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Teachers in continuation high schools: attributes of new teachers and veteran teachers in urban continuation high schools

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Teachers in continuation high schools: attributes of new teachers and veteran teachers in urban continuation high schools

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Content Running head: TEACHERS IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS i

TEACHERS IN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS - ATTRIBUTES OF NEW
TEACHERS AND VETERAN TEACHERS IN URBAN CONTINUATION HIGH
SCHOOLS

by
Reginald Obiamalu
______________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2013

Copyright 2013 Reginald Obiamalu
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Dedication
This dissertation project is dedicated to the entire family of Sir George & Lady
Priscilla Obiamalu, my parents, my sister, Mrs. Doreen Oranuba (nee Obiamalu), my
brothers, Late Henry Obiamalu, who succumbed to the ravages of his bone marrow
cancer, on August 9, 2012, George Obiamalu Jr. and Raymond Obiamalu Esq. Our
parents gave us all they could with the little they had. Their filial upbringing of yours
truly and my siblings gave rise to my spirit of perseverance, tenacity, survival, and
doggedness. You are and will always be “the wind beneath my wings”.

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Acknowledgements
The completion of this dissertation project would not have been possible without the
assistance of the following:
A. My sincere depth of gratitude goes to Dr. Renaldo Baca, my dissertation
committee chairman and advisor, whose constant professional and emotional
support, encouragement, and direction, helped pull me through. I thank you
immensely for not giving up on me.
B. I am grateful to Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Linda Fischer, members of my
committee, for their support and guidance throughout my long dissertation period.
C. I also wish to thank my professional colleagues in the Local District 7 of the
Los Angeles Unified School District, Dr. Michelle Woods and Dr. Cecilia Duenas,
whose constant words of encouragement during my “trying” times, helped pull me
over the “psychological hump” of seeing the project through.
D. I owe immense gratitude to Dr. Youn Oh, my dissertation editor, for coming to
my rescue
F. Finally, I owe a depth of gratitude to my Obiamalu family for their eternal
belief in my ability to accomplish this task. I hope I have succeeded in making you
all proud. Thank you and do remain blessed.

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Table of Contents

Dedication ii

Acknowledgements iii

List of Tables v

Abstract vii

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 12

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 54

Chapter 4: Results 61

Chapter 5: Discussion 78

References 86

Appendix A: Information/Facts Sheet for Non-Medical Research Form 92

Appendix B: Recruitment Letter to Principals (1) 94

Appendix C: Recruitment Letter to Principals (2) 95

Appendix D: The Haberman Star Teacher Pre-Screener Questionnaire Survey 96
Instrument

Appendix E: Definitions of Attributes 103

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List of Tables

Table 1: Dropout Numbers and Percentage of Dropouts Ages 16 – 24 by Selected
Characteristics 2004 3

Table 2: Summary of Survey Questionnaire Distribution 56
Table 3: Martin Haberman’s Ten Attributes 58
Table 4.1: Persistence of Veteran Teachers 62
Table 4.2: Organization and Planning of Veteran Teachers 62
Table 4.3: Values Student Learning of Veteran Teachers 63

Table 4.4: Theory of Practices of Veteran Teachers 64

Table 4.5: At-Risk Students of Veteran Teachers 65

Table 4.6: Approach to Students of Veteran Teachers 65

Table 4.7: Survive in Bureaucracy of Veteran Teachers 66

Table 4.8: Explains Teacher Success of Veteran Teachers 67

Table 4.9: Explains Student Success of Veteran Teachers 68

Table 4.10: Fallibility of Veteran Teachers 68

Table 5.1: Persistence of New Teachers 69
Table 5.2: Organization and Planning of New Teachers 69
Table 5.3: Values Student Learning of New Teachers 70

Table 5.4: Theory of Practices of New Teachers 70

Table 5.5: At-Risk Students of New Teachers 71

Table 5.6: Approach to Students of New Teachers 71

Table 5.7: Survive in Bureaucracy of New Teachers 72

Table 5.8: Explains Teacher Success of New Teachers 72

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Table 5.9: Explains Student Success of New Teachers 73

Table 5.10: Fallibility of New Teachers 73

Table 6: VTs and NTs’ Correct Reponses to Harberman’s Attributes 75

Table 7: VTs and NTs’ Attribute Scores and Haberman’s Strong Attribute
Thresholds 76

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Abstract
The purpose of study was to examine the attributes of teachers of urban continuation
high schools in Los Angeles Unified School District. The research questions were:
1. What are the attributes of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to teach
at-risk students in alternative high schools? and 2. How do alternative high school
teachers identified as veteran teachers to instruct at risk students differ from those
identified as new teachers? The current study employed Martin Haberman’s star
teacher framework addressing attributes of instructing at urban high schools serving
poor, minority, at-risk students.
This study employed an ethnographic qualitative research design. Data was
collected from 10 new teachers and 10 veteran teachers who completed the Martin
Haberman’s modified New Teacher survey. The data were analyzed through logico-
inductive analysis, a process of grouping, regrouping, and matching data with
research questions. Results indicate that for the veteran teachers, values student
learning, theory of practice, and explains students success met Harberman’s attribute
thresholds. For the new teachers, explains student success was the only strong
attribute. The comparison analysis between veteran teachers and new teachers’
correct responses to Haberman’s attributes indicated that the veteran teachers had
more correct responses than the new teachers. The study showed how both new and
veteran teachers at continuation schools that aimed to decrease dropouts were not
prepared to teach at-risk students. The findings implied that urban schools should
recruit and train the best equipped and brightest of teachers to educate unmotivated
students to achieve and graduate.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
The purpose of the current study was to investigate if twenty teachers who were
assigned to continuation high schools serving urban, poor, minority, at-risk students of
Hispanic and African American origins in southern California held attributes of Martin
Haberman’s “star teachers” addressing good qualities of instructing such population.
The study particularly aimed to identify specific attributes of veteran teachers and new
teachers and analyze differences and similarities in their teacher qualities.
All across in the United States, there are millions of youngsters in our public
school systems whose future prospects are deem, or next to none. (Tucker & Codding,
1998). A disproportionate number of these are at-risk, urban, minority students are of
Hispanic and African American descent. When schools do not attract those students’
attention and interest in learning, they easily drop out of our public schools (Azzam,
2007). According to Haberman (2005), every day, three thousand students drop out of
our public schools.
One of the main factors that influence students’ drop-out is because they
perceive their schools to be boring (Azzam, 2007). When probed further, the universal
response is always that the teacher was boring and did not care. To prevent student
dropout, in the early twentieth century, continuation schools were created. Those
schools implemented a program that morphed from initially meeting the needs of teens
of migrant parents, to being the premier drop out prevention program for our
comprehensive high schools.
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Despite the advent of continuation high schools all over the state of California,
about 522 as of the last count in 2005, there has not been a significant drop in the drop
out rates in our public schools. According to Haberman (2005), every three years, the
number of drop outs from our public schools becomes large enough to fill a city as large
as Chicago. The public schools crises is a matter of “life and death”, so says Haberman,
and if the teacher is the single most important index of a student academic success, then
we must rethink the way we bring in new teachers to not only our urban minority
continuation high schools, but all schools that serve at-risk students. In addition, it is
important to address an issue of keeping and recruiting “veteran” teachers who are only
picking up monthly checks at the expense of our poor, minority, at-risk, inner-city
students.
The Dropout Rate
According to the Education Trust-West analysis of California Department of
Education (CDE) data gathered in 2003, only 59% and 57% of African American and
Hispanic 9
th
grade students respectively, graduated from high school, four years later in
2003, as compared to 81% white and 89% Asian-American students. Two of the most
widely cited sources of national dropout data are the U. S. Census Bureau, and the “High
School and Beyond” Study - a longitudinal survey began by the National Center for
Educational Statistics (NCES) in 1980. Retrieving data from U.S. Census Bureau 2004,
Table 1 presents dropout rates and numbers and percentage distribution of dropouts from
ages 16 to 24 by selected characteristics of African Americans, Asian Americans,
Hispanics, and Whites.
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Table 1
Dropout Numbers and Percentage of Dropouts Ages 16 – 24 by Selected Characteristics 2004
Race/Ethnicity Number of Percentage of Percentage of Dropout Rates
Dropouts Dropouts Population in Percentage
Hispanics 1,499 39.8% 17.3% 23.8%
African
Americans
635 16.9% 14.4% 12.1%
Whites 1,529 40.6% 62.1% 6.7%
Asians 52 1.4% 4.1% 3.5%
According to the U.D Census Bureau 2004, the Hispanics and African American
students are disproportionately over represented in the dropout rates amongst youths
between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four. The dropout rate amongst African
Americans within the age group mentioned stands at 12.1, and the Hispanic figures
nearly double that of the African Americans and triple that of Whites. The African
American and Hispanic groups are still experiencing double digit dropout
rates while their white and Asian counterparts are in the single digits.
According to the U. S. Census Bureau (year), dropout rate is calculated as the
proportion of a given age cohort that is not enrolled in school and has not completed
high school. The “High School and Beyond” on the other hand takes a group of tenth
graders and tracks their educational progress on a two-year interval at the end of what
should have been their senior year to examine who graduated from high school. The
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down side of the NCES instrument is that it fails to account for students who have
dropped out after ninth grade.
Despite all of the controversy surrounding the interpretation of high school
dropout data, the dropout statistics widely depends on three things: (1) the source of
the data, (2) the definition of dropout, and (3) the method of calculating the rate (Hardy,
2002). Most of the students who do not make it in the comprehensive high schools in
the required four-year period end up either in the continuation schools, community day
schools, independent study programs, pregnant minor schools, alternative high schools,
opportunity high schools, or drop out completely. With the passage of the No Child Left
Behind Act in 2001, the debate over the dropout rate has intensified, with some
practitioners or policy makers saying that pressure on students, schools, and districts to
improve test scores drive even more students away from school (Hardy, 2002).
The establishment of continuation high schools is one way to curb the high
school drop out problem. In the LAUSD, the continuation high schools accounted for
3,680 of 8,657 (42.5%) of Educational Options students, in 2003-04 academic year.
History of Rise of Alternative Schools to Meet the Dropout Rate
Some government acts/legislatures have advocated the rise of alternative schools.
Since some mandates made it possible to attend school and still work to help student
family, the alternative schools have made it possible for most potential dropouts to
attend school. The Fisher Act was an educational landmark because it called for
compulsory school attendance for students in all school districts. The Fisher Act affected
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all students between the ages of 14 and 17. The Act was later extended to students 18
years of age (Blishen, 1970).
In 1911, legislators mandated compulsory education for all students, especially
children fourteen to eighteen years of age (reference). But the need for students to work
while still attending school gave rise to the part-time educational law. The part-time
educational law required that students up to sixteen years old attend school fulltime.
Students between the ages of sixteen, seventeen and older could continue with their
work and only attend school part-time (Voss, 1968).
In 1929, the compulsory school system went through some extreme reforms due
to the legislature’s request on reducing dropout rate (Voss, 1968). Several
recommendations made for continuation education. Students needed to provide proof of
their employment to be in the program. Additionally, students were required to attend
class for at least three hours a day (Voss, 1968). According to Voss, the laws mandated
that any city that had fifty eligible students for continuation school classes must create
programs to meet their needs.
These changes created marked effect on continuation school programs. First,
there were specific hours mandated for programs to provide classes. The hours were
between 8am to 5pm. Another stipulation was that students were required to enroll in
extension programs such as Regional Occupation Programs (ROP) in order to assist
them with transition from school to gainful employment. Thirdly, in 1967, the law stated
that a student who was suspended for more than 20 days had to receive education in an
alternative setting (Voss, 1968) . The suspension law required that districts provide
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educational opportunities, such as continuation school for students suspended from
comprehensive high school (Voss, 1968) further bolstering the need for continuation
schools, and especially schools that followed mandated rules and regulations for other
educational facilities throughout the state.
The legislation enacted in 1967 eventually created the path for what we now
know as California’s continuation schools. The enactment of Education Code Section
5990 set the path for continuation schools to follow and meet the needs of students.
According to California Department of Education (CDE), there were 232,119 high
school students (grades 9-12) enrolled in alternative education in 2002-2003 (California
law, n.d.a), up from 132,30 in 1991-1992 (California law, n.d.b). The students that
enrolled in California continuation schools benefited from the various special programs
associated with alternative education. Alternative schools and programs serve students
who are in grave danger of dropping out of school for any number of reasons, including
poor grades, truancy, suspension, and pregnancy (Paglin & Fager, 2003, p.57). In 2000-
2001, 39% of public school districts had alternative schools and programs serving about
613,000 (1.3 %) students in public schools. In 2003, there were about 10,900 alternative
schools and programs nationwide (USDOE NCES, 2003). According to Mottaz (2002),
the number of alternative education centers or programs has increased over the years
despite the attack from both conservative and radical critics. In almost every major
community, parents and educators are either operating or planning to open some kind of
alternative school or program (Glatthorn, 1975).
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The evolution of alternative schools shows that it no longer carries the idea of
innovation that it once did. In general, most students now attend alternative schools not
because of the school’s innovative, creative approaches, but because they are no longer
succeeding in the traditional system (Bauman, 1998).
Teacher Qualities in Alternative/Continuation High Schools
Teachers play an important role in the nation’s alternative schools and
programs. Outcomes improve when teachers are well trained, caring, demanding, and
responsive to the special needs of at-risk students (Barr & Parret, 2001). In addition,
teachers who are involuntarily assigned are less likely to serve students well than those
who choose to teach in alternative schools and programs (Barr & Parret, 2001).
According to Korn (1991), teachers assist students with their personal problems,
invent extracurricular activities, and support fund raising. A successful teacher in an
alternative setting is more often than not compelled to making a difference in the school
or program. They spend many hours planning and thinking about or creating new ideas
on how to improve their teaching even when they are not in front of a classroom.
Planning and preparing materials for classes or creating ways to help students grasp
materials are two ways educators can improve their lot and their presentation of
materials and content without being in front of a class.
Statement of the Problem
Are our alternative schools staffed with teachers who are appropriate for at-risk
students who are potential dropouts? Our continuation high schools are the last stop in
our drop out prevention programs before a student finally drops out of school, yet the
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process of recruiting teachers who are supposed to change these at-risk students and
prevent them from finally making good on their tenuous path toward dropping out of
school, still remains a subject of debate in the halls of our school districts and teacher
preparation institutions. This “last stop” drop out prevention programs do not have a
well-articulated process of recruiting and retaining quality teachers to serve these most
at-risk segment of our public school system – the continuation high school student. The
high school dropout problem in the state of California is still a nagging issue for
education policy makers at both the local, district, and state levels.
The public school system should be reexamined in the traditional methods of
bringing new teachers into the teaching profession. With the preponderance of evidence
on the key role fully qualified teachers play in the overall academic achievement of
students, and considering the school dropout statistics over the years between White and
Asian students on the one hand, and Hispanic and African American students on the
other, it would behoove urban school districts to explore alternative options of
recruiting, training, and retaining teachers who can be successful with at-risk, urban
minority students. Our traditional methods of assigning qualified teachers, both new and
veteran, to our urban at-risk minority schools have failed and will continue to fail our
marginalized urban minority students.
Purpose of the Study
According to Creswell (2003), a research purpose establishes the central
direction for any study. The broad general purpose is then narrowed to a more specific
question or issue or hypothesis (Creswell). The primary purpose of this study was to
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examine the relative match of the current teachers assigned to ten continuation high
schools which serve urban, poor, minority, at-risk students of Hispanic and African
American origin in the Los Angeles Unified School District, Los Angeles, California,
and ascertain if they have the attributes of Dr, Martin Haberman’s “star teachers” with
particular reference to the identified sampling population/participants in this study. The
current study used Dr. Martin Haberman’s teacher screening method to determine if the
selected veteran and new teachers in the urban city continuation high schools of study
were what Haberman called “Star Teachers”(Haberman, 1995). In this study, new
teachers are defined to be those who were new to the continuation high school program
and had been teaching in these schools for about five years or less. Veteran teachers are
defined to be those teachers who had been teaching in the continuation high school
system for over five years. Specific research questions that guided this study follow:
1. What are the attributes of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to
teach at-risk students in alternative high schools?
2. How do alternative high school teachers identified as veteran teachers to
instruct at risk students differ from those identified as new teachers?
This study analyzed the results of the Martin Haberman’s star teacher survey
questionnaire instrument used on participant teachers using the qualitative research
method.
Importance of the Study
Haberman (1995) opined in his book “Star teachers of students of poverty”, it
takes a certain type of adults to teach poor minority students, not all teacher candidates
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who have passed all college pre-service courses can actually teach our most needy and
challenging students. It requires a cadre of dedicated, passionate, and committed ‘minds’
to effect change in our educational system, particularly in our most needy schools
programs, one of which is the continuation high schools. According to Haberman
(1994), recruiting and retaining such “..effective teachers is a matter of life and death”
(p. 1). For even the most well-meaning and committed teacher, it is an extraordinary life
experience. Not all “qualified” teachers can stand the daily “trauma” of teaching poor,
urban, minority students with the “baggage” they bring with them. According to Bolman
and Deal (1997), “strong companies are clear about the kinds of people they want and
[they] hire only those who fit.” (p. 123). This statement also applies to recruitment and
hire of qualified teachers who have certain attributes defined by Haberman to teach at
risk students at continuation high schools.
Secondly, there is an enormous social, economic, and political cost of not
educating our poor, minority, at-risk, high school students. It costs the nation about $20
billion annually in lost revenues and payments to welfare recipients as a result of the
dropout problem (Brown, 1985). Dropouts cost the country over $200 billion during
their lifetimes in lost revenues and unrealized tax revenue (Catterall, 1985). One thing is
certain, as the country matches toward a technologically savvy society, high school
dropouts find it increasingly difficult to make ends meet in terms of finding paying
jobs that would meet their basic needs in life.
According to the December 2000 census data, adults who did not complete/earn
a high school diploma earned an average income of $16,121 per year as compared to
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$24,572 for those with a high school diploma. It is opined that high school dropouts are
more likely to become dependent on the system through welfare system (National
Center for Educational Statistics, 1994), develop health-related problems, and engage in
anti social and criminal behavior (Rumberger, 1987).
It costs on the average, about $6,000 per year to educate a minority student in
the urban districts like LAUSD. On the other hand, it cost the state about four times that
amount to maintain a prisoner in our jail system in the same amount of time. When one
takes a critical look at the ever-increasing dropout rates particularly amongst Hispanics
and African American students in our public schools today, and the high cost of
shouldering the eventual burden through provision of welfare and other social programs,
not to mention the stigma, personal loss of self-worth and esteem that accompany school
failure, it behooves us then to seek permanent solutions to the problem rather than
temporary measures. Responding to urgent social needs on the prevention of drop outs,
this study explored if some continuation high schools in LAUSD had qualified teachers
with those attributes categorized by Haberman to be successful with at-risk students.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This literature review is on alternative schools, teachers of at-risk students in
alternative schools, and the type of teachers needed in our inner-city continuation high
schools. This review focuses on six main areas: a) history of alternative
education/continuation high school; b) associations between adolescence, at- risk
behavior, dropping out and the school environment; c) types of alternative schools; d)
teaching in alternative school or continuation schools; e) teacher qualities and
competencies for working with at- risk students; and finally, f) a review of the history of
continuation schools in California, California’s criteria/guidelines for alternative
education and continuation schools, future of alternative schools, and a summary of
several research articles that describe quality indicators for successful alternative
schools.
History of Alternative Education
An alternative school is any school that provides alternative learning
experiences to those provided by conventional schools within its community and is
available by choice to every family within its community at no extra cost (Smith, 1974).
These schools have emerged over the years as educational options for students who are
not successful in traditional school setting (Lehr et al., 2003). The term alternative
school is used today in a much narrower sense to denote schools or programs targeting
students who are unsuccessful in the traditional school environment (Education Week,
2001; Knutson, 1996). The concept of alternative education evolved in the late 1960s
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and grew from a few isolated innovations in local communities into a movement of
educational reform involving millions of students (Conley, 2002). Over 15% of students
enrolled in public education in the United States (US) were attending a public school of
choice in 2002 (Conley, 2002).
There have been private schools, parochial schools, or home schooling
alternatives for those who could afford them or whose beliefs dictated a particular
approach to education since the late 1500 (Conley, 2002). Aside from
vocational/technical schools and a few selective programs for at-risk and talented
students, almost all school districts had traditionally assign families to schools based on
residence addresses and geographic boundaries (Conley, 2002). Since students were
assigned to particular schools, public education worked to ensure that all schools had
uniform programs. By the end of the 1960s, the emphasis on public school uniformity
began to change. Starting with a few experimental schools, dropout and continuation
programs, alternative education emerged as a grass root revolution that has grown to
include several educational options in the public and private sectors (Young, 1990).
These “alternative choices” included religious and private not-for-profit, technological
options, and thousands of distinctive public alternative, magnet and charter schools. The
idea of an alternative education, which first appeared as a radical idea on the fringe of
public education, evolved to a mainstream approach found in almost every community
in the US and increasingly throughout the world (Kozol, 1982).
Alternative schools and programs have evolved over the years. They have
different meanings for different audiences (Korn, 1991). However, a definition of
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current alternative schools and programs is elusive, and several characteristics are
common among the programs currently in existence. Alternative schools are generally
described as follows: small size (Morley, 1991; Natriello, McDill & Palla, 1990);
opportunities for student success relevant to the student’s future (Natriello et al., 1990);
emphasis on one-on-one interaction between teachers and students (Tobin & Sprague,
1999); flexibility in structure and emphasis on student decision- making (Natriello et al.,
1990); a supportive environment (Tobin & Sprague, 1999; Young, 1990).
Why Alternative Schools are better for At-Risk Students
Alternative schools provide students with small learning environments that
enhance opportunities to succeed and thrive in school. Most of them personalize
instructions for the students. Differentiated instructional strategy is the key to academic
success for the students. Disaggregated student data by gender and ethnicity helps in
designing academic programs. Alternative schools focus more on developing the whole
child/student, rather than training them to pass standardized tests. Most alternative
schools are the last-chance programs before a student completely drops outs. The
emphasis of those schools is usually on making sure that students do not drop out. In
other words, they are usually referred to as drop-out prevention programs. Alternative
schools are supposed to help reduce students’ drop-out epidemic in our public school
system. One of the goals of alternative schools is to create a warm and welcoming
school environment, where students feel and have a sense of belonging by having a
sense of safety, love, care and respect.
Most alternative schools practice the acronym TEACH. In such schools, adults
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around such students “Talk” with students and not talk at students. Teachers
“Encourage” and/or “Enable” students to do their very best in school and in live.
Students “Acknowledge” their every success in school and are constantly being
“Challenged” to perform at their optimum capacity in an environment of high
expectations. Finally, they are “Helped” and assisted in wading through the labyrinth of
school and personal challenges they face daily.
Types of Alternative Schools
Alternative school programs have proliferated since the 1960’s and thousands
have emerged since then (Franklin, 1992). Franklin also stated that the alternative
education evolved through grass roots endeavors and represent a bona fide social change
movement similar to that affecting the social welfare programs of the 1960’s.
Although certain characteristics are agreed upon as present in alternative
programs, their emphasis in any particular state or local community may vary. The
emphasis may even be different within a state, complicating how the term is used in
early 1990s. Due to the very nature and concept of “alternative” education, there is not a
definitive descriptor for an alternative school. Raywid (1999), a leader in the field of
alternative school research, divided alternative schools into three categories according to
what they try to change. Her categories include: changing school (Type 1- Popular
Innovations); changing student (Type II- Last Chance programs); and, changing the
educational system itself (Type III- Remedial Focus). These alternative schools are
different from “traditional” schools. The first category focuses on changing the school
and the experience for students unsuccessful in the traditional school. Emphasis in the
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change –the school program is placed upon provision of core subjects and best
instructional practices in a positive environment. Curricula and pedagogy are tailored to
the student’s needs and strengths. Such schools have a nontraditional curriculum and use
inquiry-oriented instruction. In this type of model, enrollment is based upon student and
parental choice. Students are not “assigned”, but they choose to attend. These models are
often seen as therapeutic, with the primary goal being to educate the child in the
alternative environment. An alternative environment here means an environment
different from the “traditional” environment that has caused the initial failure of the
student. In most cases, there is no pressure to return to the traditional school. Change-
the –school alternative programs have evidenced a fairly positive effect on graduation
rates and future college enrollment (Raywid, 1999). The second category focuses on
changing the student’s performance. Many schools of this type are openly punitive,
while others are highly structured. They are sometimes fashioned as therapeutic
communities. They strive to provide intensive academic remediation or socioeconomic
support, or both. This type of alternative school stresses changing behavior and
academic performance over a short period of time while the student is in the program.
Unfortunately, the change-the-student type of alternative school is viewed as a place of
low status by outsiders and is rarely seen as effective. Programs that focus on changing
the student are usually seen as temporary or remedial environment, to which they are
assigned, rather than enrolled based upon choice (Raywid, 1999).
According to Raywid (1999), these programs tend to take the students who have
demonstrated unacceptable academic or social behavior in the regular school
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environment and try to “shape them up” (instituting strict guidelines and holding
students accountable for their actions). These programs help them conform to the norms
of the traditional schools they could not “fit in” in the first place. Most models focus on
the basic skills and have a structured and tightly controlled environment. Some model
themselves as therapeutic communities provide extensive social and academic
remediation in coordination with outside social support services.
Schools that try to change the student are often seen as punitive and last chance
effort for students to learn skills that will help them be successful in the regular school
environment. In addition, both the punitive and the therapeutic traditionally act as a
transitional model in which students are expected to get “fixed” and returned to the
traditional school environment, in which they were unable to succeed in the first place.
Not surprisingly, these schools are seen as low status places to outsiders. Students who
prefer to stay in the alternative environment rather than return to the traditional
environment in which they were unsuccessful often experience negative responses from
their traditional peers and educators (Raywid, 1999).
The third category of alternative school focuses on changing the educational
system itself by using smaller school campuses or using the school-within-a-school
concept. These schools must have the freedom to organize themselves differently and
provide a different school climate and curriculum based on the needs of its students. By
providing outstanding curricular offerings and instructional practices, the small-school
campus and school-within-a-school approaches hold much potential for meeting
students’ needs (Raywid, 1999).
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Different success rates for alternative schools focusing on changing the students
as opposed to those concentrating on changing schools. The alternative programs with
greatest amount of success have been those which are intended to make schools
challenging and fulfilling for all students through innovative curriculum, similar to
programs offered by magnet schools (Raywid, 1999; Boss, 1990; Lloyd, 1997). Some
examples of program innovations are: student incentives that increase academic
performance, virtual classrooms (also known as E- classrooms), and school-
business/community partnerships. In alternative programs that have open enrollment
polices and student program choice students can no longer blame the school system for
their individual lack of achievement (De LaRosa, 1998).
Schools which have experienced the least success with student achievement,
reducing the risk of delinquent behavior, and increasing graduation rates, have programs
that are designed as transitional programs with a punitive connotation (Cox, 1999;
Raywid, 1999). When students are assigned to a program as a means of punishment,
they are not successful, and directors of education may obscure or ignore the school-
based problems such as inadequate learning opportunities for all (Gregg, 1999). Besides,
even though the therapeutic “change a student” model may often and successfully alter
student behavior, the change is only limited to the time the student spends in the
alternative environment. Unfortunately, most of these students revert to their prior
behaviors once they are returned to the mainstream educational environment. All too
often the alternative school is blamed for the child’s failure rather than confirmation of
the notion that perhaps there is a need for different school environments if all students
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are to prosper. Duke and Gresdorn (1999) argue that this type of alternative school does
not meet the needs of a school district’s problem students. Instead, school districts
should develop various alternatives targeting different at- risk groups and customize
these alternatives to meet their needs.
History of Continuation High Schools
In 1855, the state of California established continuation schools, which are one
type of “alternative” schools. At that time, funding for the schools became available via
government grants (Blishen, 1970). In 1861, the Newcastle Commission recognized
continuation schools as important educational programs for students as long as they
were at least 11 years old. In 1870, the education Act created an age-range of between
12 and 18 years old for continuation school students. The student’s age requirement was
subsequently raised to 21 years old. Also, in the same year (1870), a continuation school
record showed 73,375 students in attendance. The Fisher Act was an educational
landmark because it called for compulsory school attendance for students in all school
districts. The Act required students to attend school, thus limiting, and nearly stopping
continuation school attendance. The Fisher Act affected all students 14 to 16 years of
age, and later the Act was extended to students 18 years old (Blishen, 1970).
In 1911, legislators supported the idea that education for students should
continue to be mandatory, especially children 14 to 18 years of age. But the need for
students to work part-time while attending school, brought about the part-time
educational law. The part-time educational law required that students up to 16 years old
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attend school full-time. Students between the ages of 16, 17 and older could continue
with their work and only attend school part-time (Voss, 1968)
In 1929, the compulsory school system went through some extreme reforms due
to the legislature’s request (Voss, 1968). There were recommendations made on behalf
of continuation education. Students needed to provide proof of their employment or
registration to be eligible in the program. Additionally, students were required to attend
class for at least three hours a day (Voss, 1968). According to Voss, the laws mandated
that any city with fifty eligible students for continuation school classes must create
programs to service these students.
In 1947, the California Education Code mandated firmer requirements for
continuation education programs. Finally, strict rules were made regarding the delivery
and maintenance of continuation school programs. The rules were also required to
follow the three-hour compulsory attendance mandates that regular public school
followed. In addition, students were obliged to attend school for specific number of days
per school year (Voss, 1968).
Between 1965 and 1967, the California state legislator subjected continuation
schools to more regulatory guidelines. These guidelines created marked changes on
continuation school programs. First, there were specific hours mandated for programs to
provide classes with the hours being set between 8am to 5pm; Secondly, students were
also required to enroll in extension programs such as Regional Occupation Programs
(ROP), to enable them transition from school straight into work; Third, in 1967, the law
stated that a student who was suspended for 10 or more days had to receive education
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(Voss, 1968) and that the classes would have to be provided in an alternative setting.
The suspension law required that districts provide educational opportunities, such as
continuation school for students suspended from comprehensive high school (Voss,
1968). These laws further bolstered the need for continuation schools, especially those
that followed mandated rules and regulations for other educational facilities throughout
the state.
The legislation enacted in 1967 eventually created the path for what we now
know as California’s continuation schools. Education Code Section 5990 set the path for
continuation schools to follow and meet the needs of their students. This code made it
clear that continuation schools were to meet the special needs of students. They also
must provide the following: opportunity for students to complete required academic
courses for high school graduation; individualized instructional program, guidance,
placement and follow up; or specially designed individualized instruction and intensive
guidance services required for those with behavior or severe attendance problems; or a
flexible program combining all of the above features (Voss, 1968)
According to California Department of Education (CDE) there were 232,119 high
school students (grades 9-12) enrolled in alternative education in 2002-2003 (California
law, n.d.a), up from 132,30 in 1991-1992 (California law, n.d.b). The students that
enrolled in California continuation schools benefited from the various special programs
associated with alternative education. These programs mandated courses for high school
graduation, career orientation, work study, and supplemental programs and services.
They later included options such as apprenticeships, job placement, career counseling,
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independent study, and Regional Occupational Centers and Programs (ROP) ( CDE,
2004).
According to Paglin and Fager (USDOE NCES, 2003), alternative schools and
programs serve students who are at-risk of dropping out of school for any number of
reasons, including poor grades, truancy, suspension, and pregnancy. In 2000- 2001,
39% of public school districts had alternative schools and programs serving
approximately 613,000 at- risk students. This is about 1.3% of all students enrolled in
public elementary and secondary schools. There are about 10,900 alternative schools
and programs nationwide (USDOE NCES, 2003)
According to Mottaz (2002), the number of alternative education centers or
programs had expanded. Now, the spread of educational alternatives inside the system
seems to be growing, despite the attack on both conservative and radical critics. In
almost every major community, parents and educators are either operating or planning to
open some kind of alternative schools or programs (Glatthorn, 1975).
In conclusion, the history of alternative schools shows that it no longer carries
the idea of innovation that it once did. In general, most students now attend alternative
schools not because of the school’s innovative, creative approaches, but because they are
no longer succeeding in the traditional system (Bauman, 1998).
Needs for Alternative Schools
Alternative education is not a procedure or program, but a perspective. It is based
on the belief that there are many ways to educate a student, as well as many types of
environments and structures within which this may occur. Further, it recognizes that
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everyone can be educated and that it is in society’s best interest to ensure that all are
educated to at least general high school level. To accomplish all students’ obtainment of
high school education requires establishing various structures and environments that
they can thrive and achieve measurable success (Morley, 1991).
All students should have the opportunity to learn and achieve a quality of life
based on their efforts and achievements. Society should promote opportunities for all
through education, in order to reach its goals of a better quality of life for the entire
community. If these statements are accepted as educational goals, then alternative
schooling is a requirement in every community, not an option (Dynarski, 1999).
Alternative schooling opportunities are needed to accommodate the educational needs of
students because the traditional school system, and particularly the traditional high
school, can no longer serve their needs and their families’ life-styles common today
(Dynarski, 1999).
Alternative education might also provide equity in education to overcome
society’s most unequal environment in education, the home (Conrath, 2001). Alternative
schools help at-risk students overcome debilitating handicaps brought on by generations
of poverty and little parental support. Conrath states that the role of an alternative school
is not to teach students brief lessons in proper behavior or survival and then send them
back to the traditional school where they have already experienced failure and
alienation. Rather, the alternative’s school’s role is to help students overcome some of
the social challenges faced in traditional schools.
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Students in alternative education or continuation classes have the same needs as
those who attend traditional public schools. All students should look forward to realizing
their individual capabilities, effective human relationships, economic proficiency, and
competent citizenship (Kelly, 1993). However, the primary need for most individuals in
the kindergarten through twelfth grade (K-12) level is to obtain a high school diploma
and help students overcome some of the social challenges faced in traditional schools.
For example, some continuation students have jobs to help support the family, or they
may need flexible hours due to children care issues (Kelly, 1993). These could also be
the issues in the natural course of students’ lives and if a high school education could not
be completed before they begin to occur, school may take a back seat to them. If
students act on the other responsibilities in their lives, their educational deficiencies,
coupled with modern hiring practices, may amount to a life of chronic welfare or
unemployment. This is why offering Alternative Education (AE) programs through
continuation high schools may be the only opportunity for a student to graduate or attain
a high school diploma.
The educational objectives of continuation education include working with
students to: (a) attain a high school diploma; (b) become productive persons by
convincing them of importance of vocational preparation and by assisting them in
acquiring entry-level job skills; (c) develop a feeling of self worth, self confidence, and
personal satisfaction; (d) develop a sense of responsibility; (e) develop tolerance and
understanding of a variety of view points; (f) engage in meaningful recreation and
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leisure time activities; (g) understand and practice sound money management and
become intelligent consumer (CCEA, 1996).
The continuation high school is heavily student-oriented, and does not neglect
the teaching of basic skills or traditional subject matter. However, in a continuation high
school setting, its important to focus concurrently on developing basic skills and the
individual citizen in a democratic society (CCEA,1996).
At Risks Behaviors
A critical time in the lives of students is the period through adolescence and their
middle and high school years. This is the time that alienation, disengagement, and
tendency to “fall behind” impact developing youth (Huber, 1984; Tobin, Sugai, &
Colvin, 1996). Described as a time of transition, students find themselves literally in the
middle, flip-flopping between wanting to be led and wanting to lead (McGlasson, 1973).
During adolescence, deviant and risk-taking behaviors such as drug use, delinquency,
sexual exposure, and aggression, get to a peak, thereby affecting the learning and social
environment within schools (CCAD, 1989; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1994). Schools are
the main context for display of these behaviors, and the results are costly to education
and society as a whole. Increasingly, studies show a high correlation between chronic
behavior problems and decreased academic performance (Baker, 1996), and students
within this category often become high school drop outs (Ferrara, 1993; Gottfredson et
al., 1993). Schorr (1988) reported three prevalent outcomes of problematic youth which
result in enormous social and economic burden such as high rates of juvenile crime,
school failure and drop out, and adolescent child-bearing.
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According to Andrews, Soberman, and Dishon (1995), “deviancy not only
occurs in and affects the school environment, it is often nurtured in schools by the social
interaction opportunities provided” (p.479). Much of adolescent deviancy that is
occurring in the schools is due to the social interaction between deviant teens. Schools
are a convenient gathering place where peers can learn from one another if they chose a
path towards adolescent deviancy. A strong interconnectedness between the members of
the deviant groups or just with other deviant students is apparent when they talk about
their peers relationships and activities (Baker, 1996).
Growing numbers of students are exhibiting disruptive behaviors with greater
frequency and severity, and beyond the minor infractions once considered typical for
adolescents’ development (Nelson, 1996). Nation-wide studies have shown increase in
major disciplinary violations (Baker, 1996; Freiberg, Stein, & Parker, 1995; Tobin et al,
1996). Educators coping with chronically disruptive students wonder if early
intervention was administered, and if so why is it not more successful?
Much of researchers on problematic elementary and middle school students
defines this group as “at risk”. Perplexingly, efforts both to identify and rehabilitate at-
risk students are applied to high school students (Kellmayer, 1995; Rugg, 1993).
Educators have realized that the significant impact of extensive intervention on
correcting at-risk student behaviors at an early age is one way to prevent high school
failure.
Various literatures have repeatedly documented characteristics of students at risk
(O’Sullivan, 1990; Pierce, 1994; Quinn, 1991; Rogus, 1991, Rugg, 1993; Wilcynski,
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1989). Prominent indicators of at risk include poor academic performance, poor
attendance, behavioral problems, and their chronological age. For many, these labeling
indicators begin when students enter school. The pattern usually begins with a lack of
prerequisite basic skills for learning, or emotional or family problems that interfere with
students’ ability to concentrate, or for others, a low family or cultural priority on school
success (Rugg, 1993).
As early as primary grades, these identified at-risk students are not performing
academically at the same pace as other class members. Frustrations and failure become a
part of life and at-risk students become increasingly dissociated from peers. To avoid
this alienation, many begin a history of absenteeism which only compounds their
academic deficiencies. Consequently, these students continue to fall behind in
knowledge and skills at an even greater rate, and their “academic fate is sealed early in
their young lives” (Rugg, 1993, p. 10).
Retention has been a more traditional alternative that is putting some students at
greater risk by lack of self-efficacy within themselves and in learning (Quinn, 1991).
Students who are retained or not promoted due to lack of credits have about 90% of
increased chances of becoming dropouts (Wells, 1989). The above statistics raise a
critical question about academic success of poor, at-risk, minority students
In her case study research of two California continuation schools, Deirdre Kelly
(1993) explained the difference between drop–outs and push-outs. “Drop-out” implies
the students make independent and often final decision, whereas push-out implies that
the institution acts inexorably to purge “unwilling victims.” Both terms characterize an
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exit from school as student- or school-initiated. According to Kelly, disengagement
within the school setting occurs overtime, with signs that are related to academics,
teacher-student relations, peer relations, extracurricular activities, and the diploma itself.
Alternative schools become the safety valve for the traditional high school that cannot
serve a wide range of its students due to its conventional environment. In more recent
times, alternative programs have served a dual purpose: (a) students’ need for more
flexible and personal school with the aim of preventing drop-outs; and (b) schools’ need
to isolate disruptive students as a way to provide structure and specialized service.
In Kelly’s (1993) comparative case study, she found that at-risk students
flowed in and out of continuation schools. Within the study which took place over a
given school year, almost half the students earned drop-out or push out status, ending
their careers by enrolling in an “adult” independent studies program. About 70% of the
students enrolled in the independent program never even attended. According to Kelly,
due to lack of comprehensive accountability through close monitoring of students in the
independent study program, these students often altogether.
In an analysis of discipline referrals, Friedberg and his colleagues (1995)
examined some of the issues and implications for discipline problems in middle schools.
With a school enrollment of 1285 students, the 894 referrals reported to the office during
one month was a staggering statistic for the staff as well as the researchers. The
enormous amount of time and resources devoted to discipline came at the expense of
learning. The researchers concluded that harsher consequences and greater controls were
not going to solve the discipline problems in middle school. Rather, the referrals were a
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symptom of a greater problem- a learning environment that did not meet the needs of at-
risk students or teachers. The implications of this study focused on cooperative
environment, rather than punitive and threatening, in which students and teachers
successfully perform in a productive, pleasant atmosphere (Friedberg et al., 1995).
Baker (1996) explored the insight of 17 junior high students who had been
referred to the administrative office for major disciplinary violations. Major violations
were defined as truancy, fighting, insubordination, or possession of drugs, alcohol, or
tobacco. Data collection occurred through an interview process after the infraction. The
researcher formulated a set of recommendations for effective practices to engage these
students who had literally disengaged themselves from school. Some examples of the
recommendations were intensive counseling and mentorship programs. Besides the fact
that Baker found many of these students to be repeat offenders and “team players” when
committing an offense, more importantly the researcher observed a pattern of inter-
connectedness between the members of this group of students. These students seemed to
find a niche in a social network that nurtured their need to belong. Although belonging
to the group resulted in perpetuating disruptive and irresponsible actions, these students
did not see anything wrong with their behaviors, only that they were caught in the act as
the problem. Their need to belong frequently put them academically at risk. Baker
suggested that comprehensive prevention programs offered to all students by choice
were more acceptable than prescribed intervention efforts which tended to “stigmatize”
at-risk students. In addition, Baker encouraged educators to think over their “get tough”
policy toward students, which was perceived to be angry and hateful. Most of these
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students were looking for meaningful relationships and relevant activities in which they
could experience success. Finding ways to connect chronically disruptive students with
school, rather than alienating them from school, was the key to their intrinsic motivation
(Baker, 1996).
Teacher Qualities in Alternative/Continuation High Schools
Teachers play an important role in the nation’s alternative schools and
programs. Research suggests that better outcomes are obtained when teachers are well
trained, caring, demanding, highly motivated, and responsive to the special needs of at-
risk students (Barr & Parret, 2001). In addition, it has been found that teachers who are
involuntarily assigned are less likely to serve students well than those who choose to
teach in alternative schools and programs (Barr & Parret, 2001). Some teachers may be
hired specifically for a position in alternative education, while others may have
experience in regular schools and willingly transfer. Whoever these teachers are, they
have many parts to play and jobs to do.
According to Korn (1991), teachers assist students with their personal problems,
invent extracurricular activities, and support fund raising. A successful teacher in an
alternative setting is committed to making a difference in the school or program. They
spend many hours planning and thinking about or creating new ideas on how to improve
their teaching even when they are not in front of a classroom. Planning and preparing
materials for classes or creating ways to help students grasp materials are two ways
educators can improve their presentation of materials and content without being in front
of a class.
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Rigorous and supportive professional development practices for professionals
who choose to work with continuation education students are of paramount importance.
Whether assigned voluntarily or involuntarily, professional development needs to be
focused on issues that students and educators face in these types of programs. At-risk
students need teachers who care about, respect them as persons and learner, and who
understand and get along with them (McMillan & Reed, 1994). These teachers listen to
them, take them seriously, provide encouragement, and laugh with them. Other qualities
include their willingness to listen to students before disciplining for inappropriate
behavior, fairness in grading and instruction, offering praise and encouragement for
success, holding all students to high expectations, and a willingness to get to know the
students (Werner as cited in McMillan & Reed, 1994).
In alternative school programs, school personnel are encouraged to provide
classroom activities and classroom environments that stress academic achievement
while also building student’s self-esteem and self-confidence. The classroom
environment should facilitate time on-tasks, student’s interaction, student success, and
positive reinforcement for desired classroom behaviors. A positive experience in school
promotes a sense of belonging, bonding, and encouragement for students (McMillan &
Reed, 1994). Students show success in school and carry resiliency after they graduate,
which acts as a powerful attribute in other endeavors they attempt.
Competencies for Working with At-Risk Students
Students are considered at-risk because they are in danger of school failure due
to identified needs or lack of required skills to become successful. If they are to become
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successful in our democratic society, they should be with adults (teachers and
administrators) with inherent and adaptive qualities that will ultimately make these
students successful in school and society (Haberman, 1995). These inherent and
adaptive qualities which have been extensively discussed by Haberman, are as follows:
persistence, protecting learners and learning, approach to at-risk students, professional
versus personal orientation towards students, burnout/survival in bureaucracy, and
fallibility. A further description of each quality has been done later in the present
chapter.
According to Zeichner (2003), of the 47 million students currently enrolled in
public schools. 38% of these students are from an ethnic or racial minority group, and
90% of their teachers are not (USDOE, 2001). Overall, one in five children under 18
lives in poverty, and more than one in seven children between ages 5 and 17 speak a
language other than English at home (Villegas & Lucas, 2001). According to Villegas
and Lucas (2002), the trend of increasing diversity in our public schools is expected to
continue, and more than ever before, new teachers entering the teaching profession must
be prepared to instruct culturally heterogeneous classes (Villegas, 1990). As Delpit
(1995) put it: by the year 2000, nearly 40% of the children in our public classrooms
would be African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, or Native Americans, yet
most of those children’s teachers would be white. According to the U.S Department of
Commerce (1996), by the year 2050, African American, Asian American and Latino
students will constitute close to 57% of all our nation’s students. Delpit goes on to
attribute most of the problems faced by children of color in our public school system to
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miscommunication between the schools and “other people’s children” (in reference to
popular perception of nonresident personnel of poor, inner-city school districts) as they
struggle within a system that is with imbalance of power and inequality of opportunities
and resources (Delpit, 1995).
This obvious cultural disparity between minority students on the one hand and
their teachers on the other, is further complicated by the dearth of a deliberate, sustained
attention and focus in new teacher preparation programs along the lines of
ethnicity/race, language, and social class (Zeichner, 2003). The result is what we are
experiencing in our public schools particularly the schools that serve our poor, minority
students. Supporters of the culturally relevant pedagogical approach to public school
learning are postulating that no longer will it be “business as usual” with our failing
minority students, that the key to successfully teaching (and ultimately leading to
academic achievement) our marginalized poor, minority students lies in knowing who
they are, knowing what they are all about, respecting their way of life, and using what
they bring to the proverbial table as a “frame of reference” to expand, reinforce, enrich,
and develop new knowledge with and for them (Delpit, 1995; Irvine, 1990; Ladson-
Billings, 2001; Villegas, 1990). According to Howard (2003), teachers should have
capabilities to establish and conduct instructional practices that are relevant and
meaningful to the social and cultural experiences of students. A culturally relevant
pedagogy drives home the notion that no one universal model of human development
exists. It goes on to postulate that teachers must maximize learning opportunities by
gaining knowledge of the communities that are represented in their classrooms, and
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must translate such knowledge into their daily instructional repertoire (Villegas, 1990).
One of the driving forces behind the new movement towards “culturally relevant
pedagogy” for our urban, low-performing, poor, minority students is primarily grounded
in two theories: (a) synchronization and (b) negative teacher expectations. These two
theories have often resulted in hidden, unintended conflicts between teachers and their
minority (mostly black and Latino) students (Irvine, 1990). Villegas (1990), cautions
that for teachers of minority children to be successful, they need not be members of the
students cultural group, although having similar cultural experiences often facilitates
instruction and goes on to add that good teachers must be sensitive to the cultural
characteristics of the learners, and have the skills to accommodate these characteristics
in the classroom. According to Villegas (1990), most critics of the culturally relevant
pedagogy have often cited two infamous theories for the differential achievement of
minority students. These are the deficit and cultural difference theories.
The deficit theory suggests that minority students are genetically predisposed to
perform poorly than their white counterparts. The deficit theory was eventually replaced
by what is now called the cultural deficit explanation. This theory postulates that the
linguistic, socio-cultural backgrounds of minority students prevent them from doing well
academically (Villegas, 1990). These theories blame the poor, minority students and
their families for the students’ academic failures while absolving the schools of any role
in it (Villegas, 1990). The fallout of the above-mentioned theories is what has come to
be known as the teacher expectations and the self-fulfilling prophecy (Irvine, 1990;
Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). The implications in our public schools is that minority
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students, particularly, the African American and Hispanic students are
disproportionately placed in the low-performing, slow, “special ed.” classrooms (Oakes
as cited in Villegas, 1990). Once placed in those classrooms (some times as early as first
and second grades) these students are stigmatized for the rest of their public school life
leading to the much vaunted “self fulfilling prophecy.” Villegas (1990) explained the
concept as follows: “In making judgments about the academic potential of individual
students in the class, the teacher develops different expectations for each student. Once
formed, the expectations influence the interactions between teacher and student,
resulting in positive or negative outcomes related to achievement, aspirations, and self-
concept” (p. 3). According to Robert Merton (1957), a self-fulfilling prophecy occurs
when a false definition of the situation evokes a new behavior that makes the originally
false conceptions come true. The cultural deficit/difference theory rejects the notion that
student’s cultural background plays a major part in their acquisition of knowledge, and
sees their culture as hindrance in learning. Irvine (1990), explains the issue of cultural
discontinuity between the African American students and the school and calls it lack of
cultural synchronization. Because the culture of black children is different and often
misunderstood, ignored, or discounted, black students are likely to experience cultural
discontinuity in our public schools. The lack of cultural sync is made more evident in
instructional situations in which teachers misinterpret, denigrate, and dismiss black
students’ language, nonverbal cues, physical movements, learning styles, cognitive
approaches, and worldview. When teachers and students are out of sync, they clash and
confront each other, both consciously and unconsciously, in matters concerning use of
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interpersonal distance, behaviors accompanying speech, such as voice tone, pitch,
speech rate, and eye gaze. When black students are in sync with their teachers and
school, and no cultural contradictions appear to exist, these students [children] can be
expected to be more Eurocentric than Afrocentric in their behavior, attitudes, language,
style, and use of standard English and language.
Available data reveals that African American and Latino students have continued
to suffer while struggling to adjust to the U.S. public schools. They often experience
discontinuity in the use of language at home and in school. They are often
misunderstood when applying prior knowledge to classroom tasks (Villegas, 1990), and
teachers of minority students need to understand that students more often than not bring
with them cultural capital to the classroom. The cultural capital they bring is most times
different from mainstream norms and views (Howard, 2003). According to Pierre
Bourdieu (1973), cultural capital is the cultural transmission that an individual acquires
from their given social structure. It embodies the norms, social practices, ideologies,
language, and behavior that are part of a given context. Thus, if students come from
homes that have social structures in which the cultural capital places a high value on
their non-English, native language, they may be at an extreme disadvantage in many
schools in the United States that frequently give considerable privilege to students
whose primary language is English (Howard, 2003). Villegas (1990), stretches the above
argument further when she states that Spoken language takes on added importance in the
classrooms because it is the predominant means by which teachers instruct their
students, and students in turn display their knowledge. Children whose language use at
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home and in their immediate community correspond more closely to what is expected in
the classroom have an advantage in the learning process. For those students, prior
experience transfers to the classroom and facilitates their academic performance. This
seems to be the case for the white, middle class Anglo-American students.
Villegas and Lucas (2002), summarized their vision of a culturally responsive
teacher into he following six salient characteristics. First, the teacher must be socio-
culturally conscious, which means that such a teacher must recognize that there are more
than one way of looking at things and these ways are influenced by one’s location in the
social order; also, the culturally responsive teacher must have affirming views of
students from diverse backgrounds. Such a teacher must see diversity as resources for
learning in all students rather than viewing differences as problems to be overcome. The
culturally responsive teacher must see him/her self as a change agent in the process of
making schools more responsive to all students. Such a teacher understands how
learners construct knowledge and is capable of promoting learners knowledge
construction. Also, a culturally responsive teacher must have a grounded knowledge of
the lives of the students he/she purports to teach; and uses his or her knowledge about
students’ lives to design instruction that builds on what they already know
(constructivist approach) while stretching them beyond the familiar.
In describing the enormous task of teaching minority students of poverty,
Haberman (1995) uses the term “a set of indescribable experience” and goes on to
postulate that successfully completing college teacher preparation is not a sin qua non to
being a successful teacher of poor, urban minority students. In fact, he goes on to state:
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“Completing a traditional program of teacher education as preparation for working in
this emotional cauldron is like preparing to swim the English Channel by doing laps in
the university pool” (Haberman, 1995, p. 1). He further describes teaching in these
situations as “…extraordinary life experience – volatile, highly charged, emotionally
draining, physically exhausting experience for even the most competent, experienced
teacher” (p. 2). As un-savoring and daunting as the above picture may seem, there are
thousands of “star teachers” in urban school districts all over the United States
(Haberman, 1995). To become a star teacher in Haberman’s view requires a paradigm
shift on the part of the teacher, a “divine calling” which makes for a total commitment
to the ideology that all students can attain academic achievement, regardless of race,
color, culture, creed, and even socio-economic status. According to him “To try to
imitate what stars do without believing as they do leads to merely going through the
motions of teaching, and having little influence on students’ learning” (Haberman, 1995,
p. 21).
Haberman (1994) developed a research-based instrument that closely predicts
new teacher potentials for becoming a “star teacher” of children of poverty. According
to Haberman (1994), “star teachers” are those teachers “…who, by all common criteria,
are outstandingly successful: their students score higher on standardized tests; parents
and students think they are great; principals rate them highly; other teachers regard them
as outstanding; central office supervisors consider them successful; cooperating
universities regard them as superior; and they evaluate themselves as outstanding
teachers (Haberman, 1994, p. 1). The Haberman instrument has been used all over the
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39
United States to train administrators in 120 of the nation’s largest school districts to
select teachers and principals who fit the profile of his research-based star
teacher/principal interview processes (Haberman, 2002).
The predictions of his Urban Teacher Selection Interview instrument are quite
revealing, some of which are as follows: a) typical age of college graduates has risen
from age 22 to 26; b) most of those preparing to teach are college age youth, late
adolescents and youngadults; c) approximately 80% of those preparing to teach are
youngsters below age 26; d) approximately 20% are older “non-traditional” post
baccalaureate students or adults in alternative certification or on-the-job training
programs; e) of approximately 500,000 traditionally prepared teachers under age 26
produced annually by colleges and universities, fewer than 15% (75,000) seek
employment in the 120 major urban districts serving approximately 7 million diverse
children in poverty; f) of the 15% who are willing to apply to work in urban school
districts, only 1 in 10 (or 7,500) of those under age 26 have the predispositions and
ideology to stay long enough (three years or longer) to become successful teachers in
urban schools; g) this means that of the half million candidates under the age of 26 in
over 1,200 traditional programs of teacher education, only 1.5% of them actually make it
to the 120 largest urban school districts.
Haberman uses the phrase “quitters and leavers” to describe the teachers who
leave the urban minority schools after a short spell despite completing teacher
preparation programs in well-established colleges and universities, and are well-
grounded in the subject-matter or pedagogy. According to Haberman (2002), these
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teachers leave because they have failed to make the “connections” or establish the
necessary rapport with their diverse urban minority students. He contends that these
quitter teachers do not truly respect or care enough, or even share a belief that these
poor, minority urban kids can make it academically. These students, being so adept at
perceiving these negative “vibes” from their so-called teachers, respond in ways that
stigmatize them as being “discipline problems.” Villegas (1990) sees this discontinuity
between poor, inner-city, minority students and their teachers as a major source of
academic problem for the students, because the problem stems from the ways schools
and classrooms are organized, which leads [quitter] teachers to interpret the behavior of
students culturally different from the mainstream as “deficiencies”. In his 45 years of
making classroom observations of quitter teachers, one thing has remained constant for
Haberman, and it is that: “if there is a disconnect between the teacher and the students,
no mentoring, coaching, workshop, or class on discipline and classroom management
can provide the teacher with the magic to control children he or she does not genuinely
respect and care about” (Habermn, 2002). He went further to say that to give teachers
who have gone through the required college/university coursework on teacher
preparation the title of “fully qualified” is a major mistake since it leads the uninformed
into believing that by completing college or university subject matter and pedagogy
requirements, one can effectively make the connection with and teach diverse students
in poverty urban school districts (p. 6). According to him, there is no quantifiable
correlation between doing well in any field of professional preparation and effectiveness
in the subsequent practice of it. This does not in any way preclude the fact that those
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41
teachers who have greater knowledge of the subject matter they teach invariably have
students who learn more, but it is only after the “connection” has been made with the
students (Haberman, 2002).
Haberman, through his teacher interview instrument, has a set of seven functions
in his interview protocols that have come to be known as “Attributes of Effective
Teachers of Poverty from Diverse Urban Schools” (Haberman, 2002, p.12-14.). These
attributes are as follows:
Persistence. This refers to the effective teacher’s continuous search for what
works best for individuals and classes. Through problem solving and creative strategies,
the persistent teacher involves all students and never gives up on trying to engage every
student in his/her classroom.
Protecting learners and learning. Finding ways to make and keep learning with
minimum bureaucratic interruptions is of high priority to the effective teacher.
Productive work is far more important than curriculum rigidities and school rules to
him/her.
Application of generalizations. This attribute is seen as the translation of research
theories into practical applications in the classroom, and seeing how concepts and ideas
are manifested in the classroom. Also, the ability of the teacher to make the connection
between staff development and classroom instructional gains is a major attribute.
Approach to at-risk students. This attribute deals with ones perceived notion of
the causes and solutions of low academic performance of poor, urban, minority students,
and they often assume personal responsibility for the academic outcomes of students of
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poverty, rather than putting the blame on students and their parents. Despite the
enormous baggage these students bring from home, the effective teacher sees poor
schooling as part of student’s academic failures.
Professional versus personal orientation to students. This refers to the set of
expectations that the teacher has of teaching as an emotional stabilizer. Quitter teachers
struggle with differentiating student’s discipline issues from their role as change agents
in the mix.
Burnout. its causes and cures. This is a predictor of the likelihood that the teacher
may either burn out/quit or survive in an urban teaching environment. Being ignorant to
teacher burnout issues is usually a good predictor of quitting teachers.
Fallibility. This refers to one’s willingness to accept his/her own mistakes and make
necessary corrections as one perfects his/her teaching repertoire. This is also a major
determinant of the affective filter of the students in the classroom, and whether or not
they feel unthreatened to take the necessary “risks” in a non-threatening classroom
environment.
Haberman (2002) suggests that school educators cannot afford to wait till
urban school conditions are changed or reformed. Rather, we should seek teachers who
can be effective with students in urban schools. According to him, “There are real
children, spending the only childhood they will ever have going to these schools
everyday. Demanding that the schools improve before effective teachers can be prepared
for such places will sacrifice the education of 14 million children while we wait for
change agents who have not been successful till now. The most prudent policy must
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assume that whether these schools stay the same, or get even worse, we will use what we
know to recruit and prepare caring teachers who will make a difference immediately” (p.
12).
No urban educational leader has been more brutally outspoken and honest with
current educational policies mitigating upon the plight of poor minority students
particularly, African Americans than Gloria Ladson-Billings. According to her, the
current realities of the poor, minority African American student are as follows:
1. The African American student continues to lag significantly behind white
students in standardized measures of academic achievement.
2. The African American student is three times as likely than the white student to
drop out of school and twice as likely to be suspended.
3. While the national student dropout rate is at about 37% in such major states
as New York and California, in areas that have a majority of African Americans,
the rate is well over 50%.
4. While the African American population in the public schools system is at
about 17%, the number of them in the special education programs is at about
47%.
5. One in two African American children is poor.
6. The rate of infant mortality of African Americans is twice that of their white
counterpart.
7. African American teens are five times as likely to be dependent on welfare
and become teen parents, three times as likely to live in female-headed
household, and twice as likely to live a substandard housing as their white
counterpart.
8. More young African American males are under the control of the criminal
justice system than in college; an African American boy born in California in
1988, is three times as likely to be murdered than to be admitted to the
University of California system. (Ladson Billings, 1994, p. 2)

She attributes the above statistics not only to social and economic antecedents,
but mostly to the historically harsh racial and political realities of the country. While
addressing the dire need for teachers of African American students in our public schools
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system, she reiterated the lack of relevant and reliable literature on preparing teachers
for diversity, and [until recently] that almost nothing exists on preparing teachers to
teach the African American students (Ladson-Billings, 1994). She attributes this
problem to two reasons. First, the language used to describe public school attempts to
educate African American students. The earlier reform programs of the 1960’s and
1970’s viewed the African American as “culturally deprived and disadvantaged.” The
African American student was viewed as being deprived, deficient, and deviant, hence,
the programs were designed to “…remove students from their homes, communities, and
cultures in an effort to mitigate against their alleged damaging effects” (p.8); b) The
second reason is what she refers to as the stubborn of American education to
acknowledge that African Americans are a distinct cultural group. While the system
acknowledges the distinct racial compositions, it refuses to recognize the African
American distinct culture. For African Americans who have overcome such “incredible
odds” in this country, the current educational system presumes that African American
students are exactly like their white counterpart but just need a little extra help.
Ladson-Billings (1994) uses the phrase “intellectual death” to describe the
pedagogical instruction many teachers of African American students received from their
teacher preparation programs, because programs have not prepared them for the true
challenges they would be facing in the profession (p. 15). According to Pauline Lipman
(1998), in our attempt to restructure the public schools system, we ought to “recognize,
challenge, and change the beliefs, ideologies, and practices that underlie our racist
system.” Failure to do so will be tantamount to reproducing them. Ladson-Billings, in
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her article “Rethinking Schools” (summer, 2001), posits the question “How is it that
teacher education programs can be surrounded by diversity and [yet] continue to be
oblivious to it?” (p.2). Ladson-Billings has also postulated the important role culture
plays in the overall academic success of minority students, particularly the African
American students. She sees culture as complex concept that has not been fully grasped
by the would-be teacher of minority students. She goes on to make the case that most
teacher preparation programs are founded on the social science disciplines of
psychology and sociology, but rarely on anthropology. She goes further to state that
even though it is equally important/critical that teachers of poor, minority students
understand the culture of those students, “the real benefit in understanding culture is to
understand its impact on our own lives” “in a society that places such priority on racial
identity, we are naïve if we attempt to ignore race. Indeed, ignoring race may prove to be
a dangerous decision for some” (Ladson-Billings & Summer, 2001, p. 4 & 5).
After a careful review of programs and strategies that have demonstrated
significant levels of effectiveness with African American students, Hollins (1996),
suggest that they fall under three broad categories: those that remediate or accelerate
without attending to student’s social or cultural needs; those designed to resocialize
African American students to the mainstream behaviors, values, and attitudes while at
the same time incorporating basic skills; and those designed to facilitate student
learning by capitalizing on students’ socio-cultural backgrounds. Ladson-Billings (1994)
considers this third approach as the most effective one for African American students in
our poor, minority school districts, and goes further to posit that students are less likely
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to fail in schools where they feel positive about both their own culture and the dominant
culture and are not alienated from their own cultural values (Cummins, 1986). When
public schools acknowledge and uphold minority students’ culture as an integral part of
their school experience, those students would understand that academic excellence is not
the sole preserve of white middle-class students (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
In summary, Ladson-Billings ascribed the following attributes to teachers of
minority students who practice culturally relevant pedagogy in their every day
instructional endeavors. These teachers see their teaching as an art rather than as a
technical skill. They share a common belief that all of their students can succeed rather
than that failure is inevitable for some. They see themselves as part of the community
and teaching as giving back to the community. They help students make connections
between their local, national, racial, cultural, and global identities. These teachers can
be identified by the way they structure their social interactions. Their relations with the
students are fluid and equitable, and beyond the classroom. They demonstrate a
connectedness with all of their students and encourage that same connectedness between
students. Finally, they encourage a community of learners. Collaborative learning is
highly encouraged among students; such teachers are identified by their notions of
knowledge. This means that they share a common belief that knowledge is continuously
recycled, recreated, and shared by teachers and students alike; they have passion for and
critically view the content of the curriculum rather than expecting students to
demonstrate prior knowledge and skills, and they help them develop such knowledge by
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building bridges and scaffolding for learning- Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development, (ZPD).
Criteria for California Continuation High Schools
Continuation schools were created to meet the individual needs of at risk
students in danger of failing to graduate. To ensure quality implementation of instruction
and an increased chance of success for all students, the continuation schools program
should provide safe facilities, flexible scheduling, competent staff, varied instructional
approaches, and comprehensive assessment and evaluation (Kelly,1993).
Continuation education is a mandated program designed purposely to serve the
special needs of 16-18 year old students (California Continuation Education
Association, 1995). They are subject to compulsory school attendance but may need
individualized and flexible class schedules for working students to hold their jobs. The
legal basis for continuation schools guidelines is found in state education code 48400-
48454, supplemented by the state administrative code title 5, 11000-11010 (Stits, 2005).
In an effort to assure proper guideline for continuation schools, the California
Legislature enacted Education Code 48430 for continuation education classes be
established and maintained to provide all of the following:
1. An opportunity for pupils to complete the required academic courses of
instruction to graduate from high school,
2. A program of instruction, which emphasizes occupational orientation or
work-study schedule, and offers intensive guidance service to meet the
special needs of pupils,
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3. A program designed to meet the educational needs of each pupil, including,
but not limited to, independent study, regional occupation programs, work
study, career counseling, and job placement services as a supplement to
classroom instruction. (California Law, n.d.a [Education Code 48430])
Alternative work and education centers, including continuation schools are
governed and committed to do the following:
1. Teach basic academic skills with emphasis on improvement.
2. Operate on a client-centered basis.
3. Diagnose educational abilities, set goals, provide individual instructions, and
evaluate pupil progress.
4. Provide programs that include classroom instruction, on-the-job training, and
vocational instruction specific to market demand (California Law, n.d.c.
[Education Code 52900]).
Further legislation (Education Code 58500) identified the purpose of
alternative education that can be attributed to continuation school settings including:
1. Maximize the opportunity for students to develop positive values of self
reliance.
2. Recognize that the best learning takes place when students are ready.
3. Maintain a learning environment maximizing self motivation.
4. Maximize collaborative development of instructional process.
5. Maximize the opportunity for students, teachers, and parents to react to the
community in the school site location. (California Law n.d.d [Education
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Code 58500]).
Within districts and their schools, students may be involuntarily assigned to a
continuation education unit. However, in many districts, student enrollment is largely by
choice, making continuation schools and classrooms, a viable alternative to traditional
schools for students 16-18 years old. As a result of enrollment by choice, more
individualization, and flexibility, many students in continuation education perform
successfully and complete secondary education.
The need for alternative education programs has been well documented. Raywid
(2001), stated, “unsuccessful students need a good education a lot more than do the
other youngsters who manage to succeed under virtually any circumstance” (p. 583).
Jay McGee (2001), an alternative school administrator, concurs that there is a demand
for the alternative education schools that address the needs of students who are not
succeeding in the traditional schools. This demand pertains to all age groups, including
elementary, middle, and high school students.
Future of Alternative Schools
Alternative schools in the US will continue to be needed to serve students who
have been identified within the traditional school setting as violent or chronically
disruptive, and are at risk of being suspended or expelled from school. Harrington-
Lueker (1994) suggested that alternative schools might be society’s last chance to save
troubled children. Harrington-Lueker’s findings indicated that the rising rates of
violence on school campuses and demand of parents, teachers, and state legislatures to
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adopt zero-tolerance policies on school discipline and violence led to a nation-wide
development of new alternative programs.
As indicated, because of social, political, and cultural influences, alternative
schools have been established for different reasons and used for a myriad of functions.
Further study of the alternative schools reveals a steady growth of programs nationwide.
Franklin (1993), stated, “over the past 20 years, the number of alternative school
programs for at-risk youth have rapidly increased. These programs are said to be the
most effective method for educating at-risk youths” (p. 239).
Raywid (1982) in her comprehensive study about the alternative schools in the
nation stated, “ It appears that suburban districts are catching up with urban at the major
locus of new alternatives” (p. 8). The author further stated, “There are now substantial
numbers- 100 or more alternatives- in Michigan, Illinois, and Oregon” (p. 6). Further,
Raywid indicated, “there seems a good reason for concluding that the number of
alternative schools continues to increase quite steadily” (p.8). In fact, the schools “are
continuing to increase in number, and many individual alternatives are continuing to
grow in size” (p.7). According to Mottaz (2002), the number of alternative education
centers/programs has mushroomed. In the state of Minnesota in 1989, there were 4.050
students enrolled in the alternative programs. This number grew to 81,000 in1998.
According to Lehr and Lange (2003), new legislation focused on alternative
schools has been enacted in many states, number of alternative schools and programs are
on the rise, and grants supporting research related to alternative school have been made.
Because interest in alternative schools has increased dramatically during the recent
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years, the number of alternative schools and programs are rising in many states. The
national center for educational statistics (NCES) reported about 3,850 public alternative
schools in the US during the 1997 to 1998 academic year. There were over 10,000
public alternative schools and programs in 2002 (Kleiner, Porch and Farris, 2002).
Conley stated that the number and types of alternative schools would increase
significantly during the next decade in both the public and private sectors (2002). There
is now a significant knowledge base on which to support maintenance and expansion of
alternative schools. Given their proven track records for unusually positive effects on
their students and teachers, along with the dramatic increase in the number of children
being taught at home and the availability of technology, we are likely to see many more
entrepreneurial efforts focused on alternative or Option Schools.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the literature related to the history of
alternative education. The reason and needs for alternative schools, the association
between adolescence at risk behavior, dropping out, and the school environment, types
of alternative schools, key characteristics of successful alternate schools, teaching in
alternative schools or continuation schools and teacher qualities and competencies for
working with at risk student, history of concentration schools in California, Criteria for
California continuation school, California State guideline for alternative education and
continuation school and future of alternative schools.
The following conclusions were drawn from the literature review: adolescence
tends to be a turning point for youths, where they make social and behavioral decisions
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that enhance or limit their productivity in their school and community (CCAD,1989).
Schools do not react to at risk behavior in a timely manner. As the confidence of
students decreases, their at-risk behavior increases (Rugg, 1993); there has been a
substantial growth in alternative programs; however a shift from providing a learning
environment aligned o student learning styles to a learning environment focused on
reforming difficult students emerged to fulfill a need in public school systems (Loflin,
2002; Wolk, 2000). Alternative programs have become assignments rather than schools
of choice; it is shown that thirty plus years of research and evaluation has provided a
consistent pattern of success indicators within alternative programs (Loflin, 2002).
Generally, these indicators fit into four categories (Aaron, 2003; Cox et al, 1995;
Wehlage, 1983): (a) a school culture that allows voluntary participation, projects a sense
of community and professional accountability for success and confidence in the
program, and projects high academic expectation and personal development; (b) an
organizational structure that allows for small size to increase interactions, program
autonomy, flexibility and a structured environment; (c) school-linked services which
include parental and community involvement and access to health, social, and
counseling services; and (d) a circular approach that focuses on individual learning
styles, offers challenging, relevant activities, and builds for a sense of competence in
students.
Alternative schools in the United States will continue to be needed to serve the
needs of our at-risk students. The need for change and alternatives is necessary for the
survival of our society. If the school experience is most dreadful to a student, let us
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change it, and the alternative schools are a good match for it. Young (1990) proclaims,”
it is clear that options and choice within public education are here to stay and are
growing substantially” (p. 21).
This chapter summarized and presented the related literature about alternative
schools. In this review of the literature, a brief history of continuation schools was
presented, reasons and needs for alternative schools were discussed, association between
adolescence, at risk behavior, dropping out and school environment were reviewed. We
also reviewed the three types of alternative school programs, characteristics of
successful alternative schools, and people who teach in these kinds of alternative
schools. The rational for establishing these schools in California were discussed,
together with the history and future of alternative schools. The culturally relevant
pedagogy as put forward by Villegas and Ladson-Billings, and the competencies for
teaching at-risk students by Martin Haberman were reviewed.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The section presents the purpose of this study, research questions, research
design, study setting, sample and population, instrument, data collection procedures, and
data analysis techniques. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relative
match of the current teachers assigned to the ten continuation high schools serving
urban, poor, minority, at-risk students of Hispanic and African American origin in the
Los Angeles Unified School District, Los Angeles, California. This study ascertained if
twenty teacher participants in this study had the attributes of: 1) Dr, Martin Haberman’s
“star teachers” of poor, urban, minority, at-risk students. Specifically, this study
addressed the following research questions:
1. What are the attributes of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to
teach at-risk students in alternative high schools?
2. How do alternative high school teachers identified as veteran teachers to
instruct at risk students differ from those identified as new teachers?
This study was based on the following premise:
There was a ‘disconnection’ between the qualities of most teachers that were
hired to teach our most at-risk students in the identified continuation high schools, and
the needs of the students for their academic success.
Research Design
This study was based on an ethnographic research design using survey
questionnaires, and was qualitative in nature. The data collected were analyzed through
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logico-inductive analysis, a process of grouping, regrouping, and matching data with
research questions. In this qualitative research study, results were expressed as verbal
statements (Charles, 1995, p. 118). The most useful of all human capacities is the
capacity to learn, and we cultivate such in a qualitative inquiry. According to Patton
(2002), good qualitative work is especially powerful because it is regarded as the
products developed through “grounded” theory. A grounded theory is that which is
inductively generated from fieldwork, that is, such results are a consequence of the
researcher’s surveys, observations, and interviews of “real” people and not laboratory or
academy (Patton, 2002, p.11). This current study examined a group of continuation
high school teachers in the identified schools of the Los Angeles Unified School District
(LAUSD).
Research Setting
Teachers in ten of 35 continuation high schools in LAUSD were chosen for this
research. All of the selected participants worked in the continuation schools located in
the south-central region of the Los Angeles metropolis. All participating schools shared
the same characteristics of inner-city schools serving poor, minority, at-risk students,
mainly African American and Hispanic students. The communities where these schools
were located shared similar urban characteristics of high crime, low socio-economic
status (SES), gang-infested, drug-infested, neglect and apathy, low levels of educational
attainment by parents, dysfunctional homes, mostly one-parent families (particularly
among African-Americans), and foster homes. Parental participation in student’s
academic life was little to none. Students had other family issues which detracted from
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their full participation in school. For example, those issues included teen pregnancy,
court injunctions and probations, and the minor’s family obligations at home.
Population and Sample
A total of one hundred (100) teachers worked in the 35 continuation high schools
in LAUSD schools, and all were invited to take the Haberman questionnaire survey
(Appendix D). One hundred potential participants were handed the Martin Haberman’s
50-questions multiple choice new teacher pre-screener survey. Of the hundred
participants, fifty-eight had been teaching in the continuation school system for over five
years, while forty-two had been in the continuation school system for less than five
years. Of the one hundred participants initially given the survey questionnaire, twenty
returned their responses. These twenty participants were then grouped into two: New
Teachers (NT) and Veteran Teachers (VT) (see Table 2 below). All twenty participants
who turned in their questionnaire surveys completed all fifty multiple choice questions.
Table 2
Summary of Survey Questionnaire Distribution
Categories # of Questionnaires Distributed # of Questionnaires Returned
New Teachers(NT) 42 10
Veteran Teachers(VT) 58 10
Totals 100 20
The participants claimed to live within 15 geographical miles of the community
in this study, none of them lived within the area.
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New Teachers (NT) Group. The NT group represents those teachers who were
new to the continuation high school program and had been teaching in these schools for
about five years or less. Only one of the ten NTs had a California Teaching Credential,
the rest nine had emergency teaching credentials. One NT had a degree beyond the
bachelors level. Of the ten designated new teachers (NT) who returned the
questionnaire survey, there were two pacific Islanders (those from the Fiji Islands), four
African Americans, two Asians, one White, and one Hispanic. The years of teaching of
the ten NTs in the continuation high schools were as follows: two teachers for four
years, three for about three years, four for two years and only one for less than one year.
Of the ten NTs who participated in the survey, six were females and four were males.
Veteran Teachers (VT) Group. The VT group represents those teachers who had
been teaching in the continuation high school system for over five years. All ten of the
VTs had obtained their California teaching credentials. Nine VTs claimed to have a
degree above bachelors. The VT group was composed of six African Americans, three
Hispanics, and one White. The years of teaching experiences indicate one participant
with twenty-eight, two with six, two with eight years, and two with twelve years. The
three remaining teachers had seven, fourteen, and fifteen years of teaching experience
respectively. Of the ten VTs who participated in the survey, eight were females and two
were males.
Instrument
Martin Haberman Teacher Screening Instrument. Martin Haberman’s “Star
Teachers of students of Poverty”, a test response to new teacher pre-screener fifty-
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questions multiple choice survey was used (Appendix D). The ten attributes of a “star”
teacher and the number of the items follow:
Table 3
Martin Haberman’s Ten Attributes
Attributes Number of Survey Items
Persistence (P) 4
Organization and Planning (OP) 5
Value of Student Learning (VSL) 3
Theory to Practice (TP) 8
At-Risk Students (ARS) 5
Approach to Students (AS) 8
Surviving in Bureaucracy (SB) 6
Explaining Teacher Success (ETS) 6
Explaining Students Success (ESS) 3
Fallibility 2

Two experts in continuation high schools conducted content validation of the 50
questions using literature to be used for veteran teachers as well as new teachers. Some
of the sample questions include eight for both theory to practice(TP) and approach to
students(AS).

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Data Collection Procedures
Information/Facts Sheet for Non-Medical Research was sought for the
institutional review board (IRB) approval (Appendix A). Before conducting the survey,
school district approval was sought from LAUSD authorities. The Haberman pre-
screener questionnaire instrument was presented to the Committee on Research Studies
of the Program Evaluation and Assessment Branch of the Los Angeles Unified School
District for review and approval. Recruitment letters (Appendices B and C) were sent
to principals in the 35 continuation high schools in LAUSD schools. After permission
was granted by LAUSD, copies of the Haberman questionnaire instrument were made
for all identified teachers in the schools of study through their respective principals with
accompanying cover letter. Those teachers who assented to participate in the study
completed the paper survey by June 2006. Principals returned teacher responses by
mail.

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Data Analysis Techniques
The Martin Haberman’s multiple choice survey questionnaire instrument was
coded. All responses to the fifty multiple choice questions were grouped into the ten
attributes of “star teachers” (Appendix E). The respondents were grouped into VTs and
NTs. The participants with qualities of the ten attributes of “star teachers” and their
counterparts were identified. A comprehensive comparative analysis of findings of these
VT and NT groups were analyzed by identifying reoccurring themes of persistence,
cultural sensitivity, protecting students’ learning, putting theory into practice, approach
to at-risk students, professional vs. personal orientation, burnout, and fallibility
(Haberman, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Villegas, 1990).

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This chapter provides the analysis results from the Martin Haberman’s New
Teacher fifty questions, multiple choice survey pre-screener. The following research
questions were used to guide this current study:
1. What are the attributes of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to teach at-
risk students in alternative high schools?
2. How do alternative high school teachers identified as veteran teachers to instruct at
risk students differ from those identified as new teachers?
Results Research Question 1
Attributes of Veteran Teachers
This section presents the results of the analyses of attributes of VTs.
Persistence (P). Persistence predicts the propensity to work with children who
present learning and behavioral problems on a daily basis without giving up on them for
the full 180 day work year. The coding of the Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener
revealed that four of the fifty survey questions examined the persistence (P) attribute.
The number of correct response to the four identified questions under persistence (P)
(first column), is represented for VTs in Table 4.1. Participants with three or all survey
questions correct were considered to have strong attributes of Haberman’s Persistence.
Of the four required coded responses for the persistence (P) attribute, there was a range
of one to three correct responses tallied for the VTs. VTs had a cumulative number of
correct responses of 21. This means that 2.1 was the average correct responses of the
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62
veteran teachers and did not meet the threshold of three. This reflects that these
participants lacked the effective continuous search for what worked best for students and
classes. Only 4 of the participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s Persistence.
Table 4.1.
Persistence of Veteran Teachers
# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

4 3 2 1 3 3 1 1 3 2 2

Organization and Planning (OP). Organization and Planning refers to how and
why star teachers plan as well as their ability to manage complex classroom
organizations. The Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener survey contained five
questions in the organization and planning (OP) attribute. Participants with three or
more correct responses were considered to have strong attribute of Haberman’s
Organization and Planning quality. Of the five required coded responses for the
organization and planning (OP) attribute, there was a range of zero to three correct
responses tallied for the VTs (Table 4.2). A cumulative number of correct responses was
21. This suggests that 2.1 was the average correct responses of the veteran teachers and
did not meet the threshold of three. This reflects that these participants lacked skills and
knowledge to plan classes as well as their ability to manage complex classroom
organizations. Only 5 of the participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s
organization and planning.

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Table 4.2.

Organization and Planning of Veteran Teachers____________________
# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10
5 3 3 2 3 1 0 3 1 3 2

Values Student learning (VSL). Values Student Learning predicts the degree to
which the responses reflect a willingness to make student learning the teacher's highest
priority. The three Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener items were used to assess this
attribute of the VTs. The number of correct response to the three identified questions is
presented below (Table 4.3). Participants with all two attributes correct were considered
to have Haberman’s attribute of Value Student Learning. The VTs had a cumulative
number of correct responses of 21. This means that 2.1 was the average correct
responses of the participants and met the threshold of two. This reflects that these
participants had a willingness to make student learning as their highest priority. Among
the participants, 8 participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s value student
learning.
Table 4.3

Values Student Learning of Veteran Teachers_________________________ _

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 3 1 2

Theory to Practice (TP). Theory of practice predicts the respondent's ability to
see the practical implications of generalizations as well as the concepts reflected by
specific practices. The coding of the Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener revealed that
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64
eight of the fifty survey questions had the theory to practice (TP) attribute. The number
of correct response to the eight identified questions under theory to practice (TP) (first
column), is represented below (Table 4.4). Participants with five or more correct
responses were considered to exhibit strong attribute of Haberman’s Theory to Practice
component. The cumulative total for correct responses for VTs was 50. .The scores of
VTs ranged from 2 to 8. This means that 5.0 was the average correct responses of the
participants and met the threshold of five. Among the participants, 7 participants had
strong attributes of Haberman’s theory to practice indicating that they had ability to
understand the practical implications of generalizations and the concepts reflected by
specific practices. The individual scores for all participants are reported below.
Table 4.4

Theory of Practice of Veteran Teachers_____________________________

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

8 7 6 8 5 6 2 3 5 5 3

At-Risk Students (ARS). At-Risk Students predicts the likelihood that the
respondent would be able to connect with and teach students of all backgrounds and
levels. According to the coding of the Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener, five of the
fifty survey questions had the at-risk students (ARS) attribute. The number of correct
response to the five identified questions under at-risk students (ARS) (first column), is
represented for each VTs below (Table 4.5). Participants with three or more correct
responses were considered to meet strong qualities of Haberman’s approach to At-Risk
Students dimension. A range of one to five correct responses tallied for the VTs. The
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65
cumulative total for VTs was 26. This means that 2.6 was the average correct responses
of the participants and did not meet the threshold of three. Among the participants, 5
participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s at-risk student indicating that they were
likely to connect with and teach students of all backgrounds and levels. The individual
scores for all participants are reported below.
Table 4.5

At-Risk Students of Veteran Teachers____________________________

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

5 5 1 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 3

Approach to Students (AS). Approach to students predicts the way the
respondent would attempt to relate to students and the likelihood this approach would be
effective. In this study, eight of the fifty survey questions had the approach to students
(AS) attribute. Participants with five or more correct responses were considered to have
strong qualities of Haberman’s Approach to Students dimension. There was a range of
one to six correct responses tallied for the veteran VTs (Table 4.6). The cumulative total
for all correct responses for VTs was 35. This means that 3.5 was the average correct
responses of the participants and did not meet the threshold of five. Among the
participants, 2 participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s approach to student
indicating that they were likely to approach students and relate to them.
Table 4.6

Approach to Students of Veteran Teachers____________________________

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

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8 5 4 3 3 2 1 3 6 3 2

Survive in Bureaucracy. Survive in bureaucracy predicts the likelihood that the
respondent would be able to function as a teacher in large, depersonalized organization.
The Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener survey included six of the fifty survey
questions that had the survive in bureaucracy (SB) attribute. Participants with four or
more correct responses were considered to have strong qualities associated with
Haberman’s Survive in Bureaucracy attribute. The number of correct response to the six
identified questions under survive in bureaucracy (SB) is represented for VTs below
(Table 4.7). Of the six required coded responses for survive in bureaucracy (SB)
attribute, there was a range of one to six correct responses tallied for VTs. The VTs had
37 of the cumulative correct responses. This means that 3.7 was the average correct
responses of the participants and did not meet the threshold of four. Among the
participants, 5 participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s survive in bureaucracy
designating that they held likelihood to function as teachers in large, depersonalized
organization.
Table 4.7

Survive in Bureaucracy of Veteran Teachers__________________________

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

6 6 2 5 1 5 3 2 4 6 3

Explains Teacher Success (ETS). Explains teacher success deals with the criteria
the respondent uses to determine teaching success and whether these are relevant to
teachers in poverty schools. The Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener included six of
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67
the fifty survey questions in this attribute. The number of correct response was
represented below (Table 4.8). Participants with four or more correct responses were
considered to have strong qualities associated with Haberman’s Explains Teacher
Success attribute. There was a range of one to six correct responses tallied for the VTs.
The cumulative number of correct responses for VTs was 27. This means that 2.7 was
the average correct responses of the participants and did not meet the threshold of four.
Among the participants, only 2 participants had strong attributes of Haberman’s explains
teacher success designating that they were able to deal with and determine the criteria of
teaching success and were relevant to teachers in poverty schools.
Table 4.8

Explains Teacher Success of Veteran Teachers________________________ _

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

6 3 3 5 5 3 1 2 2 2 1

Explains Student Success (ESS). The cumulative total for all correct responses
for the VTs was 21. Of the three required coded responses for explains students success
(ESS) attribute, there was a range of zero to three correct responses tallied for VTs in
Table 4.9. This means that 2.1 was the average correct responses of the participants and
did not meet the threshold of three. Among the participants, 4 participants had strong
attributes of Haberman’s explains student success designating that they were able to
provide opportunities for student success relevant to the student’s future.

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Table 4.9
Explains Student Success of Veteran Teachers
# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
3 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 2 0

Fallibility (F). Fallibility refers to how the teacher plans to deal with mistakes in
the classroom. The Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener contained two of the fifty
survey questions in this attribute. The number of correct response to the two identified
questions under fallibility (F) (first column), is represented for each VTs below (Table
4.10). Participants with all two correct responses were considered to have strong
qualities associated with Haberman’s Fallibility attribute. The cumulative total for all
correct responses for VTs was 10. There was a range of zero to two correct responses
tallied for VTs. This means that 1.0 was the average correct responses of the participants
and did not meet the threshold of two. Among the participants, 4 had strong fallibility
designating that they held plans to handle mistakes in the classroom.
Table 4.10

Fallibility of Veteran Teachers______________________________________

# of items VT1 VT2 VT3 VT4 VT5 VT6 VT7 VT8 VT9 VT10

2 2 2 1 0 2 0 0 2 1 0

Attributes of New Teachers
The following section presents the results of the ten surveyed NTs’ attributes.
The same numbers of the correct survey question items were applied to examine strong
attributes of the NT participants.
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69
Persistence (P). There was a range of zero to four correct responses tallied for
the NTs. The cumulative total for all correct responses for NTs was 22. The individual
participants’ numbers of their correct answers were listed below (Table 5.1). This means
that 2.2 was the average correct responses of the new teachers and did not meet the
threshold of three. This reflects that these participants lacked the effective continuous
search for what worked best for students and classes. Among the participants, 5 had
strong attributes of Haberman’s persistence.
Table 5.1
Persistence of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
4 1 3 3 4 3 0 3 2 2 1
Organization and Planning (OP). There was a range of one to three correct
responses tallied for the NTs in Table 5.2. The cumulative total for all correct responses
for the NTs was 19. This suggests that 1.9 was the average correct responses of the new
teachers and did not meet the threshold of three. The participants did not show enough
skills and knowledge to plan classes and to manage complex classroom organizations.
Only 3 participants had the Haberman’s organization and planning attribute.
Table 5.2
Organization and Planning of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
5 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 1
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70
Values Student Learning (VSL). The cumulative total for all correct responses for
the NTs was 14. The ranges of the correct numbers of all participants were from zero to
three (Table 5.3). This means that 1.4 was the average correct responses of the
participants and did not meet the threshold of two. This reflects that the new teacher
participants did not have a willingness to make student learning as their highest priority.
Among the participants, 3 had Haberman’s value student learning attribute.
Table 5.3
Values Student Learning of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
3 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 0
Theory to Practice (TP). The cumulative total for all correct responses for the
NTs was 49. This means that 4.9 was the average correct responses of the participants
and did not meet the threshold of five. Among the participants, 7 had Haberman’s theory
to practice attribute indicating that they had ability to understand the practical
implications of generalizations and the concepts reflected by specific practices. The
individual scores for all participants are reported below. Table 5.4 lists the number of
correct items for all participants. The ranges of the correct answer items were from
three to seven.
Table 5.4
Theory to Practice of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
8 7 6 5 5 5 5 7 3 3 3
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71
At-Risk Students (ARS). The cumulative total for all correct responses for the
NTs was 20. This means that 2.0 was the average correct responses of the participants
and did not meet the threshold of three. Among the participants, 5 had Haberman’s at-
risk student attribute indicating that they were apt to connect with and instruct students
of all backgrounds. The individual scores for all participants are reported below. Table
5.5 presents the number of the correct items for all participants. The correct item ranges
were from zero to three.
Table 5.5
At-Risk Students of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
5 1 3 3 3 1 3 1 2 3 0
Approach to Students (AS). There was a range of two to six correct responses
tallied for the NTs. The cumulative total for all correct responses for NTs was 35. This
means that 3.5 was the average correct responses of the participants and did not meet the
threshold of five. Among the participants, 1 had Haberman’s approach to students
attribute indicating that they were likely to approach students and relate to them.
Table 5.6
Approach to Students of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
8 2 4 4 6 4 3 5 2 3 2
Survive in Bureaucracy (SB). Of the six required coded responses for survive in
bureaucracy (SB) attribute, there was a range of one to six correct responses tallied for
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72
NTs (Table 5.7). The NTs had 37 of cumulative correct responses. This means that 3.7
was the average correct responses of the participants and did not meet the threshold of
four. Among the participants, 7 had Haberman’s survive in bureaucracy attribute
designating that they were likely to function as teachers in large, depersonalized
organization.
Table 5.7
Survive in Bureaucracy of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
6 4 4 1 4 5 1 6 5 5 2
Explains Teacher Success (ETS). The cumulative total for all correct responses
for NTs was 29. This means that 2.9 was the average correct responses of the
participants and did not meet the threshold of four. Among the participants, only 2 had
Haberman’s explains teacher success attribute designating that they determined the
criteria of teaching success and were relevant to other teachers in poverty schools. The
ranges of the correct items were from 1 to 4 and each participant’s correct numbers of
the items are listed in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8
Explains Teacher Success of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
6 3 3 4 2 3 1 3 4 3 3
Explains Student Success (ESS). The cumulative total for all correct responses
for the NTs was 22. Of the three required coded responses for explains students success
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73
(ESS) attribute, there was a range of zero to three correct responses tallied for NTs
(Table 5.9). This means that 2.2 was the average correct responses of the participants
and did not meet the threshold of three. Among the participants, 2 had Haberman’s
explains student success attribute designating that they were able to provide
opportunities for student success relevant to the student’s future.
Table 5.9
Explains Student Success of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
3 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 1 2
Fallibility (F). The cumulative number of correct responses for the new teachers
(NT’s) was nine. The correct numbers of the items range from zero to two (Table 5.10).
This means that .9 was the average correct responses of the participants and did not meet
the threshold of two. Among the participants, 3 had strong fallibility designating that
they had plans to handle mistakes in the classroom.
Table 5.10
Fallibility of New Teachers
# of items NT1 NT2 NT3 NT4 NT5 NT6 NT7 NT8 NT9 NT10
2 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 2 0
Research Question 2
Comparison between VTs and NTs’ Correct Responses to Haberman’s Attributes
All twenty participants’ correct responses to the fifty questions aligned
to the ten attributes reveals a few compelling findings which are presented in Table 6.
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74
When each attribute of the numbers of the correct responses of NTs and VTs fell into the
following ranges, the teachers were considered to have strong attributes that defined by
Harberman; approach to at-risk students (3-4); organization and planning (3-5); values
student learning (2-3); theory to practice (5-8); approach to at-risk students (3-5);
approach to Students (5-8); survive in Bureaucracy (4-6); explains students success (4-
6); explains student Success (2-3); and fallibility (2).
There were equal numbers of new teachers and veteran teachers who responded
favorably to the following Haberman’s attributes: persistence with four of VTs and NTs
respectively); theory to practice with seven; approach to at-risk students with five; and
explains students success with eight. The attributes of NTs and VTs who tended to show
strong desire for the attributes of Haberman’s star teachers of at-risk students were
theory to practice with seven, approach to at-risk students with five and explains
students success with eight. These two findings indicate that explains student success
was the attribute that the highest numbers of the studied VTs and NTs held. These
findings suggest that high percent of the VTs and NTs realized the limited opportunities
for urban minority risk students in their academic success gearing to their future success
and teachers were making efforts to provide their students with settings for their success
relevant to future.
VTs’ numbers of the participants in the correct responses exceled the NTs’
numbers in approach to students with three vs two , survive in bureaucracy with seven
vs five, and explains teacher success with three vs two. These findings suggest that 7 of
VTs had an attribute in surviving in bureaucracy. The VTs had more years in teaching in
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75
school setting and interacting with school people than the NTs and this experience might
lead the VTs to be more skills and have know-hows in surviving in bureaucracy. While
NTs surpassed VTs in organization and planning with five vs three, and values student
learning eight vs two. NTs just came out from teacher’s college and this finding might
reflect what they learned to be a priority while they were in teacher education. Eight of
NTs had a willingness to make student learning as their highest priority. In sum, the
VTs had more correct responses to the ten attributes with 50 than the NTs with 44 total
correct responses. This finding on the sum reflects that years of teaching experiences
mattered in the teachers’ perceptions on their strong attributes obtainments.
Table 6
VTs and NTs’ Correct Responses to Haberman’s Attributes
Attributes P OP VSL TP ARS AS SB ETS ESS F Sum
CRR* (3-4) (3-5) (2-3) (5-8) (3-5) (5-8) (4-6) (4-6) (2-3) (2)
VT Totals 4 3 2 7 5 3 7 3 8 2 44
NT Totals 4 5 8 7 5 2 5 2 8 4 50
Note. CRR = Correct Response Ranges
Summary of Results
According to the findings on research question 1, the descriptive analysis results
indicates that for the VTs, values student learning with a mean of 2.1, theory of practice
with a mean of 5.0, and explains students success with a mean of 2.1 met Harberman’s
attribute thresholds of 2, 5 and 2 respectively. Approach to students presented the least
mean of 3.2 as its threshold was 5. For the NTs, explains student success with a mean of
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76
2.3 was the only strong attribute which met the threshold of 2 set by Harberman. All the
other attributes did not meet his thresholds. Approach to students with a mean of 3.5 was
the least attribute of NTs as compared with his threshold of 5. The Harberman’s
thresholds for strong attributes and the means of all attributes for both the NTs and VTs
are presented in Table 7.
Table 7
VTs and NTs’ Attribute Scores and Haberman’s Strong Attribute Thresholds
Attributes P OP VSL TP ARS AS SB ETS ESS F
Harberman 3 3 2 5 3 5 4 4 2 2
Means of VTs 2.1 2.1 2.1 5 2.6 3.2 3.7 2.9 2.1 1
Means of NTs 2.2 1.9 1.4 4.9 2.0 3.5 3.7 2.7 2.3 .09
In terms of research question 2, explains student success was the attribute with
the highest numbers, 8 of the studied VTs and NTs respectively held. These findings
indicate that eight VTs and eight NTs had the attribute to provide their students with
opportunities for their success relevant to future.
The highest numbers of VTs held the survive in bureaucracy attribute and its
correct response exceled the NTs’ number: survive in bureaucracy with seven vs five.
This finding suggests that the length of teaching experience and interacting with school
people of teachers might have a relationship in their obtaining surviving in bureaucracy
attribute. NTs surpassed VTs in values student learning eight vs two. This finding
might reflect what the NTs learned while they were in their teacher education programs
where student learning was emphasized. Similar to the research question 1, in terms of
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77
the sum of the VTs’ numbers (50) who correctly respond to the ten attributes, they
surpassed the numbers of the NTs with 44 total correct responses.
In summary, the findings on the attribute scores indicate that the veteran teacher
participants were better prepared and experienced to teach unmotivated minority
students at the sampled continuation schools than new teachers. However, the findings
of research questions 1 and 2 indicate that both VTs and NTs still lacked the attributes as
defined by Haberman to perform successfully in the identified urban schools and
ultimately promote students academic success.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The current study investigated the attributes of VTs and NTs as prepared to teach
at-risk students in alternative high schools. In addition, it examined similarities and
differences between VTs ad NTs in their attributes. This chapter presents discussions on
teacher attributes in urban continuation schools, recommendations, implications,
limitations and conclusion. Martin Haberman’s New Teacher survey questionnaire was
used to identify their attributes employing the qualitative research design.
Discussion of Findings
This study explored what attributes urban NTs and VTs in the identified LAUSD
continuation high schools had in order to teach unmotivated urban minority students.
There were five findings in response to the research questions.
The first finding indicates the sample teachers at the identified continuation high
schools significantly lacked qualities to promote student learning and prevent their
dropouts. For the VTs, values student learning with a mean of 2.1, theory of practice
with a mean of 5.0, and explains students success with a mean of 2.1 indicated that they
met Harberman’s attribute thresholds. The second finding is that for the NTs, explains
student success with a mean of 2.3 was the only strong attribute which met the threshold
Harberman. According to Martin Haberman (2002), the attributes of successful teachers
of the at-risk students are persistence, protecting learners and learning, approach to at-
risk students, professional versus personal orientation towards students, burnout/survival
in bureaucracy, and fallibility. This first finding indicates that those teachers had
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79
abilities to provide opportunities for the student success relevant to their lives, could
reflect a willingness to make student learning the teacher’s highest priority and had
ability to see the practical implications of generalizations and the concepts reflected by
specific practices. The second finding reveals that NTs were also able to support their
students with opportunities for future success. However, according to the attribute
criteria by Haberman, the teacher qualities found in the VTs and NTs are not enough to
perform as successful teachers with at-risk students.
In the comparative analysis of Harbarman’s attributes between the VTs and NTs,
the number of participants in each group who had correct responses to the fifty questions
aligned to the ten attributes revealed that these teachers did not have enough of the
attributes required to teach at risk students with special needs.
The third finding demonstrates that explains student success was the attribute
with the highest numbers of the both VTs and NTs at 8 respectively. Continuation
schools were one of experimental schools that include several educational options to
decrease dropout rate (Young, 1990). The finding on explains student success attribute
of the VTs and NTs indicates that the teachers know how to provide opportunities to
promote student success for their bright future.
The fourth finding shows that the VTs also held high numbers in the survive in
bureaucracy attribute with seven teachers. These VTs functioned as a teacher in large,
depersonalized organization (Harberman, 2005). The fifth finding reveals that NTs had
more correct responses in values student learning with eight than VTs with two. The
fourth and fifth findings indicate that both the NTs and VTs lacked the attributes to
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80
teach at-risk students as defined by Harberman. Unmotivated students need teachers
who care about their success, respect them, and show understanding (McMillan & Reed,
1994). In addition, other desired teacher qualities are willingness to listen to students
before disciplining for inappropriate behavior, fairness in grading and instruction,
offering praise and encouragement for success, holding all students to high expectations,
and a willingness to get to know the students they teach (McMillan & Reed, 1994).
Researchers argue that the nation’s alternative schools and programs are more
likely to produce better outcomes in student learning and enrollment when their teachers
are well skilled, attentive, demanding, and responsive to at-risk students (Barr & Parret,
2001). The “Star Teachers” attributes of Martin Haberman (2002) are the key attitudes
of successful teachers to keeping our at-risk, minority students in school, and ultimately
making them successful in life, although there are other qualities such as being grounded
in culturally responsive pedagogy and empathy that are defined by other researchers
such as Ladson-Billings (1994), and Villegas (2002).
The sixth findings of the current study discussed above indicate that values
student learning, theory to practice, explains students success, and the survive in
bureaucracy were the attributes that were found in the urban teacher participants in the
study. According to the gap between the ten quality attributes and those found in the
studied schools, there was a ‘disconnection’ between the qualities of most teachers in the
study hired to teach our most at-risk students in the identified continuation high schools.

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Limitations
The current study has multiple limitations. They are listed in the following:
1. Participants for the study were derived from a small sample within the
continuation high schools.
2. The nature of participants’ responses to survey questions was limited to the
subjective nature of the questions.
3. Validity of responses to survey questions was highly subjective.
4. Due to the relatively lack of available sources of research articles and
publications in the area of recruitment, training, and retention of teachers in the
continuation schools program, the thorough review of literature was challenged
and current literature included limited resources.
5. The relative short amount of time required to undertake a study of this
nature was a limitation. Due to the time constraint, this study could not conduct
any pilot study to test sample survey questionnaire.
6. Another limitation to this study was bias nature of responses that were generated
from the sample group.
Recommendations for Practice

The findings in this study make a case for a change in the process of recruiting
and assigning teachers for our urban minority continuation high schools. There should
be a district-adopted protocol such as the Martin Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener
for all staff, particularly the certificated ones, assigned to urban, minority, at-risk
continuation high schools. The following are a set of specific recommendations
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developed from the findings of the current study:
1. A screening instrument such as the Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener survey
should be used.
2. All instructional personnel currently assigned to our urban continuation high
schools should be surveyed with a teacher quality measurement such as the
Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener with the view to ascertaining their
suitability with being successful with our poor, minority students.
3. Considering differences in the ethnical backgrounds of students in continuation
schools, all instructional personnel currently assigned to our urban continuation
high schools should be trained in the use of effective culturally relevant
instructional pedagogical strategies, as a means to making the students they serve
successful academically.
4. All administrators and other instructional personnel of our at-risk, minority,
continuation high school students, should be in-serviced in the use of particular
strategies for student’s academic achievement. For example, the Ronald
Edmunds Effective Schools Strategies aimed at the academic success of all
students housed in continuation schools can be used. Some of effective strategies
are clear school mission, high expectations for success, strong instructional
leadership, frequent monitoring of students’ progress, opportunity to learn and
student time on task, safe and orderly environment, and home-school relations.
5. All instructional personnel currently working in our urban continuation high
schools should be trained in the use of empathy in their daily instructional and
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non-instructional approach to our at-risk, minority students.
Recommendations for Research
The results of the current study indicates that for the VTs, only three attributes
including Values Student Learning (VSL), Theory of Practice (TP), and Explains
Students Success (ESS) met Harberman’s attribute thresholds. Approach to Students
(AS) showed the lowest attribute not meeting the threshold. For the NTs, Explains
Student Success (ESS) was the only attribute that met the Harberman’s threshold.
Approach to Students (AS) was the least attribute of NTs. The teacher instrument
(Haberman’s Pre-Screener) that this current study employed alludes to a critical issue
regarding the quality of teachers who were assigned to continuation schools with
marginalized, poor, disenfranchised, urban minority students. According to Delia
Stafford, president of the Harberman Foundation in Houston, “Not everybody that has a
teaching certificate should be in the classroom.” (2004). This statement is very true for
most urban continuation high schools where due to lax or stringent teaching
accountability, have tended to attract less “qualified” and competent teachers. Ladson-
Billings (2004) still contends that the major stumbling block to preparing teachers for
success with African American students is racism. The African American student,
particularly the male, is the least understood student in our public schools today, hence,
their disproportionate representation in our special education systems all across the
nation’s public schools today.
In addition, the near total absence of any published works in the continuation
education for high school students makes it very difficult to draw from a rich source of
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literary materials. Second, on-going studies and research should continue on the teacher
recruitment, training, and retention practices for urban continuation high schools that
serve predominantly poor, minority, at-risk students. Third, further research should be
conducted in the use of the Martin Haberman’s new teacher pre-screener, and structured
interview protocol, with the view to fine-tuning new teacher selection process for our
most at-risk students in our urban minority continuation high schools.
Conclusion
The future is bleak for a lot of our minority students including African American
and Hispanic students. The disproportionately alarming numbers of them dropping out
of school daily as opposed to their white and Asian counterparts is cause for action. We
in the educational institutions can no longer afford to sit back and ignore these glaring
statistical facts. We also, can no longer afford to “straddle the fence” when it comes to
issues affecting our marginalized minority at-risk students, for the “fight” to educate all
students of our great nation, and in so doing be proactive on all issues relating to their
well-being, should no longer be a spectator sport. All over the inner cities of our great
nation, our poor, minority, at-risk students are in pain. Pain, borne out of years of
institutional racism, neglect, and in some instances - out right denial by the powers that
be. According to Haberman, the achievement gap we currently have between the African
American and Hispanic students on one hand, and their white and Asian counterparts on
the other, is deeply rooted in the racial history of the white hegemony of this great
nation. At the policy level, there should be a deliberate attempt to attract skilled
teachers with qualified attributes to teach students who struggle to perform enough to
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graduate from high schools.
In addition, those of us in the field of education should see the teaching
profession as truly the noblest job and the most profound endeavor of the human
experience, and in so doing, challenge ourselves to rise to the occasion. Once we
recruit teachers with desired attributes, they should be continuously supported through
quality professional development. The quest to have the best qualified and brightest of
teachers in these classrooms, and if schools can recruit and train teachers enough to
remain at challenging schools such as continuation schools, will help motivate those
most unmotivated students to achieve, graduate high school, and ultimately become
successful in their future endeavor.
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Appendix A

Information/Facts Sheet for Non-Medical Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
A STUDY ON THE ATTRIBUTES OF NEW TEACHERS AND VETERAN
TEACHERS IN URBAN CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOLS
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the current study is to investigate if twenty teachers who assigned
to continuation high schools serving urban, poor, minority, at-risk students of Hispanic
and African American origins in southern California held attributes of Martin
Haberman’s “star teachers” addressing good qualities of instructing such population.
The specific research questions that guide this study include: 1. What are the attributes
of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to teach at-risk students in alternative
high schools? and 2. How do alternative high school teachers identified as veteran
teachers to instruct at risk students differ from those identified as new teachers?
Your participation is voluntary. Your participation will not affect to your schools.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate in the study, you will be surveyed with The Haberman pre-
screener questionnaire in paper and asked to return the complete paper to your principals
so that they can be mailed to me. You will complete the survey with the fifty multiple
choice questions which were grouped into the ten attributes of teachers in urban schools.
You will have 50 minutes to complete the survey.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information collected for this current study will be confidential. Also,
all information gathered and analyzed will remain confidential without reference to
individuals and institutions. All data will be secured in a computer where only principal
investigator has an access.

The University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP)
may access the data. If this study is published, all findings will be no identifiable
information.

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INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Reginald Obiamalu
Work phone number: (323) 567-3804 Cell phone number: (310) 702-4566
Faculty Advisor: Dr. Rey Baca
Email: rbaca@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

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Appendix B
Recruitment Letter to Principals (1)
Dear Colleague:

The accompanying survey/questionnaires are part of my doctoral work in Educational
Policy Planning and Administration, at the University of Southern California. Please
assist me in distributing a set of copies to teachers at your school. Also, do facilitate the
collection of all responses at your school site and return them in the enclosed postage-
paid envelop.

I realize that my timing is a little bit off, but your invaluable help on this project is very
much needed and would be appreciated.

Also, all information gathered and analyzed will remain confidential without reference
to individuals and institutions.

If you have any questions/concerns, I can be reached at the following telephone
numbers, fax numbers, and e-mail address:

Work phone number: (323) 567-3804 Cell phone number: (310) 702-4566

Work fax number: (323) 566-4346 E-mail address: Amalu@aol.com.

Thank you for your envisaged assistance.

Sincerely,

Reginald I. Obiamalu

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Appendix C

Recruitment Letter to Principals (2)

Dear____________________________:

Sequel to my earlier phone conversation with you, please find attached the
survey/questionnaires which are part of my doctoral work. Also, if you know of any
teachers who have taught in an inner-city continuation high school working primarily
with African-American and Hispanic students, please either forward my particulars
(below) to them for them to contact me, or simply make extra copies of the
questionnaire and send to them. I will pay for all expenses incurred.

The data collected from the survey questionnaire will be used in my dissertation which
is part of my doctoral work in Educational Policy Planning and Administration, at the
University of Southern California.

All information gathered and analyzed said questionnaire will remain confidential
without reference to individuals and institutions.

Should there be any further questions or concerns, I can be reached at the following
telephone numbers, fax numbers, and e-mail address:

Work phone number: (323) 567-3804 Cell phone number: (310) 702-4566

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Appendix D
The Haberman Star Teacher Pre-Screener
Questionnaire Survey Instrument

Name____________________ Number of years of teaching________

(50 Multiple Choice Questions. Please circle your answer to each question)

1. Effective teachers strive to have children
(A) work in teams
(B) work at things they can do
(C) see meaning in their work

2. The feeling that effective teachers communicate to their students is
(A) love
(B) respect
(C) concern

3. If a teacher accuses a student of taking something in front of the class and then finds
out that student is innocent, the teacher should
(A) apologize in front of the whole class and inform the parent of the error
(B) take the student aside and apologize
(C) apologize to the student in front of the whole class

4. Poor students would be helped most if teachers
(A) stopped promoting them for social reasons
(B) could deal with several levels in each class
(C) pegged their assignments to the average student

5. The feeling students need to demonstrate toward their teacher is
(A) love
(B) respect
(C) admiration

6. “A high self-concept reflects a feeling of efficacy.” This means that teachers should
(A) get students to work hard
(B) make sure each child feels good about him/her self
(C) find something every child can do well

7. The best way to cut down on the number of students at-risk of failing is to have
(A) Smaller classes
(B) More effective teachers
(C) More teacher aides

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8. If a student disturbs other students, the first thing to do is
(A) Read his/her permanent record
(B) Talk to him/her
(C) Talk to other teachers who have had him/her
9. The worst mistake a teacher might make is to
(A) Give the student a wrong grade
(B) Bring the wrong materials to a lesson
(C) Accuse the wrong student for starting a fight

10. Teacher burnout can best be prevented by
(A) Having a life outside of school
(B) Networking with other teachers
(C) Taking professional courses and in services

11. If I could have one wish for the students in my class next year, it would be that they
would
(A) Be able and willing to follow my directions
(B) Learn what they are supposed to learn
(C) Develop a real interest in the material

12. Students will not learn from a teacher unless the teacher is someone they
(A) Love
(B) Respect
(C) Admire

13. If a student doesn’t participate in class, the first thing to do is
(A) Talk to him/her
(B) Call on him/her
(C) Change his/her seat

14. The most powerful way teacher demonstrates respect for students is by
(A) Listening to them
(B) Enforcing rules fairly
(C) Meeting students outside of school hours

15. Effective teachers
(A) Connect materials to students’ life experiences
(B) Explain how new ideas are related to what was taught previously
(C) Explain to students how materials will be useful to them in the future

16. The most mistake a teacher might make during a parent conference might be to
(A) Incorrectly explain the reasons for the child’s grades
(B) Not give enough positives about the child
(C) Ask the parent for medical information about the child
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17. The most mistake a teacher might make is to
(A) Not correct a test
(B) Not enforce a classroom rule consistently
(C) Ignore a student over a period of time

18. If everything in my class were going well, I might ask myself “I wonder what I
might do to do better?”
(A) Daily
(B) Weekly
(C) At each marking period

19. A teacher who has students working in cooperative groups believes that
(A) A good classroom must have some noise
(B) Students can learn from each other
(C) Students must learn to work independently

20. A teacher who has all students reading the same page and answering the same
questions is concerned with
(A) Covering the material
(B) Recognizing individual differences
(C) Having children work together

21. The students in your class are writing play they plan to perform. The play deals with
the subject matter they are supposed to cover in class. The students are learning a great
deal and are enjoying the project. The principal asks you to stop the project and stick to
the text. The principal is concerned about the standardized test the students will be
taking shortly. You should
(A) Quietly find out about transferring to another school
(B) Show the principal how much the students are learning
(C) Recognize that the principal is accountable and phase out the project

22. The students in your class are publishing a newspaper. They are learning a great deal
and enjoying the process of publishing their article. The principal visits and asks you to
stop the activity and stick to the basic text. His reason is that the students will be taking
a standardized test shortly. You should
(A) Follow the principal’s directions
(B) Explain the project to the principal
(C) Take the matter up with the principal’s superior

23. Effective teachers of students at-risk are most likely to
(A) Tutor them after school
(B) Work with parents to oversee homework
(C) Plan effective assignments for them during the school day
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24. The best reason for reading a child’s permanent record is to
(A) Know if other teachers have had similar problems
(B) Ascertain achievement levels in reading/math/writing
(C) Learn of medical condition

25. No teaching method will work unless it is based on
(A) Love
(B) Respect
(C) Concern

26. The activity that takes up most of a good teacher’s planning time is
(A) Correcting papers
(B) Going over what needs to be taught
(C) Identifying interesting activity

27. The cause of student discipline problems that most directly affects the work of the
teacher is
(A) Principals who don’t back teachers up
(B) School rules that don’t really punish
(C) Teachers who can’t relate to students

28. Students grades should primarily reflect their
(A) Effort
(B) Ability
(C) Achievement

29. The best way to cut down on the number of students at-risk of failing is to have
(A) More hands-on learning activities
(B) More emphasis on basic skills
(C) More after-school and weekend programs

30. Good teachers burnout because of the demands made on them by
(A) The kids
(B) The parents
(C) The school bureaucracy

31. A teacher who allows each student to choose his/her assignment believes that
assignments should be based on
(A) Ability
(B) Interest
(C) Achievement

32. The cause of student failure that most directly affects the work of the teacher is
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(A) Poverty
(B) Parents who don’t participate
(C) Irrelevant curriculum

33. The students in your class are making a video program to document the progress
they are making in studying a particular subject. They are learning a great del and
enjoying their studies. The principal has asked you to stop making this video and stick to
the basic text. You should
(A) Ask some of the students’ parents to convince him to let you continue the project
(B) Show the principal examples of the students’ progress
(C) Recognize the principal’s authority and stop the project

34. “All children can learn” is best illustrated by a teacher who
(A) Is willing to explain things over and over
(B) Gives extra help to those who need it
(C) Provides different ways for students to learn the same things

35. Classroom problems
(A) Rarely occur with good teachers
(B) Are an expected part of the job
(C) Result from poor planning

36. Teachers burnout because they
(A) Have chosen the wrong profession
(B) Do the same thing over and over
(C) Get worn down by duties other than teaching

37. The cause of student discipline problems that most directly affects the work of the
teacher is
(A) Violence in the community
(B) Racism in the society
(C) Teachers who escalate problems

38. The cause of student failure that most directly affects the teacher’s work is
(A) The terrible life conditions the students face every day.
(B) The various physical and emotional conditions which handicap the students
(C) The poor teaching methods used in schools serving students in poverty

39. If a teacher makes an arithmetic mistake on the chalkboard and a teacher points it
out, the teacher should
(A) Thank the student and correct the error
(B) Thank the student and continue with the lesson
(C) Point out the mistake and the correction to the whole class

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40. The best use of students’ grades is to
(A) Compare students
(B) Inform students
(C) Reward and punish students

41. Mainstreaming students with handicapping conditions into regular classrooms
requires teachers to
(A) Prepare several assignments
(B) Devote less time to normal students
(C) Give more help after class
42. The first thing to do with a student who doesn’t do work is
(A) Review classroom rules
(B) Talk to him/her
(C) Call the parent

43. A lesson is successful when
(A) Students finish their work
(B) Students actively participate
(C) Students understand what they’re doing

44. The most useful part of teacher planning is
(A) Deciding what the students need to learn
(B) Reviewing the materials to be covered
(C) Gathering materials

45. The amount of time it takes to plan for the next day id
(A) 1 hour
(B) 1-2 hours
(C) 5-6 hours

46. A good teacher asks him/herself, “I wonder what I might do to do better?”
(A) Whenever there is a problem
(B) All the time
(C) At regular planning time

47. The most important reason for a teacher making a home visit is to
(A) Demonstrate respect and caring for the child and family
(B) Speak with parents who won’t or can’t come to school
(C) Gain important information about the child

48. The best way to cut down on the number of students at-risk of failing is to have
(A) More cooperation with parents
(B) More school psychologists and guidance counselors
(C) More interesting classes
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49. The best way to prepare students for taking standardized tests is to
(A) Have them practice taking such tests
(B) Get them interested in the material
(C) Make sure to cover the material being tested

50. If there truly are multiple intelligences, then teacher should
(A) Provide some children with more practice in basic skills
(B) Recognize some children’s abilities in human relations
(C) Make assignments that require different abilities

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Appendix E
Definitions of Attributes

1. Persistence: predicts the propensity to work with children who present learning
and behavioral problems on a daily basis without giving up on them for the full 180 day
work year.

2. Organization and Planning: refers to how and why star teachers plan as well as
their ability to manage complex classroom organizations.

3. Values student learning: predicts the degree to which the responses reflect a
willingness to make student learning the teacher’s highest priority.

4. Theory to Practice: predicts the respondent’s ability to see the practical
implications of generalizations as well as the concepts reflected by specific practices.

5. At-Risk Students: predicts the likelihood that the respondent will be able to
connect with and teach students of all backgrounds and levels.

6. Approach to Students: predicts the way the respondent will attempt to relate to
students and the likelihood this approach will be effective.

7. Survive in Bureaucracy: predicts the likelihood that the respondent will be able
to function as a teacher in large, depersonalized organization.

8. Explains Teacher Success: deals with the criteria the respondent uses to
determine to hing success and whether these are relevant to teachers in poverty schools.

9. Explains Student Success: deals with the criteria the respondent uses to
determine students' success and whether these are relevant to students in poverty
schools.

10. Fallibility: refers to how the teacher plans to deal with mistakes in the
classroom.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of study was to examine the attributes of teachers of urban continuation high schools in Los Angeles Unified School District. The research questions were: 1. What are the attributes of veteran teachers and new teachers as prepared to teach at-risk students in alternative high schools? and 2. How do alternative high school teachers identified as veteran teachers to instruct at risk students differ from those identified as new teachers? The current study employed Martin Haberman’s star teacher framework addressing attributes of instructing at urban high schools serving poor, minority, at-risk students. ❧ This study employed an ethnographic qualitative research design. Data was collected from 10 new teachers and 10 veteran teachers who completed the Martin Haberman’s modified New Teacher survey. The data were analyzed through logico-inductive analysis, a process of grouping, regrouping, and matching data with research questions. Results indicate that for the veteran teachers, values student learning, theory of practice, and explains students success met Harberman’s attribute thresholds. For the new teachers, explains student success was the only strong attribute. The comparison analysis between veteran teachers and new teachers’ correct responses to Haberman’s attributes indicated that the veteran teachers had more correct responses than the new teachers. The study showed how both new and veteran teachers at continuation schools that aimed to decrease dropouts were not prepared to teach at-risk students. The findings implied that urban schools should recruit and train the best equipped and brightest of teachers to educate unmotivated students to achieve and graduate.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Obiamalu, Reginald Ifeanyi (author)

Core Title Teachers in continuation high schools: attributes of new teachers and veteran teachers in urban continuation high schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 12/18/2013

Defense Date 10/08/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag attributes,new teachers,OAI-PMH Harvest,urban continuation high schools,veteran teachers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee chair), Fischer, Linda A. (committee member), Garcia, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email amalu@aol.com,rio1671@lausd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-359559

Unique identifier UC11295269

Identifier etd-ObiamaluRe-2227.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-359559 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ObiamaluRe-2227.pdf

Dmrecord 359559

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Obiamalu, Reginald Ifeanyi

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA