leadership. As Komives et al. (2005) shares, prior to this
experience leadership had not taken on a personal identity (p. 605). Through this stage,
the individual comes to terms with the fact that their capacity to lead is not dependent on
the role or title they take but rather their willingness to acknowledge the different forms
in which leadership takes shape. Rebecca best expresses this sentiment, as she shares the
shift in her leadership style:
At first, I think I was so concerned with making sure everyone liked me and that I
did a good job that I took on everything. I guess you could say I was a bit of a
control freak. It wasn’t until I started to feel comfortable with everyone that I
began to release some of the responsibility. Now, as I am getting ready to
graduate next year, I have pulled back a bit and have let other people take on a lot
of the work. I am still heavily involved but I don’t feel the need or pressure to
take on every single thing.
Through Rebecca’s example, we find that gays and lesbians experience much of the same
self-reflection and release that heterosexual students leaders go through. In another case,
Max offers how his experience as a campus leader has changed his perspective in how he
delegates:
In my first year as an R.A., I did everything. I coordinated all of the trips,
organized events and even would rally to get people out in the halls to hang out.
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Now that I have been doing this for a while, I know how important it is for the
students to actually become involved in all of these things. If not, I noticed that
they just begin to rely on you and don’t want to do anything on their own.
The significance of this shift, however, illustrates how gays and lesbians are not able to
recognize how their contributions run parallel to their heterosexual peers and no longer
feel the need to gain their acceptance or feedback. At this point in the LID, Komives et.
al (2005) suggested that the model followed a cyclical pattern as new experiences and
opportunities were presented to the individual. I would argue, however, that for gay and
lesbian leaders that the model progresses towards two additional stages. Given this new
sense of freedom from the hetero-normative behavior gays and lesbians are often
relegated to, these individuals move towards a phase of empowerment and purpose.

Figure 9. After the individual is able to break away from the need for acceptance and begins to redefine
their sense of purpose, he or she moves towards a broadened sense of leadership. Unlike the Komives et al.
(2005) LID, gays and lesbians progress towards establishing a sense of power.

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Power
With this renewed sense of self-efficacy and purpose, the respondents in this
study expressed a heightened sense of what we define as power. Through power,
individuals maintain a greater sense of self, involve themselves in activities that carry
greater meaning and are better capable at forecasting their future plans. This stage
highlights how lesbian and gay leaders move from being dependent on seeking approval
from their heterosexual peers and towards a greater sense of independence.
Certainty confers confidence, which then later translates into ones ability to assert
power. As the individuals in this study shared, when interest or concern over their sexual
orientation is subdued, there is an increased level of confidence and self-efficacy that is
espoused. In part, there is no longer a need for the individuals to strategize, whether
consciously or subconsciously, about how to behave and or how to control their sexual
identity. Through power, the individual is able to focus their attention on skill-building
rather than their sexual minority status. While it was clear that many of the respondents
felt it would be a long time before there is complete acceptance of them being gay, they
felt better equipped to manage the backlash from their identity. As Daniel shares:
It’s hard to hold back when you hear or see people, out in public, respond
negatively towards homosexuality. I don’t see too much of it in my face but I see
and hear a lot around me. For example, we were having an event on campus and I
was responsible for placing directional signs around campus. The signs clearly
identified the event was for lesbians and gays. When I went back to collect them,
I noticed that that someone had ripped them down. At first, I was so mad but then
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I just got really sad. I know that it had to be because it said lesbians and gays
because the signs for other events were still up.
While Daniel did not become enraged over this experience, he did in fact channel his
energy towards improving the conditions of the campus climate. Daniel went on to
mention that his interest in improving these conditions was supported through is active
involvement:
After experiencing how hateful some people still are, I came into a renewed sense
of interest in making sure that [the organization] is a success. If anything, to
show those people on campus that we are not going anywhere.
Daniel’s experience expresses how he has been able to focus his attention on efforts that
benefit not only him but his extended community. Daniel’s experience best illustrates
how gay and lesbian students are able to forecast past their present conditions and bypass
the shame and alienation they are often plagued with. Daniel’s increased level of self-
efficacy and identity gives him the confidence to coexist parallel to his heterosexual
peers.
Transitory Influences
Much like the influences described by Komives et al. (2005), gays and lesbians
use this sense of power to better contextualize their experience through meaningful
involvement and reflective learning. Unlike the original model, these two phases are
separated from the initial developmental influences and shifted towards the latter part of
this revised model.

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Figure 10. Unlike the model developed by Komives et al. (2005), there is a distinct difference in how
lesbians and gays construct their leadership identity as presented above through this revised approach.

The intention behind this was to more accurately reflect the level of maturity in
processing these experiences that the participants expressed. As Daniel shared,
Growing up in Downey [CA] with most of my life living off of welfare and being
gay, it was hard to imagine my life taking any positive direction. At least that is
what I thought of back then. Now, I consider every experience, both positive and
negative, a blessing. When I was little, boys would always make fun of me
because I didn’t fit the stereotypical macho type that the rest of them were. I hid
myself in my studies and activities to try and find some way of surviving. Now, I
know that each of those experiences was important because it made me who I am
today. And as weird as this may sound, I feel kind of fortunate to have had the
childhood that I did because I think I value things more now than if I didn’t
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It is through this heightened sense of maturity and clarity that Daniel has been able to
reflect on his experience and think more constructively about his leadership potential. As
such, it is only fitting that these two phases be moved towards the latter part of this study
since many of the respondents shared many of the same sentiments that Daniel had.
Conclusion
In closing, the focus of this dissertation was to examine how lesbian and gay
students develop self-efficacy and later construct a leadership identity. While the core
part of this study was based on Komives’ et. al (2005) Leadership Identity Development
(LID) model, there were several key elements that were addressed to more accurately
reflect the experience of gay and lesbian student leaders. First, one can now see how
adults and peers play a significant role in establishing the early stages of a leadership
identity. Second, we found that students experience a filtering process that establishes
how they will contextualize their experience through directional relevance. Moving
through the model, instances of marginalization where found to create a certain degree of
tension thus challenging the personal identity with her or his leadership one. The most
significant contribution, however, comes from identifying some of the key motivators
lesbians and gays use to move forward in the leadership model: acceptance and
assimilation, feedback and self-efficacy. This helps the individual create a more
broadened sense of leadership and ultimately help to define a level of power and
ultimately to more meaningful and reflective experiences as a leader.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Growing up, I always knew I was different. It was never an easy thing to try and
fit in. Yet, looking back at my experience, I feel that being gay really helped me become
the leader I am today. I have been able to look back at my experience and use the bad
and good to help shape what kind of leader I want to become. In some way, I feel it gives
other boys growing up in Youngstown, Ohio who are like me a fighting chance – Sean
The intention of this study was to better understand how, using the Leadership
Identity Development model developed by Komives et al. (2005), gays and lesbians
develop self-efficacy and construct an identity relative to leadership. The themes
outlined in Chapter 4 provide an alternative perspective in how lesbian and gay student
leaders construct their leadership identity development relative to their heterosexual
peers. This chapter provides a comparative analysis of the findings in relation to the
original research questions presented at the start of this study. Further, this chapter
examines the findings in relation to the existing literature on leadership identity
development and homosexual college students, evaluates the impact this research has on
student engagement theory, introduces key markers to aid student affairs professionals in
their support of lesbian and gay student leaders, and offers a proposal for future research
and practical implications.
Research Questions
At the start of this dissertation, there were several questions that steered the focus
of this study. These questions aimed at uncovering how gay and lesbian college students
process their leadership identity as well as what level of self-efficacy do these students
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have in comparison to their heterosexual peers. The following recaps the questions asked
and offers a summary of what was uncovered.
Question 1: Do lesbian and gay student leaders experience some level of
marginalization while serving openly as a college student leader? Yes. For many of
the participants, exposure to some level of marginalization was expressed by each
participant either consciously or subconsciously. As Gabe expressed, “While no one has
come up to me and expressed their opinion about me being openly gay leader. I know
that things are said behind my back - it is just that those people don’t have the guts to say
it to my face. I feel it would be different if I was straight.” Unfortunately, this
experience is not isolated to Gabe. For many of the respondents, identifying as a
homosexual brought either direct or in-direct episodes of marginalization. The impact of
these conditions has a negative effect on the student’s ability to coexist among their
heterosexual peers. Research conducted by Spady (1971), conveyed that students
experience a perceived social integration which offers a “student’s subjective sense of
belonging and ‘fitting in’ on campus, perceptions of the warmth of their interpersonal
relationships, and feelings unpressured by ‘normative’ differences between them and the
environment (Hurtado & Carter, 1997, p.325).” These three dimensions of integration
have a distinct parallel to the experiences expressed by the participants of this study and
their level of marginalization – most notably, feelings unpressured by ‘normative’
behavior. For the respondents in this study, their feelings of marginalization seemed to
directly correlate to the pressure of ‘fitting in’ and adapting to a hetero-normative
climate. Whether consciously or subconsciously, gays and lesbians finds ways of co-
existing that “require them to detect important occurrences in the environment, make
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reasonably accurate predictions about how they will affect [them], and behave
accordingly” (Herek, 1991, p. 64). Many of the respondents expressed an increased need
to assimilate when they felt their social status threatened. Max’s experience mirrors that
of many of the respondents as he shares, “growing up, you know you are different. I
think that is why I tried so hard to be like one of the guys. Yet, no matter how hard you
try you know that people think differently of you – especially as you become more
visible.” The increased visibility of lesbians and gays, especially when involved in
leadership positions, places them at a heightened risk of marginalization. As each of the
participants shared more of their experiences, it became clear that issues of
marginalization clearly affected the experience of gays and lesbians. In response, many
of the respondents hinted at various coping mechanisms to pass or assimilate among their
heterosexual peers. Collectively, each of these experiences seemed to contribute to the
delay of gays and lesbians being able to construct a social identity that matches that of
their heterosexual peers.
Question 2: Does identifying as a homosexual impact her or his ability to
serve in a leadership position in comparison to their heterosexual peers? Yes.
Identifying as gay or lesbian contributes to an individual’s ability to serve in a leadership
position because of the added perspective the individual is able to use as a filter to
process their experience. Regardless of whether a leader is gay, straight, black, white,
female or male, each one approaches the experience through a different filter or lens.
One of the more salient themes uncovered through this research was how lesbian and gay
students filter their experiences. Depending on their level of comfort with their sexual
identity and need for assimilation, gay and lesbian students move through their life
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filtering their experiences, either consciously or subconsciously, to match what they
believe will achieve optimal results. It is important to consider social environments and
how it impacts the psychology of individuals. The social-environment (e.g., external
resources) and psycho-individual elements (e.g., emotional connection with others)
individuals are exposed to are primary sources gays and lesbians use to filter their
experience. Max shared a common experience expressed by the respondents, “when I
first came to ‘PC, I was always very careful how I acted around people. Sometimes I felt
awkward being myself because I wasn’t sure how people would respond to a gay person
so I played it straight.” This attempt to fit in brings to light the censoring process many
gays and lesbians exert and by extension how they filter their experience. The filtering
process gays and lesbians go through is an attempt to subconsciously absorb, make sense
of, and react to according what the individual deems acceptable based on their sense of
environment. This process of negotiating their social identity to fit in severely handicaps
gays and lesbians from being able to be genuine.
On the other hand, this filtering process becomes a major asset when we look at
how gays and lesbians are able to more easily adapt to various social conditions. This is
not to say that gays or lesbians trump the skill-set of their heterosexual peers or any other
minority group at adapting to various social conditions. What is expressed, however, is
that given the need for many gays and lesbians to constantly adapt to the social
conditions of a wide-range of environments as a means of survival, homosexuals are
better equipped to manage these emotions or behaviors to fit their surroundings with
much more fluidity. The drivers that motivate lesbians and gays to assimilate are very
different than other minority groups because of the conditions at which they have
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historically existed. For example, gays and lesbians risk losing their peer or adult support
if they disclose their sexual identity to those who are unwilling to accept them. Unlike
the experience of blacks, females and other minorities who do not need to disclose their
minority status to anyone because there are often visible traits or characteristics (e.g., skin
color) that warrant identity characterization. Given the ease in duplicity gays and
lesbians are able to espouse by hiding their sexual identity, they work hard in many ways
to follow the social norms to help control their environment. In looking at the work of
Cass (1979), we can find direct correlations between lesbian and gays identity
formulation and social assimilation by exploring her idea of developmental paths. As she
asserts, individuals decide the degree to which they “accept the idea of homosexuality as
a negatively [or positively] valued group and can maintain strategies to avoid
confrontation with antagonistic others (Cass, 1979,p. 152).” Through creating this
subconsciously formulated sense of structure, gays and lesbians have an enhanced sense
of awareness and perception which in turn makes them better equipped to address the
needs of a particular organization and ultimately construct a leadership identity.
Question 3: How has identifying as gay or lesbian impacted their ability to
develop a leadership identity? Many of the participants shared that identifying as gay or
lesbian, although contributed to some of the hardships of being a leader, overall had a
positive impact in defining what kind of leader they would like to become. Admittedly,
being different in any leadership context offers some complexities. The idea behind
leadership is that you, as a leader, can understand and closely align oneself to the needs
of the organization as well as best represent the organizations values and beliefs.
Lesbians and gays are exposed to experiences that differ from their heterosexual peers.
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Given the process in which gays and lesbians work through their sexual identity, many
expressed that they feel better equipped to understand the needs of the organization,
through their interest to assimilate, and are much more inclusive and accepting as a result
of their own experience of being disenfranchised. According to Stan, he felt that he had a
distinct advantage given his sexual identity to lead by sharing,
I think being gay has really helped me understand what kind of leader I want to
be. Growing up, I never really had a good example of what a leader was. I mean
there were a few people that inspired me but it was hard to imagine what kind of
leader I could be since the examples I had were not gay. It really helped push
myself into being someone who is conscious of the example I am setting as a
leader and being openly gay.
Stan’s experience exemplifies how the perspective of gays and lesbians has shifted to use
their past to help anchor their future. Keeping in mind that not all students are as
fortunate to move through this process with such ease as Stan was, it must be noted that a
small number of students expressed how pairing their sexual minority status and
leadership identity often created some level of anxiety and conflict.
Pairing the construction of a leadership identity with the challenges of growing up
as a sexual minority was not easy for some participants. Identifying as gay or lesbian
presents a number of challenges such as repressed emotions of identity, fear of alienation,
shame, guilt, bullying and so on. In constructing a leadership identity, one, at some level
will need to able to manage these conditions in order to successfully serve as a role
model. While in high school, Jay expressed that he found it extremely difficult to
balance being a leader and sorting through his sexual identity. Jay shares, “high school
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was rough. I involved myself in a few activities around campus but felt I was limited
because I didn’t want to be too much of a target by the guys. I guess that is how I stayed
comfortable”. In looking closer at Jay’s experience, it seems that some gays and lesbians
are hindered by their sexual identity, which as result, may contribute to the delay of
constructing a leadership identity. As we know from the previous chapter, Jay later
began to develop a stronger sense of self-efficacy while at UPC and attributed much of
that to having visible role models. Overall, we find that identifying as gay or lesbian has
a double-sided effect in how they are able to construct a leadership identity. For others,
the experience of constructing a leadership identity evolved a different way.
For other participants, mostly female, identifying as gay or lesbian had very little
impact in developing a leadership identity. Contrary to other members of the study, for
some participants developing a leadership identity seemed to come with greater ease
because there social identity never seemed to be at risk. As shared earlier, this instance
was quite common in many of female respondents of the study. In the words of Grace, “I
don’t think that identifying as a lesbian was ever a real issue growing up because I did
many of the same things that my girlfriends did. I went to dances, had boyfriends and
was good in school. At UPC, I pretty much have done the same with the exception of
having a boyfriend.” One of the closest correlations is that lesbians are able to better
mask their sexual orientation relative to gay males. In a study performed by D’Augelli,
Hershberger & Pilkington (1998), research showed that “more mothers of lesbians did
not suspect [their child’s sexual orientation] than mothers of gay males (p. 364)”. With
this data, one can argue that the sexual identity of lesbians tends to be more accepting or
less visible in comparison to gay males. Through this, we find that more lesbians find
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greater ease and folding their sexual minority status into establishing a leadership
identity.
Question 4: At what level does leadership involvement impact how lesbian
and gay students see themselves and where they will be in the future? There are two
main points to how involvement impacts how gay and lesbian students construct a
leadership identity: 1) they are able to construct a level of credibility and self-efficacy,
and 2) they are able to better forecast beyond their present conditions. First, being
involved in activities that promote a leadership identity development is key for any
individual to develop a level of self-efficacy that is challenged and supported.
Specifically for gay and lesbian students, these experiences offer the clearest pathway for
them to feel accepted and fully assimilated into the hetero-normative community that
often surrounds them. Rebecca shared, “serving as president, I felt like I had finally
found a place where I was accepted and that I could make a contribution.” The short-
term and long-term impact this has on Rebecca’s experience, and many others like her,
has significant ramifications in her ability to feel confident in her skill-set and willingness
to be motivated towards pursuing further interests. Leadership involvement plays a
major role in helping gays and lesbians recognize their potential and become an active
member of their community. As gays and lesbians gain acceptance by their peers, they
then become better equipped at forecasting their life beyond their present conditions.
Secondly, as gays and lesbians become more involved and develop a heightened
sense of self-efficacy, they feel more confident in themselves, take greater risks and, in
turn, challenge their skill-set to match their heterosexual peers. In doing so, gays and
lesbians begin to break away from social confines of their sexual minority status and
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towards a parallel dimension that aligns with their heterosexual peers. Through
involvement and a renewed sense of self-efficacy, gays and lesbians no longer need focus
their efforts towards strategizing survival techniques. They can put the frustrations and,
in many cases, debilitating emotional stress that comes from identifying as a sexual
minority away and begin to look to the future. As Aman shared, “through the years, I
have grown more confident about myself and believe that I am just as good as my
friends.” This established level of confidence ultimately translates into motivation for the
individual to establish goals and work towards them. As Van Knippenberg & Hogg
(2003) share, “the extent to which motivation translates into action is influenced by a
range of factors that hinge on the degree of perceived normative support for the
behavioral intention and/or action (p. 248)”. As a whole, we find this notion of reaction
to social conditions or environment to be a recurring theme with respect to leadership and
identity development of lesbians and gays. As gays and lesbians are able to make sense
of these conditions, they begin to gain a greater sense of self-efficacy. By extension, this
heightened sense of self-worth and confidence enables the individual to forecast. They
can see beyond their present conditions and make plans for the future..
Question 5: What factors, if any, contribute to successful immersion as a
lesbian or gay leader on a predominantly heterosexual campus? One of the salient
factors that can support the ability of lesbians and gays to become successful leaders on a
college campus is to be a part of a community that is inclusive and celebratory. Many of
the participants of this study shared that growing up they felt a need to assimilate to the
hetero-normative behavior that surrounded them. As such, there was a serious effort to
resist fully expressing their identity and individuality out of fear of shame or isolation.
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As Sean mentioned, “in high school, I was always afraid of someone finding out that I
was gay so I just laid low. I still tried to be myself but always had this feeling like I was
keeping a secret from everyone.” Sean’s experience parallels that of many of the
respondents in this study. As such, it became increasingly clear that many lesbian and
gay students, at least those associated with this study, carry a burning need to find a
community that is inclusive and will celebrate their true identity. Through this support
and celebratory nature, gays and lesbians will feel more at ease to express their
individuality. Yet, it is not enough to say that a campus is supportive and celebratory of
all its students. It should actively show that all members of the community are an active
voice around campus and that discrimination, of any kind, is not tolerated.
In all, the five questions listed above provide a constructive framework that
supports further research of leadership identity development pertaining to gays and
lesbians. Gay and lesbian college students come to campus with a very diverse history
that, consciously and sub-consciously, has had a significant impact on their ability to
gauge their self-efficacy, which in turn affects their leadership identity. Through this
research, there were three pressing themes that were uncovered that help us better
understand the experience that lesbian and gay college students work through:
marginalization, motivation and power. I will now move forward to discuss the level of
impact this has gay and lesbian college students.
Marginalization, Motivation & Power
While much of this research aligns closely with the original model that was
developed by Komives et al. (2005), there are three key stages that are specific to the
experience of lesbians and gays – marginalization, motivation and power. The following
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will summarize how marginalization plays a pivotal role in how gays and lesbians first
begin to shape their self-efficacy and identity towards becoming a leader; how motivation
greatly impacts the sustainability of the individual to move forward ultimately translating
into power.
Marginalization. Many participants of this study expressed that they
experienced some level of marginalization throughout their life. These experiences
stemmed from feelings of shame, guilt and exclusion, which seemed to greatly deter
individuals from assimilating into the more dominant culture. This experience soon
translated into feelings of alienation. In the research outlined in the previous chapters, we
can find historical references to the damaging effect these practices have had in other
minority groups by instilling segregated systems of social hierarchy. Relative to student
development theory, we find that gays and lesbians do indeed suffer from a number of
personal and social stressors throughout the early years of their life. These stressors carry
a hefty toll on the individual’s ability to assimilate with the mainstream culture. As a
result, gays and lesbians are forced to find ways to manage their experiences through
various coping mechanisms in an effort to avoid being ostracized.
The significance of this study uncovered how gays and lesbians were able to
develop coping mechanisms to counteract feelings of marginalization. Perceptions of
marginalization significantly contribute to how gay and lesbian college students adjust to
their college experience. This is consistent with the research done by Tinto (1988),
Hurtado and Carter (1997), Astin (1984) and Sax (2004). As such, gays and lesbians find
it increasingly difficult to find a manageable balance that would allow for them to
assimilate into the mainstream culture and embrace their sexual identity status. As such,
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gays and lesbians develop or rely on several key coping mechanisms to help manage their
experience.
The primary strategy to how these feelings of marginalization are managed is
through their reliance on social support. Gays and lesbians deeply rely on the support of
their peers. Through the revised LID model, we can better understand the relationship
between homosexuals and their adult and peer influences. As they begin to see the
approval of these individuals, they fall victim to becoming too desperate or reliant in
mimicking the behaviors and identity of their peers, they soon loose sight of their true
identity.
Unlike their minority peers (e.g., females or ethnic minorities), gays and lesbians
are able to better manage these episodes of marginalization by matching the experience
and behaviors of their heterosexual peers. Through the stories shared by many of the
participants, gays and lesbians go to great lengths to mask their identity and, to some
degree, manage their level of exposure to episodes of marginalization. In the early stages
of their identity development, gays and lesbians feel much more pressured to, as they
state – “stay in the closet.” As Seidman, Meeks and Traschen state, “the concept of the
closet is compelling to the extent that the core areas of an individual’s life – work, family,
and intimate ties – are structured by practices of managing homosexuality in order to
avoid unwanted exposure” (p. 19). This idea of living one’s life in the “closet” has
symbolized the dominant strategy for gays and lesbians to hide their sexual minority
status. In some way, by living one’s life in the closet, gays and lesbians would have
greater success at mixing in with their peers and thus avoid any social and emotional
disconnect as a result of their sexual minority status. In other instances, gays and
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lesbians who are able to move beyond this level of hiding move towards gain a greater
sense of self-efficacy and motivation.
Overall, these feelings of marginalization suggest that each experience carries
serious implications in how gay and lesbian students are able to negotiate and move
towards constructing a leadership identity. As the individual gains a renewed sense of
self, he or she is more capable of translating these experiences into a sustainable level of
motivation.
Motivation. Motivation is an intrinsic form of mobility that can only be defined
by the individual. It is somewhat intriguing that motivation was not clearly mentioned in
the original LID model (Komives et al., 2005) since, from what was uncovered in this
study, plays a principal role in establishing momentum to pursue a leadership identity. In
this revised model, we find that motivation stems primarily from the experiences one is
exposed to through various leadership responsibilities as well as the influences of their
peers and adults. The key factor of motivation, with respect to the experiences of gays
and lesbians, is that it is continually challenged via the levels of marginalization the
individual is exposed to. As such, self-efficacy and identity play an integral role in being
able to sustain a level of motivation that allows the individual to maintain involvement.
For some individuals, it is the experiences that challenge her or his identity as a result of
being a member of sexual minority group that intensifies or subdues ones ability to be
motivated. Those individuals who are able to sustain their level of self-efficacy despite
the possible ridicule or shame that comes from identifying as gay or lesbian in turn exert
a level of power.
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Power. In a culture that collectively equates social class, and in many cases –
race, with power, it is important to recognize the long-term impact power relations have
towards legitimization of sexual minorities. This concept of power filters through the
social norms and behaviors that dictate social mobility and status. Through a more
intimate exploration of this concept of power, we find that there is a long-term
detrimental effect with how an unequal distribution of power impacts gays and lesbians.
This stage helps illustrate the ongoing evolution of the individual as they
construct a leadership identity and become empowered to re-direct their efforts towards
opportunities that are more meaningful. Without the official recognition of value, the
socially sanctioned behavior of the dominant culture thus reinforces the stigma that has
plagued lesbians and gays. In turn, it impedes the ability of lesbians and gays to serve
openly in positions of authority and, by extension, limit the number of visible role models
for young leaders. Power, however, should not be seen as something tangible that is won
and lost by others. Power should be defined as an affirmation that one’s identity is in the
control of the individual thus enabling more fluid assimilation with her or his peers. In
having power, the individual in turn is able to define their social role in society rather
than have it relegated to them by the dominant culture. To add, lesbians and gays thus
become more active players in society and thus create more positive role models. This
notion adds another dimension to the proposed model developed by Komives et al.
(2005) relative to leadership identity construction of minorities. The long-term impact of
creating non-traditional leaders has a lasting effect in creating visible role models that in
turn inspire future generations of leaders. While Komives et al. (2005) expressed interest
in understanding how a leadership identity was constructed among minorities, the authors
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failed to mention the significance and cyclical effect this has in diversifying the pool of
leaders.
Our understanding of power is closely tied to how we conceptualize social
behavior. In many ways, power is seen as offering some level of status or prestige. As
such, for many power is something that is deeply desired, in some circles it may be
considered as a weapon. There is a struggle for existence that has always revolved
around culture. Once may argue that our social being is essential for the satisfaction of
human need. Relative to this study, we find that power has less to do with prestige and
more to do with gaining a sense of personal control in an attempt to develop self-efficacy
and identity.
In looking at how power is distributed and used to define the social roles of
individuals, it is important to examine this concept in connection with student
development theory. For many gays and lesbians, much of their developmental
experience relates to how they negotiate their identity relative to their heterosexual peers.
As expressed in the previous chapters, the participants of this study shared that there was
a great deal of time devoted to adult and peer influences to help guide them on behaviors
or actions that would be deemed acceptable. The central purpose behind these actions is
to avoid “isolation and physical attacks” (D’Augelli, Hershberger, and Pilkington, 1998,
p. 366). To counteract these fears, gays and lesbians go to great lengths to in many ways
appease their heterosexual peers and mask their sexual identity status. In this phase of
the student’s development, he or she is unable to acknowledge the value they have and
lacks any sense of authority or power to begin to shape this identity.
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As one becomes continually exposed to situations that challenge her or his
identity, gays and lesbians soon move from a state of dependency on their peers towards
repositioning themselves to becoming more self-reliant. In this period, we find that the
individual soon becomes empowered to construct meaning that greatly reflects their ideas
and values rather than those of their peers. One of the signature differences in this
process, however, is that the individual uses their cumulative experience to make
decisions. Through this new awareness, gays and lesbians are able to extend their
understanding of the social world they exist in and begin to take control of their identity
and future.
Through a greater perspective, we can see the impact power has in contributing to
the social and emotional identity of gays and lesbians through the use of capital. As
Keohane (2001) suggests, power “equips an individual with the capital necessary to
successfully assimilate with members of certain social networks (p. 82).” The social and
emotional capital gained through exposure of these social networks helps to instill values
and ideas that will allow her or him to develop a level of self-efficacy so that they can
become more independent.
Specifically, what does power offer the individual? In the conversations
conducted with the participants of this study, it was uncovered that the early years of their
development, many gays and lesbians lacked any sense of control over their identity. As
Andy shares,
It was a little tough growing since my parents had such high expectations for me
to follow in my brother’s footsteps. They wanted me to play sports, graduate, get
married and have lots of grandkids. I just could never see myself like that. I
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guess I have always been the rebel. It wasn’t until I came to ‘PC that I started
doing what I wanted to do.
Through this passage, we find signs that Andy’s experience in college has slowly allowed
him to gain the confidence and independence to begin thinking for himself and make
decisions that impact his future. As the individual becomes cognizant of their identity
and lack of dependence on their peers and adults, they soon move towards a state that
allows them to question the status quo and become empowered to make more long-
standing decisions.
Through this new-formed sense of independence, gays and lesbians are soon able
to contextualize their experiences and make judgments irrespective of what others may
say. This is a critical point in the individual’s development since it aligns with what
Kogan (2005) asserts as “permanence and stability (p.11).” This level of permanence and
stability are key indicators towards establishing a sense of power since it translates into
how the individual is able to forecast beyond their present conditions towards future
goals. To add, the individual no longer feels confined to play the submissive roles he or
she has been relegated to by their heterosexual peers. Rather, this renewed sense of self
affords the opportunity for gays and lesbians to begin to redefine their position in their
social circle and become a much more active member in the community. As the
individual matures and moves through an assortment of other experiences, he or she is
able to challenge and re-evaluate her or his values relative to the collective experiences
that preceded any future ones. Further, gays and lesbians develop a more stable sense of
self and confidence in knowing that they have something to contribute and no longer
have to live in the shadows of their heterosexual peers.
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Overall, it is important to understand that this concept of power is no way to
assume authority of any other particular group. The purpose of establishing a sense of
power is to establish a sense of legitimacy that enables gays and lesbians to run parallel to
their heterosexual peers. Relative to student development theory, we find that the
concept of power plays an integral role in shaping the social and emotional identity of the
student by providing the individual with the tools necessary to expose her or himself to
various capital along with the ability to contextualize their experience in a way that is
constructive.
In all, this dissertation exposes three key stages that play a fundamental role in
establishing self-efficacy and supports the construction of a leadership identity. It should
be noted, however, that these stages are not independent from one another but rather are
closely inter-connected. And while it may seem that there is a clear progression through
the various stages, there is no definitive way of knowing that individuals do not bounce
around through the different stages as they become exposed to certain conditions that
challenge their identity and efficacy. This leads to the contributions of this research.
There are several contributions this has towards the study of gays and lesbians.
The main contributions of this dissertation to the literature on leadership development are
expressed as follows. For one, this study offers insight into how many gay and lesbian
students filter their experience through two lenses (i.e., disclosure and non-disclosure).
Through this process, they are much more attuned to understanding the needs of the
organization through their ability to assimilate among their peers. Unfortunately,
identifying as a sexual minority does come with a number of challenges thus hindering
the ability for gays and lesbians to construct a leadership identity at the speed comparable
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to their heterosexual peers. Much of this is attributed to the fact that gays and lesbians
learn to manage the shame and bullying that often plagues gays and lesbians. Yet, once
this happens gays and lesbians are able to become active participants in their community.
Further, it was uncovered that involvement in leadership activities greatly contributes to
how gays and lesbians are able to develop self-efficacy and be able to better forecast
beyond their present conditions. Lastly, one of the most significant contributions this
study has made is by providing a sense of awareness of three conditions (i.e.,
marginalization, motivation, and power) that impact the leadership identity construction
of gays and lesbians. Personally, the three stages outlined in this study serve as my
contribution towards future research of lesbians and gays. As expressed above, leaders
carry with them a strong sense of authority and control over how we as individuals lead
our lives. As such, in a world that is composed of so many different cultural and social
identities, it is important to have leaders that are reflective of those they serve. The
intention of this research was to expose how this subset of individuals would develop
their leadership identity and offer them much needed visibility of this unique community.
Recommendations for Research
The final section of this chapter offers implications for further research of lesbians
and gays as it relates to leadership identity theory. As previously mentioned, this study is
a slight departure from the original model devised by Komives et al. (2005). Although
gays and lesbians were addressed and included in the Komives et al. (2005) study, it
failed to offer an adequate and in-depth portrait towards understanding how lesbian and
gay students develop a level of self-efficacy towards leadership. The following will
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explore how future research would benefit in exploring these various dimensions for the
benefit of supporting this unique population of students.
The experiences of lesbians and gays contrasts that of their heterosexual peers as
result of the legitimacy and alienation many homosexual individuals are exposed to. For
many years, lesbians and gays have been the subject of ridicule and shame as a result of
their sexual identity thus relegating their social status inferior to their heterosexual peers.
Through this history, there have been very few opportunities for lesbians and gays to feel
confident in expressing their voice without the fear of being shamed of their sexual
minority status leaving a limited amount of opportunities for individuals to embrace their
sexual minority status as a leader. Therefore, it is important to note these differences in
order to lend credence to how lesbians and gays interpret their experience and move
forward towards establishing themselves as credible leaders.
Based on this research, I offer two recommendations for future research. First,
research on lesbian and gay student leaders should follow students throughout their
college years and, if possible, in the early stages of their post college lives. While this
research offers a glimpse at what these experiences have been shaped into, it falls short in
outlining a more accurate picture of all of the circumstances that impact the individual’s
life. Further research should explore various practices and experiences that inhibit or
promote student success in this area.
Second, a more thoughtful examination of social and emotional impact relative to
the gay and lesbian experience should be explored. While a great deal of scholarship on
leadership focuses on traits and behaviors, very little is mentioned on the transitory
nature, or path one takes to develop a social identity, and social/emotional context that
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shape identity. The transitory experiences reflect the timing in which each of these stages
occurs along with how the individual manages to move about the model. Through this,
we found that gays and lesbians are more deeply impacted by the social conditions and
emotional drivers that center on being a member of a sexual minority group. Individuals,
both gay and straight, are faced with a number of different experiences that carry a lasting
impression on their identity and level of engagement within society. Relative to
leadership theory, it is important to better understand these different layers that impact
one’s ability to lead successfully and effectively in order to promote positive conditions
that inspire more leaders. This is where we are able to better understand the social and
emotional conditions that help lesbians and gays interpret her or his experience.
Throughout this study, there have been numerous references that relate to the
environment and social settings of gays and lesbians. This was done with great intention.
It should be noted that lesbians and gays are deeply impacted by their social environment
(e.g., peers, behaviors, etc.). As such, the social and emotional impact lesbians and gays
are exposed to is critical to understanding how lesbians and gays begin to interpret and
contextualized their experience relative to their heterosexual peers. The transitional
extensions I have folded into the LID model offer a starting point to further exploring the
relationships these filters have in developing gay and lesbian leaders. Yet, it is important
to better understand how these experiences, over a more longitudinal process, more
accurately reflect and offer insight into how lesbians and gays construct their leadership
identity.
In general, the LID model provides a purposeful framework for how leadership
identity is constructed but falls short in addressing many of the social and emotional
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filters lesbians and gays use to process their identity construction. Moving forward,
further research would benefit in exploring not only students at the college level but to
begin recording the experience of high school students. Recognizing that many of
respondents shared experiences from their high school years, further scholarship directed
towards high school students would help understand the early evolution of how a
leadership identity is constructed and later translated as one matures. In addition, it
would behoove the research to further explore the various social and emotional
dimensions that are salient to the lives of lesbians and gays to more accurately reflect
how these experiences are processed and then translated into action. Through these
efforts, readers will benefit from being able to contextualize the self-efficacy and
leadership identity construction of lesbians and gays relative to their heterosexual peers.
In regards to the findings of this study, further exploration of some of the more
salient themes would greatly contribute to the research on gay and lesbian leaders. For
example, to what degree do adults and peers still influence the development of gays and
lesbians? What systems of support best serve the development of gay and lesbian
students? How do lesbian and gay students negotiate their leadership identity and sexual
orientation when they transition into the professional world? Lastly, acknowledging that
each of the participants represented a single discipline, what commonalities or differences
exist between the professions? As such, continued exploration relative to the findings of
this study would greatly contribute to best practices for student affairs professionals.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 137
Recommendations for Practice
In addition to the theoretical recommendations of this study, it is important to note
the practical implications that would help student affairs professionals better support gay
and lesbian students develop self-efficacy and a leadership identity.
1. Develop an awareness of the available research on identity development (e.g., race,
sexual orientation, ethnicity, social status) in an effort better understand the
conditions in which lesbians and gays construct their character. There is a great deal
of research (Cass, 1984, Troiden, 1979) that outlines how college students, more
specifically gays and lesbians begin to construct their sexual identity in the context of
the college environment. In using this research, student affairs professionals will be
better equipped at creating the support systems necessary to help lesbian and gay
students cope with the stressors related to their homosexual identity. When
counseling gay and lesbians students, it is extremely important to note that the
“individual’s support network should not be peripheral, but rather a central
consideration” (Schmidt, Miles, & Welsh, 2010, p. 305). To add, this additional
perspective provides an opportunity to help educate heterosexual students to
understand their role in creating an environment that is inclusive and celebratory of
the differences of their campus community.
2. Develop a leadership-training program for gay and lesbian students specifically
addressing the social and emotional factors, which contribute to developing a
leadership identity. These efforts will work towards creating an environment that is
inclusive and responsive to the needs of gays and lesbians. Involvement in issues that
are directly related to lesbians and gays directly correlate to the modified LID model
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 138
from this study. The revised LID model would hopefully serve to better investigate
the precursors of how gay and lesbians construct identity and self-efficacy. Ways in
which this model could be used in training sessions would involve how to map out
programs that address peer influences and marginalization. As such, in creating an
opportunity to gather gay and lesbian student leaders together via a solid
infrastructure of support, it will cover a critical void in helping lesbian and gay
students begin to contextualize their leadership potential. In addition, this experience
will help gays and lesbians offer experiences to be exposed to role modeling and
networking.
3. Taken a step further, it is important to encourage gays and lesbians to extend their
leadership experience beyond these protective containers of their peers and into more
traditional modes of leadership. More directly, it is critically important for lesbians
and gays to take the skills and resources gained from working with their gay peers
and into a more hetero-normative environment. By challenging gay and lesbian
student leaders to utilize their skill-set and engage with their heterosexual peers, it
will begin to challenge their level of flexibility with applying their skills into various
environments while also creating a level of visibility across campus. Many of the
respondents in this study expressed that as they became more comfortable with their
sexual identity and were later exposed to conditions that paired them with their
heterosexual peers, they felt a greater sense of self-efficacy as they were able to
exercise their skills and measure the value of response from their peers.
4. As gays and lesbians become more interconnected to the general social environment,
it is important for administrators to maintain and celebrate these positive images and
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 139
role models of gays and lesbians. Nowadays, it is not to enough to have an office that
supports lesbian and gay students and sponsor a month of activities in celebration of
their contributions. Creating a community of acceptance and celebration must be
ongoing. Student affairs professionals, along with faculty, staff and administrators,
should make it a point to consistently engage with members of the lesbian and gay
community to begin a serious dialogue to assess the needs of this community. To
add, these same individuals must make a conscious effort in showcasing the
contributions of gays and lesbians through all media. With respect to role models, it
is deeply important for gays and lesbians to have a standing presence in positions of
power. In creating visible role models through various levels of administration,
students and outside members of the community will soon understand that all
individuals are accepted and supported through every level of the community. In
total, these efforts will work to dehumanize or demystify the negative perceptions of
lesbians and gays. To add, it will provide gays and lesbians with visible role models
or symbols that help will contribute to their understanding of just how supportive and
integrated lesbians and gays are across the campus.
Student affairs professionals are not the only members of the campus community that
could benefit from this research. Faculty and other academic affairs units would do well
in also paying close attention to their actions towards the lesbian and gay students they
serve.
As for faculty and academic administrators, it is important to create an
environment that is responsive in both action and policy. When students, staff, faculty
and other members of the campus community feel that incidents are responded to in a
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 140
fair, expedient and judicious way they may begin to feel that their interests are taken
seriously. When anti-gay incidents occur on campus, it exposes the divisive social circles
that plague each campus. Research has shown that “even being in the presence of antigay
acts has negative impacts on academic performance and psychological well-being for
heterosexual and lesbian and gay students alike” (Stotzer, 2010, p.148). The response to
which faculty and administrators can mend these incidents is by being proactive, rather
than reactive to conflict.
Conflict can be overt or subtle. Quite often, we find conflict surfacing as a means
of suppressing the rights and privileges of the minority. This is an example of the
influence of power. As Foucault (1981) wrote, “power is not something that is acquired,
seized or shared, something one holds on to or allows to slip away. Because of this
relational aspect, power is not associated with a particular institution, but with practices,
techniques, and procedures (p. 94). These practices, techniques and procedures are key
to understanding and mitigating conditions that foster conflict. In reference to the
experience of gays and lesbians, we can see that the participants of this study were
exposed to various degrees of conflict that challenged their identity and contributed to
their feelings of marginalization. Students, staff, faculty and other campus officials play
a critical role in resolving conflict in its early stages as a means of preventing any
visibility of such divisive behavior. As such, it is extremely important for student affairs
administrators to immediately and effectively respond to concerns that threaten the safety
and development of not only gays and lesbians but of all students. Intolerance of certain
individuals cannot carry any value or voice on college campuses. In order to maintain
and promote tolerance, awareness, and diversity on college campuses, it is extremely
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 141
important for all members of the community, especially student affairs administrators, to
take quick and just action to maintain a level of acceptance and understanding. This level
of awareness and action must fold into every area o campus life. Acknowledging the
impact peers have in shaping identity, it would be wise for instructors to help guide
interactions between students.
Overall, the intention of this study is aimed to be more receptive of the needs of
lesbian and gay student leaders by creating a welcoming and inclusive learning
community. Gay, lesbian and heterosexual students must learn to coexist. The purpose
of higher education is to challenge the ideology of students and get students to think more
inclusively and holistically about themselves in relation to others. While these ideas, in
some way, mirror the suggestions of previous research there is something to be said for
repetition. The impact environment has on how lesbians and gays develop a leadership
identity is key. It is up to every individual on campus to play an active role in embracing
the diversity of the college experience and learn from their differences while celebrating
the commonalities we all share.
Conclusion
In closing this study, I offer the following to help guide future conversations and
research related to lesbian and gay student leaders. The focus of this research was
intended to explore, analyze and offer insight into the journey that lesbian and gay
college student leaders are exposed to throughout their post-secondary education. Parts
of this dissertation have chronicled that journey through the stories shared by each
participant. The other part of this dissertation was used to provide a thoughtful
perspective that sheds light onto the homogenous skills and abilities gay and lesbian
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 142
leaders have relative to their heterosexual peers. In turn, I hope this dissertation helping
legitimizing the contributions of not only gay and lesbian leaders but rather all leaders
who identify as a member of a minority group.
We have serious problems facing our social world and need individuals who can
offer solutions. It is important to attract individuals with the skill, ability and the social
and emotional capacity to begin offering solutions regardless of their sexual identity,
ethnicity or gender.
Over these past eight months, I have spent a great deal of time talking, observing,
listening, and supporting the lives of these young, bright and passionate individuals. My
perspective on their lives is different from how you, the reader, will interpret their
experience – especially since you will never meet or understand the true context in which
they shared their stories. Through this research, once can recognize the importance of
role models, peer mentors as well as the ability to process her or his experience in the
larger context of their development. Yet, all I ask, however, is that in reflecting on this
study you do not lose sight that these stories reflect the lives of real human beings. These
heart-breaking experiences have allowed us to witness individuals who are able to
overcome adversity and make a difference - very much like Chris Armstrong.
At the start of this dissertation, I shared the story of a young man by the name of
Chris Armstrong who ran for student body president at the University of Michigan.
While his story shared some of the hardships of being an openly gay leader, it also
brought to light the compassion, dedication and spirit slowly changing our hetero-
normative culture towards accepting gay and lesbian leaders. Chris was interviewed a
few months ago and had the following to share about this experience. What is important
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 143
to note in this message is how, despite the ridicule and shame Chris was exposed to for
being an openly gay leader, he found compassion, support and acceptance among his
family and peers which shows to all future gay leaders that the road to acceptance and
understanding is near. Chris:
Three years ago, an Assistant Attorney General in Michigan began
bullying and stalking me because I was gay and tried in every way he possibly
could to get me kicked out my office. Now at the time, it was one of the hardest
times I ever dealt – dealt with. When it began…when the bullying and pressure
began, the university was there to support me with all of its resources.
Alumni rushed to help me deal with this situation. And professors,
students, and staff all stood by me in one of my darkest times. And because of
this we were able to turn it around. My attacker lost his job, I finished my term
and a message that this kind of behavior is unacceptable was sent throughout the
nation.
Now at the time when I was dealing with all this, I got a call from my dad
and he said something to me that he had never really had said to me before. He
said that he was proud of me, proud of everything I had become and everything I
stood for. And not only that, he said that my grandfather, who died when I was
only two, would be proud of everything I was and am as well.
It is not enough for schools and our communities to just say that they are
inclusive to us. They must rather show every single one of us whether we are
lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender that it does get better and show us how. Any
community that doesn’t actively demonstrate to the lesbian and gay community
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 144
that it gets better doesn’t deserve us and doesn’t deserve us as a member. Last
year while I was dealing with everything, I began watching these videos for
encouragement and hoped that it could actually get better for me. Now, a year (a
year) out from everything, I am here to tell you that it does get better. (Chris
Armstrong, 2011)
Through this research, my hope is that the story of Chris Armstrong and of the 26
participants involved in this study shed light on the conditions that gay and lesbian
students grapple with as they construct a leadership identity. Given the changing
landscape of our society, it is increasingly important for us all to acknowledge and
embrace the diversity of every individual in an attempt at improving our communities.
As a student affairs professional, I trust that the preceding will be used by my colleagues
to support all students whom we come in contact with as a means of improving our
colleges and universities.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 145
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APPENDIX A
PARTICIPANT PROFILE
1. Jonas is a 19-year old sophomore. He is majoring in international relations with a
minor music. His involvement in school has ranged from serving as president of a few
clubs on campus to taking the lead in class group projects. He doesn’t feel that his sexual
identity defines who he is.
2. David is a 19-year old junior. David is an extremely artistic young man who has
found a supportive community through his theatre peers. David admits that his earlier
years growing up were extremely difficult because of his connection and love to the arts
but does not regret the path he has chosen. There is a large part of him that struggles with
the “demons” brought on by his childhood, but that he feels confident in his ability to
move forward.
3. Elisa is a 20-year old senior. Elisa is currently majoring in environmental science and
molecular biology. Although she does not freely share her sexual orientation with others
she is not closely connected with, she claims to be “open” about her sexuality. Her
involvement on campus has centered on being a resident advisor which she finds a great
deal of pleasure from.
4. Cesar is a 19-year old sophomore. Cesar is a shy young man who has been involved in
clubs that focus on public service. For most of his life, he admits to feeling isolated from
his family and finds it difficult to establish meaningful relationships.
5. Dana is a 21-year old senior. Dana is a very ambitious and intuitive woman. She is
currently majoring in public policy and communications. At present, she has not felt that
her sexual orientation to be deterrent from her professional goals but knows that she may
face some level of adversity as she moves forward in life.
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 161
6. Stephanie is a 20-year old junior. Stephanie has always been curious about her
sexuality and up until her sophomore year has she become confident in identifying
herself as a lesbian. Her involvement on campus has centered on her music pursuits with
her jazz ensemble.
7. Sarah is a 20-year old senior. Sarah admits to coming to college to escape her small-
town roots in Lansdale, PA. Her careers goals focus on helping others while using her
creative skills in fine arts. She has been open about her sexual identity with others but
does not let it define her.
8. Jessica is a 19-year old junior. Jessica is an extremely enthusiastic member of her
marching band and has found that community to be extremely supportive of her sexual
identity. Most of her involvement on campus is centered on the band due to her role as a
section leader which she takes great pride in.
9. Stan is a 20-year old senior. Stan is an international relations major with an interest in
helping others. He has been out since the early part of college and has never let his
sexual orientation impact his decisions. He considers himself to be an active member in
the gay community and hopes to give back in some way post graduation.
10. Rob is a 19-year old sophomore. Rob is a cautious, intelligent and deeply analytical
young man. As Rob would openly share, he “does not feel like he fits the stereotypical
look” and therefore seems somewhat disconnected to finding a meaningful relationship
with another man. He hopes to become a lawyer.
11. Roberto is a 19-year old sophomore. Roberto is an active member of the gay
community. He is currently majoring in business and remains cautiously optimistic about
his professional ambitions. Despite the backlash he has been exposed to in his earlier
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 162
years, he has found peace with who he is and feels he can balance his dual identity as a
Latino and gay male.
12. Hema is a 20-year old junior. Hema is an extremely ambitious and positive thinking
young woman. She is a pre-medicine major with a minor in international relations. She
admits to keeping her sexual orientation a secret to her friends but fears the backlash she
may encounter when she admits it to her family.
13. Andy is a 21-year old senior. Andy is currently completing his degree as an
engineering major. His experience growing up was, as he would put it “rather
traumatic.” Given his major, his involvement on campus has focused primarily lesbian
and gay social groups. Despite his early experiences, he is glad to have found a
community that is accepting of him.
14. Amin is a 20-year old junior. Amin is a bright and seemingly cautious young man.
Given his cultural heritage, he has found it difficult to blend his dual identity. His
parent’s reception of his sexual identity was not a positive experience. To this day, he
still struggles with maintaining a relationship with them while holding true to his sexual
identity.
15. Gabe is a 19-year old junior. Gabe admits to be deeply confident in his sexual
orientation despite the backlash he was exposed to growing up. He is currently majoring
in business administration with a minor in ethnic studies. Most of his involvement on
campus has focused in residential education.
16. Jay is an 18-year old sophomore. Jay is a communications major with a minor in
anthropology. When he first arrived to campus, he found his transition to be a bit
difficult. He made some friends in his dorm room but encountered difficult exchanges
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 163
with his roommate forcing him to retreat and hang out with other friends. Now, he has
found a circle of friends that he enjoys and has become involved in a few clubs around
campus.
17. Sean is a 22-year old senior. Sean admits to being selectively involved in
organizations where he felt people would be accepting of his sexuality even though he
does not open share his identity. His involvement has extended beyond campus to a few
local agencies that help lesbian and gay teens. His major, political science, has
reinforced his desire to help underrepresented populations after he graduates.
18. Daniel is a 20-year old senior. Daniel was open and engaging throughout each of
interactions. In his four years, he has been able to find a community that he “feels
completely open in.” Although he has had instances where he felt excluded or judged for
being gay, overall he has been able adapt to his community and become involved in
organizations that will help prepare him for his professional career.
19. Tammy is a 21-year old senior. Tammy is currently majoring in political science
with the hopes of working in government or law. She is involved in volunteer groups on
campus and serves as the leader of her women’s vocal acappella group.
20. Max is a 20-year old senior. Max is an extremely enthusiastic young man majoring
in theatre and sociology. He has been open about his sexual orientation since his senior
year in high school despite the backlash he knew he would receive from his peers. His
involvement on campus has focused primarily with organizations closely tied to his major
interests.
21. Rob is a 20-year old junior. Rob considers himself gay but admits to not being an
active member of the community. He considers himself to be a “middle-of-the-road”
GAY STUDENT LEADERS 164
kind of guy given his passion for sports. He is not afraid to admit his sexual orientation
but does not actively disclose it. His involvement on campus has focused on spirit
organizations, social outreach and residential education.
22. Rebecca is a 21-year old junior. Rebecca considers herself to be somewhat of an
activist in the community. She is deeply passionate about issues concerning women thus
her major focuses on social psychology and sociology. She is open about her identity and
challenges others when issues of inequality about gays and lesbians are raised.
23. Jordan is a 20-year old junior. Jordan is currently enrolled as an honors student
majoring in journalism. He has found his experience as a gay male to be somewhat
positive in that he did not face a lot of backlash growing up because he felt like he
“blended in” with his peers. His involvement on campus focuses on volunteering and his
honors society.
24. Joel is a 19-year old sophomore. Joel admits that he has always felt different from
his peers. As a result, he majored in vocal performance because it allowed him to be
creative and show off his talents. Now that he admits to being openly gay, he feels much
more comfortable in his surroundings.
25. Aman is a 20-year old junior. Aman is currently majoring in pre-law and political
science. He does not consider him to be deeply involved in the gay community but has a
few friends who are heavily involved. His involvement on campus has ranged from
activities that focus on social outreach to serving on his debate squad.
26. Grace is a 20-year old junior. Grace is an accounting major with a minor in fine arts.
She has taken the lead on several campus initiatives to create awareness about women’s
issues and the inequalities associated with them.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 165
APPENDIX B
SOLICITATION OF PARTICIPANTS

Are you a UPC student involved in one or more organizations on campus?

Do you identify as lesbian or gay?

My name is Sergio Ramirez and I am doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education
and am focusing my research on the experiences of lesbian and gay student leaders at
UPC. I am very interested in connecting with individuals who feel comfortable sharing
their experience as a student leader on campus.

Your commitment towards this research project will involve a two-hour individual
interview with me in October. If you are interested in participating in this study, please
contact me at sergio.ramirez@UPC.edu.

All replies will remain anonymous and confidential.

All participants interviewed for this study will receive a $15 Visa gift card.

If you would like to know more about this research project, please do not hesitate to
contact me.

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 166
APPENDIX C
Participant Profile and Consent Form

FOR QUESTIONS ABOUT THE STUDY, CONTACT: Sergio Ramirez, USC Rossier
School of Education, 1029 Childs Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089, 213-821-4163,
sergio.ramirez@usc.edu

DESCRIPTION: You are invited to participate in a research study on leadership and identity
related to lesbian and gay college students at a large research institution. You will be asked to
participate in a one-on-one interview with me that will focus on your experiences as a lesbian or
gay student at UPC. Interviews will be tape-recorded and transcribed, and the audiotapes and
transcriptions will be kept in a secure location. All publications and presentation will ensure your
confidentiality. This research is being conducted as part of the requirement for the Doctorate of
Education at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California.

RISKS AND BENEFITS: There are no anticipated risks associated with this study. As a
participant in this study, you may request to receive a copy of the summary findings upon
completion of this project. Upon your consent, this interview will be audio-taped. The audiotape
will later be transcribed for research purposes, but will never be played for any audience other
than the researchers directly involved in the project. Upon completion of the project, audiotapes
will be erased.

TIME INVOLVEMENT: Your participation in this experiment will take approximately 60 to 90
minutes. Brief (approximately 60 minutes) follow-up interviews or telephone conversations may
be conducted as needed. You will be invited to review the interview transcript and make
corrections.

PAYMENTS: Participants will be compensated with a $25 Visa gift card upon completion of her
or his interview time as listed above.

SUBJECTS RIGHTS: If you have read this form and have decided to participate in this project,
please understand your participation is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw your consent
or discontinue participation at any time without penalty. You have the right to refuse to answer
particular questions. Your individual privacy will be maintained in all published and written data
resulting from the study.

If you have questions about your rights as a study participant, or are dissatisfied at any time with
an aspect of this study, you may contact – anonymously, if you wish – the University Park
Institutional Review Board (UPIRB) with any questions, concerns, or complaints by calling (213)
821-5272.

I give consent to be audio-taped during this study: (PLEASE INITIAL) YES ____ NO ____

The extra copy of this consent form is for you to keep.

____________________________________________
ETHNICITY

____________________________________________ ______________________
MAJOR YEARS AT USC

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 167
PLEASE LIST THE ORGANIZATIONS YOU ARE INVOLVED WITH AND, IF
APPROPRIATE, ANY POSITIONS YOU HAVE HELD WITHIN THOSE
ORGANIZATIONS:

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

________________________________ ____________________________________
PHONE NUMBER EMAIL

__________________________________________ ________________________
PRINTED NAME DATE

__________________________________________
SIGNATURE

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 168
APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR PARTICIPANT INTERVIEWS

*** MAPPING THE QUESTIONS ***
The questions used for this protocol are intended to answer many four primary themes
used for this study: Identity, leadership, marginalization and power. As such, the following codes reflect the intention
behind each question, which is used to ensure that all areas from the literature are addressed

(I) Identity, (L) Leadership, (M) Marginalization, (P) Power

My name is Sergio Ramirez and I am doctoral candidate in the USC School of Education. Thank
you for meeting with me. As you have probably guessed, I am doing research on gay and lesbian
student leaders here at USC. Your input will be compiled in my research to broaden the
understanding of student affairs professionals in type of experience lesbian and gay student
leaders have at USC.

To begin…

Can you share what it has been like to play a leadership role on this campus as lesbian or gay?

Probes: Would you say your experience has been positive or negative? Why?
Can you give me an example of the kind of experience you have had in this role?
How has this experience affected who you are today?

Identity
What were your early experiences of identifying as gay or lesbian?
Probes: When did you first identify as gay or lesbian?
If applicable, what was “coming out” like for you?

Can you describe your experience as someone who identifies as lesbian or gay here at USC?
Probes: How integrated do you feel your sexual orientation is with your day-to-day activities?

Can you describe a time when you have ever felt ashamed or embarrassed about disclosing your
sexual identity?
Probes: What happened? When?
What kind of impression has this had on you?

Leadership
Have there been any activities or organizations that you caught your interest that you have been
involved in?
Probes: What role do you typically play in an organization?
Do you feel an affinity towards lesbian and gay-related organizations?

Do you feel you have an adequate number of positive role models in your life in comparison to
your heterosexual peers?
Probes: Are any of these role models people you view as leaders?
Does sexual orientation have anything to do with whom you identify as a role model?
If so, why?

GAY STUDENT LEADERS 169
As a leader, what contribution do you feel is your biggest asset?
Probes: In contrast, what quality do you feel is your biggest detriment?
Do you feel that your lesbian/gay identity contributes or deters your ability to be a
successful leader?
Probes: How does your sexual orientation impact your ability?

Marginalization
What level of influence would you say lesbian and gay students have on campus in comparison to
your heterosexual peers?
Probes: Do you feel equally valued in comparison to heterosexual students?
Can you provide an example as why you feel this way?

Can you describe your ability to adjust to campus life?
Probes: Was your transition to UPC easy or difficult?
Did you feel a lack of support because of your sexual minority status?

Do you feel your voice as a lesbian or gay is voiced among the campus community?
Probes: Give me an example of how you feel lesbians and gays are recognized on campus?

Power
Do you feel being gay has impacted your ability to achieve the level of success you desire?
Probes: If yes – Can you identify how?
If no – Can you identify perceived barriers that other lesbians/gays may experience?

Do you feel you competent to serve in a leadership position in comparison to your heterosexual
peers?
Probes: If yes - What level of competence do you feel you posses?
If no – Why do you feel this is he case? Are there contributing factors that have made you
feel this way?

In comparison to your heterosexual peers, do you feel you are gaining the same intellectual and
social experience while in college?
Probes: If yes – What impact has this had in making connections to your peers?
If no – Why do you feel this is the case?

Where do you see yourself in the future?
Probes: What role do you feel you serve as an educated college graduate?

Are there thoughts you would like to share about other aspects of your experience or other items
you would like to discuss that we have not had a chance to touch on?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation focuses on how gay and lesbian students construct a leadership identity. Lesbians and gays have long stood in the shadows of their heterosexual peers thus hiding their sexual orientation as a means for survival. Up to this point, much of the research on leadership has revolved around heterosexual individuals. The focus of this study, in contrast to others, will explore the barriers and pathways to how gay and lesbian college students construct a leadership identity.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ramirez, Sergio Ernesto (author)

Core Title Gay student leaders: a narrative analysis on how lesbian and gay college students develop self-efficacy towards a leadership identity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/09/2013

Defense Date 06/06/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Gay,lesbian,OAI-PMH Harvest,student leader

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kezar, Adrianna J. (committee chair), Ahmadi, Shafiqa (committee member), Johnson, Amy (committee member)

Creator Email seramire@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-254073

Unique identifier UC11294881

Identifier etd-RamirezSer-1675.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-254073 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RamirezSer-1675.pdf

Dmrecord 254073

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Ramirez, Sergio Ernesto

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA