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Effective leadership practices of catholic high school principals that support academic success

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Effective leadership practices of catholic high school principals that support academic success

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Content Running head: LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 1

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
THAT SUPPORT STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

by

Denise Valadez

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Denise Valadez

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 2

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine what effective leadership practices are employed by
Catholic high school principals to cultivate a culture of academic success and foster Catholic
identity. This study addressed and identified the following: 1) the effective leadership skills
Catholic high school principals need to embody to be successful leaders, 2) the most prevalent
leadership style among Catholic high school principals, 3) how a Catholic high school principal
creates a culture of academic success, and 4) how a Catholic high school principal creates and
maintains the school’s Catholic identity. A mixed-methods approach was utilized in this study.
A survey instrument which included both quantitative and qualitative questions was sent to 50
Catholic high school principals. Thirty five principals responded to the survey and of those 35,
four were selected to be interviewed. Each interview was one hour in length. This research
study resulted in several findings. First, servant leadership was the most prevalent leadership
style among Catholic high school principals. Second, principals create a culture of academic
success by celebrating students’ achievements as well as by challenging students to engage in
rigorous college preparatory curriculum. Third, the best way to maintain and cultivate the
Catholic identity of the school is to model the way. This study provides Catholic high school
principals with an idea of how they too can cultivate and foster cultures of academic excellence
and Catholic identity.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3

Dedication
I would like to dedicate this dissertation, first and foremost, to the two most significant
people in my life: my mom and my sister. My mom is the reason why I have made this arduous
journey toward becoming Dr. Denise Valadez. She has instilled in me the importance of
education and has made countless sacrifices over the years to help support me in my educational
endeavors. She has served as the ultimate role model; she is the reason I am who I am today.
My sister plays an important role in my life and I dedicate this dissertation to her as well. I strive
to be someone she can look up to and emulate; she is 12 years my junior and my hope and dream
for her is to have all the opportunities I have had and more. These two women have significantly
impacted my life and have provided me with the inspiration, motivation, guidance, and
counseling I have needed to successfully complete my doctorate degree. They have been my
rocks and I will be forever indebted to them.
Although he is not with us any longer, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my
grandfather. He had a huge impact on my life; he gave his undying, unconditional love, and
support to me while he was on this earth. It saddens me that he is not here to witness this
monumental event. I will be truly grateful to him for the sacrifices he made during his life to
make mine better.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 4

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita, for encouraging me to
pursue my interest in Catholic school leadership. He motivated and inspired me to complete this
study, which was difficult given I was a first year principal throughout much of the writing
process. I thank him for sharing his vast knowledge of the education system with me as well as
for offering me advice when needed. He held me accountable for my work and accepted no
excuses, which is exactly what I needed in a chair.
I must also acknowledge my second and third chairs, Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Richard
Gray. Dr. Garcia was the first chair for many students, so I appreciate the fact that he carved out
time from his schedule to help guide me through this process. I was fortunate enough to take a
couple of classes with Dr. Garcia and I will carry with me always his words of wisdom about the
world of educational leadership. Dr. Richard Gray, president of a Catholic high school, provided
me with much insight into the world of Catholic secondary schools. He shared with me his vast
knowledge and provided me with many words of encouragement along the way.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge those in my cohort who provided me with support
throughout the program. Becky Bishai, Chad Bowman, and Marsh Allen Smith gave me the
emotional strength to persevere. We shared many laughs and tears and I will be forever grateful
for their friendship.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5

Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................2
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................4
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................9

Chapter One ...................................................................................................................................10
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................13
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................14
Research Questions ............................................................................................................14
Importance of the Study .....................................................................................................14
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study .......................................................................15
Definition of Terms ...........................................................................................................15
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................16

Chapter Two: Literature Review................................................................................................17
Introduction ........................................................................................................................17
Definitions, Components, and Traits of Leadership ..........................................................17
Change Agent.........................................................................................................19
Culture....................................................................................................................19
Flexibility ...............................................................................................................20
Focus ......................................................................................................................20
Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment ..............................................................20
Optimizer ...............................................................................................................21
Situational Awareness ............................................................................................21
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 6

Moral Purpose ........................................................................................................22
Understanding Change ...........................................................................................22
Building Relationships ...........................................................................................22
Creating and Sharing Knowledge ..........................................................................23
Making Coherence .................................................................................................23
Catholic High School Leadership and Its Effects on Education ........................................24
Substitutional Authority .........................................................................................25
Pedagogical Authority ...........................................................................................26
Practical Authority .................................................................................................26
Essential Authority.................................................................................................26
Humble Authority ..................................................................................................27
Servant Leadership.............................................................................................................28
Summary ............................................................................................................................34

Chapter Three: Methodology .......................................................................................................35
Introduction ........................................................................................................................35
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ...................................................................35
Design of the Study ............................................................................................................36
Sample and Population ......................................................................................................37
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................39
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................40
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................41
Summary ............................................................................................................................42

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 7

Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion .........................................................................................44
Introduction ........................................................................................................................44
Participant Demographics ..................................................................................................45
Quantitative Demographic Data ............................................................................45
Qualitative Demographic Data ..............................................................................48
Table 1: Principal Interview Information ..........................................................................49
Findings to Question 1 .......................................................................................................49
Findings to Question 2 .......................................................................................................54
Findings to Question 3 .......................................................................................................62
Findings to Question 4 .......................................................................................................65
Summary ............................................................................................................................68

Chapter Five: Summary and Recommendations............................................................................70
Introduction ........................................................................................................................70
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................70
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................71
Research Questions ............................................................................................................71
Methodology ......................................................................................................................71
Findings..............................................................................................................................72
Limitations .........................................................................................................................75
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................76
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................76

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 8

References ......................................................................................................................................78

Appendices
Appendix A: Catholic High School Principal Leadership Survey.....................................82

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 9

List of Figures
Figure 1: Principals’ Ethnicities.....................................................................................................46
Figure 2: Number of Years as Principal ........................................................................................47
Figure 3: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Vision ..........................................................51
Figure 4: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Mission ........................................................51
Figure 5: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Change ........................................................53
Figure 6: Survey Results to Servant Leadership Questions ...........................................................56
Figure 7: Survey Results to Transformational Leadership Questions ...........................................58
Figure 8: Survey Results to Authentic Leadership Questions .......................................................60
Figure 9: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Culture of High Expectations......................63
Figure 10: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Catholic Identity........................................65
Figure 11: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Religious Leaders of the School ...............66

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10

Chapter One
Catholic education in the United States has been around for a little more than four
hundred years. According to the National Catholic Education Association (NCEA, 2010), the
Franciscans opened up a school in St. Augustine, Florida in 1606 in order to teach children
Christian doctrine in addition to reading and writing. Although the 1700s ushered in throngs of
Protestant immigrants, a few Catholic schools were established by the Jesuits with the intention
of educating males interested in entering the seminary. By the mid-1800s, droves of Catholic
immigrants were settling in the United States and the First Plenary Council of Baltimore, which
convened in 1852 urged every parish to establish a school; by 1884 that Council demanded every
parish establish a school within two years. By 1900, there were about 3,500 parish elementary
schools in existence; by 1920, that number nearly doubled. Even though a mandate had not been
made regarding secondary schools, 100 high schools were established in 1900 and by 1920, more
than 1,500 high schools existed. Catholic education hit its peak in the mid-1960s with nearly six
million students enrolled in both elementary and high schools as opposed to the mere 1.7 million
students enrolled in the 1920s. Sadly, only about 2.1 million students are currently enrolled in
Catholic schools today. Since 2000, almost 1,800 schools have been forced to close their doors.
Catholic schools offer something unique and distinctive from its public school
counterparts. According to Youniss and McLellan (1999), Catholic schools have seen a steady
increase in the number of lay teachers and administrators over the past few decades; however,
the religiosity of the schools remains steady. A reason why parents decide to send their child to
a Catholic school is so they are exposed to Catholic teachings and values. Parents value the
religious missions of these schools and although these schools have undergone immense change,
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 11

they still pursue their mission by offering monetary assistance to struggling parents, requiring
mandatory community service, and handling student issues using Christian values.
Mission is important to any school; however the mission is what drives a Catholic school.
While each individual school has its own unique mission, the Archdiocese of Los Angeles has a
general mission for all its schools: “Jesus Christ is the foundation for our community, the
Catholic Schools in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles. His call to teach is our inspiration; His
image the model for our students. In partnership with parents, we prepare our students to
become full and active members of the Catholic Church, to serve others, and to make a
difference in the world. We commit our schools to provide a quality education so that a Catholic
Education is an Advantage for Life” (Archdiocese of Los Angeles, 2012, opening page). While
the general mission seems a bit broad, it is designed to give schools a foundation from which to
design their own mission.
According to the Archdiocese of Los Angeles’ website (Archdiocese of Los Angeles,
2012), there are certain characteristics that all Catholic schools in the diocese should strive to
emulate. Many of these characteristics are embedded in each school’s mission statement and
include integrating the teachings of the church, building a community of faith, encouraging
service to others, fostering respect for all, and teaching to lead by example. Catholic schools are
designed to foster a community of faith; this community is built through faith-based learning and
service to others. Although Catholic schools have undergone change, they aim to provide a
strong academic and spiritual education for their students.
Unlike public schools, Catholic schools are not neutral (McDermott, 1997). McDermott
(1997) stated, “. . . they propose many Christian values to the students, above board and out in
the open, in subject areas and in co-curricular activities, in liturgies and other religious
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 12

celebrations” (p. 56). Christian values permeate every aspect of Catholic education; as a result, a
religious community is created within an academic community. Catholic school administrators
are faced with the challenge of maintaining that delicate balance of faith and academia.
According to McDermott, Catholic school administrators have four distinct roles: manager,
creator of school environment, academic leader, and religious leader. As any good manager
must do, a Catholic school administrator must be fiscally aware and make sound fiduciary
decisions. Because the survival of Catholic schools depends solely on enrollment, administrators
must carefully plan the budget and be savvy marketers of their schools. As managers,
administrators must oversee marketing and development projects in an effort to maintain and
increase enrollment in their schools.
In addition to being managers, Catholic school administrators have the task of creating a
school environment conducive to Christian values. This environment should be a community of
spirit in which there is a sense of trust, openness, cooperation, and a willingness to work as a
team for the good of the students being served. Once this environment is created, administrators
face the challenge of being effective academic and religious leaders. As McDermott (1997)
articulated, the first task in this particular area of leadership is to decide on hiring professionals
in the “apostolate of teaching” (p. 49). When hiring teachers, administrators must look for
someone who will be dedicated to spreading the Catholic faith; the ideal candidate will be
Catholic and look at their position as a teacher as a vocation rather than a job. By doing this,
administrators will have demonstrated their ability to be academic and religious leaders.
Although the number of religious working in schools has diminished significantly over the past
few decades, they have been replaced by fully credentialed teachers who are dedicated to the
passing on of the faith. According to the Notre Dame Task Force (2008), which conducted a
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 13

study of Catholic schools in 2008, 95% of faculty and staff in Catholic elementary and secondary
schools consist of lay people. The laity is now faced with the challenge of effectively operating
Catholic schools.
Catholic schools are currently in a delicate position; many are struggling to stay open.
Given the economic hardships families are currently facing, many have decided to pull their
children out of Catholic schools and place them in public schools that do not charge tuition.
Those who decided to keep their children in Catholic schools and committed to continuing their
investment in Catholic education should be guaranteed the best education possible. This is
where effective leadership comes into play. Catholic school parents are paying customers;
therefore, should be treated as such. In order to keep schools open, there must be a paradigm
shift in the way Catholic schools are operated. Strong leadership is essential if Catholic schools
are to survive the next few decades.
Statement of the Problem
Effective leadership is necessary in order to sustain and increase growth in Catholic
education. With so many Catholic schools closing their doors, now is the time to effect change
in how Catholic schools are run. Effective leadership strategies must be determined and
articulated to principals of Catholic high schools so they can best lead their schools during these
tough times. Not much has been studied in the field of Catholic school leadership; however, it is
necessary for a paradigm shift in the way these schools are run. Much research has been
conducted on what constitutes effective school leadership, and many of those concepts can be
applied in the Catholic school setting. There is a need for more research to be conducted on
what constitutes an effective Catholic school principal who is able to positively affect student
achievement.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 14

Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to address what effective leadership practices Catholic high school
principals employ to enhance student achievement. Since not much is known about successful
leadership practices in the Catholic high school setting, this study will provide key practices
inherent to successful Catholic school principals.
Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed in this study:
1. What effective leadership skills do Catholic high school principals need to have to be
successful instructional leaders?
2. What is the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals?
3. How does a Catholic high school principal create a culture of academic success?
4. How does a Catholic high school principal create and maintain the school’s Catholic
identity?
Importance of the Study
There is not a significant body of research on what constitutes effective Catholic high
school principals, which is why this study is so significant. Upon completion of this study,
characteristics of an effective Catholic high school principal were identified. These leadership
qualities will be tied into student achievement and how the mission of the school is being
fulfilled. This study will be a valuable contribution to the limited amount of research on
Catholic high school principals in that the very design of the study is very specific to Catholic
high schools.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 15

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study is very specific to effective leadership practices of Catholic high school
principals, of which there are only 50 within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, the area of focus.
What might make this study stronger in future studies is expanding the geography of the
participant pool to the diocese of Orange, which is adjacent to the Archdiocese of Los Angeles,
or study all 12 dioceses in the state of California, all of which contain numerous Catholic high
schools.
Since not much research has been conducted on leadership practices of Catholic high
school principals, the researcher had to apply general leadership research to the Catholic school
setting. Upon surveying and interviewing principals, the researcher discovered that making
those general applications did not threaten the validity of the study.
Definition of Terms
 Archdiocese: “the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles, formed by the Holy See
in 1840, includes parishes, parish schools, and archdiocesan schools” (Roman Catholic
Archbishop of Los Angeles, 2010a; Chapter V:: Personnel; 1. General Employment
Policies; 1.2 Applicable Terms).
 Catholic: universal; churches are fully Catholic through their communion with the
Church of Rome. The Church is Catholic because Christ is present in her and because
she has been sent out by Christ on a mission to the whole of the human race (Libreria
Editrice Vaticana, 1994).
 Lay person: any faithful person who is not of a Holy Order.
 Pastor: “. . . the chief administrative officer of the parish school . . . the pastor has overall
administrative, personnel, finance, and spiritual responsibilities for the school . . . the
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 16

immediate direction and supervision of the school program is delegated to the principal”.
(Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles, 2010b; Chapter III: School Governance
and Administration; 2. Administrative Structure of Elementary Schools; 2.1 The Pastor).
 Religious: priests or nuns . . . someone who has taken the vow of Holy Orders.
Organization of the Study
This study is particularly relevant to administrators working in the Catholic school
setting, especially those who lead Catholic high schools. As there is a limited amount of
research on Catholic education, specifically Catholic school leadership practices, this study
provided new findings to a limited body of knowledge. The intent is that aspiring Catholic high
school principals can apply the findings to their vocation.
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One has provided an introduction to
the study, the background of the problem, a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study,
research questions, the importance of the study, limitations and delimitations, definition of terms,
and how the study is organized. Chapter Two provides a literature review that contains relevant
research on general leadership styles and those most significant to Catholic education. The
literature review also contains relevant research that supports the effectiveness of Catholic
schools. Chapter Three describes the methodology used to collect data and includes the sample
and population, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four presents a
summary of findings. Chapter Five is the conclusion and contains implications for practice,
future research, and final conclusions.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 17

Chapter Two
Literature Review
Introduction
Catholic schools in the United States are becoming a dying breed. As Chapter One
illustrated, the number of Catholic schools has been consistently dwindling for the past 40 years,
which is why effective leadership of the schools remaining is essential to their survival. While
not much research has been conducted on what effective Catholic school leadership looks like,
countless studies have been completed on what constitutes effective school leadership. In an
effort to provide the foundation needed to fully comprehend such a mammoth topic as
leadership, this chapter will first explore the components of leadership, how leadership is linked
to student achievement, and various leadership traits. A major component of this chapter will
examine the research that has been done on Catholic high school leadership, with a specific
emphasis being placed on servant leadership. The effectiveness of Catholic high schools will be
explored in an effort to substantiate the argument that when Catholic high schools are run
effectively, they offer a superior alternative to public education.
Definitions, Components, and Traits of Leadership
Behind every successful school is an effective leader who typically has a leadership team
that provides the support needed to make and enforce sound decisions. Leaders can be
categorized in many different ways; and the term leadership has a myriad of definitions. Bass
(1990) defined leadership as
. . . an interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves a
structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the
members. Leaders are agents of change–persons whose acts affect other people more
than other people’s acts affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member
modifies the motivation or competencies of others in the group. (p. 19-20)

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 18

Duane Schafer (2005) offered the following definition:
Leadership is management by persuasion and inspiration, rather than direct or implied
coercion. It is the ability to impress the will of the leader on those led in order to solicit
obedience, respect, loyalty, and cooperation. It is a non-coercive relationship between
leader and followers. (p. 231)

To strengthen the definition of leadership, one may look to Northouse (2010), who
argued that there are four key components which are fundamental to the concept of leadership:
process, influence, groups, and common goals.
The first component, process, involves what Northouse (2010) called a transactional
relationship between leaders and followers. In other words, the decision a leader makes affects
his followers, and in turn, the decisions made by his followers affects the leader. The second
component, influence, is how a leader affects his followers. If a leader does not have some
influence over his followers, leadership is nonexistent. Groups are a key component to
leadership in that leaders must be able to influence groups to achieve a common goal, which is
the final component of leadership, according to Northouse. A leader strives to influence his
followers in an effort to accomplish common goals or a common purpose. Having this
commonality helps to create and maintain focus as well as provides a purpose for which leaders
and followers strive to successfully meet.
In addition to the key components Northouse (2010) outlined, Marzano, Waters, and
McNulty (2005) identified 21 responsibilities of a school leader all of which have a positive
effect on student achievement. Marzano et al. conducted a meta-analysis of research on the
correlation of the leadership ability of principals to student achievement. What they found was
with increased principal ability comes increased student achievement; there is a positive
correlation of .25. Such a correlation indicates why principal education and training are so
important; if a principal receives proper and useful training, his or her leadership ability is sure to
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 19

increase which will positively affect student achievement. Marzano et al. provided a
hypothetical scenario involving passing rates for schools depending on leadership abilities that
illustrated very real possible results. They posited that schools led by principals rated in the top
half of all principals have a 62.5% passage rate whereas schools led by principals rated in the
bottom half of all principals have a mere 37.5% passage rate. Albeit hypothetical, this accurate
description of results indicated a 25% difference in the passing rate of students who are in
schools with principals with strong leadership abilities, which supports the argument that
increased leadership abilities leads to increased student achievement.
While conducting this meta-analysis, Marzano et al. (2005) focused on identifying key
leadership behaviors. They came up with 21 specific behaviors related to effective principal
leadership; these particular behaviors are defined as responsibilities, all of which in some way
positively affect student achievement. While all of these responsibilities are significant, in terms
of Catholic education, the most pertinent of the 21 responsibilities include: change agent; culture;
flexibility; focus; knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; optimizer; and
situational awareness.
Change agent. Being a change agent means that a leader is willing and able to challenge
the status quo, which can be very difficult in a Catholic high school where tradition reigns. A
true change agent is not afraid to take risks and knows that outcomes may not always be certain,
however is still willing to implement new, innovative ideas in an effort to improve student
achievement.
Culture. Culture is key in a Catholic high school setting. As such, one of the key
responsibilities of a Catholic school principal is to create a sense of shared vision and mission
while maintaining the Catholic identity of the school. If there is a positive culture that embodies
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 20

a sense of community, a school is likely to experience success. In order to maintain this culture,
the staff must act as a cohesive unit and support one another. The culture of a Catholic high
school can help lead to its demise or its success.
Flexibility. With the steady decline in enrollment, Catholic school leaders must exhibit
flexibility in how they deal with current situations. As Marzano et al. (2005) explained, flexible
leaders encourage people to express ideas that are contrary to the status quo and are comfortable
making the changes necessary to improve current situations. Change is never easy, especially in
the Catholic high school setting, where many principals are forced to make tough decisions about
practices that have been in place for decades. These principals have to remain flexible in their
style to allow for difficult discussions and decisions that have to be made in order to ensure their
school remains open.
Focus. Along with the idea of flexibility, comes focus. While Catholic high school
principals must maintain flexibility, they also must remain focused on establishing clear,
concrete goals and ensuring the staff works toward those common goals. In tandem with this,
principals must ensure that clear expectations and goals are set for students and must find a way
for all students to meet or exceed those expectations and goals. This is especially true for
Catholic high schools which are tuition-based and have a duty to provide the very best academic
and spiritual education to its students.
Curriculum, instruction, and assessment. If goals are to be accomplished, especially
in the area of curriculum and instruction, a principal is responsible for knowledge of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment. A principal must possess the most current knowledge of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment practices in an effort to create and maintain a strong academic
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 21

program. This knowledge must then be passed along to teachers so they can implement best
practices in their classrooms.
Optimizer. In order for much of this to occur, the principal has the responsibility of
being an optimizer. An optimizer inspires others and is able to drive change. Being an optimizer
is part and parcel of creating a positive culture. Principals must encourage teachers to try new
things, especially if they are outside of their comfort zone. If a positive climate exists, teachers
and other staff members will be more than willing to not only attempt new challenges but
embrace them. In a world of uncertainty in Catholic education, principals must maintain a
positive attitude; if not, their schools may very well perish.
Situational awareness. Although all the above responsibilities are relative, Catholic
high school principals must exhibit situational awareness. With the precarious situation many
Catholic high schools find themselves in today, a principal has to know what is happening in
his/her school community and have the ability to formulate a plan of action before that action
even occurs. Having situational awareness entails being able to predict what might occur and
being aware of issues that may not have arisen yet but could possibly create strife.
In addition to establishing a definition of leadership and identifying key leadership
characteristics, it is necessary to determine a framework for a basis of understanding leadership.
Fullan (2004) offered a framework for leading in a culture of change. He argued there are five
components to leadership: moral purpose, understanding change, building relationships, creating
and sharing knowledge, and making coherence. Surrounding these five components are three
personal characteristics that every leader should possess: energy, enthusiasm, and hope. These
five components lead to commitment and results.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 22

Moral purpose. Fullan (2004) described the first component, moral purpose, as how
people not only evolve over time but also how they relate to one another. He argued that in order
to be effective, every leader must have moral purpose and is a key element in the sustainability
of an organization. This sense of moral purpose breathes life into an institution and gives
employees (teachers) a passion and purpose for their work. In order to apply this to the world of
Catholic education, a sub-component can be added to moral purpose, and that is spiritual
purpose. Administrators and educators working in Catholic high schools have a duty to provide
their students with a spiritual foundation in addition to an academic foundation. These
administrators and educators strive to provide their students with a strong Catholic identity,
which is infused with moral purpose. Thus, there is a strong sense of moral and spiritual purpose
evident in Catholic high schools.
Understanding change. The second component, understanding change, is imperative
especially in Catholic high schools. As stated in Chapter One, Catholic high schools have
undergone dramatic change since the middle of the 20th century. Catholic high school leaders
have to be especially cognizant of leading in a culture of change. According to Fullan (2004),
change is rapid and nonlinear and most change occurs due to disturbances in a system’s internal
or external environment. Change cannot be managed or controlled; however, it can be
understood and led. Leaders must understand the change and why the change is taking place in
order to maintain a handle on it and lead it more efficiently.
Building relationships. Building relationships is the third component of leadership.
Fullan (2004) argued that relationships are the second necessity, coming after moral purpose,
which is the first. He claimed that relationships make the difference and that they are the single
factor common to successful change initiatives. Leaders of any organization must build
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 23

relationships with a diverse population, both inside and outside of organizations and they must
pay close attention to how they treat people. Specific to education, Fullan stressed that
professional learning communities must be created in order to facilitate relationships and
collaborations amongst staff members. If these professional learning communities are to be
successful, a common set of expectations must be established and individuals must be held
accountable for their actions. All the relationships fostered by a leader should tie in directly with
results desired.
Creating and sharing knowledge. The fourth component, creating and sharing
knowledge, is a social phenomenon (Fullan, 2004). As Fullan (2004) stated, “people do not
voluntarily share knowledge unless the culture favors exchange” (p. 119). People must feel like
they will be listened to and taken seriously, otherwise they will not share any knowledge or
information. This ties in to relationship building in which people want to feel like they matter
within an organization. If a leader fosters and cultivates this sense of sharing and collaboration,
trust will be created and there will be a greater sense of collegiality, professionalism, and an
increased capability, all of which will lead to continuous improvement.
Making coherence. The final component is making coherence. A leader must
recognize when it is the right time to disturb and when it is the right time to cohere. An effective
way to produce coherence is through a focus on outcomes.
A leader who effectively operates according to these five components and who has the
energy, enthusiasm, and hope needed to initiate change will generate commitment from those
whom they lead and will garner results.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 24

Catholic High School Leadership and Its Effects on Education
Catholic school leaders are called to be servants, and as Schafer (2005) suggested,
“because of its thematic unity with the Christian Gospels and its congruence with the life of
Jesus, servant leadership merits the attention, consideration, and reflection of leaders in every
aspect of Catholic life” (p. 235). Different types of leaders abound in schools; however, a leader
in a Catholic school must possess, to some extent, the attitude of a servant leader. In order to
better understand the need for servant leaders, first the topic of Catholic school leadership must
be explored.
Catholic schools are religious based institutions; therefore, the basis of its leadership rests
on philosophical and theological principles. Philosophically, Catholic school authority is based
upon the ethic of care and the ethic of service; theologically, authority is based on a person’s
intimate relationship with God (Jacobs, 2002).
Catholic high school principals have the difficult task of managing not only a school’s
academic program but spiritual program as well. Because the number of lay principals is
increasing exponentially, it is imperative that they understand the foundation for their authority.
Jacobs (2002) argued that the philosophical foundation of authority rests first on the ethic of
care, then on the ethic of service. The ethic of care is a combination of a paternal and maternal
exercise of authority. These functions of authority are very different in characteristics: paternal
authority is likened to the mind whereas maternal authority is likened to the heart. As it stands,
the paternal function, or mind of authority, is grounded in strength. This strength is grounded
not in the physical sense but in mental strength and the ability to make tough decisions and to
have the resolve necessary to stand firm even in the face of animosity. On the other hand, the
maternal function of authority, or the heart of authority, is grounded in understanding and
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 25

compassion. This maternal function centers on more subjective characteristics of people and
situations; for example, when someone commits a wrong-doing, a leader enacting his/her
maternal function of authority may issue a consequence, however, would understand that humans
do make mistakes and are entitled to forgiveness. While protecting the rights of individuals and
groups, the paternal and maternal function of authority work together to ensure that the common
good is maintained.
Catholic high school authority is based on this ethic of care as well as the ethic of service.
According to Jacobs (2002), the ethic of service, which constitutes a significant component of
the philosophical foundation of authority, includes five different attributes and is designed to
“assist Catholic educational leaders to envision how they might exercise authority in Catholic
schools and foster democratic self-governance without becoming unwittingly ensnared in two
very undemocratic traps, monarchy or anarchy” (p. 17).
Substitutional authority. The first attribute of authority is substitutional, for which the
mature substitutes authority for those who are less mature. In schools, individuals must have
some authority figure to whom they can turn when problems arise or for general guidance.
Students, teachers, and parents need to be led, and principals exercise substitutional authority
when they intervene and make decisions that affect the common good. Another example of this
type of authority is when the principal acts in the capacity of an instructional leader and provides
teachers with the training necessary to effectively deliver lessons. In this sense, the mature
leader is exerting substitutional authority to the less mature individual until that individual is able
to operate independently.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 26

Pedagogical authority. The first attribute correlates very closely with the second, which
is pedagogical. A component of substitutional authority is to provide the less experienced with
the knowledge needed to propel them forward; the same is true with pedagogical authority. The
goal of this attribute of authority is to provide teachers with the tools they need in order for them
to become self-governing all while decentralizing the principal’s authority.
Practical authority. The third attribute is a bit different than the first two. This attribute
of authority, authority as practical, involves three elements: knowledge, experience, and
deliberation. This practical level of authority involves taking ethical action when making
decisions. In order to make ethically sound decisions, principals must take the three elements of
this level of authority into consideration. The first is knowledge. A principal must consider
factual and theoretical knowledge when making decisions. This will create a basis of knowledge
for which a principal can make sound decisions. The second element is experience. A principal
must have the experience to recognize best practices in a school. This experience is gained over
time and, like knowledge, is an added tool needed when decision making and problem solving.
The last element, deliberation, is extremely important to this attribute. When faced with a
decision to make or a problem to solve, a leader will take into consideration various solutions
and deliberate on which solution is best for the school. This can be very difficult; however,
knowledge and experience play a role in making tough choices a bit easier.
Essential authority. The fourth attribute, essential, is one in which authority is careful
not to focus on self-interests but rather on the common good. While there may be many options
or alternatives to pursue, a leader demonstrating essential authority will find a way to keep all
constituents united, working toward a common goal.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 27

Humble authority. Working toward a common goal requires the last attribute of
authority, humility. Leaders must be willing to accept their mistakes and humbly work to correct
them. A leader must possess understanding, correction, and forgiveness in order to practice
humble authority. A part of understanding involves the ability to find out the truth behind
matters; to look at each side impartially in an effort to fully comprehend situations. School
leaders must have an understanding of their staff and vice-versa; when the staff knows the leader
understands and constantly works toward what is best for the school, only then do they place
implicit trust in that person, which in turn gives the leader a great amount of authority.
The second and third elements of humble authority involve correction and forgiveness.
An important aspect of humility is the principal’s ability to evaluate his/her practices and make
appropriate corrections. This process may involve serious discernment and possibly even a
survey administered to the staff. Catholic high school principals must take a serious look at their
practices and be willing to make changes, if necessary, in an effort to ensure they are exercising
their authority in an appropriate manner. Forgiveness goes hand-in-hand with correction in that
principals and staff members do error and both are entitled to correction and forgiveness. Jacobs
(2002) noted that when principals do admit to error and seek forgiveness, staff members are
reminded that the leader is only human and that through forgiveness, one of the core values of
the Catholic Church is upheld. Erring and seeking forgiveness is not necessarily viewed as a
weakness as it might be in any other type of institution; rather, it is part of the humility necessary
to successfully lead Catholic high school educators.
All of these attributes work together to form the ethic of service, a guiding principle of
Catholic school leadership. Together with the ethic of care, Catholic high school leaders are able
to lead with an authority that is non-threatening and empowers individuals and groups to be
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 28

effective in their ministry. While “what” Catholic school leaders decide is important to schools
the “why” is more crucial. Catholic high school leaders must consider the ethic of care and the
ethic of service when making decisions for their school. Real life necessitates tough decisions;
however, the attributes of what constitutes authority should not be compromised.
Catholic school authority is not only grounded in philosophy but theology as well. As
Jacobs (2002) stated, the exercise of authority is based on an intimate relationship with God in
which one sacrifices self-interest for what is right and just. He argued that in order to affect
actual reform, Catholic school leaders must not be
. . . hierarchical superiors who inspect, prescribe, and wield power to get teachers to do
what Catholic educational leaders dictate . . . [but rather] teach about the purpose
animating the Catholic school community and to give witness to this purpose in words
and actions that motivate teachers to make decisions about changing what they do . . . [to]
bring the school’s purpose to fruition where it counts the most–in their classrooms.
(p. 52)

Whether one focuses on the philosophical or theological principle of authority, Catholic
high school principals must work toward achieving an integrated vision of authority, intertwining
the philosophical with the theological in an effort to view their work not as a job but rather as a
ministry of the faith (Jacobs, 2002). While Catholic high school leaders must remain practical in
practice, they must also remember that their purpose is to serve their school community, which
consists of students, parents, and teachers in a way that is conducive to the teachings of the
Catholic Church.
Servant Leadership
The philosophy of many Catholic high school leaders is to first serve then lead. Servant
leadership is a term Greenleaf (1970) coined to convey the message that true leaders are servants
first. He defined the term servant as “fully human . . . functionally superior because he is closer
to the ground–he hears things, sees things, knows things, and his intuitive insight is exceptional
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 29

[and] because of this he is dependable and trusted” (p. 32). Catholic high school leadership is
grounded in philosophy and theology and if these leaders are to remain true to the ethic of care
and service, they are going to have to exercise servant leadership. As described above, one of
the attributes of the ethic of service is humility, and in order to be a true servant leader, one must
be able to put everyone else’s needs before one’s own. A servant leader has the natural desire to
ensure people are taken care of and nurtured in a non-threatening manner; by doing this they
empower those people to do the same.
Servant leaders embody many characteristics. Similar to Greenleaf’s (1970) definition of
servant leadership is Spears’ (2010) definition in that Spears argued servant leadership is
grounded in ethical and caring behavior, involves others in the decision-making process, and
enhances the growth of those being led as well as improves the environment of the workplace.
Spears (2010) contended that there are 10 characteristics that play a critical role in the
effectiveness of servant leaders. The first characteristic is listening, which involves not only
listening intently to what others have to say but also having the ability to listen to what is left
unsaid. What is left unspoken can often be as important as what has been spoken. A servant
leader must also listen to his inner voice and reflect on what that voice is saying.
Two characteristics that can be categorized together are empathy and healing. Servant
leaders must have empathy toward others. They must strive to understand where others are
coming from and be able to appreciate them for their unique gifts and talents. If those gifts and
talents are not recognized, spirits might get broken. The third characteristic, healing, is
necessary if relationships get broken; a servant leader must have the ability to heal not only
relationships with others but also one’s own self.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 30

The fourth and fifth characteristics complement each other. Awareness, the fourth
characteristic, aids in strengthening servant leaders. Spears (2010) defined awareness as
something that helps a leader understand issues that involve power, ethics, and values. He
continued by arguing awareness gives a leader the ability to assess situations from a more
integrated, holistic point of view. Having an awareness of what is going on in a school is
important to a leader when it comes time to make decisions. When that time comes, a leader
usually has an outcome in mind; however, it may involve convincing others to think the same.
In this case, a leader may employ the fifth characteristic, persuasion. Persuasion is used to
convince others to comply rather than forcing them. Spears argued that persuasion over coercion
is one of the fundamental differences between traditional leadership and servant leadership since
one of the tenets of servant leadership is building consensus within groups.
Having an acute awareness of all that is happening within a school is important, as is
conceptualization and foresight, the sixth and seventh characteristics. While a leader must be
aware of what is occurring in his school on a daily basis, he also must think in broader, more
conceptual terms. This is a delicate balance and must be maintained by the leader so that he does
not focus merely on reaching short term goals and objectives; a leader must think about the
vision of the school and be able to have the foresight to know in which direction the school is
headed.
Foresight, the seventh characteristic, is the ability to understand lessons from past
experiences, recognize present realities, and possible consequences of future decisions. Spears
(2010) posited that foresight is rooted in an intuitive mind, which should be trusted at all time.
Greenleaf (1970) argued that foresight is the central ethic of leadership, which requires a high
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 31

level of intuitive insight. He further explained that in order to achieve foresight, a leader must
operate at two levels of consciousness:
. . . one in the real world–concerned, responsible, effective, value oriented. One is
detached, riding above it, seeing today’s events, and seeing oneself deeply involved in
today’s events, in the perspective of a long sweep of history and projected into the
indefinite future. (p. 18)

This split between consciousnesses gives a leader the ability to better foresee the unforeseeable.
The final three characteristics are solely focused on the people a leader aims to serve.
Stewardship, the eighth characteristic, refers to a leader’s commitment to serving the needs of
others before one’s own. A good steward will be open to people’s wants and desires and will use
persuasion rather than control when it comes time to make decisions. This sense of stewardship
is similar to the ninth characteristic, which is the commitment to the growth of people. As
stewards, a servant leader recognizes the importance of helping others grow, both personally and
professionally. Helping in this growth process helps build and sustain relationships, which is
vital to the tenth characteristic, building community. By being committed to the growth of
people, servant leaders are building community. A sense of community is important in any
institution, but especially in a school where collaboration among teachers and communication
are key.
Servant leadership contains key components such as ethics, empathy, and community,
which are all central to the philosophy of Catholic education. Catholic high school leaders try
their best to create a loving climate in which administrators and teachers nurture students to help
them grow into morally and spiritually responsible young men and women. Creating a positive
school climate can prove difficult; however, Black (2010) conducted a study that indicated a
positive correlation between servant leadership and a positive school climate. This mixed-
methods study involved Catholic school teachers and principals in schools in Ontario, Canada.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 32

Two hundred thirty-one randomly selected teachers and 15 randomly selected principals were
administered two survey instruments; one on organizational leadership and the other on
organizational climate. After the surveys were administered, 10% of the sample population was
involved in focus-group interviews. The two research questions focused on the correlation
between perceptions of servant leadership practices and perceptions of school climate and the
types of experiences principals and teachers had that indicated the perception of servant
leadership and the perception of school climate.
Results from the surveys indicated that in schools where the traits valuing and developing
people are high the school climate was more likely to be perceived as being supportive and
collaborative. In other words, when there was evidence of servant leadership in a school, the
climate was perceived to be positive. If a Catholic high school leader wants to influence the
climate of his school, he must implement servant leadership practices. If the theory of servant
leadership is implemented in Catholic high schools, the result will be the creation of a nurturing
environment that will foster the holistic growth of its students.
Given the reality of Catholic schools today, leaders must do everything in their power to
create a positive climate in order to effect change in their schools. Research has shown the
positive effects of Catholic schools on graduation rates and college admittance. A study
conducted by Evans and Schwab (1995) indicated a positive correlation between attending and
graduating from a Catholic high school and entering a four-year college upon graduation.
Evans and Schwab (1995) used data collected from the High School and Beyond (HS&B)
survey, which was administered to sophomores and seniors from over 1,100 secondary schools
(public and Catholic). The survey covered various topics such as individual and family
background, high school experiences, and future plans. In addition to this survey, students were
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 33

administered a cognitive abilities test that tested their verbal and quantitative skills. At each of
these schools, an administrator completed a questionnaire about dropout rates, staffing,
instructional programs, facilities, and services offered.
While this survey covered a range of topics, Evans and Schwab (1995) decided to focus
on high school completion and the decision to begin college. They found that public school
students were seven times more likely to drop out of high school than were Catholic high school
students. Across all the demographic groups, Catholic school students were more likely to begin
college than their public school counterparts. In fact, the probability of a Catholic school student
finishing high school would be 12 percentage points higher than their public school counterpart;
the probability that they would enter college would be 14 percentage points higher than their
public school counterpart.
Marsh (1991) used this same data set to evaluate the effects of Catholic high schools
based on academic choices, academic achievement, and school policies. Marsh found that
Catholic high school students were more likely to select the more academically challenging
courses such as honors courses and those concentrated in math and science. He also found that
they are more likely to spend more time on homework and do better on standardized tests.
Marsh analyzed various outcomes using the HS&B data, all of which showed significant growth
of Catholic high school students over public high school students. The area that had the most
significant difference was course selection. Catholic schools challenge their students to take
rigorous courses in preparation for college. Many Catholic high schools offer a college
preparatory curriculum because the assumption is all students will matriculate to college.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 34

Summary
Catholic high schools today are in a perilous state and the leaders of these schools must
find new and innovative ways to keep the doors open. Strong leaders are needed in these schools
if they are to survive and thrive. As shown, servant leadership leads to a positive school climate
and many Catholic high school leaders exhibit attributes of servant leaders. Catholic high school
leaders typically view their position as a ministry rather than a job; it is a calling which they
passionately carry out.
The problem lies in the fact that there is not a huge body of research specific to Catholic
high school leadership and what constitutes effective leadership in those schools. While general
leadership practices and characteristics may be applied to Catholic high school principals, more
research is needed in this field. There is a need for research to be conducted on what makes a
Catholic high school principal effective and how that translates into student achievement.
Studies have been conducted that prove a positive correlation between Catholic high school
attendance and academic achievement and matriculation to college; however, those studies are
rather outdated. Given the situation, it is imperative to have the most current data on how
successful Catholic high schools are being led. Catholic schools, both elementary and
secondary, are a superior option to public school and parents who are considering other options
for their children must have access to current research about these schools. The research of
effective leadership practices of Catholic high school principals would benefit not only the
parents who need evidence to support their decision to send their children to Catholic schools,
but it would also benefit other Catholic high school principals who could learn and replicate the
research in an effort to improve their own schools.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 35

Chapter Three
Methodology
Introduction
Catholic high school leaders have the unique challenge of creating a strong academic
program without sacrificing the Catholic identity of the school. Given the reality of declining
enrollment, Catholic high school leaders must make every effort to employ effective leadership
practices in order to stay open. As Evans and Schwab (1995) argued, Catholic high schools are a
viable alternative to public schools and have proven effective in graduating a higher percentage
of students who matriculate to college. Marino (2010) suggested parents are increasingly
seeking alternatives to public education and Catholic schools offer a “setting where their children
will be properly educated for a global workplace and, perhaps even more essentially, where this
will happen in a safe and nurturing environment” (p. 14). In order for Catholic high schools to
remain viable, it is imperative that effective leaders are shepherding the school. This chapter
includes the purpose of the study and research questions to be addressed, design of the study, the
sample and population, instrumentation, and methods of data collection and analysis used in the
study.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to identify the effective leadership practices Catholic high
school principals employ to enhance student achievement. Since not much is known about
successful leadership practices in the Catholic high school setting, this study will provide key
practices inherent to successful Catholic high school principals.
The following research questions will be addressed in this study:
1. What effective leadership skills do Catholic high school principals need to have to be
successful instructional leaders?
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 36

2. What is the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals?
3. How does a Catholic high school principal create a culture of academic success?
4. How does a Catholic high school principal create and maintain the school’s Catholic
identity?
Design of the Study
This study was designed using mixed methods. Creswell (2005) articulated the strengths
of using mixed methods. He stated that when employed properly, one reaps the best features of
both types of data collection. Quantitative data provides for generalizability while qualitative
data offers information about the context of the setting. He further illustrated the effectiveness of
using mixed methods by stating that research questions can be better understood because of the
diversity of information gathered when utilizing both quantitative and qualitative data.
For the purposes of gathering a diverse set of data, surveys were administered to and
interviews were conducted with Catholic high school principals within the Los Angeles
Archdiocese. Surveys were issued to 50 principals, all of whom had more than two years of
experience as administrators and a total of four principals were interviewed. A survey that
would produce quantitative results was administered to the 50 principals in an effort to address
the research questions involving the most prevalent leadership styles and the effects of leadership
on student achievement. According to McEwan and McEwan (2003), quantitative research
employs statistical methods in an effort to illustrate relationships between two or more variables
and relies solely on numbers and statistics. Results garnered from quantitative research are
generalizable and can be used to make inferences about relationships.
A qualitative approach was utilized to address the research questions involving the
leadership qualities needed to be effective instructional leaders and those needed to create and
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 37

maintain the Catholic identity of the school. The interviews conducted were standardized open-
ended interviews and were 45 minutes to an hour in length. Standardized open-ended interviews
strengthen a qualitative researcher’s study for several reasons, according to Patton (2002). First
of all, the exact interview instrument is available to those who will use the findings of the study.
Variation among interviewers is minimal should numerous interviewers be used. Interviews are
highly focused to ensure an efficient use of time for all involved. Finally, by utilizing
standardized open-ended interviews, analysis is facilitated by making responses easy to find and
compare. Patton stated that open-ended questions “enable the researcher to understand and
capture the points of view of other people without predetermining those points of view through
prior selection of questionnaire categories” (p. 21). Conducting interviews allows the researcher
to gather more data on the how and the why questions and provides the researcher a rich
opportunity to gather specific details on a certain topic. This study has paired both types of
research in an effort to strengthen findings made.
Sample and Population
This study focused on Catholic high school principals in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
There are 50 high schools located in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, which spans the counties
of Los Angeles, Ventura, and Santa Barbara. These high schools are categorized as either parish,
archdiocesan, or private Catholic schools. Parish high schools are organized and financially
supported by a specific parish; the principal of parish high schools is accountable to the pastor
and the Department of Catholic Schools. Archdiocesan high schools are organized and governed
by the Archdiocese through the Department of Catholic Schools. Private Catholic high schools
are “directly accountable to the religious order . . . or the governing board which owns and
sponsors the school according to its own individual bylaws” (Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 38

Angeles (2010c, 3.1 Administration and Philosophy of Secondary Schools in the Archdiocese).
According to the 2012 Official Catholic Directory of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles (2012), of
the 50 high schools, 5 are parish schools, 21 are archdiocesan schools, and 24 are private
schools. Of the 50 high schools, 23 are co-educational and 27 are single-sex schools (18 all-girls
and 9 all-boys schools). This information has been disaggregated in an effort to provide a more
detailed account of the types of schools located within the Archdiocese. Regardless of the type
of school, each Catholic high school has an academic and religious curriculum guided by state
and Archdiocesan standards and each has its own unique set of expected school-wide learning
results (ESLR).
Purposeful sampling was used for both the quantitative and qualitative portions of this
study. Patton (2002) argued that researchers should use purposeful sampling to gather data from
information-rich sources in an effort to shed light on the research questions being answered. To
further determine the sample for this study, criterion sampling was utilized in an effort to narrow
the focus of the sample. Criterion sampling is a method in which participants are chosen based
on predetermined criterion. Because this study is very specific to Catholic high school principals
who have employed effective leadership strategies, one criterion for participation was more than
one year of administrative experience in a Catholic high school setting. All principals in the
Archdiocese of Los Angeles met this criterion except for one. Thus, 49 principals were
administered a survey; 23 are principals at co-educational high schools and 26 are principals at
single-sex high schools.
Criterion sampling was also utilized for the qualitative portion of this study; however, the
criteria were a bit different than that used for the quantitative portion of the study. The
predetermined criteria for the qualitative portion of the study included more than one-year
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 39

experience at the same high school site, the school had to have a strong academic program and
Catholic identity, and the school had to have near-to-full enrollment. These interviews were
entirely voluntary and each principal and school was assigned a pseudonym in order to provide
anonymity. A total of four principals were interviewed, and all had varying levels of experience
at all three types of high schools, parish, diocesan, and private. To further disaggregate this data,
one is a principal at an all-boys high school; one is a principal at all-girls high school; and two
are principals at co-educational high schools. Of those four principals, two are principals at
private Catholic high schools and two are principals at Archdiocesan high schools.
Instrumentation
The instrument designed by the researcher and utilized in this study is the Catholic High
School Principal Leadership Survey (Appendix A). This survey consisted of two different
sections. The first section of the survey asked the participant basic demographic information
such as gender, ethnicity, number of years as a principal, and the type of school they are a
principal of, parish, diocesan, or private. The second section of the survey consisted of 35
statements which the principals had to rate using a 5-point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree, 2-
disagree, 3-neutral, 4-agree, and 5-strongly agree). The statements included in the survey were
all linked to general leadership traits; a few of the questions on the survey incorporated Catholic
identity and mission. The last two questions of the survey involved mixed methods in that the
first part of the question was rated using the 5-point Likert scale and the second part of the
question was open-ended and asked for an explanation. Since only four principals were
interviewed, the qualitative data gathered from these last two questions helped make general
statements about leadership styles and Catholic identity.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 40

The interview protocol used included six standardized open-ended questions and allowed
for gathering rich data from a group of principals who met the predetermined set of criteria. The
protocol included the following questions:
1. How does your school’s culture support student achievement?
a. How is the school’s academic performance assessed?
2. What leadership skills are needed to create a culture of achievement at your school?
3. How have you fostered leadership at your school?
4. Define your own leadership style.
a. Do you feel it is effective? Why? Why not?
5. What instructional practices are in use at your school that addresses student achievement?
a. Professional development?
b. How is effectiveness of instructional practice measured?
6. How do you cultivate your school’s Catholic identity?
Both the survey and the interview protocol were pilot tested on a couple of elementary
school principals chosen by the researcher who volunteered to help with the study in any
capacity. Three principals were administered the survey and two of them were interviewed.
Upon completion of the survey and the interviews, participants were asked for feedback on
wording of questions and amount of time needed to complete the instruments. The feedback
given was useful and immediately taken into consideration. Doing this allowed the researcher to
strengthen the fact and content validity of the study.
Data Collection
Quantitative data was collected using the Catholic High School Principal Survey
administered via Survey Monkey. An email was sent to the 50 principals who were selected to
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 41

take the survey requesting their participation in the study. The body of the email contained an
explanation of the study along with the link to the survey. Principals who did not respond within
two weeks were sent a reminder email. A week later, principals who had still not responded
were called by the researcher.
Qualitative data was collected using the interview protocol through in-person interviews.
Since the principals who were interviewed were all located within the Archdiocese of Los
Angeles, the researcher was able to meet with all of them in person at his or her school site.
Interviewees were advised that the interview would not last more than 45 minutes, and on
average, the interviews ranged between 45-60 minutes. All interviews were voice recorded and
all principals were ensured anonymity.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data gathered from the surveys were exported into the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 15.0). SPSS allowed the researcher to analyze the data
collected via Survey Monkey. Data was entered into SPSS and variables were defined in order
to more easily establish relationships between certain leadership behaviors and outcomes. SPSS
allowed the researcher to identify frequencies, means, and other descriptive statistics in an effort
to link certain outputs to the research questions (Salkind, 2011).
Qualitative data gathered from interviews were transcribed and coded. The coded data
allowed for easier analysis. Since the interviews focused primarily on the most effective
leadership strategies and creating and maintaining a challenging academic program as well as a
strong Catholic identity, many of the principals’ responses were similar, which made the
transcriptions easier to code. Many anecdotes were told that have enriched the study.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 42

According to Patton (2002), a study that only uses one method is more vulnerable to
errors and flaws. In order to strengthen and add credibility to arguments made in the study,
Patton suggested triangulating data. There are four kinds of triangulation: methods triangulation,
triangulation of sources, analyst triangulation, and theory triangulation. This study incorporated
methods triangulation, which involves comparing data gathered from qualitative and quantitative
methods. In addition to methods triangulation, triangulation of data sources was employed.
Interviews were checked against the data collected through surveys. The third type of
triangulation used was theory triangulation in which the data collected was analyzed based on
varying leadership theories researched within the past few decades.
While triangulation provides for a stronger, more credible study, Patton (2002) also
articulated the limitations of interview data. This data may be affected due to personal bias,
anxiety, emotional state of interviewee, self-serving interests, politics, and a lack of interest. The
researcher took these factors into consideration when interviewing principals but feels confident
that the principals who were interviewed were sincere and supportive of the purpose of the study.
The researcher followed all guidelines established by the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board. Participation was strictly voluntary and privacy was
guaranteed through the use of pseudonyms. All data gathered has been securely stored and will
be kept in locked files which only the researcher will have access to for at least the next three
years.
Summary
This mixed-methods study aimed to answer several research questions. As has been
illustrated in this chapter, a very specific sample population has been identified and surveyed
and/or interviewed. In addition, this chapter outlined how data was collected and analyzed.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 43

Chapter Four will contain a summary of findings. Chapter Five will offer a conclusion as well as
outline implications and what future research is needed in the area of Catholic high school
education.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 44

Chapter Four
Findings and Discussion
Introduction
This chapter is designed to present and discuss findings obtained from a mixed-methods
study on effective leadership practices of Catholic high school principals. The purpose of this
study, which was necessary due to the lack of available research on this topic, was to identify
effective leadership practices employed by Catholic high school principals.
Quantitative data was collected via an online survey which asked questions about
leadership practices. Principals answered questions using a Likert scale, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Qualitative data was collected through open-ended
questions found in the online survey as well as through personal interviews at the schools of four
principals. Surveys were administered to all Catholic high school principals in the Archdiocese
of Los Angeles, of which there are 50. The researcher asked the superintendent of Catholic
Secondary Schools to email the survey to all of the principals in the Archdiocese on her behalf.
Of those 50 principals, 35 completed the survey; this translated into a 70% response rate. This
chapter presents the demographic information of the participants, analysis of survey responses,
and a discussion about the findings as they pertain to effective leadership practices of Catholic
high school principals.
This study aimed to answer the following research questions:
1. What effective leadership skills do Catholic high school principals need to have to be
successful leaders?
2. What is the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals?
3. How does a Catholic high school principal create a culture of academic success?
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 45

4. How does a Catholic high school principal create and maintain the school’s Catholic
identity?
Participant Demographics
Quantitative demographic data. The participants for this study were selected from the
Archdiocese of Los Angeles as that is the largest diocese in not only California, but it is also the
largest diocese in the United States. According to the Archdiocese of Los Angeles’ website
(Archdiocese of Los Angeles, 2012), there weare 4.3 million Roman Catholics within the
diocesan boundaries, consisting of 11.2 million people living in Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los
Angeles counties. The number of students served in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles Catholic
school system totals close to 100,000; making it one of the three largest school systems in
California, in either the public or private sector.
There are 50 high schools located in the Archdiocese and surveys were issued to all 50 of
those principals. Thirty five principals participated in the survey. Of those 35 principals, 57%
were male and 43% were female. Seventy four percent of the principals who participated in the
survey identified themselves as White, 23% Latino, and 3% mixed. The large number of White
principals in the Archdiocese is not reflective of the student demographics within the
Archdiocese. According to a study conducted by Higareda, Martin, Chavez, and Holyk-Casey
(2011), the ethnic background of students enrolled in Catholic schools in the Archdiocese of Los
Angeles is as follows: 47% Latino, 26% EuroAmerican, 11% Asian/Pacific Islander,
7% multiple ethnicities, and 6% African American (p. 11). This equates to about 70% of the
student population coming from ethnic minority backgrounds. On the flip side, Catholic school
enrollment in the United States looks quite different: 69% EuroAmerican, 13% Latino,
8% African American, 6% Asian/Pacific Islander, and 4% multiple ethnicities. This study did
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 46

not find any significant correlation between principal ethnicity and their effectiveness in meeting
the needs of a diverse demographic student population. Further studies would need to be
conducted to determine if principal ethnicity played any kind of role in their level of
effectiveness as leaders in such diverse student communities.

Figure 1: Principals’ Ethnicities

An indicator of principal effectiveness is the number of years that a person has been at
their particular school site. Although principals transfer from school to school for a variety of
reasons, those who stay at a particular site for a number of years might be better able to effect
change and maintain the effective practices they have put in place. Of the principals who
participated in the survey, 31% have been a principal between 1 and 5 years, 29% have been a
principal between 6 and 10 years, 11% have between 11 and 15 years of experience as a
74%
23%
3%
Principals' Ethnicities
White
Hispanic
Mixed
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 47

principal, and 29% have been a principal for more than 15 years. Forty percent of the principals
surveyed have been at their school sites less than five years, 17% have been at their site between
6 and 10 years, 23% between 11 and 20 years and 20% have been at the same school site for 20
or more years. Three of those principals have been at the same school site for 35 or more years.
Longevity and stability has proven effective in the cases of these Catholic school principals as
they were able to implement certain practices and monitor them in an effort to ensure positive
results.

Figure 2: Number of Years as Principal

The types of Catholic high schools located in the Archdiocese of Los Angeles are
classified as either Archdiocesan or private and are either co-educational or single sex. Of the
principals who participated in the survey, 19 were from private Catholic high schools and
31%
29%
11%
29%
Years as Principal
1-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
15 or more years
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 48

16 were from Archdiocesan high schools. Of the 19 private high schools, five were all boys’
schools, six were all girls’ schools, and eight were co-educational. Of the 16 Archdiocesan high
schools, four were all boys, four were all girls, and eight were co-educational.
Qualitative demographic data. Qualitative data was collected through interviews with
four principals at each of their high school sites. Qualitative data was also collected through two
open-ended questions found on the survey. The two open-ended questions participants were
asked to respond to included:
1. Explain how you create a culture of high expectations for all students.
2. Explain how you provide quality professional growth opportunities for teachers.
These two open-ended questions yielded 16 and 18 responses respectively and were used in
addition to the information gleaned from the interviews.
Four high school principals were interviewed and were selectively chosen by the
researcher based on the number of years of experience and type of high school. The researcher
sought principals from single-sex and co-educational high schools. As a result, the researcher
interviewed principals from one all-girls’ school, one all-boys’ school, and two co-educational
schools. All of these principals indicated they were Catholic and they all met the criteria of
having been at the same school site for two or more years.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 49

Table 1

Principal Interview Information

School

Type

Years at Site

Years as
Principal

Number of
Students
Percentage of
Catholic
Students
School B
(Principal B)
All Boys,
Archdiocesan

10 32 906 62
School G
(Principal G)
All Girls,
Private
2 2 275 70
School C1
(Principal C1)
Co-
Educational,
Private

17 24 707 66
School C2
(Principal C2)
Co-
Educational,
Archdiocesan
16 16 562 88

Findings to Question 1
What effective leadership skills do Catholic high school principals need to have to be
successful leaders?
Given the plight of Catholic schools, effective leaders must be visionaries who have a
clear idea on what direction to take the school in order to maintain and increase enrollment.
Since Catholic high schools are tuition-based, principals must offer a product that parents will
want to invest in. In order to achieve this, principals must be innovative and be willing to take
chances and be change agents for the good of their schools.
Principals were asked about vision and mission. According to Hallinger and Heck
(2002), “a clearly formed personal vision shapes our actions, invests our work with meaning, and
reminds us why we are educators [and] when a personal vision is shared by others, it can become
a catalyst for transformation” (p. 10). They articulated the meaning of mission stating “the
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 50

power of a mission lies in the motivational force of engaging in a shared quest to accomplish
something special, not just in having a productivity target” (p. 13).
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate how principals responded to questions regarding vision and
mission. One hundred percent of the participants indicated that they had a vision for the future
of their school. This is significant in that each participant is able to not only envision a future for
their school, given the challenge of declining enrollment, but that they have an idea as to what
direction the school must take in order to provide its students with academic and spiritual
excellence.
Nearly all participants agreed that they embody the mission of the school. While the
results indicated one participant strongly disagreed with the statement, the researcher believes
this is an anomaly. This participant may have misunderstood the statement or hurriedly
responded to the question without thoroughly reading through the responses choices. Regardless
of this anomaly, the responses showed that the vast majority of participants believed that they
embody the mission of the school, which is motivational for faculty and staff members who are
all working toward shared goals (Hallinger & Heck, 2002).

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 51

Figure 3: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Vision

Figure 4: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Mission
0%
0%
0%
37%
63%
I have a vision for the future of the school.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
3%
0%
0%
17%
80%
I embody the mission of the school.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 52

While vision and mission are imperative to effective leadership in Catholic high schools,
being innovative was also extremely important in the success of these schools. Participants were
asked if change was at the core of what they did. Figure 5 indicates how participants responded
to that statement. Only 77% of participants agreed with this statement, while 17% remained
neutral, and 6% disagreed. These responses are inconsistent when juxtaposed with the responses
to vision. In order to carry out a vision, one must engage in change. There are a number of
reasons why participants responded the way they did to this question, but given the plight of
many Catholic high schools today, the researcher surmises the reason why principals are unable
to fully engage in change is due to budgetary constraints. Based on the responses to vision and
mission, participants knew the direction they want their schools to take and they embodied the
mission of the schools; however, many resources are required to effect change. The lack of
resources should not play into the effective leadership practices; vision, mission, and innovation
are all skills effective leaders should embody.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 53

Figure 5: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Change

Of the four principals interviewed by the researcher, two indicated that vision was an
imperative leadership skill. Principal C1, a principal at a co-educational private school with a
school population of 707 who has been at the school for 17 years, referred to the importance of
keeping goals and the mission of the school in the forefront at all times. He talked about how
mission and vision, in addition to data, should drive decisions. In addition, he emphasized the
need to consistently refer back to the mission and vision in an effort to ensure buy-in from staff
members; once the staff embraces the vision and mission, the possibilities are endless.
Principal C2, who is a principal of a co-educational private school with a student
population of 562, has been at his school for 16 years, articulated the number one skill necessary
to be an effective leader was vision. He argued that leadership is shaped over time and that in
order to become an effective leader, one must have vision and the ability to think in a way that
will challenge the status quo in an effort to offer a product that is unique. Like Principal C1,
3%
3%
17%
48%
29%
Change is at the core of what I do.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 54

Principal C2 believed highly in staff buy-in since they are the ones who will essentially carry out
the vision. Principal C2 also stated several times throughout the interview that a principals’
vision must be tailored to the specific needs of the school; visions are not transferable from one
school to another.
After analyzing the survey results as well as interview responses, the researcher
concluded that vision and mission are essential qualities of an effective leader. Principals should
embody these two concepts as they provide a foundation on which to build successful schools.
Findings to Question 2
What is the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals?
Principals had to rate themselves on statements that were centered on different leadership
styles. The different leadership styles included servant leadership, transformational leadership,
and authentic leadership. These three leadership styles appear to be found in most successful
Catholic schools, which is why the researcher chose to design the survey questions based on
these styles. Survey statements that can be categorized as servant leadership are:
 I create a safe environment for students.
 I build relationships with teachers that are collaborative and respectful.
 I help others even if it involves personal sacrifice.
 I stand up for the rights of people in need.
 I assign power to others.
 I delegate tasks as a way to develop people who have leadership potential.
 I listen to what my staff has to say with respect.
 I am compassionate.
 I encourage my workers.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 55

 I believe service is at the core of what I do.
Figure 6 illustrates principal responses to survey questions relating to servant leadership.
They were given five answer choices, which were each assigned a point value. The figure
indicates the average response on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being strongly disagree, 5 being strongly
agree). Responses ranged from a low of 4.31 to a high of 4.89. The lowest ranked statement
was “I encourage my workers” while the highest ranked statement was “I create a safe
environment for students.” The statement that was ranked second highest was “I believe service
is at the core of what I do.” This statement received an average of 4.71, a difference of .18 from
the highest ranked answer. What is surprising about this difference is the fact that this statement
is most related to the topic of servant leadership and its average was quite a bit lower than the
highest ranking statement.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 56

Figure 6: Survey Results to Servant Leadership Questions

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
I create a safe environment for students.
I build relationships with teachers that are
collaborative and respectful.
I help others even if it involves personal
sacrifice.
I stand up for the rights of people in need.
I assign power to others.
I delegate tasks as a way to develop people
who have leadership potential.
I listen to what my staff has to say with
respect.
I am compassionate.
I encourage my workers.
I believe service is at the core of what I do.
Survey Results- Servant Leadership
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 57

Principals were also asked questions that centered on transformational leadership.
Transformational leadership questions included:
 I provide necessary materials and equipment for teachers to affect student achievement.
 I embody the mission of the school.
 I have goals that relate to student achievement.
 I assist teachers in interpreting, monitoring, and evaluating student work.
 I create a school culture that is collaborative.
 I create a school culture that is supportive.
 I maintain open and effective communication with staff members.
 I have a vision for the future of my school.
 Change is at the core of what I do.
 I believe I inspire others into action.
Figure 7 illustrates principal responses to the survey questions on transformational
leadership. This figure represents the average of responses given and range from a low of 3.74
to a high of 4.77. The statement that received the lowest average was “I assist teachers in
interpreting, monitoring, and evaluating work” while the statement that received the highest
average was “I create a school culture that is supportive.” Based on the survey results, not too
many principals felt strongly about change being at the core of what they do, which is very
interesting as Catholic high schools must constantly change and evolve in order to prepare their
students for the rigor of the college experience. Change is at the very core of what it means to be
a transformative leader; therefore, it is interesting to note that 2 of the 35 participants answered
“strongly disagree” and “disagree” respectively to that statement; on the same note, 6 of the 35
principals answered “neutral.”
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 58

Figure 7: Survey Results to Transformational Leadership Questions
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
I provide necessary materials and equipment for
teachers to affect student achievement.
I embody the mission of the school.
I have goals that relate to student achievement.
I assist teachers in interpreting, monitoring and
evaluating student work.
I create a school culture that is collaborative.
I create a school culture that is supporitve.
I maintain open and effective communication with
staff members.
I have a vision for the future of the school.
Change is at the core of what I do.
I believe I inspire others into action.
Survey Results- Transformational Leadership
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 59

In addition to being asked to rate themselves on servant and transformational leadership,
principals were asked to rate themselves on authentic leadership statements. These statements
included the following:
 I have strong moral beliefs.
 I talk about my vision for the school in terms of the potential of my staff.
 I seek to develop the greatest good for the greatest number of people in my school.
 I think enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished.
 I demonstrate beliefs that are consistent with my actions.
 I lead with integrity.
 I believe I impact the students at my school.
 I believe I impact my employees.
Figure 8 shows the average of responses to the survey statements about authentic
leadership. These questions ranged in averages from a low of 4.20 to a high of 4.83. The
statement that received the lowest average was “I talk about my vision for the school in terms of
the potential of my staff.” The statement that received the highest average was “I have strong
moral beliefs,” which is what the researcher would expect coming from Catholic high school
principals.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 60

Figure 8: Survey Results to Authentic Leadership Questions

0 2 4
Survey Results-Authentic Leadership
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 61

Upon analyzing the survey results, the researcher noticed several statements that received
high ratings by principals. These highly rated statements act as indicators of the most prevalent
leadership styles among Catholic high school principals. They rank as follows, from the highest
average (4.89) to the lowest average (4.54):
1. I create a safe environment for students. (4.89 - Servant Leadership)
2. I have strong moral beliefs. (4.83 - Authentic Leadership)
3. I create a school that is supportive. (4.77 - Transformational Leadership)
4. I lead with integrity. (4.74 - Authentic Leadership)
5. I embody the mission of the school. (4.71 - Transformational Leadership)
6. I believe service is at the core of what I do. (4.71 - Servant Leadership)
7. I demonstrate beliefs that are consistent with my actions. (4.71 - Authentic Leadership)
8. I believe I impact the students at my school. (4.69 - Authentic Leadership)
9. I stand up for the rights of people in need. (4.69 - Servant Leadership)
10. I build relationships with teachers that are collaborative and respectful. (4.63 - Servant
Leadership)
11. I have a vision for the future of the school. (4.63 - Transformational Leadership)
12. I create a school culture that is collaborative. (4.63 - Transformational Leadership)
13. I seek to develop the greatest good for the greatest number of people in my school.
(4.57 - Authentic Leadership)
14. I believe I impact my employees. (4.57 - Authentic Leadership)
15. I delegate tasks as a way to develop people who have leadership potential. (4.57 - Servant
Leadership)
16. I have goals that relate to student achievement. (4.54 - Transformational Leadership)
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 62

17. I maintain open and effective communication with staff members. (4.54 -
Transformational Leadership)
18. I help others even if it involves personal sacrifice. (4.54 - Servant Leadership)
Findings to Question 3
How does a Catholic high school principal create a culture of academic success?
Creating a culture of academic success in a school is an effort that requires all
shareholders to be a part of; this task cannot rest solely on the principal. In order to foster
academic success in a school, academic goals, instructional practices, curriculum, and
assessments must be analyzed, but as Fisher, Frey & Pumpian (2012) suggested, schools must
analyze the intangible elements that make up the school culture. They identified five pillars that
were crucial to building a culture of academic success: welcome, do no harm, choice words, it’s
never too late to learn, and best school in the universe. These tie into all shareholders having a
sense of pride in their school and believing that they can achieve anything they put their minds
to. Although the principal is not solely responsible for making this happen, he or she sets the
tone so that a culture of academic success can foster.
Participants were asked to rank themselves on whether or not they create a school culture
of high expectations for all students at their schools. Figure 9 illustrates the responses to the
statement.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 63

Figure 9: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Culture of High Expectations

The second part of that same question asked participants to explain how they create a
culture of high expectations for all students. Only 18 of the 35 participants chose to respond to
the open-ended portion of the question; however, their responses were rich in data and
corresponded with the data that was gathered by the researcher from the principals who were
interviewed.
Of the 18 participants who responded to the open-ended question regarding creating a
culture of high achievement, about half stated they celebrated their students’ academic success;
whether that be for honors achievement, college admittance, or academic growth. Principals
indicated that they challenge not only their students but their teachers as well; students are
encouraged to take the most challenging academic courses while teachers are challenged to use
new and innovative ways to deliver content.
0.0%
0.0%
2.9%
31.4%
65.7%
I create a school culture of high expectations for all students.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 64

Survey responses correlated with interview responses in a couple of different ways.
Principal B, who was principal of an all-boys’ Archdiocesan high school with a student
population of 906 and has been at his site for 10 years, said that one of the main skills needed to
create a culture of high achievement is the belief that it can be done. He stated that if the staff
truly believed that students have the ability to meet and exceed expectations, they will. One of
the ways he created this culture of academic success was through the use of stories. While he
had only been at his site for 10 years, he had been a principal for 32 years. He shared stories
with his staff about students who had faced a variety of serious struggles and how he helped
them overcome those struggles, so much so that those students successfully graduated from high
school and college. He tried to inspire his staff to do the same for their students; and in an effort
to ensure this happened, he empowered them by letting them make decisions that would best
meet their needs and the needs of their students.
Principal G, who was a principal at an all-girls’ private high school with a student
population of 275 had been at her site for a mere two years yet she was well on her way to
creating a culture of high achievement. She stated that the number one way to create a culture of
high achievement was through celebrating the gifts and talents of each and every student. If
students felt like they are valued, they would perform accordingly. She had created a culture
where every young lady at the school had a sense of belonging and importance; the school also
had structures in place to ensure that every student had the tools she needed to succeed
academically.
Upon analyzing the survey responses, including the open-ended comments as well as
interview responses, the researcher concluded that in order to create a culture of high
achievement, principals must celebrate their students’ academic success as well as acknowledge
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 65

academic growth and ensure that every single student felt valued, worthy, and capable of
meeting and exceeding expectations.
Findings to Question 4
How does a Catholic high school principal create and maintain the school’s Catholic
identity?
According to the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (2005), Catholic schools
are important to the future of the church and it is imperative that schools be ready to address the
spiritual, moral, and academic needs of its students. Particpants were asked to rank themselves
on Catholic identity and preparedness to be a religious leader. Figure 10 illustrates how
principals responded to the question “I maintain a strong Catholic identity in my school” and
Figure 11 illustrates responses to the question “I feel adequately prepared to be a religious leader
of the school.”

Figure 10: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Catholic Identity
0%
0%
0%
23%
77%
I maintain a strong Catholic identity in my school.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 66

Figure 11: Survey Responses to Question Regarding Religious Leaders of the School

One hundred percent of the participants responded that they maintained a strong Catholic
identity in the school, while only 89% stated that they felt adequately prepared to be religious
leaders of the school. This indicated to the researcher that even though all principals recognized
the importance of Catholic identity and maintained it to some degree in their schools, that they
might not know how best to do that.
When asked how he cultivated his school’s Catholic identity, Principal B immediately
responded with “by modeling the faith.” Principal B had a student population of 906 males, of
which 62% are Catholic. He stated that modeling the faith is extremely important especially
when working with a large population of teenagers who are faced with so many different issues
today.
0%
0%
11%
32%
57%
I feel adequately prepared to be a religious leader of the school.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 67

Principal C2 felt the same way as Principal B. Principal C2’s school population
consisted of 562 students, 88% of whom are Catholic. Of all the principals interviewed, he had
the highest percentage of Catholic students. He stated that he and his staff must “model the way”
for these young people. He recognized that he was their spiritual leader; therefore, he made sure
the students saw him modeling and practicing the faith. One way he did this was by leading the
school in morning prayers followed by a reflection. Principal C2 exhibited a true sense of pride
in the fact that he created a culture of true Catholic identity; he articulated that the students at his
school love their faith.
Principal C1’s school population was 707 students, only 66% of whom are Catholic. As
mandated by the school’s Board of Trustees, two-thirds of the school’s population has to be
Catholic, which Principal C1 said was getting harder and harder to maintain. This principal
argued that a portion of the school’s Catholic identity comes from the staff modeling the faith;
however, the school’s Catholic identity was due in large part to the students and the programs the
school had in place for them to participate in. Service was a huge component of Principal C1’s
school, so much so that the term “serve” was in the school’s tagline. Principal C1 also stated that
they had a program in place to assess the religious studies program. This audit happened every
three years and was in place to ensure that the religious studies program was current and relevant
to students.
Principal G, whose school’s population consisted of 275 students, 70% of whom are
Catholic, stated that she and her staff modeled the virtues set forth by the founding order of
sisters. She said that the students played a huge role in maintaining the Catholic identity of the
school, which is why she has worked to strengthen the student life program. This program
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 68

offered students opportunities to get involved in service projects, retreats, and other religious-
based activities.
Based on survey responses and data collected from the interviews conducted, the
researcher surmised that principals recognized Catholic identity as a priority and did everything
in their power to maintain a culture of strong Catholic identity.
Summary
In this chapter, an analysis of 35 surveys completed by high school principals in the
Archdiocese of Los Angeles was presented. Four of those principals participated in an interview.
The survey consisted of closed-ended questions based on a Likert scale as well as open-ended
questions. The interviews conducted each ranged from 30 minutes to one hour and took place at
each principal’s school site. The data collected was presented in this chapter in narrative and
table form and suggested several findings.
The data indicated that all principals had a vision for their school as well as embodied the
mission of their school. These are two critical elements to being an effective school leader. The
principals interviewed clearly articulated and supported this point; they indicated that having a
vision was imperative for the success of a school, especially during this period of declining
enrollment.
In addition to this finding, the data clearly indicated that the three most prevalent
leadership styles, servant leadership, authentic leadership, and transformational leadership, are
all equally practiced by principals. When disaggregated and categorized by leadership style, the
highest ranking responses indicated an equal number of servant leadership, authentic leadership,
and transformational leadership. When interview data was analyzed, however, the researcher
found servant leadership to be the most prevalent leadership style among principals.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 69

The data also clearly indicated that principals created a culture of academic success
through celebrating and recognizing students for their academic excellence as well as academic
growth. Survey responses showed that nearly all principals have created a culture of high
expectations.
Finally, the data indicated that all principals valued and maintained Catholic identity in
their schools. Some indicated they were inadequately prepared to do so; however, the principals
who were interviewed all articulated ways in which they successfully created and maintained
their school’s Catholic identity.
Further analysis of the data, a summary of the research, as well as recommendations for
further research is found in Chapter Five.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 70

Chapter Five
Summary and Recommendations
Introduction
Catholic schools have a long history in this country of providing students with an
education infused with Catholic values and traditions. Catholic schools have evolved since their
beginning in the early 1600s; today’s schools look very different than those established by the
Franciscans in St. Augustine, Florida over 400 years ago. Since many Catholic schools face
challenges different than those of their public school counterparts, it is imperative that each
Catholic school has an effective leader as its principal. This chapter provides a summary of the
study, which examined leadership practices in Catholic high schools in the Archdiocese of Los
Angeles and will include the following: statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research
questions, methodology, and findings. Also discussed are limitations to the study and
recommendations for future research.
Statement of the Problem
Catholic schools have faced many challenges since its peak in the mid-1950s, the biggest
being a steady decline in enrollment. Some schools have been forced to close their doors; the
schools that remain open have had to re-evaluate their marketing efforts in an effort to maintain
and increase their enrollment. In addition to declining enrollment, is the increase in the amount
of lay men and women who have replaced religious teachers and administrators. This brings on
a different challenge when it comes to maintaining the Catholic identity of the school. There is
an abundance of research on what constitutes effective leadership in schools, however, not much
has been conducted specific to Catholic schools. Given the times and the challenges faced by
most Catholic schools today, a study that examines leadership practices that effect positive
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 71

change is called for. Effective leadership practices in Catholic schools would be helpful to the
principals of these schools so that they could affect positive change in their schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify what effective leadership practices Catholic
high school principals employ. This study identified what leadership practices were most
utilized at the high school level and which ones were the most effective. Additionally, this study
sought to identify which practices were effective in creating and maintaining the Catholic
identity of the school as well as which practices were most effective in creating and maintaining
a culture of academic success.
Research Questions
The following questions guided this study:
1. What effective leadership skills do Catholic high school principals need to have to be
successful instructional leaders?
2. What is the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals?
3. How does a Catholic high school principal create a culture of academic success?
4. How does a Catholic high school principal create and maintain the school’s Catholic
identity?
Methodology
This study was designed using a mixed-methods approach. The survey link was
distributed via email to all the high school principals within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles.
Thirty five principals participated in the survey. Four principals participated in a qualitative
interview. These principals met the researcher’s criteria of being a principal for at least two
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 72

years and at the same school site for at least two years. All principals were informed that all
information gathered would be kept confidential and remain anonymous.
The survey that was administered consisted of two different sections. The first section
asked participants for demographic information such as gender, ethnicity, number of years as
principal, and the type of school they are principal at. The second section of the survey consisted
of 35 statements which principals had to rate using a Likert scale of 1 “strongly disagree” to 5
“strongly disagree.” In addition to these Likert scale statements, were two open ended questions.
The interview protocol that was used included six standardized questions; follow up questions
were asked of the interviewee as needed for clarification purposes.
Findings
Research question number one asked, “what effective leadership skills do Catholic high
school principals need to have to be successful leaders?” Vision and mission were found to be
extremely imperative to effective leadership of Catholic high schools. One hundred percent of
the participants indicated that they had a vision for the future of their school. This suggests that
principals are determined to improve their schools in an effort to maintain and increase
enrollment. In order to compete with other public and private schools and to provide students
with a college preparatory curriculum, Catholic high school principals must have a vision for
their school. Of those who were interviewed, two principals indicated that vision was absolutely
essential to effective leadership. Principal C1 indicated that he always refers to his vision when
talking to staff, students, and parents. He said that vision, in addition to data, should drive
decision making. Principal C2 stated that vision is crucial to the success of a school and that it is
imperative that a principal’s vision must be tailored to the specific needs of each school; vision is
not transferable from one school to another.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 73

In addition to vision, all participants indicated that they embody the mission of the
school. This is important when trying to motivate staff to work toward the same goals. Principal
C1 stressed the importance of keeping the mission of the school at the forefront at all times. He
indicated that the mission, as well as the vision, must be referred to at all times in an effort to
garner buy in and support from faculty and staff. Once they embody the school’s mission and
embrace the vision, the possibilities are endless as to what can be achieved.
Research question number two asked, “What is the most prevalent leadership style
among Catholic high school principals?” Principals were asked to rate themselves on statements
that were later identified by the research as servant leadership, authentic leadership, or
transformational leadership. The statements were placed in order from highest mean score to
lowest; the statement with the highest mean pertained to servant leadership. The two statements
that received the highest mean scores for servant leadership were: “I create a safe environment
for students” and “service is at the core of what I do.”
Interview responses indicated that principals exhibit servant leadership. In fact, one of
the principals indicated that his school’s tagline has the word “serve” in it. In each interview the
theme of serving others came up, which is interesting given that the interview protocol did not
have a question on it regarding servant leadership. Principals articulated that they view their
position as principal of a Catholic high school as a vocation rather than a job, and a huge part of
that vocation involves serving their community of students, parents, and staff.
Research question number three asked, “How does a Catholic high school principal
create a culture of academic success?” Nearly all participants either strongly agreed or agreed
with the statement, “I create a school culture of high expectations for all students.” This
statement had an open-ended question attached to it that asked participants how they created a
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 74

culture of high expectations for their students. While only 18 of the 35 participants elected to
respond to this question, a couple of themes emerged. One theme was celebrating student
achievements and the other theme was challenging students and teachers to reach beyond their
potential. Principals indicated that celebrating students’ academic successes is vital to creating a
culture of high expectations. Publicly recognizing students for their academic achievements
illustrates to the school community the importance of hard work while helping to motivate those
who may be struggling a bit. There is also a need to recognize those students who have non-
academic gifts, such as musical talents, artistic abilities or athletic skills. Celebrating and
recognizing these students for their achievements help foster a culture of success as well.
In addition to celebrating students’ successes, whether academic or otherwise, students
should be challenged to take rigorous courses which will prepare them for college curriculum.
Principals indicated that students should not be the only ones challenged to try new things;
teachers should be challenged to use new and innovative methods when delivering content to
their students. Principals expressed the idea that if students and teachers are held to high
standards and are given the support and tools they need to meet and exceed those standards, they
will do so.
Research question number four asked, “How does a Catholic high school principal create
and maintain the school’s Catholic identity?” One hundred percent of the principals agreed that
they maintain a strong Catholic identity at their schools. On the other hand, only 89% responded
that they felt adequately prepared to be the religious leader of their school. Given the fact that
the number of religious teachers and administrators has been steadily declining, maintaining
Catholic identity in schools lies in the hands of the principal and his/her lay staff.
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 75

When asked during the interview how they cultivate their school’s Catholic identity,
principals indicated that they model the faith. Every principal who was interviewed discussed
the importance of being models of faith; they expressed the importance of being involved in the
daily spiritual life of their students. If students are exposed to adults who model the faith, the
hope is they will imitate that behavior. In addition to modeling the way, principals instill in their
students the importance of service to others. Serving others creates a sense of responsibility
towards those less fortunate and allows students to share their gifts and talents with those in
need. Principals and staff strive to provide students with many opportunities to practice their
faith. Student life programs provide students with opportunities to attend retreats, lead prayer
services and liturgies, and organize service projects. While these activities are optional, prayer
during the day is not. Daily prayer is incorporated into the schedule and is either student or
teacher led. Prayer, service, and a sense of responsibility toward others are three themes that
recurred throughout the interviews and are indicators of a school’s Catholic identity and are best
evidenced through how students treat one another.
Limitations
Surveys were sent to all Catholic high school principals within the Archdiocese of Los
Angeles regardless of how long they have been a principal. The number of high school
principals in the Archdiocese is relatively small; there are a total of 50 principals who were
surveyed and 35 responded. Of those 50, four were interviewed. The small sample size may
have contributed to skewed results. For example, one person responding in the negative
represents nearly 3% of all participants. The results of this study are reflective of the
Archdiocese of Los Angeles and may or may not be applicable to other dioceses in the country.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 76

Recommendations for Future Research
There is still a need for further research in the area of Catholic school leadership. The
following are suggestions for further research:
1. A larger participant pool might garner generalizable results. The study could be
expanded to include other dioceses in California. There are over 130 Catholic high
schools in California from which to pull participants.
2. An in-depth analysis of how effective leadership in Catholic high schools effect student
achievement is necessary. A study of specific leadership practices and how those affect
students’ grades, test scores, and college admittance would prove useful to other Catholic
high school principals.
3. Further study is necessary on the different effects different leadership styles have on
Catholic high school communities. Certain leadership styles might be employed to target
the specific needs of each school.
4. Another area to consider for further research is in the area of Catholic identity. Since a
significant percentage (11%) of principals indicated they did not feel adequately prepared
to be the religious leader of their schools, further research in the area of how to be a lay
religious leader is needed.
Conclusion
The research on effective Catholic school leadership practices is sparse, which is why this
study was of importance. This study contributes to the field of Catholic high school leadership
in that it examines effective leadership practices and how those impact the school’s Catholic
identity and culture of high expectations. Principals can use the results of this study to identify
and analyze their own leadership style in an effort to institute best practices. In addition, the
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 77

insight provided by principals on how to cultivate and maintain Catholic identity can be used by
principals who are unsure of how to do this. Although principals indicated they did not feel
adequately prepared to be the religious leaders of their schools, they are making tremendous
efforts to ensure that the Catholic identity of their schools is not lost in any way. The data
gathered through the qualitative portion of this paper, especially on Catholic identity, can be
generalized and put into practice immediately by Catholic high school principals. This study is a
small contribution to such a worthy topic; Catholic education is an investment that many parents
are willing to make. In order to preserve the Catholic education system, more research on
effective lay leadership practices must be conducted and significant findings must be published
and made known to current and future principals.

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 78

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LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 82

Appendix A
Catholic High School Principal Leadership Survey

Demographics: Please answer the following questions:
Gender _____________________________________________________________________
Ethnicity ___________________________________________________________________
Total Years as principal: _______________________________________________________
Years at current school site: ____________________________________________________
Type of school: ______________________________________________________________
(Parish, Diocesan, or Private)

General Leadership Traits: Please answer the following questions using the following 5-point
Likert scale:
1) Strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) Neutral 4) Agree 5) strongly agree
Answer
1) I provide necessary materials and equipment for teachers to affect student
achievement. _______
2) I embody the mission of the school. _______
3) I have goals that relate to student achievement. _______
4) I assist teachers in interpreting, monitoring, and evaluating student work. _______
5) I create a school culture that is collaborative. _______
6) I create a school culture that is supportive. _______
7) I maintain open and effective communication with staff members. _______
8) I create a safe environment for students. _______
9) I build relationships with teachers that are collaborative and respectful. _______
10) I have strong moral beliefs. _______
11) I help others even if it involves personal sacrifice. _______
12) I stand up for the rights of people in need. _______
13) I assign power to others. _______
14) I delegate tasks as a way to develop people who have leadership potential. _______
15) I am a humble person. _______
16) I listen to what my staff has to say with respect. _______
17) I am compassionate. _______
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF CATHOLIC HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 83

18) I encourage my workers. _______
19) I believe service is at the core of what I do. _______
20) I believe “an organization can only be as effective as its members.” _______
21) I talk about my vision for the school in terms of the potential of my staff. _______
22) I have a vision for the future of the school. _______
23) I show concern and respect for others. _______
24) I seek to develop the greatest good for the greatest number of people in my school. _______
25) I think enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished. _______
26) Change is at the core of what I do. _______
27) I believe I inspire others into action. _______
28) I demonstrate beliefs that are consistent with my actions. _______
29) I lead with integrity. _______
30) I believe I impact the students at my school. _______
31) I believe I impact my employees. _______
32) I maintain a strong Catholic identity in my school. _______
33) I feel adequately prepared to be a religious leader of the school. _______
34)
35) I create a school culture of high expectations for all students
Explain how you create high expectations for all students.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
36) I provide quality professional growth opportunities for teachers.
Explain
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Would you be interested in taking part in an interview? If so, please enter your phone number
and you will be contacted. _______________________________________________

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine what effective leadership practices are employed by Catholic high school principals to cultivate a culture of academic success and foster Catholic identity. This study addressed and identified the following: 1) the effective leadership skills Catholic high school principals need to embody to be successful leaders, 2) the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals, 3) how a Catholic high school principal creates a culture of academic success, and 4) how a Catholic high school principal creates and maintains the school’s Catholic identity. A mixed methods approach was utilized in this study. A survey instrument which included both quantitative and qualitative questions was sent to 50 Catholic high school principals. 35 principals responded to the survey and of those 35, 4 were selected to be interviewed. Each interview was one hour in length. This research study resulted in several findings. First, servant leadership was the most prevalent leadership style among Catholic high school principals. Second, principals create a culture of academic success by celebrating students’ achievements as well as by challenging students to engage in rigorous college preparatory curriculum. Third, the best way to maintain and cultivate the Catholic identity of the school is to model the way. This study provides Catholic high school principals with an idea of how they too can cultivate and foster cultures of academic excellence and Catholic identity.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Valadez, Denise (author)

Core Title Effective leadership practices of catholic high school principals that support academic success

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/09/2013

Defense Date 03/11/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Catholic high schools,leadership practices,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Gray, Richard (committee member)

Creator Email dvaladez8@aol.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-233285

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