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The transformative effect of the Intel Corporation on Costa Rica’s schools: a case study of how educational leaders in Costa Rica’s schools are preparing students to meet the demands of multinati...

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE TRANSFORMATIVE EFFECT OF THE INTEL CORPORATION ON COSTA
RICA’S SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF HOW EDUCATIONAL LEADERS
IN COSTA RICA’S SCHOOLS ARE PREPARING STUDENTS TO MEET
THE DEMANDS OF MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS FOR
INCREASED HUMAN CAPITAL IN THE 21ST-CENTURY
KNOWLEDGE AGE GLOBAL ECONOMY
by
Sebastian Puccio
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2014
Copyright 2014 Sebastian Puccio
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation first and foremost to my parents, Angel Puccio and
Marta Puccio, for their unconditional love, support, and incredible strength of spirit.
Because of their efforts in leaving Argentina and overcoming great odds to provide my
brothers and me with a better life and an education, I now have the opportunity to
succeed in this great nation. Very few people, including myself, would be so willing to
give up everything they had to start over in a new country, living with the daily anti-
immigrant and anti-bilingualism sentiment of 1990s California. Nonetheless, they kept
moving forward against all these odds and guiding their children toward achieving
success. These acts of love and resiliency are the greatest lessons I take away from them.
Second, I dedicate this dissertation to my brothers, Victor, David, and Fernando.
The love that these three have shown me is the greatest gift I have ever received. I also
dedicate it to my sister-in-law, Ale, and future sisters-in-law (no pressure, little brothers).
The message to my amazing nephews, Matt and Brandon, and the ones to come: Stay the
course, dream big, and then follow that dream, whatever it may be.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my grandparents, Francisco, Rosa, and Nelly,
whose love, advice, and kindness will forever live in my heart.
Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to every English learner who sat in a California
classroom, not understanding what the teacher was saying, all the while knowing in his or
her heart that, in America, the sky is the limit.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I thank Dr. Escalante for his support, guidance, and vision in
helping me to achieve this exciting project. I always wanted to have the opportunity to
study abroad; however, due to financial limitations as a young man, that was not a
possibility. I am thankful for having the opportunity to conduct research in Costa Rica
through this dissertation process and having that international experience. I also thank Dr.
Pedro Garcia, Dr. Britz, and Dr. Cash for taking the time to serve on my dissertation
committee. I thank my two work families: the Long Beach Unified School District and
the Glendale Unified School District. Thanks to each for friendships and support in the
past 3 years! Finally, I thank every teacher, mentor, and instructor; it is through his or her
support in my educational trajectory that I could achieve this level of education.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Background of the Problem 9
Costa Rica 10
Costa Rica’s Education System 12
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 15
Importance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 16
Limitations 16
Delimitations 17
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Dissertation 21

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Purpose of the Chapter 23
Globalization and Education 23
Theoretical Frameworks of Globalization 25
Globalization Frameworks and Education 26
Redefining the Role of the Educational Professional 28
Global Achievement Gap and Citizenship Education 30
The Impact of FDI and MNCs on Education in the Host Country 33
Costa Rica 38
History 38
Education System 39
Table 1: Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms by Sector, 2006 41
Education Policy and Problems to Be Addressed in the 21st Century 44
Framework for 21st-Century Skills in the Knowledge-Based Global Economy 45
Leadership Theoretical Frameworks in the 21st Century 46
21st-Century Skills 50
21st-Century Skills in Costa Rica 52
Summary of the Literature 53

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 55
Research Design 57
Population and Sample 58
Population 59
Sample 60
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers 61
Executives of Multinational Corporations 62
School Administrators 64
Instrumentation 66
Pilot Testing 67
Interview Protocol for Political Leaders, Education Policymakers,
and Executives of MNCs 68
Observation Protocol 68
Survey Protocol 68
Document Analysis Protocol 69
Data Collection 69
Data Analysis 70
Validity and Reliability 72
Limitations 74
Delimitations 74
Ethical Considerations 74

Chapter 4: Analysis of Data 76
Purpose of Chapter 4 76
Research Questions 77
Participants 78
Discussion 79
Discussion for Research Question 1 79
Discussion for Research Question 2 88
Discussion for Research Question 3 95
Chapter Summary 103

Chapter 5: Findings, Conclusions, and Implications 104
Summary of the Study 104
Review of the Findings 107
Research Question 1 107
Research Question 2 109
Research Question 3 112
Conclusions 113
Research Question 1 113
Research Question 2 116
Research Question 3 117
Implications 120
Future Research 123
Summary 123

References 126
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Education 132
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Appendix B: Recruitment/Consent Letter 134
Appendix C: Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol 135
Appendix D: MNC Interview Protocol 138
Appendix E: School Leader Interview Protocol 141
Appendix F: Classroom Observation Tool 144
Appendix G: Survey Protocol for Teachers 148
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high school 14
Figure 2: Map of Costa Rica 40
Figure 3: Teacher responses to survey question of whether Intel had positively
affected their school site through the Intel Educate partnership 81
Figure 4: Teacher responses to survey question of whether Intel had improved
resources at the school site through the Intel Educate partnership 81
Figure 5: Teacher responses to survey statement that educational decisions
are influenced by multinational corporations 89
Figure 6: Teacher responses to survey statement that students are college
and/or career ready with 21st-century skills 95
Figure 7: Teacher responses to survey statement that school site leaders
communicate the goals and visions of the school to teachers and
students 97
Figure 8: Teacher responses to survey statement that school site leaders are
active participants in the implementation of 21st-century skills 98
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the effects of
globalization and the involvement of multinational corporations (MNCs) on leadership
and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica for
increased human capital. This study determined how globalization and MNCs have
affected policy decisions. MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco began to invest in
education in Costa Rica in 1994 in order to increase the number of knowledge-based
workers in Costa Rica. This new economic demand for Costa Rica has led to policy
changes for the education system, including a change in the Costa Rican Constitution to
provide at least 6% of the nation’s gross domestic product to education.
The Ministry of Education has detailed this educational vision by developing a
focus on a new set of aims and objectives to produce students equipped with 21st-century
skills, capable of competing in the diverse, knowledge-based global economy.
The research team of 12 doctoral students, led by Dr. Michael F. Escalante,
studied the impact of globalization and MNCs on the school system in Costa Rica and its
implications for educational leaders. The data collection process for this qualitative case
study include use of various instruments such as a survey, interviews, observations, and
document analysis. The use of multiple sources helped to triangulate data and increase
the validity of the findings.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Chapter 1
Introduction
The role of the education professional is evolving to meet the needs of the
growing knowledge-based economy. Bottery (2006) argued for a global level of
professional understanding of education policy issues. Furthermore, there is a need for a
world-class education system with a global perspective to serve as the framework for
educational institutions in all nations (Bottery, 2006; Wagner, 2008). Schools, and thus
educators, can no longer afford simply to compare their efforts to those of others at the
national level. A more global perspective is needed for schools to produce students
equipped with 21st-century skills, capable of competing in the diverse, knowledge-based
global economy. Today, educational leaders in Costa Rica are working to develop 21st-
century skills in their students to prepare them for the knowledge-based economy.
Background of the Problem
Globalization is a term devised by economist Theodore Levitt (Spring, 2008) in
the 1980s to describe the changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and
investments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population.
Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which
schooling is a part (Spring, 2008). Research in the area of how globalization is affecting
education has focused on trying to understand its impact on policy and curriculum
changes (Apple, 2005; Spring, 2008).
Philip Altbach (2004) defined globalization as the economic, political, and
societal forces pushing 21st-century education toward greater international involvement.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Contrary to globalization, which is a more fixed unalterable worldwide phenomenon,
internationalization involves many choices and is often confused with globalization.
Internationalization includes policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and
institutions, including individuals, to cope with the demands of a changing global
environment (Altbach, 2004). Internationalization involves a world order in which
international and diplomatic exchanges of excolonial and great powers still linger.
Contrary to that, globalization reflects a phenomenon of competitiveness of the global
markets and greater global collaboration beyond the nation-states (Scott, 2001). Some of
the results of globalization are integration of research, growth in communication firms,
and use of information technology. Furthermore, globalization in the form of
Multinational Corporations (MNCs) has caused spillover effects in the nations where
they invest (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Globalization has triggered the use of English as
the working language for scientific endeavors (Altbach, 2004). Policy makers and
educators must understand how globalization is affecting national education policies and
practices (Dale, 2005) in order to prepare their organization and countries. Many of these
effects are now seen in countries such as Costa Rica.
Costa Rica
In order to understand how globalization has taken place in Costa Rica, it is of
significance to look to historical events that shaped this nation. Perhaps one of the most
significant events that served as a catalyst for this change was the drafting of a new
Constitution. During the 1940s, Jose Figueres seized the presidency as a pretext for a
rebellion and in 1949 the Constitution was rewritten to establish the rules and policies of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
today. The most significant change was abolishment of the military. Written in the
Constitution were also principles and regulations for private and public enterprises,
limited powers of the executive branch, and extended scope of parliament (Kantor, 1958).
Jose Figures Ferrer, the first President under the new Constitution in 1953, pledged to
improve social security and public health (Kantor, 1958). Another significant change was
the Amendment of 1969, which prohibited Presidents from immediate reelection and
legislators from serving consecutive terms (Gudmundson, 1986). These changes have
helped Costa Rica to become a stable, democratic, and highly literate nation, thus
attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) from companies such as Intel (World Bank
Group, 2006).
Intel was a significant catalyst to the rapid changes in Costa Rica’s economy and
education system. In 1996 Intel invested approximately 300 million dollars in Costa Rica
to build a semiconductor and test plant. This investment directly affected the economy,
FDI, and trade growth. Prior to this investment, various firms were investing in Costa
Rica but they were not consistent nor aligned with each other, which built a competitive
platform for foreign investors. Intel has had a significant impact on Costa Rica 9 years
after their initial investment (World Bank Group, 2006). The signaling effect of this
impact was that Intel made investments that resulted in billions of dollars in profit, an
increase in FDI by more than 50 foreign corporations, and policy changes in the
education system to meet the demands of those corporations.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
Costa Rica’s Education System
The school system in Costa Rica differs from that in the United States. This
comparison is an important area to explore because it sets the context for this study. For
example, when defining dropout rates in Costa Rica, it is important to note that
compulsory education laws do not require students to attend school beyond the sixth
grade (Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency; [CINDE], 2010).
The primary and secondary school systems in Costa Rica have four distinct
cycles: Cycle 1 encompasses elementary Grades 1–4, Cycle 2 includes elementary
Grades 5 and 6, Cycle 3 includes Grades 7–9, and Cycle 4 includes Grades 10–12.
Comprehensive examinations are given to students at the sixth- and ninth-grade levels to
assess skills in mathematics, social studies, science, and Spanish. Students who are
enrolled in the 12th grade take a more extensive comprehensive exit examination, which
is also used as a college entrance assessment. There are currently five state universities
and more than 50 private universities offering degrees in liberal arts, technology,
sciences, and professional studies (CINDE, 2010).
Costa Rica boasts the highest quality and one of the most advanced education
systems in Latin America and the 23rd best system in the world (CINDE, 2010). Despite
new challenges and needed improvements, this small Central American country serves as
a model of excellence in education for other developing nations. Costa Rica shows how
MNCs and FDI can improve an education system through high-quality academic
programs and achieve sustained economic growth.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Costa Rica has a population of more than 4.6 million and spends 6.3% of its gross
national product (GDP) on education (CINDE, 2010). Once an economy based solely on
coffee and bananas, Costa Rica now thrives on technology exports and ecotourism.
Companies such as Intel and Microsoft have established operations in Costa Rica and
have invested hundreds of millions of dollars (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007; Monge-González, Rosales-Tijerino, & Arce-Alpizar, 2005; Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). The presence of more than 200 MNCs has emphasized the need for the country’s
education system to prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based global
economy. Although Costa Rica has a 95% literacy rate, school leaders and educators are
faced with the challenge of developing 21st-century skills in students.
Statement of the Problem
Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal crisis of
the 1980s (M. A. Rodriguez, former President, Costa Rica, personal communication,
March 5, 2013). Once a country known primarily exporting crops, Costa Rica’s economy
has evolved to that of producing high-technology products. Due to a highly literate
population and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was
implemented to attract hi-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market. The
resulting growth in technology as a major export, along with more high-tech MNCs such
as IBM and HP relocating to Costa Rica, has given new direction and opportunity to this
small Central American country (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). As more
MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility to help
students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
increasingly more challenging (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007; Paus &
Gallagher, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Despite five national universities, 51 private
universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remains a low secondary graduation rate and
pursuit of higher education in the country (Roman, 2012). As a result, there is a lack of
knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa
Rica (Roman, 2012). Figure 1 shows the gaps in knowledge-ready workers due to high
school desertion rates.

Figure 1. Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high school. Source:
Estado de la Education, by Estado de la Nación, 2011, retrieved from http://
www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this case study was to understand the effect of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in the
development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives are producing
greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human
capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Importance of the Study
Chief executive officers from America’s most successful business firms have
declared that high schools must prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based
global economy (World Bank Group, 2006). They contend that students must develop
critical 21st-century skills and understand globalization and its effects on societies,
cultures, and the world’s economy (Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008). This study seeks to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
identify best practices utilized in schools in Costa Rica to close this global knowledge
gap (Wagner, 2008).
The methodology for this qualitative case study included the development of a
framework or recommendations for educational leaders and practitioners based on the
following frameworks: an approach to effective school leadership (Bolman & Deal,
2008), the framework for 21st-century learning (Wagner, 2008), and a framework for
implementing 21st-century skills in schools. In addition, four theoretical frameworks
were applied to understand the globalization phenomenon: world culture, world systems,
postcolonialist, and culturalist (Spring, 2008).
To develop a framework or recommendation for successful implementation of
21st-century skills by schools, observations of the most successful and advanced
secondary schools in Costa Rica and interviews with political leaders, educational
leaders, and business executives from high-tech MNCs, including Intel, were conducted.
Based on the frameworks listed above for analysis and observations of successful
secondary school in Costa Rica, interviews with national, district, and school level
leaders, the researcher and research team constructed a framework to act as a guide to
support other secondary schools in Costa Rica in the implementation of 21st-century
skills and the national movement toward a knowledge-based global economy.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
This research study was limited. The qualitative case study examined the efforts
of seven high-performing schools in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
This case study is designed to identify best practices of educators as they seek to
prepare students with 21st-century skills to be knowledge-ready workers. The study took
place in Costa Rican public schools that have a partnership with MNCs. The depth of
data collection at Intel and other corporate sponsor schools was contingent on the degree
of access that school officials and Intel and other multinational and government officials
granted the researchers. Thus, the generalizability of the findings is limited to institutions
with similar partnerships. The case study provided in-depth and thick analysis of
information that may be applied in similar institutional contexts.
Delimitations
This study utilized a very small sample of 15 interview participants and 171
teacher survey respondents at seven Intel-partnered schools, and 14 survey respondents at
Don Bosco High School in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica. The scope of
the data sources was delimited to the seven Intel schools in Costa Rica. Interview
participants included five political leaders and education policy makers, five business
executives of MNCs, and seven school administrators. In-person interviews were used to
record the opinions and perspectives and experiences that may be uniquely based on
cultural backgrounds and certain inherent biases. These participants are not meant to
represent the perspectives and experiences of all political leaders, education policy
makers, business executives of MNCs, and school administrators in Costa Rica. Instead,
this small sample across groups is intended to triangulate data and analyze common
themes of the research findings or results (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009). In addition,
the small number of teachers at Intel high school Don Bosco (14) was a delimitation
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
because a very narrow demographic of participants was used to analyze the results of the
survey.
The intended purpose of the study was a delimitation of this case study. The team
and researcher attempted to evaluate the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study did not evaluate the perceptions of students or
parents on the schools’ effectiveness to develop 21st-century skills.
Definition of Terms
Twenty-first-century skills: The essential skills of the knowledge-based global
economy: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and
leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship,
(e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information,
and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Globalization: A phenomenon of increased economic integration among nations,
characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs and products across
borders (Spring, 2008).
High-tech multinational corporation: The term high tech refers to technology that
is at the cutting edge, the most advanced technology available. It is often used in
reference to microelectronics rather than other technologies. Thus, a high-tech
corporation produces the most advanced technology available, for example, Intel and its
microchips for cutting-edge computer processing (Giuliani, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
Human capital: The stock of competencies, knowledge, and social and personality
attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor to produce
economic value. It is an aggregate economic view of the human being acting within
economies, which is an attempt to capture social, biological, cultural, and psychological
complexities as they interact in explicit and/or economic transactions. Many theories
explicitly connect investment in human capital development to education, and the role of
human capital in economic development, productivity growth, and innovation has
frequently been cited as a justification for government subsidies for education and job
skills training (Schultz, 1961).
Knowledge-based global economy: Use of knowledge, technologies, and skills to
produce economic benefits and job creation in the global market. Knowledge resources
such as know-how and expertise are as critical as other economic resources in an
interconnected globalized economy. A key concept of the knowledge-based global
economy is that knowledge and education (often referred to as human capital) can be
treated as a productive asset or as a business product, as educational and innovative
intellectual products and services can be exported for a high-value return (Wagner, 2008).
Foreign direct investment (FDI): A direct investment into production or business
in a country by a company in another country, either by buying a company in the target
country or by expanding operations of an existing business in that country. Broadly, FDI
includes mergers and acquisitions, building new facilities, reinvesting profits earned from
overseas operations, and intracompany loans. In a narrow sense, FDI refers only to
building new facilities (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
Free trade zones (FTZs): Costa Rican FTZs, known in Spanish as zonas francas,
offer member companies a wide range of financial incentives and benefits. FTZs are open
to export manufacturing companies, export trade companies (not producers), export
service companies, organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing firms
with no export requirements (Monge-González et al., 2005).
Ministry of Education: The Costa Rican Ministry of Education (El Ministerio de
Educación Pública de la República de Costa Rica; MEP) is a world leader in providing
quality and accessible education to children in K–12 public education in Costa Rica. Its
mission is to promote development and consolidation of an exceptional education system
that provides access to quality education to the entire population, centered on personal
development and promotion of a Costa Rican society united through opportunity and
social equality. The abolition of Costa Rica’s armed services in 1948 and the reallocation
of military funds to programs in education and health have allowed the MEP to carry out
its mission. Costa Rica’s Constitution includes a provision requiring that 6% of the
country’s GDP go to education, among the highest in the world (CINDE, 2010).
Multinational corporation (MNC): A corporation that is registered in more than
one country or that has operations in more than one country. This large corporation both
produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a social
responsibility and commitment to help improve the host country’s education system
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 presents an introduction
and background of the problem, key concepts, and the importance of the study. Chapter 2
provides a literature review on research on the topics of globalization and education, the
impact of FDI and MNC on education, a history of Costa Rica and challenges facing
education today, and a framework for 21st-century skills in the knowledge-based global
economy. Chapter 3 describes the methodology and research design to be utilized for this
case study, including the study’s limitations and delimitations. Chapter 4 provides a
description and analysis of collected data. Chapter 5 presents conclusions and
recommendations.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
Chapter 2
Review of the Literature
Globalization is a term devised by economist Theodore Levitt in the 1980s to
describe the changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and investments,
which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population (Spring, 2008).
Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which
schooling is a part (Spring, 2008). Research in the area of how globalization is affecting
education has been focused on trying to understand its impact on policy and curriculum
changes (Apple, 2005; Spring, 2008). While globalization has created a great deal of
debate in economics and policy, many applications and implications of the phenomenon
remain unknown, specifically in education (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004).
Several theoretical perspectives for understating globalization have emerged as a result of
research, although they have been highly criticized because they lack consideration of the
role of agency in the globalization process (Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002). Globalization
MNCs and a nation-state’s formal institutions directly affect decision making and policy
in developing nations such as Costa Rica (Torres, 2002).
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
presence of MNCs. Costa Rica was once a country based primarily on an agricultural
economy; however, the growth of technology as a major export has given new direction
and opportunity to this small Central American country (CINDE, 2010; Monge-Gonzalez
& Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007; World Bank Group, 2006). As more MNCs invest in Costa
Rica, the school and university systems that are responsible for developing 21st-century
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
skills (Wagner, 2008) in students have become increasingly more challenging. Despite
having 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate in its
population, there remains a lack of knowledge-ready workers in the country (Baker,
Bernal, Wiedoeft, & Burton, 2012; MEP, 2013).
Purpose of the Chapter
The primary purpose of this study was to understand the effects of globalization
and the involvement of MNCs on leadership and the development of 21st-century skills
in schools and universities in Costa Rica. This study also determined how globalization
and MNCs affect policy decisions. The study also identified how school leadership plays
a role in this process and how the effects of globalization and multinational corporate
involvement can be followed through the four-tiered school and university system in
Costa Rica.
This chapter examines the effects of globalization and MNCs on leadership and
the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. A review
of the literature explores (a) globalization and education, (b) the impact of FDI and
MNCs on education, (c) the history of Costa Rica and the challenges facing education
there today, (d) the framework for 21st-century skills in the knowledge-based global
economy, and (e) leadership frameworks.
Globalization and Education
Philip Altbach (2004) defined globalization as the economic, political, and
societal forces pushing 21st-entury education toward greater international involvement.
Contrary to globalization, which is a more fixed unalterable worldwide phenomenon,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
internationalization involves many choices and is often confused with globalization.
Internationalization includes policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and
institutions, including individuals, to cope with the demands and changing global
environment (Altbach, 2004). Internationalization involves a world order in which
international and diplomatic exchanges of ex-colonial and great powers linger. Contrary
to that, globalization reflects a phenomenon of competitiveness of the global markets and
greater global collaboration beyond the nation-states (Scott, 2001). Some of the results of
globalization are the integration of research, the growth of communications firms, and the
use of information technology. Furthermore, globalization in the form of MNCs has
caused spillover effects in the nation where the MNCs invest (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Globalization has triggered the use of English as the working language for
scientific endeavors (Altbach, 2004). Policy makers and educators must understand how
globalization is affecting national education policies and practices (Dale, 2005) in order
to prepare their organizations and countries. The skills needed for analyzing and
mobilizing to solve problems from multiple perspectives will require people who are
cognitively flexible, culturally sophisticated, and capable of working in groups made up
of diverse individuals, since globalization is causing differences to become increasingly
normative (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004).
Educating for globalization, or educating for a global citizen, then, will require
that institutions prepare children and youth by nurturing higher-order cognitive and
interpersonal skills required for problem finding, problem solving, articulating
arguments, and developing verifiable facts or artifacts to substantiate claims (Suarez-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004). Ultimately, globalization is a social process in which the
constraints of geography on sociocultural factors are blurred and in which individuals
become aware and are sociocognitively prepared for such global changes (Bottery, 2006).
Theoretical Frameworks of Globalization
Four theoretical frameworks have been established to understand the globalization
phenomenon: world culture, world systems, postcolonialist, and culturalist (Spring,
2008). World culture is a theory that explains the existence of a world culture, that is to
say, all cultures merging into a single world culture (Spring, 2008). The remaining three
theoretical frameworks share the idea that nations with superior power, such as the
United States and European nations, have the power to subjugate other nations for profit.
For example, the world systems lens examines the world as divided into two unequal
zones: wealthy nations and nations at their periphery that they dominate (Spring, 2008).
The postcolonialist view of globalization has the wealthy nations impose views and ideals
on less affluent nations, while the culturalist lens views globalization as the borrowing
and lending of cultural ideals within a world context (Apple, 2005; Spring 2008; Torres,
2002).
World culture seeks to explain the ideals of globalization, which is the education
of all members of the world, their right to that education, and the preservation of
democracy (Apple, 2005; Spring, 2008). The world culture perspective holds that the
Western style of education is the best and most efficient form of education because it
preserves a person’s economic and democratic rights. Notwithstanding, world systems
and postcolonialist views hold that the world’s powers are trying to legitimize their
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
imposition through the use of aid agencies such as the United Nations, MNCs, and trade
agreements (Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002).
All of these views can be traced back to European imperialism and their Cristian
allies’ imposition of a Western schooling system (Spring, 2008). Since these views all
pertain and share the belief that different world knowledges exist and some knowledges
are subjugated over others (Spring, 2008), it is interesting to note the influence of the
culture of power on establishing and protecting certain types of knowledge by enacting
policy. For example, when “McDonaldization” or “Disneyization” is packaged and sold
in a capitalist global free market, it is done for profit-making activity (Bottery, 2006).
The dangers arise when education embarks on a path because the purpose of education is
to provide liberating opportunities and experience for growth. It is at this time that the
subjugation of other knowledges take place and the dangers of resistance may be
translated into physical hostility (Bottery, 2006). This is the challenge of balancing the
roles of MNCs, education, and the freedoms granted to the citizens of a nation-state
(Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002).
Globalization Frameworks and Education
MNCs are part of the globalization phenomenon and have an influence on how it
is shaped. A report by the World Bank Group (2006) about the role of governments and
MNCs in Costa Rica illustrates that, although changes in labor and tax-related laws had
to be agreed on by the MNCs and the country where these corporations conduct business,
changes in education were also demanded. For example, the report illustrates that, at the
time it was written, when Intel had been operating for more than 8 years in Costa Rica,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
the corporation demanded master’s-level and doctoral-level engineering workers. As a
result of this demand, La Universidad de Costa Rica implemented doctoral degrees in
engineering, which had not been a part of the curriculum of this nation (World Bank
Group, 2006).
These types of educational and social changes enacted by the leaders of a nation
as a result of globalization are examples of the world systems and postcolonialist lenses
of globalization. Both of these lenses view globalization as a form of imperialism in
which the stronger powers impose on the least-developed nations the ideals and systems
of the stronger nations (Apple, 2005; Spring, 2008). It can be argued that Intel’s needs for
a more educated work force and profit-generating mindset of a corporation, combined
with Costa Rica’s need for viable employment for its citizens, forced the government to
enact corporate-friendly policy. Again, depending on the lens from which globalization is
viewed, these policies may be good for a nation but not for the individual citizens of that
nation (Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002). The impact on individual citizens has yet to be
determined, since research in this area is still new and all research on globalization has
been criticized for a lack of focus on the role and impact of agency in shaping educational
policy (Spring, 2008; Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004; Torres, 2002).
World culture is another lens of globalization that seeks to explain globalization
in its ideal form, which is the education of all members of the world, their right to that
education, and the preservation of democracy. However, this lens falls short in the current
reality of globalization, which is the polarization of markets and human rights (Spring,
2008). How can education that is currently being shaped by globalized corporations and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
other aid agencies maintain a humane respect for differences in the world’s population
(Naidoo, 2003; Spring, 2008)? Gitlin (as cited in Spring, 2008), an American
communication scholar, explained that the basis for human rights is an understanding that
one aspect of the human condition is to live in a distinct milieu. In a globalized world
where education is standardized to a Western schooling system that adapts to market
needs, maintaining respect for human rights becomes the challenge. Opposing forces in
the market place, for example MNCs and the ideology of human rights embedded in the
role of education, are causing conflict between these two forces (Torres, 2002). The
challenge to education has been magnified through the globalization phenomenon. The
role that educators play must change to adapt to these needs in order to prepare the global
citizen for a knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008) but also to protect and preserve human
and democratic rights (Bottery, 2006; Torres, 2002).
Redefining the Role of the Educational Professional
The new knowledge age and knowledge economy are seen as a tipping point
(Gladwell, 2000), comparable to the Age of Discovery, the Renaissance, and the
Industrial Revolution. Learning goals and objectives for the new century are changing
and being reshaped by the globalization phenomenon (Snape, 2012). Since globalization
is affecting the policies of nation-states, particularly those policies that pertain to
education (Bottery, 2006), the nature of the education professional must also change to
adapt to new global trends. Education professionals must have the capacity to prepare
students for the global demands of the 21st-century knowledge economy. As Wagner
(2008) explained, the problem relating to education in the present age affects the future of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
economy, the strength of democracy, and the health of the planet. To prepare for these
challenges, students must be schooled differently from the way in which their parents
were schooled (Wagner, 2008).
Bottery (2006) noted that the traditional role of the educator centered on subject
expertise, public service, and the need for autonomy. Although such roles remain
essential, to prepare students in the knowledge age, he added six roles that he contended
the newly redefined educational professional should fulfill: ecological and political
awareness, supporting public good, embracing sophisticated accountability, building trust
and constituencies, embracing an epistemological provisionality, and a greater degree of
professional self-reflection. The following paragraphs elaborate on each of these roles for
the education professional.
Twenty-first-century-ready educators must have a greater awareness of ecological
and political awareness. This means that they must understand factors beyond their
institutions, which constrain and drive their practice. Without this awareness,
professionals are blind to the changes that affect their societies and their practice. A new
professionalism would manifest when educators understand how the concepts of
professionalism have changed over time and how they continue to evolve to cope with
global demands (Bottery, 2006).
The second responsibility of the redefined professional is to be grounded in
service to the local community, promoting notions of public good (Bottery, 2006).
The concept of accountability has permeated educational institutions throughout
the United States, particularly through legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
However, accountability for the redefined professionals means to be proactive and
reflective. This would mean that educators would recognize that accountability is not
done to them but rather is a product of and contributes to their practice (Bottery, 2006).
The fourth requirement is to build trust and constituencies. This means that to be
successful in the knowledge economy, organizations must generate greater creativity,
teamwork, and problem solving (Bottery, 2006).
The fifth requirement is for a paradigm shift in thought regarding how educator
views their expertise. This means that educators must recognize that they are not the sole
experts in their area of expertise and must be willing to listen to others, to be humble
about personal capacity, and to recognize responsibilities to the stakeholders whom they
serve (Bottery, 2006).
The sixth requirement is a greater degree of professional self-reflection. This type
of reflection must manifest within the context where the educators work. For this to be
achieved, educators must have a degree of professional self-knowledge and self-
reflections not possible by today’s current demands of the profession (Bottery, 2006).
This type of self-knowledge and reflection includes an understanding of the needs of gaps
faced by each organization in which educators work (Bottery, 2006; Clark & Estes,
2010).
Global Achievement Gap and Citizenship Education
One of the greatest paradoxes of globalization is that difference is becoming
increasingly normative. Children growing up today must interact with other children from
diverse sociocultural, religious and linguistic milieu. Managing these differences is the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
challenge of nations with citizenry of multicultural backgrounds (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-
Hilliard, 2004). Teaching students to consider multiple perspectives for problem solving
and understanding multicultural societies should be a priority (Gardner, 1999; Piaget,
1936; Vygotsky, 1978). When students are taught to address common sets of problems
from distinct cultural and social models, they gain cognitive and metacognitive
advantages inherent to working from many angles (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004).
This type of sociocultural advantage will be imperative for all global citizens in the new
knowledge age economy.
Since globalization is increasing cognitive complexity (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-
Hilliard, 2004), the way in which learning and teaching are approached must change. In
the new knowledge economy, where jobs are either automated or outsourced, students
must learn new skills to build successful careers (Wagner, 2008). For much of the 20th
century, public instruction involved teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic, which was
sufficient for building successful careers. Academic rigor simply meant that students
would memorize more of the same content. In the early part of the 19th century patriots
and scholars such as Thomas Jefferson believed that this form of education was key to
citizenship. For the most part, the 20th century demonstrated those beliefs at schools and
in the workplace (Wagner, 2008).
As the 21st century and the new knowledge age take shape, new skills and
knowledge are needed; however, schools are not ready for the required paradigm shift.
Some of the challenges to closing this global achievement gap entail how schools, even
the best ones, are structured. For the most part, schools were not designed to teach all
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
students how to think; this was reserved for the elite college-bound student. Even so, the
process by which students learned to think was haphazard and happened on accident at
best (Wagner, 2008).
The way in which teaching and learning are approached in the 21st century is
much deeper than greater accountability or more professional development. Rather, the
change must be profound, in how the schooling experience is viewed and what graduates
are expected to know and be able to do (Wagner, 2008). The teaching of rules and facts
must give way to cognitive flexibility and agility. Students will need to solve problems
from multiple perspectives. In doing so, they will be required to be culturally
sophisticated and able to work collaboratively in groups consisting of diverse members
(Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004).
Education for globalization must nurture higher-order cognitive and interpersonal
skills so that students will have the capacity to problem find, problem solve, and
articulate arguments supported with verifiable facts, evidence and artifacts to substantiate
their claims (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004; Wagner, 2008). Regardless of the
students’ sociocultural or socioeconomic backgrounds, these skills must be at the core of
every global citizen. If the world culture lens of globalization, which seeks to explain the
ideal of globalization—the education of all members of the world—is valid, educators,
institutions, and policy makers must prepare students to be productive global citizens
(Spring, 2008). In the end, their socioeconomic progress and democratic rights are at
stake (Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
The Impact of FDI and MNCs on Education in the Host Country
Costa Rica’s Free Trade Zones offer very attractive business conditions to MNCs.
Companies such as Intel and Cisco that produce for export can import inputs duty free,
since the supply chain may be lacking in a developing nation (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
MNCs enjoy a 100% exemption from profit taxes for 8 years and a 50% exemption for
another 4 years in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). These lucrative
incentives generated corporate investment; the country hoped to receive a return on that
investment. In the case of Costa Rica, 25% of their exports were due to Intel’s
investments (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Benefits of FDI and MNCs for a host country include both direct and indirect
spillovers (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). FDI and MNCs have the capacity to advance a host
country’s knowledge via two channels, one of them being spillovers, which can translate
to education and skills development. Spillovers refer to knowledge and skills transfer
from the MNC or FDI to the locals in the host country. For example, in the case of many
developing nations, the spillover effect would be the transfer of managerial skills that are
passed on by Western investors (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
However, the impact of spillovers in countries such as Costa Rica have been
minimal, even though FDI in the technology manufacturing sector in that country is by
far greater than in any other Latin American nation. Paus and Gallagher (2008) identified
three possible channels for spillover effects: (a) the supply chain effect, (b) the human
capital effect, and (c) the demonstration effect. Training, which is an example of human
capital effect, can provide workers with new knowledge and skills; labor mobility ensures
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
that knowledge carries over to other companies. The demonstration effect might generate
spillover as well, as domestic producers are exposed to the MNCs’ products, marketing
strategies, and production processes, fostering local production and competition.
However, the supply chain effect has been a spillover that has not developed fully due to
the lack of infrastructure and other financial challenges faced by local business (Paus &
Gallagher, 2008). In addition, many MNCs do not consider the offered products to meet
their standards for production or they may already have their supply chain in place.
Training and education have been success spillovers from MNCs and FDI in
Costa Rica. In 2001, 55% of exporters reported to have a training system in place,
including 16% that were producing for the domestic market only. Nearly 70% of all FDIs
in Costa Rica had some sort of training system in place, the majority in the high tech
sector, which has the greatest possibility for knowledge spillover. Most important, MNCs
provided skills training in areas that was not available in the host country, for example,
software development. A 2004 survey of local suppliers showed that a large percentage
of their employees had worked for an MNC. Although the lack of venture capital has
been a struggle for many Costa Ricans, technical training—a human capital spillover in
the area of technology—has led to fast-paced growth in the field of software development
(Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
In the area of higher education, corporations such as Intel collaborate with the
local government and have realized significant gains and progress. These gains have been
seen in the upgrade of the technical curriculum at universities in Costa Rica. For
example, the engineering schools at the University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
Technological Institute of Costa Rica (TICR), Costa Rica’s most prestigious universities,
have contracts with Intel to develop curriculum for technical careers (Monge-Gonzalez &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). The curriculum is designed to
develop skills in technicians and engineers and to build capacity within the local work
force (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Applying Theodore Leavitt’s definition of globalization
(Spring, 2008), globalization and MNCs have an impact on sociocultural changes in a
nation-state.
In addition to Intel, Cisco (an Internet network devices corporation) has been
involved through the Omar Dengo Foundation in enhancing educational opportunities in
the area of high technology. Cisco developed the Networking Academy, where students
develop skills in information and communication technologies. The networking academy
trains students on how to design, create, and maintain computer networks. Students are
counseled on how to advance their education and use their acquired skills to get work.
They receive certificates in Information Technologies (IT). Since IT is a much-needed
skill in a developing nation’s MNCs, these students find work with ease (Monge-
Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
Intel has had a strong impact on enrollment of students at both UCR and TICR in
the areas of electronics and computer sciences (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado,
2007; World Bank, 2009). Intel reported that in 1998 both UCR and ITCR graduated 60
engineers; however, since Intel’s involvement, that number grew to more than 200 by
2005 (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Since Intel hires more than 10% of
those graduates, the significant impact of these changes and partnerships in education is
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
that the country now has the capacity to attract other high-tech MNCs to the country
(Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Thus, this is an example of positive
human capital spillover effect (Paus & Gallagher, 2008), as well as support for the world
cultures theoretical framework for globalization, which seeks to understand the ideals of
globalization, one of them being the education of all citizens (Apple, 2005; Spring,
2008).
In the elementary and secondary education sectors, progress and spillovers have
occurred from Intel and from MNCs such as Microsoft and Cisco systems. Intel has
invested $2,500,000 dollars in elementary and secondary schools and in universities in
the form of electronics and English language laboratories (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-
Alvarado, 2007; World Bank, 2009). Intel also invests in teacher training and
instructional improvement and preparation, specifically in the science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. More than 9,500 teachers have been trained
through Intel’s Educar program, with support from the Omar Dengo Foundation and the
Ministry of Public Education, on how to become dynamic and interactive teachers in the
classroom (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Further, in 2004 Intel
launched a pilot project to strengthen high school mathematics teaching at seven Costa
Rican high schools. Part of the curricular change involved Intel donating portable
computers to the schools and introducing a learn-by-doing approach (Monge-Gonzalez &
Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). This curricular policy impact by MNCs in a nation-state’s
school system (Apple, 2005; Spring, 2008) shows how the demands for 21st-century
skills (Wagner, 2008) in the new knowledge economy are stemming from the demands
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
and future needs of MNCs. Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between corporations
and schools, and globalization is a factor in policy making and decisions (Apple, 2005;
Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002).
The Microsoft Corporation has operated in Costa Rica since 1995. Microsoft has
been involved in a series of programs aimed at improving education in Costa Rica.
Microsoft reported in 2006 that their programs had reached 10,659 teachers throughout
the country, directly influencing more than a quarter of a million students (Monge-
Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007). Some of the training addresses use of Windows
®

and Microsoft Office
®
software. This is a significant human capital spillover (Paus &
Gallagher, 2008), since computer literacy is a much-needed 21st-century skill (Wagner,
2008). The most significant spillover impact was that of teacher training. One of the
tenets of 21st-century education is creating a global citizen who is ready for the demands
of MNCs (Rotherham & Willingham, 2009; Silva, 2008; Wagner, 2008). In order to
achieve this, these corporations are starting with training teachers to think and teach
differently, to learn to collaborate with one another, and to look for innovative ways to
teach, such as student-centered approaches to learning (Rotherham & Willingham, 2009).
The impact of MNCs on policy and the education system of a nation-state is
profound and far reaching (Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002). The spillover effects, whether in
the form of the supply chain effect, the human capital effect, or the demonstration effect
(Paus & Gallagher, 2008), are shaping how a country views its policy and how it trains its
population to be global citizens. Partnerships between MNCs and a nation-state’s
institutions must be fostered and sustained (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
2007) in order to maintain a lens of globalization and to ensure agency in these new
global citizens (Torres, 2002). Costa Rica, with its vast resources and strong belief in
education, aims to achieve this lens of globalization (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Costa Rica
History
Costa Rica has long been called the Switzerland of Central America, rightly so,
with its exotic landscapes, agrarian society, and isolated peaceful image (Gudmundson,
1986). Costa Rica received its name from Christopher Columbus when he sailed through
the region in 1502 and said it was a “rich coast.” Currently, 25% of the world’s
biodiversity can be found in these 19,000 square miles of land (Parker, 2013). However,
due to resistance from locals and disease, as well as the difficulty of the terrain,
colonization by Spain did not take place until the 1560s, when Juan de Cavallon
established a colony (Parker, 2013).
In the early 1800s Central Americans gained independence from Spain, and Costa
Rica sought to find its place in the region. The Central American provinces were formed,
and late in 1838 Costa Rica became a fully independent nation. The latter part of the
1800s saw a struggle for establishing a system of government, eventually in the form of a
rural egalitarian model. The model initially worked because poverty was evenly
distributed among the citizens (Gudmundson, 1986).
From the 1830s through the 1880s the coffee economy flourished in Costa Rica,
bringing migration and increased exports to the Central American nation. The nation was
transformed in a period of high productivity and use of virgin lands (Booth, 2008;
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
Gudmundson, 1986). Through the middle of the 20th century, infrequent use of fertilizer
and soil exhaustion reduced productivity. Political and tax reforms began to be demanded
by the peasantry for fair taxation of the oligarchy (Gudmundson, 1986). This, as well as
other factors, led to the Revolution of 1948 led by the Partido Liberacion Nacional
(Booth, 2008; Gudmundson, 1986). It was at this time that the president of Costa Rica,
Jose Figueres Ferrer, constitutionally abolished the military after victory in the civil war
(Parker, 2013).
Today, Costa Rica boasts a population of over 4.5 million people, 91% under the
age of 60. Their national or official language is Spanish, although English is commonly
and widely used. Costa Rica’s ethnic groups are as follows: 94% White (including people
identified as mestizo), 3% Black, 1% Amerindian, 1% Chinese, and 1% other ethnic
groups. Roman Catholicism, the national religion, has close ties to the government
(Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] World Factbook, 2000).
Figure 2 shows the country of Costa Rica, with its capital, San Juan. The
Caribbean Sea borders its eastern shore, while the Pacific Ocean borders its western
shore. The country of Panama borders Costa Rica to the south, while Nicaragua borders it
to the north.
Education System
With a 94.9% literacy rate (CIA World Factbook, 2000) and deeply rooted
foundations in education since the country’s formation, Costa Rica places great emphasis
on education. Since the very beginning, education has been a priority, echoed by the first
president, Jose Maria Castro, who was a teacher (Baker et al., 2012). Article 78 of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40

Figure 2. Map of Costa Rica. Source: Costa Rica Before Coffee: Society and Economy on
the Eve of the Export Boom, by L. Gudmundson, 1986, Baton Rouge, LA: LSU Press.
Costa Rican Constitution explains this:
Preschool education and general basic education are compulsory. These levels
and the diversified education level are, in the public system, free and supported by
the Nation. Public expenditure in State education, including higher education,
shall not be less than six percent (6%) per annum of the gross domestic product,
in accordance with the law, without detriment to the provisions of Articles 84 and
85 of this Constitution. The State shall facilitate the pursuit of higher studies by
persons who lack monetary resources. The Ministry of Public Education, through
the organization established by law, shall be in charge of awarding scholarships
and assistance. (Constitution of Costa Rica, §VII, as cited in MEP, 2013, para. 7)
Table 1 provides a clear description of the educational enrollment, work force,
and facilities in Costa Rica as of 2006.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
Table 1

Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms by Sector, 2006

Group
and category
a
Pre-primary Primary Secondary Higher Total

Students 114,202 521,460 338,508 246,208 1,220,378
Public (%) 84.9 92.6 89.0 50.6 82.4
Private (%) 15.1 7.4 `11.0 49.4 17.6

Teachers 7,384 28.571 21,748 10,230 67,933
Public (%) 67.0 84.8 80.6 63.0 78.2
Private (%) 33.0 15.2 19.4 37.0 21.8

Establishments 2,750 4,026 752 N/A 7,528
Public (%) 86.5 92.4 72.7 88.3
Private 13.5 7.6 27.3 11.7

Classrooms 5,102 18,529 9,774 N/A 33,405
Public (%) 76.2 87.1 79.9 83.3
Private (%) 23.8 12.9 20.1 16.7

Note. Source: Estado de le Education, by Estado de la Nación, 2011, retrieved from
http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
a
The category Private includes data for semiprivate schools, teachers, and so forth.
Costa Rica has a national centralized school system. The democratically elected
President appoints a Minister of Education, who in turn creates a cabinet with various
departments that focus on areas such as finance, curriculum, and teacher preparation
(MEP, 2013). The Minister of Education, currently Dr. Leonardo Garnier, regulates and
heads the national school board. There are seven provinces in Costa Rica, each with an
administrator and school board. Each school district has a school board that is appointed
by the community.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
Since the system is a centralized national school system, the Minister of
Education presides over the National Education Council. This body is the decision maker
in matters of teacher preparation and certification, textbook adoption, budget, curriculum,
and other policy decisions (MEP, 2013). Dr. Garnier was recently described in the
national newspaper El Pais as having a progressive mentality regarding the role of
education, which worries the more conservative political groups (Murillo, 2013). Dr.
Garnier was quoted as saying that he wants education to be about thought, not about
obedience or preaching or sermons. Dr. Garnier is a supporter of a growing movement for
separation of church and state in Costa Rica (Murillo, 2013). Many admire Dr. Garnier;
he has held his cabinet position as Minister of Education through two administrations:
that of the more liberal Oscar Arias and that of the more conservative current President,
Laura Chinchilla (Murillo, 2013).
The school system is divided into four cycles. During Cycles 1 and 2 students
enter the primary levels at age 6 (MEP, 2013). Depending on the student’s location of
residence, the number of instructional hours varies. Students living in urban centers
receive more instructional time and the quality of the education also varies (Baker et al.,
2012). In Cycles 3 and 4, the secondary cycles, the quality of instruction is poor due to
lack of adequate funding. Attendance rates are low, at 73% at Cycle three, and graduation
rate from Cycle 4 is just above 50%. Attendance is not mandatory in the last two cycles
(Baker et al., 2012; Roman, 2012).
The country has seen positive changes in the education system in past couple of
years. According to the 2011 State of Education Report, high school and university
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
attendance has increased and dropout rates have decreased. However, the infrastructure
of secondary schools is poor, academic performance in high schools is subpar, and
dropout rates continue to challenge the education system. The report stated that Costa
Rica’s education system “has not yet been able to produce a highly skilled workforce” (as
cited in Roman, 2012, p. 40).
Although the system has in its core values the belief that education is a priority,
the approach that the leadership has taken is not supporting the country’s Constitutional
mandate. Furthermore, these low numbers speak to a global achievement gap (Wagner,
2008). The low graduation rates at the high school are of serious concern for the
socioeconomic development of the country and the demands of MNCs. These low rates
demonstrate a gap in student performance. Clark and Estes (2010) identified three types
of performance gaps: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers. They
explained the causes for performance gaps. The knowledge and skills gap addresses the
issue of whether people know how, when, where, what, who, and why to perform a task.
The motivation gap has not been widely explained to people as having three key
components: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice involves
choosing to engage in a task, persistence deals with wanting to continue in spite of
distractions, and mental effort is the index that explains how much effort is invested in
accomplishing the task.
In the report entitled Estado de la Educaión (Estado de la Nacion, 2011) a report
that monitors performance of the institutional systems of Costa Rica through
measurement and evaluation of social, economic, environmental, and political
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
development, identified several gaps in educational access by Costa Rican citizens. For
example, the report looked for the first time at organizational barriers and challenges,
such as instructional methodologies, transportation and time required to get to a school,
and parent education levels (Estado de la Nacion, 2011). These new gaps must be
addressed to focus on changes in achieving the education of a global citizen.
Costa Rica is a nation with clear educational goals, as described in their
Constitution. However, gaps in the area of performance and achievement are grave
(Estado de la Nacion, 2011; Clark & Estes, 2010). If the leadership of this nation is to
address these challenges and meet the demands of the knowledge economy (Wagner,
2008), identifying and addressing those gaps should be a priority. These gaps in 21st-
century skills should be addressed through policy and reform (Bottery, 2006; Wagner,
2008).
Education Policy and Problems to Be Addressed in the 21st Century
Like most developing economies, Costa Rica faces the challenge of preparing its
citizens for a global economy based on knowledge (Bottery, 2006; Wagner 2008). Intel
Costa Rica has tried to support the nation’s educational development in the area of
technology by creating the Intel Teach Program, which prepares students and teachers to
thrive in the global knowledge economy (World Bank, 2009). The program surveyed
educators at Costa Rica’s schools and found a serious gap in knowledge and capacity to
use and implement technology in the classrooms (Clark & Estes, 2010; World Bank,
2009).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
The Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education recognizes this serious gap in
knowledge and is working with corporations such as Intel, to create partnerships to close
this knowledge gap (Clark & Estes, 2010; World Bank, 2009). The Ministry has begun to
resolve these challenges through deployment of mobile computer laboratories at 60 of its
rural high schools (World Bank, 2009). The focus at the elementary level has been geared
toward curriculum that is focused on programming skills; at the secondary levels the
curriculum focuses on software applications.
Even though there has been progress in the direction of development of a
knowledge-ready work force and citizenry, challenges in the areas of equity, access, and
graduation rates, along with funding, are a concern (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-
Alvarado, 2007; World Bank, 2009). These concerns must be addressed by the national
leadership if the country is to continue to attract MNCs that demand a prepared and
qualified knowledge ready work force. These concerns could be addressed through
Wagner’s (2008) framework for 21st-centruy skills.
Framework for 21st-Century Skills in the
Knowledge-Based Global Economy
To support education’s challenges in the new global knowledge economy, a
coalition was formed to develop a set of skills and a unified vision for learning and
implementing them. These skills are a blend of content knowledge, specific skills,
expertise, and literacies. When schools and school districts engage in these skills,
students are prepared to thrive in the new global knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
Leadership Theoretical Frameworks in the 21st Century
The demands of the new knowledge age and the global knowledge economy
(Gladwell, 2000) require a new approach to leadership. This new age requires a leader
who has the capacity to bring about radical change to educational settings in order to
prepare citizens for this new and exciting time.
James Eicher (2005), in his leadership self-assessment book, provided definitions
of leadership versus management. He explained that, when action is required based on
future needs, a leader is required. By contrast a manager with management skills is
needed to meet current needs. The author stated that effective leaders must be able to
communicate organization direction, develop key relationships, and inspire others, while
a manager must direct operations, develop the organization, and reinforce performance.
When dealing with matters of globalization and education, the need for leaders, not
managers, has never been greater (Eicher, 2005; Wagner, 2008).
Northouse (2003) discussed transformational leadership as a broad set of
generalizations that leaders can use within their organizations. The strength of this model
is that, besides having been widely researched, it aligns with the notions of what society
expects a leader to be: someone who is out front, advocating change for others
(Northouse, 2003). Most leadership models focus on the transactional approach, which is
what the leader will give the followers if they do what the leader says. However,
transformational leadership focuses on the needs, growth, values, and morals of the
followers (Northouse, 2003). Through this bilateral approach leader, follower, and the
organization are transformed forever. Recognizing the need for transformational leaders
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
at a time of paradigm shift in the way people are schooled, work, and think (Monge-
Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007; Spring, 2008; Wagner 2008; World Bank, 2009),
this framework could be utilized to prepare leaders for changes in the knowledge age
(Gladwell, 2000). However, since leadership is not just about a process but also about
people, there are other valuable and effective leadership strategies for transformation
leadership.
Organizational theory as described by Bolman and Deal (2008) presents a
multiframe model of four frames: (a) structural, (b) human resource, (c) political, and
(d) symbolic. All four frames contain features that are utilized in representation and
approaches for attaining goals of success within organizations.
The structural frame in Bolman and Deal (2008) argues for putting people in the
right roles and relationships within an organization. When properly accomplished, the
structural frame can accommodate both collective goals and individual differences. The
frame works under six assumptions: (a) Organizations exist to achieve established goals
and objectives, (b) organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through
specialization and appropriate division of labor, (c) suitable forms of coordination and
control ensure that diverse efforts of individuals and units mesh, (d) organizations work
best when rationality prevails over personal agendas and extraneous pressures,
(e) structures must be designed to fit an organization’s current circumstances, and
(f) problems arise and performance suffers from structural deficiencies that can be
remedied through analysis and restructuring.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
The human resource frame arose from the works of 20th-century pioneers who
maintained that workers have rights beyond a pay check. Enterprise and industry during
the Industrial Revolution and turn of the 20th century stressed that the workers’ duty was
to work hard and follow orders. The human resource frame holds that people’s skills,
attitudes, energy, and commitment are vital resources that can make or break the goals of
an organization. The human resource frame works under the assumptions that
(a) organizations exist to serve human needs rather than the converse; (b) people and
organizations need each other; (c) when the fit between individual and system is poor,
both suffer; and (d) a good fit benefits both; individuals find satisfaction and the
organization gets the talent and energy that they need to succeed (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The political frame views organizations as roiling arenas that host ongoing
contests of individuals and group interests. The frame works under five propositions:
(a) Organizations are coalitions of assorted individuals and interest groups; (b) coalition
members have enduring differences in values, beliefs, information, interests, and
perceptions of reality; (c) most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources;
(d) scarce resources put conflict at the center of day-to-day dynamics; and (e) goals and
decision emerge from bargaining and negotiation among competing stakeholders
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The symbolic frame forms an umbrella for ideas from several disciplines,
including organization theory and sociology. The frame distills ideas from diverse
sources into five suppositions: (a) What is most important is not what happens but what it
means; (b) activity and meaning are loosely coupled, and events and actions have
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
multiple interpretations; (c) facing uncertainty and ambiguity, people create symbols to
resolve confusion, find direction, and anchor hope and faith; (d) events and processes are
often more important for what is expressed than for what is produced; and (e) culture
bonds an organization, unites people, and helps an enterprise to accomplish desired ends.
The framework on leadership illustrates 21 responsibilities of an effective
educational leader and their correlations to student academic achievement: affirmation,
change agent, contingent rewards, communication, culture, discipline, flexibility, focus,
ideals/beliefs, input, intellectual stimulation, involvement in curriculum, instruction, and
assessment, knowledge of curriculum instruction and assessment, monitoring and
evaluating, optimizer, order, outreach, relationships, resources, situational awareness, and
visibility (Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2005).
The affirmation and rewards skill pertains to how the leader celebrates and
rewards the organization’s accomplishments. As a change agent, the leader is actively
willing to alter the status quo. In communication and culture the leader establishes strong
lines with all stakeholders and fosters a sense of community. The leader must show focus,
discipline, and flexibility, which means that the leader must protect the instructional time
from distractions, establish clear goals, and adapt a style to meet the needs of the
organization. Effective educational leaders must have the capacity to share their beliefs
and views and allow for input from their stakeholders. Leaders intellectually stimulate
their faculty and are involved in the knowledge and development of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment. An effective educational leader motivates, establishes a set
standard, is an advocate for the organization, ensures resources are available, has quality
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
contact with their staff, and is aware of the details and undercurrents of the organization
(Marzano et al., 2005).
21st-Century Skills
Wagner (2008) explained that even the best schools are failing to prepare students
for the demands and rigors of the global knowledge economy. He described seven key
survival skills that students must master to succeed and solve some of the most pressing
issues and challenges of the 21st century: (a) critical thinking and problem solving,
(b) collaboration and leadership, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and
entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and
analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
A report from a public-private coalition named Partnership for 21st-Century Skills
called for schools to implement six key elements for 21st-century skills development
These recommendations created a framework for 21st-century education. The report
recommended continued teaching of core subjects articulated in the No Child Left Behind
Act but at higher levels that move beyond the basic competencies, working at higher
levels in Bloom’s taxonomy and incorporating other key elements (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). The six elements recommended by Salpeter (2003) are as follows:
1. Core Subjects: The authors reaffirm the importance of the core subjects
identified by No Child Left Behind but challenge schools and policymakers to
expand their focus beyond “basic competency” to understanding the core
academic content at much higher levels.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
2. Learning Skills: “To cope with the demands of the 21st century,” the report
states, “students need to know more than core subjects. They need to know how to
use their knowledge and skills-by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new
situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating,
collaborating, solving problems, and making decisions.”
3. 21st Century Tools: Recognizing that “technology is, and will continue to be, a
driving force in workplaces, communities, and personal lives in the 21st century,”
Learning for the 21st Century emphasizes the importance of incorporating
information and communication technologies into education from the elementary
grades up.
4. 21st Century Context: Experiences that are relevant to students' lives,
connected with the world beyond the classroom, and based on authentic projects
are central to the sort of education the Partnership for 21st Century Skills defines
as the appropriate context for learning in the information age.
5. 21st Century Content: The report's authors believe that certain content essential
for preparing students to live and work in a 21st century world is missing from
many state and local standards. (See list.)
6. New Assessments that Measure 21st Century Skills: “As pervasive as
assessment seems to be today,” the report says, “it remains an emerging and
challenging field that demands further study and innovation.” Recommendations
include moving beyond standardized testing as the sole measure of student
learning; balancing traditional tests with classroom assessments to measure the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
full range of students' skills; and using technology-based assessments to deliver
immediate feedback. (Salpeter, 2003, para. 1)
21st-Century Skills in Costa Rica
The Ministry of Education has embarked on an innovative effort to establish and
support the development of 21st-century policy to implement Constitutional mandates
while meeting today’s reality (MEP, 2007). On November 8, 1994, the educational policy
for the 21st century was approved by the higher education council (MEP, 2007). The
following aims and objectives listed by the Ministerio de Educacion Publica (2007)
became the focus of sustainable development: (a) Close the existing quality of education
gap between urban and rural areas; (b) train human resources that raise the country’s
competitiveness necessary to succeed in international markets; (c) strengthen
fundamental values that have been lost with the passage of time; (d) strengthen technical
and scientific education, as well as sports and culture, to develop the holistic child; and
(e) raise awareness about the commitment to future generations to ensure a sustainable
economic and social development in harmony with nature and the environment in
general.
The aims and results seen on the Ministerio de Educacion Publica (2007) website
portray this innovative drive by the Ministry of Education purposeful to strengthen the
following programs: (a) foreign language development program, (b) program for the
improvement of the quality of education and life in the communities of care priority,
(c) computer education program, (d) one-room schools in the rural area of scattered
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
programs, (e) improvement of the secondary education program, (f) development of
thought program, and (g) environmental education and sustainable development program.
The educational policy geared toward 21st-century skills development refers to
three philosophical visions: humanist, rationalist, and constructivist. The humanist vision
looks at developing the holistic person and understanding the person’s greatest potential
with the support of educational law that affects the individual and the social nature of
society. The rationalist vision recognizes that people have the capacity to understand
objectively what they must do to improve and learn, with the aims for greater progress
toward reaching individual goals. The constructivist vision focuses on cultural
background and prior knowledge that students bring to school, thus aligning learning
with instructional strategies that draw in student attention and motivation by using the
familiar (MEP, 2007).
Summary of the Literature
Globalization is a complex phenomenon that affects all aspects of life, crossing
national, religious, and ethnic boundaries. At the core of globalization are the ideals and
needs of two opposing forces: markets and human rights (Torres, 2002). Both forces
affect how globalization is shaped and influenced by MNCs and nation-states’ formal
institutions. These formal institutions, in conjunction with world markets, define
education’s role and how it manifests within a nation-state. A great risk is the lack of
agency, that is, the voice of the individual that plays into the democratic decision process,
which has been part of education policy in the United States. The very foundations of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
tolerance, conviviality, and respect for the integrity of human rights are at risk (Torres,
2002).
In order to preserve human and democratic rights, as well as to prepare citizens
for the new global economy, the framework of 21st-century skills was developed to guide
educators, education leaders, and policy makers. This framework outlines basic skills that
each student must have to be competitive in the global knowledge economy. The 21st-
century skills framework calls for teaching core subjects, learning specific skills,
mastering 21st-century tools, looking at knowledge from a 21st-century context, learning
21st-century content, and using new assessment measures (Wagner, 2008).
Comparable to the Age of Discovery, The Renaissance, and the Industrial
Revolution, the Knowledge Age and Knowledge Economy are a tipping point in human
history (Gladwell, 2000). Learning goals and objectives for the new century are being
reshaped by the globalization phenomenon (Snape, 2012). Globalization is affecting the
policies of nation-states, specifically policies pertaining to education, because it is
through this vehicle that citizens are prepared for the new global knowledge economy
(Bottery, 2006). As a result, the nature of education professionals must also change to
adapt to these new global trends. Education professionals must have the capacity to
prepare students for the global demands of the 21st-century knowledge economy, to give
them the tools to preserve democracy, and to protect the human rights of all citizens
(Bottery, 2006; Snape, 2012; Spring, 2008; Torres, 2002).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (M. A. Rodriguez, former President of Costa Rica, personal
communication, March 5, 2013). Once a country that primarily exported crops, the
economy has evolved to that of high-technology products. Due to a highly literate
population and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was
implemented to attract high-technology FDI to compete in an evolving global market.
The resulting growth of technology as a major export and more high-technology MNCs
such as IBM and HP relocating to the country has given new direction and opportunity to
this small Central American country (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). As more
MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility to help
students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become
increasingly challenging (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007; Paus &
Gallagher, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Despite having five national universities, 51 private
universities, and a 95% literacy rate, the country has low rates of secondary graduation
and pursuit of higher education (Roman, 2012). As a result, there is a lack of knowledge-
ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica
(Roman, 2012).
The research team for the current study is composed of 12 doctoral students from
the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California under the
direction of Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team met monthly to collaborate,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
establish research questions, examine the research literature, and review potential
conceptual frameworks that would contribute to the study to understand how
globalization and MNCs have affected schools and universities and education policy in
Costa Rica. As a result of the many group aspects of the thematic process of this
dissertation cohort, there may be similarities in the dissertations. The result of this
process was data collected from exemplary schools that have or are successfully
implementing 21st-century skill. The results are intended to advise school leaders and
government officials on how to implement the aforementioned skills.
The purpose of this case study was to understand the effect of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools
and universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role that school leaders have
played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national
education initiatives. In addition, the study explored whether these initiatives are
producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that
builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Three research questions guided the study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
The following sections elaborate on how these questions were addressed:
(a) Research Design, (b) Sample and Population, (c) Instrumentation, (d) Data Collection,
(e) Data Analysis, and (f) Ethical Considerations.
Research Design
Researchers (Bottery, 2006; Spring, 2008) have studied the impact of
globalization on education, as well as how MNCs and other entities are affecting schools
and universities. One such corporation, Intel, has formed partnerships with schools and
universities in Costa Rica that have changed their school system (Paus & Gallagher,
2008). This qualitative case study is designed to understand how globalization plays a
role in the decisions-making process of national and local leaders in enacting an
implementing education policy.
This qualitative case study can be described as applied research with the purpose
of improving the quality of practice within a discipline. In this case, the practice of
educators dealing with a new phenomenon known as globalization in a knowledge age
economy is the focus of the research. A case study is an in-depth description and analysis
of a bounded system (Merriam, 2009). Yin (2008, as cited in Merriam, 2009) defined a
case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
a real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context
are not clearly evident” (p. 40). Merriam (2009) stated that a case study explores the
“what” of the bound system. The study then becomes the person, entity, or institution to
be evaluated. Merriam identified case studies as having special features: particularistic,
descriptive and heuristic. A particularistic study focuses on a particular phenomenon. The
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
case itself is important for what it reveals about the phenomenon. Merriam added that
case studies are descriptive, meaning that at the end of the study the product is rich with
descriptions of the phenomenon. Borrowing from anthropology, rich descriptions can be
labeled as holistic, creative, lifelike, and using prose and literary techniques to convey the
researcher’s meaning and understanding of the case. Finally, case studies hold the
heuristic feature in that they illuminate the reader’s understanding of the phenomenon
under study, which serves the purpose of improving the quality of practice (Merriam,
2009).
Purposeful sampling, which is a type of nonprobability sampling, was the design
strategy utilized in this case study (Merriam, 2009). Patton (2002) explained that
purposeful or purposive nonprobabilistic sampling strategy is most appropriate when
trying to discover implications of what occurs and the relationship of the occurrences.
Creswell (2009) differentiated among types of purposeful sampling. This case study
utilized the typical sample approach, which reflects the average instance of the
phenomenon of interest.
Population and Sample
The participants recruited for this qualitative case study include current political
leaders and education policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school
administrators in Costa Rica. According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling in
qualitative designs allows for an in-depth study of a problem and phenomenon. The
researcher was granted significant access to arrange in-person interviews with political
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
leaders and education policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school
administrators in San José, Costa Rica.
By interviewing political leaders and education policymakers, the researcher
hoped to understand how educational leadership has been affected directly by
globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica. In addition, a brief survey containing questions
pertaining to how 21st-century skills are being developed in the classroom was
administered to 171 teachers at Intel schools. To augment these data, the perspectives of
business executives of MNCs are necessary to understand how they are driving education
policy with specific programs and initiatives. While obtaining access to political leaders
and policymakers and business executives of MNCs is critical, securing school
administrators’ perspectives is equally crucial for data collection.
The research team determined that a minimum sample of 14 participants would be
interviewed: four political leaders and education policymakers, three business executives
of MNCs, and seven school administrators.
Population
Costa Rica’s Free Trade Zones offer very attractive business conditions to MNCs.
Companies such as Intel and Cisco who produce for export can import inputs duty free
because the supply chain may be lacking in a developing nation (Paus & Gallagher,
2008). MNCs in Costa Rica enjoy 100% exemption from profit taxes for 8 years and a
50% exemption for another 4 years (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). These
lucrative incentives have resulted in corporate investment; in return, the country hopes to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
receive a return on its investment through spillover effects. In the case of Costa Rica,
25% of their exports were due to Intel’s investments (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
This case study’s central purpose was to describe and analyze how the Intel
schools are meeting the demands of MNCs for increased human capital in a rapidly
changing global economy in which 21st-century skills are critical for success. Eight Intel
schools in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica, were the locations of choice for
this research effort because of the nation state’s established track record of a high literacy
rate and effective education system. Monge-González and González-Alvarado (2007)
noted that Costa Rica has placed a growing demand for the education system to create a
knowledgeable and skilled labor force to fill service-oriented and high-technology jobs
since Intel’s arrival in the nation in 1997. Intel and other MNCs have formed partnerships
with the Ministry of Public Education in Costa Rica to implement initiatives and
programs aimed at helping students to develop 21st-century skills (Monge-González and
González-Alvarado (2007). Therefore, examining existing collaborations by Intel and
other MNCs, high schools, and the Ministry of Public Education was of particular interest
to this researcher to understand how these various entities are working together to
produce improved educational outcomes at the secondary level.
Sample
Since Merriam (2009) identified case studies as having special features, such as
being particularistic, descriptive and heuristic, participants were purposefully chosen in
an effort to produce a rich description of the globalization phenomenon under study.
Since this case study studied the results of globalization and multination corporations in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
Costa Rica and its schools and universities, as well as its impact in policy by its education
leaders and law makers, a purposive sample and population were sought. Corporate and
national leaders, as well as school and university leaders, were recruited as a purposive
population to be sampled in the case study (recruitment letters in Appendices A and B).
Through a review of the Costa Rican economy literature, the researchers were led
to Andrés Rodríguez-Clare, a highly cited economist at the University of California,
Berkeley, who introduced them to the country’s leaders in education and economic
growth, including Miguel Angel Rodriguez, President of Costa Rica from 1998 to 2002.
As a result, the researchers gained access to some of the country’s most powerful leaders
and met with them on an exploratory trip in early March 2013.
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Two high-ranking government officials met with the researchers to discuss the
project. They identified some of the issues that the Costa Rican educational system faces,
such as teacher training, lack of resources for particular schools, and the considerable
dropout rate at the high school level. They provided insight into the research questions by
highlighting that MNCs had decided to invest in Costa Rica due to the strength of its
education system. Dr. Garnier, Minister of Education in Costa Rica, offered to serve as a
link and to provide access to school principals and other potential respondents.
The researchers met with Isabel Roman, Director of Research for the El Estado de
la Nación (State of the Nation) report. She gave the team a thorough explanation of how
El Estado de la Educación, a separate report from El Estado de la Nación, was designed
and implemented. The purpose of El Estado de la Educación is to provide an accurate
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
portrayal of the state of the education system in Costa Rica. In addition to providing a
detailed explanation of how education is implemented in Costa Rica, the report also
highlights issues of access, equity, student retention, teacher preparation, and decaying of
school facilities. Roman provided statistical data on student enrollment and the
distribution of schools throughout the country. She mentioned that the 2012 report would
be released in July 2013 and offered the group access to all of the data housed in her
organization. Mrs. Roman and El Estado de la Educación report were invaluable assets to
the project.
In addition to the Minister of Education and the director of Estado de la Nacion
report, presidential candidate Roman Macaya was interviewed. Roman ran against the
incumbent in the opposition party and lost in the process; however, he has a strong
passion for education, as was evident in his conversations with the research team. It is
interesting to note that Macaya’s parents are Americans.
The Minister of Science and Technology, Fernando Bogotes, granted the research
team access to his office. He allowed us to interview him and granted us permission to
use his insights in the research process.
Executives of MNCs
The researchers met with Ms. Gabriela Llobet, Director of CINDE. Ms. Llobet
served in high-powered positions in Costa Rica before becoming Director of CINDE.
CINDE is a private, nonprofit and apolitical organization. It was founded in 1983 by
prominent business people, supported by Costa Rica’s government, and financed by
grants from USAID. During its 30 years, CINDE has attracted more than 200 companies
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
to Costa Rica, including Intel, Procter and Gamble, Baxter, St. Jude Medical, and
Western Union.
During the 1980s CINDE gained expertise about the promotion of the country
abroad and FDI attraction, focusing on the agriculture and unskilled labor-intensive
manufacturing sectors. According to Llobet, the CINDE achieved success because it was
nonpolitical and nongovernmental, which allowed it to have continuous programs and a
long-term strategy without being affected by periodic changes in government.
In the early 1990s CINDE realized that, due to the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), Costa Rica was losing competitiveness in unskilled labor-intensive
industries. At the same time, it was losing sources of funding from USAID. Funded by
grants from USAID in the 1980s, CINDE had annual budgets of $4 million to $8 million,
ran seven international offices, and employed 400 people. When Costa Rica no longer
qualified for USAID funding, CINDE’s budget was reduced to the interest income from
its initial endowment. In 2006 the organization had an annual budget of nearly $1.5
million, a staff of 29 people, and one foreign office (New York City). Given these
circumstances, CINDE decided to focus its FDI attraction efforts on fewer sectors,
choosing ones that were a better match for Costa Rica’s relatively high education levels.
CINDE’s 1993 strategic plan focused on sectors associated with the electrical,
electronic, and telecommunication industries. These sectors not only required more
skilled labor but were experiencing fast growth in the United States. Strong competitive
pressures had forced companies to search for low-cost locations around the world. Based
on this strategy, CINDE was able to attract high-technology MNCs to Costa Rica. Due to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
these successes, CINDE acquired a deeper understanding of the industry and learned that
Intel was starting the site selection process for an assembly and testing plant for one of its
newest chips. CINDE’s specialists on FDI attraction put together a campaign that landed
Costa Rica a spot on the list and ultimately the US $300 million investment by Intel in
the country.
The researchers spoke with Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs
at Intel Costa Rica. Ms. Bialas provided an extensive overview of the educational
partnerships that Intel has with high schools and universities in the country. She
presented an overview of these partnerships, as well as other initiatives that Intel has
implemented to promote science and technology in Costa Rica. Since she is from the
United States, she explained Costa Rica’s education system by using the U.S. system as a
base. She offered to share the names of the schools and individuals who help her to carry
out the academic initiatives on behalf of Intel.
Patricia Chico, who works at Intel with the National Science and Technology fair,
took part in the interview process. She provided insights into the significance of the
science fair and the role of Intel Corporation in promoting this process.
School Administrators
The researchers met with Dr. Chaves, Dean of the College of Education at UCR,
and Dr. Vargas, director of the Education Research Institute (INIE), an academic unit of
the College of Education at UCR dedicated to interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
research in the field of educational sciences. Its aims are to improve the Costa Rican
education system and collaborate and conduct research nationally and internationally.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
They identified the challenges faced by the education system, such as high dropout rates
in the secondary schools. Dr. Chaves explained that the teacher preparation program is
divided into primary education, secondary education, and university faculty education.
She explained that the Omar Dengo Foundation began in the 1990s with support of
technology in the schools but noted that its greatest impact had been in urban centers,
with limited success in rural areas. Intel provided support for UCR, as well as schools in
Belen, the neighborhood of the plant. Dr. Chavez and Dr. Vargas pledged to provide
names of school administrators who would take part in the case study.
This case study focused primarily at Colegio Técnico Don Bosco. The technical
public high school located in a low-income area of the south side of the capital offers
Educational Cycles 3 and 4. Currently, Colegio Técnico Don Bosco ranks 38th of 906
high schools in the country, according to the number of students meeting criteria for
acceptance into UCR. Most of the other schools that rank higher are private schools
(Fernandez, 2012). At Don Bosco Technical High School, the researcher met with the
school administrator, Cristian Jimenez. Mr. Jimenez has worked for Don Bosco for 19
years, 15 as a teacher and 4 in administration. Mr. Jimenez has unique insight gained
from being a product of that school and has seen and experienced firsthand the effect of
MNCs at the school site.
In addition to the individuals at UCR and Don Bosco, several other school
principals at various Intel-partnered schools were interviewed. These data were shared as
part of the thematic nature of this dissertation.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
Instrumentation
This qualitative research study required the researchers to serve as the research
instrument for data collection. Two interview protocols, one survey protocol, one
observation protocol, and one document analysis protocol were used as instruments to
collect data. Interview guides were given to the political leaders, education policymakers,
and business executives of MNCs. The survey was distributed to 171 teachers at Intel
schools.
The interview guides contained critical questions to help the team and the
researcher to conduct the interviews and validate the survey questions. These interviews
allowed the team and researcher to understand the impact of globalization and MNCs on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The team and researcher anticipated that the interviews would
identify the role that school leaders have played in the development and implementation
of policy changes seen in major national education initiatives in Costa Rica. In addition,
the team and researcher expected the interviews to help in determining whether these
initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that builds human capital capable of meeting the needs of Costa Rica and the
MNCs. The observation protocol and survey helped to determine whether and the extent
to which teachers and school curricula are ensuring that students are developing 21st-
century skills in the classroom. The team and researcher collected artifacts for a
document analysis. Finally, the researcher collected further data through observations at
the eight Intel high schools.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
The four data sources—interviews, survey, document analysis, and
observations—ensured that the collected data would be triangulated and highly valid.
These methods allowed the team and researcher to understand how educational
leadership has been affected directly by policy decisions that have come as a result of the
influence of globalization and MNCs. Data were analyzed using three conceptual
frameworks to address the research questions: (a) Spring’s (2008) perceptions of
globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) framework of 21st-century skills, and (c) Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) frame theory.
Pilot Testing
Once the interview guides had been developed, four members of the research
team pilot tested the instruments under the guidance of Dr. Escalante with the Minister of
Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier; Mary Helen Bialas, business executive and Education
Manager at Intel; Dr. Alicia Vargas and Dr. Ana Chaves at UCR; Gabriela Llobet,
General Director of CINDE, Costa Rica’s investment promotion agency; Michelle
Coffey, Director of Strategic Partnerships of CRUSA, a nonprofit think tank for
education policy; and Isabel Román, director of the nation’s Estado de la Nación report
on education in Costa Rica. According to Merriam (2009), a pilot study enhances the
validity of a study. The pilot study ensured that the research questions were clear to the
researchers and participants. Merriam (2009) stated that “the key to getting good data
from interviewing is to ask good questions; asking good questions takes practice” (p. 95).
The research team collaborated on the results of the interviews from the pilot study to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
improve the internal reliability of the instruments. Upon returning to the United States,
the research team met to finalize and approve the questions to be used in the study.
Interview Protocol for Political Leaders, Education Policymakers, and Executives of
MNCs
Maxwell (2013) noted the importance of interview guides as they allow the
researcher flexibility to make the most of limited available time in an interview setting.
Merriam (2009) explained that interviews allow the researcher to collect historical
information from participants, which is a valuable component of this comparative case
study. These interview protocols have been designed specifically for each sample group:
Appendix C for government officials, Appendix D for corporate leaders, and Appendix E
for school leaders.
Observation Protocol
Merriam (2009) noted that no researcher can observe everything and
recommended a checklist of elements for observation. The checklist includes observing
the physical setting, the participants, activities and interactions, conversation, the
researcher’s own behavior, and subtle factors such as informal and unplanned activities,
nonverbal and physical clues, and symbolic language. Appendix G contains the
observation protocol to be utilized in Costa Rican classrooms.
Survey Protocol
A quantitative survey (Appendix H) was distributed to 171 teachers at Intel
schools to determine how they are developing 21st-century skills in the classroom. Fink
(2013) noted the importance of reporting descriptive statistics, such as the respondents’
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
average age, educational level, and grade or score. Analyzing survey data involves “using
statistical and qualitative methods to describe and interpret respondents’ answers to the
survey questions” (p. 115).
Document Analysis Protocol
Merriam (2009) explained that part of the research process involves determining
the authenticity and accuracy of documents. Document analysis can include public and
private documents. Scholarly articles, institutional self-study reports, press releases,
evaluation and periodic reports, and the Universidad de Costa Rica website are examples
of public documents that pertain to this study. Private documents include e-mails, letters,
and school principal classroom observation reports. Other documents were analyzed as
they were obtained with permission from the participants, including school mission
statements, principal training curricula, course syllabi, demographics of faculty and their
preparation, budgets, and education reports from think tanks. Despite the rich information
provided by the document analysis, these materials alone are insufficient to address the
research questions of this study.
Data Collection
The research team traveled to Costa Rica in March 2013 to establish contacts with
respondents and lay the groundwork for a data collection visit in June 2013 for
approximately 2 weeks. The researcher visited the participants in person and conducted
interviews and observations at that time. The methods, interview questions designed to fit
each respondent group matched with each research question, observation protocol, survey
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protocol, and analysis of the Estado de la Educación document allowed the researcher to
triangulate data and identify common themes and trends for future analysis.
According to Merriam (2009), triangulation occurs when multiple sources of data
are compared and cross-checked through observations in different places, interview data
collected from people with different perspectives, or follow-up interviews with the same
people. Since the observations took place at multiple sites where the impact of
globalization is taking place and three groups of respondents were interviewed, each with
their own perspective on education and globalization data, the data were triangulated.
Further, the Estado de la Educación report provided sources of data to validate and
triangulate respondents’ answers.
Observations at the Intel high schools helped the researcher to describe how
educational leaders are working to help students to develop 21st-century skills in those
classrooms. The teacher survey demonstrated how these challenges are being perceived
and managed in day-to-day instruction.
The team and researcher hope to complete interviews with 12 to 15 political
leaders and educational policymakers, business executives from MNCs, and school
principals, with four or five representatives of each group. All data were safeguarded per
Institutional Review Board (IRB) standards and all interviews were transcribed.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this case study was to understand the impact of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
development and implementation of policy changes in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study explored whether these initiatives are producing greater
numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human capital
capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
According to Creswell (2009), a case study involves a detailed description of the
setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues. Following
Creswell’s model for data analysis, the first step is to organize and prepare the raw data.
This may mean typing field notes, scanning information to a database, and arranging the
data according to the sources of the information. Second, general meanings must be
identified. For this to take place, the reader must read through all of the information. The
third step is to begin a detailed analysis with a coding process that organizes the material
into “chunks” to bring meaning to the information. Creswell enumerated a series of
substeps that the researcher takes in the coding process: (a) get a sense of the whole; (b)
pick one document and ask, What is this about? What is the underlying meaning?
(c) once this has been completed for several participants, make a list of all topics; (d) go
back to data and abbreviate topics as codes; write the codes next to the appropriate
segments; (e) find the most descriptive wording of the topics and turn them into
categories; (f) alphabetize codes; (g) assemble the data belonging to each category in one
place and perform a preliminary analysis; and (h) if necessary, recode data.
Creswell’s (2009) fourth step is to use the coding process to generate a
description of the setting, as well as themes for analysis. This information is used to
begin to form identifications and eventually move into more complex theme connections.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
The fifth step is to use a narrative passage to convey the findings of the analysis. This
may take the shape of a detailed description and discussion of themes and how themes
interconnect. At this point, tables, visuals, and drawings may be used as adjuncts to the
discussion. The sixth and final step is to make an interpretation of the data, by asking,
What were the lessons learned?. These lessons may be the researcher’s own
interpretations based on past experiences, culture, and history. The interpretation can also
derive from comparison to what was found in the literature or theories (Creswell, 2009).
Utilizing the range of responses, the various perspectives of political leaders,
educational policymakers, principals, teachers, and MNC leaders were utilized to
triangulate the data. Each member of the research team presented findings to the team
and looked for emerging trends in the data. Data were organized by composing a case
record to create a single resource package from all collected data collected (Maxwell,
2013). The team organized the data into categories that revealed common themes and
patterns (Merriam, 2009).
Validity and Reliability
Creswell (2009) explained that qualitative validity simply means that the
researcher checks for accuracy of the findings by putting procedures in place; reliability
requires that the researcher remain consistent across projects. The following are
procedures that the researcher employed to ensure that the methods are consistent and
reliable (Creswell, 2009).
1. Transcripts were checked for obvious mistakes made during transcription.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
2. Codes were checked to ensure that the definition and meaning remained
consistent throughout the process.
3. Communication among coders was established during team research steps.
4. Codes developed by other researchers were crosschecked.
Validity is one of the strengths of qualitative research (Creswell, 2009). Creswell
recommended using multiple validity strategies to assess the accuracy of the findings.
This researcher used the following validity strategies: triangulation, member checking,
thick descriptions, peer debriefing, and clarifying the bias.
Triangulation speaks to using different data sources by examining evidence from
the sources and using it to build a coherent justification for the themes (Creswell, 2009).
Member checking refers to taking final reports or themes back to participants and
determining whether these participants consider them to be accurate. When researchers
provide thick descriptions, perspectives about the theme, setting and participants become
more realistic and richer. The third type of validity strategy to be used is clarifying the
bias. Good qualitative research contains comments by the researchers about how the
researcher’s interpretations of the findings are shaped by personal background, gender,
culture, history, and socioeconomic status. The last validity strategy to be used is peer
debriefing. This type of strategy involves a person who reviews and asks questions about
the qualitative study so that the account will resonate with people other than the
researcher (Creswell, 2009).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
Limitations
The scope of this research study was limited. This case study was designed to
identify how educators are preparing students with 21st-century skills to be knowledge-
ready workers. The study took place in Costa Rican public schools that have a
partnership with MNCs. The depth of data collection at Intel and other corporate sponsor
schools was contingent on the degree of access that school officials and Intel and other
multinational and government officials grant the researchers. The generalizability of the
findings was limited to institutions with similar partnerships. The case study provided in-
depth and thick analysis of information that may be applied in similar institutional
contexts.
Delimitations
The extent of data sources was a delimitation in this case study in Costa Rica. The
study was bounded to Intel and other corporate schools that are sponsored or have
partnerships with these MNCs. In addition, the study was delimited to primarily urban
areas of Costa Rica, where these MNCs are located; the study did not look at rural
schools.
A secondary delimitation of the study was the intended purpose of the study,
which was to understand how education, corporate, and governmental leaders are
preparing students for the challenges of a global knowledge economy.
Ethical Considerations
The following have been identified as good ethical practices by Creswell (2009)
and were followed during the data analysis and interpretation process. Anonymity of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
individuals, roles, and incidents in the case study were ensured. Data were kept in a safe
location. Issues of data ownership were resolved prior to data collection. In order to
provide an accurate account, the researchers and respondents debriefed to check for
accuracy of the data. Data were not misused to present advantage to any participating
group. The research did not use language that was biased toward any racial or ethnic
group, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
Chapter 4
Analysis of Data
This chapter focuses on the findings related to the three research questions on the
impact of globalization and education. The study examined the impact of globalization
and MNCs on schools and universities in Costa Rica. As a result of market demands for a
workforce with 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2010; Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Wagner, 2008; World Bank Group, 2006), there is a need to develop
21st-century skills in students in order to supply these market demands with human
capital ready to meet the new challenges of the global knowledge economy (CINDE,
2010; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; World Bank Group, 2006). The
qualitative findings from the teacher survey, classroom observations, and one-on-one in-
depth interviews with school site leaders, corporate leaders, and national leaders were
aligned with the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, as well as the three research questions.
Responses to address each of the research questions are framed and elaborated
through triangulation of the interviews, classroom observations, and the survey. Data
were analyzed using three conceptual frameworks to address the research questions:
(a) Spring’s (2008) perceptions of globalization, (b) Wagner’s (2008) framework of 21st-
century skills, and (c) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) frames for leadership theory.
Purpose of Chapter 4
This case study’s central purpose was to describe and analyze how the Intel high
schools are meeting the demands of MNCs for increased human capital in a rapidly
changing global economy in which 21st-century skills are critical for success. Eight Intel
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
high schools in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica, were the locations of
choice for this research effort because of the nation state’s established track record of a
high literacy rate and effective education system. Monge-González and González-
Alvarado (2007) noted that Costa Rica has placed a growing demand for the education
system to create a knowledgeable and skilled labor force to fill service-oriented and high-
technology jobs since Intel’s arrival in the nation in 1997. Intel and other MNCs have
formed partnerships with the MEP in Costa Rica to implement initiatives and programs
aimed at helping students to develop 21st-century skills (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
Research Questions
This case study was designed to understand the effect of globalization and MNCs
on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in the
development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives are producing
greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human
capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s demands in the global economy.
Three research questions guided this study:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Participants
The following leaders were interviewed for the study. Per IRB protocol
participant’s names are used: (a) Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Public Education;
(b) Dr. Alejandro Cruz, Minister of Science and Technology; (c) Nathalie Valencia,
Director of Costa Rica’s National Science Fairs; (d) Gabriela Llobet, Director General of
CINDE; (e) Patricia Chico, Director of Community Outreach for Intel Costa Rica;
(f) Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Educational Programs and Outreach for Intel Costa
Rica; (g) Patricia Escalante, former Director of the Intel Teach the Future Program Costa
Rica; and (h) directors (principals) at seven school sites. Also, 171 teachers were
surveyed and 75 classroom observations were conducted to look for evidence of 21st-
century skills in STEM education.
This case study focuses primarily on Colegio Técnico Don Bosco. The technical
private subsidized high school located in a low-income area of the south side of the
capital offers Educational Cycles 3 and 4. Currently, Colegio Técnico Don Bosco ranks
38th of 906 high schools in the country, based on the number of students meeting criteria
for acceptance into the UCR. Most of the other schools that rank higher are private
schools in more affluent areas of the nation (Fernandez, 2012). The main school
administrator is Mr. Cristian Jimenez, who has been working at varying capacities at the
school for more than 19 years.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
Discussion
Discussion for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? One of the first emerging themes related to this research
question was an increase in MNCs in Costa Rica. Costa Rica boasts the highest quality
and one of the most advanced education systems in Latin America and the 23rd-best
system in the world (CINDE, 2010). Despite new challenges and needed improvements,
this small Central American country serves as a model of excellence in education for
developing nations. Costa Rica shows how MNCs and FDI can improve an education
system through high-quality academic programs and achieve sustained economic growth.
Once an economy based solely on coffee and bananas, Costa Rica now thrives on
technology exports and ecotourism (CINDE, 2010). Companies such as Intel and
Microsoft have established operations in Costa Rica and have invested hundreds of
millions of dollars in the country (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Monge-
González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The presence of more than 200 MNCs has
emphasized the need for the country’s education system to prepare students to compete in
the knowledge-based global economy.
Globalization is a complex phenomenon that affects all aspects of life, crossing
national, religious, and ethnic boundaries. At the core of globalization are the ideals and
needs of two opposing forces: markets and human rights (Torres, 2002). Both forces
affect how globalization is shaped and influenced by MNCs and nation-states’ formal
institutions. These formal institutions, in conjunction with world markets, define
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
education’s role and how it manifests within a nation-state. A great risk is the lack of
agency, that is, the voice of the individual, that plays into the democratic decision
process, which has been part of education policy in the United States (Torres, 2002).
In the elementary and secondary education sectors, progress and spillovers have
occurred from Intel and other MNCs. Intel has invested $2,500,000 in elementary and
secondary schools and in universities in the form of electronics and English language
laboratories (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; World Bank, 2009). Intel
also invests in teacher training and instructional improvement and preparation,
specifically in the STEM fields.
As noted in the literature, there is an increase in MNCs in Costa Rica (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). A survey of 171 teachers in 7 technical schools in Costa Rica indicated the
significance that MNCs play, specifically that of Intel. Since Intel is one of the key
players as part of a group of MNCs that support schools, teachers were asked to identify
the role that MNCs have played in their schools. One hundred thirty-five of 171 teachers
indicated that their schools had been positively affected through the partnerships with
Intel and 122 agreed or strongly agreed that resources at their schools have been
improved because of the partnership with Intel. Figure 3 illustrates the number of
teachers who agreed or strongly agreed that the Intel corporation had positively affected
their school sites. Figure 4 illustrates the number of teachers who agreed or strongly
agreed to the survey statements that asked whether Intel had improved the resources at
their school site.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81

Figure 3. Teacher responses to survey question of whether Intel had positively affected
their school site through the Intel Educate partnership.

Figure 4. Teacher responses to survey question of whether Intel had improved resources
at the school site through the Intel Educate partnership.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
However, at schools such as Don Bosco, where the partnership is the strongest
due to their high level of collaboration, the impact was the greatest. All 14 surveyed
teachers in the technical school who collaborate with Intel agreed that technology has
been positively affected by Intel. All 14 also agreed or strongly agreed that resources at
their schools have been improved because of the partnership with Intel. At Don Bosco the
impact of Intel is highly evident. Through observations conducted at the school site on
June 26 and 27, 2013, computers donated by Intel were observed, as well as robotic arms,
motherboards, and many other machines, all part of Intel’s technology recycling program
and technology change. Once the Intel Corporation no longer uses these machines, it
allows the students to take them apart and reuse the components to build their projects in
these project-based classrooms. School administrator Cristian Jimenez indicated,
Without the support of Intel we would not be able to afford these machines and
thus not able to prepare our students. . . . Not only has the MNCs like Intel
contributed but also they have broken paradigms and created new ones (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
Garbiela Llobet, Director General for CINDE, indicated that Costa Rica, through
its diverse and growing MNC sector,
has been able to sophisticate and diversify the types of products that we produce
and the types of services that we provide from Costa Rica. In 1985 we exported a
high concentration of agro products, including banana, coffee, sugar, and beef.
We continue to produce those, but they represent a smaller percentage of our
market. We are very big on the electric and electronic industry, chemicals,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
metalwork, medical devices, and industrial type of products, while at the same
time, preserving our environment. . . . The beginnings of the 1980s brought our
first medical device company; Baxter came in 1987. Then we started seeing
different contact centers or call centers coming to Costa Rica in the latter half of
the 1990s. Intel and a series of other companies came in 1996. Procter & Gamble
came here with a services center, their global business services center. Here we’ve
seen also the evolution of the type of either services or products that they’re
manufacturing from Costa Rica. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Thus, it is evident that there is a significant presence of MNCs in Costa Rica.
Mary Helen Bialas, the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager for Intel,
explained that, because of the influence of Intel, other MNCs found Costa Rica to be an
attractive investment location for their companies (personal interview, June 27, 2013).
MNCs have contributed to the changes that Costa Rica has experienced.
I think it was a huge interest in the part of the Costa Rican government to bring in
higher-level workforce opportunities to develop the economy and they went after
it. They created promotion agencies and was actually created jointly with USAID.
That was an initiative that the U.S. agency took to help move this change from
agriculture toward high tech. Actually, it was moved from agriculture to agro-
industry and then it went to high-tech services and high-tech sector. I think there’s
a lot of initiative on part of the government to support it and definitely there’s
been a change . . . and the multinationals say they became attracted to Costa Rica.
(personal interview, June 27, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
Regarding the impact of the Intel Corporation, she added,
Actually, Intel was one of the companies that attracted other companies. With
Intel here, we became the example to others and we were perhaps in the right
place. Intel was actually an example and used as an example by government
agencies and the other organizations who want to promote the industry investment
in Costa Rica. Actually, we bring a lot of our own suppliers around us, right, but
other companies like the medical companies and even the call center services,
Microsoft development, they all came and looked at what Intel was doing.
(personal interview, June 27, 2013)
From the government perspective, Minister of Education Dr. Leonardo Garnier
explained that Costa Rica’s own sociopolitical trajectory, such as high wages, social
security, investment in education, and environmental restrictions, led to the increase in
MNCs, specifically high-tech MNCs such as Intel:
Costa Rica has had a very strong social policy since . . . probably since the 19th
century but especially since the 40s and 50s. In Costa Rica you have wages that
are higher than in most of our neighboring countries. Taxes that are not as they
should be, I would tax and spend at the same time (sorry, I would raise taxes);
they are higher than in Guatemala, Honduras, or whatever. You have a social
security, environmental restrictions that are even insufficient but are stronger than
other countries. So what I am saying is that this is a country that in fact is a little
bit expensive when you think of producing in Costa Rica. It happened with the
textile industry; they were very important in the 70s and early 80s . . . they
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
decided that . . . we would not compete with Honduras, the south of Mexico,
which had a cheaper workforce and less social security controls and whatever. So
what we tried to do is to attract international investments that could pay higher
wages either in more technological sophisticated sectors or jump into tourism,
using the environment as an attraction, trying to be at least partially careful of not
destroying the environment. So our gamble was human and natural resources
being used in such a way that you could try to develop . . . try to increase
productivity so that you can pay higher wages and protect the environment so you
can extract the rains from the environment without destroying it. (personal
interview, June 25, 2013)
Dr Garnier added, regarding how this plan of attracting MNCs and FDI to Costa
Rica has worked thus far:
That’s been interesting, but it has worked partially well, of course with a lot of
pressures to go the other way, to just sell yourself cheap. That has always being
the case from the early 80s to today from within the country that pressure that in
order to grow faster you should liberalize more or regulate less or privatize more.
Or on the contrary, if you regulate too much, then it is difficult to have
investment. One final comment: I think foreign investment is very important but
certainly is not enough. If the country bets that its whole development will be
produced on foreign investment that will favor so that is something that gives you
time to develop your own productive resources. I think that’s still very weak in
Costa Rica. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
The second theme arising from this research question has been the influence of
Intel in developing new paradigms, or as it has been called, the Intel Effect. Intel was a
significant catalyst to the rapid changes in Costa Rica’s economy and education system.
In 1996 Intel invested approximately 300 million dollars in Costa Rica to build a
semiconductor and test plant (World Bank Group, 2006). This investment directly
affected the economy, FDI, and trade growth. Prior to this investment, various firms were
investing in Costa Rica but they were neither consistent nor aligned with each other,
which built a competitive platform for foreign investors. Intel has had a significant
impact on Costa Rica 9 years after their initial investment (World Bank Group, 2006).
The signaling effect of this impact was that Intel made investments that resulted in
billions of dollars in profit, an increase in FDI by more than 50 foreign corporations, and
policy changes in the education system to meet the demands of those corporations (World
Bank Group, 2006).
Cristian Jimenez, administrator at Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco, explained that
paradigms such as improvements in lab safety and improvements in teaching practices
are hard to change but, with the support of MNCs such as Intel, they provide him a
greater voice.
The direct impact of MNCs and globalization has been great. Often, one has an
idea and wishes to change a paradigm, but unfortunately because of my human
condition, in order to carry out that change, I, Cristian, cannot fight or effect
change in certain forums. However, when an MNC, like Intel, stands behind you,
the impact is much different. Then, the impact has been not to have Intel as a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
partner but as an ally of new ideas, to adopt new ideas, to take new risks, and
most importantly to enact new initiatives that improve learning. (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
The partnerships that Intel built with schools such as Don Bosco have affected
areas beyond the school. It was observed while visiting the site that students were
refurbishing nearly 100 personal computers for use. However, this use of the computers
was not going to be for Don Bosco; rather, the students at Don Bosco were refurbishing
that computers so that schools that are not part of the partnership with Intel could benefit
of the donations and use of technology that Intel makes available. This is the type of
innovative thinking that Cristian Jimenez was referring to when he spoke about how Intel
has been an ally in breaking old paradigms. He continued,
In order to prepare our students for a 21st-century work force, we must have a
shift in our traditional paradigm. We tell our kids that we are going from the age
of just knowing to know how to do and how to be. These three components are
essential in our teaching because the knowledge aspect is the bag of tools they
carry, in the knowing how to do is where their skills come into play, and the how
to be is the human values part. I am not an island all to myself; I have to relate
and interact with others, and I have to know how to work in teams. (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
All 10 classroom observations conducted by this researcher at Don Bosco
indicated that collaboration by students takes place in the classroom. Collaboration is one
of the key components of 21st-century learning (Wagner, 2008). One example was in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
way in which the classrooms and desks and tables were set up to be more collaborative in
nature. Of 75 classrooms visited at the various schools partnered with Intel, 85% had
desks and tables set up in a collaborative nature.
It is this type of innovative mentality that has led Cristian Jimenez to enact
changes at this school where students problem solve and work in teams with the
resources provided by Intel to do good that affects others beyond their school. Students at
Don Bosco learned how to build and fix computers utilizing the donations made by Intel.
However, because of the influence and support of Intel, Cristian Jimenez, as
administrator of Don Bosco, is able to be part of conversations at a higher political level,
and thus help other schools bridge their technology gaps.
Discussion for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The first theme to emerge
from this question was that the presence of MNCs has influenced the Costa Rican
education system. Figure 5 illustrates that educators surveyed at seven Intel partnership
schools agreed or strongly agreed that MNCs influence educational decisions in the
country. The presence of more than 200 multinational corporations in Costa Rica
(CINDE, 2010) has had a perceived influence on the education decision process in the
country, based on the responses shown in Figure 5.
Although the Costa Rican minister of education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, did not
state outright that MNCs are driving or influencing the decisions of educational leaders,
he stated that the school system must prepare students to be ready to enter a diverse
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89

Figure 5. Teacher responses to survey statement that educational decisions are influenced
by multinational corporations.
workforce. This is his response to the question of how globalization and MNCs have
directly affected his profession:
Education has very much been oriented to what Costa Rica perceives is the world,
with different countries having the larger influence. It’s been changing. Before, it
was France, British, U.S., etc. Now it is the whole world. So if you look at
education, kids would have history classes and they would of course have a little
bit of Europe and U.S. history, the key things in Latin American history and now
we’re talking about the history of China. The Eastern world did not exist. Now
kids are saying instead of learning French maybe I should learn Mandarin. Kids
start asking these questions. So yes, your educational system starts moving in one
direction and then your idea of the world changes and your labor market changes,
liberal professions which were very common in the past such as doctors and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
lawyers . . . . Now, more kids want to be engineers and biologists, science-
oriented jobs and service-oriented jobs. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
Since a very high percentage of the Costa Rican workforce works in the service
industry (CINDE, 2010), it is evident that the demands of industry and the availability of
jobs in those industries are leading people to seek other professions. Thus, an indirect
effect of policy change is taking place. The minister added,
I will give you an example of the changes taking place. In the 1920s, 75% of the
working force had jobs directly related to agriculture. Now it is less than 10%.
The funny thing is it is the same amount of people, if you look at pure numbers
and not percentages. So when people say we destroyed the peasants, I would think
no, because the same amount of people are working in agriculture, they just
represent a smaller percentage of the workforce. Basically two thirds of Costa
Rica works in the service sector. So this is a service economy. And that means a
lot for preparation because you have to prepare kids for a variety of different
things. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
The second emergent theme related to the second research question was the
partnerships between schools in Costa Rica and the Intel Corporation. Chief executive
officers from America’s most successful business firms have declared that high schools
must prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based global economy (World Bank
Group, 2006). They contend that students must develop critical 21st-century skills and
understand globalization and its effects on societies, cultures, and the world’s economy
(Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Educators ready for the 21st century must have an
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
ecological and political awareness. This awareness means that they must understand
factors beyond their institutions that constrain and drive their practice. Without this
awareness, professionals are blind to the changes that affect their societies and their
practice. A new professionalism would manifest when educators understand how the
concepts of professionalism have changed over time and how they continue to evolve to
cope with global demands (Bottery, 2006). A paradigm shift in thought regarding how
educators view their expertise must take place. This means that educators must recognize
that they are not the sole experts in their area of expertise and must be willing to listen to
others, to be humble about personal capacity, and to recognize responsibilities to the
stakeholders whom they serve (Bottery, 2006)—stakeholders such as the corporations
who will hire their students.
In order to develop these understandings, competencies, and skills, schools in
Costa Rica formed partnerships with corporations, specifically the Intel Corporation. As
shown in Figure 4, 122 of 171 (more than 70%) teachers surveyed responded that the
Intel Corporation has positively influenced their schools and increased their resources.
All 14 teachers at Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco agreed that Intel has both positively
influenced and increased the resources at their school.
When asked about the changes in resources that he has witnessed due to the
partnership with Intel, Cristian Jimenez, the main administrator at Colegio Tecnico Don
Bosco, explained that Intel has provided them with abundant resources. Specifically, he
referred to before and after Intel partnered with Don Bosco:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
At this they have had a very big role. We even talk about a “before and after
Intel.” The after has been that we have received equipment that in the past they
would have been unaffordable to our school. Further, the fact that the equipment
as it is donated to Don Bosco is not operational as such, and then the teachers
have been able to be creative in how the equipment is used. This is very positive, I
think, because it has placed both teachers and students in a pedagogical process
that is very interesting. One where the student removes a component, they have to
research on the web the information for that component, read how to use the
component and so forth. This without mentioning much more direct donations
where computers have been donated to the classrooms so that teachers can make
more interactive lessons. We can’t just ask teachers to change their teaching to
meet market demands and not give them the tools; Intel has done this for us.
(personal interview, June 26, 2013)
Wagner (2008) described seven key survival skills that students must master to
succeed and solve some of the most pressing issues and challenges of the 21st century:
(a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration and leadership, (c) agility and
adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written
communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination.
Looking specifically at problem solving, collaboration, accessing and analyzing
information, and curiosity and imagination, it is easy to see the impact that equipment
donations from Intel have on schools such as Don Bosco. This observation led to the third
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
theme for this research question, which was the implementation of 21st-century skills for
increased human capital.
In order to preserve human and democratic rights, as well as to prepare citizens
who are ready for the new global economy, the framework of 21st-century skills by
Wagner (2008) was developed to guide educators, education leaders, and policy makers.
This framework outlines basic skills, as listed above, that each student must have to be
competitive in the global knowledge economy. The 21st-century skills framework calls
for teaching core subjects, learning specific skills, mastering 21st-century tools, looking
at knowledge from a 21st-century context, learning 21st-century content, and using new
assessment measures (Wagner, 2008).
In order to understand the importance that the 21st century has in schools and
nations, several key players in Costa Rican education were interviewed. The first was Dr.
Garnier, the Minister of Education. He explained that the Costa Rican work force has
changed and so must the education of its people.
We’ve done a lot of things but I’ll only mention a few. One thing we did with the
high school Spanish curriculum. We smuggled a logics course into the Spanish
curriculum. So from 7th to 11th grade, you would go from understanding
language, natural cultural arguments, valid, invalid, fallacies all the way to p then
q. The Spanish teachers were very scared when they heard what seemed like
equations. The point is that if you don’t understand logic, you cannot have critical
thought. It’s been very interesting. We’ve had 4 years of now trying to do that.
We’ll have to wait 4-5 more years to see if the students who enter universities
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
have a better ability to confront arguments, to read the papers and to listen to the
news and advertisements to be able to decide if it is logical or not. So that’s one
example. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
He also mentioned making specific connections to Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century
skills of agility and adaptability and initiative and entrepreneurialism, commenting that
through these skills students will be remain competitive in the global economy:
The next example: Someone comes to the Ministry and says, “We’re going to
change music, arts, physical education, civics, which are the least important
subjects.” One of the reasons to start our plan with those subject areas is that they
are the least important so you have the least opposition, which is nice when
you’re starting. The second reason is that we didn’t think they were the least
important. This goes to your previous question: I think the country of Costa Rica,
if we are to be competitive in the world, arts, design, and creativity are essential.
You don’t compete in cheap clothing, you compete in designer clothing. (personal
interview, June 25, 2013)
A survey of 171 teachers in primary and secondary Costa Rican schools where
Intel plays a role as an education partner yielded responses to questions that pertained to
students being ready for college and or career. Figure 6 shows that the large majority of
surveyed teachers (126/171) agreed or strongly agreed that schools in Costa Rica are
preparing students for college and or career. All 14 teachers surveyed at Don Bosco
Technical High School agreed or strongly agreed with this statement.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95

Figure 6. Teacher responses to survey statement that students are college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
Discussion for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs? Comparable to the Age of Discovery, the Renaissance, and the Industrial
Revolution, the Knowledge Age and Knowledge Economy are a tipping point in human
history (Gladwell, 2000). Learning goals and objectives for the new century are being
reshaped by the globalization phenomenon (Snape, 2012). Globalization is affecting the
policies of nation-states, specifically policies pertaining to education, because it is
through this vehicle that citizens are prepared for the new global knowledge economy
(Bottery, 2006). Thus, leadership in education must fit the new demands.
Organizational theory of leadership and organizations as described by Bolman
and Deal (2008) presents a multiframe model of four frames: (a) structural, (b) human
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
resource, (c) political, and (d) symbolic. All four frames contain features that are utilized
in representation and approaches for attaining goals of success within organizations. The
structural frame posited by Bolman and Deal (2008) argues for putting people in the right
roles and relationships within an organization. When properly accomplished, the
structural frame can accommodate both collective goals and individual differences.
The predominant theme emerging from this research question was that leadership
for policy and change has become a shared endeavor. When speaking to Mary Helen
Bialas of Intel Corporation regarding how the focus of education and leadership at
schools are changing, she commented,
I think it’s in the process of a change . . . . That some schools where you’ll see
there’s a definite knowledge and interest on part of the leadership that there has to
be a change. They’re not sure how to make that change yet and they’re working
with it. In general, you know, like the poorer schools in the country. We’re still
very much on a memorizing-based curriculum, although there are many initiatives
from the Ministry of Education to try to create a new process or change and bring
in same core base learning and to bring in project base learning a lot and
definitely bring in technology. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
She commented on the changes taking place in education leadership as a result of Intel’s
influence but noted that the changes often take place very slowly and vary by institution:
I think there’s definitely an interest in a part of the Ministry of Education. . .
where there are actually observable changes. It’s more institutional. It’s institution
by institution and it’s sometimes classrooms by classrooms. Some teachers doing
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special efforts to do things and change things and others are just going with the
status quo. (personal interview, June 27, 2013)
In the survey, 171 teachers (14 of them at Don Bosco Technical High School)
were asked to respond to the following statements regarding leadership at their school
sites: (a) School site leaders communicate the goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students, and (b) school site leaders are active participants in the
implementation of 21st-century skills. Figure 7 illustrates the results, which show that the
large majority agreed or strongly agreed that school site leaders communicate the goals
and visions of the school to teachers and students.

Figure 7. Teacher responses to survey statement that school site leaders communicate the
goals and visions of the school to teachers and students.
When asked about communication of goals and vision of the school by the leader,
67% (115) of the teachers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. When asked
about school site leaders being active participants in the implementation of 21st-century
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
skills, 66% (113) agreed or strongly agreed with the statement (Figure 8). When
comparing other schools to Don Bosco on the same two survey questions, 100% of their
teachers (14) agreed or strongly agreed with both statements.

Figure 8. Teacher responses to survey statement that school site leaders are active
participants in the implementation of 21st-century skills.
Mary Helen Bialas explained the perspective that many school leaders wanted
goods or physical resources, but she stated that the greatest resource or impact of Intel on
the leadership is the transfer of knowledge.
This Minister [Dr. Garnier] has made more initiatives, but I don’t think that was
just because of his vision of how the world works and the economy . . . he found
partnership with the multinationals and companies that can help support that
effort. I think there was always in the beginning a kind of leeriness. From coming
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
from education and looking at a maybe company, especially a big company. It’s
kind of like what are they . . . number one, it’s what can you give me. It’s like,
“give me money or give me a computer or give me something,” and that’s good,
but then walk away, right? I think that they’ve learned and I have to see the
school from lens when you visit them, if they feel it’s more of a partnership where
you can work on things together . . . . A lot of it is a transfer of knowledge.
(personal interview, June 27, 2013)
Garbiela Llobet, Director General for CINDE, added her perspective on the
influence of MNCs related to education leadership:
I would say that there has been quite a positive impact of how these companies,
when they have come to Costa Rica, have been able to join forces and really do a
lot of collaboration at the different levels. Either to address very specific needs or
think more macro type of level. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
Llobet continued, speaking specifically to Intel’s influence:
Intel is a clear example. Really when they . . . they’re a great example in many
aspects. One, they have resources. When I say the resources, they have Mary
Helen. Full time, dedicated to being that point of contact with the educational
system. You won’t find that in any other companies. You really won’t find that
nowhere in the world in particular. Yes, not only they are dedicating full-time
resources, but also they have very specific goals and they have metrics. They
want to work together to build a pipeline, to secure that there will be a pipeline in
certain areas of interests. (personal interview, June 24, 2013)
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Whenever leaders try to effect change, systemic challenges emerge. Utilizing
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework and looking through the human resource and
political lenses, some of the challenges faced by the Costa Rican education can be
understood. The human resource frame holds that people’s skills, attitudes, energy, and
commitment are vital resources that can make or break the goals of an organization. The
human resource frame works under the assumptions that (a) organizations exist to serve
human needs rather than the converse; (b) people and organizations need each other;
(c) when the fit between individual and system is poor, both suffer; and (d) a good fit
benefits both, in that individuals find satisfaction and the organization gets the talent and
energy that they need to succeed (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The political frame views organizations as roiling arenas that host ongoing
contests of individuals and group interests. The frame works under five propositions:
(a) Organizations are coalitions of assorted individuals and interest groups; (b) coalition
members have enduring differences in values, beliefs, information, interests, and
perceptions of reality; (c) most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources;
(d) scarce resources put conflict at the center of day-to-day dynamics; and (e) goals and
decision emerge from bargaining and negotiation among competing stakeholders
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Both of these frames explain Dr. Leonardo Garnier’s views on the leadership
challenges faced by Costa Rica’s education system, even with the support of Intel. He
explained that it is both part of the human resource frame and the political frame:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
We have a problem with universities especially. Two different problems. Public
universities in Costa Rica are better quality than the private universities. But
education faculties, even if public are better than the private ones they are very
conservative, very theoretical. It’s funny because they have the progressive
discourse, so they talk a lot about constructivism and Vygotsky and all those
things. They are always surprised because the economists should not know about
constructivism. (personal interview, June 25, 2013)
Minister Garnier is an economist by trade. He continued, regarding the challenges
faced:
The funny thing is that they’ve been talking about constructivism for 30 years and
they keep teaching the same way. So what we did is we did not talk about
constructivism, I usually do not like jargon, so we said “OK, kids have to solve
problems, kids have to ask questions, kids have to debate, they have to think and I
know that’s constructivism but I don’t want to use the word.” I think in the last 7
years we have done more for constructivism than all the educational faculty in the
last 20 years and I would guess that they don’t like that, but some day they will.
(personal interview, June 25, 2013)
Cristian Jimenez, administrator of Don Bosco Technical High School, agreed that
MNCs’ influence has been extensive in shaping the political frame and having the
capacity to influence investment in education.
The impact of the MNCs has a great weight on how the political level unfolds
since the arrival of Intel, and from the time they establish; they have a great
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
economic impact at the national level. The arrival of these MNCs demands certain
elements from the government, and to keep them here we must be able to supply
them with these elements. That is why the ministry of education and science and
technology have been spending greater amounts of money in order to better the
Costa Rican education system. To me, this is the greatest impact that has unfolded
as a result of the arrival and leadership of the MNCs like Intel. (personal
interview, June 26, 2013)
Although MNCs such as Intel seem to be ready to partner with educational
organizations to better the education system, as explained by Cristian Jimenez, Mary
Helen Bialas, Dr. Garnier, and Gabriela Llobet, there still seem to be some roadblocks.
Dr. Garnier explained that some of the challenges are in the area of teacher training and
higher education, where leadership seems to be lacking, or is at least an area of
improvement. Dr Garnier explained:
The problem is that public universities are not as engaged as I would like in actual
teaching. You preach constructivism and critical thought. And the private
universities are very bad. The quality, they are selling degrees, not all but enough.
The problem is that the kind of teachers we receive at the Ministry are not very
good, so we have to spend a lot of money retraining the teachers, and that’s not
really fair. I mean, if you give a lot of money and students pay a lot of money to
private universities, at least they should prepare them for the classroom. But if we
have to spend more money to train them, then I guess we have to. (personal
interview, June 25, 2013)
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Chapter Summary
Educators in Costa Rica, the Ministry of Education, CINDE, Intel, and Don Bosco
share a vision of Costa Rica continuing to evolve into a knowledge-based economy. This
shared vision has enabled dynamic relationships. As a result of the shared vision and
collaboration by leading entities such as CINDE, Intel, and the Ministry of Education,
many positive outcomes are visible in the schools that were studied for this project,
especially Don Bosco Technical High School. There was a high level of access to and use
of technology, problem-based learning was highly visible, and incorporation of 21st-
century skills was evident in teaching and curriculum. Interest in and value for 21st-
century skills have led to policy changes in education nationally, as 21st-century skills
have been built into the national curriculum and are taught as part of Spanish classes.
These factors enable more Costa Ricans to enter higher-paying jobs with better working
conditions and enable Costa Rica’s economy to experience continual growth in the
knowledge-based industries.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
Chapter 5
Findings, Conclusions, and Implications
This chapter consists of five section. The first section contains a summary of this
research study. The second section is a review of the findings from the statistical analysis
of collected data. The third section presents conclusions based on the research questions
that guided the study. The fourth section presents practical suggestions or implications
for practitioners based on the study. The fifth section suggests on future research. The
chapter concludes with a summary of the dissertation.
Summary of the Study
Globalization is a term devised by economist Theodore Levitt (Spring, 2008) in
the 1980s to describe changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and
investments, which in turn affect large segments of the world’s population. Globalization
has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, of which schooling is a
part (Spring, 2008). Research in the area of how globalization is affecting education has
focused on understanding its impact on policy and curriculum changes (Apple, 2005;
Spring, 2008). This study looked at the impact of globalization in Costa Rica.
Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal crisis of
the 1980s (personal communication, M. A. Rodríguez, former President of Costa Rica,
March 5, 2013). Once known primarily for exporting crops, Costa Rica’s economy has
evolved to producing high-technology products. Due to a highly literate population and
an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract hi-
technology FDI to compete in an evolving global market. The resulting growth in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
technology as a major export, along with more high-technology MNCs such as IBM and
HP relocating to Costa Rica, has given new direction and opportunity to this small
Central American country (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s
responsibility to help students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills
has become increasingly more challenging (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Despite five national universities, 51
private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there are low rates of secondary graduation
and pursuit of higher education (Roman, 2012). As a result, there is a lack of knowledge-
ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica
(Roman, 2012).
A review of the literature led to development of three research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The literature review aided in developing interview questions for the
political/policy leader interview protocol (Appendix C), MNC leader interview protocol
(Appendix D), school site leader interview protocol (Appendix E), a classroom
observation protocol (Appendix F), and a teacher survey (Appendix G).
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Data collection led to the finding that education policy leaders in Costa Rica, such
as the Ministry of Education, MNCs such as CINDE and Intel, and educational
institutions such as Don Bosco share a vision of Costa Rica continuing to evolve into a
global knowledge-based economy. This shared vision has enabled dynamic relationships.
As a result of the shared vision and collaboration by leading entities such as CINDE,
Intel, and the Ministry of Education, many positive outcomes were visible in the schools
that were studied for this project, especially evident at Don Bosco Technical High
School. There was a high level of access to and use of technology, problem-based
learning was highly visible, and incorporation of 21st-century skills was evident in
teaching and curriculum (personal communication, Cristian Jimenez, administrator of
Don Bosco Technical High School, June 26, 2013). Interest in and value for 21st-century
skills have led to national policy changes in education as 21st-century skills have been
built into the national curriculum; as an example, critical thinking is taught as part of
Spanish classes (personal communication, Leonardo Garnier, Minister of Education, June
25, 2013). These factors enable more Costa Ricans to enter higher-paying jobs with better
working conditions and cause Costa Rica’s economy to experience continual growth in
the knowledge-based industries. However, in developing nations wishing to grow
economically, there are challenges such as labor strikes; during the visit, the research
team experienced a national strike.
During the data collection process a national 1-day strike was called by all of
Costa Rica’s labor unions. Public workers, health care, workers and others took to the
streets in peaceful protest, demanding better wages and a higher standard of living. This
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
democratic process did not hinder the data collection process, since all participants were
very cooperative and willing to reschedule. The research team was never in danger, given
the peaceful nature of the strike.
Review of the Findings
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? The first theme that emerged from the data related to this
research question was an increase in the number of MNCs in Costa Rica. Companies
such as Intel and Microsoft have established operations in Costa Rica and have invested
hundreds of millions of dollars in the country (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007; Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The presence of more than
200 MNCs (CINDE, 2010) has emphasized the need for the country’s education system
to prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based global economy.
A survey of 171 teachers in seven technical schools in Costa Rica that have
partnerships with the Intel Corporation indicated that MNCs, specifically Intel, play an
important role in the economy. Since Intel is one of the key players as part of a group of
MNCs that support schools, teachers were asked to identify the role of MNC in their
schools. One hundred thirty-five of 171 teachers (79%) indicated that their schools have
been positively influenced through the partnerships with Intel (Figure 4).
The impact has been greatest at schools such as Don Bosco, where the partnership
is strongest due to a high level of collaboration. All 14 teachers who were surveyed in the
technical schools that collaborate with Intel indicated that technology has been positively
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
influenced by Intel participation. All 14 teachers at Don Bosco also agreed or strongly
agreed that resources at their schools have been improved because of the partnership with
Intel. The impact of Intel is highly evident at Don Bosco. During observations conducted
at the school site on June 26 and 27, 2013, computers donated by Intel were observed, as
well as robotic arms, motherboards, and many other machines, all part of Intel’s
technology recycling program and technology change. These machines are taken apart by
the students, providing them a rich resource of components. The students utilize these
components to build projects in the classroom.
Mary Helen Bialas, the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager for
Intel, explained that, because of the influence of Intel, other MNCs found Costa Rica to
be an attractive investment location (personal communication, June 27, 2013). MNCs
have contributed to the changes that Costa Rica has experienced. Similarly, the interview
with Garbiela Llobet, Director General for CINDE, indicated that Costa Rica, through its
diverse and growing MNC sector, has been able to enhance and diversify the types of
products that Costa Rica produces and the types of services that they provide (personal
interview, June 24, 2013). Llobet explained that in 1985 Costa Rica exported a high
concentration of agricultural products, including bananas, coffee, sugar, and beefs;
although they continue to produce those products, thee products represent a smaller
percentage of the market. Llobet added that, today, Costa Rica is very big on the
production of electric and electronic industry, chemicals, metalwork, medical devices,
while at the same time preserving the environment.
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The Minister of Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, explained that Costa Rica’s
own sociopolitical trajectory, such as high wages, social security, investment in
education, and environmental restrictions, led to the increase in MNCs, specifically high-
technology MNCs such as Intel (personal interview, June 25, 2013). Had Costa Rica
taken a different path, for example, not abolishing the military, it would not have had the
capacity to invest as much in education and thus not be in the place it is today
economically and socially.
The second theme arising from this research question was the influence of Intel in
developing new paradigms, or as it has been called, the Intel Effect (World Bank Group,
2006). Christian Jimenez, administrator at Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco, explained that
paradigms such as improvements in laboratory safety and improvements in teaching
practices are difficult to realize; however, the support of MNCs such as Intel provides
him a greater voice. It was observed while visiting the site that students were refurbishing
nearly 100 personal computers. However, the computers were not for Don Bosco
students; rather, they were refurbishing computers so that schools that are not part of the
partnership with Intel can benefit from the donations and use of technology Intel makes
available. This is the type of innovative thinking that Christian Jimenez was referring to
when he spoke about how Intel has been helping in developing new paradigms and about
the results that this MNC has brought to Costa Rica (personal interview, June 26, 2013).
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The first theme to emerge
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
from this question was that the presence of MNCs has influenced the Costa Rican
education system. The 171 teachers at seven school sites in partnership with Intel
responded to a survey asking whether MNCs influence educational decisions; more than
66% (113) agreed or strongly agreed that MNCs influence educational decisions in the
country. The presence of more than 200 MNCs in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2010) has exerted
a perceived influence on the education decision process in the country, based on the
responses from the teachers.
Although the Costa Rican Minister of Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier, did not
state outright that MNCs are influencing decisions by educational leaders, he stated that
the school system must prepare students to enter a diverse work force (personal
interview, June 25, 2013). Based on the minister’s acknowledgment of the need to
prepare students to be competitive in the global economy, it can be concluded that
corporations have an influence on the education decision-making process.
The second theme that emerged from the second research question was the
partnerships between schools in Costa Rica and the Intel Corporation. Chief executive
officers from America’s most successful business firms have declared that high schools
must prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based global economy (World Bank
Group, 2006). They contend that students must develop critical 21st-century skills and
understand globalization and its effects on societies, cultures, and the world’s economy
(Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008).
In order to develop these understandings, competencies, and skills, schools in
Costa Rica formed partnerships with corporations, specifically the Intel Corporation. In a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
survey of 171 teachers at seven Costa Rican schools partnered with the Intel Corporation,
122 (70%+) responded that the Intel Corporation has positively influenced their schools
and increased their resources; all 14 teachers at Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco agreed with
this statement. Christian Jimenez has witnessed, due to the partnership with Intel, the
abundance of resources that the corporation has provided their school. Mr. Jimenez
referred to a before-and-after comparison related to Intel’s partnership with Don Bosco,
explaining that, before Intel, the school would not have been able to provide students
with the level of technology that it currently possesses (personal interview, June 26,
2013).
Dr. Garnier, the Minister of Education, explained that the Costa Rican work force
has changed and so must the education of its people. Dr. Garnier explained that the
system now includes logic in the high school Spanish curriculum. He explained that
students in Grades 7 through 11 go from understanding language, natural cultural
arguments, and valid and invalid fallacies all the way to p then q (personal interview,
June 25, 2013). He also explained that the Spanish teachers were hesitant when they
heard what seemed like equations. He observed that, if one does not understand logic,
one cannot exercise critical thought—a significant skill in developing a 21st-century
citizen (Wagner, 2008).
The survey of 171 teachers in primary and secondary Costa Rican schools where
Intel plays a role as an education partner showed that 126 of 171 surveyed teachers
agreed or strongly agreed that students were prepared for college and/or career by Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112
Rican schools. All 14 teachers surveyed at Don Bosco Technical High School agreed or
strongly agreed that students are prepared for college and/or career.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs? The predominant theme emerging from this research question was that leadership
for policy and change has become a shared endeavor. Mary Helen Bialas of the Intel
Corporation, speaking about how the focus of education and leadership at schools are
changing, commented about the current process of change. She noted that Costa Rica’s
education system is still very much a memory-based curriculum, although there are many
initiatives on the part of the Ministry of Education to create a new process or to bring in
some core-based learning and project-based learning (personal interview, June 27, 2013).
When 171 teachers were asked about how school leaders communicate goals and
the vision of the school, 67% (115) agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that the
leaders communicated the school’s goals and objectives. When they were asked about
school site leaders being active participants in the implementation of 21st-century skills,
66% (113) agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. When comparing other schools
to Don Bosco in the same two survey questions, all 14 teachers agreed or strongly agreed
with both statements.
Gabriela Llobet elaborated regarding Intel’s influence at schools by citing that the
greatest resource the corporation has been Mary Helen Bialas. Llobet explained that a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113
full-time employee dedicated to being the point of contact with the educational system is
unique to Intel (personal interview, June 27, 2013).
Although MNCs such as Intel seem to be ready to enter into partnerships with
educational organizations to improve the education system, as explained by Cristian
Jimenez, Mary Helen Bialas, Dr. Garnier, and Gabriela Llobet, and as witnessed through
observations and the teacher survey, there still seem to be some roadblocks (personal
interviews, June 25, 26, 27, 2013). Dr. Garnier noted that some of the challenges are in
the area of teacher training and higher education. He stated that the university system
uses terminology such as the constructivist approach and preaches it to their students in
teacher training courses; however, they do very little in practicality and training of
teachers to develop and train educators in the constructivist approach. One of the tenets
of 21st-century education is creating a global citizen who is ready for the demands of
MNCs and the knowledge age global economy (Rotherham & Willingham, 2009; Silva,
2008; Wagner, 2008). In order to achieve this, these corporations are starting with
training teachers to think and teach differently, to learn to collaborate, and to look for
innovative ways to teach, such as student-centered approaches to learning (Rotherham &
Willingham, 2009).
Conclusions
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? Costa Rica’s economy has evolved as a result of a series
of sociopolitical changes in the country. When the government of Costa Rica abolished
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
the military in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a greater emphasis was placed on the
education of its citizens (CINDE, 2010). Currently, more than 6% of the GDP is invested
in the education system, per Constitutional mandate.
These dynamic changes have led to a highly literate workforce, a stronger system
of social security, and higher wages than any other country in the region. For that reason,
it was imperative that the government look for ways to attract MNCs and FDI that could
move this small agricultural nation to the global platform. Dr. Garnier, the current
Minister of Education, said it best when he told the research team that, to have a
successful nation, “You don’t compete in cheap clothing, you compete in designer
clothing” (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
Today, Costa Rica competes in designer microchips, as evidenced by the presence
of the multinational Intel Corporation, which established in Costa Rica in 1996, investing
300 million dollars (World Bank Group, 2006). Mary Helen Bialas, the Academic
Relations and Education Program Manager for Intel, explained that the Intel Corporation
is the type of company that attracts other companies (personal interview, June 27, 2013).
She explained that the government and other agencies used the Costa Rican plant to
demonstrate how other corporations could invest in the country. This is evident by the
current presence of more than 200 MNCs in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2010).
School administrator Cristian Jimenez explained that MNCs such as Intel not only
contribute but have also broken paradigms and created new and better paradigms
(personal interview, June 26, 2013). His partnership with Intel has given him a greater
voice and a stronger platform so that he may advocate for his students and bring about
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
curricular and instructional changes that benefit his students. This benefit translates into
an education that prepares students for the 21st-century work force. Since these students
live in one of the poorest areas of San Jose, Costa Rica, this type of multinational
employment is key for them to move their families out of poverty.
Intel’s need for an educated work force and a constant pipeline of sophisticated
21st-century employees, the profit generation mindset of a corporation, combined with
Costa Rica’s need for viable employment for its citizens, forced the government to enact
corporate-friendly policy that attracted FDI and eventually to enact changes in curriculum
to keep the MNCs in the country. Depending on the lens from which globalization is
viewed, these policies may be good for a nation but not for individual citizens of that
nation if the changes challenge their capacity to live in a distinct milieu (Spring, 2008;
Torres, 2002). Both the needs of the corporation and the needs of the individual must be
viewed and weighed carefully, and the role of agency must not be forgotten (Torres,
2002). Individual rights, liberties, and individual unique cultural lifestyles should be
carefully balanced along with the capacity to provide education and employment to
people who want to improve their economic condition. The Ticos, as the people of Costa
Rican are commonly known, should not jeopardize their way of life to comply with the
demands of an MNC; on the other hand, their financial needs and capacity to compete in
a globalized market must be met. A careful and delicate balance must be reached.
Dr. Garnier explained that a country should use FDI to allow time to develop the
country’s own resources and ideas, for example, their own human capital. He commented
that this is still very weak and lacking in Costa Rica (personal interview, June 25, 2013).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
The impact of spillovers in countries such as Costa Rica has been minimal, even though
FDI in the technology manufacturing sector in Costa Rica has extended farther than in
any other Latin American nation (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The stock of competencies,
knowledge, and social and personality attributes, including creativity, embodied in the
ability to perform labor to produce economic value is human capital (Schultz, 1961). In
order for a nation to move forward economically in the knowledge age global economy,
it must prepare its citizens, its human capital, to become 21st-century global citizens
(Wagner, 2008). Developing nations such as Costa Rica can be challenged in preparing
citizens for the global economy because they may lack the resources that more developed
nations such as the United States possess. Building partnerships with MNCs in the
country to benefit both the institutions and the MNCs is one ways to close this gap
(Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
The Intel Corporation has entered into partnerships with many schools, such as
Colegio Tecnico Don Bosco, or Don Bosco High School. It is through this partnership, as
explained by Cristian Jimenez, that they have seen significant and positive change for the
school. The symbiotic relationship has created a much-needed pipeline of workers for the
MNC and has caused a spillover effect (Paus & Gallagher, 2008) for the high school with
physical resources, as well as knowledge and skills.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
The relationship supports the world cultures theoretical framework for
globalization lens, which seeks to understand the ideals of globalization, one of them
being the education of all citizens. It is though these types of partnerships that students
from all socioeconomic backgrounds, specifically those living on the fringes of society,
are afforded a world-class education that prepares them for the 21st-century global
economy. Further, the partnership affords those involved or affected by the partnership
the capacity to continue their style of living or distinct milieu that Torres (2002) warned
about. These students maintain their cultural heritage, traditions, and language and,
through the support of the partnership with Intel and the leadership at Don Bosco, they
enhance and develop new proficiencies that prepare them with a range of 21st-century
skills, not just Intel skills.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs? The knowledge age and knowledge economy are a tipping point in human history
(Gladwell, 2000). Learning goals and objectives for the new century are being reshaped
by the globalization phenomenon (Snape, 2012). Globalization is affecting the policies of
nation-states, specifically policies pertaining to education, because it is through this
vehicle that citizens are prepared for the new global knowledge economy (Bottery, 2006).
Educators who are ready for the 21st century must have ecological and political
awareness; that is, they must understand factors beyond their institutions that constrain
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
and drive their practice. Without this awareness, professionals are blind to the changes
that affect their societies and their practices (Bottery, 2006).
In Costa Rica these 21st-century changes are evident at schools such as Don
Bosco. Following Wagner’s (2008) and Salpeter’s (2003) recommendations as a
framework for analysis, the following conclusions were reached with regard to how the
leadership has been influenced as a result of globalization and MNCs:
1. Teaching of core subjects that goes beyond “basic competency” to
understanding the core academic content at much higher levels. For example, in Costa
Rica the curriculum was adapted to include logic in the Spanish language arts curriculum.
2. Learning skills. Students learn how to use their knowledge and skills by
thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information,
comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, and making
decisions. At Don Bosco, this is evident in the learn-by-doing approach that Cristian
Jimenez, the main administrator at the school site, discussed and that was observed by the
researcher in the classroom.
3. Twenty-first-century tools. Learning for the 21st century emphasizes the
importance of incorporating information and communication technologies into education,
beginning in the elementary grades. At a school such as Don Bosco, the partnership has
greatly benefited the school site with respect to this domain.
4. Twenty-first-century context. This context includes experiences that are
relevant to students’ lives, connected with the world beyond the classroom, and based on
authentic projects. Students at Don Bosco were observed to be given real-world
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
challenges, where their content knowledge and research and collaborative skills had to be
used to solve problems.
5. Twenty-first-century content. Certain content essential for preparing students to
live and work in a 21st-century world is missing from many state and local standards in
the United States, including world languages and the arts. In Costa Rica, foreign language
instruction in languages such as English, Portuguese, and Mandarin (the main languages
used by their trade and business partners) is taught. The languages are not simply taught
in isolation; in the technical classes students apply their knowledge of English because
most of the manuals that they read were originally written in English.
6. New assessments that measure 21st-century skills. These include moving
beyond standardized testing as the sole measure of student learning, balancing traditional
tests with classroom assessments to measure the full range of students’ skills, and using
technology-based assessments to deliver immediate feedback. Although students were
observed to be taking traditional paper-and-pencil assessments at Don Bosco, the
assessments were not just multiple choice; they included a variety of open-ended
questions. This was in addition to portfolio assessment and project-based learning.
These curricular changes were possible because leaders such as Cristian Jimenez
are strong advocates for change. Northouse (2003) called this type of leadership
transformational leadership because it focuses on the needs, growth, values, and morals
of the followers. The followers in this case are the students, families, and stakeholders
who are directly influenced by the changes in curriculum (personal interview, June 26,
2013). Leaders at Don Bosco Technical High School and Intel have demonstrated what
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
can happen when transformation leadership occurs effectively. They have demonstrated
what can be accomplished when what Bottery (2006) called educators ready for the 21st
century come together to collaborate and understand the needs and demands of their
societies.
Implications
One of the strengths of this study was the collaboration between the Intel
Corporation and schools such as Don Bosco Technical High School. This type of
partnership is a great benefit to any institution, especially schools that serve students of
low socioeconomic status. However, what is significant about this partnership is that the
MNC did not just hand over resources or write a check and walk away; the MNC is a true
partner with the school. The MNC aligned collaboration with the school to meet the
needs and demands of the school. Further, their goals were aligned, and so a true
partnership that benefited both was formed.
Schools that wish to form these types of partnerships must find corporate partners
where the needs and goals of the school are aligned with the needs and goals of their
corporate partner. In this fashion, the corporation and the school are symbiotically
helping one another. The MNC ensures that it will have a pipeline of knowledge- ready
workers who can enter that MNC’s workforce. The school benefits from resources,
knowledge, and skills that can be allocated to help the school be successful.
The second implication for practice is the need for greater emphasis in the
development of 21st-century skills. Wagner (2008) explained that students must possess
specific skills that go beyond content knowledge in order to meet the demands and rigors
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
of the global knowledge economy. He described seven key survival skills that students
must master to succeed and solve some of the most pressing issues and challenges of the
21st century: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration and leadership,
(c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and
written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
At Don Bosco, students are taught these skills in a systematic three-step way:
Students go from knowing, to knowing how, to knowing how to be. The knowing
component is the content knowledge that students acquire, such as foreign languages,
technology, mathematics, history, science, and so forth. The knowing how component is
the application of this knowledge to solve real-world problems. For example, students at
Don Bosco fixed a computer based on the technical knowledge that they had acquired but
had to also apply their knowledge of the English language to read the technical manuals.
This is where project-based learning comes into play. The knowing how to be component
represents soft skills, such as collaboration, curiosity, and imagination. It is through these
elements that students will be successful and prepared for their future in the 21st-century
global economy.
The third implication for practice pertains to the way in which the leader
communicates the goals of the organization and is the right fit for the organization. A
school can form a partnership with an MNC such as Intel and implement curricular
changes such as 21st-century skills; however, if the leader is not the right fit, both the
individuals and the organization suffer (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
The framework for leadership and reframing organizations by Bolman and Deal
(2008) includes a human resource frame. The human resource frame holds that people’s
skills, attitudes, energy, and commitment are vital resources that can make or break the
goals of an organization. The human resource frame works under the assumptions that
(a) organizations exist to serve human needs rather than the converse; (b) people and
organizations need each other; (c) when the fit between individual and system is poor,
both suffer; and (d) a good fit benefits both; individuals find satisfaction and the
organization gets the talent and energy that they need to succeed (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Although at schools such as Don Bosco and in the Ministry of Education, goals
and expectations are communicated, as evidenced by the Ministry’s website and teacher
survey responses from Don Bosco, there seems to be a gap in this area at other school
sites that were studied and are partnered with the Intel Corporation. The overall survey
responses regarding the leader communicating goals showed that 67% and 66% of the
surveyed teachers agreed or strongly agreed that their school site leaders were active
participants in the implementation of 21st-century skills. The gap may be due to a lack of
knowledge in how to lead organizations effectively (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
In order to move the organization forward, schools need strong leaders. James
Eicher (2005), in his leadership self-assessment book, provided definitions of leadership
versus management. He explained that, when action is required based on future needs, a
leader is required. By contrast, a manager with management skills is needed to meet
current needs. The author stated that the effective leader must be able to communicate
organization direction, develop key relationships, and inspire others, while a manager
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
must direct operations, develop the organization, and reinforce performance (Eicher,
2005). When dealing with matters of globalization and education, the need for leaders,
not managers, has never been greater (Wagner, 2008).
Future Research
Further research should examine implications in the areas of agency and the
decision-making process in a globalized society. How could decision makers and leaders
balance the needs of a globalized economy and individual rights? Also, it would be
helpful to study how MNCs with Western ideals and points of views are reshaping the
ways in which people in other societies live. For example, the researchers observed fast
food establishments to be as prominent in Costa Rica as they are in the United States.
This is a new phenomenon and a new change for this country, and the effects of these
dietary changes are yet to be known.
Summary
Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal crisis of
the 1980s (personal communication, M. A. Rodriguez, former President of Costa Rica,
March 5, 2013). Once a country known primarily for exporting crops, Costa Rica’s
economy has evolved to that of producing high-technology products. Due to a highly
literate population and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was
implemented to attract hi-technology FDI to compete in an evolving global market. The
resulting growth in technology as a major export, along with more high-technology
MNCs such as IBM and HP relocating to Costa Rica, has given new direction and
opportunity to this small Central American country (CINDE, 2010; Paus & Gallagher,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124
2008). As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s
responsibility to help students to develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills
has become increasingly more challenging (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado,
2007; Paus & Gallagher, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Despite five national universities, 51
private universities, and a 95% literacy rate, there remain low rates of secondary
graduation and pursuit of higher education in the country (Roman, 2012). As a result,
there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job
opportunities in Costa Rica (Roman, 2012).
The purpose of this case study was to understand the effect of globalization and
MNCs on educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in the
development and implementation of policy changes seen in major national education
initiatives. In addition, the study determined that these initiatives are producing greater
numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that builds human capital
that is capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Chief executive officers from America’s most successful business firms have
declared that high schools must prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based
global economy (World Bank Group, 2006). They contend that students must develop
critical 21st-century skills and understand globalization and its effects on societies,
cultures, and the world’s economy (Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008). This study was
designed and conducted to identify best practices utilized in schools in Costa Rica to
close this global knowledge gap.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125
Through classroom observations, a survey of teachers, and interviews of school
leaders at schools partnered with the Intel Corporation, corporate leaders at Intel, and
Costa Rican government leaders, three research questions were addressed:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools and
universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that
came as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This study demonstrated that the impact of globalization and MNCs in developing
nations such as Costa Rica is an ever-evolving phenomenon. Educators in Costa Rica are
working toward preparing students for the demands of MNCs and the global knowledge
age economy. Through partnerships with MNCs, schools in low socioeconomic areas of
San Jose, Costa Rica, have greater resources, both resources and knowledge, to prepare
their students. As educators, corporate leaders, and national leaders in Costa Rica
continue to grapple with current global changes affecting their nation, students must be
prepared with 21st-century skills. Increasing knowledge-ready human capital in Costa
Rica will be paramount to the continued development and success of this small Central
American nation.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
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Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Education

Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation
process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and multi-
national corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our study is
asking the following questions:

1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of
globalization and multinational corporations?

2. What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study, we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey and
interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly.
We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence
possible to go over the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,

Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134
Appendix B
Recruitment/Consent Letter

Date

Dear ,

Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed in
this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that may
shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools in
Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educational
leadership and 21st-century skills.

My name is Xxx Xxx, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direction and
guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study, please
sign the consent below.

Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to withdraw
at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anonymous
by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be presented in a
manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identified.

If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact Xxx Xxx or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.

Sincerely,

Xxx Xxx and Dr. Michael F. Escalante, Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu

I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate in
a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.

Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
Appendix C
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and
universities that promote access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 138
Appendix D
MNC Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education
system in Costa Rica?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 139

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the
21st century?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 140
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 141
Appendix E
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:

[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]

During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.

I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have
an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?

This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before
we begin?

I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you
about your background.

1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?

2. How long have you been in your position?

II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a
result of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica
as a result of globalization?

2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?

3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 142
factors in Costa Rica?

4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in
Costa Rica?

5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in
Costa Rica?

6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?

III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication)

2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?

3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected
educational policy?

4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to
Intel’s involvement?

5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?

IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?

2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?

3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of
Intel?

4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?

5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-
century educational demands?

6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century
skills in the classroom? How?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 143
V. STEM Questions
1. What evidence of science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics can be seen in your curriculum?
2. How has the partnerships with Intel impacted the areas of science,
technology, engineering and mathematics?
3. How has the minister of education supported the emphasis on
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics?
4. What other types of supports do you receive that help prepare your
teachers to implement science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics curricula?
5. Do you believe that STEM education is important to the economic
future of Costa Rica?
VI. Document Collection

Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 144
Appendix F
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ______________________

Location of Observer: Observer:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically
toward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

2. Collaboration by students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 145

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

4. Lessons promote higher-level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 146

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

8. Students are engaged in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 147

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

9. Students desks are set up in a
collaborative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know

10. Student-centered instruction is evident
in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 148
Appendix G
Survey Protocol for Teachers
Date: Location of Survey:
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.

4

3

2

1

0
2. Collaboration among students takes
place daily.

4

3

2

1

0

3. You have been trained to integrate
technology into your instruction.

4

3

2

1

0

4. Technology is used by students in your
classroom at least weekly.

4

3

2

1

0

5. Lessons promote higher-level thinking.

4

3

2

1

0

6. Curriculum reflects 21st-century skills
such as critical thinking, collaboration,
and communication.

4

3

2

1

0

7. There is access to technology in the
classroom.

4

3

2

1

0

8. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.

4

3

2

1

0

9. Intel has improved resources at your
school site.

4

3

2

1

0

10. Students are provided the opportunity
to be college and/or career ready with
21st-century skills.

4

3

2

1

0

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 149

Question
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
11. Teachers are encouraged to implement
21st-century skills in the classroom.

4

3

2

1

0

12. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate 21st-
century learning.

4

3

2

1

0

13. Educational decisions are influenced
by multinational corporations.

4

3

2

1

0

14. School site leaders are active partici-
pants in implementation of 21st-century
skills.

4

3

2

1

0

15. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students.

4

3

2

1

0

16. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to site leaders.

4

3

2

1

0

17. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to teachers.

4

3

2

1

0

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the effects of globalization and the involvement of multinational corporations (MNCs) on leadership and the development of 21st‐century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica for increased human capital. This study determined how globalization and MNCs have affected policy decisions. MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco began to invest in education in Costa Rica in 1994 in order to increase the number of knowledge‐based workers in Costa Rica. This new economic demand for Costa Rica has led to policy changes for the education system, including a change in the Costa Rican Constitution to provide at least 6% of the nation’s gross domestic product to education. ❧ The Ministry of Education has detailed this educational vision by developing a focus on a new set of aims and objectives to produce students equipped with 21st‐century skills, capable of competing in the diverse, knowledge-based global economy. ❧ The research team of 12 doctoral students, led by Dr. Michael F. Escalante, studied the impact of globalization and MNCs on the school system in Costa Rica and its implications for educational leaders. The data collection process for this qualitative case study include use of various instruments such as a survey, interviews, observations, and document analysis. The use of multiple sources helped to triangulate data and increase the validity of the findings.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Puccio, Sebastian A. (author)

Core Title The transformative effect of the Intel Corporation on Costa Rica’s schools: a case study of how educational leaders in Costa Rica’s schools are preparing students to meet the demands of multinati...

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/08/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st Century,21st century skills,Costa Rica,Education,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair)

Creator Email puccio@usc.edu,sebastianpuccio@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-375046

Unique identifier UC11295128

Identifier etd-PuccioSeba-2330.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-375046 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PuccioSeba-2330.pdf

Dmrecord 375046

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Puccio, Sebastian A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA