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A comparative study of language arts instruction in triply segregated high schools

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A comparative study of language arts instruction in triply segregated high schools

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Content Running Head: LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 1
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION IN TRIPLY
SEGREGATED HIGH SCHOOLS

by

Maria Guadalupe Gomez

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Maria Guadalupe Gomez

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 2
Epigraph

Education either functions as an instrument which is used to facilitate integration of the younger
generation into the logic of the present system and bring about conformity or it becomes the
practice of freedom, the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with
reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world.
-Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed

The teacher is of course an artist, but being an artist does not mean that he or she can make the
profile, can shape the students. What the educator does in teaching is to make it possible for the
students to become themselves.
-Paulo Freire, We Make the Road by Walking: Conversations on Education and Social Change

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 3
Dedication
To my mother, Yolanda Diaz, for all the sacrifices she made to make my educational journey
possible. Thank you for the support, encouragement and unconditional love throughout my entire
education. To my sister, Wendy Gomez, for knowing how to motivate me when my focus
wandered. To my niece and nephew, Briana and Gael, thank you for reminding me to take
breaks, to laugh and play. To my love, Jela, your support and confidence in me motivate me to
achieve more than I would have imagined. To my friends, family, and new Trojan family for
never faltering in your support. Without you, I could not have made it this far. I am forever
grateful to each one of you.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 4
Acknowledgments
I would like to extend my deepest admiration and appreciation for the thoughtful guidance of my
chair, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores. To my dissertation committee members, Dr. Kimberly
Hirabayashi and Dr. Mayra Perez , thank you. Special thanks to the district, administrators and
staff for their participation in the study. It was your time and willingness to open the doors to
your classrooms that made this project possible. I give my eternal appreciation and wholehearted
gratitude to all of you for your support and guidance.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 5
Table of Contents
Epigraph 2

Dedication 3

Acknowledgments 4

List of Tables 4

List of Figures 10

Abstract 11

Chapter One Overview of the Study 13
Background of the Problem 15
Statement of the Problem 16
Purpose of the Study 18
Research Questions 18
Significance of the Study 18
Summary of Methodology 19
Assumptions 20
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 22

Chapter Two Literature Review 23
The State of Adolescent Literacy 23
Reading Process and Purpose 25
Facilitating Literacy Development 27
Literacy Instruction for Struggling Readers 35
English Language Learners and Literacy Achievement 39
Cross-Linguistic Language and Literacy Transfer 41
Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners 43
The State of Adolescent Writing 48
Writing Instruction 50
Writing Instruction for Struggling Writers 56
Writing Instruction for English Language Learners 62
Alternative Education and Key Characteristics 67
Summary 71

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 6
Chapter Three Research and Methodology 73
Research Questions 73
Comparative Case Study 75
Population and Sample 75
Data Collection 81
Data Analysis 84
Ethical Considerations 85

Chapter Four Findings 86
Gala High School Overview 86
Sunset High School Overview 92
Crispin Continuation High School Overview 98
Lakeland Continuation High School Overview 104
Research Question 1a: What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for
developing reading comprehension and high-level literacy in comprehensive versus
continuation high schools? 110
Research Question 1b: What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for
developing academic writing in comprehensive versus continuation high schools? 138
Summary of Findings 153

Chapter Five Discussion 157
Summary of the Study 157
Discussion 159
Implications 162
Recommendations 165
Suggestions for Further Research 166
Limitations 167
Delimitations 167
Concluding Remarks 168

References 169

Appendices
Appendix A: Classroom Observation Protocol 181
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 188

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 7
List of Tables
Table 1: The Diversity of Alternative Education 69
Table 2: Comparison of Demographics of Comprehensive and Continuation High Schools 80
Table 3: Comparison of Demographics of Classrooms at Comprehensive and
Continuation High Schools 80
Table 4: Key Literacy Strategies and Instructional Practices 82
Table 5: Summary of Mrs. McDougal’s Student Demographic Information
(Comprehensive) 88
Table 6: Summary of Mrs. Kagan’s Student Demographic Information
(Comprehensive) 91
Table 7: Summary of Ms. Barrnett’s Student Demographic Information
(Comprehensive) 94
Table 8: Summary of Mrs. Tseng’s Student Demographic Information
(Comprehensive) 97
Table 9: Summary of Ms. Henriquez’ Student Demographic Information
(Continuation) 100
Table 10: Summary of Ms. Carpenter’s Student Demographic Information
(Continuation) 103
Table 11: Summary of Mrs. Gonzalez’ Student Demographic Information
(Continuation) 106
Table 12: Summary of Ms. Delgado’s Student Demographic Information
(Continuation) 109
Table 13: Reading Comprehension Strategies 111
Table 14: High-Level Literacy Strategies 112
Table 15: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. McDougal’s Classroom
(Comprehensive) 114
Table 16: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom
(Comprehensive) 115
Table 17: Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Gala
Comprehensive High School 116
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 8
Table 18: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom
(Comprehensive) 118
Table 19: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Tseng’s Classroom
(Comprehensive) 120
Table 20: Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Sunset
Comprehensive High School 121
Table 21: Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Four
Comprehensive High Schools 121
Table 22: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’ Classroom
(Continuation) 123
Table 23: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Carpenter’s Classroom
(Continuation) 124
Table 24: Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Crispin
Continuation High School 125
Table 25: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom
(Continuation) 126
Table 26: Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s Classroom
(Continuation) 127
Table 27: Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Lakeland
Continuation High School 127
Table 28: Evidence and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 129
Table 29: Observed and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 131
Table 30: Observed and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’
Classroom (Continuation) 133
Table 31: Observed High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s Classroom
(Continuation) 138
Table 32: Writing Strategies 139
Table 33: Evidence and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. McDougal’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 140
Table 34: Evidence and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 142
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 9
Table 35: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 144
Table 36: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Tseng’s
Classroom (Comprehensive) 145
Table 37: Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at Sunset
Comprehensive High School 145
Table 38: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’
Classroom (Continuation) 147
Table 39: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Carpenter’s
Classroom (Continuation) 149
Table 40: Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at Crispin
Continuation High School 149
Table 41: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Gonzalez’
Classroom (Continuation) 151
Table 42: Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s
Classroom (Continuation) 152
Table 43: Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at
Lakeland Continuation High School 152

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 10
List of Figures
Figure 1: Photograph of Mrs. McDougal’s Classroom 90

Figure 2: Photograph of Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom 92

Figure 3: Photograph of Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom 95

Figure 4: Photograph of Mrs. Tseng’s Classroom 98

Figure 5: Photograph of Ms. Henriquez’ Classroom 101

Figure 6: Photograph of Ms. Carpenter’s Classroom 104

Figure 7: Photograph of Ms. Gonzalez’ Classroom 108

Figure 8: Photograph of Ms. Delgado’s Classroom 110

Figure 9: Photograph of Writing Mini-Lesson in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom 143

Figure 10: Photograph of Daily Language Student Work in Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom 150

Figure 11: Summary of Comparison of Findings Between Comprehensive and
Continuation High Schools 156

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 11
Abstract
This study set out to examine literacy practices in triply segregated comprehensive and
continuation high schools. The focus of the study was on instructional strategies implemented
by high school teachers to teach reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing. Four
high school English language arts classrooms; two comprehensive and two continuation, were
studied from a large urban district.
Two English teachers from each site were observed on three nonconsecutive days and
interviewed to gather information on current literacy instructional practices utilized by teachers.
Classroom observations lasted a period of 40 to 55 minutes and were audio recorded.
The student demographic data analyzed determined students at both comprehensive and
continuation high schools were similar in terms of key demographics such as reading and writing
proficiency, ethnic and racial backgrounds, language and socioeconomic status. Observations at
both comprehensive and continuation high schools confirm research which asserts adolescents
spend most of their time in English classes that are monologic (Nystrand, 2006). In monologic
classrooms, discussions are controlled by the teacher, with the goal of transmitting knowledge
which students are required to remember. High-level literacy strategies were rarely observed in
comprehensive high schools and were apparent in two continuation high school classrooms.
There is a discrepancy between what teachers report utilizing as high-level literacy strategies and
what was actually observed by the researcher. Similarities on teachers’ use of writing strategies
were not evident among all eight teachers. Based on the findings of the study, district
administrators are urged to allocate resources for continued professional development and
support to teachers. Administrators need to become instructional leaders and develop a cohesive
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 12
professional development plan for their school site. There is a need for teachers to collaborate
and situate the learner at the center of the classroom.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 13
Chapter One
Overview of the Study
Adolescent literacy and instruction must be addressed in order to prepare adolescents to
be literate citizens in contemporary society. Literate citizens are active, critical, and creative
users of print and spoken language (Vacca, 1998). Data suggests U.S. adolescents are not
keeping pace with current literacy demands and many are struggling academically (Allington,
2002). American high school students are not equipped with foundational literacy skill sets to
enter the twenty-first century workforce. Modern employers require tech savvy personnel who
are literate critical thinkers, problem-solvers and collaborators (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna,
2009). The focus of this comparative study was to identify current English Language Arts
literacy instructional practices in traditional and nontraditional secondary settings serving a triply
segregated population.
Latinos represent the largest minority group in the United States and, with respect to
educational outcomes, are the lowest performing (Gandara, 2010a). In California, out of 100
Latino students who enter the public educational system at the elementary level, 55 drop out of
high school and 45 graduate (Yosso & Solorzano, 2006). Of the 45 students who graduate high
school, 23 attend a college in California and six graduate with a baccalaureate degree. Two of the
six students will continue to graduate school and one will receive a doctorate. Conversely, out of
100 White students, 86 will graduate from high school, 50 will attend college in California, 24
will earn a Bachelor’s degree and three will earn a doctorate.
The academic failures of Latinos can be linked to the triple segregation they experience
in schools. Gandara (2010b) corroborates Latinos are segregated by ethnicity, socioeconomic
status and language. This triple segregation almost guarantees the majority of Latinos will not
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 14
meet the expected academic standards in order to graduate from high school. First, segregation
by ethnicity has negative consequences. Studies by Steele and Aronson (1995) on the concept of
stereotype threat verify that students of color understand society does not view them as being as
cognitively competent as White or Asian students. In ethnically segregated settings, students will
hold on to their impressions of being cognitively incompetent in the absence of interactions with
members of other racial groups. Second, students who attend impoverished schools have less
access to honors and college preparatory classes and are more likely to drop out of school
(Gandara, 2010b). Those who do graduate do not have the skills necessary to succeed in college.
Third, linguistic segregation occurs when academic English is not the spoken language in the
student’s community. According to Gandara (2010b), students who are linguistically segregated
fare poorly on assessments which require them to read, write, analyze text and interpret text in
English. Schools that serve students within a triply segregated setting (by ethnicity,
socioeconomic status and language) must be examined in order to address and close the
achievement gap which has remained stagnant in the last decade (Gandara, 2010a).
In a traditional school setting or comprehensive high school, a small percentage of
students are placed in alternative schools to avert dropping out. Many students attending triply
segregated schools will eventually drop out of school or attend an alternative school program.
Alternative school programs such as continuation high schools were developed to provide
students with the opportunity to avoid academic failure and to prevent students from dropping
out (Fuller & Sabatino, 1996). Continuation schools provide accelerated instruction to students
allowing them to make up high school credits for courses not previously passed. They are
charged with the task of providing the same rigorous instruction as the comprehensive high
schools, but at an accelerated pace. Alternative educational settings have the potential to help
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 15
students remain in school, earn a high school diploma, and prepare adolescents for the literacy
demands of the twenty-first century.
Current research on alternative education outlines key characteristics of successful
alternative programs such as low student-teacher ratio, supportive environment and student-
centered curriculum (Aron, 2006). Research also indicates students who are at-risk for school
failure due to low test scores, failing grades, insufficient school credits and not meeting state
proficiency levels in reading and writing are the type of adolescents supported in alternative
programs (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). However, very little is known in regards to the effectiveness
of alternative programs and the type of literacy instruction practices implemented by teachers at
alternative settings (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009).
Background of the Problem
Most struggling adolescents have difficulty creating meaning from text, but, because they
are able to decode the text, they are not recognized as struggling readers by secondary teachers
(Darwin & Fleischman, 2005). An adolescent who can decode but cannot comprehend text is not
provided with the necessary literacy instruction to meet the demands of the classroom. The issue
is exacerbated by teachers who, instead of addressing the issue of reading comprehension,
provide struggling readers with key ideas and concepts through lecture, eliminating the task of
reading the text (Finn, 2009; Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001).
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) found approximately 76
percent of adolescents read at a basic level, which includes reading for details and identifying
main ideas. Fewer than three percent of students surveyed in grade 12 performed at an advanced
level, which required them to examine, extend and elaborate the meaning of texts (NAEP
Reading Report Card, 2011). The findings suggest students have basic reading skills but are not
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 16
equipped with high-level literacy which is also evident in their writing. NAEP reported all
students in grade 12 had difficulty with more elaborate writing tasks which required higher levels
of coherence and detail to support points made in the writing (NAEP Writing Report Card,
2007). Many adolescent students struggle with literacy because they did not receive instruction
to help them read increasingly complex texts as they progressed through the educational system
as reported by Applebee’s and Langer’s study (2006) . Applebee and Langer (2006) found most
students engage in very little discussion centered on texts read, how to write, or how to analyze
text, which they assert leads to difficulties in reading and writing at higher levels. Students for
whom reading and writing demands become increasingly difficult, may see dropping out of
school as a final act of disengagement from school which began in the elementary grades
(Alexander, Entwisle, & Kabbani, 2001). There is a need to study literacy instruction in high
schools.
This comparative study examined literacy instruction in two comprehensive and two
continuation high schools faced with triple segregation. The study identified literacy practices
implemented in those classrooms. Instructional practices in reading comprehension, high-level
literacy and writing instruction were examined. Student achievement is linked to literacy
instruction, and, therefore, further study was required.
Statement of the Problem
There is limited research on what currently happens in high school classrooms. A gap
exists between the type of literacy instruction research proved successful and the type of literacy
instruction taking place in classrooms. Less is known in regards to literacy instructional practices
proven to be effective with special populations such as at-risk students attending alternative
programs or students attending triply segregated schools. To close the gap, qualitative studies
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 17
that observe literacy instructional practices in traditional and nontraditional school settings
serving the aforementioned student population are essential.
Literacy in triply segregated districts and schools is an area which requires further
research because this population has been marginalized by current research. Most research in the
area of adolescent literacy looks at comprehensive high schools in settings where a status quo
education is successful for the majority of students. Research in adolescent literacy analyzed
instructional strategies for Latinos, English language learners and students of poverty in
comprehensive high schools, but each descriptor is treated separately. In regards to literacy
practices, triply segregated comprehensive and alternative high schools have not been studied.
This study looked closely at the literacy practices of four high schools: two
comprehensive and two continuation high schools in Apple Unified School District. Apple
Unified School District (AUSD) a K-12 district with 61 school sites served, at the time of this
study, approximately 58,000 students. It had 9 high schools with 2 being continuation high
schools. AUSD was a triply segregated district due to its student population consisting of 94
percent students of Latino descent, approximately 87 percent participating in the free or reduced-
price meal program, making them socioeconomically disadvantaged, and over 60 percent of the
students designated as English language learners.
Currently, there is an achievement gap between the Academic Performance Index (API)
scores of the comprehensive high schools (Gala and Sunset) and that of the continuation high
schools (Crispin and Lakeland) in AUSD. API scores are part of a statewide accountability
system that indicates a school’s performance and growth. The API scores of Gala High School
and Sunset High School are 805 and 811, respectively compared to 654 API for Crispin
Continuation High School and 615 for Lakeland Continuation High School. The achievement of
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 18
students at the continuation high schools represents a pressing need at Apple Unified School
District.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this comparative study was to identify current practices in the area of
literacy instruction focused on reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing in order to
improve student achievement in triply segregated schools and classrooms. This study focused on
identifying language arts practices teachers utilized in English language arts classrooms across
the four high schools.
Research Questions
The following questions guided the study:
1. What are the current practices in English language arts instruction within and across
triply segregated high schools?
a. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing reading
comprehension and high-level literacy in comprehensive versus continuation high
schools?
b. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing academic
writing in comprehensive versus continuation high schools?
Significance of the Study
Funding for programs to study adolescent literacy remains minimal compared to that for
early literacy and early intervention research and development (Vacca & Alvermann, 1998).
Even less has been done or is known regarding literacy for settings which face triple segregation.
Although studies exist regarding the academic performance of certain subgroups of students,
little research has been done to compare the literacy instruction of traditional and nontraditional
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 19
school settings challenged by a high number of ethnic and minority students, socioeconomically
disadvantaged students and linguistically segregated students. The findings of this study fill a
gap in the existing body of knowledge regarding literacy instruction in triply segregated schools.
Current practices in reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing instruction
were identified for educators participating in the study and shared with all educators in the
district. A comparison of literacy practices and the relationship to student achievement is
discussed to determine the effectiveness of learned practices. The research allows educators to
gain insight into how to best meet the instructional needs of the students they serve.
Administrators and policymakers at the school sites, district, county, state and federal levels can
utilize findings from this study in their discussions around adolescent literacy as it pertains to
triply segregated academic settings. In addition, other stakeholders may gain awareness into the
changes needed within the educational system if students who are Latino, socioeconomically
disadvantaged, and learning English as a second language or are linguistically segregated are to
have the opportunity to meet expected academic standards.
Summary of Methodology
This study’s design was a comparative case study focusing on literacy instruction
between comprehensive high schools and continuation high schools. A larger comparative case
study was made up of many smaller cases; thus, English language arts classrooms were the unit
of analysis for this study (Patton, 2002). The researcher observed two classrooms at two
comprehensive high schools and identified literacy strategies within English language arts
classrooms in a comprehensive setting. Then, the researcher observed the same number of
classrooms at two continuation high schools and identified literacy strategies within English
language arts classrooms in a continuation setting. Once literacy strategies within each setting
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 20
were identified, the researcher analyzed and compared literacy strategies between the
comprehensive and continuation high schools. The focus of the study was on instructional
strategies utilized by English language arts teachers.
Assumptions
For purposes of this study, the following assumptions were made:
 All respondents answered interview questions honestly.
 Classrooms observations accurately reflected daily instructional practices.
Definition of Terms
Several terms are used throughout this study to discuss concepts associated with literacy
instruction. The terms and definitions pertinent to this study are found below:
 Academic Performance Index (API): Measures the academic performance and growth of
schools on a variety of academic measures as authorized by California's Public Schools
Accountability Act of 1999; (CDE).
 Comprehensive high school: A form of traditional public high school intended to serve
the needs of all students.
 Continuation high school: A nontraditional alternative to comprehensive high schools for
students who are sixteen years of age or older, have not graduated from high school, are
still required to attend school, and who are at risk of not graduating (CDE).
 English Language Learner (ELL): A term used to indicate a person who is in the process
of acquiring English and has a first language other than English.
 Initially Fluent English Proficient (IFEP): Language-minority students initially assessed
as not limited in English and who, therefore, require no special language services or
accommodations.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 21
 Literacy: Many types of literacies exist, but this study focuses on academic literacy. The
ability to comprehend, discuss, study and write about multiple forms of text (Alvermann,
2002).
 Reading comprehension: The ability to apprehend meaning from print and understand
text. At a literal level, comprehension is the understanding of what an author has written
or the specific details provided in a text. At a higher-order level, comprehension involves
reflective and purposeful understanding that is thought intensive, analytic and
interpretive. (Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, 1999)
 Reclassified/Redesignated Fluent English Proficient (RFEP): Language-minority students
initially assessed as limited English proficiency who achieved fluent English proficiency
(according to local performance criteria) and been reclassified as such.
 SOAPSTone: Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone is an acronym for a
series of questions that students ask themselves to analyze nonfiction text.
 Struggling reader: Adolescents who are unable to keep up with the reading demands of
the school curriculum due to a range of reading or ability deficiencies (Alvermann,
2001).
 Triply segregated: Segregation by ethnicity, poverty and language (Gandara, 2010b).
 Writing: A process used to create, develop, and complete a piece of writing. Depending
on the purpose and audience for a particular piece of writing, students use the stages of
prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. (Reading/Language Arts
Framework for California Public Schools, 1999)

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 22
Organization of the Study
Chapter One provides an introduction of the problem and outlines the purpose of the
study. Chapter Two reports a review of the existing literature in the area of literacy and
alternative education, which provides a foundation for conducting the study. Chapter Three
presents the methodology, detailing information regarding the research design applied in the
study. Also, the process of data collection and data analysis are defined. Chapter Four describes
in detail the data gathered and the themes which emerged during the study. Chapter Five explains
the findings and implications of the study as they relate to literacy instruction of students
attending triply segregated schools. Recommendations and suggestions for further study are
presented.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 23
Chapter Two
Literature Review
This chapter presents an overview of the literature review on adolescent literacy. First,
literacy instruction is discussed as it pertains to high school settings. A special focus on literacy
as it affects students who struggle with literacy and English language learners is covered
throughout the literature review, as they are the population with similar demographics as students
who attend triply segregated schools. A concise review of writing instruction for general and
special populations is examined. Alternative education, key characteristics of alternative settings,
and demographic information of students who attend alternative programs will be analyzed.
Finally, a summary of the major findings of the literature review on adolescent literacy in
secondary educational settings and nontraditional settings is reviewed.
The State of Adolescent Literacy
Adolescents and their unique needs in literacy instruction often go unnoticed because the
focus is on teaching young children to read. It is believed that children who do not read at a
young age may never catch up and, as a result, literacy resources are allocated in the early
grades. Throughout the United States, in urban, suburban, and rural schools, large numbers of
adolescents rarely engage in reading or writing that promotes growth (Vacca, 1998).
Approximately 76 percent of U.S. adolescents read at a basic level of performance, which means
they have partially mastered the prerequisite knowledge and skills that are fundamental for
proficient work at each grade level and which include skills such as reading for details,
identifying main ideas, and recognizing relationships among ideas. Fewer than three percent of
students surveyed in grades four and eight performed at an advanced level in which students are
required to examine, extend, and elaborate the meaning of text (NAEP Reading Report Card,
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 24
2011). The most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) report in writing,
stated that all students in grade 12 had considerable difficulty moving beyond minimal
performance to more elaborate writing tasks that require higher level of coherence and detail to
support points made in writing (NAEP Writing Report Card, 2007). One percent of 12
th
grade
students scored advanced and produced mature and sophisticated responses, within the time
allowed, that used analytical, evaluative, or creative thinking. Based on the NAEP results,
adolescents in the United States have a basic level of literacy attainment, and it is insufficient to
function productively in today’s world. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation confounds
the problem on teaching and learning due to a focus on reading rather than literacy in general
(Applebee & Langer, 2009). Proponents of adolescent literacy acknowledge a positive
interaction between reading and writing and urge teachers to focus on both reading and writing
to support literacy development of adolescents (Applebee & Langer, 2009; Fisher & Frey, 2003).
Alvermann (2002) defines reading as a complex process of decoding alphabetic print to
make meaning of text, whereas reading critically goes beyond the meaning of text to
understanding how it comes to have a particular meaning in a particular context. Literacy
involves reading, writing, and other modes of symbolic communication and it is valued
differently by people (Alvermann, 2002). Teachers are accountable for designing instruction that
builds high-level literacy wherein students interpret challenging literature and write well-formed
texts with an increasingly diverse group of students (Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001). Many
types of literacies exist beyond academic literacy, and, as a result, different texts and social
contexts, such as reading for whom and with what purpose, require different reading skills
(Alvermann, 2002). Formal schooling may require students to use skills which enable them to
study from a textbook, searching the internet requires skills to interpret information such as an
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 25
online weather map, and hiking requires skills in reading a trail guide. Effective literacy
instruction builds on elements of both formal and informal literacies, taking into account
students’ multiple literacies, interests and needs while addressing challenges of living in an
information-based economy (Alvermann, 2002). Students also need to be able to understand a
variety of texts and to express their understanding orally and in writing. Thus, educators are
responsible for developing students’ ability to comprehend, discuss, study, and write about
multiple forms of text while taking into account what adolescents are capable of doing as
everyday users of language and literacy (Alvermann, 2002; Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001).
To participate fully in society and the workplace in 2020, citizens will need to be literate
in contemporary society in order to be active, critical, and creative users not only of print and
spoken language but also of the visual language literacy which is becoming increasingly more
complex and demanding (Vacca, 1998). Research shows high school classrooms do not keep
pace with increasing globalization and demands for twenty-first century employees which
require people with literacy skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, collaborating with
peers at work, and increasing technology skills (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). It is
unfortunate because adolescents’ literacy skills are not keeping pace with societal demands of
living in an information age that changes rapidly (Alvermann, 2002). Attention to individual
components of adolescent literacy and instruction need to be addressed with the purpose of
preparing adolescents to be literate citizens in contemporary society.
Reading Process and Purpose
A primary component of adolescent literacy is reading comprehension, the process of
simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning. When reading for comprehension, readers
figure out how print represents words and engage in the translation of print to sound. Readers
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 26
formulate a representation of the information being presented, which requires building new
meanings and integrating new with old information (Sweet & Snow 2003). Furthermore,
proficient readers are engaged and reflective while reading, actively interpreting print and non-
print text, constructing meaning, acquiring new knowledge, and applying information from text
appropriately using both their world knowledge, and domain knowledge (Alvermann & Eakle,
2003; Sweet & Snow 2003). Constructing meaning requires readers to set purposes for what they
read and to actively monitor whether or not those purposes are met (Alvermann & Eakle, 2003).
Skilled readers and competent comprehenders deploy a set of cognitive processes, or strategies,
subconsciously and automatically while they read (Fisher, Lapp & Frey, 2011).
Competent readers have a plan for comprehension and utilize metacognitive knowledge
in an orderly way to implement their plan. For example, before reading any type of text, readers
first preview the text by reading the title, observing pictures, and print to evoke relevant thoughts
(Flood, Lapp, & Fisher, 2003). Readers also activate appropriate prior knowledge before reading
text thorough self-questioning about what the reader already knows regarding the topic,
vocabulary and the structure of text. The reader also sets a purpose for reading by asking, what
do I want to learn from this text? During reading, the reader checks for understanding by
paraphrasing text and monitors comprehension by visualizing what is being read, making
inferences and predictions, and utilizing context clues to figure out unknown words (Flood,
Lapp, & Fisher, 2003). Moreover, the reader integrates new knowledge with existing concepts,
revising purpose for reading, and obtains appropriate help by adjusting the reading pace
accordingly, taking notes, creating a concept map, reading less difficult text on the same topic,
using a dictionary, and asking a teacher, parents or peers for assistance. After reading,
competent readers summarize what was read, evaluate ideas contained in the text against prior
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knowledge, apply ideas in the text to unique situations, and extend ideas to broader perspectives
(Flood, Lapp, & Fisher, 2003).
Reading comprehension is a prerequisite for critical literacy, literacy in which power
relationships are examined, thinking is expanded and perceptions are enlightened (McLaughlin
& DeVoogd, 2011). When students are engaged in critical literacy, they ask complicated
questions about language and power, people and lifestyle, morality and ethics, about who is
advantaged by the way things are and who is disadvantaged (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011).
Readers are active participants in the reading process by questioning, examining, or disputing the
power relations between readers and authors (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011). Critically literate
people engage in a process of learning, understanding and changing over time while
simultaneously remaining open to possibilities. They know information they encounter has been
authored from particular perspectives for particular purposes and they question it. Through
critical reading, not only do readers become more engaged, but they also comprehend text at
deeper levels (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011). When readers read from a critical stance, beyond
code breaking, they exert the power of text critics, realizing they have the power to envision
alternate ways of viewing the author’s perspective (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011).
Facilitating Literacy Development
Secondary teachers often do not see themselves as reading teachers. Instead, they view
themselves as educators who teach literature. However, secondary English language arts teachers
use various instructional strategies to combine content and literacy instruction with opportunities
for students to interact with different types of text (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). They
incorporate research-based strategies and emphasize metacognitive instruction to improve
students’ reading skills (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). Comprehension, constructing
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 28
text’s meaning, is the first step, the handshake, in which the reader gets to know the text. The
deeper relationship with text develops while reading critically; the reader focuses on figuring out
how a text comes to have a particular meaning and interprets the meaning of the text (Alvermann
& Eakle, 2003). Comprehension instruction is geared toward teaching students multiple
strategies that will allow them to develop a sense of conscious control of their cognitive
processes and allow them to self-regulate (Alfassi, 2004). To get students acquainted with the
text and to be able to interpret the text, two types of approaches to instruction facilitate the
process for educators: strategy approach and content approach (McKeown, Beck, & Blake,
2009). A strategy approach emphasizes direct teaching of specific procedures such as
summarizing, making inferences, and generating questions, alternatively content approach
focuses on keeping students’ attention directed toward the content of what they are reading and
working through the text to build ideas. Critical literacy and approaches in which text is utilized
as a tool for learning and constructing new knowledge are examples of a content approach to
literacy.
Whether utilizing a strategy approach, content approach, or a combination of both,
effective teachers use a range and variety of texts: mix of textbooks, magazines, student-
generated text, hypermedia productions, and visuals, to support and extend the curriculum (Wade
& Moje, 2000). Teachers educating the Net Generation, or Generation Z, people born after 1990
who have been exposed as children to the Internet along with wireless and mobile technologies
and social networking, students who have an abundance of easily accessible information sources
which require the use of multiple literacies; however, many adolescents may not have the skills
necessary to make sense of multiple documents and literacies (Alvermann & Eakle, 2003).
Research found the use of multiple documents may allow readers to construct a deeper, more
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interconnected understanding than just reading a textbook; furthermore, research on reading
comprehension is supportive of teaching adolescents to be strategic in interacting with multiple
texts of all genres (Schwarz, 2003; Snow, 2002). Multiple document literacy, the ability to
locate, evaluate, and use diverse sources of information for the purpose of constructing, and
communicating an integrated, meaningful representation of a particular issue, subject or situation
facilitates deep-level, integrated comprehension and must be taught in secondary classrooms
(Gil, Bråten, Vidal-Abarca, & Strømsø, 2010). Teachers can improve students’ multiple
document literacy by teaching students to strategically use three heuristics: (1) sourcing,
attention to the source of each document to determine its value; (2) corroboration, systematic
comparison of content across documents to examine and analyze potential contradictions, or
discrepancies among them and (3) contextualization, using prior knowledge to situate document
information in a spatial context (Wineburg, 1991). To make sense of all the different types of
information available to the Net Generation, adolescents require skills in comprehension of each
source or text in addition to skills in integration of information across multiple sources. It is,
thus, important for educators to give students opportunities to work with multiple sources and
documents and learn how to compare, contrast, synthesize and relate them through the use of
strategy approach, content approach, or a combination of both (Gil, Bråten, Vidal-Abarca, &
Strømsø, 2010).
At the heart of a strategy approach is the belief that reading comprehension processes can
be acquired and developed through instruction and practice and achieved through the direct
teaching of specific procedures (Flood, Lapp, & Fisher, 2003; McKeown, Beck, & Blake, 2009).
According to Flood, Lapp and Fisher (2003) successful explicit reading comprehension
instruction includes four stages: setting purpose, modeling, guided practice and independent
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practice. During the first stage, setting a purpose for reading, the teacher assumes the dominant
role by introducing students to the task and the purpose for the lesson. The teacher continues to
have a great responsibility during the second stage, modeling, by telling, showing, or
demonstrating how comprehension occurs. Guided practice is the third stage; during this stage
both the teacher and students share the responsibility of reading. Students attempt to follow the
model provided by the teacher and the teacher provides students with feedback. The final stage is
independent practice in which students sustain the main responsibility of reading while they
practice strategies independently with “novel” or new material.
The National Reading Panel (2000) conducted a synthesis of experimental and quasi-
experimental research in grades three through eight on reading and identified seven effective
types of comprehension strategies or processes for teaching comprehension which can lead to
improved comprehension. The following seven reading comprehension strategies can be taught
to students utilizing the strategy approach, direct teaching:
1. Comprehension monitoring. Knowing when understanding falters or breaks down and
which “fix-up” strategies to apply. “Fix up” strategies include: rereading, reasoning
the matter through, or using cues from the text.
2. Cooperative learning. Engaging with peers in problem-solving activities or sharing
ideas through peer-led discussions.
3. Using graphic and semantic organizers. Representing ideas by combining words,
symbols, and lines to organize information.
4. Answering questions. Providing responses to teachers’ questions and receiving
feedback on responses.
5. Generating questions. Asking questions to understand various aspects of a text.
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6. Using text structure. Developing an awareness of how a writer organizes information
to assist readers in recalling the content of a selection.
7. Summarizing. Integrating ideas and generalizing information across one or more
texts.
The National Reading Panel (2000) provides evidence of the importance of the seven
aforementioned reading comprehension strategies, but the study did not include reading to learn
in content-specific areas and did not utilize qualitative research designs. The lack of qualitative
research designs limits what can be known about the context in which instruction took place. It
also takes a narrow view of comprehension because most of the strategies outlined by the
National Reading Panel (NRP) propose students working individually to extract information;
moreover, the use of multiple texts and documents was not evident in the study. Furthermore, the
panel did not address topics relevant to English language learners, socioeconomically
disadvantaged or minority students. As a result, NRP did not analyze literacy instruction in
triply segregated schools. Although NRPs overall findings are sensible, one cannot help but ask
if those strategies are the most effective for adolescents growing up in the twenty-first century.
Besides the comprehension strategies outlined by the NRP (2000) educators have a
plethora of instructional activities to foster comprehension at their disposal. To prepare students
for reading, teachers can activate prior knowledge, preview text, motivate students, build
background knowledge, and assist students in making predictions (Flood, Lapp, & Fisher, 2003).
Research has found that activating prior knowledge and building background knowledge
supports students as they read and enhances students’ comprehension (McKeown, Beck, &
Blake, 2009). Educators can ensure students have adequate background information by providing
relevant hands-on experiences and preparing students to read text by viewing a video, or
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listening to audio on content specific to the text (Alvermann, 2002). Before, during and after
reading, teachers should emphasize the development of vocabulary. To improve overall
comprehension, vocabulary needs to be taught in networks, topically, and by analyzing semantic
features in words semantically (McKeown, Beck, Omanson, & Perfetti, 1983). Furthermore,
teaching and encouraging students to take notes while reading also fosters comprehension in
adolescents (Flood, Lapp, & Fisher, 2003). Educators have a toolbox full of strategies to teach
reading comprehension to adolescents. Their toolbox also contains numerous instructional
methods.
Instructional methods, comprehensive ways to instruct students through an entire text,
are successful in helping develop competent comprehenders (Fisher, Lapp & Frey, 2011).
Overall, instructional methods are general approaches from which teachers can teach. Three
instructional methods are summarized here. Reader response is an instructional method focused
on the transaction between reader and text. Readers’ personal interpretations of texts are of
primary importance because meaning of literature is not contained in a static text. Readers
comprehend differently because every reader is unique and readers’ response to text is a critical
element in making meaning (Fisher, Lapp & Frey, 2011). Reciprocal teaching is a method in
which students and teachers take turns assuming the role of the teacher through a structured
dialogue. Four distinct comprehension strategies are taught and practiced: summarizing,
generating questions, clarifying word meanings and confusing text, and making predictions
regarding what might appear next in the text (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Another instructional
method is gradual release of responsibility in which teachers intentionally develop students’
reading competence. Utilizing gradual release of responsibility teachers ensure students are
supported as they assume increased responsibility and teachers refrain from doing all of the work
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for the students (Fisher, Lapp & Frey, 2011). Teachers move from assuming all the responsibility
for tasks to a situation in which students assume all of the responsibility. Through gradual release
of responsibility, accountability for academic tasks gradually shifts from teacher to students.
Teaching students to be strategic in their approach to reading is essential for academic
growth, but it is not sufficient for developing their ability to read text critically (Sweet & Snow
2003). A content approach to literacy focuses on keeping students’ attention directed toward the
content of what they are reading and fostering students’ aptitude to read text critically. Students
must be able to read with a critical eye toward how writers, illustrators and the like represent
people and ideas. Educators teach adolescents that all texts routinely promote or silence
particular views (Alvermann, 2002). Through reading critically, students must be taught to
analyze how writers, illustrators, and individuals who create text represent their ideas and
manifest those ideas in texts (Alvermann, 2001). An important aspect of critical literacy is
examining multiple perspectives and expressing ideas from a variety of perspectives. This
practice challenges students to expand their thinking and discover diverse beliefs, positions, and
understandings (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011). Teachers committed to critical literacy use a
list of questions to assist students in interrogating the text. Use of questions to interrogate the text
may be utilized in groups as catalysts toward deeper understanding of the text during classroom
discussions surrounding a text (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011). Questions that promote reading
from a critical stance seek to answer whose viewpoint is expressed in the text as well as whose
voices are missing, silenced, or discounted. Critical literacy keeps the focus on content while
working through the text to build ideas.
Another example of a content approach to literacy is participatory approaches. Snow
(2002) hypothesized the interaction students have with text led to improved comprehension and
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suggested the need for participatory approaches that actively engage students in their own
learning. Student centered participatory approaches situate the learner at the center of the
classroom, wherein students use text as tools for learning and constructing new knowledge, as
opposed to having teachers and textbooks hold the knowledge (Alvermann, 2002; Snow, 2002;
Wade & Moje, 2000). Participatory approaches to instruction support adolescents’ academic
literacy development by incorporating classroom structures that promote peer-interaction and
interaction with a more knowledgeable other. The current reality is that adolescents spend most
of their time in English classes that are monologic, teacher-led recitations in which the teacher
and textbook contain all the knowledge (Nystrand, 2006). In participatory classrooms, teachers
ask fewer questions and spend more time engaging students in conversations. Teachers and
students alike contribute ideas to the discussions and understandings evolve from and during
conversations and interactions with their peers and teacher (Nystrand, 2006). Discussions
promote reading comprehension when problematic and difficult passages are the focus of
sustained interactions because learners themselves are actively involved in signaling problems
and trying to solve them (Nystrand, 2006).
Comprehension is enhanced and students are more engaged and able to interact with text
on more meaningful levels if they are provided with time in class to read and discuss text with
peers (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). One way to provide in-class time for discussion is
having classroom discourse wherein students “talk to learn” (Nystrand, 2006). Classroom
discourses are open-ended; discussions go beyond right and wrong answers and the focus is on
students’ exchange of ideas. Research supports student led small group discussions of nonfiction
text is superior to whole-class discussion and lecture in helping students understand text
(Sweigart, 1991). For this reason, peer-led discourse should also be utilized in secondary
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 35
classrooms. During peer-led discourse, students help one another construct meaning, fill in
missing background information, puzzle through ideas together, and are given ownership of
literacy by providing them the opportunity to shape their own conversations. Students shift from
receivers of knowledge to active constructors of their own knowledge and understanding (Berne
& Clark, 2006). Students in participatory classrooms improved in recall of facts, obtained a deep
understanding of text, and responded fully to aesthetic elements of literature; in addition students
who participated in classroom discourses reported that the discussion helped them understand
their readings (Nystrand, 2006).
Teachers have many tools in their toolbox which aid them in providing effective literacy
instruction to their students. It is important to reiterate that adolescents need to be well versed in
multiple literacies requiring specific skills which must be taught. To function fully in society,
students must move beyond reading to comprehend and read critically in order to participate in
discourse. Effective classrooms utilize multiple texts as a tool for learning and constructing new
knowledge and provide adolescents opportunities to be text critics and empower them to
envision alternate ways of viewing the author’s topic.
Literacy Instruction for Struggling Readers
The term struggling reader, or students who struggle with reading, means different things
to different people, and it is, in fact, a contested term. Students who struggle with reading are
often referenced by descriptors like English language learners, students who are “at-risk”,
students who are low achieving, and students who are unmotivated (Sweet & Snow 2003).
Adolescents who, for whatever reason, are unable to keep up with the reading demands of the
school curriculum, have been clinically diagnosed with a reading disability, or are generally
unsuccessful in school literacy tasks are also viewed as struggling readers (Alvermann, 2001).
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 36
Struggling readers face a number of literacy difficulties. For example, they may struggle with
fluency and use important comprehension strategies less frequently and less effectively (Hindin,
Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001). Students who struggle with reading do not read often. Therefore,
they typically do not acquire the background knowledge and vocabulary needed for
comprehending most texts (Finn, 2009). According to Finn (2009), teachers who work with
struggling readers expect less in exchange for students’ goodwill and reasonable effort in
completing assignments that require less, if any, reading which leads to “domesticated
education”. Effective teachers have the capacity to teach students to learn and enable even the
most reluctant of learners to succeed and to achieve to their fullest potential (Johannessen, 2004).
Teachers need to explicitly teach the strategies students will need to comprehend text
(Snow, 2002). Explicit instruction provides a clear explanation of the task, activates prior
knowledge, breaks task into small steps or “chunks”, provides sufficient practice at every step,
and incorporates teacher feedback. It is important for teachers to model the comprehension
strategy being taught and methodically remove scaffolds. Scaffolds are a method for showing
students how to read text by modeling and breaking down the task of comprehending into
manageable parts. It has been demonstrated to be effective when working with students who
struggle with reading (Snow, 2002). It is appropriate to provide scaffolds such as special
materials or assistance from the teacher or other students to enable students to accomplish
complex tasks (Means & Knapp, 1991). The goal of scaffold is for the student to be able to
accomplish the task without assistance. Therefore, it requires judicious removal of support as the
student gains more skills. Teachers need to be mindful of when to use explicit instruction
because explicit instruction is ineffective with students who do not struggle with reading; in fact,
it is shown to be superfluous (Bimmel, & Van Schooten, 2004; Snow, 2002). Explicit
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instruction of skills and strategies must be embedded in the regular curriculum, taking into
account struggling readers’ abilities to read, write, and communicate orally and their abilities
need to be viewed as strengths not deficits (Alvermann & Eakle, 2003).
Students who struggle with reading employ comprehension strategies less frequently and
less effectively and the problem is augmented because they also read less often (Finn, 2009;
Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001). Teachers can explicitly model powerful thinking strategies,
making the thinking of expert readers manifest through a think aloud (Means & Knapp, 1991).
Adolescents with reading difficulties should also be provided with clear goals for comprehension
tasks, as well as receive feedback on progress. The feedback increases students’ self-efficacy and
use of comprehension strategies (Schunk, & Rice 1993). Perceptions of how competent they are
as readers, self-efficacy, will affect how motivated they are to learn (Alvermann, 2002).
Preparing students for reading by previewing the text, teaching key vocabulary prior to students
reading text, and activating prior knowledge can assist in comprehension (Snow, 2002). In-
school instruction can be made more effective if it both builds on what adolescents have already
learned out of school and makes connections to situations outside of school (Means & Knapp,
1991).
Cromley and Azevado’s (2007), quantitative study looked at 175 racially diverse
students in ninth grade. Students demonstrated a wide range of reading comprehension
proficiency levels and were drawn from honors, regular and remedial social studies classes. The
researchers found vocabulary and background knowledge interventions made the largest
contributions to comprehension. Accordingly, the best way to improve academic reading
comprehension of struggling readers is to develop vocabulary and background knowledge.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 38
Often, when educators work with students who struggle with reading, they emphasize
basic skills. To have a positive impact on reading development, teachers need to go beyond skill-
based literacy instruction and include learning opportunities that build deep understanding
(Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001). Effective instruction provides students who struggle with
reading access to grade level reading activities which involve higher level comprehension tasks.
To ensure students read and understand the meaning of text, teachers model and rehearse
comprehension strategies (Hindin, Morocco, & Aguilar, 2001). Basic skills instruction needs to
be embedded in the context of more global tasks in which basic skills are practiced to solve real
problems (Means & Knapp, 1991).Teaching basic skills in the context of meaningful tasks will
increase the probability that skills will transfer to real-world situations (Means & Knapp, 1991).
Students should be encouraged to use multiple approaches to academic tasks, describe
their answers, and invent strategies for solving problems (Johannessen, 2004; Means & Knapp,
1991). To achieve the aforementioned, students need to be provided with open-ended questions
to which there is no single right answer in order for them to consider different paths to the
answer. Different paths should be compared and discussed so that students can see alternative
approaches modeled and come to realize that there is no one right answer (Means & Knapp,
1991). Dialogue as the central medium for teaching and learning has a powerful effect on
reading comprehension and can be beneficial during completion of complex tasks (Johannessen
& McCann, 2009; Means & Knapp, 1991). Complex tasks should be at a level high enough that
the purpose of the task is apparent and makes sense to students as well as build on things
students already know; as a result, new learning will have a purpose because they need the new
learning to complete the academic task (Means & Knapp, 1991). Taylor, Pearson, Peterson and
Rodriguez (2003) investigated the effects of teaching on students’ reading achievement. They
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 39
looked at 88 teachers and 9 randomly selected students per classrooms in 9 high-poverty schools.
The most consistent finding was that greater reading growth was promoted when teachers
emphasized higher-order thinking, either through the questions they asked or the tasks they
assigned. The more teachers challenge students to think about what they read and ask higher-
level questions, the more growth students will experience.
Struggling readers encounter numerous literacy difficulties. Therefore, identifying the
difficulty and providing explicit instruction is key to overcoming challenges. Teachers need to
teach basic skills within an environment that provides access to grade level texts and promotes
deep understanding through high-level comprehension tasks. It is imperative to provide scaffolds
to students who struggle with reading and to judiciously remove them as students gain
independence with tasks. The diverse needs of adolescents in secondary classrooms calls for
differentiation and understanding of the strengths of the learners in the classroom to enable all
students to succeed and achieve their fullest academic potential.
English Language Learners and Literacy Achievement
In California, the California Department of Education (2012) identified 1,441,387
students who were English language learners (ELLs), and about 83 percent of English language
learners were Spanish speakers. It is estimated that approximately 19 percent of Spanish-
speaking English language learners are high school students. It may appear that California’s
English language learners are homogeneous because they are united by their primary language,
but the reality is that they are a diverse group (Madrid, 2011). Spanish-speaking English learners
have an array of cultural backgrounds, varying levels of primary language proficiency, disparate
content area knowledge and varied educational experiences. Gandara (2010a) asserted Latinos
represent the largest minority group in the United States and, thus far, are the lowest performing
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 40
group in respect to educational outcomes. The pattern of poor academic achievement within the
Latino student population is a multifaceted problem that must be addressed. It is projected that,
in the near future, Latino students will become the majority in California’s public schools and, as
the Latino population grows, their poor academic achievement in reading has significant
implications for the state and the nation (Madrid, 2011). Reading achievement serves as a valid
indicator of school success but is also utilized as an indicator of students’ ability to think, learn
and communicate (Madrid, 2011).The nature of California’s Latino English language learner
population poses a variety of instructional challenges to classroom teachers.
English language learners struggle with reading in general because they are expected to
acquire a new language simultaneously with learning strategies and skills that aid them in
comprehending text and critically analyzing text (Garcia, 2003). We know more about the
development and instruction of reading comprehension for monolingual native speakers than
about the development and instruction for ELLs (Garcia, 2003). Researchers have noted some
similarities between monolingual native speakers and ELLs. For example, both use similar types
of cognitive strategies to comprehend English text such as questioning, rereading, and
visualizing (Jimenez, Garcia & Pearson, 1996). The reality is that there are more differences
than similarities. Analyzing reading comprehension performance of ELLs is a complex endeavor
because of the multiple programs, instructional, language, cultural, and affective factors that may
intersect and affect their English language development (Garcia, 2003). Some key differences
between native English speakers and Spanish speaking English language learners are due to
differences in culture, experiences and vocabulary. ELLs encounter fewer familiar topics while
reading English than monolingual English speakers, and vocabulary is the major linguistic factor
that adversely affects Spanish speaking students (Garcia, 1991, 2003). The following section
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provides awareness into instructional factors unique to English language learners as well as key
findings in the area of best practices for reading comprehension as it pertains to English language
learners.
Cross-Linguistic Language and Literacy Transfer
Spanish-speaking English learners arrive in classrooms with varying levels of primary
language proficiency. Research corroborates that English language learners literate in their native
language have an advantage over those students who must acquire literacy for the first time in
English (Cummins, 1979; Garcia, 2003). Cummins (1979) claimed students could transfer
knowledge and strategies acquired in one language to a second language as long as they
developed cognitive proficiency in the first language and had been adequately exposed to the
second language. While acquiring English, ELLs should be encouraged to utilize their native
language to learn content, thus avoiding delays in academic knowledge (Garcia, 2003).
Jimenez, Garcia and Pearson (1996) conducted a comparative study to examine the
strategic reading processes of bilingual Latino students. Eight bilingual Latino students were
identified as successful English readers and 3 bilingual Latino students were identified as less
successful English readers. The researchers concluded English language learners who speak or
are in the process of acquiring two languages use strategies unique to their bilingual status to
enhance comprehension. To help them comprehend the text, Jimenez et al. (1996) reported
bilingual students used the following strategies: code mixing, using words from one language
while speaking or writing in another, and code switching, using one language to explain or figure
out what they have read in another. Students’ proficiency in their native language must be
considered when planning instruction for English language learners.
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Garcia (2000) stated measures of second language, English, oral proficiency are a
stronger predictor of older bilingual students’ performance on second language reading measures
than their performance on reading measures in the native language (Garcia, 2000). The
researcher ascertained students’ level of oral English proficiency certainly affects their English
reading comprehension development. English language learners often do not know the meaning
of all of the words they can decode in English. Consequently, some become excellent decoders
but struggle with comprehension (Garcia, 2003). Teachers should focus on developing students’
oral proficiencies, since enhanced oral proficiencies will allow students to develop a broader
vocabulary base and understand the meaning of words in text they read. In some cases, while
reading orally in English, English language learners may commit errors. It is important to
understand the source of the error the student made while reading orally to determine how to best
assist them. ELLs may mispronounce the word, have difficulty decoding words, or simply may
not recognize the meaning of words (Garcia, 2003). Therefore, when listening to ELLs read
orally, the source of the error must be considered to provide the required instructional approach
consistent with the error. Developing oral proficiency in the second language is essential when
working with English language learners because it will aid them in the development of reading
comprehension.
Students’ ability to transfer knowledge and strategies acquired in one language to a
second language, known as cross-linguistic transfer, must also be considered in order to optimize
instruction. Theoretically, teachers do not have to start over and teach reading from the
beginning with English language learners who are proficient in their native language because
students are able to transfer and use strategies learned in their native language to reading in the
second language (Garcia, 2003). In a study, Spanish-speaking fourth graders were able to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 43
transfer knowledge of fables from Spanish reading to English reading without formal instruction
(Goldman, 1984; Goldman & Reyes 1983). Not all students demonstrate the same level of
transferability. In a study by Jimenez, Garcia and Pearson (1996), bilingual students who were
not successful in transferring strategies from one language to the next emphasized decoding and
accurate English pronunciation and reported a need to keep Spanish and English reading
separate. Otherwise, they would get confused. English language learners who were successful at
transferring skills had one view of reading across Spanish and English that focused on
comprehension and used knowledge acquired while reading in one language to make hypotheses
and inferences while reading in the other language. Jimenez et al. (1996) reported successful
English language learners employ multiple strategies to figure out meaning of unfamiliar
vocabulary, invoke prior knowledge, and reread to monitor and repair comprehension; as a result
bilingual students’ comprehension is enhanced. Working with English language learners presents
a variety of instructional challenges to classroom teachers, but, by being aware of ELLs level of
native language literacy, development of oral English proficiency and students’ ability to cross-
linguistically transfer strategies; teachers will be better equipped to provide effective English
language arts instructions to English language learners.
Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners
A problem many mainstream teachers face is how to successfully improve reading
comprehension for English language learners in an English only environment (McElvain, 2010).
In the high-stakes testing environment of today, ELLs are expected to simultaneously acquire
English literacy and language skills in an English immersion setting. The English only setting
challenges both teachers and students because skills found in grade level language arts programs
are often not adapted to ELLs. The good news for educators is that researchers asserted the
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quality of instruction is what matters most in educating ELLs (Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez,
2011).
Many of the elements of effective instruction for native speakers are also beneficial for
English language learners. O’Day (2009) examined the comparative effects of literacy
instructional practices on reading comprehension for English learners and non-English learners.
Analyzing qualitative data gathered over 2 years from 133 teachers in 9 case study elementary
schools, the researcher found all students may benefit from many aspects of the balanced literacy
approach the district implemented. The study confirmed that instruction that cognitively engages
students in literacy-rich activities coupled with explicit teaching on specific literacy components
and additional supports for English language learners provides ELLs quality instruction.
When ELLs experience difficulty in reading comprehension, rather than focus on their
difficulties with the English language, educators need to respect students’ heritage and past
experiences and provide them with clear goals and strategies which will more likely have a
positive effect on their reading achievement (Alvermann & Eakle, 2003). Building on students’
background experiences or “funds of knowledge” also increases English language learners’
reading achievement (Gonzalez et al., 1995). For example, if the adolescent previously learned
the material or had experiences, relating the student’s background knowledge to a somewhat
familiar topic facilitates reading comprehension because the student may only need to attend to
some unknown English vocabulary and text structure to reach critical understanding of text.
Moje et al. (2004) analyzed data from an ongoing community ethnography, a study on the
literacy learning of youth in a predominantly Latino, urban community in Detroit, Michigan. The
researchers analyzed across categories for patterns in the nature and use of everyday (home,
community, peer group) and school funds of knowledge and discourse that frame the school-
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 45
based content area literacy practices of middle school-aged students. The study found patterns in
the connections adolescents made between their everyday funds and classroom learning, the
ways adolescents used multiple funds of everyday knowledge and discourse, and the impact of
urbanization and globalization on their funds of knowledge. The researchers asserted the need of
creating a space in which every day school funds of knowledge and discourses inform one
another.
An additional support for English language learners includes strategic use of primary
language during instruction (Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011). Use of ELLs native language
shows respect for student’s primary language and home culture. Teachers should encourage
students to use their native language with peers during activities to build comprehension but also
support the use of new vocabulary in English once the task is understood (Calderón, Slavin, &
Sánchez, 2011). O’Day (2009) also endorses the use of ELLs native language. The researcher
found English learners in San Diego, California, read best if taught in both their native language
and in English. Reading instruction in a familiar language may serve as a bridge to success in
English because students are able to learn content at the same time as they learning English
(Hudelson, Poynor, & Wolfe, 2003). It is not sufficient for teachers to be strategic with the use of
students’ primary language; they must also pay attention to students’ English language
development (O’Day, 2009). Teachers need to consider oral language development during each
lesson and expose students to complex syntactic structures common in academic text.
Another challenge teachers have is developing English language learners’ oral proficiency
which can only grow through quality interaction (Calderón, 2006). Research recognizes that
authentic, meaningful language use, over drill and practice activities, promotes success for
English language learners (Hudelson, Poynor, & Wolfe, 2003). Cooperative learning involves
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 46
meaningful activities that provide regular opportunities for students to discuss content and use
language in a safe context wherein students can speak and learn from classmates (Calderón,
Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011).
McElvain’s (2010) research corroborates the combined use of collaborative conversations
and strategic strategy instruction resulted in improved reading comprehension of 75 fourth to
sixth grade ELLs and increased engagement and motivation to read. The study examined how to
improve reading comprehension for ELLs in an English only environment by examining the
academic and psychosocial effects of the Transactional Literature Circles. Instruction that
consists of genuine dialogue between student and teacher, as well as student to student
collaborative talk was most effective. Teachers were able to meet the literacy and language needs
of English language learners through conversations that developed higher-level comprehension,
rather than literal recall. In addition, cooperative and collaborative approaches facilitated
students making meaning of text, self-efficacy, and membership in the classroom. Overall,
providing ELLs with authentic and meaningful opportunities to develop language improved their
reading achievement.
Vocabulary instruction contributes to overall effective instruction; it must be long term,
comprehensive and taught explicitly before, during and after reading (Calderón, Slavin, &
Sánchez, 2011). During vocabulary instruction, teachers provide students with rich and varied
language experiences, frequent exposures to new words in multiple forms, ensure understanding
of meaning, provide examples of use in phrases, idioms, and usual contexts. In addition, teachers
verify English language learners use the correct pronunciation, spelling, and word parts. When
possible, educators teach cognates and false cognates in adolescents’ primary language to build
vocabulary (Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011). Cognates are two words with a common origin
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 47
like the Spanish word “elegante” and the English word elegant. Both have the same meaning and
are spelled and pronounced similarly. False cognates are words that are thought to have a
common origin but are unrelated, for example the Spanish word “embarazada” (pregnant) sounds
and looks like the English word embarrassed but these mean different things. Making adolescent
English language learners aware of cognates and false cognates facilitates the acquisition and
development of vocabulary, and vocabulary is the foundation of school success for English
learners (Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011).
Reading aloud, particularly in different domains and in different subject areas also improves
vocabulary when the teacher integrates vocabulary building techniques in read alouds (Calderón,
2006). Active participation of adolescents during read aloud and shared readings like open-ended
questions and multiple exposures to words help adolescents know how to use vocabulary
(Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011).When students are reading aloud, educators should assist
students to decode words they already know in English as well as teach meanings of new English
words as they decode them (Garcia, 2003).
Successfully improving reading comprehension for English language learners in an English
only environment requires teachers to cognitively engage students in literacy-rich activities
wherein students’ heritage and backgrounds are respected, oral proficiency is developed and
vocabulary is augmented. Educators can capitalize on students’ first language and build students’
vocabulary by teaching cross linguistic transfer strategies in order to promote second-language
learning. Teaching students (1) cognate relationships, meaning and/or spelling of similar words
across both languages,( 2) code mixing, substituting words from the first language within a
sentence, (3) code switching, switching languages between sentences, and (4)translating builds
vocabulary by capitalizing on students’ first language (Snow, 2002).
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In summary, adolescent literacy needs can be met by incorporating research-based strategies
which emphasize metacognitive instruction to improve students’ reading skills using various
instructional strategies that combine content and literacy instruction with opportunities for
students to interact with different types of text (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). Special
consideration to the instructional needs of youth who are members of triply segregated school
settings must be given by educators because these students are already at a disadvantage and are
required to meet expected academic standards (Gandara, 2010b). Teachers use of a wide variety
of instructional strategies to teach reading and permit all students, including struggling readers
and ELLs, to engage in a wide array of literacy practices, interact with different types of texts,
engage in critical discussions about authentic literature, and use reading comprehension
strategies that help them feel empowered as readers and self-directed learners (Alvermann, 2002;
Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). When students can effectively use these practices, they
demonstrate high-order thinking and mastery of literacy proficiencies necessary to succeed in the
current twenty-first century context (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). Nevertheless,
there is insufficient research on how secondary teachers implement literacy instruction in
secondary ELA classrooms (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). Documentation is needed
on how teachers implement research-based strategies for literacy development, and the frequency
in which research-based strategies are implemented. Insight into the instructional choices
teachers make in their high school classrooms is needed in order to understand the context in
which teachers teach literacy to all students, including students in triply segregated settings.
The State of Adolescent Writing
Many adolescents in the United States do not develop the writing skills needed to be
successful. For example, in 2007, the National Assessment of Educational Progress, Writing
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 49
Report Card (2007) reported 56 percent of grade 12 students demonstrated partial mastery of the
skills required to be proficient writers. American students had significant difficulty with
narrative and informative writing. Furthermore, the argumentative writing of most American
students was poorly reasoned and unpersuasive (Coker & Lewis, 2008). Another study found
that the most common writing activities used by high school teachers were short answer
responses to homework, short responses to material read, completing worksheets, and summary
of materials read (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009; Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Writing
activities assigned in high school are best described as writing without composing, fill in the
blank and copying information directly from teacher’s presentation (Applebee & Langer, 2011).
Simply retelling or writing that lacks meaningful details is at the lower end of the continuum of
meaning-making (Ketter & Pool, 2001). Nearly 80 percent of adolescents surveyed reported the
average length of their writing assignment was less than one page (Santangelo & Olinghouse,
2009). On average, students in English classes were not writing a great deal; adolescents were
expected to produce approximately 1.6 pages a week of extended text and about 17.6 percent of
high school students’ work involved extended writing (Applebee & Langer, 2011). In addition,
teachers provided students with little instruction or help with the writing process and secondary
writing instruction infrequently addressed planning, revising and editing strategies (Kiuhara,
Graham, & Hawken, 2009).
Strategies are a set of operations or actions that a person consciously undertakes to
accomplish a desired goal. Strategies are beneficial within the context of writing because they
help simplify and organize complex tasks such as planning, generating, and revising text
(Santangelo, Harris, & Graham, 2008). Strategies define a course of action for successful
completion of all or part of a writing assignment and make mental operations that occur during
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planning, composing, evaluating, and revising visible and concrete. Strategies enhance students’
knowledge about writing genres and devices, the writing process, and their capabilities as writers
(Santangelo, Harris, & Graham, 2008). High school writing programs are certain to fail if
adolescents rarely produce written text longer than a few sentences, if they only write to convey
information or demonstrate their knowledge, seldom using writing as a means to develop new
insights, clarify information, examine personal experiences, stretch the imagination, or persuade
others (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009).
Writing is an important tool for educational, occupational and social success in the
United States (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009). School grades are determined, in part, by
students’ performance on written tests; additionally, writing is a useful tool for extending content
material. At work, people are expected to create clearly written documents, memoranda,
technical reports, and electronic messages. Socially, people write, email and text message as a
common form of communication. For those reasons, writing is a gatekeeper skill in the
workplace and college. Students need to be able to plan, write, evaluate and revise texts in order
to learn academic material they will face in higher education and to frame material they will be
required to present in written compositions in the workplace and college (Coker & Lewis, 2008).
The quality of writing taking place in secondary classrooms must be improved if students are to
succeed in college and in life (Applebee & Langer, 2009).
Writing Instruction
Good writing is complex and multidimensional, and research supports that effective
writing is characterized by the following qualities: writing is an act of interpretation, it is
historically determined and situationally constrained (Ketter & Pool, 2001). Effective writing is
meaning making that involves the writer and the reader in a discovery process in which the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 51
individual writer has the power to innovate (Ketter & Pool, 2001). Writing is a complicated
activity dependent on a rich assortment of cognitive processes and on the social context of the
writer (Coker & Lewis, 2008).Writing involves many skills: writers have to formulate their own
thoughts and organize and transcribe mental representations into words. When writers compose,
they consider grammar, spelling, form, and organization as well as the needs of their audience
and purpose for writing. Good writers develop a repertoire of strategies for dealing effectively
with various writing tasks presented to them in different situations (Wiley, 2000). Writers learn
to make choices about genre, content, structure, organization and style; they learn to hone their
judgments about the effects of the choices they make as writers. They also decide what they will
compose based on their intentions, who will read their texts, and what effects they want their
texts to have on real and projected readers (Wiley, 2000).
Applebee and Langer (2009) examined data available from the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP) and the US Department of Education during the spring of 2007
and found trends in writing instruction. For at least 25 years, writing instruction emphasized
teaching students the skills and strategies needed to write effectively in a variety of contexts and
disciplines, emphasizing extensive prewriting activities, multiple drafts, sharing of work with
partners or small groups, and careful attention to writing conventions before sharing with others
(Applebee & Langer, 2009). Applebee and Langer’s (2009) findings were refuted by Fisher and
Frey (2003), who asserted that students today are mostly given writing assignments in the form
of independent writing products, and then teachers evaluate the writing products, missing the
critical step of instruction. Fisher and Frey (2003), accepted an assignment co-teaching writing at
an urban high school in San Diego and wanted to know the state of writing instruction. The
findings from the researchers appear contradicting, but, in academia, teachers possess a variety
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 52
of teaching skills and abilities in which some are more effective than others. Research
demonstrated that how well students write is influenced by how they are taught to write
(Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009). Highly effective teachers provide writing instruction that
includes writing in different genres and for different purposes and audiences (Coker & Lewis,
2008).
Writing is complex and does not occur in any fixed order as well as has several main
processes: planning, transcribing text, and reviewing. Processes are recursive and interrupt each
other. Any classroom structure that demands all students to plan, write, and revise on cue or in
that order are likely to run into difficulties (Dyson & Freedman, 2003). Dyson and Freedman
(2003) asserted writers need flexibility and time for processes to cycle back on each other
because there is no exact writing process, but, it is a flexible process influenced by the kind of
writing being attempted, the writer’s purpose and the situational conditions. Applebee and
Langer (2009) found taking time to do some prewriting activities was positively associated with
writing achievement (Applebee & Langer, 2009). According to Graham and Perin (2007)
scaffolding students’ writing by providing some form of assistance that helped adolescents carry
out one or more writing processes had a positive relationship with writing achievement.
Scaffolds include structured help from a peer, clear and reachable writing assignment goals
established by the teacher, writing activities designed to help students develop, organize, and
evaluate possible ideas for their writing, and examples of good writing that serve as models for
students (Graham & Perin, 2007). Students were also found to expend significantly more effort
and tackle more difficult tasks when their teachers monitored and supported them throughout
their writing processes, giving them guidance on references and asking them questions along the
way (Dyson & Freedman, 2003). Students also stretched themselves more when they had to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 53
present their work orally to the class as well as in written form to the teacher (Dyson &
Freedman, 2003). To write effectively, adolescents require two types of knowledge: declarative
and procedural, knowledge about facts and things and knowledge about strategies to achieve
goals (Collins & Godhino, 1996). Declarative knowledge supplies content for writing because it
is knowledge about the world, ideas, entities and relationships. Procedural knowledge supplies
the strategies for thinking and writing about content (Collins & Godhino, 1996). Procedural
knowledge in the form of self-regulatory strategies, ways of thinking about writing that help
students control the writing process by setting goals and monitoring progress toward achieving
them has been found to be effective (Collins & Godhino, 1996).
Santangelo and Olinghouse (2009) corroborated the context in which writing instruction
takes place influences students’ writing development and must contain the following six factors:
1. Teachers’ positive beliefs about writing: teachers’ personal beliefs regarding
writing are the core from which decisions about writing emanate; as a result
effective teachers are passionate about writing.
2. Establishing and maintaining high expectations for students and themselves:
highly effective teachers believe all students possess a multitude of strengths
and are capable of growth. Adolescents’ current ways of thinking and writing
are seen as fertile ground for fostering capacity. If students do not meet goals,
highly effective teachers look inward, and critically self-reflect to determine
changes they need to make in themselves.
3. Attending to the physical environment of the classroom: highly effective
classrooms showcase students’ writing, and furniture is arranged to support
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multiple instructional formats such as whole-class discussion, small-group
instruction, cooperative learning, and independent work.
4. Creating a collaborative community of writers: writing is embedded within a
social context which enhances motivation; wherein students with diverse
learning needs and cultural backgrounds learn from each other. Students are
provided with frequent, well-structured opportunities to collaborate as they
plan, draft, revise, edit and publish.
5. Devoting significant time to writing instruction and practice: students are
provided with frequent writing opportunities in various content areas, various
forms of writing, genres and text formats.
6. Optimizing writing instruction: highly effective writing teachers take time to
plan lessons which maintain a brisk pace and focus, and balance explicit
teaching with extended opportunities for composing. Instruction is
differentiated, appropriately sequenced, promotes engagement, understanding,
higher-order processing and strategic behavior, and purposefully and
thoughtfully integrates explicit and systematic teaching of essential writing
knowledge, skills and strategies with extended compositional opportunities that
allow students to authentically apply what they are learning and get feedback.
The above-mentioned salient factors should be considered nonnegotiable for educators
committed to optimizing writing development of students (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Similar to reading instruction, writing instruction also embraces two predominant
methods for teaching writing: cognitive strategy approach and process writing approach.
Cognitive strategy approach is a method for teaching writing which addresses what a student
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should be taught and how a student is taught (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). The strategy
approach includes explicit and systematic instruction, direct instruction, scaffolding and
modeling wherein students learn specific strategies for writing and also how a person thinks and
acts when planning, executing, and evaluating performance on a task and its outcomes
(Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Coker and Lewis (2008) conducted a meta-analysis on the
skills and strategies students need to be proficient writers. The researchers focused on studies
associated with learning to write and writing to learn and categorized the studies into three
categories: explicit instruction, instructional supports, and mode of instruction. They found
teachers make a plethora of instructional decisions daily in which they choose from an array of
effective strategies and incorporate chosen approaches into clearly articulated written programs
(Coker & Lewis, 2008).
Strategy approach, explicit instruction in skills and strategies for writing, consists of four
steps: identifying the strategy, modeling the strategy, guided practice and working toward
independent mastery (Collins & Godhino, 1996). A meta-analysis on writing found explicit and
systematic instruction to be an integral part of effective writing programs where planning,
sentence construction, revising, editing, and summarizing where explicitly taught and, as a result,
had a positive and typically strong impact on students’ writing (Graham & Perin, 2007). The
process writing approach is the prevalent method for teaching writing where writers learn by
doing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Students engage in frequent writing opportunities to
develop a deeper, more complete understanding about composing while writing. Daily writing is
embedded, and many opportunities for sharing and conferencing with both teacher and peers are
provided.
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Process writing approach is built on the belief that different writers have different needs;
as a result, teachers utilizing the process approach provide ample opportunities for differentiation
and allow students to work at different paces (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Process writing
is also known as writing workshop and assumes writing comes naturally. Teachers are
facilitators who respond, guide and support writing that is purposeful. Thus, students chose a
topic and write at their own pace (Collins & Godhino, 1996). Adolescents are provided with
opportunities to write freely to identify and develop ideas while postponing attention to spelling
and other conventions (Collins & Godhino, 1996). The focus of the process approach is to have
students go through a process or essentially follow a set of procedures that include planning, and
revising, a process that goes beyond just transcribing words onto paper (Dyson & Freedman,
2003).
Teachers often negotiate between their desires to teach writing as a purposeful process
and to teach the varied skills conceived as integral to that process (Dyson & Freedman, 2003).
Collins and Godhino (1996) validated a combination of process writing and strategic writing
instruction is better than either method by itself; mini-lessons that teach skills necessary for
academic writing and matters of procedure along with meaningful practice are highly effective in
developing students’ writing (Collins & Godhino, 1996). Kiuhara, Graham, and Hawken (2009)
recommend increasing specific types of writing, including writing longer text and increasing the
frequency of assignments that involve analysis and interpretation in order to increase students’
writing abilities.
Writing Instruction for Struggling Writers
Writing skill is a predictor of academic success and a basic requirement for participation
in civic life and in the global economy (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Writing is a powerful
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 57
tool for learning and demonstrating what is known. Therefore, difficulties with writing create
significant barriers in education, employment and other life pursuits. Students who struggle with
writing share some common challenges with writing including difficulties related to writing
knowledge, processes, and behaviors which make writing an incredibly challenging task
(Santangelo, Harris, & Graham, 2008).
Some students lack contextual knowledge and believe good writing is related to form and
mechanics, rather than substance or process (Graham, Schwartz, & MacArthur, 1993; Saddler &
Graham, 2007). For example, students who struggle with writing may view the purpose of
writing as producing a neat composition with good spelling but do not recognize the higher order
writing components such as organization and effective communication (Santangelo &
Olinghouse, 2009). Less proficient writers frequently overestimate their writing abilities while
often minimizing the role of planning, revising and other self-regulatory strategies (Helsel, &
Greenberg, 2007). Adolescents who struggle with writing focus solely on generating content,
writing down all the information that is perceived to be somewhat topic related (Graham, 1990).
Writing often results in a list of ideas rather than well organized, comprehensive discussion of
the topic (MacArthur & Graham, 1987).
Rarely do students who struggle with writing utilize planning strategies, their thought
processes are spontaneously episodic, wherein one idea is the stimulus for ideas that follow.
Writers who struggle with planning their writing often create plans that resemble a first draft
(MacArthur & Graham, 1987; Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Struggling writers compose
short stories that contain little elaboration or detail because they have difficulty retrieving
information from memory, do not use outside sources, and have difficulties translating their
ideas into written form (Graham, Harris, MacArthur, & Schwartz, 1991). Struggling writers do
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little revision without teacher or peer support, and the majority of revisions made by struggling
writers involve only minor changes to surface-level features of the text (Helsel, & Greenberg,
2007). Most changes made to drafts by writers who struggle with writing are word substitutions,
corrections on spelling and usage errors and rewriting the paper to make it neater (Graham,
1997). They also struggle transcribing thoughts into written form due to routinely misspelled
words, issues with capitalization and punctuation and lack of writing fluency. As a result, they
produce letters very slowly, devoting much attention and effort to transcription in which content
becomes minimized or forgotten (Graham, 1999). Students who struggle with writing put
minimal time and effort into the writing process (Graham, 1990). In a high school setting, in
which students are expected to compose several pages of prose regarding a particular topic,
students who struggle with writing pose an instructional challenge to high school teachers.
High school students are expected to have mastered the building blocks of proficient
writing which include handwriting, spelling, vocabulary, sentence construction, and paragraph
writing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). The reality is that adolescents who struggle with
writing have problems with handwriting and spelling, frequently exhibit sentence construction
skills that are more simplistic than those of their peers, and their vocabulary use is repetitive and
less precise. To make writing instruction more effective, it is recommended that teachers
explicitly teach planning, revising, and editing strategies whereas both process writing approach
and cognitive writing approach are utilized to develop a complete writing program that includes
all areas of writing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).The cognitive strategy approach can be
particularly powerful for struggling writers because students with writing difficulties receive
support to engage more fully in writing.
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It is important to develop a writing program which understands each writer’s ability and
allows for modifications of assignments accordingly (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Additionally, teaching self-regulatory strategies within the context of writing enables students to
independently develop and execute a plan of action for accomplishing a desired task, thus
resulting in more independent writing (Helsel, & Greenberg, 2007). Goal setting helps
adolescents target a specific aspect of their writing and can be used at the initial stages of
writing, during drafting process, or while revising a draft (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Adolescents who struggle with writing are often unmotivated. Therefore, carefully selected
activities which provide adolescents options in tasks help them develop and maintain the
sustained effort necessary for good writing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Providing good models of the type of writing expected from students is also important.
Models can be chosen from authentic text, student samples, or teacher-created compositions.
Teachers use a model piece of writing as a pattern or scaffold to support students in creating their
own original writing (Fisher & Frey, 2003). Models can be utilized to discuss specific elements,
encourage links between reading and writing, and develop an understanding of text structures
that can be applied to reading and writing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Pre-writing activities should also be an integral part of a writing program for students
who struggle with writing. Generation and organization of ideas are troublesome for writers who
struggle with writing, and pre-writing activities can support the generation and organization of
ideas (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Secondary educators can lead students in brainstorming
activities or the use of graphic organizers, read text together and help them read text to gather
possible information for writing; teachers might also need to teach some type of note-taking
strategy to support students with pre-writing (Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). An integrated
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skills approach to instruction with purposeful activities was found to be more effective when
teachers helped students transfer skill knowledge within a broader context of writing (Santangelo
& Olinghouse, 2009).
The Self-regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) Instructional Model is grounded on
over 20 years of research and helps students master higher-level cognitive processes of
composing while developing autonomous, reflective, self-regulated use of effective writing
strategies(Helsel, & Greenberg, 2007) . SRSD seeks to increase the characteristics of good
writing such as effective organization, adequate detail, and meaningful revisions (Helsel, &
Greenberg, 2007). It also supports students form positive attitudes about writing. Santangelo,
Harris, and Graham (2008) outline the 6 stages of SRSD:
1. Teachers identify prerequisite skills needed and assesses whether students
possess skills; if prerequisites are needed re-teaching occurs.
2. Educators assist students in setting goals. Students select one aspect of writing
they want to improve and track attainment of goal by graphing performance.
3. Teacher models strategy wherein students are shown exactly how to use the
new strategy. Teacher utilizes “think aloud” to highlight “why” and “how” of
each step of the strategy.
4. Through a variety of techniques such as mnemonic devise and repetition,
students memorize steps to the strategy.
5. Students gradually assume responsibility for using the new strategy in
cooperative groups. Teacher targets one element at a time and provides
frequent constructive feedback in which positive aspects of the writing are
highlighted along with area of improvement.
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6. Finally, students are expected to utilize the strategy independently. Students
consistently use the strategy over time in multiple settings and with a variety of
tasks. Teacher involves students in authentic writing tasks aimed at real
audiences.
Power writing, Language Experience Approach (LEA) and generative sentence strategy
also provide assistance to adolescents who struggle with writing. Power writing is a fluency
activity wherein students write as many words as they can on a topic as fast as they can, in one
minute (Fisher & Frey, 2003). The objective of power writing is quantity. At the end of one
minute, students count number of words and chart progress. Power writing builds writing fluency
and provides students with material to revise along with requiring students to write right away
and write every day (Fisher & Frey, 2003).
Language Experience Approach has been utilized for more than 40 years and can be used
with adolescents lacking strong independent writing skills or with students who do not
understand speech-to-print connection (Fisher & Frey, 2003). In addition, adolescents who do
not understand the different registers of language and the more complex language used in formal
writing or who are not willing to write in front of peers due to an unwillingness to demonstrate
their lack of skill can also benefit for LEA. During LEA, students share thoughts on a topic and
the teacher scribes the students’ thoughts. Bits and pieces of language structures and
conventions are taught to students while the teacher scribes students’ thoughts and students copy
the sentences into a notebook. After the shared experience, students are expected to expand
writing on their own. This approach acknowledges that students struggle to write but respects
students’ interest and profound thoughts, and engages students in meaningful conversations
(Fisher & Frey, 2003).
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Generative sentence strategy allows students to create sentences that are more
sophisticated (Fisher & Frey, 2003). The strategy gives students a way to expand their sentences
and to use the language and mechanics that are necessary to convey information. Adolescents
participate in a whole class discussion on the craft of writing in which word choice and the
impact on sentences is discussed. The discussion is centered on students’ own writing and
adolescents are provided with a thesaurus and dictionary (Fisher & Frey, 2003). SRSD, power
writing, LEA and generative sentence strategy are part of the instructional repertoire available to
teachers who provide assistance to adolescents who struggle with writing.
Various researchers reported the following evidence-based strategies to be effective when
working with students who struggle with writing: explicit teaching and modeling, instruction
tailored to meet each student’s needs, and instruction that responds to students’ progress and
needs (Bruning, & Horn, 2000; Graham, Harris, & Larsen, 2001; Santangelo & Olinghouse,
2009). Each student needs to work on something that is challenging but achievable to him/her;
teachers can use a variety of scaffolds to support each student’s ability, during guided practice,
teachers should consistently and carefully monitor students’ progress and provide feedback as
well as provide ample opportunity to complete the stages of the writing process successfully
(Bruning, & Horn, 2000; Graham, Harris, & Larsen, 2001; Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009).
Writing Instruction for English Language Learners
Empirical reports suggest that English language learners in mainstream classrooms are
not receiving high-quality writing instruction, especially when they are placed in low-track
classes where opportunities for extended writing tend to be most limited (Harklau & Pinnow,
2009). The type of writing instruction as well as the development of English language learners’
writing is significant to educators in California because all students in California must pass the
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California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE). The CAHSEE is an assessment students must
pass to earn a high school diploma and includes an independent writing task to measure students’
ability to analyze the writing of others. (Fisher & Frey, 2003). Therefore, the needs of English
language learners must be considered.
High school English language arts teachers need to be cognizant of the fact that students
who enter school from a variety of countries and cultures may not think in the dominant,
sequential way most U.S. schools privilege (Kaplan, 1966). English language learners may
approach problems in a sequential, circular, zigzag, or other pattern; it is safe not to assume that
dominant structures and modes of thinking that seem rational to most native speakers of English
will necessarily seem rational to English language learners (Kaplan, 1966). In addition, English
language learners are likely to make more errors and different kinds of errors than monolingual
students. For example, they may favor narrative form of development across topics, and display
less vocabulary and word choice diversity (Harklau & Pinnow, 2009). Some writing genres may
be more difficult than others. For instance, summaries are more linguistically demanding for
adolescent English language learners to produce (Harklau & Pinnow, 2009). English language
learners struggle with summary writing because they have difficulty restating information in a
concise, accurate and organized way. High school English language arts educators have an
obligation to teach all students how to write critically and effectively. High stakes standardized
examinations like the CAHSEE make teachers accountable and require all students, including
English language learners, to be proficient in writing.
A writing program that addresses the needs of English language learners must be
grounded on students’ writing strengths in content and organization, rather than weaknesses in
grammar and usage. In addition, it must provide structured opportunities to develop forms of
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 64
literacy responses that are already familiar to monolingual English-speaking students (Harklau &
Pinnow, 2009). Working with English language learners also requires culturally responsive
teaching, wherein teachers know their students: their academic knowledge, their individual traits,
their talents, limitations, interests, and concerns (Johannessen, & McCann, 2009). For example, a
study conducted in a New York high school found Latino immigrants with little formal schooling
wrote a great deal out of school: journals and poetry. However, school-based writing instruction
overlooked those literacy practices in order to teach academic writing, and it often stymied
students’ writing production by demanding correct mechanics (Harklau & Pinnow, 2009).
Students such as the ones previously mentioned as well as educators can benefit from culturally
responsive teaching because teachers can utilize students’ knowledge and capitalize on it during
instruction.
Teaching writing to English language learners is a complex endeavor which requires
patience and careful planning (Johannessen, & McCann, 2009). When working with English
language learners, writing fluency, rather than correctness, must be emphasized first. Students
need to be at ease in their attempts to produce texts and, once some form of writing fluency is
achieved, they will be able to utilize the text they produced in order to revise and edit. Teachers
need to expect development over the long term. It takes time to become a proficient writer. In
fact, mastery of vocabulary and familiarity with standard English syntax will take between five
to ten years to develop depending on the amount of formal schooling students received in their
first language (Johannessen, & McCann, 2009).
During the composing process, teachers need to build in purposeful peer interaction and
capitalize on cultural and social interests and knowledge of students. Having students write about
what they know and care as well as providing oral and written feedback that supports positive
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 65
efforts and growth are strategies that are proven to be effective (Johannessen, & McCann, 2009).
Explicit training in research and study skills has also been shown to improve English language
learners’ self-ratings of writing ability as well as their affiliation with scholarly identity and
academic attitude (Harklau & Pinnow, 2009).
Swain and Lapkin (2000) conducted a qualitative study in an 8
th
grade French immersion
classroom in Toronto, Canada. Participants worked in pairs to complete two tasks in which they
were presented with either visual or oral text stimulus. Pairs took turns to tell segments of a
narrative in sequence and jointly produced a written version of the narrative based on the
stimulus provided. The researchers found using students’ primary language in writing activities
among adolescents supported the development of English. Teachers’ use of students’ primary
language diminishes cognitive demands and allows students to manage the writing task,
negotiate meaning, and focus on form. In short, writing instruction in students’ primary language
can provide a strong basis for English writing instruction (Swain, & Lapkin, 2000).
English language learners require a writing curriculum grounded on students’ writing
strengths which provide structured opportunities to develop skills and strategies needed to be
proficient writers. Adolescent second-language writing is a field that has many gaps that limit the
ability to draw sound conclusions. Therefore, there is a need for research that analyzes the
context and strategies teachers utilize with the aim of developing English language learners’
writing abilities.
We know very little about contemporary writing classroom practices in high schools in
the United States (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009). In other words, we know what
instructional practices work but do not know what happens in practice in high school classrooms.
Due to the paucity of available data, current studies of classroom practices are needed. This
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 66
study sought to provide insight into the practices teachers utilizing to meet the literacy needs of
all their students. It is the school's’ responsibility to help each generation grow into literacy in
ways that enable them to use written language productively throughout their lives and the
practices teachers utilize in the classroom provide an understanding regarding how teachers
generate a literacy rich adolescent population (Dyson & Freedman, 2003).
To summarize, it is important for students to do well on high-stakes tests, but it is also
educators’ professional obligation to ensure they become the writers they will need to be as they
leave secondary schools (Applebee & Langer, 2009). Research supports that, even with some
improvement over time, many students do not write a great deal for any of their academic
subjects, including English and most do no writing at all (Applebee & Langer, 2009). Although
short focused writing is important, extended writing is necessary to explore ideas or develop in
depth arguments which reflect the demands adolescents will face in postsecondary education
(Applebee & Langer, 2009). Research also provides evidence that effective writing instruction
can have a significant and meaningful impact on all students, including students who struggle
with writing, English language learners, and students in triply segregated environments
(Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Instead of focusing on the mechanics of language and
accumulating facts and information, all those concerned with educating adolescents need to work
toward providing instruction that will enable students to learn how to learn (Johannessen, &
McCann, 2009). Teaching the basics through skills-based instruction has the effect of numbing
young minds and is demeaning and boring for students and teachers alike. Therefore, effective
writing programs that equip adolescents to succeed in school, to contribute to a vibrant global
economy, and to participate in an increasingly pluralistic civic life should be the focus of writing
programs in secondary school settings (Coker & Lewis, 2008; Johannessen, & McCann, 2009).
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 67
Alternative Education and Key Characteristics
Schools in the United States face a growing population of youth whose needs are not met
through the educational system. Little attention is paid to the need for scaled efforts to reconnect
disenfranchised students to educational options which will prepare them for successful careers
(Aron, 2006). At present, alternative schools serve students in grades 9 through 12 and are
implemented to entice dropouts back to school and to keep them in school until graduation (Lehr,
Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). There is no precise accounting of the number or types of alternative
schools or programs in the United States. Available estimates suggest there are over 20,000
alternative schools in operation (Aron, 2006). Urban school districts, districts with high minority
student populations, and districts with high poverty rates were more likely than other districts to
have alternative programs. Despite the number of alternative programs, fifty-four percent of
school districts reported the demand for alternative education exceeded their capacity (Aron,
2006). These trends suggest the number of students attending alternative schools will continue to
grow. As these schools proliferate, there is a need to assess instruction and the effects this has on
adolescents (Dugger & Dugger, 1998).
For over 40 years, alternative education has been a part of American public schools.
However, there is very little agreement on its definition. Alternative has meant different things
over several years (Lange, 1998). The term alternative education in its broadest sense covers all
educational activities that fall outside of the traditional K-12 school system. Alternative
education schools are secondary schools that address the needs of students that typically cannot
be met in a regular school, provides nontraditional education, serves as an adjunct to a regular
school, or falls outside the categories of regular, special education or vocational education (Aron,
2006). Alternative learning settings can include a broad assortment of educational options
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 68
varying from independent study programs to schools within schools (Aron, 2006). Most agree
that alternative schools are defined by the fact that they tend to serve students who are at risk for
school failure within the traditional educational system (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). States
with formal laws or policies on alternative education define alternative schools as schools for at-
risk students in settings separate from the general education classroom (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke,
2009).
Key characteristics of alternative schools identified in the literature include lower student-
teacher ratio, a supportive environment, student-centered curriculum, flexibility in structure,
opportunities for students to engage in decision making, and a more individualized and
personalized education experience (Aron, 2006; Lange, 1998; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).
Alternative programs in California must provide adolescents with curriculum consisting of
content standards adopted by the state as well as support students in completing state graduation
requirements (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). According to research conducted by Tyler and
Lofstrom (2009), successful alternative programs have five elements in common: (1) close
mentoring and monitoring of students which occurs as part of the smaller school and the high
adult-student ratio; (2) case management of individual students in which students are provided
with an academic counselor; (3) family outreach that includes coordination of services among
the student, family, school and community to help the student stay in school; (4) curricular
reforms that focus on English and math proficiency which may include tutors before or after
class; (5) attention to students’ problems that can affect attendance, behavior and performance by
providing students with resources such as counseling.
A variety of alternative programs targeting various student populations with specific
educational needs and educational objectives, as described in Table 1, currently exist.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 69
Table 1
The Diversity of Alternative Education
Target Population Educational Needs Educational Objectives
In high school, behind
academically >4
th
grade < 8
th

grade

 Standards-based remediation
 Special Education
 ELL

Diploma

In high school, substantially
behind academically <4
th

grade

 Special Education
 ELL

Diploma
Alternative Diploma
In high school, not attending

 Dropout recovery
 Special Education
Diploma
GED
Dropout between 16-18, risk
factors vary
 Credit retrieval
 Small group learning
 Standards-based, alternative curriculum
 Work based learning
 Twilight school
 Special Education
 Adult Basic Education

Diploma
GED
Dropout and over age 18

 Credit retrieval
 Small group learning
 Standards-based, alternative curriculum
 Dual enrollment
 Modular credits
 On-line learning
 Work based learning
 Evening School
 Special Education
 Adult Basic Education

Diploma
GED

Incarcerated  Credit retrieval
 Small group learning
 Standards-based, alternative curriculum
 Work based learning
Diploma
GED
Note.
Developed by Betsy Brown Ruzzi (2005), Washington, D.C.: National Center on Education and the Economy

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 70
In addition, Raywid (1995) provided a summary of alternative programs available based on a
program’s goals. Although most programs fall within a specific type, some programs can be a
mix of the following three types:
 Type I schools offer full-time, education options for students of all kinds. The full
instructional program offers students the credits needed for graduation. Type I includes
programs developed for at-risk youth.
 Type II schools focus on behavior modification which aims to segregate, contain and
reform disruptive students. Placement is short-term and students do not typically choose
to attend.
 Type III schools provide a short-term therapeutic setting for students with social and
emotional problems.
Many states have established enrollment criteria for students in alternative schools. The
four general criteria for student enrollment are (1) meeting some form of at-risk criteria; (2)
being suspended or expelled from a regular school; (3) being disruptive in the general education
environment; (4) not achieving success in a traditional school setting (Fuller & Sabatino, 1996).
At-risk criteria include: dropout status, history of truancy, physical abuse, substance abuse or
possession, and homelessness. Students who were not achieving academic success in traditional
school settings possessed several risk factors or dropout predictors such as grade retention,
having low test scores, failing grades, low-grade point average, credit deficient, or not meeting
state or district proficiency levels in reading, mathematics or writing (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).
Alternative programs were designed to serve students at risk of school failure, students
who were disruptive or had behavior problems, and students who had been suspended or
expelled; consequently, alternative schools serve a significant portion of our nation’s students
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 71
whom are considered at-risk (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). Students attending continuation
high schools reported higher rates of substance abuse, suicide attempts, sexual activity, and
pregnancy as compared to students from traditional public high schools (Lehr, Tan, &
Ysseldyke, 2009). They were also more likely to have been physically or sexually abused or to
have witnessed abuse within their families. Alternative schools are thought to provide
academically unsuccessful adolescents the opportunity to be educated in nontraditional school
settings where they can receive more individualized instruction and, as a result, be more
successful (Fuller & Sabatino, 1996). Youth need access to high quality alternative education;
through alternative education, adolescents who do not meet desired educational outcomes in
traditional education settings can connect with school (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009).
Alternative schools may be an important tool for engaging students who have been
disengaged from school; researchers as yet know little about how well these schools achieve
stated goals (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). Determining the impact of alternative schools on students
who attend them is difficult, as the population is at-risk and measuring academic progress alone
may not capture the educational settings’ influence on adolescents who attend these schools
(Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). It is time we begin to address the effectiveness of these
programs and implications for their implementation (Lange, 1998). The research on alternative
education is scarce and that which exists has focused on demographics of students who attend
them and the characteristics of alternative programs. There is a pressing need to research the
instructional practices utilized by teachers in alternative programs and their effectiveness.
Summary
The review of the literature demonstrated there are many different practices and ways in
which literacy instruction can be delivered to diverse student populations. Although the literature
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 72
provided instructional strategies and practices proven to be effective, there is a paucity of
research on what happens in high school classrooms. Currently, there is a gap between what
research proved works and what occurs in classrooms. Less is known regarding the instructional
practices utilized in alternative programs and their effectiveness. As the population of students
attending triply segregated comprehensive and alternative schools rises, the need to understand
the effects of current literacy instructional practices becomes much more important. To fill a gap
in the current research, qualitative studies, which observe literacy instructional practices in triply
segregated traditional and nontraditional school settings is imperative.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 73
Chapter Three
Research and Methodology
The purpose of this study was to identify current practices in the area of literacy
instruction in triply segregated schools and classrooms within two different types of contexts:
comprehensive high schools and continuation high schools. Gandara (2010b) corroborated that
Latinos are segregated by race/ethnicity, poverty and language, and this triple segregation almost
guarantees the majority of Latinos will not meet the expected academic standards in order to
graduate from high school. The goal of this study was to identify best practices in the area of
literacy instruction in order to increase student achievement for students who attend high school
in Apple Unified School District, a pseudonym for the district in which the study was conducted.
All names, organizations, and locations were identified with pseudonyms.
This chapter presents the research questions that directed the study as well as explains
the research design of a comparative case study. Population and sample, data collection, and data
analysis are described. The chapter concludes with a summary of the methodology utilized in the
study.
Research Questions
The following questions guided the study:
1. What are the current practices in English language arts instruction within and across
triply segregated high schools?
a. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing reading
comprehension and high-level literacy in comprehensive versus continuation high
schools?
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 74
b. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing academic
writing in comprehensive versus continuation high schools?
Research Design
There is limited research on how secondary teachers implement literacy instruction in
secondary English language arts classrooms (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). Therefore,
documentation is needed on how teachers implement strategies for literacy development and the
frequency in which those strategies are utilized. Qualitative research allowed the researcher to
enter the classroom setting and observe the current practices teachers implemented when
delivering literacy instruction to adolescents. The study was naturalistic, as observations took
place in urban classrooms in which the observer did not manipulate the setting. Participants were
aware of the observation. Nonetheless, the researcher had minimal to no contact with events in
the classroom. Students enrolled in continuation high schools have a higher number of risk
factors present in their lives as compared to students attending comprehensive high schools
(Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). Consequently, a comparative case study sheds light on the
strategies utilized by the different school sites to address the needs of youth.
To gain insight into the instructional choices teachers make in their English language arts
classrooms, high school English teachers were interviewed using an interview protocol and
open-ended questions (Appendix B). Documents such as student work samples, classroom
worksheets and photographs were also analyzed to acquire understanding of the literacy
strategies teachers utilized during instruction. Observations, open-ended interviews and
document analysis informed the study.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 75
Comparative Case Study
The study’s design was a comparative case study on literacy instruction between
comprehensive high schools, a traditional high school setting, and continuation high schools, a
nontraditional school setting. To gain an in-depth understanding, the larger comparative case
study was made up of many smaller cases (Patton, 2002). Therefore, English language arts
classrooms were the unit of analysis for this study.
First, the researcher observed eight English language arts classrooms; four classrooms in
a comprehensive setting and four classrooms in a continuation setting. After collection, the
researcher analyzed data for each classroom, coding for reading comprehension, high-level
literacy and writing strategies (Appendix A). Then, the researcher analyzed and compared
literacy strategies used by teachers at the same school site, followed by a comparison of
strategies utilized by teachers within a similar school setting. Finally, the researcher analyzed
and compared literacy instructional practices between comprehensive and continuation high
school settings. The focus of the study was on instructional practices and strategies utilized by
English teachers during literacy instruction.
Population and Sample
District. Apple Unified School District (AUSD), a K-12 district with 61 school sites
served approximately 58,000 students at the time of this study. It was made up of nine high
schools, two of which were continuation high schools. AUSD was triply segregated due to its
student population’s consisting of 94 percent students of Latino descent, approximately 87
percent participating in the free or reduced-price meal program, making them socioeconomically
disadvantaged, and over 60 percent designated as English language learners. Students from
families at 185 percent of or below the federal poverty level qualify for free or reduced-price
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 76
school meals and are designated by the district as socioeconomically disadvantaged. English
was not the primary language spoken in homes within the district. The statewide accountability
system, Academic Performance Index (API), reflects a district’s and school’s performance and
growth in numerical ratings ranging from a low 200 to a high of 1000. At the time of this study,
AUSD had a score of 740 API, which was 60 points below the statewide performance target.
All students were required to complete 220 credits and pass the California High School
Exit Exam to receive a high school diploma. Students were required complete 40 English credits
which were equivalent to four years of English. The graduation rate in the district was
approximately 83 percent. The district’s mission statement, posted on the district’s website,
stated it was dedicated to high academic achievement and ensuring all students were prepared to
accomplish their goals in life. According to Education Trust-West, over a five-year period,
AUSD showed improvement due to an increase of 88 API points with students of color,
African-American and Latino students, and growth of 91 API points with low-income students as
measured by the sum of year-to-year improvement on the API.
Schools. The study aimed to provide a comparative study of two different types of high
school settings: traditional and nontraditional. Although the academic structures of the schools
are different, both contexts served similar student populations. At the time of this study, there
was a discrepancy between the API scores of the comprehensive high schools, a traditional high
school setting, and those of the continuation high schools, a nontraditional school setting. Four
high schools were selected to participate in the study. Following is a description of the schools’
student demographics and background information. Table 2 compares the four school sites
across five criteria.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 77
Gala High School. Gala High School, at the time of this study, was in the top 30 percent
of California high schools and in the top 10 percent of schools with similar demographics. As a
school of choice, the student population was drawn throughout the district by lottery. Students
and parents were required sign an agreement and abide by it. The graduating class of 2010 had
15.7 percent of its members complete all course requirements for admission to the California
State University (CSU) system and 80 percent of the total school population was enrolled in
courses required for admission to the CSU system during the 2009-2010 school year.
At the time of this study, the school day began at 8:00am and ended at 2:47pm.
Throughout the day, students attended six different classes, each about 55 minutes in duration
with a 35 minute lunch. The average English class had 37 students. The school had an open
enrollment policy for students wishing to enroll in Advanced Placement (AP) courses, college-
level courses which will earn students college credit if they pass both the AP class and the AP
exam. Gala offered 16 AP courses. Gala High had a professional staff of 106, of whom 73 had
master’s degrees and two had doctorate degrees. All the teachers who taught core academic
subjects such as English, mathematics, science, foreign language, social studies, civics and
government, economics, arts, history and geography met the highly qualified requirements of No
Child Left Behind (NCLB). To be highly qualified, teachers who teach core academic subject
must be fully certified and/or licensed by the state of California, hold at least a bachelor’s degree
from a four-year institution, and demonstrate competence in each core subject area in which the
educator teaches. All teachers at Gala High School also possessed the Crosscultural, Language,
Academic Development (CLAD) certificate authorizing instruction to English language learners.
Sunset High School. Sunset was also in the top 30 percent of California high schools and
in the top 10 percent of schools with similar demographics. As a school of choice, the student
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 78
population was drawn from both the surrounding neighborhood and throughout the district by
lottery. Students and parents were required to sign an agreement and abide by it. The graduating
class of 2010 had 54.4 percent of its members complete all course requirements for admission to
the CSU system and 72.6 percent of the total student population were enrolled in courses
required for admission to the CSU system during the 2009-2010 school year.
The school day began at 8:00am and ended at 2:50pm. Students attended a total of seven
periods, one of which was seminar. All students were placed in a 20-minute seminar period
focused on enrichment such as silent reading, character education, team building and test-taking
strategies. All other periods were about 43 minutes long and lunch was 35 minutes. Students
retained the same seminar teacher from year to year. The average English class had 34 students.
Similar to Gala High, Sunset had an open enrollment policy for students wishing to enroll in AP
courses. Eighteen AP courses were offered to students. Sunset High had a professional staff of
97. A master’s degree was held by 47 members of the faculty. About 67 held a CLAD
certificate, and all teachers who taught core academic subjects met the highly qualified teacher
requirements of NCLB.
Crispin Continuation High School. Students throughout the district who were at least 16
years old could enroll at Crispin High in order to earn high school course credits at an
accelerated pace. Enrollment was arranged through a referral process initiated by site
administrators at comprehensive high schools for students who were deficient in credits. During
the 2009-2010 school year, 73.7 percent of the total student population at Crispin was enrolled in
courses required for admission to the CSU system. From the graduating class of 2010, no student
completed all course requirements for admission to the CSU system.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 79
Classes were offered at an accelerated pace. Therefore, students were allotted 45 days to
complete a five unit course, and the average English class had 22 students. Crispin High had a
professional staff of 15, all of whom met the highly qualified requirements of NCLB.
Lakeland Continuation High School. Similar to Crispin High, students throughout the
district who were at least 16 years old could enroll at Lakeland High in order to earn high school
course credits at an accelerated pace. Enrollment in Lakeland High School was arranged for
students who were deficient in credits through a referral process initiated by site administrators at
comprehensive high schools. During the 2009-2010 school year, 87.9 percent of the total student
population was enrolled in courses required for admission to the CSU system. From the
graduating class of 2010, no student completed all course requirements for admission to the CSU
system.
Lakeland High had a professional staff of 15, all of whom met the highly qualified
requirements of NCLB. Classes started at 8:00am and ended at 2:20. Included in the schedule
were seven class periods of about 40 minutes in duration, a 15 minute break and a 40 minute
lunch. To receive credit, students were required to complete a five unit course in 45 days. The
average English class had 29 students.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 80
Table 2
Comparison of Demographics of Comprehensive and Continuation High Schools

School Name Total student
enrollment

Percent of
Latino
enrollment

Percent of
English
language
learners

Percent of
students
participating
in free or
reduced
priced meals
Academic
Performance
Index (API)
Gala High School

2,538 96% 19% 89% 805
Sunset High
School

2,452 83% 12% 75% 811
Crispin
Continuation
High School

252 97% 46% 80% 654
Lakeland
Continuation
High School
331 99%

49% 77% 615

Table 3
Comparison of Demographics of Classrooms at Comprehensive and Continuation
High Schools

Teacher’s Name School Name

Number of
Students
Enrolled

Total Number
of IFEP,
RFEP and EL
Students

Number of
Advanced
and Proficient
Students on
the 2012 ELA
CST
Number of
Advanced
and
Proficient
Students on
the 2011-
2012 District
Writing
Assessment
Mrs. McDougal

Gala Comprehensive 33 31 (93%) 2 (6%) 7 (21%)
Mrs. Kagan

Gala Comprehensive 33 33 (100%) 10 (30%) 14 (42%)
Ms. Barrnett

Sunset
Comprehensive
38 37 (97%) 3 (8%) 8 (21%)
Mrs. Tseng Sunset
Comprehensive
40

39 (97%) 3 (7%) 8 (20%)
Ms. Henriquez Crispin Continuation 25 25 (100%) 1 (4%) 3 (12%)
Ms. Carpenter Crispin Continuation 29 23 (79%) 2 (7%) 5 (17%)
Mrs. Gonzalez Lakeland
Continuation
19 18 (94%) 0 (0%) 3 (16%)
Ms. Delgado Lakeland
Continuation
31 30 (96%) 2 (6%) 7 (23%)

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 81
Data Collection
This study collected data from classroom observations, open-ended interviews and
document analysis in order to inform the study. The following is an explanation of each
instrument utilized to capture and evaluate the data.
Observations. Direct observation aided the researcher in better understanding the current
practices in English language arts instruction in comprehensive and continuation high schools.
Classroom observations gave the researcher the opportunity to see things that may routinely
escape awareness among the teachers in the school site as well as learn things that teachers
would be unwilling to talk about in an interview (Patton, 2002). The firsthand experience with
the school settings and the teachers in the settings allowed the researcher to be open, discovery-
oriented and inductive (Patton, 2002).
The principal investigator observed two English language arts classrooms at each school
site as an overt onlooker. All classroom observations were audio recorded. The researcher
focused on the instructional practices occurring in classrooms as shown in Table 4 but was not
limited to the strategies and practices in Table 4. The researcher was not a participant observer,
but, as a member of the district under study, she had an insider’s view of the culture of the
district. To prepare the mind to systematically see what is happening in classrooms as it pertains
to English language arts instruction, the researcher created an observation protocol (Appendix A)
that focused on research-based strategies to assist in focusing on strategies utilized by teachers
while teaching literacy.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 82
Table 4
Key Literacy Strategies and Instructional Practices
Instructional practices Description Examples
Strategies approach
a
or
Cognitive strategy approach to
writing
b
Direct teaching of specific
procedures or strategies by
setting purpose, modeling,
providing students guided and
independent practice.
Think-alouds
mini-lessons

Content approach
a

Teacher directs students’
attention toward the content of
what they are reading, discussing
or writing to build ideas.

Peer-led discourse
classroom discourse

Process approach to writing
c

Teaching students the process of
writing which include planning,
drafting, revising, editing and
publishing.

Writing workshop
free write
Note.
a
McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., & Blake, R. G. K. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension instruction: A comparison of
instruction for strategies and content approaches. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(3), 218-253. Doi:10.1598/RRQ.44.3.1
b
Santangelo, T., & Olinghouse, N. (2009). Effective writing instruction for students who have writing difficulties. Focus on
Exceptional Children, 42(4), 1-20.
c
Dyson, A.H., & Freedman, S.W., (2003). Writing. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J.R. Squire, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of
research on teaching the language arts second edition (pp. 967-991). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.

Part of the preparation also entailed an understanding and usage of the vernacular used by
educators at specific school sites which facilitated a linguistic match and an understanding of the
usage of specific terms. To strengthen observations and limit bias, all observations notes were
descriptive and any interpretations were coded as such in the field notes. These were some ways
in which the researcher prepared for the classroom observations.
Participants in the study were informed of the purpose of the study and were notified in
advance of the time and date of observations. Teachers participating in the study received a copy
of the observation protocol (Appendix A) adapted from Boston College Teachers for a New Era
Evidence Team/Qualitative Case Study (2007). The protocol allowed for collection of data on
school background, physical characteristics of the classroom including information on students
in the classroom, as well as a script of events. The observations focused on instructional
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 83
practices and strategies employed by teachers during literacy instruction. Instructional strategies
are a set of cognitive processes which aid in skills such as reading comprehension and activating
prior knowledge (Fisher, Lapp & Frey, 2011).
Participants were notified that the research report would conceal names, locations, and
other identifying information in order to protect them from harm or punitive action (Patton,
2002). The researcher observed two teachers per school for the duration of three class periods,
each approximately 45 minutes in duration, on nonconsecutive days.
Interviews. To gain insight into the instructional choices teachers made in their English
language arts classrooms, eight high school English educators were interviewed using open-
ended questions. The interview allowed teachers to share additional strategies and practices
utilized by them that were not directly observed. During the interviews, teachers provided
examples from their own experiences on practices and strategies they found to be most effective
while working with various types of students such as those who are learning English as a second
language.
Open-ended interviews were conducted with each English teacher observed and were
audio recorded. Interviews ranged from 30 minutes to 90 minutes. The interviews centered on
the following topics: quality English language arts instruction, adopted English language arts
curriculum, differentiation and meeting the needs of their students (Appendix B).
Topics and questions for the interviews were developed from the literature review. This
study’s literature review on literacy instruction gave the researcher topics which were important
within the context of literacy: reading comprehension, high-level literacy strategies and writing
(Dyson, & Freedman, 2003; McKeown, Beck, & Blake, 2009; McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011;
Santangelo, & Olinghouse, 2009). Patton’s (2002) norms for qualitative interviewing were
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 84
utilized to create the protocol and interview questions. For example, the researcher included
presupposition questions like, “What do you like best about teaching English language arts at
this school?” communicating that the respondent had something to say, and, as a result, increased
the likelihood that the interviewee would have something to say.
Document analysis. Document analysis is a rich source of information (Patton, 2002). It
provided the researcher with information that was not observed during the classroom visits.
Student work samples, classroom worksheets, photographs and audio transcripts of observations
and interviews were analyzed. Student work was analyzed to gain an understanding of the
intended outcomes and evidence of literacy strategies. Photographs taken by the researcher were
also analyzed. Photographs were taken of the classroom in order to note room arrangement,
visuals on walls and student work on bulletins. Audio transcripts provided a record of teachers’
and students’ dialogue during observations. Document analysis was, thus, an important method
to include in this study. For this reason, triangulation of all data collected was necessary to gain
a better understanding of literacy strategies implemented by teachers at both comprehensive and
continuation high schools.
Data Analysis
Qualitative inductive analysis began during data collection as part of the fieldwork. Data
analysis commenced when the researcher transcribed interviews and reviewed field notes at the
end of the day to begin to examine data for preset codes. To assist with data analysis, the
researcher followed a plan to analyze data and to answer one research question at a time.
First, the researcher organized for the analysis by conducting an inventory of the data
collected and sorting it by classrooms for in depth-study and comparison. Specific cases were
read carefully and the researcher determined what ideas went together to form a pattern, a theme,
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 85
and what meanings to extract from the case studies (Patton, 2002). Once preset codes were
located for each case study, the eight participating teachers stood alone as unique holistic
entities. Then, the preset codes found for the two teachers within a school were analyzed and
compared. Next, preset codes discovered from teachers within a traditional school setting were
analyzed and compared to each other. Likewise, preset codes from teachers within a
nontraditional setting were analyzed and compared to each other. Finally, preset codes from both
school settings, traditional and nontraditional were analyzed and compared.
Ethical Considerations
The Institutional Review Board’s (IRB) rules, regulations, and procedures were followed
to obtain the highest ethical standards possible for this study. All participants received specific
information about the study and their role in it in a way that was understandable to them. The
researcher obtained a voluntary agreement from each participant in the study. Participants were
informed that they could withdraw at any time, or decline to answer specific questions at any
time during the research and that participation would in no way affect their employment.
This chapter captured the methods utilized to conduct the study. The next chapter will
present the findings.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 86
Chapter Four
Findings
This study sought to identify effective practices in the area of literacy in order to improve
achievement for students in Apple Unified’s triply segregated high schools. This chapter presents
the findings for the previously presented research questions:
1. What are the current practices in English language arts instruction within and across
triply segregated high schools?
a. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing reading
comprehension and high-level literacy in comprehensive versus continuation high
schools?
b. What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing academic
writing in comprehensive versus continuation high schools?
Classroom observations and teacher interviews are described in depth using a narrative
format. The narrative analysis is presented in three sections. The first section provides an
overview of all four high schools, including background information on teacher, classroom
demographics, and a physical description of each classroom. The second section is devoted to the
major findings that emerged during the classroom observations and interviews. The third section
concludes the chapter with a summary of the study’s findings.
Gala High School Overview
Gala High School, at the time of this study, was a comprehensive high school which
draws its student population by lottery. Gala High School was ranked in the top 10 percent of
schools with similar demographics by the state of California. Total student enrollment was
approximately 2,500 students, of whom 96 percent were of Latino descent and 89 percent
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 87
participated in the free or reduced-price meal program. Students were enrolled in six different
classes, each about 55 minutes in length. Two teachers from Gala High School participated in the
study, Mrs. McDougal and Mrs. Kagan.
Mrs. McDougal’s classroom. Mrs. Devorah McDougal was a product of the Apple
Unified School district. She graduated in 1970 and felt honored to work in the community in
which she grew up. She attended a local California State University and graduated in 1974 with a
BA in English and a minor in speech. While in the credentialing program, she student taught at
one of the high schools within the district. During the late 1970’s, she recalls it was difficult to
gain employment and, as a result, spent a few years as a substitute teacher at various local
districts. She began teaching at a high school in Apple Unified in 1976 and has remained in the
district performing various roles including English teacher, program specialist and literacy
coach. She has been a member of the Gala staff ever since it opened its doors in 2007. At the
time of this study, she was an 11
th
and 12
th
grade English teacher and had over 35 years of
experience.
Mrs. McDougal’s 11
th
grade English class had 33 students enrolled, and all of them were
of Latino descent. Thirty-one students participated in the free or reduced-price meal program. Of
the 33 students enrolled in Mrs. McDougal’s class, four students were identified as having a
learning disability which qualified them for special education services. Two students’ primary
language was English and, as a result, were identified as English only students. The remaining
students’ primary language was Spanish and, for purposes of this study, were categorized as
English language learners. Students identified as English language learners have been further
classified into three categories: Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient (IFEP),
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient(RFEP) or English learner (EL). Students who are
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 88
identified as IFEP or RFEP are not offered additional English learner services or support.
According to the 2012 English Language Arts California Standards Test (CST) results, one
student scored advanced, one student scored proficient, and the remaining students scored basic
and below. On the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), 27 students passed the English
language arts section. In regards to writing, during the 2011-2012 school year, seven students
scored proficient on the district’s writing assessment, and 20 students scored basic. Table 5
summarizes Mrs. McDougal’s student demographic information.
Table 5
Summary of Mrs. McDougal’s Student Demographic Information (Comprehensive)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 33 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 17 52%
Female 16 48%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 2 6%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 1 3%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 16 48%
English Learner 14 42%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 1 3%
Proficient 1 3%
Basic 18 55%
Below Basic 11 33%
Far Below Basic 1 3%
No Data 1 3%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 7 21%
Basic 20 61%
Below Basic 5 15%
Far Below Basic 0 0%
No Data 1 3%
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 89
Bookshelves lined a rear brick wall of the classroom with texts available for students to
borrow as evident by an observation in which a student asked Mrs. McDougal for book
recommendations. The front of the classroom had one long whiteboard partitioned into three
sections. One side of the board contained the following information: date, standard, objective,
activity, review and homework. On the other side of the board, the teacher posted informational
items. The middle space of the board had a screen Mrs. McDougal could pull down when
needed. Mrs. McDougal’s teaching area was located in the front center of the classroom. Her
teaching area contained lesson plans, document camera, projector and a desktop computer. A
teacher desk was located in the rear corner of the room. Students’ desks all faced the whiteboard
and were in rows; each row consisted of two desks side by side.
Mrs. McDougal showcased student work on a rear wall and a side wall. The rear wall had
a bulletin board titled “American Dreams.” During the interview Mrs. McDougal explained that,
at the beginning of the school year, students created American dream posters in which students
visualized their American dream and displayed it in a poster using photographs and words found
in magazines and newspapers. Mrs. McDougal further explained that the posters were revisited
throughout the year and students were expected to reflect on how their American dream changed
as the year progressed. The side wall displayed posters students created illustrating their various
heroes. Each poster had a picture of the student’s hero with a few words that showed why the
person was a hero to the student. Figure 1 is a photograph showing Mrs. McDougal’s classroom
layout.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 90

Figure 1. Photograph of Mrs. McDougal’s Classroom.
Mrs. Kagan’s classroom. Mrs. Lahnette Kagan became a teacher in South Africa and, at
the time of this study, had been teaching for thirty-one years. She stated thinking Gala High
School was a wonderful school due to minimal discipline issues. In regards to teaching, she felt
she was very limited in what she could do because of district and state demands. When she first
started teaching in America, she was happy because teachers decided what to teach and how to
teach, but she had seen education change over the years. Mrs. Kagan reports the school
environment had become test-oriented and was taking the joy out of teaching. She stated, “Now
it’s becoming test-oriented and it takes the joy out of it. I would imagine a lot of teachers just
teach to the test.” She also noted that, “I think it’s just become so politicized that teachers can’t
really teach anymore. It’s just sad. South Africa wasn’t like this. You just did your job.”
Mrs. Kagan’s 11
th
grade English class had 33 students enrolled and all of them were of
Latino descent. Thirty-one students participated in the free or reduced-price meals. Mrs. Kagan
has one student identified as having a learning disability and is receiving special education
services. She also has two students participating in the Gifted and Talented Education (G.A.T.E.)
program, a program for high –achieving students. All of her students’ primary language is
Spanish and have been identified as English language learners. According to the 2012 English
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 91
language arts CST results, ten students scored proficient on the assessment while the remaining
students scored basic and below. On the CAHSEE, 29 students passed the English language arts
section of the assessment. During the 2011-2012 school year, 14 students scored proficient on
the district’s writing assessment and 12 students scored basic. Table 6 contains Mrs. Kagan’s
student demographic information.
Table 6
Summary of Mrs. Kagan’s Student Demographic Information (Comprehensive)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 33 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 19 58%
Female 14 42%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 0 0%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 2 6%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 23 70%
English Learner 8 24%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 10 30%
Basic 13 39%
Below Basic 9 27%
Far Below Basic 0 0%
No Data 1 3%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 14 42%
Basic 12 36%
Below Basic 7 21%
Far Below Basic 0 0%

Similar to Mrs. McDougal’s classroom, Mrs. Kagan’s classroom had a long whiteboard
in the front of the room divided into three sections. The middle section was larger than the side
sections. One end of the whiteboard was partitioned with tape and had the homework
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 92
assignments listed for each class. The other end of the whiteboard had the standards, objectives,
activities, and follow-up posted. The teacher’s desk was in the front corner of the room. The
front center of the room had a teaching area where a projector, document camera and desktop
computer were located. Mrs. Kagan also had a podium in the front of the classroom. Desks were
arranged in rows facing the front and two desks next to each other comprised a row. The
classroom had an area with a bookshelf filled with textbooks. The remaining walls showcased
student work. Mrs. Kagan stated that, over the summer students read, Art Spiegelman’s graphic
novel, “Maus a Survivor’s Tale.” As a response to the summer reading, students created their
own graphic novel and their work was showcased all along the back wall. On one of the side
walls, Mrs. Kagan displayed a graphic organizer students created in which they described who
they were, their goals and illustrated an object that symbolized who they were. Another wall
showcased students’ depiction of hell based on the description from “Sinners in the Hands of an
Angry God” by Jonathan Edwards. Figure 2 is a photograph illustrating Mrs. Kagan’s classroom
layout.

Figure 2. Photograph of Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom.
Sunset High School Overview
Similar to Gala High School, Sunset High School was ranked in the top 10 percent of
schools with similar demographics by the state of California. Total student enrollment was
approximately 2,400 students of whom 83 percent was of Latino descent and 75 percent of the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 93
total student population participated in the free or reduced-priced meal program. Students were
enrolled in six classes, each about 43 minutes in length. In addition students attended a 20-
minute seminar class to equip them with test-taking strategies and team building skills. Two
teachers from Sunset High School participated in this study, Ms. Barrnett and Mrs. Tseng.
Ms. Barrnett’s classroom. Ms. Melinna Barrnett, at the time of this study, had been
teaching for seven years, and five of those years had been with Apple Unified as an English
teacher. In college, she was a theater major and always enjoyed reading and writing. She thought
teaching might be for her and changed her major. When she switched majors, she fell in love
with teaching and the thought of becoming an actress left her mind. Ms. Barron enjoys teaching
and collaborating with teachers at Sunset. She especially loved the students she worked with
every day. In her interview, she said, “It’s like family, you don’t always like them but you love
them” referring to her students.
Ms. Barrnett’s 11
th
grade English class had 38 students enrolled and all of them were of
Latino descent. Thirty-six students participated in the free or reduced priced meals. In Ms.
Barrnett’s class, two students were identified as having a learning disability and received special
education services. One student participated in the G.AT.E. program. One student’s primary
language was English and was identified as an English only student. The remaining students’
primary language was Spanish and were classified as English language learners. According to
the 2012 English language arts CST, one student scored advanced, two students scored
proficient, and the remaining students scored basic and below. On the CAHSEE, 37 students
passed the English language arts portion of the assessment. In regards to writing, during the
2011-2012 school year, 8 students scored proficient on the district’s writing assessment, and the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 94
remaining students scored basic or below. Table 7 contains Ms. Barrnett’s student demographic
information.
Table 7
Summary of Ms. Barrnett’s Student Demographic Information (Comprehensive)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 38 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 24 63%
Female 14 37%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 1 2%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 1 2%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 14 37%
English Learner 22 58%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 1 2%
Proficient 2 6%
Basic 10 26%
Below Basic 11 29%
Far Below Basic 12 31%
No Data 2 6%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 8 21%
Basic 11 29%
Below Basic 8 21%
Far Below Basic 5 13%
No Data 6 16%

Ms. Barrnett had students desks arranged in groups of four and no more than six student
desks per group. She had a total of seven groups and in the center of each table group rested a
container with highlighters, pens and pencils. A long whiteboard was at the front of the room. In
a corner of the whiteboard, Ms. Barrnett posted the homework, agenda and objective for the day.
A teaching area was in the front center of the room. A laptop, document camera and projector sat
on a table in the teaching area. The teacher’s desk was located in a corner in the back of the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 95
room. Walls were covered with informational material and students’ work. One of the walls had
posters defining literary terms such as: antagonist, theme, irony and flashback. On that same
wall, students graphic depiction of selected metaphors and similes encountered in Jonathan
Edward’s “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” were showcased. Figure 3 is a photograph
depicting Ms. Barrnett’s classroom layout.

Figure 3. Photograph of Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom.
Mrs. Tseng’s classroom. Mrs. Olivia Tseng had been teaching for five years serving
students at Sunset high. She graduated and received her teaching credential from a local
University in California. Since the 8
th
grade, Mrs. Tseng knew she wanted to be a teacher. She
stated she liked teaching English because she believed the content gave her flexibility and the
topics taught were relevant in society. She said, “Sometimes I feel like class discussion is more
relevant to their lives…sometimes the things we read or the topics that come up, it’s relevant
because it’s still in society today, problems that we still see.” In addition, Mrs. Tseng enjoyed
teaching at Sunset High School because of the school wide discipline program. Every time
students were late to class or did not complete homework “their punishment gets worse”
according to Mrs. Tseng. After a certain number of write-ups students were not invited back to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 96
the school and were sent to other comprehensive high schools. Mrs. Tseng was very proud of the
discipline program and reported that the school received compliments on students behavior
which was a result of the strict discipline program. She also added that the discipline system at
Sunset was beneficial to the students attending Sunset High School. Mrs. Tseng stated, “I think
it is kind of difficult because I didn’t grow up with Hispanic students around me and it’s kind of
hard to imagine what their lives are like, but I think a lot of times you have to give a lot more
support.” She also believes students are not held accountable at home and she must be the model
students are lacking by holding them accountable.
Mrs. Tseng’s 11
th
grade English class had a total of 40 students enrolled and all of them
were of Latino descent. Thirty-eight students participated in the free or reduced-priced meal
program. In Ms. Tseng’s class, two students were identified as having a learning disability which
qualified them for special education services. One student participated in the G.AT.E. program.
One student’s primary language was English and was identified as an English only student. The
remaining students’ primary language was Spanish and were classified as English language
learners. According to the 2012 English language arts CST results, one student scored advanced,
two students scored proficient, and the remaining students scored basic and below. On the
CAHSEE, 39 students passed the English language arts portion of the assessment. In regards to
writing, during the 2011-2012 school year, 8 students scored proficient on the district’s writing
assessment, and the remaining students scored basic or below. Table 8 summarizes Mrs. Tseng’s
student demographic information.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 97
Table 8
Summary of Mrs. Tseng’s Student Demographic Information (Comprehensive)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 40 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 25 63%
Female 15 37%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 1 2%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 1 2%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 14 35%
English Learner 24 60%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 1 2%
Proficient 2 5%
Basic 10 25%
Below Basic 13 33%
Far Below Basic 12 30%
No Data 2 5%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 8 20%
Basic 11 28%
Below Basic 9 22%
Far Below Basic 5 13%
No Data 7 17%

Mrs. Tseng’s student desks were divided into two sides; arranged facing the center of the
room. On the left and right center of the room the teacher set up two teaching centers. On the
right side of the room, she had a projector screen and a table with a portable computer and a
projector. The left side had a long whiteboard with the homework, agenda and objective of the
day posted. A television was mounted high on a corner of the room and a bookcase sat
underneath the television. Mrs. Tseng’s desk was in a corner of the room and the wall next to her
desk was a bulletin board with students’ photographs. Walls are covered with posters similar to
giant postcards of various cities in California. Two walls had a small section of student work
displayed. Mrs. Tseng explained the work on the wall belonged to honor students. In addition, a
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 98
large poster with pictures of characters in the novel “The Crucible” and cards underneath that
indicate students who will read that part during the read aloud of the play was displayed. Figure
4 is a photograph showing Mrs. Tseng’s classroom layout.

Figure 4. Photograph of Mrs. Tseng’s Classroom.
Crispin Continuation High School Overview
Crispin Continuation High School was an alternative school setting in which students 16
years and older who were deficient in high school credits enrolled to obtain a high school
diploma at an accelerated pace. Total student enrollment was 252 students, of whom 97 percent
were of Latino descent and 80 percent participated in the free or reduced-priced meal program.
Students were enrolled in seven class periods, each about 40 minutes in length. Students
completed the equivalent of one semester course in 45 days. Two teachers from Crispin
Continuation High School participated in this study: Ms. Henriquez and Ms. Carpenter.
Ms. Henriquez’ classroom. Ms. Maritza Henriquez was in her second year teaching
English. During the interview, she expressed she wanted to be a prison psychologist, but, when
she began attending college, she obtained a job as a teacher’s assistant at an intermediate school.
Due to the experience assisting teachers and her inspiring college professors, she decided to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 99
become a teacher. Ms. Henriquez felt that many of the students at Crispin were at an elementary
or intermediate level in terms of reading and writing. Her goal was to get students writing more
and thinking about what they read. She stated, “I feel like the students that we get here have been
told that they’re not good at English, especially if it’s their second language. They feel defeated.”
Ms. Henriquez also found it rewarding when she read a book with students in class and they
understood it and became interested in the text. To see students gain the confidence to ask
questions and critique the ideas in the text motivated her to continue working with students at
Crispin. “And it just takes like one moment in a story, and they’re instantly changed.” Ms.
Henriquez enthusiastically declared during the interview.
Ms. Henriquez’ 9
th
grade English class had a total of 25 students enrolled and all of them
are of Latino descent. Twenty-two students participated in the free or reduced-priced meal
program. In Ms. Henriquez’ class, three students were identified as having a learning disability
and qualified for special education services. All students’ primary language was Spanish and
were classified as English language learners. According to the 2012 English language arts CST,
one student scored proficient and the remaining students scored basic and below. On the
CAHSEE, 18 students passed the English language arts portion of the assessment. In regards to
writing, during the 2011-2012 school year, three students scored proficient on the district’s
writing assessment, and the remaining students scored basic or below. Table 9 presents Ms.
Henriquez’ student demographic information.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 100
Table 9
Summary of Ms. Henriquez’ Student Demographic Information (Continuation)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 25 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 14 56%
Female 11 44%
Students’ Grade Level
11
th
Grade 18 72%
12
th
Grade 7 28%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 0 0%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 2 8%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 6 24%
English Learner 17 68%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 1 4%
Basic 4 16%
Below Basic 7 28%
Far Below Basic 9 36%
No Data 4 16%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 3 12%
Basic 12 48%
Below Basic 4 16%
Far Below Basic 1 4%
No Data 5 20%

A whiteboard was located in the front of the room and had the agenda for the day,
objective and standards posted. Similar to Mrs. Tseng’s classroom, student desks were divided
into two sides facing the center of the room. One side of the room had three rows with five
desks in each row. The other side of the room had two rows with eight desks in each row.
Towards the front center of the room was Ms. Henriquez’ desk and teaching area. A document
camera, laptop, and projector were located in her teaching area. The other end of the room had a
SmartBoard. Student work was displayed in small sections around the room. One bulletin board
showcased students writing in which they compare and contrast “Mother to Son” by Langston
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 101
Hughes and “My Father is a Simple Man” by Luis Omar Salinas. Other bulletin boards exhibited
students’ depiction of imagery found on various texts they have read, students narratives
published like books and students published and illustrated poems. Figure 5 is a photograph
depicting Ms. Henriquez’ classroom layout.

Figure 5. Photograph of Ms. Henriquez’ classroom.
Ms. Carpenter’s classroom. Ms. Clairese Carpenter is a third year teacher and taught 7
th

grade English for two years before transferring to Crispin Continuation High School. When she
wanted to make a switch to high school, she talked to people and they said positive things about
the continuation schools at Apple Unified. Ms. Carpenter was excited to teach at a continuation
high school but was not prepared to address the large number of students absent and late to class.
She believed many students had legitimate reasons for not attending class like being parents and
not having someone to watch over their children while they come to school which makes it
difficult to address the problem. Ms. Carpenter stated, “I think it’s valuable and it’s important to
know the details of where the students are coming from in as much as it can help you relate to
them and can help you to not to tailor your expectations of what they can do but to tailor your
expectations of what is reasonable to ask them to do for homework, which here is essentially
nothing.” She also enjoys being part of the process in which she helps students become better
readers and writers.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 102
Ms. Carpenter’s 9
th
grade English class had a total of 29 students enrolled and 27 students
were of Latino descent. Twenty-six students participated in the free or reduced-priced meal
program. In Ms. Carpenter’s class, one student was identified as having a learning disability and
qualified for special education services. Three students were identified as high-achieving
students and participated in the G.A.T.E. program. Six students’ primary language was English
and twenty-three students’ primary language was Spanish. According to the 2012 English
language arts California Standards Test, two students scored proficient and the remaining
students scored basic and below. On the California High School Exit Exam, 18 students passed
the English language arts portion of the assessment. In regards to writing, during the 2011-2012
school year, five students scored proficient on the district’s writing assessment, and the
remaining students scored basic or below. Table 10 summarizes Ms. Carpenter’s student
demographic information.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 103
Table 10
Summary of Ms. Carpenter’s Student Demographic Information (Continuation)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 29 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 16 55%
Female 13 45%
Students’ Grade Level
11
th
Grade 21 72%
12
th
Grade 8 28%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 6 21%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 1 3%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 7 24%
English Learner 15 52%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 2 7%
Basic 6 21%
Below Basic 8 28%
Far Below Basic 8 28%
No Data 5 17%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 5 17%
Basic 9 31%
Below Basic 5 17%
Far Below Basic 3 10%
No Data 7 24%

Ms. Carpenter’s student desks are set up in three sections, almost U-shaped. The back
wall had a SmartBoard and student work on the two opposite sides of the SmartBoard. The work
showcased was students’ illustrations of their code of armor. At the front of the room, Ms.
Carpenter set up a teaching area and her desk. The teaching area had an overhead projector on a
movable cart. Three double door cabinets and a tall bookcase were also located in the classroom.
Figure 6 is a photograph illustrating Ms. Carpenter’s classroom layout.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 104

Figure 6. Photograph of Ms. Carpenter’s Classroom.
Lakeland Continuation High School Overview
Similar to Crispin Continuation High School, Lakeland Continuation High School was an
alternative school setting in which students deficient in high school credits enrolled to obtain a
high school diploma at an accelerated pace. Total student enrollment was 331 students of whom
99 percent were of Latino descent and 77 percent participated in the free or reduced-priced meal
plan. Students were enrolled in seven class periods, each about 40 minutes in length. Students
complete seven five-unit courses in 45 days. Two teachers from Lakeland Continuation High
School participated in this study, Mrs. Gonzalez and Ms. Delgado.
Mrs. Gonzalez’ classroom. Mrs. Elva Gonzalez originally wanted to be a teacher but
was not able to continue her education at an earlier time in her life. At the age of forty, she
decided to change careers and become a teacher. She obtained a multiple subject credential and,
later, added a single subject credential in English. She had been working as a teacher for six
years. She considered Apple Unified like a home because of the demographics of the district. As
a Mexican-American, she could relate to students because they shared a similar culture. She
stated, “I think for me, being Mexican-American, is the demographics, A lot of the students we
can relate to the same things because of our cultures.” Mrs. Gonzalez has been teaching at
Lakeland Continuation High School for three years. When she interviewed for the position at
Lakeland, she did not know what an alternative educational setting meant other than that it would
be different, but, when she met the students, it triggered the creative part of her brain and she
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 105
enjoyed using it. She appreciated the freedom to figure out how to develop meaningful lessons
that are centered on California state standards. Mrs. Gonzalez also enjoyed the smaller staff at
the school site and the atmosphere of collegiality, working together and sharing ideas. When
asked what she liked best about teaching at Lakeland, she responded, “We’re smaller staffed, so
we work really close together with colleagues. There’s a lot of professional sharing, professional
development that goes on, a lot of just sharing knowledge and information about students.”
Mrs. Gonzalez’ 9
th
grade English class had a total of nineteen 11
th
grade students
enrolled. All of her students were of Latino descent and participated in the free or reduced-priced
meal plan. Mrs. Gonzalez had two students identified as having a learning disability and
qualified for special education services. One students’ primary language was English and the
remaining students’ primary language was Spanish. According to the 2012 English language arts
California Standards Test results, all of the students scored basic and below. On the California
High School Exit Exam, 11 students passed the English language arts portion of the assessment.
In regards to writing, during the 2011-2012 school year, three students scored proficient on the
district’s writing assessment, and the remaining students scored basic or below. Table 11
presents Mrs. Gonzalez’ student demographic information.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 106
Table 11
Summary of Mrs. Gonzalez’ Student Demographic Information (Continuation)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 19 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 8 42%
Female 11 58%
Students’ Grade Level
11
th
Grade 19 100%
12
th
Grade 0 0%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 1 5%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 0 0%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 9 47%
English Learner 9 47%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 0 0%
Basic 12 63%
Below Basic 7 37%
Far Below Basic 0 0%
No Data 0 0%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 3 16%
Basic 13 68%
Below Basic 2 11%
Far Below Basic 0 0%
No Data 1 5%

Mrs. Gonzalez’ classroom is covered with teacher and student created work. In the front
of the room, there was a long whiteboard and a SmartBoard. On the whiteboard, Mrs. Gonzalez
had posted the following: date, California state standards, an essential question, and the agenda
for the day. Underneath the whiteboard were teacher created posters that worked as resources for
students. Her desk was at the right-hand corner in front of the room and her teaching area was in
the front center of the room. She had a podium and two small tables with a document camera,
projector and portable computer in her teaching area. Mrs. Gonzalez had student work and
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 107
posters, both teacher-created and purchased, along the window sills. The back wall was covered
with graphic organizers and student work. The back wall had three bookshelves with books
labeled according to genre. The left side of the room had a row of five desktop computers.
Student desks were arranged into four groups. Two table groups had four desks grouped
together: one group was shaped like a “U” and had eleven desks grouped together. The other
group was a two by five row of student desks. Figure 7 is a photograph showing Mrs. Gonzalez’
classroom layout.

Figure 7. Photograph of Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom.
Ms. Delgado’s classroom. Ms. Beatriz Delgado felt her entry into teaching was an
amazing mistake. Her father’s was a teacher and she knew she did not want to be a teacher. Ms.
Delgado wanted to be a writer. Her first position as a writer was not what she expected and she
decided to enroll in a credentialing program. One of the courses required Ms. Delgado to work
with a student who had recently migrated to the United States. She worked with the student three
hours a week and, when the experience was over and she wrote a report for the course, she
realized she really enjoyed working with the student. Ms. Delgado stated, “I fell in love with the
idea of helping somebody learn language and learn how to speak.” She was in her 29
th
year
teaching working for various positions within Apple Unified. Ms. Delgado had elementary,
intermediate, high school and some college teaching experiences. Ms. Delgado enjoyed teaching
at Lakeland High School because the classrooms were much smaller than comprehensive high
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 108
schools, and she got more one-on-one interactions with students. Her goal was to educate, to
draw out from the students what their highest and best was. One way she did that was by viewing
her role as a teacher, not as a person who had all the answers, but as a facilitator of dialogue and
exchange of ideas. Co-constructing knowledge to empower students to expand on ideas and
create something meaningful with new knowledge should be the goal of education according to
Ms. Delgado. Her sentiments were captured in her following statement, “It’s not teaching as if I
know it all, but there’s a dialogue between me and my students…my goal is always to educate
and when I say educate it is to draw out from each kid whatever their highest and best is. …I
think the real test is when you draw that out of them and you let them take it and create
something with it, with the material you got from them. Allow them to expand. Then you really
educate.”
Ms. Delgado’s 9
th
grade English class had a total of thirty-one 11
th
grade students
enrolled and all of them were of Latino descent. Twenty-nine students participated in the free or
reduced-priced meal plan. Ms. Delgado had four students identified as having a learning
disability and qualified for special education services. One students’ primary language was
English, and the remaining students’ primary language was Spanish. According to the 2012
English language arts California Standards Test, one student scored advanced, one student scored
proficient and the remaining students scored basic and below. On the California High School
Exit Exam, 19 students passed the English language arts portion of the assessment. In regards to
writing, during the 2011-2012 school year, seven students scored proficient on the district’s
writing assessment, and the remaining students scored basic or below. Table 12 includes Ms.
Delgado’s student demographic information.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 109
Table 12
Summary of Ms. Delgado’s Student Demographic Information (Continuation)
Student Demographic Information
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Number of Students Enrolled 31 100%
Students’ Gender
Male 15 48%
Female 16 52%
Students’ Grade Level
11
th
Grade 31 100%
12
th
Grade 0 0%
Students’ English Proficiency
English Only 1 3%
Initially Identified Fluent English Proficient 1 3%
Redesignated Fluent English Proficient 15 48%
English Learner 14 45%
2012 CST English Language Arts Performance Level
Advanced 1 3%
Proficient 1 3%
Basic 17 55%
Below Basic 10 32%
Far Below Basic 1 3%
No Data 1 3%
2011-2012 District Writing Assessment Performance Level
Advanced 0 0%
Proficient 7 23%
Basic 18 58%
Below Basic 5 16%
Far Below Basic 0 0%
No Data 1 3%

Students desks in Ms. Delgado’s classroom were clustered into eight groups of four
student desks. One bulletin board had displays of informational items such as the school’s bell
schedule and procedures for various emergency actions. Along a wall were two empty bookcases
and three desks with tubs on them. The tubs contained folders with students work. Sporadically,
student work was displayed around the room. Student work appeared to be an analysis of various
texts by different students using a variety of strategies. Some were graphic organizers outlining
or defining themes within the text, others are essays, and others are visual representations of
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 110
texts. SmartBoard and a television set were in a corner of the room. Ms. Delgado’s desk and
teaching area were in the front of the room with a projector, document camera, speakers and
laptop. Behind her desk were boxes of books and papers. A row of four desktop computers were
lined along one side of the room. The front of the room had one long whiteboard in which
“Today we will…” was written in a corner of the board. On the other side of the board was a
writing prompt. Figure 8 is a photograph that demonstrates Ms. Delgado’s classroom.

Figure 8. Photograph of Ms. Delgado’s Classroom.
Research Question 1a: What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing
reading comprehension and high-level literacy in comprehensive versus continuation high
schools?
The literature on reading comprehension and high-level literacy offers a plethora of
strategies to augment students’ deep understanding of texts. To analyze and present the data on
reading comprehension, the researcher categorized the various literacy strategies implemented by
teachers into three categories: before reading, during reading and after reading. For example,
Flood, Lapp and Fisher (2003) stated that competent readers, before reading a text preview a
text, activate prior knowledge and self-question about the topic, vocabulary and structure of text.
During reading, the reader actively checks for understanding and, after reading, summarizes and
evaluates ideas in the text. Table 13 is a list of strategies accumulated from the literature review
and utilized by the researcher to analyze the data.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 111
Table 13
Reading Comprehension Strategies
Before Reading During Reading After Reading
Motivate students Think aloud Feedback
Think aloud Feedback Summarize
Read aloud Read Aloud Answer literal questions
Sets purpose Re-read text Ask literal questions
Preview text Use cues from text Identify text structure
Activate prior knowledge Check for understanding
Preview structure of text Paraphrase text
Vocabulary Visualize text
Make predictions Make inferences
Build background knowledge Use context clues
Take notes
Graphic organizers
Ask questions

High-level literacy strategies are strategies that require readers to become text critics by
asking and answering complicated questions, engaging in text-based discussions, applying and
extending ideas from multiple text documents are the type of strategies the researcher focused
on when analyzing and presenting the data (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2011; Schwarz, 2003).
Table 14 lists high-level literacy strategies obtained from the literature review and coded during
data analysis.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 112
Table 14
High-Level Literacy Strategies
Co-construct knowledge Integrate information from multiple
sources
Teacher and text are tools Open-ended discourse
Text critics Compare ideas
Interrogate text Contrast ideas
Ask complicated questions Synthesize multiple documents/texts
Asks open-ended questions Text-based discussions
Evaluate ideas Problem-solving activities
Apply ideas Peer-led discussions
Extend ideas Analyze structure of text: author’s
purpose and words used
Build ideas with text Examine multiple perspectives
Multiple document literacy: locate, use and
evaluate
Argue/debate ideas with evidence

Reading comprehension: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. McDougal. During
the three days of observations in Mrs. McDougal’s 11
th
grade English classroom, there was
evidence of vocabulary strategies being implemented by the teacher. Students were observed
studying vocabulary cards which had definitions and illustrations of words. Words like
renounce, magnanimity, abdicate, transient and prudence were reviewed on another day to
prepare students for a vocabulary quiz. Students also worked on a vocabulary worksheet in
which students had to complete a sentence with a word from a word bank which included words
like: vast, dreadful, and distress. During read alouds, Mrs. McDougal assisted students with the
pronunciation of some words and would step aside from the reading and define words and
phrases for students.
On two out of the three days of the observation, students were engaged in read alouds in
which both teacher and students read. In the interview, Mrs. McDougal stated that reading
occurred in her classroom 4 out of 5 days in a week. Before reading aloud, students were
engaged in various reading comprehension strategies. Students previewed the structure of both a
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 113
poem and a play by focusing on the elements that made them different. Before re-reading the
poem entitled “ Here Follow Some Versus upon the Burning of Our House, July 10, 1666” by
Anne Bradstreet, Mrs. McDougal set a purpose for reading. The following statement is an
example of Mrs. McDougal setting a purpose: “Remember, poems, nobody expects anybody to
understand it the first time. Just like… what? A song. You can’t hear all the words the first time.
You’ve got to hear it over and over and over again.”
Before students read “The Crucible”, Mrs. McDougal provided students with background
knowledge first by having students take notes with an activity she called “Bingo Lecture”.
Students wrote the names of characters and other vocabulary important to the play in a bingo
card and, as the teacher provided them with background information, students wrote notes in the
square. Students also read information regarding the Salem Witch Trials in the 1690’s and the
communist accusations in the United States in the 1950’s. During reading, students were
encouraged to take notes and Mrs. McDougal asked students questions regarding the text they
were reading. The following are examples of questions she asked during “The Crucible” read
aloud. She asked nine vocabulary questions: “What does inert mean?” “What is that little
colloquialism, ‘lands on her back?’” and four questions relating to events in the story “If his
niece or daughter or somebody is fiddling around with witchcraft, how does that make him
look?” “What does white stand for?” Table 15 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies
observed in Mrs. McDougal’s 11
th
grade English classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 114
Table 15
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. McDougal’s Classroom (Comprehensive)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary Vocabulary
Previews structure of text Read aloud
Sets purpose Take notes
Take notes Ask questions
Build background knowledge Re-read text

Reading comprehension: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. Kagan. Before
students read a poem entitled “World, in hounding me…” by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, Mrs.
Kagan provided students with background knowledge first through lecture and then by having
students read text on the author’s life. In the lecture, Mrs. Kagan discussed the time period in
which Sor Juana de la Cruz lived and also the life of a nun. She also guided the students in a
preview of the text. Mrs. Kagan had students look at a painting of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz and
had students read the title of the poem and think about what the title means.
During the read aloud of the poem and of the play, “The Crucible”, Mrs. Kagan stepped
aside from the reading and defined words for students. During the reading of the poem, she
defined the word fair for students, stating it was an archaic word meaning beauty. In the reading
of “The Crucible”, she defined the word puppet as another name for a doll. During reading of
both the poem and play, Mrs. Kagan asked students questions to monitor students’ understanding
of facts and events. Following are examples of the type of questions she asked. “What’s chasing
her?” “What does the world symbolize?” “They arrested how many people?” and “Who is
leading the pack of accusers?”
After reading both the poem and the play, students were engaged in a variety of activities.
After re-reading the poem, students identified the text structure of the poem. Then, students
identified the idea and the solution presented in the Petrarchan sonnet. Students also identified
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 115
the rhyme scheme Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz used to write the sonnet. After identifying the
structure of the poem, students re-read each line in the poem and wrote it in their own words.
This strategy was used to assist students in writing a summary of the poem.
The strategy of summarizing was also utilized with “The Crucible”. To support students
with a summary of the play, Mrs. Kagan engaged students in two different graphic organizers
which they used to take notes. The first graphic organizer was utilized to map the plot of the
play. Students color coded the sections of the graphic organizer. Pink was used to indicate the
beginning of the plot, rising action was coded with green and the climax was coded with red. The
second graphic organizer was used to trace characters through major events in the story. Students
interacted with text during the three observations, they read a poem, a play and they read an
assessment. Table 16 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies observed in Mrs.
Kagan’s 11
th
grade English classroom.
Table 16
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom (Comprehensive)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Build background
knowledge
Vocabulary Graphic organizers
Preview text Read aloud Take notes
Take notes Summarize
Ask questions Identify text structure
Re-read text

Reading comprehension: Comparison of Gala comprehensive high school. Mrs.
McDougal and Mrs. Kagan were observed reading the same genre of text with students. They
both read poems from the same time period and read the play “The Crucible.” Before reading a
text, both teachers at Gala High School were observed building students’ background
knowledge. Both teachers built background with a combination of having students read a text
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 116
and lecture. During reading, both teachers implemented similar reading comprehension
strategies. Both teachers had students read aloud and had activities that required students to re-
read the text. Also, Mrs. McDougal and Mrs. Kagan encouraged students to take notes during the
reading of the poems and the play. While the teacher or students read aloud, both teachers
stepped aside from the reading to define words for students. Mrs. McDougal asked more
questions relating to vocabulary than Mrs. Kagan. However, when it came to asking questions
relating to events in the text, Mrs. Kagan asked more questions than Mrs. McDougal.
Mrs. McDougal’s class read until the end of the period on the days she was observed, and
she was not observed implementing after reading comprehension strategies. However, Mrs.
Kagan stopped the class from reading a few minutes before class was dismissed, and she
engaged students in a variety of after reading comprehension strategies. Table 17 summarizes the
reading comprehension strategies observed in both classroom at Gala High School.
Table 17
Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Gala Comprehensive High
School
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Build background knowledge Vocabulary Re-read text
Read aloud
Take notes
Ask questions

Reading comprehension: Sunset comprehensive high school Ms. Barrnett. Ms.
Barrnett implemented various vocabulary strategies before, during and after reading. Students
were assigned a vocabulary worksheet for homework on two days of the observation. The
worksheet was a graphic organizer students completed. She provided students with terms from
the play they were reading and students identified the part of speech, defined the term, listed
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 117
synonyms and antonyms, provided an example and graphically represented each term. Ms.
Barrnett also taught students word morphology as a way to define words. Students were quizzed
on the memorization of certain word parts in a 25 question quiz, 21 questions required students
to match the word part with the definition and the remaining four questions was multiple choice
in which students had to define a word. During a read aloud, Ms. Barrnett used the strategy of
word morphology to help students define the word subservient. She also utilized step asides to
define words while reading aloud.
Students were observed reading with teacher led activities during the three observations.
Before a read aloud of “The Crucible”, Ms. Barrnett set a purpose for reading by reading the
objective to the class. In the interview, Ms. Barrnett stated that she found informing students
about the objective helpful. She felt students did not necessarily need to know the California
standard she taught but knowing the objective of what they were supposed to be doing is very
helpful. Students also read aloud the article “Americans Growing Dependency on Food Stamps.”
During read alouds students were asked to take notes, thinking about items that they
would encounter in a test. While reading “The Crucible” Ms. Barrnett gave students hints on
what they should write down on their notes. She also asked students questions to monitor their
comprehension of events in the story. The strategy of asking questions was also utilized to help
students summarize what they had read and to review the events that had occurred in the play the
day before.
After reading, Ms. Barrnett pulled quotes from “The Crucible” and asked students to
infer what the quote reveals about the characters. First, students would restate the quote in their
own words and then they would infer the character traits they would attribute to the character
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 118
based on the quote. After reading the article on food stamp dependency, students worked on a
worksheet that required students to re-read the article and answer questions about the article.
Table 18 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies observed in Ms. Barrnett’s
classroom.
Table 18
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom (Comprehensive)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary Vocabulary Re-read text
Sets purpose Read aloud Summarize
Ask questions Ask questions Ask questions
Graphic organizers Take notes Make inferences

Reading comprehension: Sunset comprehensive high school Mrs. Tseng. On the first
observation, Mrs. Tseng utilized the class period to build students’ background knowledge and
set purpose for reading “The Crucible”. She presented students with four paintings from Thomas
Cole’s “The Voyage of Life” series. Utilizing a visual allegory worksheet, students were guided
in the literal in figurate meaning of the paintings. She ended the class period by informing
students that “The Crucible” is about the Salem Witch Trials but that the play is not just about
witches and girls lying. The play goes beyond that, just like the paintings by Thomas Cole, and,
for that reason, students will read the play looking at it from an allegorical standpoint. On
another occasion, she also set the purpose by informing students that as they read the play they
should track the characters because the characters’ motivation and who they are will drive the
plot.
During the reading of “The Crucible” and the paintings, she asked questions to serve
multiple purposes. For example, when “reading” the paintings she asked students literal
questions. For example, “What do you see?” She also asked a few inference questions. “How
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 119
does the woman represent liberty?” is an example. During the read aloud of the play, she asked
questions to monitor students’ understanding of the events. During the interview, Mrs. Tseng
said she often stopped and checked to see if students understand what they read. She asked
students, “what are they arguing about now?” and when students provided a one word answer,
she asked another question to help students elaborate on their answer. She also asked an
inference question while reading the play. she asked students, “Based on the order of these words
what does he care most about?” The strategy of questioning was also used to ask students to
make predictions. For example, she asked students, “what do you think might happen to Giles’
wife?”
Students were given a word morphology quiz, and twenty-one questions were matching.
Students had to match the word part with its meaning. Four questions were multiple choice in
which students had to define a word. During the interview, Mrs. Tseng stated that word
morphology, a vocabulary strategy, was taught and quizzed often. Mrs. Tseng was also observed
utilizing the step aside strategy to teach vocabulary. When students were reading aloud she
would interject and define words for students. She defined words like vindictive, deference, and
dissembling.
After reading the play, students filled out a graphic organizer that asked them to track
characters in the play. To complete the graphic organizer, students had to re-read the text. The
graphic organizer asked students to describe the character, the relationship to others, characters
background, motivation for going for or against the trial, provide a character trait and support it
with evidence from the text. Table 19 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies
observed in Mrs. Tseng’s classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 120
Table 19
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Tseng’s Classroom (Comprehensive)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Build background
knowledge
Vocabulary Re-read text
Sets purpose Read aloud Graphic organizer
Vocabulary Ask questions Make inferences
Make inferences
Make predictions

Reading comprehension: Comparison of Sunset comprehensive high school. In both
Ms. Barrnett’s and Mrs. Tseng’s classrooms, teachers were observed setting a purpose for
reading before students read text. Both teachers provided activities to students that required them
to re-read the text. Teachers gave students opportunities to read aloud in class and they also
joined in the read alouds. During read alouds, both teachers monitored students’ understanding
of “The Crucible” by asking questions. Ms. Barrnett and Mrs. Tseng provided scaffolds to
support students’ ability to make inferences regarding the characters in the play. Ms. Barrnett
pulled quotes from the play and asked students to infer the character trait, while Mrs. Tseng
required students to infer a character trait and support it with evidence from the text. They also
used step asides and word morphology to develop students’ vocabulary. The researcher observed
both teachers administer the same morphology quiz on the same day. Table 20 summarizes the
reading comprehension strategies observed in both classrooms at Sunset High School.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 121
Table 20
Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Sunset Comprehensive
High School
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Set purpose for reading Vocabulary Re-read text
Vocabulary Read aloud Make inferences
Ask questions
Reading comprehension: Comparison of comprehensive high schools. All four
comprehensive classrooms read “The Crucible” by Arthur Miller by having students read aloud
the text in class and assigning students roles in the play. To monitor comprehension, all four
teachers asked questions and defined vocabulary words by interjecting while students read aloud.
Also, all teachers assigned activities that required students to re-read the text. Table 21
summarizes the reading comprehension strategies observed in all four comprehensive high
schools.
Table 21
Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Four Comprehensive High
Schools
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary Re-read text
Read aloud
Ask questions

Reading comprehension: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Henriquez. On the
first day of the observation, Ms. Henriquez was preparing her students to read “The Masque of
the Red Death” by Edgar Allan Poe, a text students interacted with during the three observations.
She introduced students to literacy terms relevant to the study of the text and vocabulary they
were going to encounter in the text. She provided students with a definition of the term, a graphic
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 122
representation and synonymy. Ms. Henriquez also had students preview the text by looking at the
title page, illustrations and captions in the text. After previewing the text, she asked students to
make predictions by asking, “Based on the title, what do you think the tone will be?” She also
built students’ background knowledge with a read aloud of Edgar Allan Poe in which students
learned facts about the author and how his life affected the tone in his writing. In addition,
students read an article about the Black Death, a disease that inspired Edgar Allan Poe to write
“The Masque of the Red Death”.
During the observations, Ms. Henriquez made the purpose of the activities explicit to
students. When discussing literary terms she tied the terms to Edgar Allan Poe and how he uses
it. For example, after explaining what imagery is, Ms. Henriquez said, “Edgar Allan Poe uses a
lot of imagery in his writings. It’s basically being very descriptive. When we read his writings
we can understand or see what he’s trying to explain to us.” Before students read, she set the
purpose. Sometimes the purpose was to compare or to find words to describe the red death.
When students were expected to be engaged in an activity, Ms. Henriquez clearly stated the
purpose of the activity.
Before reading and during reading, with assistance from Ms. Henriquez, students took
notes. They used a double entry journal, one side of the paper had a question, or term and the
other side of the paper had the notes. Ms. Henriquez read aloud to students, stropping to define
words for students, words like devastated, avatar, profusely, and dominions. She also stopped
reading to activate students’ prior knowledge and ask questions about something they read
yesterday or facts students knew about the Black Death. Another pause in the reading came when
she re-read a section and asked students to visualize the text. During one of the observations,
after reading a section of the text, students were asked to pull words from the text that help them
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 123
visualize the different rooms described in the text and to illustrate each room and include the
“pulled words” in the illustration. She also asked students questions regarding the text, “what do
we know about the story?” or “how do the words make you feel about the masked guest?” her
questions were focused on helping students summarize and understanding the mood and tone of
the story and how the words the author used create the mood and tone.
After reading a section of the text, students were asked to orally summarize. Students also
created a graphic organizer in which they compared and contrasted Edgar Allan Poe’s Red Death
to the Black Death. Students re-read the text and pulled quotes that described the mood and tone
associated with Prince Prospero, a character in the story. Table 22 summarizes the reading
comprehension strategies observed in Ms. Henriquez’ 9
th
grade English classroom.
Table 22
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’ Classroom (Continuation)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Take notes Read aloud Re-read text
Preview text Vocabulary Summarize
Vocabulary Sets purpose Visualize text
Make predictions Ask questions
Build background knowledge Graphic organizers
Sets purpose Activate prior knowledge
Take notes
Visualize text

Reading comprehension: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Carpenter. Ms.
Clairese Carpenter read aloud Edgar Allan Poe’s poem, “The Raven”. Before reciting the poem,
she reviewed literary terms students needed in order to work with the poem. While defining
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 124
literary terms for students, she connected the terms to the author, “Poe really likes to use internal
rhymes to make you feel like there’s a rhythm with the end rhymes.” Ms. Carpenter defined
rhyme, alliteration, onomatopoeia and meter. After the she read aloud the poem, she asked
students to work on their Raven packet. The packet was an interactive text which had the poem,
and on the marginalia of the book were questions students needed to answer. To answer the
questions students needed to re-read the text. Sample questions were:
 Underline examples of alliteration, circle rhymes, and box onomatopoeic words.
 How does the speaker explain the bird’s ability to say the word nevermore?
 Who does the speaker say sent the Raven?
Table 23 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies observed in Ms. Carpenter’s 9
th
grade
English classroom.
Table 23
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Carpenter’s Classroom (Continuation)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary Read aloud Re-read text
Ask questions

Reading comprehension: Comparison of Crispin continuation high school. Both
teachers engaged their students with a literary work by Edgar Allan Poe. Ms. Henriquez and Ms.
Carpenter introduced students to literary terms before reading and explicitly stated the
connection the literary terms had with the text they were going to read. Reading aloud was
observed in both classrooms. However, Ms. Henriquez chunked the text by reading small
sections at a time, while Ms. Carpenter read the entire text without pausing. Both teachers gave
students tasks that required them to re-read the text. In addition, both teachers asked or assigned
questions relating to the text. Ms. Henriquez asked questions to monitor comprehension during
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 125
reading, and Ms. Carpenter assigned questions after reading. Table 24 summarizes the reading
comprehension strategies observed in both classrooms at Crispin Continuation High School.
Table 24
Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Crispin Continuation High
School
Before Reading During Reading After Reading
Vocabulary Read aloud Re-read text
Ask questions

Reading comprehension: Lakeland continuation high school Mrs. Gonzalez. During
the three-day observation, Mrs. Gonzalez’ class was not observed reading a text. On the first day
of the observation, Mrs. Gonzalez provided her students eight words. Students were to define the
words using a graphic organizer. During that first class period observation, Mrs. Gonzalez
provided a lecture to her students utilizing a PowerPoint presentation. The lecture focused on the
term symbols. She provided students with multiple examples of symbols and their meanings. She
also gave students factual information on the author, Elie Wiesel, and the Holocaust. Mrs.
Gonzalez was preparing her students to read the novel, “Night.” Before the lecture began, Mrs.
Gonzalez encouraged students to take notes. During the second observation, Mrs. Gonzalez
continued with the lecture on symbols.
During the interview, Mrs. Gonzalez reported that she had a whole language approach to
literacy. During a class period she read to students, had students read and created opportunities
for students to work in groups and practice the language. Due to the time constraints, 45 days a
quarter, she exposed students to a novel a quarter. She did not expect students to read the whole
novel. Instead, she chose key passages or key chapters and, as a class, they read those sections.
Mrs. Gonzalez focused on students understanding key sections of the book through activities
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 126
such as writing a poem. A typical day in which students were reading a novel went as follows:
students listened to an audio recording of the text. As they listened, they wrote notes or ideas on
post-its, and, after the recording, the class talks about the section they listened to. At the end of
the period, she assessed students’ understanding by having them respond to a question or by
asking them questions one-on-one. The strategies reported by Mrs. Gonzalez during the
interview were not witnessed during the three-day observation. Table 25 summarizes the reading
comprehension strategies observed in Mrs. Gonzalez’ classroom.
Table 25
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom (Continuation)
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary
Graphic organizers
Build background knowledge
Take notes

Reading comprehension: Lakeland continuation high school Ms. Delgado. When Ms.
Delgado was observed teaching reading of a text, she first reviewed vocabulary with students by
asking students to define words such as argument, counterargument, fact, opinion and diversity.
If students provided the correct definition, she repeated the meaning of the word. If students did
not capture the entirety of the meaning, she asked another student to expand and then she defined
the word for students. Students read aloud an article by CNN contributor LZ Granderson entitled
“What’s wrong with Affirmative Action-and why we need it”. While they read aloud, Ms.
Delgado interrupted the reading and asked students questions such as “Why would the Florida
State Board lower their standards for a certain groups of kids?” She also stepped aside from the
reading and defined the word literate and assisted students with pronunciation of words as they
read aloud. After students read the article, they were asked to take notes on the article by
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 127
underlining and labeling facts and counterarguments the author provided to the reader. To mark
the text, students were required to re-read the article. Table 26 summarized the reading
comprehension strategies observed in Ms. Delgado’s classroom.
Table 26
Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s Classroom
(Continuation)
Strategies Before
Reading
Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Vocabulary Read aloud Re-read text
Ask questions Take notes
Vocabulary

Reading comprehension: Comparison of Lakeland continuation high school. One
similarity was observed between Mrs. Gonzalez and Ms. Delgado. Both utilized notes as a
strategy for reading comprehension. For instance, Mrs. Gonzalez asked students to take notes
while she gave a lecture before reading the text. However, Ms. Delgado required students to take
notes after reading a text. Table 27 summarizes the reading comprehension strategies observed in
Mrs. Gonzalez’ and Ms. Delgado’s classrooms.
Table 27
Comparison of Observed Reading Comprehension Strategies at Lakeland Continuation High
School
Strategies Before Reading Strategies During Reading Strategies After Reading
Take notes Take notes

Reading comprehension: Comparison of continuation high schools. There are no
similarities in reading comprehension strategies to report between Crispin and Lakeland
continuation high schools. Ms. Henriquez and Ms. Carpenter both engaged students in reading
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 128
works by Edgar Allan Poe. However, Mrs. Gonzalez was not observed reading with students and
Ms. Delgado utilized informational text to teach reading comprehension strategies. In addition,
three out of the four teachers were observed utilizing note taking, re-reading text, reading aloud
and asking questions as strategies either before or after reading a text.
Reading comprehension: Comparison of comprehensive and continuation high
schools. There were no similarities in reading comprehension strategies to relate between
comprehensive and continuation high schools. During the interview, all teachers reported Apple
Unified administrators strongly encouraged the use of Thinking Maps®, a type of graphic
organizer. Even though it was a strongly encouraged strategy, it was not evident in every
classroom. Teachers at comprehensive high schools taught reading comprehension strategies
with the same text, whereas teachers at continuation high schools utilized different texts.
Findings corroborate research that secondary English language arts teachers provide
opportunities for students to interact with different types of text (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, &
Perna, 2009). In both comprehensive and continuation high school classes, some students were
observed reading articles, poems, and plays. Students at comprehensive high schools were
observed reading aloud with teachers. In contrast, students at continuation high schools listened
or followed along while teachers read aloud. Following, findings on high-level literacy strategies
are reported.
High-level literacy: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. McDougal. High-level
literacy strategies were not observed during the three-day observation. During the interview,
when asked what strategies she found to be most effective in promoting high-levels of literacy,
Mrs. McDougal stated vocabulary, visual examples, reading aloud to students and teacher
modeling. The examples provided were not high-level literacy strategies per the literature
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 129
reviewed and incorporated in this study, on the contrary they are reading comprehension
strategies.
High-level literacy: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. Kagan. Two out of the
three days Mrs. Kagan’s class was observed, there was mention of high-level literacy strategies
being implemented but the observer did not witness the implementation of the strategies. On the
first day of the observation, after students read a sonnet, students were asked to compare a poem
for homework by Bradstreet and a poem by Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz. The assignment required
students to work with two documents written around the same period from two different
perspectives, an ordinary Puritan woman and a Catholic nun. On the second observation Mrs.
Kagan briefly discussed the homework assignment with students. During the interview, Mrs.
Kagan mentioned she structured her classroom discussions around big ideas that relate to the
world. She said she provided students with opportunities to understand why they were learning
different content and what the implications were of what they were learning in the real world.
Both the big ideas and the open-ended discussions were not observed during the three
observations. Table 28 summarizes the high-level literacy strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s 11
th
grade
English classroom.
Table 28
Evidence and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)
Evidence of High-Level Literacy Strategies Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies
Compare ideas Open-ended discourse
Examine multiple perspectives
Synthesize multiple documents/text

High-level literacy: Comparison of Gala comprehensive high school. High-level
literacy strategies were not observed during the three-day observation in either classroom.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 130
Observations of Mrs. Kagan’s oral explanation of future lesson suggest she was implementing
high-level literacy strategies.
High-level literacy: Sunset comprehensive high school Ms. Barrnett. A high-level
literacy strategy was witnessed on the first observation. After reading an article on food stamp
dependency, students worked on a worksheet entitled “SOAPSTone” which is a pneumonic
device. S stands for speaker. O stands for occasion. A stands for audience. P stands for purpose.
S stands for subject, and tone. Students worked on the worksheet independently. The questions
provided a scaffold to assist students in analyzing the structure of the article. During the
interview, Ms. Barrnett indicated students did the activity every time they read an article or
speeches. SOAPSTone allows students to analyze text by focusing on the author and relevant
information students know about the author. Students are asked to identify the occasion, time and
place, the context of the piece. Students infer who the intended audience, the group of readers to
whom the piece is directed to, the purpose for the article, the general subject or topic of the piece
and the tone or attitude of the author. By answering the aforementioned questions, students are
able to determine the author’s point of view and determine how style and content contribute to
the power and persuasiveness of an article.
During the interview, Ms. Barrnett reported she implements text-based discussions
regularly in her classroom. During classrooms discussions she gives students opportunities to
discuss ideas and themes surrounding the text they are reading. During the three days the
researcher observed the classroom text-based discussions were not evident. Table 29 summarizes
the high-level literacy strategies observed and reported in Ms. Barrnett’s 11
th
grade English
classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 131
Table 29
Observed and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)
Observed High-Level Literacy Strategies Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies
Analyze structure of text Text-based discussions

High-level literacy: Sunset comprehensive high school Mrs. Tseng. High level-
literacy strategies were not observed in Mrs. Tseng’s classroom during the three-day observation.
During the interview, when asked what strategies she has found to be most effective in
promoting high levels of literacy she said, “introducing a concept through a video or a
picture…something more simplistic so they (students) can understand the concept.”
For honor students, she assigns projects in which students can apply ideas they are
learning. For example, she taught her honor students about three rhetorical appeals: logic, ethos,
logos and pathos. After learning the appeals, students created a commercial utilizing all three
appeals. Mrs. Tseng had assigned many projects similar to the aforementioned, but they were
reserved for honor students. Since the beginning of the school year, her honor students had
created five projects. The researcher did not observe Mrs. Tseng providing regular education
students with opportunities to apply the ideas learned, and, since she indicated it was only for
honor students, the strategy was not be included. As a result, high-level literacy strategies were
not evident.
High-level literacy: Comparison of Sunset comprehensive high school. One high-
level literacy strategy was observed in Ms. Barrnett’s classroom. However, high-level literacy
strategies were not observed in Mrs. Tseng’s classroom. Ms. Barrnett reported using text-based
discussions to give students opportunities to grapple with ideas. Mrs. Tseng reported providing
honor students with occasions to apply new ideas.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 132
High-level literacy: Comparison of comprehensive high schools. High-level literacy
strategies were rarely observed in the four comprehensive classrooms. In one classroom, the
observer witnessed students engaged in analyzing the text structure of an article. In another
classroom, the researcher saw enough evidence to suggest the teacher implemented high-level
literacy strategies. Both teachers, Mrs. Kagan and Ms. Barrnett, in interviews, reported engaging
students in discourse to explore ideas. Mrs. Kagan said she had open-ended discussions with her
students on big ideas and their implications, while Ms. Barrnett said she used text-based
discourse to explore ideas in texts. The researcher found no similarities in high-level literacy
strategies implemented in all four comprehensive high schools.
High-level literacy: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Henriquez. During the
observations, students were witnessed participating in text-based discussions, applying ideas,
comparing and contrasting and analyzing the structure of the text. Students were engaged in a
discussion regarding “The Black Death from When Plague Strikes” by James Cross Giblin. The
discussion centered on the hysteria surrounding the Black Death. During the discussion, students
supported their responses with evidence from the text. Students were also asked to utilize
imagery to create an invitation to the Masquerade using tone and mood matching that of Edgar
Allan Poe. Ms. Henriquez also facilitated a discussion and the use of a graphic organizer to have
students compare the way Edgar Allan Poe described his version of the Black Death, “Red
Death” and the actual Black Death. “so, we’re going to compare and contrast the two. So, what
did he say happens to you, what are the images that he gives us, what are the actual facts of it
that we learned yesterday?” She also had students analyze the structure of the text, having
students analyze the words the author uses to influence tone and mood. Students were asked to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 133
pull three quotes from the short story and explain how those quotes established a tone and mood
throughout the short story.
During the interview Ms. Henriquez reported that she encourages students to interrogate
the text and that it often leads to discussions and sometimes even debates. She has seen students
question what is going on in texts and the characters actions. Often in the discussions she plays
Devil’s Advocate and pushes their thinking. “Sometimes students stop responding and just think,
and then they come back with more.” Table 30 summarizes the high-level literacy strategies
observed and reported in Ms. Henriquez’ 9
th
grade English classroom.
Table 30
Observed and Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’ Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed High-Level Literacy Strategies Reported High-Level Literacy Strategies
Analyze structure of text Interrogate text
Text-based discussions Debate ideas with evidence
Apply ideas
Compare ideas
Contrast ideas

High-level literacy: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Carpenter. High-level
literacy strategies were not observed in Ms. Carpenter’s classroom during the three-day
observation. During the interview, she reported using SOAPSTone as a strategy to promote high-
level literacy. She provided students with an article and students analyzed the article looking for
bias.
High-level literacy: Comparison of Crispin continuation high school. The researcher
observed Ms. Henriquez implementing various high-level literacy strategies. High-level literacy
strategies were not observed in Ms. Carpenter’s classroom.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 134
High-level literacy: Lakeland continuation high school Mrs. Gonzalez. High-level
literacy strategies were not observed in Mrs. Gonzalez’ classroom during the three-day
observation. During the interview, when asked about the strategies she implemented to achieve
high level literacy, she stated, “ A lot of it is just exposing them to things and kind of showing
them that you can learn a lot from a novel or from a book or from a story.” To Mrs. Gonzalez,
exposure was a way to get students to high levels of literacy. She also expressed that asking
students to elaborate on responses through questioning assisted students on reflecting and
thinking deeper about questions posed.
High-level literacy: Lakeland continuation high school Ms. Delgado. Ms. Delgado
was observed, on two out of three observations, engaging her students in a variety of high-level
literacy strategies. Ms. Delgado asked students open-ended questions that led to students’
expanding on ideas and engaged them in open-ended discourse. The following is an example of
Ms. Delgado’s use of strategies while students read an article on affirmative action:
Teacher: Here’s a question: “Why do minorities have an issue with the reading?” What’s
going on there? What do you think is happening? Any ideas? Why do minorities
have an issue with reading levels? Why are reading levels not as high in blacks ...
well blacks are obviously the lowest according to this data. Thirty-eight percent
of blacks, 53% of Latinos as opposed to 69% of whites. What is going on with
blacks or Latinos that their reading levels aren’t up? What do you think?
Student 1: They don’t value reading.
Teacher: They don’t value reading? Is that your opinion?
Student 1: Yes.
Teacher: What else?
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 135
Student 2: They might not be given enough opportunities.
Teacher: They might not be given what kind of opportunities? Be more specific.
Student 2: Educational opportunities.
Teacher: Educational opportunities? Okay.
Student 1: They do get free education, but that’s all on you whether you value it or not. Like
everybody gets a free education, but if you don’t value it that’s your problem.
Teacher: You’re saying culturally blacks and Latinos don’t value ….
Student 1: Well ….
Teacher: Well, that’s what you’re saying.
Student 1: Yeah. It’s a matter if you want it or not. Simple as that.
Student 2: That’s what he said.
Teacher: That’s what he’s saying. Yeah. I want to make sure that I’m being clear that you
are saying this is a cultural make-up of everybody in that group, and I’m going to
disagree with that, but that’s okay.
Student 3: You can’t seem to just say if you want it or not because when you’re little, like
subconsciously it’s instilled into you that you have to read if you’re a white kid or
if you have a better family that reads because they are more educated, but as you
know Mexican families …..
Teacher: So now you’re switching it out on me from what he said, you said it, switch it out
... you’re saying again, it’s not a cultural thing but it’s an educational thing. The
family is educated and let’s say we went to a group of people that were all
Hispanic, but they were educated ... the family would instill books and reading or
that would happen.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 136
Student 3: Well yeah, that’s what they did with me. My parents read to me.
On another observation, students prepared for a debate on whether or not the government
should legalize marijuana. Students were divided into two groups, and a leader for each group
was selected by the groups. Students were given access to several articles on the topic and, as
they prepared for the debate, they engaged in peer-led discussions and integrated information
from multiple sources. During the debate preparation, students participated in text-based
discussions focusing on the evidence the multiple texts provided them and they asked questions.
The following transcript captures one moment in which students participated in peer-led
discussions.
Student A: I wonder if they legalize marijuana, they might tax it? Because they’re so many
people that would be buying it?
Student B: Well, it is the cheapest drug.
Student A: If they tax it, if the government taxes it they would make a crap load of money
because they can have medical marijuana, like, when you buy it? And since it’s
legal, they’re going to get more money.
Student C: I don’t know what do you think about marijuana?
Student A: All right, what’s the other one?
Student D: Drug dealers wouldn’t want it to be legalized, because they wouldn’t be making
that much money.
Student A: I know. I’m saying the government. Dealers would lose money. That’s what I’m
saying. The government would make money, not the drug dealers.
Student B: All right, so how are we going to start this? “Marijuana is an epidemic that has
been growing over the past years in the United States.”
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 137
Student C: Epidemic?
Student A: We are talking about the United States. Not other countries. We’ll start it like that.
Student B: They have more than us, because they’re already searching.
Student D: What can you say about a guy that crashed 13 times?
Student A: He was under the influence. That’s a good example. He couldn’t control himself,
he wasn’t ...
Student C: That’s crazy. 13 times?
Student B: … he wasn’t in control of his motor vehicles. He couldn’t think straight, he …
Student D: He apparently injured two people that were taken to the hospital.
Student A: I’m just telling that those are reasons why it’s against. He probably thought he
could drive, while he was under the influence, so that’s what you said, that you
think you can do stuff when you are under the influence. That’s a good example.
You’re not in control because you think you can do stuff that …
Student D: I guess he crashed pretty bad because it says he disabled the 1998 Nissan
Pathfinder.
Table 31 summarizes the high-level literacy strategies observed in Ms. Delgado’s 11
th

grade English classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 138
Table 31
Observed High-Level Literacy Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed High-Level Literacy Strategies
Asks open-ended questions
Extend ideas
Open-ended discourse
Debate ideas with evidence
Integrate information from multiple sources
Peer-led discussions
Text-based discussions

High-level literacy: Comparison of Lakeland continuation high school. The
researcher observed Ms. Delgado implementing an assortment of high-level literacy strategies.
High-level literacy strategies were not observed in Mrs. Gonzalez’ classroom. Similarities
between both teachers at Lakeland Continuation High School were not apparent.
High-level literacy: Comparison of continuation high schools. Crispin and Lakeland
continuation high schools were similar in that, at each school site, one teacher was observed
utilizing a variety of high-level literacy strategies. No other similarities existed between the two
continuation high schools.
High-level literacy: Comparison of comprehensive and continuation high schools.
The researcher found no similarities in high-level literacy strategies being implemented by all
eight teachers. It should be noted that, in most cases, high-level literacy strategies were not
observed although most teachers reported during the interview using some type of high-level
literacy strategies. High-level literacy strategies were most prevalent in the continuation setting.
Research Question 1b: What instructional strategies are utilized by teachers for developing
academic writing in comprehensive versus continuation high schools?
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 139
Good writers acquire a repertoire of strategies in order to write effectively for a variety of
purposes and audiences (Wiley, 2000). Those strategies include prewriting activities,
transcribing text and reviewing strategies (Applebee & Langer, 2009). Table 32 is the list of
strategies, obtained from the literature review, the researcher utilized when analyzing the data. A
complete list is located in Appendix A.
Table 32
Writing Strategies
Planning Strategies Drafting Strategies
Revising and Editing
Strategies
Publishing
Strategies
Think aloud Postpone spelling and
written conventions
Use models to teach
specific elements
Showcase writing
Prewrite Focus on style Mini lessons to teach
skills
Present writing
Organize/outline Focus on content Meaningful practice Use of technology
Evaluate ideas Focus on structure Sentence combining
Brainstorm Focus on purpose Writing conventions
Graphic organizer Focus on organization Word choice
Note taking Multiple drafts Help from peers
Read together to
obtain evidence

Academic writing: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. McDougal. During the
observations, Mrs. McDougal and her students discussed an editorial writing assignment. The
researcher did not observe students working on the writing assignment. Based on the discussion,
students worked on an editorial in which they presented and opinion and provided evidence to
support the opinion. The writing assignment was divided into sections for students. Mrs.
McDougal asked students to turn in drafts of body paragraphs and reminded students
introductions were turned in the day before. She also told students to make sure to turn in drafts
because she would provide them with feedback and the final draft of the editorial should be
formatted similar to an article in a newspaper and that the writing assignment would be part of
students’ portfolios.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 140
During the interview, Mrs. McDougal said students had a writing project every six weeks
such as the editorial, a research paper, response to literature, reflection of junior year and letter.
Throughout the school year, Mrs. McDougal reported students were expected to write numerous
quick writes and several short writing assignments consisting of a paragraph. When students
engaged with a quick write, Mrs. McDougal modeled the behavior by writing when students are
writing. Mrs. McDougal also provided students with examples of good writing. She also said the
writing process was very important and that she guides students through the writing process.
Table 33 summarizes the academic writing strategies reported in Mrs. McDougal’s 11
th
grade
English classroom.
Table 33
Evidence and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. McDougal’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)

Evidence of Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Feedback Feedback
Monitor and support Monitor and support
Writing process Writing process
Long essays Provides examples of good writing
Short prose
Long essays
Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Gala comprehensive high school Mrs. Kagan. Mrs. Kagan’s
students were observed interacting with different types of writing strategies during all three
observations. Students responded in writing to questions in a test, wrote a few sentences to
summarize events that occurred in a play they were reading and paraphrased lines in a sonnet.
During the first observation, Mrs. Kagan informed students of an assignment that would be due
by the end of the week. It appeared students read text on the virtues of Benjamin Franklin and
students were to write a piece on 10 virtues they possess and would like to improve. Writing that
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 141
connected to reading students had done in class was a trend that was observed in Mrs. Kagan’s
classroom. For example, students read two poems, and their assignment was to write a short
essay comparing both poems. After reading, “The Crucible”, students took notes and wrote a
summary. Student’s writing was showcased in the classroom and writing displayed connected to
text students read in class.
During the interview, Mrs. Kagan discussed the importance of writing every day and for
different purposes. She said, “They need to write as much as possible…and express themselves.
They have to write formatted essays…then I give them creative assignments depending on what
we’re studying.” Once a week, students had a writing assignment they were to turn in for a
grade. Sometimes, she assigned writing that was very formatted and rigid like editorials,
persuasive pieces and responses to literature. Other times, she provided students opportunities to
be creative with their writing. She also mentioned the importance of not always making students
edit their writing. She said students need to have multiple opportunities to write freely without
judgment. Johannessen and McCann (2009) verified that, when working with English language
learners, writing fluency, rather than correctness, must be emphasized first. Table 34 summarizes
the academic writing strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s 11
th
grade English classroom.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 142
Table 34
Evidence and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Kagan’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)
Evidence of Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Read together to obtain evidence Opportunities to write freely
Short essay prose Writing for various purposes
Short response to reading
Short answer response
Showcase writing

Academic writing: Comparison of Gala comprehensive high school. Mrs. Kagan and
Mrs. McDougal had different perspectives on writing. Mrs. Kagan encouraged the writing
process, including revision, as an important feature of writing a published piece. Mrs. McDougal
believed assisting students with revisions stymied students’ ideas. Both teachers assigned writing
as homework and, during the interview, both indicated students wrote for a variety of purposes.
Both teachers mentioned students were required to write an editorial, response to literature, and
research report as part of their grade.
Academic writing: Sunset comprehensive high school Ms. Barrnett. On the first day
of the observation, Ms. Barrnett taught a mini lesson on compound-complex sentences (Figure
9). She first defined what a compound-complex sentence is, and then she provided students three
examples. Students were then asked to create five compound-complex sentences. After several
minutes, students wrote sentences on the whiteboard, and then Ms. Barrnett corrected the
sentences in front of the class, providing reasons why some of the sentences were not compound-
complex sentences. In addition, students wrote short responses to reading when they completed
the SOAPSTone activity.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 143

Figure 9. Photograph of Writing Mini-Lesson in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom.

During the interview, Ms. Barrnett was very forthcoming with information and stated the
strategies Sunset High School implemented for writing are not effective. According to Ms.
Barrnett, students were asked to write major essays every six weeks that were about two pages in
length. The essays were in a variety of genres and purposes like narrative, persuasive, response
to literature and expository. In addition, every few weeks, Ms. Barrnett expected students to
write well developed paragraphs or quick writes.
The researcher asked Ms. Barrnett to elaborate on the writing strategies she felt she used
but were inefficient. She stated the ABC strategy was ineffective. The ABC strategy asks
students to attack the prompt using a t-chart, brainstorm using graphic organizers and choose the
order in which ideas for the essay will be presented. Ms. Barrnett said the graphic organizers
students were required to use were not beneficial to students and she believed other graphic
organizers might be more beneficial to students. She indicated that a reason for the
ineffectiveness of the writing strategies lies in teachers’, including herself, not explicitly teaching
writing and the lack of time they have to teach writing. Ms. Barrnett also stated that teachers at
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 144
Sunset high did not spend time leading up and working on essays and revising them. The
following quote from Ms. Barrnett sums up her opinion regarding writing instruction at Sunset
High School, “Honestly, and it’s one of those double-edge swords. We need to do it, but we
don’t have the time to do it.” Table 35 summarizes the academic writing strategies observed and
reported in Ms. Barrnett’s 11
th
grade English classroom.
Table 35
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Barrnett’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Mini lesson to teach skill Graphic organizers
Short response to reading Brainstorm
Organize
Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Sunset comprehensive high school Mrs. Tseng. Short response to
reading was the writing strategy observed in Mrs. Tseng’s classroom. Students responded in
writing to a worksheet on visual allegory in which they had to describe what they saw in four
paintings and answer questions regarding the painting. Students also responded in writing when
they completed a graphic organizer to track characters in a play.
During the interview, Mrs. Tseng reported that she modeled for students how to break
down a prompt and provided mini lessons on how to add dialogue to a narrative essay, use a
variety of speech tags and how to format essays. She felt it was important for students to see
what good writing looks like. She also stated that students were required to write for different
purposes such as narratives, persuasive, response to literature and letters. Students were required
to write once every six weeks but her honor students wrote every day. Table 36 summarizes the
academic writing strategies observed and reported in Mrs. Tseng’s 11
th
grade English classroom.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 145
Table 36
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Tseng’s Classroom
(Comprehensive)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Short response to reading Mini lesson to teach skills
Models writing
Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Comparison of Sunset comprehensive high school. Both teachers
were observed requiring students to write short responses to reading. Ms. Barrnett was observed
teaching a mini-lesson on compound-complex sentences, and Mrs. Tseng taught a variety of mini
lessons. Ms. Barrnett and Mrs. Tseng both agreed that students at Sunset High were required to
write every six weeks for a variety of purposes. Table 37 summarizes the academic writing
strategies observed and reported at Sunset High School’s 11
th
grade English classrooms.
Table 37
Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at Sunset Comprehensive
High School
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Writing for various purposes
Mini lesson to teach skill
Short response to reading

Academic writing: Comparison of comprehensive high schools. The only similarity
among all four comprehensive high school was that they all reported students had to write a
formal essay every six weeks. Students were required to write every six weeks for a variety of
purposes.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 146
Academic writing: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Henriquez. Short answer
response, short response to reading and opportunities to share work were observed in Ms.
Henriquez’ classroom. Ms. Henriquez provided students with opportunities to quickly write
down thoughts to questions. She set a time limit, between three and five minutes, for students to
respond in writing to various prompts. Following are examples of questions students had to
respond to in writing:
 What is your favorite time of year and why?
 Why were people so afraid of the Black Death?
 Would you like to be a guest at this party? Why or why not?
After the time limit, Ms. Henriquez provided opportunities for students to share and discus their
response with a partner and then with the whole class. Besides the timed writing, students were
required to write predictions and take notes in a double entry journal.
During the interview Ms. Henriquez stated students wrote a five paragraph essay once
every 45 days. To prepare them for the writing assignment, she modeled good writing, used
student models to teach specific elements of writing and monitored and supported the writing
process. Most of the writing was done in class and she guided students through prewriting,
organizing and creating an outline for the essay and pulling quotes to substantiate claims. Table
38 summarizes the academic writing strategies observed and reported in Ms. Henriquez’ 9
th

grade English classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 147
Table 38
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Henriquez’ Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Short answer response Models writing
Short response to reading Provides examples of good writing
Opportunities to share work Use models to teach specific elements
Prewrite
Organize
Read together to obtain evidence
Monitor and support
Five-paragraph essay

Academic writing: Crispin continuation high school Ms. Carpenter. At the start of
the class, during the first observation, students in Ms. Carpenter’s classroom were witnessed
independently working on grammar practice that consisted of five sentences. Each sentence
targeted a grammar skill like capitalization, punctuation, parts of speech, subject and verb
agreement and sentence combining. After ten minutes, Ms. Carpenter reviewed the answers with
the whole class and provided students with rationale for corrections. During the interview Ms.
Carpenter reported, “What I found out last quarter was that the only grammar instruction that I
really did was going through those warm-ups.”
Students in Ms. Carpenter’s class were working on two writing assignments: a letter to
the teacher and a poem. To assist students with the poem, Ms. Carpenter provided good
examples of poems by first reading a poem similar in structure by a published author and then
reciting her own poem. At the end of the recitation of her poem, Ms. Carpenter did a think aloud
in which she explained to students her though process as she wrote the poem. The following are
examples of her think alouds:
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 148
“I felt like that was the most important thing that was like a family memento that I could
talk about. I spent time on that instead of like the original poet does talking about all
these photos.”
“I pretty much, you can see, I shortened this line after I wrote it. Other than that I didn’t
make very many changes after my first go at it. I just took my time. The next step was
making a pretty version.”
Ms. Carpenter informed the researcher that, because the district’s writing assessment was
coming up in December, she would be doing more in-class, on-demand writing. Nonetheless,
essays were generally done in class because it gives Ms. Carpenter opportunities to monitor and
support students while they write. The previous quarter, her students wrote four essays in 45
days. At the time of this study, she was planning to have students write between seven and ten
five-paragraph essays.
When asked what strategies she found to be effective in teaching writing she said,
“Emphasizing structure.” Ms. Carpenter believed that understanding the structure of an essay is
like training wheels. Once students understand the structure they can focus on ideas. When she
graded students’ writing, she focused on structure and gave high marks to essays even if the
writing has grammar issues and spelling issues. Table 39 summarizes the academic writing
strategies observed and reported in Ms. Carpenter’s 9
th
grade English classroom.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 149
Table 39
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Carpenter’s Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Mini lesson to teach skill Structure
Provide examples of good writing Monitor and support
Think aloud Five-paragraph essay
Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Comparison of Crispin continuation high school. Ms. Henriquez
and Ms. Carpenter both reported they expected their students to write a well-developed five-
paragraph essay and that they monitored and supported students while they wrote. Ms.
Henriquez said she provided students with examples of good writing, and Ms. Carpenter was
observed providing examples of good writing. Table 40 summarizes the academic writing
strategies observed and reported at Crispin Continuation High School’s 9
th
grade English
classrooms.
Table 40
Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at Crispin Continuation
High School
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Provide examples of good writing
Monitor and support
Five-paragraph essay

Academic writing: Lakeland continuation high school Mrs. Gonzalez. During the
three days the class was observed, Mrs. Gonzalez began the class period with Daily Language.
Daily Language is an opportunity for students to write daily (Figure 9), according to Mrs.
Gonzalez. She provided students with four different prompts and they were to respond to two
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 150
prompts. Students responses were, on average, between three and four sentences. On the final
observation, students were administered an assessment on a novel. The quiz required students to
respond to the reading. For example, a question on the quiz asked: Why did he write this book?
or Why did Moishe pray? Student responses to the quiz were a few words or a complete sentence
in length.

Figure 10. Photograph of Daily Language Student Work in Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom.

During the interview, Mrs. Gonzalez indicated she expects students to write a five-
paragraph essay which was due about every two weeks. She acknowledged that, at the time of
this study, students were not involved in a lot of writing. The following quote captures her
response, “It wasn’t our best writing quarter only because they were just real intimidated in terms
of writing.” In the past, she had students write for various purposes including business letters,
poems, narratives, and persuasive essays. Table 41 summarizes the academic writing strategies
observed and reported in Mrs. Gonzalez’ 9
th
grade English classroom:

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 151
Table 41
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Mrs. Gonzalez’ Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Short answer response Five-paragraph essay
Short response to reading Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Lakeland continuation high school Ms. Delgado. When students
entered the classroom, Ms. Delgado expected students to begin responding in writing to a prompt
written on the whiteboard. During the interview Ms. Delgado stated that the prompts varied from
having students reflect on a quote, reference a book or paraphrasing a poem. In this manner,
students wrote daily. Students were encouraged to take notes while they viewed a documentary.
While seeing the documentary, Ms. Delgado, at times, stopped the video and asked students to
write down notes. When they were done viewing a section of the documentary, students were
asked to re-read the notes and label any facts and opinions they wrote down on their notes.
Before the class period was over, students wrote a short answer response indicating the purpose
of the documentary. Ms. Delgado scaffolded the writing task by providing students a sentence
starter and reminding them to use their notes as a resource. “I think Spurlock is trying to
convince me that…” In addition, students wrote a short prose as an opening statement to a debate
on legalizing marijuana.
During the interview, Ms. Delgado shared her belief in the writing process, engaging
students in opportunities to share their work, and providing them with feedback. Ms. Delgado
felt that, in a continuation setting, there was not enough time to provide students with those
opportunities. Therefore, instead, she expected students to write short responses to prompts daily
and required a formal five-paragraph essay once each quarter. Table 42 summarizes the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 152
academic writing strategies observed and reported in Ms. Delgado’s 11
th
grade English
classroom:
Table 42
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies in Ms. Delgado’s Classroom
(Continuation)
Observed Academic Writing Strategies Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Short answer response Five-paragraph essay
Notes Writing for various purposes
Short prose

Academic writing: Comparison of Lakeland continuation high school. Both Mrs.
Gonzalez and Ms. Delgado expected students to write short answer responses daily. They
provided students with prompts, and students responded by writing a few sentences. During the
interview, both teachers reported expecting students to write a five-paragraph essay and
requiring students to write for many purposes. Table 43 summarizes the academic writing
strategies observed and reported at Lakeland Continuation High School’s 9
th
grade English
classrooms.
Table 43
Comparison of Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies at Lakeland Continuation
High School
Observed and Reported Academic Writing Strategies
Short answer response
Five-paragraph essay
Writing for various purposes

Academic writing: Comparison of continuation high schools. Few similarities were
found among all four teachers at the continuation high school. The four teachers reported
requiring students to write a five-paragraph essay at least once during the 45 day quarter.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 153
Continuation high school teachers were also observed and they reported providing students
opportunities to write short answer responses such as quick writes.
Academic writing: Comparison of comprehensive and continuation high schools.
Similarities on teachers’ use of writing strategies were not evident among all eight teachers.
Comprehensive high schools, on average, required students to write at least a two page essay
every six weeks. The continuation high schools required students to write a five-paragraph essay
about every nine weeks. In addition, several teachers mentioned the lack of time as an obstacle to
teaching writing. Teachers at continuation schools required the writing to be done in class while
teachers at the comprehensive sites assigned the writing as homework. All teachers mentioned
the district writing assessment as a motivator to teach or assign writing in their classrooms.
Summary of Findings
The comparative case study analysis revealed similarities and differences between
comprehensive and continuation high school literacy strategies teachers implemented to teach
reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing.
Eight teachers participated in the study, and two teachers at the comprehensive high
schools had more than 30 years of teaching experience. Two teachers at the comprehensive
schools and three teachers at the continuation high schools had fewer than 10 years of teaching
experience. Comprehensive classrooms had over 33 students per class, the largest class had 40
students enrolled. In contrast, the continuation classrooms had no more than 31 students enrolled
and the smallest class had 19 students enrolled. The lower-student ratio was a key characteristic
of alternative schools (Aron, 2006; Lange, 1998; Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009) identified in the
literature, and it was corroborated in the continuation high schools in Apple Unified. Seven out
of the eight classrooms had 100 percent Latino descent students. Ms. Carpenter from Crispin
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 154
Continuation High school had two students enrolled who were not of Latino descent. Most
students’ primary language was Spanish and both comprehensive and continuation classes had a
high percentage of English language learners.
The percentage of students scoring proficient or advanced on both the English language
arts CST for both comprehensive and continuation high schools was under eight percent, except
for Mrs. Kagan’s class. She had about 30 percent of her students score proficient or advanced on
the English language arts CST. The findings substantiate data research indicating approximately
76 percent of U.S. adolescents read at a basic level of performance (NAEP Reading Report Card,
2011). In the district’s writing assessment, most comprehensive and continuation classrooms
had between 23 percent and 16 percent of their students score proficient or advanced. The
student demographic data determined students at both comprehensive and continuation high
schools were similar in terms of key demographics such as reading and writing proficiency,
ethnic and racial backgrounds, language and socioeconomic status.
Differences between implementation of reading comprehension strategies in
comprehensive and continuation high schools were discovered after analyzing the data. Teachers
at comprehensive high schools required students to do more reading aloud than at continuation
high schools. During observed read alouds at comprehensive high schools, both teachers and
students participated in reading aloud. While at the continuation high schools, teachers were
solely responsible for reading aloud. The majority of teachers at both comprehensive and
continuation high schools used step asides to define vocabulary for students and ask questions,
asked students to take notes, and required students to re-read text to complete an assignment.
Observations at both educational settings confirm the research that asserted adolescents spend
most of their time in English classes that are monologic, teacher-led recitations in which the
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 155
teacher and textbook contain all the knowledge (Nystrand, 2006). During read alouds, teachers
at both settings asked closed-type questions and students were required to answer. Most often,
students answered questions using few words or teachers answered their own questions.
High-level literacy strategies were rarely observed in comprehensive high schools and
were apparent in two teachers’ teaching in continuation high schools. There was a discrepancy
between what teachers report utilizing as high-level literacy strategies and what was actually
observed by the researcher. In general, teachers report using strategies that engage students in
discourse surrounding big ideas, real world connections and text-based discussions. The only
evidence of discussions took place at the two continuation high school settings.
Similarities on teachers’ use of writing strategies were not evident among all eight
teachers. Teachers at comprehensive high schools, on average, required students to write essays
at least two pages in length every six weeks. However, teachers at continuation high schools
required students to write a five-paragraph essay about every nine weeks. Teachers at
continuation schools required students to complete essays in class, while teachers at
comprehensive sites assigned writing as homework. All teachers reported the district writing
assessment as a motivator to teach or assign writing in their classrooms. In addition, several
teachers mentioned the lack of time as an obstacle to teaching writing. Figure 11 summarizes
comparison of findings between comprehensive and continuation high schools.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 156

Figure 11. Summary of Comparison of Findings Between Comprehensive and Continuation
High Schools.
This chapter provided an analysis of the findings that emerged during the study. Chapter
Five includes a discussion of the main findings, implications for action and possible areas for
further research.
Comprehensive
High School
• vocabulary
• ask questions
• write essay every
six weeks
Continuation
High School
• note taking
• quick writes
• five-paragraph
essay every 9
weeks
 re-read
text
 read
aloud

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 157
Chapter Five
Discussion
This chapter presents a summary of the study and important conclusions drawn from the
data presented in Chapter Four. It provides a discussion of the implications for action and
recommendations for further research.
Summary of the Study
There is limited research on what happens in high school language arts classrooms. A gap
exists between the type of literacy instruction research proved is successful and the type of
literacy instruction taking place in classrooms. Less is known in regards to literacy instructional
practices proven to be effective with special populations such as at-risk students attending
alternative programs or students attending triply segregated schools. Adolescents who have
difficulty creating meaning from text are not recognized as struggling readers by secondary
teachers (Darwin & Fleischman, 2005). The issue was exacerbated by teachers who, instead of
addressing the issue of reading comprehension, provide struggling readers with key ideas and
concepts through lecture, eliminating the task of reading the text (Finn, 2009; Hindin, Morocco,
& Aguilar, 2001). NAEP found approximately 76 percent of adolescents read at a basic level
(NAEP Reading Report Card, 2011). The findings suggest students have basic reading skills and
are not equipped with high-level literacy which also manifests in students’ writing. Students for
whom reading and writing demands become increasingly difficult, dropping out of school
represents a final act of disengagement from school which began in the elementary grades
(Alexander, Entwisle, & Kabbani, 2001).
To close the gap, this qualitative comparative study observed literacy instructional
practices in four high schools: two comprehensive and two continuation high schools in Apple
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 158
Unified School District. At the time of this study, Apple Unified School District (AUSD) was a
K-12 triply segregated district with 61 school sites serving approximately 58,000 students.
AUSD’s student demographic primarily consisted of students of Latino descent,
socioeconomically disadvantaged, and English language learners. The purpose of this
comparative study was to identify practices in the area of literacy instruction focused on reading
comprehension, high-level literacy and writing in order to improve student achievement in triply
segregated high schools and classrooms.
Eight high school English teachers were observed on three nonconsecutive days and
interviewed using open-ended questions. Documents such as student work samples, classroom
worksheets and photographs were also analyzed to acquire understanding of the literacy
strategies teachers utilized during instruction. After data collection, the researcher analyzed data
for each classroom, coding for reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing strategies.
Then, the researcher analyzed and compared literacy strategies used by teachers at the same
school site, followed by a comparison of strategies utilized by teachers within a similar school
setting. Finally, the researcher analyzed and compared literacy instructional practices between
comprehensive and continuation high school settings.
The student demographic data analyzed determined students at both comprehensive and
continuation high schools were similar in terms of key demographics such as reading and writing
proficiency, ethnic and racial backgrounds, language and socioeconomic status. Observations at
both educational settings confirm research which asserts adolescents spend most of their time in
English classes that are monologic (Nystrand, 2006). The majority of teachers at both
comprehensive and continuation high schools used the following reading comprehension
strategies: step asides to define vocabulary for students, asking questions, note-taking, and re-
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 159
reading text to complete assignments. High-level literacy strategies were rarely observed in
comprehensive high schools and were apparent in the teaching of two teachers in continuation
high schools. There was a discrepancy between what teachers reported utilizing as high-level
literacy strategies and what was actually observed by the researcher. Similarities in teachers use
of writing strategies were not evident between all eight teachers.
Discussion
The findings validate previous studies that found adolescents in the United States rarely
engage in reading or writing that promotes growth (Vacca, 1998). Adolescents are trapped in
monologic classrooms in which teachers are seen as the keepers and controllers of knowledge
(Nystrand, 2006). Readers should be active participants in the reading process by questioning,
examining or disputing power relations between readers and authors (McLaughlin & DeVoogd,
2001). Nevertheless, the dominant voice and participants in high school classrooms in both
comprehensive and continuation settings were, oftentimes, the teachers. There were occasions in
which some teachers utilized strategies that seemed to engage students in the reading process.
Ms. Delgado at Lakeland Continuation High School used high-level literacy strategies
that engaged students in the reading process. Students in her classroom shifted from receivers of
knowledge to active constructors of their own knowledge and understanding. She divided
students into two groups, and students led rich discussions using multiple documents as evidence
to support their arguments. Ms. Delgado’s students validated a study by Berne and Clark (2006)
that found that, in peer-led discourse, students helped each other figure out meaning, fill in
missing background information, puzzle through ideas together, and owned their learning.
In addition, previous research found activating prior knowledge and building background
knowledge supports students as they read and enhances students’ comprehension (McKeown,
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 160
Beck, & Blake, 2009). Several teachers at both the comprehensive and continuation high schools
were observed utilizing the abovementioned strategies. Ms. Henriquez from Crispin
Continuation High School was observed utilizing both strategies with a short story by Edgar
Allan Poe. Her students read a short biography on Edgar Allan Poe, and they also read an article
about the Black Death before reading Poe’s short story. Both Mrs. McDougal and Mrs. Kagan
from Gala High School provided background knowledge before reading “The Crucible.” In both
classes, students read articles regarding the Salem Witch Trials in the 1690’s and the communist
accusations in the United States in the 1950’s. Before having students read a poem, Mrs. Kagan
provided students with background knowledge on the time period. Cromley and Azevado’s
(2007) study found background knowledge made the largest contributions to developing reading
comprehension.
Sometimes, teachers guided students in the use of reading strategies. For example,
several teachers were observed reminding students to take notes while they read. During an
observation, Ms. Delgado provided class time for students to review their notes and reminded
students to use their notes while they wrote summaries. Flood, Lapp and Fisher (2003) stated that
teaching and encouraging students to take notes while reading fosters comprehension in
adolescents.
Although several reading comprehension and high-level literacy strategies were utilized
by some teachers, deep or critical understanding of text was not evident. Most often, teachers
asked literal questions that were answered in just a few words. Very few observations were made
in which students analyzed text, compared and contrasted ideas, examined multiple perspectives
and synthesized multiple documents. Taylor, Pearson, Peterson and Rodriguez (2003)
investigated the effects of teaching on students’ reading achievement and looked at 88 teachers
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 161
and 9 randomly selected students per classrooms in 9 high-poverty schools. The most consistent
finding was that greater reading growth was promoted when teachers emphasized higher-order
thinking, either through the questions they ask or the tasks they assigned. The more teachers
challenge students to think about what they read and ask higher-level questions, the more growth
students will experience.
The findings also confirm that the most common writing activities used by high school
teachers were short answer responses, short responses to material read, completing worksheets,
and summary of materials read (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009; Santangelo & Olinghouse,
2009). Writing activities assigned in high school are best described as writing to fulfill district
mandates. All teachers reported the district writing assessment as a motivator to teach or assign
writing in their classrooms and writing was assigned to be prepared for the district assessments.
Furthermore, the amount and length of writing observed at both comprehensive and continuation
high schools corroborate the existing research. In a study, nearly 80 percent of adolescents
surveyed reported the average length of their writing assignment was less than one page
(Santangelo & Olinghouse, 2009). Another study found that, on average, students in English
classes were not writing a great deal; adolescents were expected to produce approximately 1.6
pages a week of extended text and about 17.6 percent of high school students’ work involved
extended writing (Applebee & Langer, 2011). Teachers at the comprehensive high schools, on
average, required students to write essays at least two pages in length every six weeks, whereas
teachers at continuation high schools required students to write a five-paragraph essay about
every nine weeks. Additionally, studies asserted teachers provide students with little instruction
or help with the writing process, and students are mostly given writing assignments in the form
of independent writing projects in which writing instruction infrequently addresses planning,
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 162
revising and editing strategies; a finding evident in the current study (Kiuhara, Graham, &
Hawken, 2009; Fisher & Frey, 2003). Teachers at comprehensive high schools assigned writing
as homework and teachers at both settings revealed the lack of time as an obstacle to teaching
writing.
This study sheds light on continuation high schools in Apple Unified. In California,
alternative educational settings are required to provide adolescents with curriculum consisting of
content standards adopted by the state as well as support students in completing state graduation
requirements (Lehr, Tan, & Ysseldyke, 2009). In all four continuation high school classrooms
observed, teachers posted standards taught on the whiteboard for students to see. In addition,
during interviews teachers reported content standards dictated what they taught. Also, alternative
educational settings were important tools for engaging students who had been disengaged from
school, but researchers knew very little about how well alternative programs like continuation
high schools engaged students (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). Use of high-level literacy strategies
such as the ones evident in Ms. Henriquez’ and Ms. Delgado’s classrooms were one way in
which students were engaged. The expectation was that comprehensive high schools would
utilize more high-level literacy strategies based on high standardized scores in reading and
writing. However, more high-level literacy strategies were observed at the continuation high
schools.
Implications
The study confirms students at Apple Unified are not being equipped with literacy skills
required to enter the twenty-first century workforce. The comprehensive high schools selected to
participate in the study were the highest performing high schools in Apple Unified. In terms of
high-level literacy strategies implemented by teachers to provide opportunities for students to
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 163
become critical readers, the continuation high school teachers demonstrated more evidence of
high-level literacy than the teachers at the comprehensive high schools. This is a calamitous
situation in which highly qualified teachers are stymied due to federal, state and local mandates.
During interviews, teachers reported what they felt was good teaching; however, against
observed practices, self-reported beliefs were not implemented. In some interviews, teachers
were candid and stated they knew the strategies they were utilizing were ineffective, but, due to
school and district constraints, they continued utilizing ineffective strategies. In this study,
teachers practices adversely affected students.
To comply with what teachers believe to be state and district mandates they have lowered
their expectations and are being rewarded. Current standardized tests reward reading
comprehension but rarely test high-level literacy skills or academic writing. Teachers feel
pressure to demonstrate results and consequently are teaching to the standardized assessments
and mostly focusing on reading comprehension. Unfortunately, the skills needed to succeed in
college and careers demand more than just comprehension skills. To succeed in college, students
need to be well versed in writing multi page essays for various purposes and in a variety of
genres, critically analyze text and participate in academic discourse. Accountability measures
must change in order to be able to assess students acquisition of high-level literacy and academic
writing. As the assessments change, we might also witness a change in high level literacy
strategies implemented in classrooms as well as more student writing.
Teachers know what good teaching is and must be empowered to provide their students
with high-level literacy instruction under politically charged mandates. It is important to
remember that more can be done with less. If teachers cover less material but are able to go
deeper with the content they will find they have time to involve student in a rich high-level
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 164
literacy classroom and provide ample opportunities for students to write. Doing more with less
requires careful planning but once implemented students would be prepared for college and
careers and will be able to demonstrate proficiency in state mandated assessments.
Students are in a precarious situation, they are living in the twenty-first century and are
not acquiring the skills necessary to succeed in college or careers. The schooling students are
receiving is detrimental to their future. Employers seek people who are critical thinkers,
problem-solvers, and collaborators (Lawrence, Rabinowitz, & Perna, 2009). To succeed in
college, students will need to be able to utilize writing to develop new insights, clarify
information, examine personal experiences, stretch the imagination, and persuade others
(Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawken, 2009). The type of schooling students at Apple Unified received
exacerbates the pattern of poor academic achievement (Gandara, 2010a). Latinos segregated by
ethnicity, socioeconomic status and language already have the odds stacked against them. They
need high quality instruction that prepares them for the demands of college and careers.
Teachers possess the knowledge of expectations for English language arts for the current
standards. However, California adopted Common Core Standards. Teachers and students will
need support if they are to successfully transition to the new Common Core State Standards
which require a completely different perspective on schooling and education. Common Core
State Standards will require students to closely read complex texts in various genres, to analyze
text, support inferences and claims with evidence from the text, apply ideas to solve problems
and understand the world around them. Also, students will be required to construct arguments
and present understanding orally and in writing. Based on the findings in this study, teachers will
experience a pedagogical and philosophical shift that includes high-level literacy strategies and
multiple opportunities to write argumentative essays.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 165
Recommendations
To increase student achievement in triply segregated comprehensive and continuation
high schools at Apple Unified, the researcher makes the following recommendations. District
administrators are advised to allocate resources for continued professional development and
support for each school site. It is recommended that each school site be provided with on-site
literacy coaches to provide ongoing support to teachers, model lessons, co-plan, co-teach, and
facilitate reflective conversations with teachers.
Administrators are encouraged to become instructional leaders who place teaching and
learning at the focal point of their role as leaders. Instructional leaders are well versed on
researched-based instructional strategies and promote a culture of continuous learning for adults.
School site principals who are instructional leaders constantly visit classrooms to understand
teachers’ needs and recognize instructional strategies implemented by teachers. Based on
classroom observations, it benefits schools to develop a professional development plan
encompassing no more than three professional development goals for the year. The goals would
provide a framework in which to build teachers’ knowledge and expertise including how to help
teachers successfully shift to the new Common Core Standards.
Schools are also advised to include collaboration between teachers, including teachers at
continuation and comprehensive high schools to increasing student achievement. During
collaboration meetings, teachers analyze student work and develop units that provide adequate
scaffolds for students to participate in rigorous and relevant tasks that require them to read
complex texts, participate in text-based discussions and present analyses and interpretation of
ideas in writing.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 166
Teachers are advised to situate the learner at the center of the classroom, wherein
students use texts and teachers as tools for learning and constructing new knowledge. Teachers
are encouraged to incorporate structures that promote peer-interaction and opportunities for
students to read and discuss the texts that are read. Authentic and meaningful opportunities to
develop language and oral proficiencies once provided to students will increase their chances of
having a broader vocabulary base. It is recommended that students are provided with regular
opportunities to discuss content and use language in a safe context in which they can speak and
learn from classmates.
Suggestions for Further Research
Future studies could replicate the current study and include more school sites and
classrooms because it would enhance the opportunity to generalize the findings and support
teachers in different districts with similar demographics. Another study could replicate the study
and observe literacy strategies in other content area classrooms such as science or social science.
With implementation of Common Core Standards, all teachers, including content area teachers,
will be required to teach literacy skills. Therefore, it will be important to know the literacy
strategies content area teachers utilize. Another modification to the current study could be to
observe fewer classrooms but make more observations for an extended period of time. The
longer time frame could lead to a more precise understanding of instructional strategies utilized
by teachers. It would also be beneficial to include student interviews as part of the study. Further
studies on the type and impact of strategies adolescents are systematically implementing to
understand text is needed. It is unknown what strategies students using and how beneficial they
feel those strategies are in helping them understand complex text from the student perspective
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 167
Moreover, a beneficial study would examine the relationship among teachers’ philosophy
of education, perceived beliefs on the impact of educational policies in their classroom, and
perceived abilities of students and how those believes manifest in the classroom. In the current
study, it was expected comprehensive high schools would utilize more high-level literacy
strategies due to high standardized scores. Instead, high-level literacy strategies were mostly
observed in continuation classrooms. Therefore, a study that looks at how practices used in the
classrooms affect student achievement in standardized tests is needed.
Limitations
The following limitations were present in the study:
 The researcher was employed at the district of study and was a member of the
community.
 The study focused on one district in Southern California and may not be generalizable to
other schools and districts.
Delimitations
The following delimitations were made in this study:
 The study focused on two comprehensive high schools and two continuation high schools
in one school district.
 The study focused on literacy instruction as it related to reading comprehension, high-
level literacy and writing.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 168
Concluding Remarks
This comparative study sought to identify English language arts literacy instructional
practices in traditional and nontraditional secondary settings serving a triply segregated
population. The student demographic data analyzed determined students at both comprehensive
and continuation high schools were similar in terms of key demographics. Observations and
interviews corroborate adolescents spend most of their time in English classes that are
monologic. It is important for students to do well on high-stakes tests, but it is also our
professional obligation to ensure they become the very best they can become.

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 169
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Appendix A
Classroom Observation Protocol
adapted from Boston College Teachers for a New Era Evidence Team/Qualitative Case Study
(2007)
This observation protocol captures English language arts instruction within the context of an
urban classroom. Completion of the observation protocol form requires the researcher to compile
quantitative data for the entire school, provide an overview of the context of the classroom,
create a script of events and categorize data into a chronology of events.
School Background:
Prior to the observation, the researcher compiles quantitative data for the entire school and serves
as the cover page for all the observations that take place at that school.
Classroom:
At the beginning of each observation, the researcher records overview of the pupils and context
of the classroom. An informal count of the students’ gender and race are included, as well as,
notes on the physical characteristics of the room.
Script of Events:
During the observation, the researcher focuses on instructional practices utilized by teacher. The
researcher will capture as much as possible, including quotations.
Research-Based Strategies Utilized:
The scripted data are categorized based on type of strategy utilized by the teacher.
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 182

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 183

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 184
Observation Script
Teacher: Grade: Time & Date:___________
Observer: ELA Standard: _______________________
Field Notes:

185
Research-Based Strategies Utilized: Reading Comprehension

Before During After
 Motivate students  Think aloud  Provide feedback
 Think aloud  Provide feedback  Summarize
 Read aloud  Read aloud  Answer literal
questions
 Sets purpose  Re-read  Ask literal question
 Preview text  Use cues from text  Identify text structure
 Activate prior
knowledge
 Check for
understanding

 Preview structure of
text
 Paraphrase text
 Vocabulary  Visualize text
 Make predictions  Make inferences
 Build background
knowledge
 Use context clues
 Take notes
 Graphic organizers
 Ask questions

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 186
Research-Based Strategies Utilized: High-Level Literacy
 Students are text critics
 Interrogate text
 Students ask complicated questions
 Teacher asks open-ended questions
 Students evaluate ideas
 Students apply ideas
 Students extend ideas
 Build ideas with text
 Multiple document literacy: locate, use, and evaluate
 Integration of information from multiple sources
 Open-ended discourse
 Compare ideas
 Contrast ideas
 Synthesize multiple documents/text
 Text-based discussions
 Engage in problem solving activities
 Peer-led discussions
 Analyze structure of text: author’s purpose, words used
 Examine multiple perspectives
 Argue/debate with evidence
 Co-construct knowledge
 Teacher and text are tools

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 187
Research-Based Strategies Utilized: Academic Writing
Role of the Teacher Purpose for Writing
 Monitor and support  Convey info, demonstrate
knowledge, clarify information,
summary, retelling
 Provide feedback-oral and written  Persuade/argument
 Set writing goals  Examine personal narratives,
narrative
 Provide examples of good writing
(model writing)
Length of Writing
 Differentiate  Short answer responses
 Opportunities to write freely- writing
fluency
 Short response to reading
 Opportunities to share work with
partners, small groups, teacher

 Five-paragraph essay or shorter
essay/prose
 Frequent writing opportunities  Longer essays

Planning Strategies Drafting Strategies Revising and Editing
Strategies
Publishing
Strategies
Think aloud Postpone spelling and
written conventions
Use models to teach
specific elements
Showcase
writing
Prewrite Focus on style Mini lessons to teach
skills
Present writing
Organize/outline Focus on content Meaningful practice Use of
technology
Evaluate ideas Focus on structure Sentence combining
Brainstorm Focus on purpose Writing conventions
Graphic organizer Focus on organization Word choice
Note taking Multiple drafts Help from peers
Read together to obtain
evidence

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 188
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
The researcher will interview high school English language arts teachers to find out about current
practices in English language arts instruction in a comprehensive and continuation high school.
The information provided in this interview will be utilized to complete a dissertation as part of a
doctoral program.
The interview takes about one hour. The interview will tend to focus on English language arts
instruction and focus on the following topics:
 Quality English language arts instruction
 Adopted English language arts curriculum

LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 189
Teacher Interview Questions
Thanks for agreeing to the interview. The following questions are designed to help inform the
study on instructional practices utilized by secondary English language arts teachers. Do I have
your permission to audio record the interview?
1. Let’s begin with some background information on you. How did you get into teaching and how
long have you been teaching?
2. What do you like best about teaching English language arts at _________High School?
3. What does a regular class period look like, for example what type of activities are you
and your students involved in during a class period?
a. What are the established routines in your classroom?
4. What instructional practices/strategies have you found to be most effective in promoting
high levels of literacy?
a. In your experience, what have you found to be effective in developing reading
comprehension?
i. What type of material or genres are students required to read?
ii. During class time, how often do students read texts?
b. What have you found to be effective in developing critical thinking skills?
c. What have you found to be effective in the teaching of writing?
i. What types of writing assignments do you assign to students?
ii. How often do students write in your classroom or receive writing
assignments?
iii. How long do you expect those writing assignments to be?
5. What is the one area in literacy that your students excel at?
LANGUAGE ARTS INSTRUCTION 190
a. What are some factors that contribute to your students’ mastery of _____?
6. In regards to literacy, what is one area in which your students struggle?
a. What are some factors that contribute to your students’ difficulty with ______?
7. Does the school or district require you to use any specific instructional strategies? If so
which ones?
a. How effective do you believe ______ strategy to be?
b. What does the district or school have in place to support your use of ____
strategies?
8. Is there a district initiative/program that has impacted your literacy program?
9. If I were to ask one your students who struggles with literacy to describe one strategy you
utilize that has been the most helpful to them, what do you think they would tell me?
10. How would you describe the students at your school site?
That covers the things I wanted to ask. Is there anything you think I should have asked you
that I didn’t think to ask?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study set out to examine literacy practices in triply segregated comprehensive and continuation high schools. The focus of the study was on instructional strategies implemented by high school teachers to teach reading comprehension, high-level literacy and writing. Four high school English language arts classrooms

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gomez, Maria Guadalupe (author)

Core Title A comparative study of language arts instruction in triply segregated high schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/13/2013

Defense Date 02/11/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag alternative education,continuation high school,Literacy,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Perez, Mayra (committee member)

Creator Email lupegomez78@sbcglobal.net,mariaggo@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-224970

Unique identifier UC11294915

Identifier usctheses-c3-224970 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GomezMaria-1470.pdf

Dmrecord 224970

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gomez, Maria Guadalupe

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA