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Coloring the pipeline: an analysis of the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program as a path for underrepresented students into student affairs
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Coloring the Pipeline: An analysis of the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program as a path for
underrepresented students into Student Affairs
by
Tonantzin Oseguera
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2013
Copyright 2013
Running Head: A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
Abstract
This study applies self-efficacy theory from research on career-decision making to understand
what influences underrepresented students’ decision to enter the student affairs profession. The
purpose of the study was to determine how underrepresented students choose student affairs as a
profession. The study focused on undergraduate students who participated in the NASPA
Undergraduate Fellows Program (NUFP). This mixed methods study used data from previously
collected by NASPA and conducted individual interviews of Fellows who participated in the
program between the years of 2008 through 2012. Explanatory research methodology was used
to analyze what influences and factors contributed to underrepresented students entering student
affairs. Findings from this study indicate that involvement in co-curricular activities,
participation in NUFP, and influence from mentors act as socialization to effect underrepresented
students to enter the student affairs profession. Further analysis reveal that cultural agents who
affirm student’s cultural heritage have a significant impact on students’ choosing student affairs.
The study provides insight into closing the gap between the number of underrepresented students
attending higher education and the ethnic diversity of the student affairs profession.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
ii
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to all underrepresented students choosing to go
into the noble profession of Student Affairs. Keep on keeping on!
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Writing my dissertation has been one of the most challenging things I have done in my
life. As a first generation college student and the first in my family to obtain a Doctorate, I feel
truly blessed that I have had mentors, friends, and family to support me.
I would like to thank Dr. Patricia Tobey for agreeing to accept my study as an
independent dissertation. This is the culmination of persistence and a partnership of minds. I am
most appreciative of her guidance, counsel, and understanding. I enjoyed our conversations in
person, Skype, FaceTime, and most of all our shared love of designer handbags.
I would also like to thank the other members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Michael
Jackson and Dr. Patricia Telles-Irvin. It is an immense privilege to have two past NASPA
Presidents and Pillars of the profession to serve on my committee. I appreciate their perspective,
insight, challenge and patience. They are a living example of the epitome of all that is good in
our profession.
The dissertation journey is one fraught with oscillations - one that with friends is better
weathered. I want to acknowledge classmates or “battle mates” who made everything bearable:
Lauren, Jen B., Martin, Rocio, Susie and Lupe. I want to acknowledge in particular my
classmates and carpool buddies Lourdes and Kafele, who were inspiring and helped me to
persevere while making the drive from Riverside to USC.
I especially want to thank my mentors of years past, without whom I would not have
arrived at this destination; they gave me the start and push I needed and believed in me when
doubt and uncertainty howled. Dr. Kathy Manning extended me her green pen and set my ability
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
iv
to compose my thoughts which previously had been storm-tossed. Dr. Wendy Endress provided
the light of kindness and keen intelligence which remains with me to this day. And lastly to
Diane and Danielle, my colleagues at UCR, who cheered me at the outset and supported me all
the way to the finish line.
To my family. My mother Teresa Oceguera who gave me my sense of humor to deal with
difficult situations. To my one and only brother, Marine Moco, Robert Oceguera- you were the
inspiration for me to make the first step to attend college. You are my inspiration still, thank you
for serving our country in two tours - Semper Fi. Thank you both for your love and support.
Finally, none of this would have been possible if not for the unconditional love of my
husband and editor John K. Harman. We have taken long road trips, moved three times to
different states, purchased a home, and conducted a crazy garage sale, but none of this was as
difficult as working on a dissertation together. You were my lighthouse when I could not see
through the fog. Thank you for supporting me and encouraging me to start the program back in
2010.
To my Guru Babaji, who has ever been the polestar of my life.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ……………………………………….…………………………...….. ii
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………….. iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………...………………………………………. iv
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………… x
CHAPTER
1. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ………………………………………….… 1
Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 1
Background of the Problem ……………………………………………….. 1
The Role of Student Affairs ……………………………………….. 2
National Association undergraduate student programs …………….. 3
NASPA Undergraduate Fellows Program ………………………………….. 3
Learning Outcomes …………………………………………………. 5
Overview of Program Components ………………………………… 6
Purpose of Study ……………………………………………………………. 8
Research Questions …………………………………………………………. 8
Assumptions ………………………………………………………………… 9
Significance of Study ……………………………………………………….. 9
Definition of Terms …………………………………………………………. 10
Dissertation Overview ………………………………………………………. 11
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………………. 12
Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………. 12
Self - Efficacy ..………………………………………………………. 12
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
vi
Social Capital ………………………………………………………... 14
Institutional and Cultural Agents ……………………………. 17
Career Development …………………………………………..….………... 19
Career Decision and Self-Efficacy …………………………… 20
Career Selection for Underrepresented students ……………… 24
Entry-points into Student Affairs …………………………………………….. 29
Promotion of Student Affairs ………………………………………… 30
Co-Curricular Activities ……………………………………………… 31
Role Models and Mentors ……………………………………………. 33
Internships ……………………………………………………………. 34
Student’s in Master’s preparation programs …………………………. 36
Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 38
3. METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………….. 40
Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 40
Research Design ……………………………………………………………. 40
Quantitative Data ………………………………………….. ………. 41
Qualitative Data ……………………………………………………. 42
Participant Population ……………………………………………………… 43
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………. 44
Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………. 45
Trustworthiness of the Data ……………………..…………………………. 46
Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………………… 46
Limitations …………………………………………………………………. 47
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
vii
Summary …………………………………………………………………… 48
4. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS…………………………………………. 49
Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 49
Demographic Information ……………………….……………………….. 51
Fellow Interview Participants…………………………………….. 52
Results Addressing the Research Questions……………………………... 54
Entry-points into Student Affairs ……………………………………….... 54
Involvement in co-curricular activities ………………….… 54
Prior interest in student affairs ……………………………. 55
Role Models & Mentors …………………………………... 56
Career Selection ….………………..……………………………………... 58
Resources and Opportunities…………………………….. 60
Influence from NUFP ………………………………….….. 61
Program Components……………………………………… 63
Graduate School ………..…………..…………………….. 66
Cultural Agents ……………………………………………...…….. 69
Additional Findings ……………………………………………….. 72
Conclusion ………………………………………………………… 73
5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ………………………………… 75
Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 75
Research Findings and Discussion for Question 1………………………. 76
Research Findings and Discussion for Question 2 & 3…………………… 78
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
viii
Career Decision Competencies ………………………………….… 78
NUFP Influence …………………………………………………… 79
Graduate School ………………………………………………….. 81
Research Findings and Discussion for Question 4……………………….. 83
Role Models ………………………………………………………. 83
Cultural Agents ……………………………………………………. 84
Implications for Practice …………………………………………………. 85
Consideration for NASPA ………………………………………………… 89
Future Research ………………………………………………………….. 90
Conclusion ……………………………………..………………………….. 92
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………… 94
APPENDIX ………………………………………………………………………….
A: NUFP END OF THE YEAR EV ALUATION ……………………………. 110
B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL GUIDE ……………………………………… 118
C: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD FACT SHEET ………………….. 119
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
ix
LIST OF TABLES
1. Summary of Interview Themes…………...……………………………………… 51
2. Gender and Ethnicity of the Respondent group in percentages………………….. 52
3. Fellow Background Characteristics ……………………………………………… 53
4. Career Selection in percentages …………………………………………………. 59
5. Resources and Opportunities …………………………………………………….. 60
6. Networking and Encouragement ………………………………………………… 61
7. Commitment to entering Student Affairs ………………………………………… 61
8. Program activity participation by total numbers …………………………………. 63
9. Graduate School interest in percentages …………………………………………. 67
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS
x
CHAPTER 1: Overview of the Study
Introduction
The the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that by 2050 more than 50% of the United States
population will be composed of underrepresented minorities and White/Caucasian will be the the
new minority (Census, 2010). The accelerating increase of ethnic and racial minorities relative to
the general population is also becoming evident in the student population of colleges and
universities. In the last decade alone, the number of underrepresented students attending higher
education has nearly doubled to 27% of the total student population and is expected to double
again by 2019 (Almanac of Higher Education, 2011).
However, the higher education workforce has been slow to mirror the diversity of this
emerging student population. Between 1994 and 2004 the enrollment for underrepresented
students rose by 49% compared to only 6% for White students during the same time period
(ACE, 2007). By comparison only 14% of University presidents and executives currently are
from underrepresented backgrounds and faculty/staff fared slightly better in reflecting ethnic and
racial diversity, with 21% of faculty and 23% of staff respectively from underrepresented
backgrounds (Almanac of Higher Education, 2011; Aguirre, 2000).
Background of the Problem
There is widespread concern that the field of student affairs is lagging behind in
reflecting the nation’s ethnic diversity (Komives & Kuh, 1988; Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991;
Talbot, 1996; Taub & McEwen, 2006). Past research reveals that 86% of student affairs
practitioners were White (Task Force on Professional Preparation and Practice, 1989; Sagaria &
Johnsrud, 1991). Current studies indicate that little progress has been made in this area, as on
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 1
average 20% of the nation’s student affairs practitioners are underrepresented minorities (Talbot,
1996; Taub & McEwen, 2006). It is imperative that the field mirror the diversity of the student
population it serves, as student affairs professionals have the most contact with students
throughout their college experience. Additionally, higher education faces a changing cultural
milieu requiring a variety of perspectives available from a diverse staff employed at all levels of
the university (El-Khawas, 2003; Rapp, 1997; Sangaria & Johnsrud, 1991).
The Role of Student Affairs. The initial interaction a student has within the university
setting is customarily with a student affairs professional. The application process includes
contact with admission counselors, financial aid advisors, housing staff, and other student affairs
professionals. Throughout a student’s college journey they will increasingly interact with student
affairs professionals in a variety of capacities. Ranging from brief interactions during campus
programs to more significant exposures during counseling or during mediation when roommate
conflicts arise. By the time of graduation, the accumulating interactions will have contributed
significantly to a student’s college experience and growth (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005;
Terenzini, Pascarella, & Blimling, 1996).
Student affairs professionals aspire to inform and enlighten every facet of college
students’ lives and promote the value of student learning (Keeling, 2004, 2006; Student
Personnel Point of View, 1937; Student Learning Imperative, 1996). Consequently, the role of
student affairs practitioners is entwined with student success (Martin & Seifert, 2011) by
enhancing student learning and personal development (Student Learning Imperative, 1996) and
is accomplished through programs developing cognitive learning and self-efficacy. Specific
emphasis is given to critical thinking skills, problem solving, reflective judgement, leadership,
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 2
and civic engagement. Multiple research studies affirm the positive impact student affairs
professionals have on student learning (Astin, Sax, & Avalos, 1999; Kuh, 1995; Love, 1995;
Mann, 2008; Martin & Seifert, 2011; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005; Terenzini, Pascarella,
& Blimling, 1996). These findings contain important consequences for the broader domain of the
student affairs profession and highlight the imperative for universities to employ qualified
student affairs practitioners.
National Associations’ Undergraduate Student Programs. All major student personnel
associations have developed programs to encourage undergraduate students to enter the field of
student affairs, including American College Personnel Association (ACPA), Association of
College Unions International (ACUI), Association of College and University Housing Officers -
International (ACUHO-I), and National Orientation Directors Association (NODA). Current
undergraduate programs are designed to enhance students’ leadership skills and promote
participation in their respective national association (ACPA 2012; ACUHO-I, 2012; NODA,
2012). However, only the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA)
has a program to encourage undergraduate students from historically underrepresented
populations to pursue a career in student affairs. This program is unique not only because of its
singular priority, but also concrete for diversifying student affairs and ultimately the university
workforce. (Brown, 1997; Garcia, 2001; Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991).
NASPA Undergraduate Fellows Program
In 1989 NASPA developed the Minority Undergraduate Fellows Program (MUFP) with
the mission to “increase the number of ethnic minority persons in student affairs and higher
education” (User’s Manual, n.d., p.1). The stated objective was to introduce undergraduate
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 3
students to the field of student affairs, provide mentors currently in the field, and develop their
leadership skills as a means of encouraging them to pursue a master’s degree in student affairs
administration. Referred affectionally to as “MUFP” by its participants, the program has grown
steadily throughout the 1990’s by approximately 50 participants per year and by 2004 the MUFP
program had 784 alumni with a majority having pursued a career in student affairs (NUFP
Annual report, 2004).
Initially the intent of the Fellows program was to serve only ethnic minorities, but the
program has undergone two significant revisions of its mission. In 1999 the MUFP Board and
NASPA Board of Directors began conversations to include students with disabilities into the
MUFP program, and in the academic year of 2000-2001 the MUFP mission was broadened to
include students with disabilities. In 2005 the Minority Undergraduate Fellows Program Board
was asked to broaden the MUFP scope to include other historically underrepresented student
populations including first-generation, lesbian and gay, bisexual and transgender college students
(NUFP Transition report, 2005). In 2006 MUFP made the name transition to NASPA
Undergraduate Fellows (NUFP) and revised its mission “to increase the number of historically
disenfranchised and underrepresented professionals in student affairs and/or higher education,
including but not limited to those of racial and ethnic minority background; those having a
disability; and those identifying as LGBTQ” (NASPA website, 2012).
Participation in the Fellows program is escalating. In the last five years the number of
participants has increased from 166 in 2008 to 219 in 2010, with the most significant surge in
2012 when there were 430 Fellows in the program (NASPA Fellows 2012 data, n.d.). NASPA
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 4
records now indicate there are now over 2,500 Fellows who have participated in the program
since its initiation.
Learning Outcomes
In 2007 the NUFP Board recognized the need to assess the effectiveness of the program
and determine critical learning outcomes for Fellows (NUFP, 2007). There are nine learning
outcomes based upon the professional competencies for student affairs practitioners as outlined
by ACPA and NASPA (2010). The learning objectives are as follows:
1. Writing, research, and presentation which develop basic scholarship skills required to
succeed in higher education, from the undergraduate to doctoral level.
2. Ethical decision making develops a personal foundation and values. Fellows are
encouraged to introspect upon their personal ethics and the values of the profession.
3. Cultural competency fosters critical reflection for a variety of situations and campus
environments, in the context of social justice and progressive change.
4. Professional networking skills provide the Fellow with the ability to build a social
network of mentors and professionals in order to represent themselves appropriately.
5. Developing personal academic goals assists Fellows in planning their professional lives,
while exploring the numerous paths to and positions within student affairs.
6. Engaged citizenship and service aspires to instill a sense of individual and collective
responsibility for the bettering of society.
7. Understanding power and privilege assists Fellows in their awareness of multiple
identities and cultivates intentional discussion of cultural pluralism and social justice
issues.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 5
8. The final two learning outcomes are interrelated with the purpose to facilitate knowledge
of student affairs. Students are exposed to student development theories and to various
college and university organizational structures.
9. Appreciation of NASPA as an essential resource for student affairs professionals.
The above learning outcomes provide a framework for measuring Fellows progress in
each of the specific areas mentioned. Additionally, these learning outcomes allow NASPA to
establish a baseline for assessing Fellows’ achievement over time.
Overview of Program Components
The overarching goal of the Fellows program is twofold: to provide an understanding of
the student affairs field and to serve as an entry point into a student affairs career. Program
components include on-campus mentoring, regional and national conference attendance, paid
summer internships, and a summer leadership institute (NUFP website, 2012). These components
have evolved throughout the years as a response to newly-identified learning outcomes and
where additional needs have arisen. Within each component, the Fellows’ activities are semi-
structured to facilitate important learning outcomes through its curriculum and training.
Mentorship. Connecting mentor and Fellow has been a mainstay of the Fellows program
since 1989. On-campus mentorship is provided to participants by a current NASPA member to
familiarize the student with student affairs structure and what a career in the field may entail.
Mentorship responsibilities are informal, with few recommendations for mentor and mentee.
NASPA suggests the mentor and Fellow meet monthly for advice on setting yearly goals and
developing a project that provides an understanding of professional student affairs
responsibilities (NUFP website, 2012).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 6
Conferences. Fellows initiate contacts with established professionals and are familiarized
with the student affairs culture by attending regional and national conferences. Originally
Fellows were encouraged to attend the national conferences, but not until 2003 in St. Louis was
there a pre-conference track designed for fellows “to learn more about student affairs as a
possible career choice” (2004 Annual Report, n.d). Currently Fellows have the opportunity to
network with professionals that mirror their demographic through NUFP specific workshops,
attend pre-conference training, and enjoy a reception for alumni and current Fellows during all
NASPA conferences (NUFP website, 2012).
Summer Internships. To further broaden their experience in student affairs, universities
may provide Fellows with opportunities for internships over their respective academic summer
break. Internships vary in duration from from six to eight weeks, must be appropriate work for an
undergraduate student interested in student affairs, and are funded by the host institution (NUFP
website, 2012). These opportunities bring an immediate reality to the practice of student affairs
unavailable through classroom situations.
Summer Leadership Institute. In 1993 a summer leadership institute was incorporated
into the Fellows program to attract those students who had participated in the Fellows program
and prepare them for a career in student affairs. Participants are nominated by their mentors and
selected by the Fellow’s Advisory Committee (Annual Report, 1993 - 1994, n.d.).
The Gwen Dungy Leadership Institute (DLI) is an intensive five day seminar hosted by a
different university each year and focuses on the relevant skills necessary for career development
by those aspiring to a student affairs career. The yearly cohort of 35 Fellows is determined by a
highly selective process: only 25% of applicants are selected to participate. During the seminar
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 7
they are exposed to a variety of student affairs professors who serve as the institute’s faculty.
Workshops include explorations with identity development, student development theories,
personal competencies, current issues in student affairs, and the graduate school application
processes (NUFP website, 2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study explores how NASPA Undergraduate Fellows select student
affairs as a profession, the impact participation in the Fellows program has regarding
their career choice, and what program elements support their decision. The Fellows program is
groundbreaking because it is the only program administered by a student affairs national
association whose emphasis is to recruit underrepresented students into the profession.
Additionally, this study examined the influence of role models and/or mentors from
underrepresented backgrounds on underrepresented students entering the student affairs
profession and utilized the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program population as focal point.
The goal of this study however was not to evaluate the effectiveness of the program or its
participants.
Research Questions
In order to examine the relationship between Fellows’ decision to enter the profession of
student affairs and participation in the Fellows program, the following research questions guided
the study:
1. What are the entry points in Fellows’ developing an interest in student affairs?
2. Does participation in the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program (NUFP) contribute
to underrepresented students entering the field of student affairs?
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 8
3. And if so, what are the components of the Fellows program which support their
career selection?
4. Do mentors or role models from underrepresented ethnic backgrounds impact a
Fellow’s decision to choose the profession as a career?
Assumptions
During the study duration I was part of the NUFP Board as Chair of the Summer
Leadership Institute and served as a Fellow mentor at my institution. While I had experience
working with the Fellows, I was not a Fellow myself. During the time of study and my tenure as
Faculty Chair I have had no influence over the direction or assessment of the Fellows program.
Therefore it is assumed that there was no conflict of interest with previous affiliation with the
NUFP program.
Limitations of the Study. The limitations of the study will be discussed in detail in
chapter 3, however it is important to note the limiting effect of securing accurate contact
information for all the Fellows who participated in the program for the cohorts of 2008 through
2012. Despite requests from the NASPA national office and the ease of social media contact,
accurate contact information for each Fellow was unavailable, thus limiting the number of
respondent participants for the call to be interviewed for this study.
Significance of the study
This study was conceived out of a lack of understanding around those factors
contributing to underrepresented students entering the profession of student affairs. Developing a
pathway into student affairs for aspiring underrepresented professionals is essential in order to
diversify a workforce reflecting today’s evolving student population. The significance of this
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 9
study is its potential contribution to the body of knowledge around best practices which
encourage underrepresented students to enter the student affairs field. While no formal
assessment of the overall impact of the Fellows program on diversifying the field has been
conducted by NASPA, this study provides an objective starting reference. Adding novel
research to this aspect of higher education potentially encourages higher education Masters
programs, student affairs associations, and even mentors to development effective recruitment
programs.
Definition of Terms
Underrepresented Students: For the purposes of this study the focus will be on
underrepresented minorities, defined as any ethnic group whose representation is
disproportionally less than their proportion in the general population (El-Khawas, 2003; Sagaria
& Johnsrud, 1991). The ethnic and racial demographic utilized in the majority of the studies
reviewed are comprised of African-American/Black, Hispanic/Latino, Asian/Pacific Islander, and
American Indian/Native (El-Khawas, 2003; Patitu, 1996; Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991; Talbot,
1996; Taub & McEwen, 2006).
Student Affairs field: A discipline of careers in administration of student services at
colleges and universities (Barr, Desler, & Associates, 2000).
Student Affairs professionals: Practitioners who work in the field of student affairs and
higher education administration (Barr, Desler, & Associates, 2000).
Fellows: Student participants of the National Association of Student Personnel
Administrators undergraduate fellowship program, inclusive of both MUFP and NUFP program
participants (NASPA website, 2012).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 10
Role Models: Individuals whose behaviors or success can be emulated by others
(Lockwood & Kunda, 1997).
Mentors: A trusted and influential counselor or teacher that shares insight and facilitates
personal and professional growth of an individual (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997).
Cultural Agents: Translators and mediators of the majority culture for underrepresented
students (Bensimon & Dowd, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 2010; deAnda, 1984).
Dissertation Overview
Social inquiry regarding how students of color enter the student affairs field is sorely
needed, as most of the comprehensive research was conducted more than 20 years ago and the
conditions for students and practitioners in the field have changed significantly. To better
understand the issues surrounding underrepresented students entering the student affairs
profession, this study examined the NASPA Fellows program to determine which components
positively contributed to underrepresented students entering student affairs. This first chapter has
provided background on the problem, the significance of the problem, and program components
of the Fellows program. The second chapter will provide an overview of salient literature and
outline a theoretical framework for the study. The third chapter will highlight the methodology of
the research that will be conducted to determine which program components contribute to
underrepresented students entering the field. The results and findings of the study will be
highlighted in the fourth chapter. Finally, the study will conclude with the fifth chapter focusing
on recommendations for improvements, suggestions for practitioners, and future research.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 11
CHAPTER 2: Literature Review
This chapter is a review of the empirical research pertaining to factors impacting the
career choice of underrepresented students entering the field of student affairs. The first goal of
this chapter is to present the theoretical framework that will contextualize the research findings.
A review of self-efficacy theory and social capital frame the manner in which Fellows decide to
pursue student affairs as a career choice. Institutional agents will be defined to provide insight
into how the social capital of underrepresented students may be impacted by such agents. A
second goal of this chapter is reviewing the literature pertaining to self-efficacy and career
decisions as it relates to career choices made by underrepresented students. Understanding the
influences which affect their decision-making provides insight into how the Fellows program can
be structured to support its participants. Finally, this chapter examines the variables found in a
review of the literature that serve as entry-points into student affairs.
Theoretical Framework
Self-Efficacy
Bandura’s social learning theory posits that learning occurs only within a social context,
where people learn from observation, imitation, and modeling. Bandura and other proponents of
social learning assert that language, behaviors, and cultural norms are transmitted from one
individual to another through matching behavior or imitation (Bandura, 1969; Kohlberg, 1963; &
Parsons 1955). Accordingly, this aspect of learning has been established as the primary manner
by which individuals are naturally socialized (Akers, 2009; Grusec, 1992; & Sears, 1975).
Self-efficacy is an aspect of Bandura’s (1977) social cognitive learning theory, which
asserts that an individual is more likely to engage in specific behaviors if they believe they are
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 12
capable of successfully executing those behaviors. High self-efficacy leads to initiating and
maintaining a task or behavior while low self-efficacy leads to an absence of these of these
behaviors. Bandura’s initial research on self-efficacy was an investigation of modeling behaviors
and phobias and his subjects were people with mild to severe fear of snakes. Bandura’s research
demonstrated that phobic individuals who believed in their capabilities were more likely to
displace their fear of snakes and positively change their behavior. According to Bandura (1977)
self-efficacy can be developed in four ways, three of which have implications for this study.
They are 1) vicarious modeling or observation of others; 2) verbal persuasion such as affirmation
and encouragement from others; and 3) enactive attainment or prior experience and repetitive
experience.
Self-efficacy research has found that fostering high self-efficacy is crucial to initiation
and persistence of performance ( Hackett & Betz, 1981; Peterson, 1993; Tinto 1987). In
researching the relationship between academic achievement and self-efficacy, Bandura and
Schunk (1981) found that a student’s choice of activities was positively affected through
increased self-efficacy: the better a student performs an activity, the greater is the likelihood they
will repeat that behavior, accompanied by increased motivation (Zimmerman, J., 2002).
Bandura confirmed that providing role models is an essential means of imparting
behavior (1969), as self-efficacy behaviors are strengthen by the reinforcing value of models and
learning from behavioral observation. Research in developing a professional self-concept
indicated that those individuals who were developing competencies relied on role models to
acquire their own traits and style (Gibson, 2004).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 13
But the theoretical framework of self-efficacy is not without its limitations. Critics point
out that most self-efficacy research is based upon unobservable variables that are vague and
difficult to assess (Hawkins, 1992; Lee, 1989). Nevertheless, self-efficacy is an important theory
for understanding the initiation of and motivation for behaviors involving career decisions.
Social Capital
Social capital theory was a product of sociology research and asserts that distinct benefits
accrue to members of social networks by virtue of inclusion and is utilized as leading means to
analyze social structures (Bourdieu, 1980; Coleman 1988; Lin, 2001; Portes, 1998; Putnam
1995; Stanton-Salazar, 2010). The four elements of social capital include information, influence,
social credentials, and recognition (Lin, 2001). As resources are embedded in social relations,
these benefits accrue by providing income mobility, social status, and material resources
(Coleman, 1988).
As a pioneer of the theory, Bourdieu (1980) focused his research on institutional resource
access as the primary means of acquiring social capital, including the mobilization of one’s
network to enhance social capital status. Bourdieu also emphasized that membership in a group
additionally provides members access to the community’s collective capital, which often exceeds
the quantity and quality of individual resources.
Coleman (1988) framed social capital in the normative aspect, emphasizing the family
structure and community as being primarily responsible for amassing social capital. Coleman
(1988) conceived social capital as an outcome or a function inhabiting trust, information, and
social norms. The depth of one’s social capital is based on the interaction of those three
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 14
variables. By extension if communities enacted trust, communication, and socialization it would
enable its members to collect its social capital for the common good.
Critics of Bourdieu (1980) and Coleman (1988) contend that their context of social
capital is biased towards the majority and rewards those who already have access to social and
cultural capital (Dika & Singh, 2002; Lin, 2001; & Stanton-Salazar, 1997; 2010). Social capital
has been critiqued by human behaviorists, citing scant empirical evidence and a lack of testing
instruments to validate social capital as a theory (Lin, 2001; Portes, 1998). Finally, the misuse of
social capital theory has become pervasive in business, marketing, and public relations and often
distorts and dilutes the original value of the research (Coleman, 1988; Portes, 1998; Putnam,
1995).
Current research in social capital has expanded to include the educational disparity
between the majority population and underrepresented students (Dika & Singh, 2002; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997; 2010). Social capital’s application in education was a natural pedagogy in
analyzing socialization and power structures. Social capital theories have been used to study
many areas of education including inclusivity in the classroom, career decision-making,
academic persistence, and family/school relations (Dika & Singh, 2002; Lin 2001; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997; 2010). Research by Lareau and Horvart (1999) emphasized social inclusion and
exclusion relating to the activation of social capital by underrepresented families. Their study
analyzed parents’ involvement with their third grade children, and through classroom observation
and parent interviews the researchers measured their ability to comply with educators’ requests
for assistance with their child’s schooling. Lareau and Horvart (1999) found that institutional
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 15
settings favored privileged families and independent of power, class, and race was a significant
factor in enacting social capital to access institutional resources.
In the context of this study, social capital will be defined by Stanton-Salazar’s studies in
mobilizing social capital networks within underrepresented communities (1997). Stanton-
Salazar’s body of research on social capital (1997, 2004, 2010) focused on working-class
minority youths and developed typologies for representing a variety of categories for institutional
agents. Social capital theory frames the research conducted by Stanton-Salazar (1997, 2004,
2010) and utilizes Coleman’s and Bourdieu’s application of both social resources and norms to
analyze those resources embedded in social relationships. In his studies, Stanton-Salazar (1997,
2004, 2010) positions social capital as the means by which disenfranchised youth obtain leverage
for opportunities and resources which allow them to participate in the educational process.
Stanton-Salazar (1997) represents social capital as both access to institutional resources
and to the social norms of the community. In his study of socialization of racial minority and
youth, Stanton-Salazar (1997) posited that social capital or a network of relationships that
provide knowledge and access are crucial to the academic achievement of underrepresented
students. However, Stanton-Salazar (1997) also stressed that in the pursuit of higher education,
underrepresented students have largely been abandoned, due to lack of access to formal social
network opportunities. For underrepresented students, acquiring social capital is an essential
element of gaining access to opportunities and academic achievement. Stanton-Salazar (1997,
2010) contends that underrepresented students accumulate social capital by developing agents in
institutions and communities that will assist them in securing the knowledge and competencies
necessary for navigating the majority culture.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 16
This notion of institutional and cultural agents begs additional examination, as it may
provide a better understanding of the influence role models and mentors have on an individual’s
career choice and is relevant because students will need to build a network of professionals that
will guide them throughout their professional trajectory.
Institutional and Cultural Agents. This research examines the ability of
underrepresented students to connect with their institutional agents and whether or not this
influences their career choice towards student affairs. While role models are defined as
individuals whose examples and success can be emulated by others (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997),
institutional agents are those who occupy positions of power and share information and resources
so others may benefit from their experience (Bensimon, 2007; Bensimon & Dowd, 2009;
Stanton-Salazar, 2010). Research on institutional agents informing this study are based on
Stanton-Salazar’s work on institutional agents (1997, 2004, 2010), which concentrates on
institutional agents committed to assisting low-status students successfully navigate systems,
particularly in higher education. For the purposes of this study, institutional agents are defined as
individuals who utilize their position in a higher education institution to assist underrepresented
students.
By definition, institutional agents possess high levels of cultural and social capital
(Stanton-Salazar, 2010) and the use of social capital is what sets them apart from other
administrators and faculty members. Institutional agents impact students through direct
engagement, transfer highly valued information about their experiences, and often share
similarities with the students they are assisting (Kuh & Love, 2000; Museus & Quaye, 2009).
Bensimon (2007) ascribes sensitivity, guidance, and expertise as attributes enabling institutional
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 17
agents to assist marginalized students. Paulo Freire (1970) referred to them as empowerment
agents, defined by their ability to inspire and their willingness to concede power and share
information to pave the way for dominant culture equality.
Empirical research regarding college student persistence affirms the importance of
establishing connections with institutional agents (Kuh 1995; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991,
2005; Tinto, 1987, 1993). For underrepresented students, developing these connections is crucial
for securing institutional support, navigating the institutional culture, and progressing in racial
identity development (Kuh & Love, 2000; Stanton-Salazar, 2010). For most underrepresented
students, institutional agent support can be the difference between graduation and dropping out
of school. (Kuh & Love, 2000; Rendon, 1994; Stanton-Salazar, 2010).
In the ongoing discussion of racial/ethnic minority college persistence, recent research
points to cultural agents playing a role in student success (Harper & Quaye, 2007; Museus &
Quaye, 2009). Cultural agents are defined as translators and mediators of the majority culture for
underrepresented students (Bensimon & Dowd, 2009; Stanton-Salazar, 2010). deAnda (1984)
first described cultural agents as those who assist racial/ethnic minority students simultaneously
navigate the campus culture and their native culture. Cultural agents offer socialization advice
based on their own experience, provide information about mainstream cultural norms and
practices, and offer students novel experiences apart from their routine experience (deAnda,
1984; DeSousa & Kuh, 1996; Gonzalez, 2003; Harper & Quaye, 2007; Museus & Quaye, 2009).
The majority of research to date has focused on dominant culture members acting as cultural
agents. A emerging body of empirical research indicates that agents from underrepresented
backgrounds can often be more important in the experiences of racial/ethnic students than
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 18
traditional dominant culture agents(Drummond, 1995; Gonzalez, 2003; Guiffrida, 2005; Jackson,
2001; Smith 2007; Sanders, 2009). This study contributes to this ongoing discussion of cultural
agents, as one of the factors studied is the benefit of similarity of race/ethnicity in mentors and
Fellows.
Career Development
Career development is the process by which a person constructs a work identity that
integrates with their personal identity (Hansen, 1996). Research theories on career development
provide a conceptual reference for the importance of assisting individuals with career exploration
via education, counseling, and various career intervention services. For nearly 70 years career
development theories have been sorted into four main categories; trait factors or matching
personal traits to occupation, psychological or matching work environments to personality traits,
situational or those stressing self-efficacy, and finally vocational development aimed at
developing one’s self concept (Brown & Associates, 2002; Super 1957). Each of these theories
establishes a different means by which an individual develops competencies in a work-related,
lifelong process of self-discovery.
The standard assumption for career development is that people postpone any serious
career consideration until well into their third decade of life. Yet a careful analysis of current
research shows that a career spans an individual’s entire working life and often is affected by
changing internal and external factors throughout life (Brown & Associates, 2002; Super, 1976).
Donald Super was the first career development theorist to posit that individuals have
multidimensional career roles over a life-span. Super’s theory (1976) of the Life-Career Rainbow
suggests that even college-aged students give serious consideration to important decision points
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 19
for future employment. In his original theory of Stages of V ocational Behavior, Super (1957)
posits that young adults between the ages of 14 to 18 begin formulating general vocational
preferences and these become crystallized from 18 to 21 years of age. During this time they
begin to specify vocational preferences, evaluate personal factors, gather relevant information,
and express a fledgling confidence in their tentative vocational choices.
Consequently, a majority of the research regarding career development models has been
centered on young adults, particularly during their college age years. This focus on college
students is the result of research indicating that awareness, socialization, and commitment to a
career occurs during this period of life (Brown & Associates, 2002; Harren 1979; Super 1980).
While the literature is replete with studies on career development, for the purposes of this study
the literature reviewed pertains to career decision making self-efficacy of college students, with a
focus on underrepresented students.
Career Decision and Self-Efficacy
An individual’s ability to make career decisions is widely defined as career decision self-
efficacy (Hackett & Betz , 1981; Luzzo 1993; Taylor & Betz, 1983). In career decision making,
self efficacy interacts with contextual factors and is a personal judgement of one’s capabilities
(Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994). Within the social cognitive theory, a strong sense of self-
efficacy paired with aptitude allows one to utilize resources and make decisions effectively
(Bandura, 1969). In other words, your knowledge of a particular subject and confidence allows
you to make an informed decision, often yielding a more positive result. Researchers Hackett and
Betz (1981) were the first to recognize that Bandura’s self-efficacy (1977) theories had
behavioral implications in career decision making for individuals and defined it as occupational
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 20
self-efficacy. Their framework emphasizes an individual’s ability to control the events that affect
them; their personal agency and the external factors which may aid or hinder their career
development (Hackett & Betz, 1981).
The empirical study by Hackett and Betz (1981) examined gender differences of ten
traditionally male and ten female occupations regarding educational requirements and job
responsibilities in self-efficacy. Results showed that self-efficacy was equivalent across
traditionally male and female occupations. However, women’s self-efficacy was higher than men
for traditionally female occupations and lower for traditionally male occupations. Further
analysis of the results affirmed that self-efficacy is significantly related to occupational choice
regardless of gender, as no gender differences in overall self-efficacy were found (Betz &
Hackett, 1981; Lent & Hackett, 1987). This study laid the foundation for more focused research
on measuring self-efficacy and career exploration behaviors, as well as being a predictor for
career decision making.
Subsequently, Taylor and Betz (1983) developed the Career Decision Making Self-
Efficacy scale (CDMSE) which integrates theories of vocational counseling and social
psychology and assesses an person’s career expectations and how these expectations affect career
choice behaviors. Self-efficacy serves as the chief theoretical framework to measure the skills
required to make career choices. The instrument consists of five sub-scales measuring career
choice competencies, as developed by Crites (1978): accurate self-appraisal, obtaining
occupational information, goal selection, ability to make plans for the future, and problem
solving. Taylor and Betz (1983) conducted their field test of the CDMSE on 347 college students
attending both public and private universities. Their finding: college students who were more
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 21
confident in their ability to perform career decision related activities described in the sub-scales
were less likely to report career indecision (Taylor & Betz, 1983).
Follow up studies on college students have supported the initial findings of Taylor and
Betz (1983), affirming that positive self-efficacy contributes to career development and selection
behaviors (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994; Lent & Hackett, 1987; Luzzo, 1993; 1996;
Zimmerman, B., 1995). A study conducted a decade later (Luzzo, 1993) affirmed the original
findings by Taylor and Betz (1983). This study queried 230 community college students with the
purpose of assessing the reliability and validity of the CDMSE and supported the relationship
between career decision making and self-efficacy: students with higher levels of self-efficacy
reported increased career decision aptitudes.
Several barriers may inhibit a student’s career decision abilities and may include the
presence an undecided major, the absence of goal commitment or persistence, or their personal-
emotional condition (Taylor & Betz, 1983; Luzzo, 1993; Luzzo, 1996; Walsh, 1987).
Nevertheless, research findings validate that an individual’s career decision making is supported
by their self-efficacy (Betz & Luzzo, 1996; Luzzo, 1993; Peterson, 1993). Of particular note was
a study by Peterson (1993) that linked self-efficacy and career decision making to academic
persistence in college students. The participant population was comprised of 418 underprepared,
underrepresented college students and addressed the relationship between career decision making
self-efficacy and the presence of academic persistence and departure from college. Peterson
found that students’ academic persistence was intercorrelated with career decision making self-
efficacy and concluded that stronger career decision self-efficacy led to higher academic grades
and career aspirations. Peterson (1993) further affirmed that college students who lacked any
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 22
degree aspirations benefited most from career planning and institutional assistance. Peterson
(1993) recommended that interventions which increase career decision self-efficacy should be a
primary aspect of programs intended to improve student retention.
Studies focusing on self-efficacy and career choices of minority students and other
special populations are limited (Betz, 1997; Hernandez, 1995; Hoyt, 1989; Swanson & Tokar,
1991). However, two seminal studies emphasize the need for implementing self-efficacy
behaviors in underrepresented populations in order to strengthen their vocational choices. An
initial study by Bores-Rangel, Church, Szendre, and Reeves (1990) on the career choices of
minority populations examined self-efficacy, vocational choice, and job satisfaction. Participants
were seasonal migrant workers, 26 men and 9 women with ages ranging from 17 to 30, who
were attending an equivalency program at Washington State University. As part of the program,
participants were exposed to career development workshops and queried on job satisfaction
based on their abilities. Their findings substantiated the need for self-efficacy models in career
development for economically disadvantaged populations.
In a related study of Washington State Universities’ high school equivalency program,
researchers found that self-efficacy and future occupational consideration were strongly
associated (Church, Teresa, Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992). This study measured the self-efficacy
for specific careers of 59 men and 26 women from migrant families and found that the
relationship between career choice, interest, and job satisfaction was associated with self-
efficacy. Both studies validate the relevancy of self-efficacy in understanding career decision
making for underrepresented students.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 23
Career Selection for Underrepresented students
Career selection begins with an evaluation of career information and potential career
paths and represents an essential aspect of college learning and the transition to adulthood
(Brown & Associates, 2002; Cejda, Casparis, Rhodes, & Kelly, 2008). Research regarding career
choice indicates college students choose a career based primarily on expected income, attitudinal
factors such as enjoyment of chosen undergraduate major, and the influence of family, friends,
and mentors (Brown & Associates, 2002; Hansen, 1996; Hacket, Esposito, & O’Halloran, 1989;
Swanson & Tokar, 1991). A number of researchers have suggested that career development
theories fail to include ethnic minority perspectives. Additionally, vocational psychologists insist
that existing research on ethnic minority career development is limited and does not address the
additional barriers they encounter (Arbona, 1990; Hoyt, 1989; Karunanayake & Nauta, 2004;
Luzzo, 1993; Swanson & Tokar, 1991).
Career selection research in underrepresented minorities has primarily centered on those
influences exerted by mentors and/or family members. Having established that vocational
patterns are learned from socialization through the advice and example of role models, Bandura’s
(1969) study found similarity between role models was significantly influenced by real or
presumed similarities between the observer and observed. The original study by Hackett and
Betz (1981) found that college-aged women who lacked socialization experiences, such as
exposure to female role models, had a decreased sense of self-efficacy in relationship to their
career decision making when compared with their male counterparts, who readily had access to
male role models.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 24
Self-Efficacy. Empirical studies based in self-efficacy career development paradigms
have resulted in increased career decision making of underrepresented students (Church, Teresa,
Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992; Greir-Reed, Skaar, & Conkel-Ziebell, 2009; Greir-Reed & Ganuza,
2012; Hernandez, 1995). Of particular note is the study by Grier-Reed, Skaar, and Conkel-
Ziebell (2009) that measured self-efficacy and dysfunctional career thoughts of culturally diverse
college students. With a pre and post test, the researchers used the Career Thoughts Inventory
(CTI) to measure self-defeating career thoughts and the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale
(CDSE) to measure career self-efficacy throughout a career planning course. The study
concluded that college students who participated in the class training registered an increase in
self-efficacy and a decrease in self-defeating career decision thoughts. Their findings found no
difference between the genders nor within the various race/ethnicities, as there was a similar
effect for men and women, for students of color, and for white students.
A study conducted in a predominately Hispanic middle school corroborates the usefulness
of self-efficacy in understanding career choice. Fouad and Spreda (1996) conducted a study in a
Midwestern urban area middle school where 79% of students registered below average in
reading and math skills. The results found that generalized self-efficacy was a predictor of
confidence in relation to making career decisions and confirmed that career development theories
and exercises stressing self-efficacy have a positive impact on the career planning and decision-
making for underrepresented students.
Career role models. There are compelling personal anecdotes that would lead us to
conclude that same-race career role models make a significant difference in career selection. The
prevailing hypothesis holds that role models of one’s own race influence career choice in a way
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 25
that models of a different background do not. An analysis of the literature in this area is
important as it frames the research question of this study: Do race/ethnicity and same-race role
models influence Fellows in their career choice of student affairs?
The expansive research on career selection in the fields of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) for underrepresented populations provides insight into a
significant career decision-making challenge faced by racial/ethnic minorities. Career selection
research in STEM highlights the need to provide role models from underrepresented populations,
as they often open a vital pathway into STEM occupations for underrepresented students (Betz,
1997; Clewell & Campbell, 2002; Maple & Stage, 1991; Suresh, 2007).
A study by Karunanayake and Nauta (2004) examining the relationship between race and
perceived career role model influence found that undergraduate students favored career role
models whose race was similar to their own. The study enlisted 220 college students attending a
large midwestern university with approximately 15% ethnic/racial minority enrollment. Students
were asked to identify their career role models, their relationship to them, and their role model’s
gender and race. Utilizing the Inspiration/Modeling sub-scale of Influence of Others on
Academic and Career Decision Making (IOACDS), the researchers assessed the degree to which
college students received inspiration and influence from their role models when making career
decisions. Karunanayake and Nauta (2004) found that the majority of the role models identified
by participants shared similar racial ethnicity, but found no difference in the influence of same-
race role models.
Conversely, a study on gender and ethnic differences for career decision making in
college students found no gender differences in self-efficacy and career decision, but found a
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 26
higher percentage of difference when it came to ethnicity and the correlation to same-race role
models (Chung, 2002). The study evaluated the Career Decision Making Self-Efficacy Scale
(CDMSE) of 165 college students enrolled at a southern university taking an introductory
psychology class. The study found differences in career decision-making self-efficacy among
White and Black students: Black college students scored higher in self-efficacy and career
commitment than White students. The author posits this difference resulted from a higher
percentage of Black students at a Southern university having increased access to Black role
models and concomitant resources.
Similarly, a study on ethnically matched career role models for Hispanic high school
students found increased self-efficacy in career decision when students associated with same-
race role models. The study by Haas and Sullivan (1991) investigated the effects of reading job
descriptions of sex-typed careers on ninth graders and its effects when the information was
provided by successful role models. Their study had three randomly assigned groups for 218
participants; a control group that was read no descriptions, descriptions read by non-Hispanic
role models, and descriptions read by Hispanic role models. Their study found that the Hispanic
role model group had significantly less gender stereotyped attitudes and a generalized effect with
ethnically matched role models. The researchers posit this overall effect may have been the result
of Hispanic high school students believing that jobs traditionally held by women are more
appropriate and attainable because they require less formal education. Nevertheless, while the
results only generalize the effectiveness of ethnically matched role models in career choice, their
study does offer confirmation on same-race role model benefits.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 27
Finally, a recent career development study on improving self-efficacy of TRiO college
students corroborated that students who were exposed to and formed supportive relationships
with role models who possessed high levels of cultural competencies had increased career
decision-making self-efficacy (Grier-Reed & Ganuza, 2012). TRiO received it’s name because it
began as a group of three main programs, it is not an acronym (U.S. Department of Education
website, 2012). By mission, TRiO programs serve only first-generation, low-income students
and its purpose is to support students’ progression through the academic pipeline from middle
school to post-baccalaureate programs. The study had a sample size of 36 college students, 80%
of them from racial/ethnic minority backgrounds attending a large, urban public research
university. The study asked for volunteer TRiO students to participate in a career development
course designed to foster career motivation and selection and found that those TRiO students
who participated in the program demonstrated higher self-efficacy and were more confident in
assessing their career capabilities. The increased self-efficacy of the participants found in this
study is not noteworthy, as it confirms what earlier studies have also discovered. What is worth
noting is that this study positively correlated cultural capital and supportive relationships from
role models as contributing agents in the improvement of TRiO college students’ confidence and
career decision self-efficacy (Grier-Reed & Ganuza, 2012). The study focused on relationships
based on the constructivist model of socialization and role modeling and on cultural capital as a
means of personal empowerment. These findings have important consequences for the broader
domain of career choice for underrepresented students and the influence of race in career
selection.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 28
Entry-points into Student Affairs
Studies examining the existing entry points into student affairs are limited, as there is
disagreement as to the primary decision points used as entrance into the field. Some in the field
see a randomness to the process, while others believe it is the influence of a mentor or a personal
calling which is most responsible. The absence of an undergraduate student affairs major as well
as an initial awareness of the field as a career possibility is surmised by topical research (Brown,
1987; Forney, 1994; Komives & Kuh, 1988; Richmond & Sherman, 1991; Taub & McEwen,
2006). Three significant studies of master’s degree students identified various themes correlated
with students’ decision to enter student affairs inform this study (Hunter, 1992; Forney, 1994;
Richmond & Sherman, 1991).
Hunter’s qualitative study (1992) examined reflections of master’s degree students
associated with choosing student affairs as a profession. There were 93 respondents to a survey,
all whom had been enrolled in a student affairs graduate program at small public university in
New England between 1985 and 1989. Relevant themes reported most frequently by respondents
were encouragement by those already in the field and critical incidents during undergraduate
studies.
The study by Forney (1994) queried 273 master’s degree students enrolled in 16 different
student affairs graduate programs regarding reasons for selecting student affairs as a profession
and analyzed characteristics, attitudes, and learning styles. The significant factors for selecting
student affairs as a profession, reported by participants, were shared values with the field in
general, an impetus to improve the quality of campus life, and finally the influence of a mentor.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 29
In the most comprehensive study to date regarding students in student affairs preparation
programs, researchers sought to understand the type of college student attracted to the student
affairs field. A longitudinal study on the preparation and placement of graduate students and new
professionals by Richmond and Sherman (1991) examined career choice and satisfaction of
college students who chose student affairs as a profession. The study was conducted in four
phases beginning in 1983 and completing in 1988. The study found two major considerations for
choosing student affairs; employment in a student affairs program and encouragement from
student affairs professionals.
While the availability of empirical studies as entry-points into student affairs is lacking,
the literature reviewed in this study uncovered themes that correlate with NUFP learning
outcomes of career selection for Fellows.
Promotion of Student Affairs
Seeing the need to enhance awareness of student affairs as a career choice, student affairs
professional associations began promotion efforts using the business-career model. Student
Affairs month was developed by a partnership of student affairs associations with the intent to
“celebrate and promote” student affairs and its practitioners, including American College
Personnel Association (ACPA), Association of College Unions International (ACUI), Association
of College and University Housing Officers - International (ACUHO-I), National Association of
Personnel Administrators (NASPA), and National Orientation Directors Association (NODA).
During the month of October student affairs associations and universities with master’s
preparation programs organize promotional events, including mini-career fairs highlighting the
various areas within student affairs, panel discussions by senior administrators, and graduate
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 30
school fairs (ACPA, 2011; NASPA 2010). Similarly, Western Regional Careers in Student Affairs
Day (WRCSAD) was developed by the California College Personnel Association (CCPA), where
active student affairs professionals present relevant topics and assign mentors to undergraduate
and graduate students in need of guidance and direction. While this program does not target
underrepresented students, it does present a diverse pool of professionals serving as potential
recruiters (CCPA, 2011). Finally, NASPA has a robust and comprehensive website including
information about the significance of student affairs, benefits of working in the field, and videos
of current professionals sharing their insights about entering student affairs (NASPA website,
2012), as well as promotional efforts through various social media sites.
Student affairs promotions are significant in creating a pathway into student affairs for
underrepresented students because they introduce student affairs as a potential career path
(ACPA 2006; Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991; NASPA, 2011; Taub & McEwen, 2006). And with the
changing demographics of university students, the profession is increasingly attracting a sorely
needed diverse pool of practitioners.
Co-Curricular Activities
Over a decade of research regarding college student involvement confirms that students
who are involved in co-curricular activities report a positive college experience which
contributes to their academic learning and success (Astin, 1977,1993; Kuh, 1995; Kuh, Kinzie,
Schuh, & Whitt, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). The vast range of co-curricular
experiences offered at universities includes outdoor excursions, Fraternity/Sorority life, student
organizations, leadership programs, and many others (Evans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998).
For purposes of this study, co-curricular activities are defined as activities outside of the
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 31
classroom but are sponsored or have established ties with the university, specifically within
student affairs.
Though the body of empirical evidence is limited regarding what influences
undergraduates to consider entering student affairs, a consistent theme across the research is that
involvement in undergraduate, co-curricular activities is an important attractant for students
considering the student affairs field (Hunter, 1992; Richmond & Sherman, 1991; Taub &
McEwen, 2006). The study by Taub and McEwen (2006) found that over 80% of 300
respondents cited involvement in campus activities or student affairs employment as a primary
source of exposure regarding career opportunities in student affairs. Their study sampled 300
student affairs master’s students from 24 randomly selected universities and found relatively few
differences between men and women and between traditional and older graduate students (Taub
& McEwen, 2006). Hunter’s reflective study (1992) of 93 student affairs graduate students
similarly found that undergraduate student employment within student affairs created an
attraction for the field as a career choice.
For Fellows, co-curricular engagement is also a strong precursor to interest in student
affairs. A more recent master’s thesis study on Fellows found that 43% of 58 Fellows cited
involvement in co-curricular activities as the means for being introduced to student affairs
profession (Alicea-Rodriguez, 2007). The quantitative study surveyed 58 alumnae of the Fellows
program who had participated from 1996 through 2005 about their experiences in the program.
Additional findings of Alicea-Rodriguez’s study are conveyed throughout this literature review,
as it pertains several thematic areas of this study.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 32
There are some significant limitations to the studies reviewed however, as Hunter’s
(1992) analysis concerns only a single institution and Richmond and Sherman’s (1991) inquiry
was retrospective, and neither study contained representative participant samples of ethnic
minorities. Empirical studies analyzing how decisions to enter student affairs profession are
arrived at point to co-curricular involvement as the primary factor in the pursuit of a student
affairs career by Fellows.
Role models and Mentors
Student exposure to university faculty and staff typically influences professionalism and
eventually career choice. Research indicates that prospective individual career choices may be
catalyzed by role models or important persons (Karunanayake & Nauta, 2004; Pleiss &
Eeldhusen, 1995). Studies of new professionals and graduate students found the influence from a
mentor was paramount regarding the decision to enter student affairs (Forney, 1994; Hunter,
1992; Richmond & Sherman, 1991). Taub and McEwen’s study (2006) analyzing factors
affecting graduate students’ decisions to enter student affairs, found that 80% of 300 respondents
cited the encouragement of a seasoned professional as a cause for pursuing a career in student
affairs. The study by Alicea-Rodriguez (2007) found that for 87% of 58 respondents, mentoring
was the most significant resource for Fellows to learn about the field and in deciding to choose
student affairs as a career. The literature review studies affirm that providing appropriate student
affairs role models to those interested in the field is important to their social learning and crucial
to the recruitment of students into the field.
There also is a paucity of evidence examining the relationship between student affairs
mentoring by an underrepresented minority and the effect on the decision of underrepresented
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 33
students to enter the field (Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991). A study examining the recruitment and
retention of ethnically underrepresented students in student affairs by Sagaria and Johnsrud
(1991) argues for increased ethnic/racial representation in the field of student affairs. The authors
posit that a crucial step in increasing representation of underrepresented minorities in student
affairs is providing role models.
This is congruent with Bandura’s (1969, 1977) social learning theory regarding
observational learning and confirms the findings of other studies: that as undergraduate students
begin their professional selection process they need to see themselves reflected in those
professions in order to choose them as careers (Komives & Kuh, 1998; Rapp, 1997; Turrentine &
Conley, 2001). This is relevant, as interested students will emulate student affairs professionals
with whom they most identify. This study will contribute to this ongoing discovery of the
important of role models in student affairs.
Internships
Conventional wisdom holds that apprenticeships provide observational learning and
demonstrate those qualities necessary to succeed in a given profession, while transmitting those
skills with guidance and evaluation. Only in the last century have occupational skills been
formalized and secluded in schools and universities. Previously blacksmiths, carpenters, priests,
and even doctors all took young apprentices mostly as inexpensive labor, but also because that
was the only means for professional learning. Internships and cooperative education programs
have also been a part of work socialization for white collar jobs (Coco, 2000; Greenhaus,
Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000). In higher education, internships have become a favored and
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 34
attractive pathway for bridging the transition from university study to a working professional life
(Callanan & Benzing, 2004).
Research analyzing the impact of internships on participating college students has
demonstrated a positive impact on career decision, an increase in vocational self-efficacy, and
advancement in valuable job skills relevant to student affairs (Coco, 2000; Callanan & Benzing,
2004; Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995; Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000).
Post internship research affirms that participating students have an easier transition into full-time
employment, possess higher job satisfaction, and develop a greater degree of career ambition
over time (Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000; Pedro, 1984; & Taylor, 1988).
A review of the literature found scant research specific to internships in student affairs for
undergraduate students. Existing research points only to student affairs employment as
influencing undergraduate students’ decisions to enter student affairs (Forney, 1994; Hunter,
1992; Taub & McEwen, 2006), but no increase in self-efficacy or post-internship benefit is
demonstrated. Only Alicea-Rodriguez’s study of Fellows (2007) supports undergraduate student
affairs internship participation as significant. Sixty-five percent of 58 Fellows who participated
in a summer internship program at an institution other than their own reported that this
opportunity provided relevant hands-on experience and informed their decision to pursue a
student affairs career.
As internships have a demonstrated impact on the career decision of undergraduate
students, further research specific to student affairs can provide insight regarding career decision
influences. Specifically, as internships are a program component of the Fellows program, this
study serves to address the role of undergraduate internships in student affairs.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 35
Students in master’s preparation programs
The student affairs profession embraces the value of diversity and it is espoused by ACPA
and NASPA as a professional value in their literature and recruitment of students of color into
master’s programs has been cited as one of the most important ways to demonstrate this value
(ACPA, 1992; Hunter 1992; NASPA, 1992; Rapp, 1997; Taub & McEwen, 2006), yet student
affairs masters programs report that the number of underrepresented students entering these
programs has not increased significantly in the last decade.
Studies focused on students entering student affairs master’s preparation programs have
mostly failed to consider the importance of racial and ethnic demographic variables (Hunter,
1992; Richmond & Sherman, 1991; Taub & McEwen, 2006). Studies indicate that most master’s
programs are deficient in the number of underrepresented students and are consistent with the
pattern of demographics of current practitioners. A 1989 study estimated that no more than 5% of
students in student affairs master’s programs in the United States were comprised of
underrepresented minorities (Task Force on Professional Preparation, 1989).
Sagaria and Johnsrud (1991) decry deficiency of ethnic minorities entering student
affairs, citing an increase of just 0.8% from 1977 to 1983 and just 10% from 1983 to 1991. Their
recommendations stress the importance of encouraging ethnic minority students to pursue
graduate degrees in student affairs and consider a master’s degree pivotal in increasing the
number of ethnic minorities in student affairs.
Talbot’s study (1996) is a multi-method study reviewing the perceptions of master’s
students in student affairs graduate programs. Degree-seeking master’s students from eight of the
largest student affairs graduate programs in the country were asked to self-report their knowledge
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 36
and comfort level regarding historically underrepresented populations as well as perceptions
regarding student affairs curriculum and issues of diversity. A notable revelation from this study
was the demographic representation of the respondents, which found that 82% of 321
participants in the study were White. Consequently, Talbot posited that master’s programs in
student affairs were not ethnically/racially diverse. The finding is further confirmed when he
found that the composition of some of the graduate programs were nearly all White (93%).
These findings have important consequences for the broader domain of underrepresented
students choosing student affairs.
In a more recent study researchers examined the demographic diversity of the labor pool
for entry-level positions in student affairs and found that the number of underrepresented
students entering the field continues below 20% (Turrentine & Conley, 2001). They posited that
using an analysis of entry-level positions, which required a master’s degree and very little
experience, provided an accurate measure of diversifying the profession. Two sets of
comparative data were reviewed; the National Center for Education Statistics numbers on
degrees conferred related to student affairs during the academic years of 1995 through 1998, and
a survey querying preparation programs listed in the NASPA and ACPA on-line directories found
in respective websites yielding 169 unique program entries. Turrentine and Conley’s (2001)
examination found that the limited pool of underrepresented minorities for hire into entry-level
positions in student affairs offices was due to the lack of professional preparation. The authors
contend that it is difficult to even consider underrepresented minorities when they comprise less
than a quarter of the qualified available labor pool. The thrust of concern here is the limitation
this places on institutional agents looking to hire a diverse staff of student affairs professionals.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 37
In stark contrast to the above studies, a Alicea-Rodriguez (2007) review of Fellows from
1996 to 2005 indicated that 85% of 58 respondents had pursued a graduate degree in student
affairs and 86% indicated that their participation in the Fellows program had influenced them to
pursue graduate work in student affairs. As this was a quantitative study, the findings do not
investigate in-depth the reasons for Fellows pursuing a degree or the aspects of the Fellows
program that contributed to their decision. Nevertheless, represented by the high proportion of
Fellows opting to pursue a masters degree, Alicea-Rodriguez’s study affirms their interest in
student affairs and possible commitment to the profession.
Empirical studies demonstrate that encouraging underrepresented students to pursue a
master’s degree must be at the center of diversifying the student affairs profession.
Conclusion
The concepts of self-efficacy, social capital, institutional cultural agents, and career
development theories contextualized the framework of this study. Research contending that
college students absorb behaviors and values by simply observing others in their environment is
framed by social learning theory. Ostensibly, students learn behavioral norms from their peers
either during studying and/or socializing. The construct of self-efficacy within social learning is
important to this research, as findings indicate that self-efficacy has an effect on career decision
making.
Career development theories inform this study. As college students spend much of their
identity-formation years in college, their attitudes and beliefs about career selection become
affected during this developmental life stage. Exposure to role models, networking, and learning
social norms build student social capital and self-efficacy (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002), while
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 38
research also shows that underrepresented students generally lack access to role models or social
networks that support educational or vocational goals (Bensimon & Dowd, 2009; Stanton-
Salazar, 1997, 2004, 2010). Having access to successful career role models from
underrepresented ethnic minorities becomes important for their career decision making self-
efficacy and as a possible entry-point into student affairs.
The studies examined in this literature review challenge the notion that student affairs is
ethnically and racially diverse. The available literature points to three possible factors
contributing to the lack of students of color entering the field; the absence of promotion of
student affairs field, scant exposure to role models, and their preparation at the master’s level.
Each of these has an effect on the diversity of the field (El-Khawas, 2003; Patitu, 1996; Sagaria
& Johnsrud, 1991; Talbot, 1996; Taub & McEwen, 2006; Turrentine & Conley, 2001). The lack
of significant research in the area of underrepresented students entering student affairs field
supports the need to conduct this research study and should determine what elements of the
Fellows program contribute to underrepresented students entering student affairs. The third
chapter of the study will establish how the research will be conducted.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 39
CHAPTER 3: Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology of the research used in this
study and includes the research design, population and sample information, data analysis, a
review of the data trustworthiness, ethical considerations, and the possible limitations of the
study. These elements support the purpose of the study, which is to analyze the Fellow’s
decisions to enter the student affairs profession. This chapter will be guided by the following
research questions:
1. What are the entry-points for Fellows developing an interest in student affairs?
2. Does participation in the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program (NUFP) contribute
to underrepresented students entering the field of student affairs?
3. And if so, what are the components of the Fellows program which support their
career selection?
4. Do mentors or role models from underrepresented ethnic backgrounds impact a
Fellow’s decision to choose the profession as a career?
Research Design
Creswell and Clark (2011) believe that mixed-methods research, a combination of
quantitative and qualitative studies, provides a superior grounding for research than using a
single approach. Definitively identifying those factors supporting underrepresented students
entering student affairs within the Fellows program is complex, and thus a mixed methods
approach more appropriately addresses the scope of inquiry.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 40
An explanatory design is the the most common approach for a mixed methods study, as it
can be utilized across disciplines. This type of research design can be ideal as it utilizes the
strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative methods, such as, sample sizes,
generalization, and details. Further, an explanatory design is optimal when the data is varied but
complementary and be compared and contrasted during the analysis and result phase of the study
(Creswell & Clark, 2011). Thus, the results of the study can be merged into an overall
interpretation by synthesizing quantitative and qualitative results generating a broader
understanding of the problem (Creswell & Clark, 2011).
Explanatory research methodology was utilized in order to analyze those influences and
factors contributing to Fellows’ decisions to enter student affairs and allowed for the use of
quantitative data previously collected by NASPA and a new collection of qualitative data.
Consequently, the survey results could support qualitative findings from interviews of Fellows.
Given the complexity of understanding what influences are operative regarding Fellow’s career
decisions, I contend there was equal value in the analysis of the existing quantitative data and
newly-acquired complimentary qualitative data. The study is a QUAL-Quant model in which the
quantitative data collected informed the themes for questions to be collected as qualitative data.
Analysis of the qualitative data was given priority in order to corroborate quantitative results.
This design also allowed for the fusion of results for an overall interpretation of both quantitative
and qualitative data.
Quantitative data. Quantitative data utilization selects for standardized measures and
supports a substantial gathering of data. (Creswell & Clark, 2011) It was also used to collect
basic demographic information, which included current student affairs employment and a
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 41
possible pursuit of a post-graduate degree in student affairs. Fellows each receive a yearly
question survey (Appendix A) which includes Likert scale and yes/no questions evaluating their
comprehension of student affairs after participation in the program and to what degree Fellows
program participation influenced their career choice. The quantitative data presented in the
summary identified broad factors within the Fellows program contributing to underrepresented
students entering student affairs, while the qualitative data provided insight into the research
questions.
Qualitative Data. Qualitative methods have traditionally been used in educational
research as a means of telling a story and providing a context beyond statistical analysis (Babbie,
1989; & Patton 2002). The qualitative data from this study provided a more nuanced
understanding of the Fellows’ experiences, as Fellows shared their impressions in rich,
descriptive detail. A random sample of participants was extracted to ensure confidence in
generalizing from the sample to the larger population (Patton, 2002).
In selecting a purposive sample for interviews, there are few established guidelines for
determining an appropriate number (Creswell, J., 1998; Graves, 2002; Morse, 1995; Patton,
2002). One accepted principle employed in qualitative designs is theoretical saturation; the point
at which all coded data has been categorized into themes, and no new themes or categories
emerge (Morse, 1995; Patton 2002). The use of this design is not without controversy, as some
qualitative researchers are convinced that interviews should continue until theoretical saturation
occurs, while others maintain that estimating a point of saturation is difficult and can be an
exhaustive process (Creswell, J., 1998; Creswell & Clark, 2011; Graves, 2002; Morse, 1995;
Patton, 2002).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 42
For the purpose of this study, I relied on the prevailing guideline for theoretical saturation
of 15 to 20 total participants as a grounded sample size for qualitative research as recommended
by Creswell, J., (1998) and Morse (1995). I opted to perform 20 interviews, which shaped
theme consistency and allowed for a maximum variation of categories (Creswell, J., 1995; Morse
1995; Patton, 2002). There are five cohort groups from 2008 through 2012 and participants from
each cohort were selected at random.
A conversational interview was conducted using preset questions as guidelines for
exploring certain subjects in depth. (Patton, 2002). Consequently, the interview protocol was
developed (Appendix B) with questions informed by emergent themes from the quantitative data
focused on those factors which most impacted Fellows’ decision to pursue the student affairs
profession. Information gathered from the interviews was synthesized and grouped according to
central themes.
The research study utilized a sequential timing design by which the quantitative data
would initially be collected and organized and then followed by the qualitative data interviews
(Creswell & Clark, 2011). As the data set was supplied by NASPA, this design is the most
effective in determining the timing and implementation of the study. This interactive mixing of
the data at the conclusion allowed for a straightforward approach in providing results and
concluding recommendations.
Participant Population
A total of 1,275 Fellows participated in the NUFP program from 2008 through 2012, and
out of this total 603 responded to the survey. This sample was selected primarily because of their
verifiable contact information through NASPA at the time they participated in the program. In
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 43
addition, these cohorts have had consistent end-of-the-year evaluations that are connected to
NUFP’s learning outcomes. The Fellows are representative of the program target population of
ethnic and racial minorities, gender, sexual orientation, and disabilities. For the purpose of this
study however, only race and ethnicity will be considered and weighed.
Data Collection
Quantitative data collection was done by the NASPA office under the direction of the
Assistant Director of Educational Programs, Nathan Victoria. Program completion for Fellows is
generally after the NASPA National conference, at the end of March. At this time each Fellow
receives email instructions to complete an evaluation survey, followed by two subsequent
reminders to complete the survey. Of the 1,275 Fellows surveyed from 2008 through 2012, 603
responded and served as the population sample for the quantitative data. The survey results were
supplied directly from the NASPA office via their Campus Labs online account, and data
confidentiality was maintained and accessed only through password protection.
The contact information for the qualitative data for each Fellow was accessed through the
NASPA records. Fellows from each cohort from 2008 through 2012 were invited to participate in
the study. Respondents were assured that personal identification or information would be held
strictly confidential and not included in the dissertation and informed consent was obtained from
each Fellow prior the recording of the interview. Further, this study followed all appropriate
Institutional Research Board (IRB) guidelines and procedures and was approved by the
University’s research board prior to commencing study. A database was created for participating
Fellows who were then assigned a random number, with names and corresponding contact
information being secured in confidential files. At the conclusion of the requesting period 42
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 44
Fellows had agreed to be interviewed. Then through a random selection 20 Fellows were selected
as final interview participants, where interviews were conducted via phone and recorded with the
permission of each participant.
Data Analysis
The focus of this study was to analyze the influences affecting underrepresented students
in the Fellows program regarding their entry into the field of student affairs. The initial data
analysis process began after the quantitative data collection phase and served to inform themes
for qualitative data collection.
The year end Fellows evaluation contains 59 questions (Appendix A), and for the
purposes of this study only the questions regarding career selection and professional
development and those relevant to learning outcomes were analyzed. Also included is
demographic information relating to the program components in which each Fellow had
participated. All metrics had been calculated for each cohort, as all quantitative data was coded
and analyzed through Campus Labs software.
For the purposes of this study, only seven questions relating to career selection were
examined. As NUFP cohorts are not being compared to one another, the data for each of the
seven questions from all cohorts was merged into one set, doing so allowed for greater scientific
implications from the resulting summarized data (Marsh, 2009). The weighted means are
preferred when there are different data points which contribute more than others (Gravetter &
Wallnau, 2008). This method was employed for this study as each cohort had a different number
of respondents for the same question. The weighted mean for each question with a Likert-type
scale was calculated using Microsoft Excel. For questions that were based on percentages, the
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 45
overall percentage was calculated. Results of the quantitative data is reported in detail via tables
in Chapter 4.
After analysis of the quantitative data, identifiable trends were categorized and used to
inform interview protocol questions (Appendix B). Roster information was organized by
participant names and inputted into a Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet, and each conducted
interview was transcribed and organized by interview date. Transcription and coding of
interviews was accomplished by an outside company and organized around the answers received.
Trends and themes emerging from the data were grouped into identifiable elements which
supported potential influences of Fellows entering the field of student affairs. This analysis is
presented in narrative description in Chapter 4.
Trustworthiness of Data
Validity or trustworthiness of the data is an important consideration during any research
study (Creswell & Clark, 2011), and several measures were incorporated into this study to ensure
its validity and reliability. Credibility in the qualitative investigation was established through the
adoption of accepted research methods, including random sampling for selecting participants and
iterative questioning tactics which ensure honesty from the Fellows as they shared their
experiences (Haeffel & Howard, 2010). Further, transcription of interviews and coding of
emergent themes was conducted by an outside company safeguarding against researcher bias.
Ethical considerations
The professional conduct of educators has a long history of being governed by ethical
principles and those standards have guided practitioners in conducting sound research (Cone &
Dalenberg, 2004; Creswell & Clark, 2011). Ethical considerations in this study encompass the
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 46
design of the interview questions and the securing of confidential data. Interview questions were
developed carefully and thoroughly reviewed by University faculty to protect against
psychological harm. Additionally, the subject matter of the study did not require participants to
reveal intimate details which might inflict personal or professional harm. Similarly, data was
treated with the utmost confidence by taking precautions to keep identities of individuals
confidential, which allowed for individuals to express viewpoints and relate their experience
without fear of reprisal. All data in files are password protected to ensure protection.
Limitations
Self-reporting can be a challenge to study validity, as it relies on individuals relating their
experience and makes inaccuracies very likely to occur (Haeffel & Howard, 2010). Interview
participants were asked to recall their experiences during their participation in the NUFP
program. Some Fellows were up to five years removed from this experience. However, the
quantitative data can prove to be a more reliable measure, as the survey was administered within
the same year the Fellow participated in the program, thus allowing for a more present cognitive
recall.
One limitation of this study was the small qualitative sample size, which does not allow
for findings to be generalizable to the population at large (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Since the
sample population is based on a volunteer sample, 20 participants may not accurately represent
the elements and influences affecting all underrepresented minorities entering student affairs.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 47
Summary
The research design of this study was outlined, detailing the specific measures by which
mixed methodology was utilized in addressing the research question of what influenced Fellows
to enter the field of student affairs. Comprehensive results are outlined in chapter 4.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 48
CHAPTER 4: Presentation of Findings
Introduction
Chapter 4 provides a detailed analysis of the findings of the research study in determining
whether participation in National Association of Student Personnel Administrators undergraduate
Fellows program promotes Fellows’ decisions to pursue a career in Student Affairs. The chapter
is organized as an overview of themes, with the quantitative and qualitative data merged in
analysis. The findings are presented in the following themes: 1) Demographics; 2) Entry points
into student affairs; 3) Career selection; 4) Influence from NUFP program; 5) Graduate school
pursuit; and 6) Mentors and Cultural agents. The demographics section includes information
regarding the ethnic and racial background and participants’ gender as well as a table of
characteristics for participating Fellows.
The quantitative data is representative of the 603 Fellows who responded to the surveys
from 2008 through 2012, yielding an overall response rate for the surveys of 52% (NASPA
campus labs data, 2012). There are 59 questions on the NASPA end-of-the-year evaluation
(Appendix A), but only six questions were selected to be highlighted in the quantitative data as
they were most relevant to the research study. Fellows were asked to evaluate the statements
from questions based on a Likert scale from one to five, one being the lowest (strongly disagree)
and five the highest (strongly agree). The weighted mean for each question was calculated by
multiplying the mean by the frequency of its occurrence, totaling the values, then dividing by the
total number of Fellows who responded to each question (Salkind, 2011). This was accomplished
in Microsoft Excel with the data supplied from NASPA via Campus Labs and verified by an
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 49
outside quantitative researcher expert. The results for each calculation are presented in the
corresponding tables.
The quantitative data served to inform the interview protocol and delineate those
questions presented to Fellows. The interview protocol (Appendix B) was designed to gather
insight regarding entry-points into student affairs, relevant experiences with mentors, and career
choice influences. The Fellows provided examples of their entry-paths into the field including
master’s program preparation, involvement with NASPA, and aspirational career goals.
Interviews of Fellows were completed from the cohorts of 2008 through 2012 who explicitly
agreed to participate. There were 569 Fellows asked to participate, but 235 surveys did not reach
Fellows due to inaccurate contact information. Among the potential Fellows, 20 respondents
were selected at random and interviewed.
The major themes that emerged in the interviews and discussed in further detail include
entry-points into student affairs, mentor influence, prior interest in student affairs, role models,
influence from NUFP, and encouragement to pursue a student affairs master’s program. Table 1
represents the major themes paired with the corresponding interview questions. These themes
advanced further inquiries regarding how to establish a pathway for underrepresented minorities
into student affairs, and specifically how the NUFP program may have influenced their choice.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 50
Table 1. Summary of interview themes
Themes Interview Questions
Entry point into Student Affairs
-Involvement in co-curricular
activities
-Prior interest in student affairs
-Mentor influence
-How did you become interested in student affairs?
-How did you discover student affairs as a field?
-Did you have a NUFP mentor or role model?
Career Selection
-Role Models
-Influence from NUFP
-Encouraged to purse a Master’s
degree
-Were you encouraged to continue your education and pursue a
Master’s degree in student affairs?
-Did you pursue a graduate or master’s program in student affairs?
Why or why not?
-Did NUFP influence your decision to pursue a career in student
affairs?
-Prior to joining the Fellows program, were you interested in
pursuing a career in student affairs?
Role Models
Cultural Agents
-Did your Mentor assist you in navigating/understanding university
polices or culture? If so, in what ways?
-Did your Mentor share a similar background as you? Was this
important to you? Why or why not?
Demographic Information
The gender makeup of the 603 survey respondents was slightly proportionate towards
women: 57% female and 43% male. The largest demographic of participants were African
American/Black (32%) followed by Hispanic/Latino (25%), Caucasian/White (17.2%), Asian/
Pacific Islander (14.2%), and Multiracial/Multiethnic (7.6%). Table 2 summarizes the respondent
group by gender and ethnicity.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 51
Table 2. Gender and Ethnicity of the Respondent Group in Percentage
Cohorts 2008 - 2012
Male Female
Gender 43% 57%
N= 603 total respondents
Ethnicity
African American/Black 32
Asian/Pacific Islander 14.2
Caucasian/White 17.2
Hispanic/Latino 25
Multiracial/Multiethnic 7.6
American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian 1
Other 3
N = 603 total respondents 100%
Fellow Interview Participants
Of the 20 Fellows participating in the interviews, 14 were Male and 6 Female. The
following ethnicities were represented in the sample; African American/Black, Asian/Pacific
Islander, Hispanic/Latino, Multiracial/Multiethnic, and American Indian/Native Hawaiian. Race/
ethnicity is not included in the background characteristics table for the purposes of not
identifying Fellows interviewed. All cohorts were represented, with 2010 and 2011 presenting
six participants each, followed by four participants from 2012, and two participants each from
2008 and 2009. To protect their identities, Fellows were given the following pseudonyms:
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 52
Claudia, Danny, Rudy, Martha, Diana, Lana, AJ, Rodrigo, and Robert. Table 3 represents aspects
of the Fellows’ background.
Table 3. Fellow Background Characteristics
Pseudonym Names Gender Cohort
AJ Male 2008
Claudia Female 2008
Rudy Male 2009
Kevin Male 2009
Tim Male 2010
Rodrigo Male 2010
Alana Male 2010
Danny Male 2010
Lance Male 2010
Nick Male 2010
Darrell Male 2011
Martha Female 2011
Brett Male 2011
Roberto Male 2011
Patty Female 2011
John Male 2011
Angel Male 2012
Marcela Female 2012
Selena Female 2012
Diana Female 2012
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 53
Results Addressing the Research Questions
Entry-points into Student Affairs
The first research question asks what are the entry-points in Fellows’ developing an
interest in student affairs? Although the quantitative data did not provide insight as to the source
of Fellows’ interest, entry-points for careers in student affairs emerged from the literature and
correspond with categories found in the study (Forney 1994; Hunter 1992; Taub & McEwen,
2006). The qualitative data however illumined the various pathways into student affairs for
Fellows, highlighted below. Interest in student affairs was measured by two interview protocol
questions and respondents were queried as to how they first discovered the student affairs field
and in what manner were they initially interested. From these two questions three sub-themes
emerged as the primary entry-points into student affairs; involvement in co-curricular activities,
prior interest in student affairs, and influence from a mentor or a role model. Only one question
addresses Fellows’ plans to enter higher education and student affairs, and this is discussed in the
corresponding category of Career Selection.
Involvement in co-curricular activities
All Fellows queried indicated prior involvement in co-curricular activities, which piqued
their interest in the student affairs field. Several students were involved in three or more
activities and was best exemplified by Rudy: “I was working as an RA (resident assistant) and an
OL (orientation leader) and liked what I was doing and realized I wanted to have a job in this
forever.” Another Fellow, Kevin, in describing his involvement said: “I was so involved in
campus activities and my fraternity that I caught the bug! I think because I was so involved in
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 54
activities on campus I fell in love with student affairs.” For Selena, it was was an “unconscious
decision” as she reflected that being involved in student activities had always been a part of who
she was and being active in college carried over from high school. “I mean it was what I had
always done, so it just made sense to be involved with as many things as possible, and I liked
being busy with activities.” Marcela described how her connection to a student organization
prompted her search for involvement in and an eventual connection with student affairs:
I really didn’t know what student affairs was, but through MEChA, I got connected to
other programs and eventually to diversity initiatives that I was really passionate about. I
think if it wasn’t for my involvement my college experienced would have sucked.
For some Fellows, understanding that student affairs was a potential career choice
emerged from their co-curricular involvement and further encouraged them to evolve in the roles
they had chosen. John said, “ Through involvement as an undergrad I had really good
experiences in extracurricular positions and so I was able to do leadership positions also and get
more involved.” The majority of the Fellows related how exposure through employment and
extracurricular activities attracted them to the field and motivated them to better understand
student affairs. Selena explained that involvement in her college council and working at the
university’s information desk created an appreciation for the work that of faculty and her
supervisors, “I think one day I just thought, wow it would so cool to always have a job like this.”
Prior interest in student affairs
Some Fellows kindled interest in or had absorbed some knowledge of student affairs
prior to joining the Fellows program. Four Fellows indicated that they already knew about
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 55
student affairs when an administrator or mentor forwarded information about NASPA and the
NUFP program, Danny:
I knew I wanted to work with college students or perhaps in teaching, so I went to
my Resident Director and asked him more information. He gave me some articles
and referred me to the NASPA website, and there I found information about
NUFP, so I applied.
Other Fellows sought information on their own, Claudia:
I knew I wanted to work with college students so I did some research on my own
to what jobs with college students would be. I also asked my supervisor and he
told me about NUFP and I knew that’s what I wanted.
Another Fellow demonstrated a cursory understanding of student affairs but did not comprehend
there was a field to be cultivated beyond his present university, Rudy:
I saw all these people whom I worked with have these awesome jobs and I liked
it, but I didn’t realize there was a whole world out there. I knew I wanted to do
what they did but didn’t know how to get there. So, I googled university
administration and one of the hits was NASPA. It was like, whoa!
Added exposure for many Fellows deepened their interest in the field and connected them with
campus administrators, who by their example demonstrated the value of student affairs in
university life.
Role Models and Mentors
A recurring theme among the Fellows was a realization of student affairs as a field of
endeavor through a role model or a mentor. All 20 Fellows interviewed met with a mentor on a
regular basis, sought advice from, and/or assisted them in connecting with university resources
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 56
and services. AJ, a Fellow from the 2008 cohort, shared, “my supervisor in housing became my
mentor, we met almost every week and he connected me to other areas that I wanted to be
involved in, like admissions and alumni relations.”
Another Fellow, Nick, described his relationship as:
My mentor was someone I could talk to and she would listen to me, she had an
open door policy, so I would just come and hang out, we would talk about all sorts
of things, especially my future plans and interests.
John shared the following about his mentor. “My mentor relationship was very important to me,
it was very informal, I would just stop by every week and we would talk. He invited me to events
and had me meet the Provost and the President.”
In addition to describing mentors as those who assisted Fellows with providing support,
thirteen Fellows described how mentors or administrators introduced them to student affairs as a
professional choice worthy of pursuit. Diana related: “My Vice President of Student Affairs
introduced me to student affairs during my involvement in student government. He
recommended I look into student affairs and I thought yeah, I want to do what he does.”
John, characterized his introduction to the field as:
I had a really good experience in extracurricular positions. My leadership class
instructor, who was also my supervisor, said you could do this professionally and
get paid for. So it blew my mind and knew it was made for me.
Alana, again in describing his experience said, “I was sitting in the tutoring center, my first year
of undergrad and it was like wow! I had an epiphany… hey, I want to do that! I want to have
their job.”
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 57
Angel characterized his introduction to student affairs:
I met with my mentor and she told me about student affairs, and it hit me! I never
realized that all my life I had really all done this kind of work, had advisors that
had helped me throughout my career, and that’s when I knew that I wanted to be
like her so bad, make a difference in the lives of college students.
The relationship between the Fellow and mentor varied in closeness and in the manner of
support. But one factor was consistent: Fellows identified mentors as providing the greatest
incentive to pursue student affairs during their college journey and in their professional lives.
Examining the entry-points into student affairs for Fellows is relevant to this study, as it
provides evidence of the paths undergraduate students take into student affairs. Involvement in
co-curricular activities and role models/mentors were the two main themes which emerged from
this query.
Career Selection
Questions two and three examined participation in the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows
program (NUFP) and its influence on Fellows entering the field of student affairs. These
questions also examined the components of the Fellows program exerting the greatest influence
on students to consider a student affairs career.
Collectively, the quantitative and qualitative data from the study corroborates the high
interest for Fellows to pursue student affairs as a career. The quantitative data indicated that 82%
of the Fellows were planning to enter student affairs and all 20 Fellows interviewed had plans to
join or had already joined the profession. This section reviews Fellows’ perspectives on how they
selected student affairs as a career.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 58
Career selection is a primary aspect of the Fellow program, where the efforts encourage
students to consider student affairs as a career. Table 4 summarizes Fellows’ inclination to pursue
a student affairs career. In question 18 Fellows were asked to indicate whether they were
planning on entering student affairs. The responses are measured in percentages and were
disproportionate towards the affirmative with 82% Yes, followed by 17% Maybe, and 1% No.
Table 4. Career Selection in percentages
Question Yes No Maybe n %
Q 18: Are you planning on entering
the higher education and student
affairs field?
82% 1% 17% 579 100%
Qualitative data corroborated the high indication of Fellows pursuing student affairs
career. When asked if they would be pursuing a career in student affairs or were already in the
profession, all 20 Fellows replied in the affirmative. The Fellows from the cohorts of 2008 to
2010, a total of 10 were all in their first professional job in student affairs and Fellows from 2011
to 2012 indicated they would be pursuing student affairs as a career. Generally, Fellows
described their decision to enter student affairs as defining and positive. This is best exemplified
by Fellows Kevin and Tim; Kevin related:
I think when I finally made the choice I was really happy. I was weighing my options
between student affairs and going into event production but I knew student affairs would
be more satisfying, less money but way more fun. I have never regretted that decision.
Tim recounted his experience:
I was just so elated when I made my decision, I can’t really remember how I made it
because it was just so natural for me. It just felt so good to have a career and feel like I
would have purpose in my life - and I still feel like that!
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 59
Resources and Opportunities
As part of the Fellows program, Fellows are provided opportunities and resources
assisting them with career selection and development. Learning outcomes for career
development include resume writing assistance, interviewing, and developing personal and
career goals. Table 5 summarizes results.
Table 5. Resources and Opportunities
Question n Mean
Q13: I was helped with career development through
resume writing, interviewing, and general career
development assistance.
573 4.3
Q15: I identified and developed personal, academic,
and career goals due to NUFP.
570 4.4
While interview questions did not directly address opportunities and resources, a number
of Fellows mentioned how mentors and campus administrators had assisted them with their
career development. And as some of the Fellow’s responses were better related to the theme of
mentors or influence from NUFP, those responses are delineated in the corresponding categories.
As an aspect of career development, building networking skills and encouragement from
role models is considered an important program outcome for NUFP. Table 6 summarizes the
respondents’ mean to questions intended to measure their ability at building a network of
professionals and mentors. Question 11 asks Fellows to evaluate the program in assisting them
to develop their networking skills. Question 12 assessed the participants’ perceptions of
encouragement to enter the field of student affairs from individuals involved with NUFP. The
mean of the respondents indicted a high level of of encouragement from professionals involved
with NUFP and the weighted mean (4.58) ranged from Agree to Strongly agree.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 60
Table 6. Networking and Encouragement
Question n Mean
Q11: I developed professional networking skills
through the interactions with mentors, faculty
facilitators, and other Fellows.
568 4.46
Q12: Professionals involved in NUFP encouraged me
to enter the field of student affairs/higher education.
572 4.58
Influence from NUFP
One of the main tenets of NUFP is the introduction of undergraduate students to the
profession of student affairs. As part of the survey, Fellows were asked to measure their
commitment to student affairs as a result of being involved in the Fellows program. Table 8
demonstrates the finding that overall, Fellows attributed NUFP with their commitment to student
affairs.
Table 7. Commitment to entering student affairs
Question n Mean
Q 16: As a result of being a Fellow, I am more
committed to going into the higher education/student
affairs field.
565 4.4
Interview participants were questioned about their interest in student affairs prior to
joining the Fellows program. Of the twenty Fellows queried, four Fellows indicated no prior
interest in student affairs before joining the Fellows program. For Marcela, applying to be a
Fellow was driven by the fact that her mentor asked her to apply and thought it would be a great
way to connect to other underrepresented students:
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 61
I applied because my mentor was involved in NASPA and she thought I would enjoy it. I
liked that the program was exclusive to underrepresented students, but at the time I really
had no intentions of going into student affairs, I was looking more to be an ethnic studies
faculty or something.
Robert was undecided as to what he wanted to do. So in his Junior year he applied to be a
Fellow, hoping it would give him some sense of a career:
I wasn’t totally sure what I wanted to do, a few of my mentors suggested I apply to
NUFP and thought it could help me make a choice, so I applied and it did just that, I
really helped me to realize that I liked working with other college students
Fourteen Fellows indicated that the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows Program influenced
their pursuit of student affairs as a career. For those Fellows, NUFP provided additional exposure
and resources for career explorations which would otherwise not have been possible. Kevin
attributed his decision to pursue student affairs to his involvement in NUFP. “NUFP helped me
make my choice - that I really wanted to be in this field. It was the final push I needed to make
up my mind.”
For Nick, participation in the NUFP program clarified his career intentions:
NUFP helped me to clarify what I wanted to do with my life and the internship
allowed me to work with a lot of different areas: conduct, student orgs, and the
Well. Seeing more than just programing - it opened my eyes and convinced me
that it was a career for me. Because if I got bored with one thing, I could do
something else within student affairs.
Other Fellows attributed NUFP with helping them with their career selection with gaining
valuable professional insights. Darrell describes his involvement with NUFP as, “It was the
socialization to the field: it taught me how to be in the profession.”
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 62
Kevin said: “NUFP game me perspectives on the field and the different areas and levels of
student affairs and the people that worked in student affairs.”
Program components
The Fellows program provides opportunities for internships, attendance at national
conferences, mentorships, and select summer opportunities. For several Fellows NUFP provided
opportunities and resources to explore student affairs and also had a direct impact on their
institutional experience. Of the 603 respondents from the year end survey, the most commonly
referenced program was mentoring/internship, followed by attendance at the annual conference,
and then the pre-conference workshops. Table 9 statistically summarizes Fellows’ participation in
varying aspects of the Fellows program.
Table 8. Program activity participation by total number
NUFP Program Percentage of participants
Cohorts 2008 - 2012
N=573
Fellow Interviews
N=20
Annual Conference 52% 18
Mentoring/Internship on campus 73% 20
Summer Leadership Institute 22% 8
Summer Internship (different
campus)
25% 7
Pre-conference workshop at annual
conference
32% 16
Regional conference 23% 12
Other regional activities 10% 3
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 63
For Fellows attending the yearly national conference, exposure to other Fellows and
networking beyond their own campus was the apex of the program and most credited the
experience as significantly impacting their career decision.
Tim:
I got to go to the national conference and I was just overwhelmed with the number of
cool people that were there, I really got to see what student affairs was like and I wanted
to be a part of it.
Selena recalled how the national conference reinforced her choice to ultimately pursue student
affairs:
While at the conference, I got to go to all these workshops about programs that I cared
about and here where people that were doing what I had been thinking. I knew I wanted to be in
student affairs but the conference totally made me realize that this [student affairs] was it for me.
Fellows additionally described the NUFP program components as providing practical
“next steps” in their career most importantly applying to graduate school. Angel credited NUFP,
“especially SLI [Summer Leadership Institute] taught me what to do, gave me an introduction to
student development theory, a critique of my resume, and gave me an idea of what programs and
[what] graduate school would be like.” Similarly, Diana attributes NUFP involvement with
obtaining valuable information, “because of the NUFP pre-conference, I learned how I needed to
apply to graduate school, what I needed to look for, and feel like it gave me a good start.”
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 64
Fellows’ experiences with NUFP in some cases confirmed their pursuit of a career in
student affairs, while for others it provided the necessary resources to take the next steps to
advance their career choices.
Mentorship. The program component most frequently cited by Fellows as having
significant influence in their career decision was their mentor/mentorship. All 20 Fellows
interviewed had participated in a mentorship and 73% of survey respondents indicated they had
participated in the mentor program.
Overwhelmingly Fellows described strong, positive relationships with their mentors and
for many their mentor was their sole university connection. Alana described his relationship as
the reason he able to succeed:
I had a multifaceted relationship with my mentor and helped me with so much,
helped me apply to grad school, came to my graduation, she was a support system
when I didn’t have much support from others. I relied on her, she was, well is my
number one fan.
In describing the mentor relationship Rodrigo said, “I trusted her with the most sensitive details
of my life, without her I would have not survived college and been able to graduate. She was my
life line.”
Many Fellows’ interest in student affairs was initiated by an involved Mentor, and those
same Fellows subsequently expressed their desire to emulate their Mentor’s vocation but lacked
the understanding of how to proceed in this regard.
Nick explained:
Once I knew I wanted to go into student affairs, I needed to find out more about
what my options were. This is where my Mentors really helped me to make
decisions and tell me what the next steps were: my GRE, looking at grad
programs and stuff.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 65
For AJ, it was assistance with possible starting points. “ I already knew I wanted to work with
college students, but relied on my Mentor to help me figure out what I needed to do to actually
make it. I didn’t even know where to start.”
Danny reflected that it was his mentor connection which solidified his decision to pursue
a career in student affairs. Due to financial constraints, Danny was unable to attend conferences
or other NUFP programs. Thus the connection to his mentor is “what influenced me to go into
student affairs.”
Mentors also provided applied experiences for Fellows and assisted them with the
necessary next steps for further exploration of a career in student affairs, including graduate
school application. For many Fellows this included connecting them with administrators for
informational interviews, providing graduate school lists, editing personal statements, resume
analysis, and mock faculty interviews. Rodrigo explains:
My mentor helped me to get a sense of what was next. We developed a plan of
action in early Fall of my senior year and she walked me through every step of the
application process for my grad program. This was very important because I was
first in my family to even graduate from undergrad and I knew nothing about grad
school.
The support that many Fellows received from their mentor assisted them in following through
with their career plans and in pursuing a Master’s degree in higher education.
Graduate School
One aspect identified in the literature that is crucial for success in the field is continuation
onto a graduate program (Talbot, 1996; Turrentine & Conley, 2001; ). A 2001 study indicated
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 66
that only 5% of students in graduate programs across the nation in student affairs were comprised
of minority students (Turrentine & Conley, 2001). Question 23 asks respondents to indicate
whether they would be applying to a student affairs graduate program or had already applied.
The Yes percentage is slightly less than half (49.2%), followed by 26.4% of Fellows that had
already applied to a graduate program by the time the survey was administered.
Table 9. Graduate School interest in percentages
Question Yes No Maybe Already
Applied
n %
Q 23: Are you applying to
graduate school in student
affairs or higher education
49.2% 6% 18.4% 26.4% 567 100%
All 20 Fellows indicated they discussed graduate programs with their mentors and were
encouraged to apply. Mentors cited a variety of advantages for obtaining a Master’s degree, the
most common of which was securing better-paying position upon graduation. Angel shared, “my
mentor told me that really the only way to get a job doing what she did was to get a master’s
degree; so that’s what I did.” Claudia echoed a similar sentiment about her mentors, “my mentor
told me that without a Master’s degree I would hit a ceiling in the kinds of jobs I could get, so I
knew I had to get one [Master’s degree].”
Upon completion of her undergraduate studies, Martha attempted to secure employment
in student affairs without a Master’s degree but was unable to do so. She applied to masters
programs this year and will begin classes in the Fall. Martha shared advice from her mentor, “My
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 67
mentors warned me, but I know now that without a Master’s degree I really can’t get a job I want
in student affairs, so that’s why I’m going back to school.”
A few Fellows from the cohorts of 2010 through 2012 opted to delay their entry into a
graduate program either for financial reasons or wanting a “break” from school. AJ described his
choice as, “ I understood that it [master’s] was required but wanted to take a break after senior
year. I had a lot of school and needed to not do it for a while.”
Roberto gave a similar explanation for taking time before going into a graduate program:
I was tired of school, I wasn’t really good at it. My GPA was kinda low, so by
taking time off before doing more school I thought it would be best. I just could’t
see myself doing more school. I wasn’t even sure I would get it.
Both AJ and Roberto related that their mentors supported their decisions to delay entry into a
graduate program. However, both were fortunate to find a position in student affairs immediately
upon graduation. AJ worked as an Admissions counselor for a year before pursuing a Master’s
program in higher education administration and will be graduating next year. Roberto was hired
to assist with Orientation programs, but has yet to pursue a Master’s program and is considering
options outside the student affairs field, such as event planning.
The study’s inquiry into the program components of the Fellows program informs the
analysis of influence by NUFP to propel underrepresented students into student affairs. Results
demonstrate that Fellows place significance on attending NASPA National conference and their
mentorship. Graduate school information and preparation also emerges as a means of influence
for Fellows.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 68
Cultural Agents
Research question four explored whether mentors or role models from underrepresented ethnic
backgrounds impact a Fellow’s decision to choose the profession as a career. This section
reviews findings from the Fellows’ perspective and relates to their experiences and feelings
towards mentors or role models that shared similar ethnic backgrounds. The study found that 17
Fellows had mentors that did not match their ethnic or racial background; three Fellows shared
the same ethnic background as their mentor, and three had mentors that were from
underrepresented backgrounds dissimilar to their own. For confidentiality purposes, Fellows
were not asked to reveal the ethnic background of their mentor, but at times it was disclosed in
the course of the conversation.
There were no significant trends among responses given by Fellows as to whether ethnic
or racial factors were relevant to their pursuit of a career in student affairs. One trend among
Fellows whose mentor did not share their background was the perceived cultural competency of
said mentor. Rodrigo shared of his mentor, “I feel like she looked beyond my race, she knew
about multicultural stuff and I trusted her.” Another Fellow, Angel, whose mentor was from a
different underrepresented background revealed:
For certain I felt a little more welcomed and more understood because we were
both people of color, but I learned that a persons’ skin color and culture and does
not matter so much or how society labels them. It’s the person: if the person is
competent in diversity then it [similar cultural background] doesn’t matter.
Other Fellows stated that what mattered most was their mentor caring about them as a
person. Sharing a similar ethnic background was an additional positive influence, but not
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 69
essential. Diana explained that it was her mentor’s caring and her “excitement about student
affairs” that was the most important factor.
Two Fellows from underrepresented backgrounds, unlike their mentor’s backgrounds,
found significance in having a relationship with someone who understood the issues associated
underrepresented backgrounds. Two dissimilar causes were affirmed. Kevin shared:
It mattered that we were both people of color. It provided a lot of support, I found
commonality with identity issues, and she helped to navigate what I call white
spaces and how to be positive and successful in those spaces and how to navigate
that in student affairs.
Nick expressed a similar value of a shared underrepresented background with his mentor.
“Interesting question...I definitely valued that we were both multicultural people and that we had
similar experiences. There was just a shared understanding and she helped me be more
comfortable with myself.” Nick further placed this importance in the context of his graduate
program:
I think a mentor like that is more important to me now because here [master’s
program] I am constantly having to explain myself to some in my cohort,
professors even and it’s tiring. I wish I had that [mentor with similar background]
again.
Two other Fellows who did not share their mentor’s ethnic background expressed a
commonality with Nick’s experience of wanting to have a mentor of color as they progressed in
their careers.
Claudia, a Fellow from 2008, reflected that while it was not important to have a mentor-
of-color initially in the NUFP program, now that she had finished graduate school and was in the
first years of her position she “wished she had that,” Claudia explains:
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 70
At the time it [similar ethnic background] was not important because of the
connection my mentor and I had, but now it is very important to me and I want to
get connected to other women of color. To have a woman of color and learn from
her to help me navigate the field is invaluable.
When asked about the importance of ethnic alignment, Claudia was uncomfortable about asking
questions regarding racial issues in the workplace, especially if the person is not from an
underrepresented background. Claudia offered the following example, “I can’t ask my white
supervisor about how to deal with bias in the workplace or how they can negotiate the politics of
being the only person of color in the room; I’m just not gonna do that.”
For Darrell it was important to find someone who shared his background. The lack of a
role model added to his sense of isolation, which hindered his aspirations for a Doctoral degree.
Darrell wanted to connect with a mentor in higher education, but he also sought out mentors in
other areas of his life, such as church and athletics to “help me figure out what I need to do.”
Finally, Alana offered a perspective from someone who had always had mentors who
“reflected who he was,” that valued the importance of having someone who “looked like you.”
He explained, “I can’t stress the importance of having someone who looks like you and
especially your hidden identities and how that can be so powerful to have someone like you. I
feel it’s so under-looked in student affairs.” As a final point, Alana shared that he “felt optimistic
about the future of student affairs” but was aware of the lack of representation of
underrepresented populations in “the upper levels of student affairs positions and that’s why we
need more mentors who look like the Fellows.”
Mentors elevated perspectives and expanded opportunities for students in the study. They
reported receiving support, additional resources, and insight into the profession of student affairs,
while the mentor’s ethnic background was not a factor in how Fellows engaged with their
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 71
mentor. The results from this question inform the study’s analysis into the importance of mentors
and cultural agents.
Additional Findings
The discussion of additional findings will be presented in chapter 5, but the qualitative
data surfaced two emergent themes unintended by the study and are of sufficient importance to
note in this chapter analysis.
While not directly asked, some Fellows spontaneously shared that a low GPA was
responsible for delaying their enrollment in graduate school. This was the case with two Fellows,
Roberto and Claudia, who at the conclusion of their senior year did not meet the requirements for
admission into a master’s program. Robert elaborated, “I had really low GPA, I knew that I
couldn’t get into grad school. I was really ashamed, but by the time that I ended my senior year, I
knew I had blown it.”
Three other Fellows alluded to having low grades as a result of being involved in
multiple activities and did not pay sufficient attention to academics. Tim explained, “I didn’t pay
attention to my grades, I just wanted to be an RA and be involved in all these cool things on
campus. It was like I wanted to do that and not go to class.”
Several Fellows expressed the desire to be more involved with the NUFP program, but
were unfamiliar with how best to translate their interest into NASPA involvement. Some looked
for involvement with the program after their participation and related frustration with the lack
follow-up programs by NUFP. Selena expressed it best, “I really want to stay connected but there
really isn’t anything for me to do with NUFP, as if once you’re done with the program - that’s it.”
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 72
Rudy was dismayed that although NUFP incorporated all underrepresented populations into their
programs, this same ethic not extend throughout NASPA:
So being in NUFP was great, right? But then you’re done with the program and the only
other options are the Knowledge Communities, but that’s totally whack because I wanted
to be with my friends and we had to pick one because we are not all from the same one. It
was really sad and confusing: I thought the point was to be open to everyone. So in
the end we just kinda formed our own and didn’t join anything.
The academic success of the Fellows and involvement within NASPA were noteworthy themes
that emerged during the presentation of results and these will be discussed in chapter 5.
Conclusion
The findings explored in this chapter were derived using a mixed methods study from
aggregate experiences of NASPA undergraduate Fellows. The quantitative data provided an
overview of Fellows’ interest in the student affairs profession and the program’s influence in
their pursuing a career in the field. The results informed the interview protocol developed to
further analyze how underrepresented students enter the field.
Qualitative data of interviews reflected the experiences of 20 Fellows from the cohorts of
2008 through 2012 and delineated three main entry-points into student affairs. Career choice for
underrepresented Fellows was most often influenced through co-curricular involvement,
followed by a significant mentoring relationship, and lastly by Fellows program mentors.
Advancing career selection and pursuit of graduate school represents the career development of
Fellows. Program components of the Fellows program demonstrated the influence of NUFP on
student’s decision to enter student affairs. Lastly, the role of mentors and cultural agents
highlighted the importance of visible ethnic representation and same-race role models.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 73
The next chapter discusses implications of these results and the recommendations for
how the Fellows program and practitioners may support a pathway for underrepresented students
into student affairs. I will discuss further the limitations of this study and conclude with a
discussion for future research.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 74
CHAPTER 5: Conclusions and Implications
Introduction
Research indicates that the quantity of student affairs professionals from
underrepresented backgrounds entering the field has remained static since the 1980’s (Sagaria &
Johnsrud, 1991; Task Force on Professional Preparation and Practice, 1989; Talbot, 1996; Taub
& McEwen, 2006). In contrast, the demographics of students entering college is diversifying but
the ranks of student affairs professionals is not keeping pace with this evolution and there is a
lack of data on what factors influence underrepresented students to enter the field of student
affairs. The purpose of this study is to examine how underrepresented students choose student
affairs as a profession. It focused on students participating in the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows
Program, explored their entry-points into student affairs and those salient influences leading
them to a student affairs career.
In order to better define the conduit of Fellows into student affairs, a mixed method study
was conducted with two data collection phases. The NASPA national office provided the data
collection for the quantitative first phase, which included annual survey evaluations of students
who had participated in the NASPA Fellows program from 2008 through 2012. The second data
collection phase was composed of 20 personal Fellows interviews from the same 2008 through
2012 cohorts and was designed to extract information regarding their interest in and career path
into student affairs. The data was condensed and grouped according to themes and then sorted
and analyzed to determine the research findings. The major findings of this study include the
primary entry-points into student affairs, career selection dynamics, and the active influence of
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 75
role models and mentors in the lives of underrepresented students considering student affairs
careers.
Chapter 5 summarizes the study and the important conclusions drawn form the data
presented in Chapter 4. The findings are then examined in relation to the literature, with the
research questions serving as guiding principles. Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the imperatives for
action and recommendations for future research.
Research Findings and Discussion for Research Question 1
What are the entry-points in Fellows’ developing an interest in student affairs?
The results related to question 1 are generally supported by the literature and serve to
identify entry-points by which Fellows develop an interest in student affairs. The data
demonstrated that entry-points for underrepresented students in the Fellows program do not
differ from those of previous studies focused on students-at-large. Fellows were asked how they
discovered student affairs as a profession and in what manner became interested in student
affairs. The primary entry-points from the study found that Fellows became interested in student
affairs while involved in co-curricular activities and through the influence of role models.
Studies by Hunter (1992), Forney (1994) and most recently by Taub and McEwen (2006)
support the study’s findings that career selection influences for NUFP Fellows follow trends
similar to previous studies, and indicates that undergraduates’ decisions to enter the profession
comes from involvement with or employment in campus activities, encouragement from those
already in the field, or from prior interest in the field as a result of an undergraduate major or
career exploration (Forney, 1994; Hunter, 1992; Richmond & Sherman, 1991).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 76
The qualitative data found that all Fellows queried were involved in co-curricular
activities; the most common of which were resident assistant, orientation leader, programing
board, student government, fraternity and sorority life, or direct student affairs employment.
Several Fellows reported having been involved in campus activities with affirming results, best
exemplified by Rudy:
I just loved my campus! It was like a big fruit bowl of different things I could do and be
involved in. I think I sampled everything and loved every moment. It would be hard to
pick which thing I liked the best, I mean between my Frat, MEChA, and hip Hop
Congress, it’s tough. It’s why I love this profession now, all those things made me who I
am in student affairs.
Finally, for several Fellows interest in student affairs began indirectly from an initial
interest in working with college students and led to searching the web for related career
information. One Fellow, Rodrigo, was involved with a community youth organization for ethnic
minorities and through his service recognized that higher education would be required to make
working with college students a career. So while researching higher education career
possibilities, he “stumbled” upon the NASPA website, discovered the Fellows program and
applied to the program.
An emergent theme in the study related to co-curricular involvement, was the tendency
for students to abandon their academic demands in favor of increasing student activities
involvement. So while involvement in student activities reinforces positive outcomes for college
students, over-involvement can lead to serious academic failure (Kuh, 1995; Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh,
& Whitt, 2005; Pascarella & Terenzinni, 1991, 2005). Balancing the time requirements between
academics and co-curricular activities is a learning curve which must be understood and
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 77
mastered by aspiring students. This emergent theme was also prominent in the areas of graduate
school preparation and internships and will be discussed accordingly.
Research Findings and Discussion for Research Question 2 and 3
Does participation in the NASP A Undergraduate Fellows program (NUFP) contribute to
underrepresented students entering the field of student affairs? And if so, what are the
components of the Fellows program that support their career selection?
Career development is an important priority of the Fellows program and translates into
increasing the quantity of underrepresented students entering the field of higher education and
student affairs. The goal of this study was to connect NUFP activities to the impact on Fellows’
career choices resulting from participation. The research question was framed not only to
elucidate NUFP influences, but also to understand those program components which were most
relevant to the Fellows’ mission.
Overall findings indicate that as a result of NUFP involvement, Fellows were more
committed to pursuing student affairs as a profession. Survey data revealed that 82% of Fellows
were planning to enter the profession by the time they had completed the program and interviews
yielded a similarly high representation for those entering the field. All Fellows interviewed were
either in their first professional position or enrolled in a student affairs graduate program.
Emergent themes in Fellows’ career selection of student affairs are discussed below.
Career decision competencies
Career decision competencies including self-assessment, goal setting, and vocational
exploration are fundamental in developing decision making capabilities (Crites, 1978). Self-
efficacy research involving underrepresented students indicates they are empowered and deepen
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 78
their decision capabilities when they incorporate the above mentioned competencies (Church,
Teresa, Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992; Greir-Reed, Skaar, & Conkel-Ziebell, 2009; Greir-Reed &
Ganuza, 2012; Hernandez, 1995; Taylor & Betz, 1983; Taylor 1997). Through resume writing,
mock interviews, networking socialization, and career & academic goal setting, the Fellows
program employs a self-efficacy model to enhance career decision abilities.
This study highlights the Fellows’ reports of deepened career focus and clarity of
direction through the learning opportunities presented in the NUFP program. In interviews,
Fellows cited resume writing and mock interviews as having the most impact in assisting them
to pursue a possible career in student affairs. Marcela related:
Before NUFP I really didn’t even know how to write my resume or what I would put in
there. I knew we had a career center, but having someone actually work one-on-one with
me and show me how to do my resume was amazing. It got me ready for grad school
and I know how to write a kick-ass resume.
In summary, the outcomes of this evaluation indicate that Fellows benefit from activities
that foster career decision making competencies.
NUFP Influence
The Fellows’ program and its effect on underrepresented students entering the student
affairs profession is clearly demonstrated in this study. NASPA survey respondents from 2008
through 2012 indicated a strong inclination to enter student affairs as a result of being involved
in the Fellows program. Fellows reported participation in NUFP provided them with
opportunities and resources to enhance their student affairs acumen and establish professional
connections. When asked if NUFP had influenced their decision to enter student affairs, 14
Fellows interviewed responded affirmatively.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 79
Fellows mentioned that all of the NUFP program components had some impact in their
decision to enter the profession. Most influential were the recurring components of mentorship,
the internships, and attendance at the annual conference. Research findings on the influence of
mentorship is discussed in research question 4.
The national conference held annually was the highest attended program offered by
NUFP. The conference provided Fellows new professional connections and with other aspiring
Fellows, and several accounted this convocation with other Fellows as the NUFP aspect they
most enjoyed and benefitted from. Selena:
It was like a whole new world opened up: I never knew there were so many of us. I had
felt totally isolated on my campus because I was the only NUFP and then I met a bunch
more Fellows. It was awesome and made me realize I wanted this world to be mine.
Empirical research involving internships during the college age years has demonstrated
an increased impact on improving career decision making (Coco, 2000; Callanan & Benzing,
2004; Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995; Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000).
Specific studies confirm that internship participation solidifies the career selection process of
college students by exposing them to the actual work of their chosen field (Greenhaus, Callanan,
& Godshalk, 2000; Pedro, 1984; Taylor, 1988). This result was duplicated in this study, as
Fellows indicated that internships played a significant role in their decision to enter student
affairs. Case in point. Rudy detailed his experience:
I wasn’t sure if I really wanted to do student affairs. But then as part of my internship I
got to work with my Assistant Dean on creating a multicultural retreat and experienced
first hand what it was like to program and see something come to life that I had a hand in.
That experience alone was enough to convince me that I wanted to do this for a living.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 80
In sum, this study reveals that participation in NUFP program components have a varying
degree of influence in the career selection for Fellows.
Graduate School
The accruing benefits of continuing one’s education through graduate work are well
documented. Beyond intellectual passion or personal interest, a graduate education is also the
means to realize practical and professional benefits, as most entry-level jobs in student affairs
now require a master’s degree. For students aspiring to enter student affairs, a graduate education
is the first step in gaining entry into the student affairs world (Sagaria & Johnsrud, 1991).
The large number of Fellows enrolling in student affairs graduate programs provides
evidence for the influence of the NUFP components and specifically for the encouragement
Fellows received from mentors. Out of 567 annual survey respondents, 50% indicated a
commitment to apply to graduate school and an additional 27% had already applied by the time
they responded to the survey. All the Fellows interviewed reported discussing graduate school
with their mentors and understanding both the professional and monetary value of graduate
school. Darrell, Selena, Tim, Kevin, and Nick, indicated graduate school was the natural next
step in order to fully integrate into the field of student affairs.
An emergent theme involving undergraduate academic achievement and the pursuit of a
graduate education in student affairs involved Grade Point Average requirements. Four Fellows
expressed anxiety regarding their undergraduate grades when applying to graduate school, as
they barely met the Grade Point Average (GPA) for some of the programs. Roberto applied to
several programs and in the end was denied by all, as his GPA was not above 2.5 range:
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 81
I knew it was going to be hard to get in because of my grades, but I thought because I had
a strong resume in being involved in activities and recommendations from my VP and
Dean, that I would at least get into one program, but I didn’t.
Roberto revealed that he went through a period of depression after not being accepted and “felt
let down” by administrators who had encouraged him to pursue graduate work but were not
“real” with him about the grade requirements.
There is a tendency for some student affairs professionals to minimize the importance of
academics and even support the notion that involvement in university activities will translate into
acceptance into a student affairs master’s program. In the past, experience often trumped
education when it came to graduate program enrollment, but today the opposite is true and
students are ill-served when the academics and scholarship required to be a sound student affairs
professional are minimized by well-meaning advisors. As student affairs professionals aim for an
increase in underrepresented graduate students, academic support programs must parallel native
student interest and involvement.
The NUFP program components provide career exposure opportunities through NASPA’s
internships and during the annual conference . NUFP also counsels Fellows in how to assemble a
professional resume, assists with personal goal-setting strategies, and perhaps most importantly
promotes graduate school enrollment with navigation advice for application and preparation.
This NUFP collective effort contributes to increasing the number of underrepresented students
entering student affairs and has a significant impact on Fellows who are aspiring to a career in
student affairs. My conclusion: the Fellows program has a significant impact on the career
selection of student affairs for the Fellows in the program.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 82
Research Findings and Discussion for Research Question 4
Do mentors or role models from underrepresented ethnic backgrounds impact a Fellow’ s
decision to choose the profession as a career?
Role Models and Mentors
This study found that role model and mentor influence manifested in two ways; first as an
initial influence where interest is kindled, and secondly where mentors play a key role in
assisting students to progress within the field. Mentors also supported students with advice for
issues of general importance and matters unique to underrepresented students.
Similar to the work of Lockwood and Kunda (1997), this study confirmed that a role
model was someone who had direct contact with a Fellow, and those mentioned most often in
this regard were campus administrators or work supervisors encountered during activities or
employment. A mentor typically was described as a trusted individual who assisted with personal
and professional matters. It is important to note here that a mentor was someone that had a
developed relationship with the Fellow and was either assigned to or selected by the Fellow
because of their involvement in NUFP.
During this study the mentor/role model influence emerged as the primary means of
student exposure to the field of student affairs. Fellows most often cited their mentors as
providing their introduction to and insight into student affairs as a career worth pursuing.
Campus administrators provided additional exposure to student affairs careers during casual
conversations or inquiries regarding how administrators actually executed their daily
responsibilities. Selena described the role model influence by relating, “one day I just realized I
was around campus administrators all the time and I wanted to be like them.”
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 83
This notion of career emulation is supported in the literature by research in social
learning and career development theories. Studies in both areas point to observational learning
and students imitating mentors or roles models (Bandura, 1969; Bandura & Shunk, 1981; Gibson
2004). Involvement in campus activities or social exposure with mentors created aspirations in
the Fellows to serve as student affairs administrators. Darrell, stated it best, “ Yeah, I believe in
that if you see it, you can be it, that’s how it was for me.”
This study confirmed that mentors have a significant and long-lasting impact on a
student’s experience through advising and encouraging students to explore the student affairs
universe.
Cultural Agents
This study hypothesized that sharing the same background as a mentor or role model
would have a significant impact on an underrepresented student choosing student affairs as a
profession. However, the results for this research question varied and the literature on the subject
is sparse and the results disparate. While Stanton-Salazar’s research (1997) about cultural agents
and role models who share similarities to the population they serve purports an added advantage,
some researchers have placed more emphasis on validating students’ cultural heritages regardless
of the ethnic background of the cultural agent (Kuh & Love, 2000, Museus & Quaye, 2009;
Tierney, 1999).
This study’s findings are congruent with the literature. While a small number of Fellows
had a mentor that shared with them an underrepresented background, all Fellows spoke highly of
their mentors and implied irrelevance as to their mentor’s ethnic heritage. Nick exemplified this
point: as a self-identified multi-ethnic student, he placed importance not on ethnic background
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 84
but on having a “shared understanding” with his mentor. This supports the research by Museus
and Quaye (2009) that personal affirmation and shared understanding by a mentor can actually
have more of an impact on a student’s self-efficacy and actualization than similar-background
mentors.
An emergent theme was surfaced through the experience of Claudia and Darrell. Initially
neither considered it important or necessary that their mentor reflect their ethnic identity. But as
they advanced in their careers, they found the presence of a same-race mentor increasingly
important, presumably the result of escalating professional demands. At the time of our
conversation Claudia was searching for a mentor to match her ethnic identity while Darrell
expressed his need for broader exposure from an African American mentor outside of student
affairs. This suggests that over the career-span of an underrepresented professional, having a
variety of mentors may better provide a support system to manage evolving circumstances
throughout one’s career.
Implications for practice
The recommendations are based on the study findings and are intended to guide
professional practice in attracting underrepresented students to the student affairs profession,
recommendations are detailed addressing the research questions of this study. Finally, I offer
considerations for NASPA regarding to possible improvements for the NUFP program.
Entry-points into Student Affairs
The literature review supports the contention that student affairs is not as widely
recognizable as other professions (Richmond & Sherman, 1991; Taub & McEwen, 2006). Many
Fellows had no knowledge of student affairs as a career, even while enrolled in college. Alana
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 85
exemplified a common theme amongst a majority of student affairs professionals and the Fellows
specifically, and expressed it best when he said he “fell into the profession” without knowing
there was a profession!
Establishing that students are becoming interested in student affairs primarily through co-
curricular involvement adds weight to the adoption of a promotional model which includes other
efforts of marketability. I recommend student affairs professionals who lead those activities
spend some time sharing information about a career in student affairs. Espousing beyond
personal reasons, conveying benefits of a career in student affairs, such as working with college
students and employment in a university setting, may begin an interest in student affairs for
undergraduate students.
I would recommend outreach efforts to undergraduate majors in the human sciences;
including psychology, human development, family studies, sociology, and ethnic studies.
Expounding the opportunities to serve others, working in a university setting, and possible
research opportunities may attract students already interested in those fields.
Further, the mien in which practitioners discuss student affairs can shape how aspiring
students perceive the profession. Student affairs practitioners could articulate the values of a
career in student affairs in a manner that speaks to the values and mission of our profession. For
example, many Fellows mentioned their desire increase access to higher education and support
other students as causes for their student affairs involvement. In this regard, student activities
contributions, campus service opportunities, and student services in general should be
highlighted as contributing to the progress of higher education (Taub & McEwen, 2006).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 86
Additionally, I would recommend augmenting efforts beyond careers in student affairs
week/month, including participation in career fairs by student affairs divisions as a means to
expose students to the multitude of jobs in student affairs, thus allowing interested students to
gather job information which is a crucial behavior of career selection (Brown & Associates,
2002).
Influence from NUFP
To date, NASPA is the only association to have a program that specifically targets
underrepresented students for recruitment into student affairs. Since 1989 NASPA has been
responsible for attracting over 2,500 underrepresented students into the field, making a
significant contribution to the diversification of student affairs professionals and higher
education. Based upon on the demonstrated influence of NUFP on career selection, I would
recommend that other similar programs be initiated by other national associations, focused on
recruiting underrepresented student populations. Program components should mirror those
proven to be successful in NUFP, such as the mentorship, internship opportunities, and
networking. Ultimately what is at stake here is the profession’s commitment to diversity. As a
profession, if we are serious about diversifying the field and representing the changing ethnic
diversity of our students, we must provide opportunities to attract underrepresented students into
student affairs.
Mentorship and Cultural Agents
The primary recommendation of this study relates to mentors, as they possess the most
influence in a Fellows’ decision to enter the field. Amongst the Fellows, a common theme in the
study was their mentor’s capacity to demonstrate a working knowledge of diversity. Selena’s
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 87
mentor, a graduate assistant in a master’s program for student affairs, was described as an
important contributor to her racial identity development. Selena said:
I didn’t even realize that I was in a predominantly White campus and had hidden
my Latina-ness until I started having conversations with my mentor - who was
White, she really knew things that I did not.
Because the primary audience of the Fellows’ program is underrepresented students,
developing the multicultural competency of NUFP mentors is essential to ensure they understand
the complexities of this population. For example, Rodrigo described that after a year with his
mentor he “confessed” his immigration status and as a result his mentor became his advocate in
processing to a legal status.
Assessing the multicultural competence of mentors will highlight the necessary skills,
identify gaps in understanding, and deepen the required training. Assessment may be self-
reported, but additional resources might be provided by NASPA to include webinars or regional
trainings for improving cultural competencies. This would also support the learning objective for
NUFP of fostering cultural competency for its Fellows’.
This approach is validated by the work of Pope, Muller, and Reynolds (2009) who assert
that student affairs practitioners must first understand themselves in a racial context in order to
create affirming diversity spaces. Cultivating intentional conversations about cultural pluralism is
another learning objective of the Fellow’s program that supports cultural competency training for
mentors. A thoughtful and intentional approach to address the training, skills, and knowledge
needed by practitioners is imperative in supporting underrepresented students, especially those
interested in the profession.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 88
Finally, as this study demonstrated, the ethnicity or race of the mentors does not
significantly affect a Fellow’s choice to enter the profession. However, having a same race
mentor can have an impact throughout a Fellow’s career. I would recommend that all
underrepresented student affairs professionals search for same race mentors that can provide
advise and serve as a resource. Having access to a same race mentor can be beneficial in
translating certain aspects or context of the majority culture. This also means that alums of the
NUFP need to continue their involvement with NASPA in order to serve as those mentors for
future generations of underrepresented students.
Considerations for NASPA
The following considerations for NASPA are derived via insight learned from this study
and based on the study’s research questions, relating to entry-points, career selection, and
mentorships.
1. Re-examine the annual NUFP program survey. The last review was 2007 and while it
includes learning outcomes, it does not account for other possible influences or experiences.
For example, the survey does not query Fellows on what campus activities they are involved
in during NUFP or prior to NUFP. This data could provide understanding on which co-
curricular activities influenced underrepresented students to enter the field and the means by
which this might occur. Questions about GPA and specificity of internships can provide a
more detailed frame of reference into undergraduate academic achievement of Fellows and
what potential jobs in student affairs Fellows are gravitating towards. Finally, improved
examination of open ended questions would provide insight into Fellow experiences.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 89
2. Conduct a pre-test survey. This can provide a baseline from which to evaluate the learning
arc of Fellows involved in NUFP programs. This pre-test can then be compared to the end-of-
the-year evaluation and to better understand the learning outcomes in student development
competencies, student affairs opportunities, and graduate school preparation. This baseline is
also important in gauging the learning taking place as a result of being involved in NUFP.
3. The study demonstrated that Fellows who participated in the annual conference and summer
leadership institute expressed more positivity about student affairs and had a stronger
connection to NASPA. I would recommend adding NUFP pre-conference workshops or
sessions that are similar in content to the national conference so more Fellows can attend and
gain from this experience. Additionally, expanding the summer leadership institute to two
sessions, as one session is only 30 Fellows and the program consistently has had over 100
applicants.
4. Develop the NUFP Alumni via a network or knowledge community. The comment from a
Fellow regarding individual Fellows being so diverse and some of their hesitancy to go into a
specified ethnic knowledge community, calls out the need for a network. Developing such a
network of NUFP Alumni could also connect Fellows who are at outset of their careers with
established Fellows.
Future Research
Future research should include a replication of this study to further validate the results.
Conducting similar studies can support or dispute the findings and determine the influence of the
NUFP program in attracting underrepresented students into student affairs.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 90
A future topic worthy of pursuit relates to the multiple ways in which students who
participate in NUFP might benefit from the program. Examining the Fellow experience for
distinctions among those who are are engaged in multiple aspects of the program and those with
only a singular involvement. Although the focus of this study involved the entry-points into
NUFP and interest in student affairs as a career choice, this study did not include an in-depth
comparison of Fellows’ engagements within the program.
Another area meriting research is the mentoring experience of Fellows’ after entering the
profession; their attitudes towards mentors and specifically those who share their
underrepresented status. Analyzing for the value of continued mentoring as one’s student affairs
career progresses may lead to improvements in the NUFP mentoring components.
Another concept involving underrepresented professions would consider a longitudinal
study to surface obstacles they encounter as they progress in their career and how the NUFP
program can assist in surmounting these issues. Exhaustive interviews regarding Fellows
trajectories in the profession can be useful in better understanding of obstacles faced by
underrepresented minorities once in the profession. This may also assist student affairs in the
retention and advancement of underrepresented students in the profession.
Finally, a study of how other underrepresented populations, such as sexual orientation
and students with disabilities enter the profession, would enrich the NUFP program. In particular,
very few studies have been conducted on how students with disabilities enter the profession and
the representation of professionals in this category is dismal (Talbot, 1996; Taub & McEwen,
2006).
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 91
Understanding those influences bearing upon underrepresented students considering
student affairs as a profession is a necessary step in diversifying the profession and advancing
research in this domain will broaden the opportunities for generations of underrepresented
students.
Conclusion
NASPA undergraduate Fellows served as the sample population for this mixed method
study exploring factors for underrepresented students as they chose student affairs as a
profession. From the outset the mission of the Fellows program has been to assist
underrepresented students “to explore and better understand the field of student affairs and
higher education” and NUFP has served as a conduit for over 2,500 underrepresented students
entering the profession (User’s Manual, .n.d).
The results of this study illustrate the prospects for improving the number of
underrepresented students entering the profession and the vital role mentors play in this pursuit.
Mentors were found to be the primary influence for a Fellow’s decision to enter the field, but
surprisingly sharing a similar ethnic background with the mentor does not have an significant
impact on that decision. However, having a mentor who is culturally competent and who
validates the Fellows’ cultural heritage is imperative for those serving as NUFP mentors.
Additionally, as professional values of national student affairs associations champion
diversity as a principle of the profession. Ensuring that underrepresented students work towards
obtaining master’s degrees not only honors these principles but is an active manifestation of
diversifying the student affairs field.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 92
As a student affairs professional first and also of color, I have consistently maintained an
objective approach to every aspect, thus avoiding any bias or distortion. However, I did find that
the experiences of the Fellows very much mirrored my own. I too “fell into student affairs” by
being overly involved as an undergraduate and became interested in the career through my Vice
President of Student Affairs, who encouraged me to consider student affairs as a career choice.
From this initial exposure to the last words of this dissertation, I have benefited from having
mentors who have supported and guided me.
I was unaware of the Fellows program during my undergraduate years at Colorado State
University and wanted to conduct this study in part, because I felt I had missed an opportunity. I
also wanted to test the hypothesis that same-race role models made a difference; once again I
thought that although my mentors were all White women, I would have benefitted from having
same-race mentor. This study demonstrated that having a same-race mentor is not an important
factor early in ones education, but as the complexities of the student affairs field become
apparent having a same-race mentor takes on more importance.
This study is in fact addressing the larger issue of increasing the representation of
underrepresented student affairs professionals in the field is essential towards closing the gap
between the number of underrepresented students attending higher education and the ethnic
diversity of the profession.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 93
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APPENDIX A
NASPA Undergraduate Fellows Program End of Year Evaluation
NUFP Background
Did you actively participate in NUFP for the (year) Academic Year?
Yes No
Please check all the NUFP activities in which you have or will participate in:
2012 Annual Conference
Internship/Mentoring (on campus)
Summer Leadership Institute
Summer Internship (different campus)
Pre-Conference Workshop during the Annual Conference
Regional conference
Other regional activities
Other (please specify)
Writing, Research and Speaking Skills
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I was given the opportunity to offer an oral presentation for student affairs staff or other groups.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
My mentor has involved me in projects which have improved my writing ability.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I was given the opportunity to present at a NASPA regional or national conference.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Ethical Decision Making
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I developed the skills to make ethical decision through case study analyses and other assessment
activities.
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 110
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I feel confident about making ethical decisions in student affairs.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Cultural Competency Skills
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I developed the cultural competency skills (e.g., knowledge of different races, cultures, and
ethnicities; ability to communicate across differences) important to the profession.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Through NUFP, I had opportunities to learn about cultural diversity and student affairs.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
My knowledge of different racial, sexual orientation, disabilities, and other identities has
increased.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Through NUFP, I have experienced people different from myself.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Professional Development and Networking/Career
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I developed professional networking skills through the interactions with mentors, faculty
facilitators, and other Fellows.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Professionals involved in NUFP encouraged me to enter the field of student affairs/higher
education.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I was helped with career development through resume writing, interviewing, and general career
development assistance.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Resources about higher education, student affairs, and college students were shared with me
during NUFP activities.
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Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I identified and developed personal, academic, and career goals due to NUFP.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
As a result of being a Fellow, I am more committed to going into the higher education/student
affairs field.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Through NUFP activities, I now understand the kinds of jobs are available for me in higher
education/student affairs.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Are you planning on entering the higher education and student affairs field?
Yes No Maybe
What are your career plans? (Check all the apply)
Attending graduate school in a different field of study
Work for several years before entering the higher education and student affairs field
Obtaining a job related to my undergraduate major
Entering a different field entirely (please specify)
Graduate School Preparation
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I can demonstrate through written and oral presentations that I developed writing, research and
speaking skills necessary for entry into graduate school.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
NUFP helped me understand the different graduate school programs available (e.g., student
affairs, higher education administration, and counseling).
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
During NUFP activities, did you learn about graduate school (e.g., assistantships, fellowships)?
Yes No Maybe
Are you applying to graduate school in student affairs and higher education?
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 112
Yes No Maybe Already applied
Where did you apply and if applicable, where will you be attending?
Textbox
Power and Privilege
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
I developed an understanding about the complexities of power and privilege through such
activities as journals, reflections papers, poetry and/or other creative projects.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
NUFP activities included knowledge about power and privilege.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I used journaling, discussion, and other means to explore power and privilege on campus.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I feel more knowledgeable about power dynamics in organizations than before my NUFP
experience.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Institutional Structures
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statement:
As a result of NUFP, I have an increased knowledge of the history, mission, and purpose of
student affairs and the various institutional types and structures within higher education.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
NASPA Knowledge
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statement:
I developed an understanding of NASPA's organization and structure through recorded
interviews, personal journals, group presentations, and/or other venues.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Engaged Citizenship
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 113
I developed an awareness and understanding of engaged citizenship and service.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I was exposed to opportunities where I used my talents in service to my undergraduate or
internship organization.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Organizational Understanding
Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:
NUFP activities have helped me better understand college and university administrative
structures.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I better understand how colleges and universities work.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I have experienced decision making within student affairs organizations.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
NUFP activities provided me with opportunities to learn about the division of student affairs on
my campus.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
I developed an understanding of higher educational organizations through presentations, papers,
or other activities.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Do you plan on joining NASPA as your professional home?
Yes No
What other organizations or associations to you plan to join?
(Check all the apply)
American College and University Housing Officers International (ACUHO-I)
American College Personnel Association (ACPA)
American College Unions International (ACU-I)
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 114
National Association of Campus Activities (NACA)
National Orientation Directors Association (NODA)
Other (please specify)
How did you hear about the NUFP program? (Check all that apply)
Classmate
Student Affairs Professional
Web search
Faculty member
NUFP Fellow
NUFP Mentor
Other (please specify)
How would you rate the NUFP experience?
Outstanding Good Average Poor Very poor
Please rate your level of agreement with the following statement.
My perspectives were valued and respected during this program.
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Please indicate your level of satisfaction with the NUFP application process.
Very satisfied Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied
How well did your NUFP experience meet your expectations?
Exceeded my expectations
More than met my expectations
Met my expectations
Poorly met my expectations
Did not meet my expectations
What were the strengths of your NUFP experience?
How would you suggest the NUFP experience be improved?
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 115
Would you recommend the NUFP to another student?
Yes No (please explain why not) Maybe
What is your year in the program?
First Second Third
How did your NUFP experience differ this year from last year?
The NUFP Board is looking to engage NUFP alumni in a more strategic manner. Please list ways
that you would expect NUFP to work with its alumni:
Of those suggestions that you provided above, which items would you be interested in helping
with?
Please feel free to make any additional comments.
Please tell us your name, host institution and summer 2012 internship position if applicable. This
information is optional.
Demographics
How do you identify in regards to your gender?
Male
Female
Transgender
Prefer not to answer
What race/ethnicity do you identify with?
African American/Black
Asian/Asian American/Pacific Islander
Caucasian/White
Hispanic/Latino(a)
Multiracial/Multiethnic
American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian
Other
Prefer not to answer
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 116
How do you define your sexual orientation?
Bisexual
Gay
Heterosexual
Lesbian
Queer
Other (please specify)
Prefer not to answer
Do you identify as having a disability?
Yes No Prefer not to answer
What other identities do you have? (Optional)
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 117
APPENDIX B
Interview Guide Protocol
Introduction
You have been selected to speak with us today because you have been identified as a Fellow
Alum from the cohort of 2007 - 2012. The purpose of this study is to gain deeper understanding
of the influences in your career selection of student affairs and if participation in NUFP had an
effect on your choice and if so to what extent. The intent of the study is not evaluate you or the
Fellows program, rather to learn more from your experience and contribute knowledge to the
field of student affairs.
Interviewee Background
What year did you become accepted to NUFP?
How did you find out about NUFP?
What aspects of the NUFP program did you participate in?
Career Selection
Did NUFP influence your decision to pursue a career in student affairs?
Did NUFP impact your career and progression in the field?
Prior to joining the Fellows program, were you interested in pursuing a career in student affairs?
Promotion of student affairs
How did you become interested in student affairs?
How did you find out about student affairs as a field?
Role Models/Cultural Agents
Did you have a NUFP mentor? Please share more about your mentor and your experience.
Did your Mentor assist you in navigating/understanding university polices or culture? If so, in
what ways?
Did your Mentor share a similar background as you? Was this important to you? Please share
more of your experience.
Master’s Preparation
Were you encouraged to continue your education and pursue a master’s degree in student affairs?
Did you pursue a graduate or master’s program in student affairs? Why or why not?
Do you currently work in student affairs or higher education?
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 118
APPENDIX C
Institutional Review Board Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
TITLE OF THE STUDY
Coloring the Pipeline: An analysis of the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program as a path for
minority students into Student Affairs.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a relationship between the
participation in an undergraduate program focused on underrepresented students entering student
affairs and their decision to enter the field. It is also the purpose of this study to concentrate on
the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators undergraduate Fellows program
and its program components.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Quantitative Data:Participants will have filled out a questionnaire provided to them at the
completion of their Fellowship with NASPA (appendix A). The questionnaire has 59 items that
ask participants to answer questions about their overall experience in the Fellows program
according to the program’s learning outcomes and demographics (optional). Question answers
are in a likert scale range of Strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Qualitative Data: There are five cohort groups between 2008 - 2012, with a total of 1,275
Fellows. Participants from each cohort will be selected at random until three from each cohort
agree to be interviewed. A conversational interview will be utilized through the use of some
preset questions which allows flexibility to explore certain subjects in more depth (Patton, 2002).
Consequently, an interview protocol will be developed (appendix B) with interview questions
informed by emergent themes from the quantitative data that will focus on their decision to
pursue student affairs, what elements of the Fellows program most impacted their decision, and
overall experience in the program. The interviews will be tape recorded and the subject will be
informed in the general information packet, making explicitly clear that interviews will be tape
recorded for transcription through an outside company. Before the interview commences, the
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 119
subject will be informed again that there will be tape recording. At the time of the interview the
subject can opt to decline for tape recording and interview can continue with the researching
taking notes during the interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Roster information of Fellows will be organized by the names of participants and inputed into an
Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet. Random numbers will be assigned to each individual to
ensure confidentiality and in order to select participants for interviews. There will be no
identifiable information obtained in connection with this study.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator: Tonantzin Oseguera
Email: toseguer@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor: Dr. Patricia Tobey
Email: tobey@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union
Building, 3720 South Flower Street, CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272
or upirb@usc.edu
Date of Preparation: September 3. 2012
A PATH FOR UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS INTO STUDENT AFFAIRS 120
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study applies self-efficacy theory from research on career-decision making to understand what influences underrepresented students’ decision to enter the student affairs profession. The purpose of the study was to determine how underrepresented students choose student affairs as a profession. The study focused on undergraduate students who participated in the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows Program (NUFP). This mixed methods study used data from previously collected by NASPA and conducted individual interviews of Fellows who participated in the program between the years of 2008 through 2012. Explanatory research methodology was used to analyze what influences and factors contributed to underrepresented students entering student affairs. Findings from this study indicate that involvement in co-curricular activities, participation in NUFP, and influence from mentors act as socialization to effect underrepresented students to enter the student affairs profession. Further analysis reveal that cultural agents who affirm student’s cultural heritage have a significant impact on students’ choosing student affairs. The study provides insight into closing the gap between the number of underrepresented students attending higher education and the ethnic diversity of the student affairs profession.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Oseguera, Tonantzin
(author)
Core Title
Coloring the pipeline: an analysis of the NASPA Undergraduate Fellows program as a path for underrepresented students into student affairs
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
08/04/2013
Defense Date
05/02/2013
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
NASPA,NUFP,OAI-PMH Harvest,student affairs,underrepresented students
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Tobey, Patricia Elaine (
committee chair
), Jackson, Michael L. (
committee member
), Telles-Irvin, Patricia (
committee member
)
Creator Email
oseguera.tonantzin@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-313528
Unique identifier
UC11294997
Identifier
etd-OsegueraTo-1940.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-313528 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-OsegueraTo-1940-0.pdf
Dmrecord
313528
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Oseguera, Tonantzin
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
NASPA
NUFP
student affairs
underrepresented students