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Addressing the challenges for teachers of English learners in a California elementary school using the gap analysis approach

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Addressing the challenges for teachers of English learners in a California elementary school using the gap analysis approach

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Content Running head: CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 1
ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS IN A
CALIFORNIA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL USING THE GAP ANALYSIS APPROACH
by
Laura S. Sacks

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2013
Copyright 2013 Laura S. Sacks
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 2
Table of Contents
List of Tables 3
List of Figures 4
Abstract 5
Chapter One: Introduction 6
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 15
Chapter Three: Methodology 44
Chapter Four: Results 70
Chapter Five: Solutions and Implementation 100
Chapter Six: Discussion 125
References 137
Appendices
A: California Standards Tests, Grade 3 English Language Arts 147
B: Elementary Walkthrough Feedback 152
C: Interview Questions 154
D: Survey Questions 155
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 3
List of Tables
Table 2.1. California students meeting standardized testing criterion 19
Table 2.2. Services for EL students in California 22
Table 3.1. Comparison of benchmarks with actual achievement, 2009-2011 55
Table 3.2. Possible causes of performance gap: Knowledge and skills 61
Table 3.3. Summary of assumed causes for knowledge, motivation, and organization 65
Table 5.1. Summary of causes, solutions, and solution implementation 119
Table 5.2. Organizational, cascading, and performance goals for third grade teachers 123
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 4
List of Figures
Figure 3.1. Gap analysis process 48
Figure 3.2. Federal performance benchmarks for ELA achievement, 2001-2014 54
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 5
Abstract
This case study applies the Gap Analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) approach in order to (a) analyze
the challenges and barriers in knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture (b)
determine causes of these challenges (c) identify and implement solutions by which third grade
teachers can improve the achievement of their English learners (EL) in English language arts.
This study focused on teachers at El Dorado Elementary School as its sample population. As a
case study employing both qualitative and quantitative research methods, this study provides an
understanding of the complex socio-cultural landscape in a single elementary school and how
numerous factors converge to impact the educational experience for students. Mixed methods
were used to collect survey data from thirteen participants and interview data from six
participants to identify and validate the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization root
causes that may contribute to the third grade teachers’ impact on EL student achievement. Study
findings illuminated gaps in teachers’ knowledge and skills and motivation; additionally, findings
revealed organizational barriers preventing teachers from performing their jobs well. Based on
the findings, research-based solutions are presented to address the challenges. This study
demonstrates how school sites and other organizations may apply the Gap Analysis framework to
identify and solve performance issues.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
In 2011, one out of every three elementary school students in California attended school
knowing limited to no English and therefore could not participate in mainstream English
instruction (CDE, 2011). Nationwide, English learners (ELs) represent the fastest-growing
segment of the school-age population (Harper & de Jong, 2004). Roughly 85% of California’s
EL students are Spanish-speaking; many of these students come from homes with poor
immigrant parents with limited schooling in their native language (Rueda, 2011). The students’
academic challenges are profound, and those challenges are reflected in their academic
achievement. Only 38.7% of English learners scored proficient or above on the 2011 California
Standards Test (CST) for English/language arts. The federal benchmark established by the 2001
legislative act No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was 67.6%. Our failure to adequately educate such
a fast-growing and significant percentage of our population has had profound implications.
The United States is losing footing in the international educational arena. According to
the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development’s (OECD) report on high school
graduation rates (2009), the US ranked 21st out of 26 OECD countries; the US ranks well below
the top-performing countries of Slovenia and Portugal (96%) and Japan and Finland (95%).
During the 2008-09 school year, US public high school graduation rates were 75.5%; these rates
have remained virtually unchanged since 1990-91, when the rate was 73.7% (NCES, 2012).
Nearly half of all students learning English leave school without a high school diploma
(Bos, Sanchez, Tseng, Rayyes, Ortiz, & Sinicrope, 2012). Low graduation rates represent severe
economic implications for all US citizens, not just those who do not receive a high school
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 7
diploma. For every year of average schooling of a population, there is a 3.7% increase in long-
term economic growth. The average number of years of schooling is continually declining in the
United States while steadily growing in industrialized nations throughout Europe and Asia.
Additionally, some 70% of US jobs today require specialized skills and training beyond
high school. In relation to these standards, a growing number of US citizens are unemployable;
these populations become increasingly vulnerable to reliance on public assistance programs or
become ensnared within the prison system. The United States has seen many industries filling
high-tech jobs with individuals educated overseas (Garcia, 2002). Given the significant rise in
minority and immigrant populations and US society’s failure to provide sufficient educational
opportunities that help ensure these populations become productive citizens, the future of all US
citizens will be increasingly determined by the society’s capacity and drive to provide quality
education for all children (Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Not only must students obtain at minimum a high school education and specialized skills
in order to participate in the 21st century job market, they must also achieve advanced English
proficiency. Their very livelihood depends on preferably near-native proficiency in the dominant
social language of the United States (CDE, 2010). Without these skills, opportunities are
arguably scarce: the living-wage manufacturing, manual labor, and agricultural jobs from a
generation ago have been replaced with minimum-wage service jobs of today (Verdugo & Flores,
2007).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 8
Context of the Problem
In the Southern California unified school district in 2011, achievement for English
learners was 45.6% proficient or above, slightly higher than the state’s average. 78% of English-
only students scored proficient or above.
In addition to the moral imperative to provide a quality education for all students, under
the statewide accountability system mandated by the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001,
the district as a whole and for each of its 35 schools must meet yearly minimum rates of student
proficiency on standardized tests or face governmental sanctions. Students learning English are
expected to obtain proficiency in the academic content taught in schools while at the same time
acquiring near-native fluency in English. Academic content proficiency is measured by the
California Standards Test (CST), and English proficiency is measured by the California English
Language Development Test (CELDT). 2011 marked the fourth consecutive year that the
district failed to meet minimum benchmark proficiency rates for EL students as measured by the
English language arts portion of CST. Consequently, the district was required to submit to the
County Board of Education (CBE) a written plan outlining research-based strategies it would
implement in order to improve academic achievement in the district’s English learners.
El Dorado Elementary School
One of district’s 24 elementary schools, El Dorado
1
is located in the southern tip of the
95-square-mile school district, in an upper-middle-class neighborhood comprising single-family

1
To ensure the anonymity of study participants, the names of the school and district have been
changed.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 9
homes. There are two low-income apartment complexes within two miles of the school. Of the
478 students at El Dorado, 24.9% are English learners. The school’s ethnic breakdown:
• 5.4% Asian;
• 36% Hispanic or Latino;
• 50.4% White;
• 8.2% Other or Declined to State.
El Dorado’s census classification is the urban fringes of a large city. There are 17 teachers, 15
classified staff members, one principal, and one part-time school psychologist. Teachers are all
fully credentialed, with a minimum of 14 years to a maximum of over 30 years teaching
experience. Family involvement is strong: 80% belong to the Parent Teacher Association (PTA);
90% attend teacher conferences; thousands of hours of volunteer time are logged yearly; and the
PTA provides arts, music, and science programs in addition to funding the library media clerk’s
salary and fulfilling capital expenditures such as school computers.
At El Dorado Elementary School, the percentage of English learners in grades 2 through
6 that scored proficient on the English language arts portion of the CST in 2011 was 46.1%, one-
half of one percentage point higher than the district rate of 45.6%. El Dorado English-only
students scored 84%. Elementary school and early literacy instruction form the foundation of a
child’s academic future (CDE, 2007). Without sufficient English language acquisition and solid
reading comprehension and writing skills, student achievement suffers (Echevarria & Short,
2010). Once students fall below proficiency on the CST, it can be very difficult for them to gain
the academic language necessary to catch up in the higher grades (Olsen, 2010). For these
reasons, it is important to provide all primary students with the language and skills that will carry
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 10
them to higher learning. Because English learners are typically one to two grade levels behind
their English-only peers, it is essential to provide systematic early intervention to ELs before the
prospect of closing the gap in academic achievement becomes much more challenging (Olsen,
2010).
This study’s focus is on third grade teachers at El Dorado Elementary School. The
research centers on teachers instead of students or parents because research has shown that the
most significant gains in student achievement occur when school communities focus on adult
actions, most importantly teacher actions (CDE, 2010; Hattie, 2009; Marzano, 2003; Marzano,
2007; Reeves, 2003; Schmoker, 2006). The study focuses on third grade teachers because in
California, the district, and at El Dorado, third graders’ achievement on the CST typically
decreases dramatically from the second grade. In 2011, 75% of all second graders at El Dorado
scored proficient or above, while 62% of all third graders scored proficient or above. Third
grade is a pivotal year as students are moving from learning to read to reading to learn, and
systematic reading instruction typically ends (CDE, 2008). Additionally, students in California
are expected to gain one year of English proficiency at each grade level as measured by the
CELDT: from beginning to early intermediate to intermediate to early advanced to advanced,
and then be redesignated “fluent English proficient” (CDE, 2011). Students in the district and El
Dorado typically reach the intermediate level by third grade, and then tend to stall at that level.
The problem may be further aggravated by the increase in third-grade class size from 20 students
to up to 32 (Parrish, Linquanti, Merikel, Quick, Laird, & Esra, 2006).
Every school in the district educates students that are learning English, with one out of
twelve elementary schools having a numerically significant number of English learners. Given El
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 11
Dorado’s student demographics, the school has an important impact on the district’s overall
achievement levels. Therefore, it is particularly incumbent on the teachers at El Dorado to carry
out the provisions in the district’s aforementioned written plan for the improvement of English
learners.
The provisions of the written plan that apply specifically to elementary teachers:
1. Teach 100% of the English/language arts content standards that are assessed by the
California Standards Test;
2. Provide 30 minutes of structured English language development (ELD) instruction
daily for students not yet proficient in English;
3. Implement specially-designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE)
instructional methods for content delivery;
4. Use assessment data to inform placement, instruction, and interventions.
These provisions will be discussed in more detail in Chapters Two and Three.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this mixed-method study is to use El Dorado Elementary School third
grade teachers as a case study and employ the gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011) in order to (a) analyze the challenges and barriers in knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational culture; (b) determine causes of these challenges; and (c) identify and implement
solutions by which by which the third grade teachers can improve the achievement of their
English learners in English language arts. By focusing on third grade teachers, the size of the
study remains manageable, and the format can be replicated for use in other grades and schools.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 12
Study Outline
This analysis will employ the discrepancy model. In this model, the organizational goals
are known and quantified, but individual goals are unmet (Smith & Ragan, 2005). El Dorado’s
organizational goal is to reduce the achievement gap of third grade English learners. For the
purposes of this study, the achievement gap is defined as the difference between the current
percent proficient of third grade EL students (28%) and the required benchmark proficiency as
determined by the English language arts portion of the California Standards Test (67.6%). This
study focuses primarily on Hispanic (or Latino), Spanish-speaking students from low-income
homes. The principal questions guiding the study:
1. What are the challenges in 3rd grade teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organizational issues that may affect the successful achievement of 3rd grade
ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
2. What are the potential solutions to address the 3rd grade teachers’ challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the
successful achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
Through analysis of the data from the study questions, a process will be recommended by which
the local education agency (LEA) is able to measure and evaluate the achievement of the
organizational goal.
The framework for the methodology in this study is the gap analysis problem-solving
approach (GAP or gap analysis) (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The data collected will be
used to determine the effectiveness of the third grade English language arts program; solve
specific problems (Patton, 2002); and identify the human impact on performance gaps (Clark &
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 13
Estes, 2008). The Gap Analysis Process Model will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent
chapters. In summary, it is a research-based, systematic template whereby members of an
organization can identify causes of performance gaps and select the most effective solutions in
order to improve results.
Key Terms
• AMO Annual Measurable Objective
• APS Academic Program Survey
• AYP Adequate Yearly Progress
• CBE County Board of Education
• CDE California Department of Education
• CELDT California English Language Development Test
• CST California Standards Test
• CTEL California Teacher of English Learner
• EL English Learner
• ELA English Language Arts
• ELD English Language Development
• GAP Gap Analysis Problem-Solving
• ICT Information and Communications Technology
• IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (of 2004)
• L1 Primary Language
• LEA Local Education Agency
• NCES National Center for Education Statistics
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 14
• NCLB No Child Left Behind (Act of 2001)
• OECD Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
• PTA Parent Teacher Association
• RTI Response to Intervention
• SDAIE Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English
• SEI Structured English Immersion
• SME Subject-Matter Expert
• USDE United State Department of Education
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
There is no question that the state of California must pay particular attention to the
successful education of students that are learning English. While English learners (ELs) reside in
every state, the states of California, Texas, Florida, New York, Illinois, and Arizona bear the
majority of the responsibility for educating these students (Batalova & McHugh, 2010).
California has by far the largest number of ELs in the nation—32 percent of the nation’s 5
million ELs (Olsen, 2010; Parrish, Linquanti, Merikel, Quick, Laird, & Esra, 2006); the state’s
EL enrollment is greater than the next five states combined (Batalova & McHugh, 2010).
Indeed, English learners constitute a quarter of all students in California, and a third of the state’s
kindergarten through third grade students (CDE, 2011).
It is important to note that the unique demographics of the ELs in California have a
significant impact on their potential academic achievement. The students are predominantly
Spanish speaking, low-income, and exhibit very low literacy in their native language. The US
Census Bureau estimates that more than two out of three of these children are in “linguistically
isolated households” where no one over the age of fourteen speaks English very well (Parrish et
al., 2006).
By the time they reach secondary school, EL students typically maintain grade point
averages below 2.0 on a 4-point scale; additionally, achievement in English/language arts and
math is two years below grade level (Olsen, 2010). As Olson (2010) has noted, gaps are
apparent by the 4th grade; by grade 8, students who are still EL demonstrate some of the lowest
performance of any student group. By 11th grade, 74% score at the two lowest levels on
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 16
standardized tests in algebra I, 78% in English/language arts (Olson, 2010). According to Parrish
et al. (2006), although there has been a slight decrease in the performance gap between ELs and
native English speakers, it has remained virtually constant in most subject areas for most grade
levels.
Furthermore, in a comprehensive survey of 40 school districts throughout California,
Olson (2010) found that 59% of secondary school ELs are long-term, or protracted, English
learners. These students have been in the US for more than six years without reaching English
fluency. In one out of three districts, 75% of ELs are long-term. The vast majority of English
learners currently enrolled in California secondary schools have attended US schools since
kindergarten, and most were born in the US. Yet the state is essentially silent with regard to
policy on the existence of long-term ELs; it has demonstrated no plans to address the needs of
this group, nor has it developed approaches for adjusting conditions that have resulted in so
many students spending so many years in the California’s schools without being adequately
served (Olson, 2010).
Long-term English learners have high-functioning social language; however, these
students demonstrate very poor academic language in both their primary language and English,
and possess significant deficits in reading and writing skills. The students do not typically draw
notice or cause problems, having shown patterns of “non-engagement, learned passivity, and
invisibility in school” (Olsen, 2010, p. 24). Furthermore, they are not likely to see their behavior
as a potential problem. Many ELs are well-behaved, enjoy school, don’t find the work too
demanding, and feel they are being successful students. As they are passed from grade to grade,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 17
ELs draw the reasonable conclusion that they are doing what is expected, unaware that their
chances of getting into college are slim. Their parents are similarly unaware.
It is therefore important for elementary schools to improve EL achievement before the
students enter middle and high school, so that students can acquire sufficient English language
proficiency to access a rich and challenging curriculum. The purpose of this literature review is
to examine the most effective strategies by which an elementary school can improve the
academic achievement of their English learners. The first part of the review will focus on
characteristics of ELs and the current status of curriculum and instruction; the second part on
research-based practices that support improved EL achievement; and the final third, implications
for practice and suggestions for further research.
Characteristics of Elementary School English Learners
According to the California Language Census, the majority of English learners (71
percent) are enrolled in elementary schools, grades kindergarten through six (as cited in CDE,
2011). Although data is collected for 60 language groups, 94% of ELs in kindergarten through
grade twelve speak one of 10 languages; 82.7% speak Spanish. The next four most frequently
spoken languages in California K-12 schools are Vietnamese (2.7%), Cantonese (1.7%), Pilipino
or Tagalog (1.7%), and Hmong (1.2%). ELs face a formidable challenge: they must acquire
English to levels comparable to their same-age peers while simultaneously striving to meet the
same challenging grade-level academic requirements. For California, every elementary student
learning English is expected to make adequate yearly progress and ultimately reach proficiency
on two standardized tests: the California English Language Development Test (CELDT), which
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 18
measures English language acquisition, and the California Standards Test (CST), which evaluates
academic achievement in grades two through six.
Meanwhile, ELs are not making these outlined expectations. Table 2.1 demonstrates the
percentage of California students in grades K–12 that met the criteria.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 19
Table 2.1
California Students Meeting Standardized Testing Criterion
GRADE LEVEL
STUDENTS
TOTAL
TESTED
# %
K 591 11 5,293
1 62,597 35 178,350
2 42,081 25 171,468
3 50,938 33 156,427
4 52,980 39 134,180
5 58,140 51 115,116
6 39,327 44 89,574
7 38,342 51 75,043
8 34,141 51 66,702
9 25,262 38 67,243
10 25,736 39 65,548
11 26,683 46 57,551
12 26,723 50 53,893
All 483,541 39 1,236,388
Source: CDE, 2012b
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 20
The percentage of ELs expected to be proficient in the English language arts portion of
the 2011 CST was 67%. The actual percentage of ELs proficient in English language arts was
38.7%. Similar patterns are realized at the county, district, and school levels (CDE, 2012a). On
practically every measure of every grade level, English learners are not making targeted
progress.
Language is a combination of vocabulary and syntax. ELs come to school lacking
proficiency in both areas. They typically do not have rich life experience to form the foundation
for academic language; ELs tend to use imprecise and/or abbreviated grammatical forms that
serve them well in conversation but very poorly in more complex tasks that define higher-level
learning that begins in grade three and above (Dutro, Levy, & Moore, 2012).
Overview of Curriculum, Instruction, and Public Policy
Services for California English Learners
It is difficult to conjure an accurate picture of the services EL students received in
California because the labels used to name programs have changed in the past 10 years (Parrish
et al., 2006). For the same reason, it is difficult to obtain long-term data and track achievement
gains and losses. Since bilingual education was virtually eliminated in California with the 1998
passage of Proposition 227, only 8% of the state’s EL learners are educated in a bilingual setting.
The purpose of the initiative was to significantly alter the instruction of students learning
English, and it is now formalized as part of the State of California’s Education Code, sections
300-340 (State of California Commission, n.d.). The law requires that all children in California
public schools be taught English via instruction in English. The law further requires that
children who are English learners be taught in English through sheltered or structured English
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 21
immersion (SEI) programs through a temporary transition program designed to last one year,
then transferred to mainstream English language classrooms. In an SEI classroom, nearly all
instruction is in English but the curriculum and presentation are specifically designed for
children who are learning the language.
Limitations on the collection of statewide data render it impossible to determine whether
one instructional model is more efficacious for EL learners than another. The state collects data
on instructional services, settings, and programs, and does not maintain a history of services at
the student level (Olsen, 2010; Parrish et al., 2006). Furthermore, ELs can receive various
services in any given instructional setting. Tracking EL progress is further complicated by the
fact that there have been numerous other factors contributing to the change in achievement
scores in California between the late 1990s and early 2000s. The most notable changes were
class size reduction; the introduction of standards-based education; and the establishment of state
and federal accountability systems. The 2010-11 breakdown of services for ELs are summarized
in Table 2.2.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 22
Table 2.2
Services for EL Students in California
EL Students
Receiving ELD services 111,698
Receiving ELD and SDAIE services 888,104
Receiving ELD and SDAIE with L1 support 258,165
Receiving ELD and academic subjects through the L1 71,809
Receiving other EL instructional services 91,807
Receiving no EL instructional services 20,318
Total number of English Learners 1,441,901
Source: CDE, 2012b

English language development (ELD) refers to a program designed specifically to help
EL students obtain native-like proficiency in the English language and allows students to engage
successfully in academic lessons taught in English. The 2007 state of California
reading/language arts framework recommends a minimum of 30 minutes of daily ELD
instruction for elementary school students, or specially designed academic instruction in English
(SDAIE). SDAIE is a set of instructional strategies specifically designed to help ELs
understand, comprehend, and learn academic content that is taught primarily in English. While
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 23
there are recommended program parameters and state-adopted instructional materials, there is no
explicit, California Department of Education prescribed program for either ELD or SDAIE.
It is the responsibility of each public California school district, or local education agency
(LEA), to formulate a specific plan that sets clear guidelines for the implementation of
educational services for students learning English. Depending on the number of EL students in
the district, LEAs may apply for additional funding to provide supplemental personnel and
instructional materials and supplies that will improve the achievement of EL students. Funds are
allocated by a formula developed by California policy makers. Districts that receive funding
must prepare a written implementation plan and the students must meet minimum proficiency
requirements on both the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) and the
California Standards Test (CST) or the district will face governmental sanctions. Only districts
that receive additional funding are held accountable for EL student achievement. Therefore,
public school districts ineligible for funds and all private schools are not held to the same level of
accountability (CDE, 2012).
There are 1,050 school districts in the state of California, almost 10,000 schools, and
more than 260,000 teachers. Given that each district may establish their own plan for English
learner services, it is easy to imagine dramatic variation in the design and implementation of
instructional programs. Districts set and manage policy, school administrators monitor school
sites, and teachers largely control classroom environment and structure. With so many programs
and variables involved, program quality and continuity is difficult to track.
In an extensive five-year study designed to identify the impacts of Proposition 227,
Parrish et al. (2006) found that schools and districts frequently cited confusion over what the law
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 24
requires and allows. Organizations identified lack of clear operational definitions for the
instructional approaches for EL instruction as a major barrier to program implementation.
California has no coherent theoretical foundation for strategies employed in classrooms (Bos et
al. 2012). School administrators and teachers are therefore left with no established framework
for evaluating a strategy’s effectiveness on an instructional goal. Are there specific programs or
strategies found to be most effective for English learners? The next section will focus on the
challenges related to the research devoted to answering this question.
Research on the Effectiveness of Instructional Programs Serving English Learners
As De Cos (1999) has observed, few studies of services for English learners have been
scientific vetted or provide conclusive evidence on which instructional programs serving English
learners are effective. In order to be methodologically and statistically sound, a research study
must include a pre- and post-measurement and random assignment of research subjects in
treatment and control groups. As Parrish et al. (2006) have observed, selection bias is common,
whereby students are not randomly assigned to various instructional services or settings and the
groups receiving different types of services are not directly comparable. Furthermore, as
previously mentioned, the state of California does not track student-level data, making it
impossible to measure students’ progress over time or discern which services were received in
prior years.
According to CDE (2011) statistics, existing research to identify effective guidelines for
English language development in California is problematic. There is little research that focuses
specifically on elementary, middle, and high school instruction for low-income, Spanish-
speaking students. Although many studies relate to ELD programs, few address instruction
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 25
explicitly. They instead tend toward examining factors such as language use; peer interaction;
and rates of proficiency attained (Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). A large section of the
remaining literature centers on college-age and adult learners, primarily studying a foreign
language. Much of the research conducted on ELs in the US over the last 25 to 30 years has
focused on programs involving the use of different amounts of students’ primary language
(Genesee, 2006). This research is not applicable in California classrooms, where instruction is
required to be conducted primarily in English. The research is further complicated by the
considerable complexity in studies and wide variance in the terminology and labels used to
describe programs. Research in the field suffers from inconsistency in definitions or categories
into which students may be grouped and inconsistent application of definitions (Parrish et al.,
2006; Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010).
In California, it is difficult to isolate the effects of targeted interventions for EL learners
because other significant policy changes happened at the same time many EL programs were
instituted. These changes include class-size reduction, a shift to standards-based education, and
increased state and federal accountability measures (Parrish et al., 2006). Within each over-
arching policy change resided other consequences. To name one example of such a
consequence, with class-size reduction came an overwhelming and unprecedented need for
additional teachers. Inexperienced teachers and those with emergency credentials were hired. In
schools with significant numbers of ELs, up to 23% of teachers were without full certification
(Verdugo & Flores, 2007).
There are very few long-term studies, and research typically comprises single studies by a
single researcher in a single school or district. This leaves many unanswered questions about the
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 26
reliability, validity, and generalizability of results. Genesee (2006) has called for long term,
sustained research and multiple samples across different communities. Meanwhile, low-
achieving schools and districts facing increasing sanctions due to state and federal accountability
measures may look to quick-fix solutions that can ultimately prove to be counterproductive
(Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010).
As Saunders and Goldenberg (2010) have asserted, policy and practice should be based
on research conducted on relevant populations with relevant outcomes with results replicated
over several independent findings. For the present study’s literature review, the target population
is elementary, Spanish-speaking, low socioeconomic status ELs in classrooms taught primarily in
English. The outcomes would be improved academic achievement as measured by the
English/language arts portion of the California Standards Test, which assesses reading, writing,
listening, and speaking. No such research base exists (Parrish et al., 2006; Saunders &
Goldenberg, 2010; Verdugo & Flores, 2007). Therefore, this review will include activities and
strategies that have support from research that can be applied to the population and learning
outcomes outlined above.
Clark and Estes (2008) have outlined three critical factors that must be examined when
analyzing the performance of an organization. Successful goal attainment requires: that people
have the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve their performance goals; (b) that people be
motivated; and (c) that there be no organizational barriers that prevent people from realizing their
full potential. This review is organized under each critical factor, beginning with knowledge and
skills, followed by motivation, and concluding with organizational culture. The review closes
with implications for practice and suggestions for further research.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 27
Knowledge and Skills
Most Effective Teaching Strategies
There is evidence to support that the strategies effective for all students are also effective
for students learning English. (CDE, n. d.; Datnow, Park, & Wohlstetter, 2007; Genesee,
Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Parish et al., 2006; Williams et
al., 2007). Teachers who possess a strong content knowledge, participate in ongoing professional
development, and possess the ability to use data from student assessments to inform instructional
practice realize gains in all student achievement, including ELs. In a comprehensive survey of
California elementary schools serving high proportions of EL and low-income students, Williams
et al. (2007) have identified three teacher strategies with the highest correlation to improved
academic achievement for English learners. The first strategy is prioritizing student achievement
by setting clear, high, and measurable expectations for student achievement. The second is
implementing a coherent, standards-based program by adhering to instructional minutes, using a
state-adopted curriculum, and teaching the content standards. The third, using assessment data to
inform placement, instruction, and interventions.
ELs in interactive learning environments demonstrate improvements in reading and
writing or behaviors related to reading and writing (Genesee et al., 2006; Harper & de Jong,
2004; Verdugo & Flores, 2007). Interactive learning environments have been especially effective
with ELs of lower socioeconomic status or with emergent literacy. In general, an interactive
learning environment is one in which learners engage in activities with one or more learners
and/or with more mature readers and writers. It is composed of indirect learning and mediated by
social interaction. It is especially relevant to ELs because it provides exposure to people from
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 28
diverse social backgrounds. Optimal interactive environments are those where teachers provide
carefully planned direct instruction of target language skills. Language skills linked to literacy
and academic domains should be the target of instruction and there should be an emphasis on the
use of English for academic purposes. Instructional time matters, both in the amount of time in
the program and in program consistency over a period of time. It is also important to maintain
coherence across grade levels and developmental stages.
Clear and focused instruction in the requisite skills leading to proficient reading and
writing has been found to support improved EL academic achievement (Dutro et al., 2012;
Genesee et al., 2006; Verdugo & Flores, 2007). Explicit skills instruction includes a clear
delineation of what is being taught and the processes in the instructional context. Teachers who
use predictable routines and build redundancy into tasks can reduce EL dependence on language.
The research does not support the process approach (such as whole language) for ELs. Rather,
the literature advocates direct, phonics-based instruction with an emphasis on academic
language. Educators need a comprehensive framework for planning and delivering a complete
curriculum.
Olsen (2010) has found support for dedicated, daily, standards-based English language
development (ELD), a program specifically designed to help English learners acquire fluency
and proficiency in the English language. It is important to distinguish between teaching English
and teaching in English. There is a common misconception that children will quickly become
fluent in English by being immersed in the language; this myth is contradicted by the research
(Goldenberg, 2008). Recommended by the state of California, the ELD model is taught in a
specific block of time that is separate from the rest of the school day and groups students
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 29
according to English fluency level (CDE, 2007). Although existing literature does not provide
sufficient basis for support of the most effective method or curriculum for ELD, there is ample
evidence that providing ELD is better than not providing it (Norris & Ortega, 2000; Saunders &
Goldenberg, 2010; Tong, 2008). ELD instruction should include carefully planned and executed
interactive activities, preferably using a published curriculum. There must be coherence and
consistency of the program across grade levels and a common use of vocabulary. ELD
instruction should emphasize listening and speaking and should explicitly teach the forms and
functions of English. Williams et al. (2007) found support for an ELD pullout program taught by
a highly-qualified instructor skilled in the delivery of English language development for
language arts. ELD needs to be a school and district priority (CDE, 2007).
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE)
In the state of California, schools are required to provide both ELD and specially
designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE). Whereas ELD is a program to help students
acquire the English language, SDAIE denotes strategies designed to help students understand
and comprehend academic subject matter throughout the school day, e.g., language arts,
mathematics, science, social studies, and the arts. It is appropriate for students who have reached
a reasonable level of English fluency (CDE, 2012). SDAIE is an instructional methodology
rather than a program. Because SDAIE strategies apply to all aspects of instruction, including
lesson planning and delivery, classroom management and environment, and formative and
summative assessment, the list of strategies is practically limitless. The over-arching goal is to
provide comprehensible input to the learner. A few examples of SDAIE strategies include
frontloading vocabulary for each content lesson; providing graphic organizers; connecting to
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 30
students’ current experience; using predictable phrasing; and performing continuous checks for
comprehension (Genzuk, 2011).
SDAIE exists in the California Education Code as a legal construct, but is otherwise not
operationally defined. With no agreed-upon instructional model, there exists a wide variation of
SDAIE strategies across the state, within school districts, and even within classrooms in the same
school. SDAIE content strategies used in classrooms are typically based on theoretical models,
but there is no empirical research to support any particular SDAIE model or combination of
techniques that has shown a positive effect on student achievement (Echevarria & Short, 2010).
ELD and SDAIE must be provided by teachers authorized for such instruction until the
student is English proficient. Program design, placement of students, and teacher hiring and
retention practices are local school district decisions. Teacher incentives and sanctions are at the
discretion of the employer (CDE 2012). As Williams et al. (2007) have noted, the mere presence
of teachers holding EL certification has not been associated with higher EL student achievement.
The authors have postulated that, because of wide variations in the content and approach of
certification training, training is not always sufficient to make a difference in student outcomes
(Williams et al., 2007). Furthermore, the training does not sufficiently prepare teachers for
explicit ELD instruction and the implementation of SDAIE strategies.
Teacher Pre-Service and In-Service Programs
New teachers are often given demanding assignments without adequate training and
support (Verdugo & Flores, 2007). A report issued by the State of California Commission on
Teacher Credentialing (n.d.) verified that, because of high teacher turnover in challenging urban
schools, a disproportionate number of poor and minority students are taught during their entire
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 31
school career by the least qualified personnel (see also Aguila, 2010; Garcia, 2002). Schools can
also assign non-credentialed para-professionals, such as teacher’s assistants, to provide ELD
instruction or other supplemental services. Consequently, the students who need the most
academic support are often taught by the least qualified and/or least experienced personnel. In
order to experience academic success, EL students must be taught by well-trained, highly
qualified teachers (CDE, n.d.; Darling-Hammond, 2007; Olsen, 2010; Parrish et al., 2006;
Williams et al., 2007).
A teacher assigned to provide services for English learners in California must hold the
appropriate authorizations. Elementary teachers admitted to an accredited college credential
program on or after July 1, 2002 could enter the teaching profession authorized to teach English
learners. Teachers certified prior to that date could obtain authorization through a combination
of 45 hours of coursework and a passing score on the California Teacher of English Learner
(CTEL) examinations (State of California Commission, n.d.). Because there are no follow-up
requirements for continued professional development, it is possible that a teacher will receive
limited to no additional training or support for the education of English learners in the course of
his or her career.
The literature supports professional development that is comprehensive; tailored to the
specific needs of the student population with which the teachers work; and includes follow-up
support (Aguila, 2010; Seezink & Poell, 2010). Random, disconnected workshops are not
sufficient. The most effective professional development is research-based and includes strategies
for the use of student data to inform and implement instruction (CDE, 2010). The training must
also be well designed and delivered. Clark and Estes (2008) borrow the term iatrogenic from the
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 32
health-care industry to describe a cure that makes the patient worse. Poorly designed training
can cause confusion, lack of focus, and the implementation can draw time and energy away from
other important projects. More than sixty percent of organizational change strategies undertaken
by companies are quickly abandoned (Druckman, 2004). Underperforming schools that are
understandably looking for quick results are particularly vulnerable to claims of many
proprietary companies offering training that promise dramatic turnarounds. The schools invest
substantial financial resources on programs that make no impact. Clark and Estes (2008) refer to
programs such as these as “snake oil” solutions and caution organizations to steer clear of these
products and services (p. 6).
Motivation
Teachers today face daily demands that result in chronic stress (Gallimore, Ermeling,
Saunders, & Goldenberg, 2009; Garrahy, Cothran, & Kulinna, 2005; Knoblauch & Hoy, 2007;
Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009; Seezink & Poell, 2011). There are unprecedented economic
declines and the resulting cuts to programs, personnel, and paychecks. Declines in government-
supported health and education services affect support services for students and families that lead
to increased physical and mental health challenges. Increasing, changing, and mandatory
curricular demands and heightened accountability for student achievement, combined with
increased class sizes and reduced supply and textbook resources, lead to teacher frustration and
low morale. Add ill-prepared students who cannot meet the demands of the classroom, and
frequent, unrelenting demands of everyday managerial tasks and one begins to have a picture of
the typical pressures of a classroom teacher (Gallimore et al., 2009; Garrahy et al., 2005;
Knoblauch & Hoy, 2007; Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009; Seezink & Poell, 2011). Additionally,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 33
teachers often work in isolation with little support from the educational system (Mushayikwa &
Lubben, 2009).
In California, changing student demographics mean teachers may need to change their
practice, in some cases substantially (Aguila, 2010). The prospect of teaching a child of low
socioeconomic status not literate in their native language to learn English and master content
standards may seem daunting. Increased accountability standards lead to increased pressure on
teachers to improve the achievement of all students, regardless of individual challenges.
Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008) have described motivation as the process whereby
goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained. People who are motivated have energy, drive,
and will persist through challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008). Continual stresses and trials can lead
to a loss of motivation, increasingly common in the workplace. As Spitzer (1995) has reported,
50% of workers do only as much as is required to hold onto their jobs. 84% of workers surveyed
said they could work better if they had incentive.
It can be a challenge for a teacher to stay motivated even under the best of circumstances.
These difficulties are intensified by the continued need for significant changes in instructional
strategies due to increasing numbers of students who cannot fully access the curriculum because
of lack of English proficiency. Under these conditions, even experienced, knowledgeable
teachers may lack the energy and persistence to accomplish ambitious student achievement goals
(Gallimore et al., 2009; Garrahy et al., 2005).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 34
Motivational Theory and Measurement
Attribution theory is a motivational construct particularly relevant to the teaching
profession. Weiner (1988) has explained attributions as ways that an individual uses information
and external cues to form the basis for their perceptions about causes and outcomes. For
example, if a student fails in a teacher’s classroom, to what does the teacher attribute that failure?
If the teacher attributes the failure to external factors such as the student’s laziness or
overcrowding in the classroom, he or she is said to have an external locus of control. If the
teacher instead looks towards internal factors, e.g., his or her skill in lesson delivery, the teacher
is said to have an internal locus of control (Schunk et al., 2008).
A second motivational construct that is relevant to the teaching profession is self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy can be described as a teacher’s judgment about whether he or she possesses the
necessary knowledge and skills required to complete a task (Schunk et al., 2008). As detailed in
this review, the instruction of English learners is a complex and multi-faceted undertaking.
Teachers are typically not provided with the necessary training, ongoing support, and concrete
instructional framework to competently perform that undertaking. As a result, teachers may lack
the necessary resolve to attempt and commit to new strategies needed to instruct English
learners.
Motivation can be measured by choice of tasks, effort expended, and persistence (Schunk
et al., 2008). When applied to teachers of English learners, choice of tasks may include
participation in professional development activities; preparation of graphic organizers and other
learning tools; adjustment of classroom schedules and management routines; and the use of
cooperative learning strategies. An example of effort expended would be the considerable
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 35
additional planning time it takes to create differentiated instructional and assessment plans to
accommodate all learners. It takes persistence to learn new teaching methods, fine-tune those
methods, make mistakes, make corrections, and try the method multiple times before success is
realized; it is easy to give up when trying a new technique. It is often at this stage that people in
organizations abandon change initiatives. Persistence is therefore an important component in the
process.
Overcoming Motivational Challenges
In order to foster effort and persistence and increase self-efficacy, trainers and
professional development providers must provide significant and practical connections between
the theoretical learning and the classroom experience (Hoekstra, Brekelmans, Beijaard, &
Korthagen, 2009; Olsen, 2010; Williams et al., 2007). There must be ongoing support,
particularly when — not if — an attempted innovation does not go according to plan. Teachers
have described this coaching as a pivotal, crucial experience that helps determine whether or not
a new lesson or strategy will remain in the teacher’s repertoire, or whether the teacher will revert
back to former patterns. What a teacher thinks about the unsuccessful lesson is more often the
predictor of whether or not the teacher will make a follow-up attempt. To what does a teacher
attribute the failure of a lesson? If a teacher can debrief and reflect upon the lesson with a
successful colleague or peer coach and observe a successful outcome of a similar lesson, the
teacher is more likely to try the lesson again. If not, the innovation attempt is likely to be
abandoned.
A five-year investigative study of by Gallimore et al. (2009) revealed that academic
achievement in Title I schools serving mostly low-achieving, limited English proficient students
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 36
improved significantly when teachers used an inquiry-based protocol to solve instructional
problems. A key element was that educators shifted attribution of improved achievement to
teaching rather than external causes. Teaching improved by identifying the academic problem
and focusing on that problem long enough to develop a solution.
While it is important to have a supportive, nurturing, and cohesive school community, it
is also important to understand the often sobering lived reality of students. Modern teachers
have witnessed significant changes to their classroom and school demographics. Consequently,
they must make significant changes to lesson design and delivery (CDE, 2011; Harper & de
Jong, 2004; Rueda 2011).
Organizational Culture
A positive culture is a foundational and vital ingredient to the health of that organization.
There are tangible aspects to organizational culture, such as the availability of human and
material resources, the implementation of procedures and schedules, and the quality and
frequency of professional development programs. There are also many intangible or abstract
aspects of organizational culture, often described in the context of core values, goals, values, and
beliefs (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The teaching professional has traditionally been associated with isolation. Conceivably, a
teachers could close their classroom door; make fundamental decisions about curriculum and
instruction; institute classroom behavior plans and establish environment; and develop and
administer their own assessments, all without collaborating with colleagues or school leadership.
The organizational culture of a school site must shift from a primarily isolationist model to one
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 37
of teamwork and transparency (Gallimore et al., 2009; Garrahy et al., 2005; Hoekstra et al.,
2009).
The teaching profession has also traditionally been a model of knowledge transmission.
There was a time in our nation’s history when teachers could be equipped with a skill set and
fixed expertise that could remain relatively unchanged (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). With the
advent of technology and the shift toward economic and cultural globalization, among other
factors, the scope and sphere of schools and classrooms must significantly broaden. In order for
students to participate in today’s fast-changing and complex professional environment, teachers
must be committed to lifelong learning and professional development (Connors & Smith, 2011).
Hoekstra et al. (2009) have studied the link between veteran teacher learning and classroom
outcomes. No longer is the model of a “static body of knowledge” effective teaching; teachers
must adopt a “profound shift in thinking about teaching and learning” (p. 664).
Potential Solutions to Challenges in Organizational Culture
The teaching profession is ever-changing. Current teachers must continually adopt new
curriculum, strategies, and technology. How is it that some teachers embrace innovation while
others resist? The answer lies in the observation and support of trainers and other competent
teachers (Gallimore et al., 2009).
Professional development. Teachers are in need of leaders able to provide strategic,
targeted assistance. Leaders must be highly competent, supportive models. It is essential that
teachers believe themselves to be competent and able to affect student achievement. Explicit
judgments about whether a person possesses the knowledge and skills necessary to complete a
task are also known as self-efficacy (Schunk et al., 2008). Teacher self-efficacy is likely to
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 38
improve and external attributions diminish when the teacher observes another teacher in a similar
circumstance overcome their challenges (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008). Professional development
needs to help teachers make connections between training and practical application, and provide
ongoing support for practice. Leaders should schedule multiple and ongoing opportunities for
teachers to observe, work with, and learn from various urban teachers meeting or exceeding their
academic benchmarks with at-risk student populations.
Shared and purposeful accountability. According to the CDE (2011), a positive school
climate is one that is focused on academic outcomes. People in the organization should hold
themselves and each other accountable for the achievement of shared goals. Unfortunately, in
many professional organizations in general, and schools in particular, accountability tends to
happen only when something goes wrong. This kind of accountability is counterproductive and
ultimately destructive to the change process. Accountability in the form of remediation creates
resentment, resistance, and may sabotage any attempt at needed restructuring (Connors & Smith,
2011).
Structured collaboration. There is much support in the literature to suggest that
structured, guided, team-based collaboration improves organizational culture while at the same
time improving student achievement (Datnow et al., 2007; Gallimore et al. 2009; Knoblauch &
Hoy, 2008; Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009; Reeves, 2003; Williams et al., 2007). This kind of
structured collaboration is sometimes called a professional learning community, among other
names. While the model exists in many different forms, there are fundamental components of
successful school-based collaboration teams. Composed of teachers, grade-level and site leaders,
the team sets goals for student achievement, measures progress, seeks assistance from capable
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 39
others, and engages in distributed leadership. An important added benefit to structured
collaboration is that it fosters a positive school culture characterized by socially supportive
relationships among staff, which helps provide psychological support during inevitable periods
of stress (Hayes, Rueda & Chilton, 2009).
An essential component to the success of the structured collaboration team is the
establishment of an area of focus and the maintenance of a continuous cycle of improvement by
monitoring progress toward student achievement goals (Datnow et al., 2007; Gallimore et al.,
2009; Garrahy et al., 2005; Reeves, 2003; Verdugo & Flores, 2007; Williams et al., 2007). Data-
driven decision-making entails the strategic monitoring of student performance through the use
of common, objective, formative assessments. Structured collaboration teams meet regularly to
compare student assessment and use the information to guide instruction and make programmatic
decisions. This improves organizational culture by creating focus, purpose, and shared vision.
When schools use objective data and empirical research to inform decisions, teachers and other
staff members can avoid assumptions and stereotypes about EL students (Verdugo & Flores,
2007). A positive difference is also realized when teachers can document consistent, incremental
progress of formerly failing students (Reeves, 2003; Williams et al., 2007).
Summary
The goal of this literature review has been to identify the strategies found to be most
effective in improving the academic achievement of English learners. The review was organized
according to three critical factors deemed necessary by Clark and Estes (2008) to enable
successful goal attainment:
• Knowledge and skills;
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 40
• Motivation;
• Organizational culture.
Knowledge and Skills
Teacher characteristics and strategies that are effective for all students are also effective
for EL students. Student achievement improves when teachers possess a strong content
knowledge and participate in continual professional development. Positive outcomes are
realized when data is used to inform instruction, when educators set high and measurable student
expectations, and when they implement a coherent standards-based program.
For EL students in particular, academic achievement improves when there is a focus on
academic language and an emphasis on direct and explicit instruction. The research supports a
dedicated, distinct instructional block of a standards-based ELD program and the use of SDAIE
strategies in all academic content areas throughout the school day. It is important that teachers
receive quality, ongoing training and support.
Motivation
Quality, ongoing training must provide practical connection for teachers. There is a need
for support, in the form of capable and experienced peer mentors working with similar
populations of students. When lessons or strategies inevitably fail to produce precisely the
desired results, teachers need to be able to consult with a network of professionals who can help
problem-solve.
Sometimes known as professional learning communities, structured collaboration
improves student achievement and helps motivate individuals. Such collaboration results in
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 41
shared leadership and positive accountability, in contrast to imposed accountability that is
mandated as the result of underperformance.
The use of objective data to inform decisions can have many positive effects on student
achievement, but it can also positively impact teacher motivation when students improve and that
progress is tracked and celebrated with colleagues. Also, objective data can help individuals and
organizations overcome assumptions and negative stereotypes about EL students.
Organizational Culture
Organizational culture entails a complex combination of tangible and intangible aspects.
It is important to identify any barriers within the organization that might impede goal attainment.
Tangible barriers include a lack of human and material resources necessary for optimal job
performance, and the lack of strategic, targeted assistance for teachers when change initiatives
are in progress.
Intangible barriers include the culture of isolation that has traditionally defined the
teaching profession; the instructional model of knowledge transmission; and the notion of a finite
body of knowledge and skills. The research supports the notion that improved organizational
culture materializes when the focus shifts to teamwork and transparency and a growth model of
teacher learning and professional development. A positive school climate is one focused on
academic outcomes.
Implications for Practice
If elementary educators and policy makers are looking for a large, longitudinal research
base that provides solid evidence for a particular program or set of strategies that is most
effective with Spanish-speaking English learners of low socioeconomic status and low literacy
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 42
skills in their native language, that research base does not currently exist. Yet, in light of current
governmental accountability systems, leaders and educators are under substantial pressure to
implement research-based interventions. These systems demand that schools and districts not
meeting minimum standardized assessment benchmarks take corrective actions within a
specified period of time, or face increasing sanctions. Consequently it is common for
organizations to seek out and adopt a product, strategy, or service that promises a quick and easy
turnaround. When promised results are not realized, change efforts can be abandoned, and the
search for the next improvement plan begins anew. This cycle can leave people in organizations
feeling frustrated and discouraged.
When considering implications for practice, two important ideas are supported by the
literature: (a) “best practice” does not mean “single best practice” for improved achievement of
English learners (Genesee, 2006); (b) as there is no singular path to academic excellence that is
supported by the evidence, different approaches should be pursued (Verdugo & Flores, 2007).
Across all analyses, there is scant evidence of a difference of EL performance by program.
Likewise, there is no clear evidence to support the superiority of one program over another
(Parrish et al., 2006).
In the search for a model of instruction that will improve EL student achievement, an
additional concern is that the focus may be far too narrow. Successful student achievement
depends on myriad factors. By looking to the research to provide support for the best
instructional program, or training module, or organizational improvement strategy, we may lose
sight of the fact that improved student achievement stems from a complex web of interrelated
factors. As Hayes et al. (2009) have observed, the application of a traditional research design to
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 43
a classroom setting presents an interesting dilemma: a classroom is not a controlled laboratory
where teachers can apply a prescribed remedy in isolation; rather, it is more of a “dynamic
mosaic” where the teacher must creatively weave practical, philosophical, and cultural factors
together to produce optimal results (p. 139).
In our quest for improved student achievement, we should look not to a single approach
or program. Instead, researchers and practitioners must consider a combination of activities and
strategies that are most successful for a community of learners. Because each school community
is unique, it may be that each school needs to examine and implement the strategies that have the
most benefit for the specific needs of their particular culture.
The irony in the use of scientific research in the field of education is that the more
education professionals focus on finding the “best” strategy that is “guaranteed” to produce the
desired gains in student achievement, the more that achievement can elude us. If we expect to
apply one, two, or two dozen pre-scripted strategies to deliver results, we could very well be
missing the mark. Instead, our time and attention should be directed on the careful and
deliberate analysis of the needs of our own community, the subsequent identification of the
challenges, and the collaborative and purposeful activities that lead to solutions. Sweeping,
positive change can occur when people with a shared vision come together with common
purpose. The next chapter will describe in detail a methodology for such a project.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 44
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
While overall the students at El Dorado Elementary School have realized steady and
impressive achievement gains as measured by the California Standards Test (CST), students in
significant subgroups are not meeting benchmarks established by No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
These significant subgroups are:
• Hispanic or Latino;
• English learners (ELs);
• Low socioeconomic status.
At El Dorado, which mirrors the average of California elementary school students, 85% of
English learners are Hispanic or Latino, and 90% of English learners are of low socioeconomic
status. By focusing on effective teaching strategies for ELs, all three significant subgroups could
realize gains in student achievement. In 2011, the Federal benchmark for English language arts
was 67.6% proficiency; achievement of EL students in English language arts at El Dorado was
46.1%.
Purpose of the Inquiry and Guiding Questions
This study focused on third grade teachers at El Dorado Elementary School. Research
shows that the most significant gains in student achievement occur when school communities
focus on adult actions, most importantly teacher actions (CDE, n. d.; Hattie, 2009; Marzano,
2003; Marzano, 2007; Reeves, 2003; Schmoker, 2006).
A school community comprises many important stakeholders, all of whom have a vital
role and vested interest in improving student achievement. These stakeholders include teachers,
auxiliary staff, administration, parents, and students. Ideally, an inquiry would include all
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 45
stakeholders. However, this project focused on third grade teachers in order to make the study
manageable. In its current size and scope, the project may serve as a pilot for other stakeholder
inquiries, grade levels, and locations.
The purpose of this inquiry project was to examine the third-grade teaching practices and
strategies currently employed at El Dorado Elementary School in third grade English language
arts and the English language development (ELD) program. Using Clark and Estes’ (2002) gap
analysis model as a problem-solving framework, this study sought to identify the challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture issues that may affect the successful
implementation of the school’s organizational goal to improve achievement in third grade
English learners. Additionally, the study identified potential solutions to address determined
causes in knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may deter the
successful achievement of El Dorado’s organizational goal to improve the achievement of
English learners.
This analysis employed the discrepancy model, wherein organizational goals are known
and quantified, but individual goals are not being met (Smith & Ragan, 2005). For the purposes
of this study, the achievement gap refers to the difference between the current achievement of EL
students and the required AYP benchmark proficiency as determined by the California Standards
Test (CST). This inquiry focused primarily on Hispanic, Spanish-speaking students from low-
income homes.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 46
The questions guiding the study:
1. What are the challenges in 3rd grade teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational culture issues that may affect the successful achievement of 3rd
grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
2. What are the potential solutions to address the 3rd grade teachers’ challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the
successful achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
Methodology Framework
The framework for the methodology in this study is the gap analysis problem-solving
(GAP) approach outlined by Clark and Estes (2008; see also Rueda, 2011). The literature has
revealed the scope and depth of the challenges facing the education of ELs and has revealed
limited programs and strategies with short-term results. Achievement of Spanish-speaking ELs
in the US is far below that of their English-speaking peers, and it has been since the mid-20th
century. Nationally, statewide, throughout the school system, and within individual schools
themselves, improvement has been isolated, demonstrated in limited examples. The goal of
closing the achievement divide is widespread, yet little progress has been made towards closing
that divide (CDE, 2012b). Clark and Estes (2008) have provided an excellent, practical
framework for educational institutions mired in goal-setting without subsequent results. The
discrepancy model of gap analysis provides an exceptional framework for examining the barriers
that prevent El Dorado Elementary School from improving EL achievement (Smith & Ragan,
2005). Once the barriers are clearly identified it will be possible to find potential solutions,
which could benefit students at El Dorado and throughout the school district.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 47
A case study employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, this investigation
provides a rich and profound understanding of complex socio-cultural landscape in a single
elementary school, and how numerous factors converge to provide an educational experience for
hundreds of children. The data collected were used to determine the effectiveness of the third
grade English language arts program, solve specific problems, and identify the human impact on
performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008; Patton, 2002). Figure 3.1 illustrates the steps drawn in
Clark and Estes’ (2008) GAP model:
• Step 1: Multi-level goals: Identify measurable performance goals;
• Step 2: Current performance: Quantify the current achievement at each level;
• Step 3: Gaps: Determine gaps between goals and current performance;
• Step 4: Causes: Hypothesize and validate empirically how each of three causes
(i.e., knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture) impact the
proposed gap.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 48

Figure 3.1. Gap Analysis Process

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 49
The additional steps of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process GAP will be discussed in
Chapters Four, Five and Six of the dissertation and will not be incorporated into this
methodology chapter:
• Step 5: Solutions: Plan systemic and individual gap-closing solutions;
• Step 6: Implementation: Implement systemic and individual gap-closing solutions;
• Step 7: Evaluate and modify solutions for continual improvement.
According to Bandura (1997) and Gilbert (2007), effective performance improvement
must start with clearly established work goals and accurate analyses of the causes of gaps
between current and desired performance. Clark and Estes (2008) have recommended the
following framework for setting and analyzing benchmarked organizational goals:
• Determine what will be measured, and the indicators of achievement: Third grade
EL student achievement as measured the English language arts portion of the
California Standards Test (CST);
• Identify shared standards of the educational community, adequate yearly progress
(AYP) benchmarks;
• Subtract present performance from benchmarks to determine gaps. There is a gap of
21.5 percentage points between current EL performance and the 2011 benchmark;
• Analyze the cause(s) of the gap (knowledge and skills, motivation, and/or
organizational culture) to be determined by this case study. By determining the
causes of the gap, data analysis can guide stakeholders towards the solutions that
can fill that gap.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 50
Gap Analysis Process Applied to El Dorado Elementary School
The purpose of this inquiry was to identify the barriers that exist in the areas of
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture that contribute to gaps in
achievement of English learners as compared to their English-only peers at El Dorado. While
the focus of the inquiry was third grade teachers, the surveys, interviews, and document analysis
were conducted at all grade levels. This protected the anonymity of the two-person third grade
team and the information gathered schoolwide provided perspective potentially helpful not only
for the third grade team but for all teachers at El Dorado. Success in the third grade depends on
the teachers in kindergarten, first grade, and second grade. If the third grade team is successful,
student achievement will improve in later grades.
The significance of this study was the development of a discrepancy gap analysis process,
which may be adapted in a similar way by other California elementary schools seeking to
improve the achievement of their English learners.
Step 1: Identify Organizational Goals
In order to optimize the performance of an organization, there must be clear, challenging,
and current goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). These goals occur at three levels: (a) long-term; (b)
cascading; and (c) performance (Rueda, 2011):
• Long-term goals: Set for the entire organization, measured in one or more years;
• Cascading goals: intermediary steps toward the global goal, measured in weeks or
months;
• Performance goals: Measured in increments as short as days or weeks.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 51
Long-term goals. The 2011-12 long-term goal for English learners in English language
arts at El Dorado Elementary School are clearly defined by the California Department of
Education: the percent of EL students scoring proficient or advanced on the English language
arts portion of 2012 CST will be 78.4%. This goal describes what students are expected to do.
The effectiveness of instruction is measured by student performance according to valid, reliable
assessment aligned with content standards (CDE, 2007). In order for the students to obtain
proficiency on California standardized assessments, the teachers must deliver content and make
that content comprehensible to all learners. As Mayer (2008) has asserted, “The goal of
instruction is to create an environment that causes an experience for the learner that in turn leads
to knowledge change” (p. 52). It is incumbent on teachers to determine what is taught and how it
is taught. The “what” is the content, and the “how” is the method of delivery. The next section
will focus on goals for teachers.
Cascading goals. Ideally, cascading goals are created for all stakeholders in the school
community, including all teachers, support staff, administrators, parents, and students. In order
to make the study manageable and provide a pilot template for use in other grade levels and at
other schools, this inquiry focused on third grade teachers. Goals for all teachers established by
the school district are: (a) teach 100% of the English/language arts content standards that are
assessed by the California Standards Test; (b) provide 30 minutes of structured ELD instruction
daily for students not yet proficient in English; (c) employ SDAIE instructional methods for
content delivery; and (d) use assessment data to inform placement, instruction, and interventions.
Teach content standards. The CDE provides blueprints, documents that identify the
content standards that are assessed by the California Standards Test. For students to score
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 52
proficient on the English language arts (ELA) portion of the CST, teachers must teach 100% of
the content standards included on the blueprint. The ELA blueprint for third grade appears in
Appendix A.
Provide structured English language development (ELD). Schools and districts in
California are expected to ensure that all English learners acquire full proficiency in English as
rapidly and effectively as possible. Therefore, in addition to teaching ELA content standards in
listening, speaking, reading, and writing, EL students must receive instruction designed to help
them obtain near-native proficiency in the English language. Teachers throughout the district are
expected to provide ELs with 30 minutes of ELD per day.
Provide specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE). ELs require
ELD in order to acquire English and specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE)
in order to make teaching in the content areas comprehensible. In California, students are
expected to acquire the English language while at the same time learning how to read and write;
perform computations and science experiments; and study history (CDE, 2012b). The strategies
teachers use to scaffold instruction are collectively known as SDAIE. SDAIE is a method of
teaching students in English so that the subject matter is comprehensible. It is not a specific
program but rather a series of techniques, including slowed speech; clear enunciation; use of
manipulatives and hands-on activities; and frequent checks for understanding.
Use assessment data. Teachers should use assessment data that includes CST, the
California English Language Development Test (CELDT), district-created benchmark
assessments, and other formative and summative assessment data in order to inform placement,
instruction, and intervention.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 53
Step 2: Current Performance
Current performance of the school. Ultimately, the goal of El Dorado staff is to
improve achievement for all learners, particularly those students scoring below proficient on the
California Standards Test. This goal aligns with NCLB provisions: the percentage of students
scoring proficient will rise yearly until 2014, when all elementary students are expected to obtain
proficiency in English language arts and mathematics, and all 5th graders will be proficient in
science. This inquiry focused primarily on the achievement of English learners in
English/language arts. In the state of California, yearly benchmarks, or annual measurable
objectives (AMOs), were modest until 2006, when schools were expected to realize 10% + gains
per year thereafter. Featured in Figure 3.2, the resulting chart has been nicknamed “the AMO
Hockey Stick.”
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 54

Figure 3.2. Federal performance benchmarks for ELA achievement, 2001-2014

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 55
Table 3.1 displays the actual performance of El Dorado ELs compared to the AMO
benchmarks since 2009. While the benchmark rose every year by at least 10 percentage points,
El Dorado’s EL proficiency rates remained constant.

Table 3.1
Comparison of Benchmarks with Actual Achievement, 2009-2011

Year

2009 2010 2011
AMO 46 56.8 67.6
Actual EL
Achievement
46.4 48.2 46.1
Difference 0.4 -8.6 -21.5

Current performance of third grade teachers. Currently, the only objective measure of
content standards instruction for the third grade is the 2011 CST.
Teach content standards. 28% of third grade English learners scored proficient or above
on the 2011 CST. By comparison, 46.1% of all ELs at El Dorado scored proficient or above,
while the federal benchmark was 67.6% proficient.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 56
Provide structured ELD. Two out of three third grade teachers did not participate in
district-provided training for ELD instruction. Based on interviews, informal walkthroughs, and
feedback at staff meetings, the third grade team resisted the idea of establishing a common 30-
minute block of instructional time for ELD. Once the block was established, limited
walkthrough data revealed inconsistent implementation of ELD instruction. Because ELD
instruction was not an explicit goal of classroom walkthroughs, evidence of implementation was
limited to occasional anecdotes and needed further study.
Provide SDAIE. As use of SDAIE strategies was not a clearly established goal for the
2011-12 school year, no implementation data currently exists. It is quite possible that teachers
may be unfamiliar with using SDAIE strategies in their classrooms. Further investigation is
needed in this area.
Employ assessment data. It is currently unclear the extent to which the third grade team
used data to inform placement, instruction, and interventions. This area warrants further study.
Step 3: Gaps
The goal of teachers at El Dorado Elementary School is to improve the achievement of
English learners as measured by the CST, yet the percent proficient has remained static.
Document and data analysis and informal interviews revealed some of the potential challenges to
that goal attainment.
Step 4: Causes
Step 4 of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model is to first hypothesize then validate
the cause for performance gaps. The discussion that follows is two-fold: assumed causes and
validated causes. When there are performance problems, people often formulate naïve and
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 57
unfounded reasons for the problems and therefore seek solutions that do not further the
organization’s goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Assumed causes should be analyzed
objectively and compared to actual data in order to formulate validated causes.
Assumed causes of the performance gap. A thorough investigation into the causes of
the performance gap was conducted and includes the following three components:
• Informal interviews and surveys with teachers and informal walkthroughs
performed by staff;
• Learning and skills, motivation, and organizational culture theory;
• Review of the literature on the achievement of English learners.
Informal interviews with teachers. In order to gain insight into the perspectives and
perceptions of teachers, informal interviews were conducted with five teachers at grades 1, 3, 5,
and 6. The guiding question: What are the challenges for teachers at El Dorado that may affect
the successful achievement of ELs to obtain proficiency in the CST? In the past several years,
there have been severe budget shortfalls and declining enrollment, and the teachers’ frustration
was evident. Morale was the frequent topic of discussion. There have been cuts to pay and
benefits, the school year was reduced by 9 days, key personnel and programs have been cut, yet
all are expected to maintain high standards in this era of increased educational accountability.
Teacher 4 remarked, “Why is the focus always on the kids who are failing? Why can’t we get
recognition for the great work we’re doing and the rise in scores we’re getting for most of our
students?” Students and families are in crisis, parents cannot provide academic support at home,
and children are living in chaos. Students with profound special needs are in regular education
classrooms. Teacher 3 noted, “How can I be expected to teach anything, when I have a student
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 58
who bolts from the room without notice?” There is a perception that it is impossible to teach the
required subjects within the instructional day. Class sizes have increased, most dramatically at
grades 1 through 3; these classes have ballooned from 20 to 32 students. Despite expectations
for ELs to receive 30 minutes of structured ELD per day, there is a lack of curriculum, materials,
and follow-up training for the program’s implementation. As Teacher 5 expressed, “In addition
to everything else I’m doing, now I have to teach a 30-minute block of ELD. There is no
curriculum, and I need to make up the lessons from scratch. It’s ridiculous.” Clearly, teachers
feel overwhelmed, underappreciated, and undercompensated. Said Teacher 1, “I work ten,
twelve, and sometimes fourteen hours in a day. Sometimes I spend hours undoing some
technology glitch in my report cards or benchmark test. It’s just not right.” There is a lack of
understanding about the goals and direction of the district and about why some programs and
initiatives are in place.
Informal written surveys. Each teacher responded anonymously in writing to the
following question: What are the most significant challenges you face as a teacher? The
challenges included many of the same comments gathered in the informal interviews. Most
frequently noted were lack of parent involvement/assistance with low-achieving students. One
teacher responded, “I work my butt off, every day. I have several students in my class who do
nothing. They don’t participate, they don’t complete classwork, they don’t do any homework.
And the parents don’t care.” Another topic frequently mentioned was the difficulty scheduling
around pullouts for special education services, music, PE, assemblies, ELD, and special
assessments and the difficulty differentiating instruction for such a wide range of students. One
teacher noted,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 59
“My language arts block is two and a half hours. The [special education] students leave
the room for 30 or 45 minutes, then come back. They’re disoriented because they’ve
missed instruction, and the other kids are distracted from the transitions. It’s so
disruptive.”
Other frequent reasons noted were the lack of adequate time and resources to cover content areas
and the lack of direction and clear guidelines for delivery of instructional programs. Teachers
frequently commented that they felt fatigued, underappreciated, and undervalued.
Informal walkthroughs. A walkthrough form was developed by elementary principals
and district administrators. The form includes research-based strategies designed to improve
instruction and student engagement. (A copy of the form appears in Appendix B.) The principal
and teacher leadership team were trained on how to conduct and record walkthroughs to observe
the use of these strategies. Walkthroughs spanned three to five minutes in duration and were
conducted by teams of two to three. Over the course of one academic year, every teacher
participated in at least one walkthrough. Results were tabulated and reports printed and
disseminated at monthly staff meetings. The number of items contained on the form is extensive,
so the staff chose to focus primarily on student engagement strategies because research supports
use of engagement strategies as a very effective way to improve student achievement (Hattie,
2009). Over time, the principal and staff added a goal of posting lesson objectives, because
observation feedback repeatedly included comments that lessons lacked focus for students, and
that when questioned students could not articulate learning goals. In summary, after one year of
informal classroom walkthroughs, the use of student engagement strategies and the incidents of
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 60
posted lesson objectives did not increase. Furthermore, feedback during staff meetings revealed
a lack of observation of specific teaching strategies aimed at EL students.
Learning, motivation, and organizational theories. Learning, motivation, and
organizational theory informs possible causes for performance gaps in organizations. Anderson
and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (2001) was used as a
framework for considering the reasons for gaps in knowledge and skills. Schunk, Pintrich, and
Meece (2008) have outlined a framework for analyzing motivational causes, and the gap analysis
framework yielded by Clark and Estes (2008) was used to analyze organizational challenges (see
also Rueda, 2011).
Knowledge and skills. Knowledge can be categorized according to four domains:
factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge
(Anderson et al., 2001). Possible causes of performance gaps in third grade teachers are
identified accordingly and listed in Table 3.2.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 61
Table 3.2
Possible Causes of Performance Gap: Knowledge and Skills
KNOWLEDGE TYPE EXAMPLES
Factual
• Knowledge of content standards
• Knowledge of ELD program and curriculum
• Knowledge of SDAIE instructional strategies
• Knowledge of using data to inform instruction
Conceptual
• Understanding of importance of ELD instruction
• Understanding of scheduling ELD instructional time
and classroom rotations
• Understanding of theories, models, and structures of
ELD instruction
• Ability to connect ELD content standards to ELA
content standards (see Appendix A)
Procedural
• Knowledge of specific teaching strategies that most
impact EL student achievement
• Knowledge of monitoring program implementation
• Knowledge of maintaining program structure and
integrity
• Understanding record-keeping and data-driven
decision making
Metacognitive
• Understanding the importance of self-reflection and
self-monitoring in program implementation

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 62
Motivation. According to Schunk et al. (2008), motivation is the process whereby goal-
directed activity is instigated and sustained. Motivation can be measured by four indexes:
choice of tasks, effort, persistence, and achievement. By definition and by each index, while
some teachers at El Dorado are motivated to meet the needs of ELs, for the most part, the
structured English Language Development program is largely ignored, as evidenced by
interviews, teacher feedback at collaboration meetings, lesson plans, informal classroom
walkthroughs, and achievement data. The demographics of the district are changing, and it was
only in the last five years that any teacher was expected to provide structured ELD in their class
or differentiate instruction. Additional motivational constructs will include: self-efficacy, locus
of control, and attribution theory.
Organizational culture. Clark and Estes (2008) have provided a helpful framework for
analysis of organizational structure that can account for performance gaps. A primary reason that
performance suffers is lack of efficient and effective organizational work processes and material
resources (p. 103). Based on responses during informal interviews, this is certainly the case at El
Dorado. Scheduling is a major roadblock to efficient and effective work processes. For
example, in 2011-12, teachers were asked to cull thirty minutes in the instructional day to teach
English language development. Between recesses, lunch, pullouts for music, PE, special
education, schedules of instructional assistants, conflicts with classroom activities, and
differences in opinion as to the optimal time of day to conduct an intervention, it took the better
part of the year to implement the schedule. “There are simply not enough hours in the day” was
a common refrain for why ELD content could not be covered. As for material resources,
teachers most often cite as main concerns dramatic cuts in budget, essential support personnel,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 63
and programs; lack of supplemental materials for at-risk students; lack of ELD curriculum; and
cuts to the instructional year. Significantly, organizational barriers go beyond processes and
resources and extend to culture. The culture of an organization pervades virtually every person
and every aspect of the specific day-to-day activities and overarching operation of the
organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Causes informed by the literature. Research conducted on California English learners
and the programs designed to target improved achievement for this group of students is extensive
but inconclusive due to myriad factors (Bos et al., 2012; CDE, n. d.; Genesee et al., 2006; Parrish
et al., 2006). Prior to Proposition 227 in 1998, which effectively eliminated the use of a
student’s native language in instruction, much of the research focused on bilingual education and
the degree to which a student was educated in his or her native language. Since then, EL
programs have undergone seemingly endless redesign with accompanying legal ramifications
with wide variance in definitions and terminology, making it difficult to identify patterns of
success or failure. Additionally, the educational system has undergone major revamping in the
form of class size reduction, the introduction of content standards, and the establishment of state
and federal accountability systems. Much of the research involves college-age and adult
learners. There are very few long-term studies. California has no coherent theoretical
foundation for strategies employed in classrooms, and therefore no framework for evaluating a
strategy’s effectiveness on an instructional goal.
The research does support a 30-minute block of time devoted exclusively to English
language development (ELD) with students grouped according to language ability in an
interactive learning environment with an emphasis on oral language (CDE, 2011; Genesee et al.,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 64
2006). Other research-supported practices for ELs include the use of academic language, a
strong writing program, and instruction that is focused according to language developmental
levels as determined by the CELDT (CDE, n. d.; Datnow, 2007; Genesee et al., 2006; Olsen,
2010).
The research also supports sound teaching and organizational practices that are beneficial
for all students: strong content knowledge, explicit direct instruction and strong student
engagement (Dixon et al., 2012; Bos et al., 2012; CDE, n. d.; CDE, 2011; Dutro et al. 2012;
Gallimore et al., 2009); ongoing, comprehensive, cohesive training and professional
development (Mushayikwa & Lubben, 2009; Seezink & Poell, 2010); ongoing assessment and
data-driven decision making (Datnow et al., 2007; Reeves, 2003); structured collaboration
(Gallimore et al. 2009; Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008); and shared vision (Garrahy et al., 2005;
Williams et al., 2007). It is important to note that there is not just one, single best practice
(Genesee et al., 2006); there is no one path to academic excellence (Parrish et al., 2006). A goal
of this inquiry project was to determine whether these research-based practices were being
implemented at El Dorado, and the extent to which that implementation caused challenges for
the school’s third grade teachers.
Summary. A summary of the sources of assumed causes — knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational culture — is depicted in Table 3.3.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 65
Table 3.3
Summary of Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
CAUSES
SOURCES Knowledge Motivation
Organizational
Processes
• Interviews
• Survey,
• Walkthroughs
• Lack of
knowledge of
content
standards
• Unclear on goals
and purpose of
ELD program
• Lack of
understanding of
ELD curriculum
and instruction
• Lack of
understanding of
SDAIE
strategies
• Unclear on how
to use data to
inform
instruction
• Choice to
conduct ELD
time
• Choice to
perform
SDAIE
strategies
• Choice to use
data to inform
instruction
• Driven to
expend effort
on planning
and
implementation
• Driven to
persist through
challenges and
fatigue
• Lack of
instructional
materials and
supplies
• Lack of
sufficient time
to implement
instructional
goals
• Lack of
appropriate and
applicable
training
• Lack of follow-
up and support
after training
• Inconsistent
ELD program
implementation
• Theory
• Factual
• Conceptual
• Procedural
• Metacognitive
(see Table 3.1)
• Choice
• Effort
• Persistence
• Work processes
and material
resources

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 66
• Literature
• Lack of strong ELD
content knowledge
• Limited knowledge
of SDAIE strategies
• Lack of teacher
knowledge of EL
culture and stages of
language
development
• Limited use of data
to inform
instructional
decisions
• External locus
of control
• Low self-
efficacy
• Inconsistent
implementation
of 30-minutes
ELD daily
• Inconsistent
administration
of formative
assessments
• Little current
evidence of
data driven
decision
making
• Inconsistent
use of state-
adopted
curriculum
• No follow-up
support for
ELD training
• Feelings of
isolation and
discouragement

Step 5: Validated Causes
The assumed causes of the gap outlined in Table 3.3 were used to create a survey that was
distributed to all teachers at El Dorado Elementary School. The survey included demographic
data for gender, age, teaching experience, and job responsibilities. The qualitative and
quantitative data were analyzed to validate the causes of the gap. Other methods of data
collection included interviews and document analysis.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 67
Sample and population. The teachers at El Dorado Elementary School were the sample
for this study. Although the focus was on third grade teachers, all teachers were included in the
study for two reasons: 1) there are three third grade teachers, and to limit the study to these
participants would threaten anonymity; and 2) the achievement of third grade students relies
heavily on K-2 teachers, and the strategies of third grade teachers will affect the achievement of
the students as they move through grades 4 through 6. All identifying information was removed
to respect the identities of the participants. El Dorado Elementary School was selected for this
inquiry because the researcher is currently employed by the school district and served as
principal of El Dorado for five years.
Instrumentation. The following section describes the data collection instruments and the
procedures that were utilized to collect data for this inquiry following Institutional Review Board
(IRB) approval. The data sources included surveys, semi-structured interviews, and document
analysis.
Surveys. A survey was developed to validate the assumed causes derived from the list in
Table 3.3. Twenty-eight items were developed based on a four-response Likert scale: (a)
strongly disagree; (b) disagree; (c) agree; and (d) strongly agree. The survey was administered
using the Qualtrics online software application during November and December 2012. The
survey was distributed to teachers. Because no identification of respondents was collected, the
Qualtrics instrument maintained confidentiality. Results were downloaded into SPSS. Data
were backed up and saved on a computer that is password protected.
Interviews. Interviews combined a guide approach with a standardized format (Patton,
2002). In order to use interviewee time efficiently and facilitate analysis by making responses
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 68
easy to compare, the interviews began with a standard set of questions. However, because there
was one interviewer and therefore no need for several interviewers to create consistent output,
other pre-determined topics were explored at the interviewer’s discretion. Additionally, because
it was the goal of the interviewer to probe deeply, encourage critical thinking, and uncover
challenges that may be currently unknown, a portion of the interview was conversational,
allowing the interviewee to add what he or she deemed important. The interview guide that was
developed had 10 to 15 questions based on the assumed causes in Table 3.3 and categorized by
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture. Research-based teaching
strategies, characteristics of English learners, and data-driven decision-making were examined
within the three categories. Interview participants were all district employees and over the age of
eighteen. Interviews were conducted in person by a single interviewer and were transcribed.
Interview notes and transcripts were kept secure in a locked file cabinet.
Document analysis. In order to triangulate the data and achieve a comprehensive
analysis of El Dorado Elementary School, the following documents were examined and
summarized:
• Lesson plans;
• Bell schedules;
• Data director student information system reports;
• Staff meeting agendas and minutes;
• Professional development plans;
• District goals;
• Academic program survey (APS);
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 69
• Walkthrough data;
• California content standards.
Data Analysis
This section explains the strategies that were used to analyze survey, interview, and
document data. The unit of analysis of this inquiry project was El Dorado Elementary School.
The purpose of this inquiry project suggested the use of a quantitative and qualitative
methodology to investigate the causes for the achievement gap of students who are learning
English. The focus was to understand this gap despite school- and districtwide reform efforts.
For the survey, descriptive statistics were used to identify the basic features of the data,
including the mean, median, mode, variance, and standard deviation. The qualitative data were
collected through the semi-structured interviews, the transcripts coded using symbols that
represented the categories of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture to
capture and analyze relevant information and identify causes. The qualitative data collected
through document analysis provided a comprehensive way to compare what is yielded through
the survey and interviews.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 70
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Student achievement is a primary goal for an educational institution, and forms the basis
for our current national and statewide accountability system. According to the provisions
outlined in No Child Left Behind (NCLB), it is the responsibility of each school district and site
to help each and every child succeed. Elementary school student achievement is the foundation
upon which future academic success can occurs. At El Dorado Elementary School, and all
elementary schools throughout in California, some students experience academic success, while
others do not. The group of students at El Dorado who do not meet minimum levels of
proficiency on standardized tests are primarily English learners. Using El Dorado Elementary
School third grade teachers as a case study, this mixed-method study was purposed to:
1. Analyze the challenges and barriers in knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational culture;
2. Determine causes of these challenges;
3. Identify and implement solutions by which by which the third grade teachers can
improve the achievement of their English learners in English language arts.
By focusing on third grade teachers, the size of the study remained manageable, and the format
can be replicated for use in other grades and schools. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
process model was used for the framework for this study.
This study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods. A teacher survey and
semi-structured interviews captured data to understand perceptions as they applied to knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational culture, as suggested by the literature. An analysis of
the data from this study suggested the perceived gaps in teacher knowledge and skills,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 71

motivation, and organizational culture that must be closed in order to improve the achievement
of students who are learning English. Once the causes of the gaps are identified, suggested
solutions will be presented and discussed in Chapter Five.
Demographic Data
In order to protect the anonymity of the three-person third -grade team, this case study
included all teachers. In order to provide a relatively simple, timesaving alternative for teachers
to participate in the study, a survey was distributed to all teachers at El Dorado Elementary
School through via e-mail between November 2012 and December 2012. Of the 18 surveys
distributed, 13 were completed, representing a 72% return rate. The first section of the survey
contained demographic questions about the teacher, including educational degrees attained,
number of years of teaching experience, and grade level taught. Teachers from grade levels
kindergarten through sixth grade are represented. Of the teachers completing the surveys, five
out of thirteen teachers have earned Master’s degrees.
In addition to the quantitative survey, six El Dorado teachers were interviewed to gain a
more in-depth understanding of the perceived causes for the gaps in knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational culture. All six teachers taught at El Dorado in 2011-12 for a
minimum of 16 years to a maximum of 36 years.
And finally, in an effort to triangulate data and provide a more in-depth understanding of
the information provided in the surveys and interviews, a document analysis was performed.
Documents included: lesson plans; bell schedules; student information system reports;
professional development plans; district goals; walkthrough data; and California content
standards.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 72

Report of the Findings
Study Question I
What are the challenges in 3rd grade teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational issues that may affect the successful achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve
proficiency in the CST?
In this section, an analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data collected in connection
with Question 1 is discussed. The quantitative data, in the form of one 28-question survey,
provides a snapshot of teachers’ perceived gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
issues. In the survey, teachers were asked questions rooted in each category: knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational processes. A four-point Likert scale was developed, calling
for a response of “Strongly Agree,” “Agree,” “Disagree,” and “Strongly Disagree.” The survey
results were collected around the means, or the average total of all the scores (Salkind, 2008).
However, given the disparity in the scores, the average scores did not provide an accurate picture
of survey question results, so the survey results are reported in a narrative. The scores represent
the individual teacher’s perceptions and are not an actual measurement of their knowledge and
skills, motivation, or the structure of the organization.
The qualitative data, in the form of semi-structured interviews and document analysis,
subsequently provides deeper and richer insight into knowledge, motivation, and organizational
issues that teachers have with regard to the instructional program at the school.
This study question will be divided into sub-sections, each focused on the components of
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 73

Knowledge and skills.
Assumed causes for gaps in knowledge and skills. There are four types of knowledge.
First there is factual knowledge. Assumed causes for gaps in factual knowledge include lack of
knowledge of content standards, ELD curriculum, SDAIE strategies, and data analysis. The
second type of knowledge is conceptual. Conceptual knowledge is knowledge about concepts,
theories, models, and principals. Assumed causes for gaps in conceptual knowledge include lack
of understanding of the goals, purpose and underlying theories and models of the ELD program,
and lack of teacher knowledge about EL student culture and the stages of language development.
A third type of knowledge is procedural. , Procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to do
something, and the appropriate procedures. Assumed causes for gaps in procedural knowledge
include not knowing how to use the specific SDAIE strategies that most impact EL student
achievement, not knowing how implement ELD time and monitor program integrity, and not
understanding the procedures for record-keeping and data-driven decision making. The fourth
kind of knowledge is metacognitive. , Metacognitive knowledge is awareness about one’s own
knowledge. Assumed causes for gaps in metacognitive knowledge include not understanding the
importance of self-reflection and self-monitoring in program implementation.
Results for knowledge and skills.
Surveys. Survey results indicated that factual knowledge is strong. 69% of teachers
surveyed agreed that they were familiar with English language development (ELD) content
standards and understand how to incorporate those content standards into English/language arts
lessons. Seventy-two percent 72% agreed that they thoroughly understand specially designed
academic instruction in English (SDAIE) strategies and routinely incorporate those strategies
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 74

into their lesson plans on a daily basis. Seventy-seven percent indicated that they use student
information software to place students in ability groups, and 70% use the software to plan
student interventions and guide instruction. While the surveys also indicated strong conceptual
knowledge, a sizable portion of teachers lack conceptual knowledge: Sixty-nine percent of
teachers surveyed indicated that they understand and support the need to provide ELD
instruction to students, which leaves 29% that do not understand and support this program. Sixty-
one percent of teachers agreed that they understand the instructional goals of the district. A full
one hundred percent 100% agreed that SDAIE strategies are important in teaching the content
areas. Surveys also indicated that procedural knowledge is strong, with. 85% confirming agreed
that they know how to use SDAIE strategies in their lessons.
Interviews. During the interviews, teachers were asked open-ended questions to further
clarify survey items and probe respondents’ factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.
Factual knowledge. Interviews showed that factual knowledge about content standards,
ELD curriculum, SDAIE strategies, and how to use data to inform instruction is strong. Five of
six teachers were able to identify essential English/language arts (ELA) content standards and
provide evidence of use in the classroom, in the form of posters, blueprints, lesson standards
displayed, and/or lesson plans. All were able to articulate how to incorporate ELA standards into
lesson plans, and how to plan curriculum and instruction so as to cover the most important, or
“essential” ELA standards, as identified by the California blueprints (see Appendix A). Five of
six teachers used district curriculum pacing guides and could correctly identify how to access the
pacing guides online.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 75

Six of six teachers correctly defined the term English language development (ELD) and
correctly identified the essential program component of 30 minutes per day of instructional time.
All teachers surveyed could identify the number of EL learners in their classroom, and correctly
estimate the number of students at each language level. Where factual knowledge is needs
improvement is in the area of ELD content standards. The two teachers who have been specially
trained to provide adjunct EL services at the school could identity ELD content standards, and
could articulate how to build a lesson around an ELD content standard, but the remaining four
teachers were unaware that there were ELD standards in addition to English/language arts
standards.
All teachers interviewed were able to define SDAIE and describe at least two SDAIE
strategies and how they might be used in a content-area lesson.
Conceptual knowledge (concepts, theories, models, principles). By contrast, knowledge
about the underlying instructional and language development theories associated with ELD is
weak. None of the teachers interviewed could articulate why it was important to provide ELD or
how that instruction could improve student achievement. All teachers said that ELD time was
provided at El Dorado because it was a district mandate, and no teachers understood why a
separate period needed to be designated for ELD instruction.
Procedural knowledge (how to do something, appropriate procedures). Do you know
how to plan and implement ELD instruction? Do you have knowledge of the criteria for
determining student success in the ELD program? When asked about their thoughts about the
specific elements of the ELD program that exists at El Dorado, each teacher differed in how they
planned instruction and selected instructional materials. The two teachers who hold adjunct
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 76

positions at the school and who receive special stipends for additional training for EL learners
described a framework upon which instruction is based, citing either language forms and
functions or a describing a portion of the program that is specifically geared towards EL
students. Four teachers expressed concern over the perceived trend of providing a specialized
program for just a few students that were performing at the bottom of the class. The four
interviewees described how they working very hard to help students succeed, noting that ELD is
“just good teaching,” and it was therefore unnecessary to provide additional instructional time
for ELs. Two teachers said that since such a small minority of students was learning English, it
was impractical to provide 30 minutes of ELD instruction per day, and therefore it was not
provided. As for monitoring EL student achievement, two teachers administered specific ELD
formative assessments, three teachers used only assessments designed to monitor all students,
and one teacher used only his or her own observations to measure EL student progress.
There was an apparent lack of consistency reported with regard to the use of instructional
materials for the ELD program. One teacher expressed great frustration with the lack of
curriculum for the program. She remarked,
“I’ve searched, studied, and asked our coaches, District personnel, and trainers, and each
person gives me a different answer. Some direct me to [textbook publishers’ ELA
intervention materials]. Others suggest I pull from science and social studies ancillary
materials. Still others suggest the ELD programs purchased years ago, but over time
there are crucial pieces missing. I spend an inordinate amount of time guessing and
planning instruction, and I don’t really know what I’m doing.”
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 77

Each interviewee described an overabundance of materials, but no clear guidance as to which
materials to use and how to use them.
When asked about their procedural knowledge about the use of data to inform instruction,
the interviewer received a wide range of responses. Two teachers described in detail how they
use data to form student ability groups that begin on the first day of school, how they download
detailed reports to spreadsheets to further analyze results, and how they monitor student
achievement through formative assessment data in 10-week increments and adjust student groups
and plan instruction accordingly.
By contrast, one teacher does not use the student information system to form student
groups, monitor progress, or administer formative assessments. It is unclear whether it was
because the teacher did not know how to utilize the hardware and software or because s/he chose
not to utilize it. The remaining three teachers interviewed used student information software to
form student groups and administer district-required benchmark assessments, but did not know
how to effectively analyze the results of formative assessments to inform instruction or reform
student ability groups. Three of six teachers used new document cameras to scan assessments,
and three reported that they did not use the hardware because it was “temperamental.” It was
unclear whether the lack of functionality was due to human or technological error.
Metacognitive knowledge (awareness of one’s own knowledge, strategic knowledge). Do
you know what it is like to be a student who is learning English? Are you aware of your own
knowledge relative to working with students who are learning English? Two of six teachers said
that it has only been in the past two years that they gained an understanding of the need to
provide specific instruction in order to help their students learn how to speak, read, and write
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 78

English. Four of six teachers said that they believed that children could best learn English
through exposure. One teacher relied strongly on the use of novels with accompanying audio
recordings and activity packets to teach her students to speak, read, and write English. She
asserted, “The kids really enjoy the books, they learn a lot, and they are motivated.” She also
reported that her students were making “significant progress,” and that, “nobody has ever gone
backwards with me. No one.”
Document analysis. As previously stated, survey and interview data are not actual
measurements of teachers’ knowledge and skills, but rather their self-reported perceptions. A
document analysis was performed in an effort to triangulate the data and provide additional
objective information. Surveys and interviews showed strong that factual knowledge is strong.
Short of administering an assessment to teachers, it was difficult to determine levels of factual
knowledge. Therefore, classroom walkthrough data was analyzed to determine the frequency
that ELA or ELD standards were posted during instruction, and the frequency that SDAIE
strategies were utilized. A total of 10 walkthroughs were performed from February to May,
2012. When a specific action was observed, it was tallied (see Walkthrough Form, Appendix B).
In 15 classrooms, standards were observed posted in only two to five classrooms during each
walkthrough. SDAIE strategies ranged from five to 17 tallies; in some classrooms more than one
strategy was observed.
Analyses of student information system data revealed that the teachers’ estimates of the
number of EL learners in their classrooms and their language levels is accurate. Investigation of
textbook and instructional materials inventories confirmed that there are five different ELD
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 79

curricula on campus, and that there are key components missing from each. With one exception,
there was no step-by-step lesson plan guide available with any curriculum.
Further analysis of student information system data gave one indication of the degree to
which teachers use data to inform instruction. Because the data can be examined by grade level,
the analysis focused on third grade. Two out of three teachers did not have data, which would
indicate that they did not administer the common formative benchmark assessments that are used
by the school district to track student achievement. Without administering the assessments, the
teachers would not have access to the comprehensive reports provided by the software. This is
an indication that the use of benchmark data to form student groups and inform instruction in
third grade is low.
Finally, because the English/language arts portion of the California Standards Test (CST)
is deemed by the state of California student as one of three academic indicators for EL student
success, scores were examined for the teacher who stated that no student has ever gone
backwards in the classroom. CST data revealed 30 out of 32 students’ scores declined after one
year in the teacher’s classroom.
Synthesis of the knowledge and skills data. The surveys, interviews, and document
analysis showed that teachers have strong factual knowledge of content standards, the ELD
program, SDAIE strategies, and the use of data to inform instruction. They lack conceptual
knowledge about the ELD program. Teachers also lack procedural knowledge about how to use
ELD instructional materials and about how to use data to inform instruction. There appears to be
a disconnect between what teachers assume they know and need to know and what they actually
know when asked additional probing questions. Teachers placed a heavy importance on core
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 80

curriculum and sound teaching practice, but little importance on the need to offer a specialized
curriculum and strategies for students who are learning English. There is also evidence that
some metacognitive knowledge is low; they may not know what they do not know. Teachers
profess confidence in their knowledge about ELD, SDAIE strategies, and the use of data to
inform instruction, but document analysis showed that this knowledge is not translating to
classroom practice and may not be demonstrated by CST scores.
Validated causes. The assumed causes that were validated by the data were gaps in
conceptual and procedural knowledge about the ELD program, procedural knowledge about the
use of data to inform instruction, and metacognitive knowledge about monitoring student
achievement. The assumed causes that were not validated by the data were lack of factual
knowledge about content standards, ELD, SDAIE strategies, and data analysis. No new causes
in knowledge and skills were discovered.
Potential solutions to the most significant gaps in knowledge and skills will be discussed
in Chapter Five.
Motivation
People who are motivated have energy, drive, and will persist through challenges (Clark
& Estes, 2008). According to Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008), motivation is the process
whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained. It involves active choice, persistence,
and sustained effort to generate new knowledge. It can be a challenge for a teacher to stay
motivated even under the best of circumstances. Add to that the need to make significant
changes in instructional strategies due to increasing numbers of students who cannot fully access
the curriculum because they are learning English, and there is the possibility that experienced,
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 81

knowledgeable teachers may lack the energy and persistence to accomplish ambitious student
achievement goals (Gallimore, Ermeling, & Goldenberg, 2009; Garrahy, Cothran, & Kulinna,
2005).
Assumed causes for gaps in motivation. According to informal data gathered in the
2011-12 school year, El Dorado teachers expressed lack of energy and drive due to fatigue,
discouragement, and feelings of being overwhelmed. Part of the goal of this study was to
determine to what extent teachers felt energized, goal directed, and appreciated. According to
Clark and Estes (2008), one of the most important things to know about motivation at work is
that it “results from our experiences and beliefs about ourselves, our coworkers, and our
prospects for being effective” (p. 82). If teachers are feeling pessimistic and discouraged, are
questioning their career choice, and are convinced there is little they can do to improve their
circumstance, then it will be difficult for them to tackle demanding new curriculum or persevere
through the trial and error that precedes incorporating new teaching strategies. Therefore, it was
important in this study to determine whether teachers’ motivational gaps stemmed from core
beliefs that generalized to the teaching profession overall, or whether the gaps were situational
and connected to specific program components.
Three indices of motivation are choice, effort, and persistence. Preliminary observations
and interviews showed that El Dorado teachers varied in their choice of whether to adhere to
suggested instructional minutes, provide ELD instruction, perform SDAIE strategies, and utilize
data to inform instruction. While some put forth the effort to find ELD materials and prepare
lessons, implement SDAIE strategies, and learn hardware and software associated with the
student information system, some did not. Once lessons, procedures, and strategies were
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 82

underway, some teachers struggled to persist with modified procedures, particularly when met
with resistance from other team members, or when feeling fatigued or discouraged.
A motivational construct that is particularly relevant to the teaching profession is
attribution theory. In general, attributions are ways that an individual uses information and
external cues to form the basis for their perceptions about causes and outcomes (Weiner, 1988).
If the teacher attributes student failure to external factors such as the student’s laziness or
overcrowding in the classroom, he or she is said to have an external locus of control. If the
teacher looks instead towards internal factors such as his or her skill in lesson delivery, the
teacher is said to have an internal locus of control (Schunk et al., 2008). Assumed causes for
gaps in motivation under this construct at El Dorado include lack of sufficient time and lack of
parent participation.
A second motivational construct that is relevant to the teaching profession is self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy can be described as the teacher’s judgment about whether he or she possesses the
necessary knowledge and skills required to complete a task (Schunk et al., 2008). Assumed
causes for gaps in this construct at El Dorado include teachers’ lack of confidence in their own
ability to improve EL student achievement.
Results for motivation.
Surveys. Several survey questions were asked in an attempt to determine whether
teachers were interested in and placed value on their profession. Motivational theory suggests
that performance improves when people enjoy what they do, are driven by internal satisfaction
rather than external rewards, and pursue learning out of genuine curiosity and desire to improve
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Surveys showed the majority of teachers feel encouraged at the
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 83

school site level. 100% of teachers surveyed agreed that their hard work and effort is understood
and appreciated by their principal, and 85% agreed that they look forward to coming to work on
most days. 92% of survey respondents agreed that the teachers at El Dorado are generally
motivated and optimistic. Responses were divided over whether the respondents felt personally
and professionally fulfilled as a teacher: 46% strongly agreed, 31% agreed, and 23% disagreed.
And while 85% of teachers agreed that, overall, they are very satisfied with their job, 15%
disagreed. The overwhelming majority of teachers placed value on their career choice and
displayed conscious choice in their decision to remain on the job. 85% of El Dorado teachers
surveyed would choose to become a teacher if they had the opportunity to start over in a new
career; 62% agreed “strongly”.
Under the motivational construct of attribution theory, preliminary data suggested that
teachers felt that parents and home environment played a very important role in student
achievement. The survey data confirmed this external locus of control. 61% of teachers
surveyed agreed that until their students are better supported at home, it will be impossible for
them to score proficient on the California Standards Test (CST). 85% of teachers agree that there
is not adequate instructional time to cover all the expected content standards.
Under the motivational construct of self-efficacy, preliminary data suggested teachers
lacked confidence in their ability to teach EL students. The survey data showed that 85% of
teachers did not agree that they could teach 100% of the ELD standards during the course of one
school year. Conversely, self-efficacy was high with regard to SDAIE strategies. 85% of
teachers surveyed agreed that they were confident about using SDAIE strategies in their
classrooms.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 84

Interviews. During the interviews, six teachers were presented with two open-ended
questions under the umbrella of motivation. The questions encouraged teachers to discuss their
interest in and support of the ELD program, and what challenges they experienced. Two teachers
took a leadership role in the ELD program by participating in additional training, administering
schoolwide assessments and guiding their grade-level teams in the implementation of ELD time.
Two teachers stated that while they may not agree that ELD time is necessary, they followed the
district’s directive and set aside the required instructional time for ELD. Two teachers stated that
while they had not provided ELD in past, they had plans to institute it in the current year. This is
year three of a formal ELD program at El Dorado, and the aforementioned interview data
indicates that the motivational construct of choice, as in whether to choose to participate in ELD
time and plan curriculum and instruction, varies significantly from teacher to teacher.
Additionally, it was evident from the interviews that the choice of instructional model varied.
Until two years ago, ELD instruction at El Dorado was conducted as a “pullout”: an instructional
aide pulled EL students out of the classroom, gave the students their instruction, and brought the
students back to the classroom. Therefore, the site’s least-qualified personnel taught the students
most in need of quality instruction. Two years ago, instructional aides were directed to “push-in”
to classrooms. In this model, aides enter the classroom for ELD time and assist the teacher with
the highest-performing group of students while the teacher instructs the EL group. When asked
about their choice of method of delivery for ELD instruction, two teachers described the “push-
in” model previously described, two teachers described a “push-in” model with aides working
with EL students, and two teachers described using the “pullout” model.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 85

With regard to the constructs of persistence and sustained effort, these also vary from
teacher to teacher. To allot thirty minutes of a day to a program, regroup students for that time,
work with an instructional aide, plan and implement a new curriculum, assess and monitor
progress of a group of students not formerly specifically monitored takes a great deal of effort
and initiative even under ideal circumstances. Teachers interviewed unanimously expressed
feelings of fatigue in the current environment budget crisis in education. They named cuts in
pay, dramatic rise in class size, standardized test-score pressure, and loss of key El Dorado
personnel as the main reasons for their frustration. Six of six teachers viewed the ELD program
as “one more thing to do” in a day that is already overburdened with responsibility. One teacher
said, “This year I really talked to my Spanish-speaking parents at conference time, and asked
them about their kids at home. I got such valuable information, and we connected and
understood each other in a way I’ve never been able to do before. It made me think about how I
could tap into the home/school connection. It would require a tremendous amount of time and
energy. I would need to ‘travel’ outside my classroom whether in person or on the phone, and I
would need to make a commitment. I’m just not sure I can do it, with everything else that I have
to do.”
Aside from the motivational elements of choice, effort, and persistence, there is the
construct of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be described as the teacher’s judgment about
whether he or she possesses the necessary knowledge and skills required to complete a task
(Schunk et al., 2008). The instruction of English learners is a complex and multi-faceted
undertaking, and all teachers interviewed expressed a lack of confidence in their ability to
instruct English learners. Of primary concern was the students in the classroom at so many
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 86

instructional and emotional levels, plus students at six different language levels. All teachers
interviewed used the phrase, “It’s impossible”. One teacher said, “We’re so driven by
curriculum and the sheer number of kids that we’re dealing with. We group students by ability
across our grade level and it’s still challenging. Even within each level there is so much
diversity. There are many children in the room who really need 100% of me, but it’s all I can do
to have them come up and do a problem with me, just one or two minutes, when I really need to
give them my all.”
A final motivational construct explored in the interviews is attribution theory.
Attributions are ways that individuals use information and external cues to form the basis for
their perceptions about causes and outcomes (Weiner, 1988). For example, if a student fails in a
teacher’s classroom, to what does the teacher attribute that failure? If the teacher attributes the
failure to external factors such as the student’s laziness or overcrowding in the classroom, he or
she is said to have an external locus of control. If the teacher looks instead towards internal
factors such as his or her skill in lesson delivery, the teacher is said to have an internal locus of
control (Schunk et al., 2008). Six out of six teachers interviewed exhibited an external locus of
control. They cited parents and home environment as significant factors that influence student
achievement. Several teachers gave illustrative examples. One teacher said, “The one thing that
is not addressed that could be addressed is having the parents be fully active, supportive partners.
I have lots of parents who speak Spanish, read at a third-grade level in their native language, and
have been in the country for 20 years. It’s not that the parent won’t help, but that they can’t help
their child. So I send the kids home and have to start all over the next day.” Another teacher
said, “We’re dealing with cultural differences. My Spanish-speaking parents seem more
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 87

concerned with how their child is behaving, but not how they are achieving. I know the parents
care, but I also know they often don’t have time to care, they’re working two jobs just to survive,
and they’re using school as a babysitting service so that they can work. And it’s hard for us to
break the cycle. The other day one of my former students came to visit me, so proud to show me
her new baby. That student is only seventeen.”
Document analysis. Analysis of lesson plans confirms the inconsistent implementation
of ELD time as described by teachers. 50% of teachers implement 30 minutes of ELD per day,
25% implement less time, and 25% are not currently implementing ELD time. Analysis of
instructional aide schedules confirms the use of the district-recommended “push-in” model used
by 70% of classrooms, while 30% are practicing the “pullout” model.
Synthesis of motivation data. Overall, the data shows that El Dorado teachers are
motivated, optimistic, feel appreciated, and are happy with their career choice. Therefore, it is
reasonable to conclude that gaps in motivation stem mostly from situational aspects of their job,
and not from core beliefs about the teaching profession in general. During the interviews
teachers described choosing to work long hours, expending mental effort on problem solving,
and persevering through challenges. However, when asked about specifics such as the ELD
program, teachers did not consistently apply the motivational indices of choice, effort and
persistence.
With regard to the index of choice, there was evidence to suggest that some teachers are
choosing not to implement ELD time, perform SDAIE strategies, and utilize data to inform
instruction. There was also evidence to suggest that some teachers do not make the effort to find
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 88

ELD instructional materials and plan instruction, and do not persist through program challenges
and resistance from colleagues.
There was also evidence to suggest that teachers maintain an external locus of control.
They reported that without more parent involvement they cannot improve the achievement of
some students, and that there is insufficient time to teach all the required standards.
Finally, there was evidence to suggest a lack of self-efficacy. Teachers reported that they
lack the confidence to meet the needs of all their students.
Validated causes. Contrary to preliminary data, surveys and interviews revealed that El
Dorado teachers overall are optimistic, value their career choice, and display genuine interest in
their profession. However, the assumed motivational gaps that were primarily context-specific
were confirmed. Those context and situational causes include choosing to teach ELD,
performing SDAIE strategies, and using data to inform instruction. Additionally, teachers
exhibited an external locus of control, and lack of self-efficacy. The data revealed no new
causes. Solutions to gaps in motivation will be discussed in Chapter Five.
Organizational Culture
Gaps in organizational culture and support represent the third area of the Gap Analysis
model (Clark & Estes, 2008). A positive culture is a foundational and vital ingredient to the
health of that organization. There are tangible aspects to organizational culture, such as the
availability of human and material resources, the implementation of procedures and schedules,
and the quality and frequency of professional development programs. There are also many
intangible or abstract aspects of organizational culture, often described in the context of core
values, goals, values, and beliefs (Clark & Estes, 2008).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 89

Assumed causes for gaps in organizational culture. Assumed causes for El Dorado
stem from gaps in work processes and material resources. Chief among assumed cause in gaps
in work processes is the lack of appropriate and applicable training, and the lack of follow-up
support to the training. Gaps in resources include sufficient time to implement instructional
goals, and the lack of instructional materials and supplies.
Results for organizational culture.
Surveys. When considering the constructs of work processes, teachers were evenly split
on whether they agreed that the training they received has prepared them to help their EL
students acquire proficiency in the English language. A slightly smaller percentage, 43%, agreed
that the training they received has helped them teach their EL students to read and write well.
69% agreed that the current environment at school allows them to perform to the best of their
ability.
With regard to material resources, 46% of teachers agreed that they have all the textbooks
and supplemental materials and supplies they need to successfully teach the content to their EL
students. Teachers were much less divided on the subject of time. Only 15% agreed that there
was adequate instructional time in the week to cover all of the standards they are expected to
teach, and 69% said that their workload was unmanageable. However, when considering
English/language arts instruction specifically, 85% agreed that English/language arts time is
given priority and protected from all interruptions.
Interviews. Interview evidence strongly suggested that significant gaps exist in the area
of work processes and material resources.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 90

Work processes. Interviews showed that chief among work process concerns was
effective professional development. Six out of six teachers reported that they did not receive the
training they needed to teach EL students. None could recall any specific district training geared
towards EL students prior to the current year, other than what they received to obtain or renew
their teaching certificate. Of the training provided this year, all teachers responded that it did
little to advance their knowledge and skills about teaching EL students. One teacher said, “[The
training] was pathetic. It was a large room with all the teachers from [my grade level] in the
district. Many teachers have never taught a Spanish child in their entire career, and they could
not understand why they were there. The content was useless and the delivery was mind
numbing. The presenters were condescending and stretched a 5-minute concept like Venn
diagrams to several hours of practice. There was nothing I could use in my classroom. I left for
lunch and never returned.” Another teacher remarked,
“It’s important to talk about the training we have had. It’s been several years now. The
first round was the [county department of education] training. First [county personnel]
did walkthroughs. Then they provided several days of training each year for something
like two or three years. The training was very long and mostly irrelevant. We would
spend a full day talking about numbers and team building and it didn’t make much sense
to me; I could not figure out how that was going to improve our student achievement.
For the past two years we’ve had [training in structured collaboration]. Again, it’s
multiple days in a room with hundreds of people and I haven’t seen the benefit. We made
a great attempt at practicing [structured collaboration] and I’m not sure what impact, if
any, that had on our scores. I do know that people for the most part hated the meetings
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 91

and resented the work they had to do outside their teaching responsibilities. I sit in those
trainings and think about how much money it must cost, and think about how that money
could be better spent. I completely understand that we can’t just transfer the money to
other things, I understand how budgets work, and how they’re restricted, but I still can’t
help thinking about what else we could do with that money. [Using the money for
worthwhile projects or materials] would be so powerful.”
Six of six teachers reported that once the training was complete, there was no follow
through. In order to foster effort and persistence and increase self-efficacy, trainers and
professional development providers need to provide significant and practical connections
between the theoretical learning and the classroom experience (Hoekstra et al., 2009; Olsen,
2010; Williams et al., 2007). There needs to be ongoing support, particularly when — not if —
an attempted innovation does not go according to plan. All six teachers reported feeling
confused and frustrated by the current system of professional development. One teacher
expressed,
“We’re still in the same boat from last year; [the] materials are there but [there is] no
structure. What is the reason things are so difficult? From my training, nothing matches.
If you didn’t get the training and understanding of EL education when you were a first-
year teacher, boy it’s hard to go back to square one. Even if you’ve taught for 10 years,
it’s hard to go back to the beginning. You have to think back to what you were taught in
college. It’s a little easier this year. I don’t feel supported, but I’m not blaming anyone.
I’m blaming the lack of resources, the economy. People here cannot articulate exactly
what they need, so we can’t ask for what we need.”
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Six out of six teachers talked about frustration with ELD program implementation. It has
yet to be instituted consistently schoolwide, and efforts to do so are primarily described as a
series of stops and starts. As one teacher explained,
“As a staff we’ve been talking about scheduling ELD time for about four years, and it’s
still not happening. I know part of it is that people don’t want to make any changes to
their schedule, but part of it is that it’s a lot more complicated to schedule this time than it
looks. Our obstacles are mostly management; we’re trying to get the program set up. It’s
so hard to coordinate the instructional aides. They’re here three hours per day, and we
need to cover all our ELD classrooms while at the same time working around recess,
lunch, and all the other activities. I have to hold ELD time in the middle of my reading
group, and it’s such a disruption. Aside from writing up a lesson plan daily, it’s near
impossible to communicate with the aides; there’s just no [collaboration] time. We can’t
keep them past their paid time, and we want to have them spend all their time with kids.
Plus, during their time here we’re teaching.”
Every teacher interviewed expressed deep concern about students with special needs in
their classrooms. Said one teacher,
“We’re extremely careful about identifying EL students for special education. We don’t
want to place them in that program just because they’re not learning English, and we
know that EL children are over-identified for special [education]. But sometimes I think
we’re being over cautious, and we don’t test kids when we should.”
Additionally, every teacher talked at length about the children who come to school every day
malnourished, exhausted, abused, and neglected. Some show signs of mental illness, or have
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parents who do. Child Protective Services will only get involved in the most extreme cases, and
most children do not qualify for any special services in the school system. “We need help,” said
one teacher,
“We need psychologists, or teacher’s aides who are trained, or effective training for us.
We’re in a good neighborhood, so nobody thinks we have any problems, but our families
are in crisis. How can we teach when a child on the autism spectrum has a meltdown, or
another child, suffering from anxiety, bolts from the classroom?”
California requires that children who are English learners be taught in English through
sheltered or structured English immersion (SEI) programs through a temporary transition
program designed to last one year, then transferred to mainstream English language classrooms
(California Education Code, 2012). At El Dorado, no such program exists. All six teachers
spoke of students who speak little or no English that are placed in mainstream classrooms.
Teachers work exceptionally hard to help the children adapt to their new environment and
participate in activities to the best of their ability, but there is no system-wide, sequential SEI
program. As one teacher described,
“My biggest challenge by far is teaching the [CELDT level 1s, or non-English speakers].
That is my biggest complaint as a teacher, with the district, with everything. If [the kids]
don’t speak any English that is the hardest job. What can I do for one kid out of 34? I
care about him, pull every resource I can think of, but realistically, I am doing the right
thing? It’s not fair to have the other kids interpret, but I just don’t know what else to do.
I need [language development software] so at least I could put them on that for 1-½ hours
per day. I need something. Anything.”
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Six of six teachers talked about the loss of many of the classroom activities they most
enjoy, such as holiday crafts, class parties, volunteer speakers, and field trips. One teacher said,
“We’re under pressure from parents to make school ‘fun’, and we’re under pressure from
administration to keep things ‘business only’ to impart more knowledge. It’s up to us to figure
out a balance, and it feels like a no win.” A poignant example is the talent show, a 27-year
tradition at the school. The lead teacher was paid a stipend from the site budget to direct the
show, and when that evaporated, the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) picked up the cost. This
year those funds are not available. The teacher described having to choose either forgoing the
stipend or cancelling the show, remarking,
“[E]ither option feels completely unacceptable. I know in my heart that this kind of
activity has an important place in education. Maybe it doesn’t directly affect test scores,
but it’s part of what makes us a community. It motivates kids. It motivates teachers.
Little by little, we’re losing the things that make us who we are. We’re turning into a
‘vanilla’ school.”
Material resources. This is the second organizational construct reported by teachers to be
a profound challenge or barrier to effective teaching, and subsequently student success. Every
teacher interviewed discussed the lack of time. The instructional year has been shortened by
nine days due to furloughs, and all professional development days have been removed from the
calendar. This means that in addition to loss of instructional time, there is less time for planning
and preparation, and no time for training. Therefore, teachers must leave their classrooms for
training, and the students are taught by substitutes. While technically the students receive
instruction from substitutes, all six teachers reported the strain of having to prepare for time out
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of the classroom while participating in professional development days that ranged from two to
eight days, and questioned whether substitutes could provide the same quality of instruction.
Six of six teachers reported a lack of appropriate curricular materials for the ELD
program. With the training they received comprehensive information and binders, but little
guidance as to how to specifically use the materials and implement the program in classrooms.
There are intervention materials in teachers’ English/language arts curriculum, and supplemental
materials subsequently provided, but again with little guidance as to how to use volumes of
materials. One teacher detailed,
“I went to day two of our training and was told about a resource we had back at school. I
did some checking and after several attempts located the boxes in one of our storerooms.
Everything was still sealed in shrink-wrap. I won’t say we have a lack of resources, but I
will say we lack resources we can actually use. We need a step-by-step set of plans with
materials that are aligned. What we have is much too time-consuming to dissect.”
Each teacher broached the subject of resource equity. Until 2012, El Dorado received
federal funds that were primarily used to provide a comprehensive reading and literacy program
for grades 4 through 6, leaving primary teachers feeling underrepresented. That program was
eliminated during 2012, due to budget cuts, which left upper-grade teachers grappling with how
the cut would impact achievement. Teachers interviewed also pointed to the loss of a language
arts assistance program; stipends for after-school tutoring, office and custodial personnel, and
primary-grade music teachers; and parent financial and volunteer contributions. Six out of six
teachers talked about the impact of technology. As one teacher illustrated,
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“Within our district we have such a wide range of machines. At one school there could
be brand-new interactive whiteboards in every classroom, in another there could be
nothing, in another there are document cameras and iPads. In other schools, the
technology is there, but teachers are not trained and/or not motivated to use the devices,
so they go completely unused. And we’re not talking about the state of California; we’re
talking about one district. I cannot imagine what is going on across the state.”
At El Dorado, a parent contribution facilitated the purchase of iPads for the students in two
classrooms. One teacher said, “Those iPads are the best thing that has ever happened to my
teaching.” She demonstrated a series of interactive language arts activities that guided students
to read, write, and speak at their own performance level:
“For my EL kids, it’s a fabulous way to get them to participate in a non-threatening way.
For example, there is an application that responds to voice prompts. The child wears
headphones and interacts with the device. The device plays back their response. For
most of them, it’s the first time they’ve ever heard their own voice. They often say, ‘Hey,
I have an accent’, and they’re motivated to improve, and ultimately present their project
to the class. We put it on the big screen and the class is impressed and supportive. I’ve
seen kids in this grade level participate in ways they’ve never done in all of elementary
school. It’s amazing. I just wish we could put these devices in every room.”
Document analysis. Student information system data analysis confirmed that there are
non-English speaking students in classrooms, and there were students on every language level. It
was also confirmed that there are students on every academic achievement level in each
classroom, scoring from the lowest to the highest decile on the CST.
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Instructional aide schedules confirmed the many renditions of the ELD schedule over the
past four years. Analyses of school budgets confirmed the loss of key intervention program
specialists, the loss of stipends for teacher-provided remediation programs, and the elimination
of language arts assistance programs and all extra-curricular activities such as the talent show.
Analyses of teachers’ contracts confirmed the rise in class size by 2.5 students in grades 4-6 in
2011, and previous rise from 20 to 32 students in grades 1-3. Analysis of district calendars
confirmed the loss of nine instructional days in 2011-12 due to furloughs.
Office referral logs confirmed one teacher’s description of student challenges. In one
school year, there were three separate calls to Child Protective Services. There were two
separate threats of violence against the teacher, both involving law enforcement. There was a
fully included student with autism, and the student had regular outbursts in the classroom, one
outburst resulting in a bite to the teacher that required medical care. One student suffered from
profound anxiety and did run from the school building on six documented occasions. The
student required one-on-one intervention from administration and law enforcement in order to
stay in the building.
Synthesis of organizational culture data. Since 2009, the school district has invested
an extraordinary amount of financial and human resources in a comprehensive professional
development plan designed to build leadership capacity and improve the achievement of all
students (Professional Development Plan, 2009). Trainers included county of education school
improvement specialists, district instructional services specialists, and nationally renowned
education authors and speakers. The El Dorado leadership team received training in structured
collaboration, team building, data analysis and goal setting. Additional training included student
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engagement strategies and English language development (all staff), and formative assessment
creation and analysis (select staff).
Furthermore, the district made a commitment and investment to professional
development follow-through by providing El Dorado with a literacy coach 1-½ days per week. It
was the coach’s responsibility to model lessons, help develop schedules, provide clarifying
information, and locate resources. Yet the surveys and interviews indicated that the teachers
perceived that the quality of professional development is very low, and the training they received
is not relevant to their instruction. They also perceived that ongoing professional support is very
low.
Teachers also perceived that there are inadequate materials resources to do their jobs
well. Chief among those resources is materials, personnel, and time. Furthermore, teachers
perceived inequity in allocated resources.
Validated causes. The assumed causes that were validated by the data were insufficient
work processes and lack of material resources. The assumed causes that were not validated by
the data were a culture of exclusion and feelings of isolation and discouragement. The new
causes that were discovered were insufficient resources and processes to service students with
special needs, and the inequity of existing material resources. Solutions to gaps in organizational
culture will be discussed in Chapter Five.
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Potential Solutions
Study Question II
What are the potential solutions to address the 3rd grade teachers’ challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the successful
achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
The components of a comprehensive instructional program at El Dorado that would
improve EL student achievement are derived from the research literature and the evidence
obtained through the quantitative and qualitative measurements used to determine the root causes
of the gaps. Solutions are presented within the framework of the Gap Analysis model (Clark &
Estes, 2008) that includes the constructs of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
culture and support gaps. The solutions and recommendations for implementation and
evaluation are presented and discussed in detail in Chapter Five.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 100

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
Currently an average of one in three students attends El Dorado Elementary School
without knowing enough English to access mainstream academic instruction. The goals
established by federal legislation makes it clear that it is the responsibility of schools and
districts to ensure student success. English learners at El Dorado are not meeting minimum rates
of proficiency on standardized assessments, particularly at the third grade level. The purpose of
this study was to examine how teachers at El Dorado can improve the achievement of English
learners. Specifically, this study focused on two questions:
1. What are the challenges in 3rd grade teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organizational issues that may affect the successful achievement of 3rd grade
ELs to achieve proficiency in the California Standards Test (CST)?
2. What are the potential solutions to address the 3rd grade teachers’ challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the
successful achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
The previous chapter identified gaps in teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational issues that may affect the achievement of third grade EL students. This chapter
will summarize those findings and identify potential research-based solutions to close the
identified gaps, thereby focusing on question two.
Knowledge and Skills Solutions to Close Third Grade Teachers’ Performance Gap
In order to more effectively analyze gaps in teachers’ knowledge and skills, this category
was divided into four knowledge dimensions (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Those knowledge
dimensions are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Results of the surveys,
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interviews, and document analysis showed that El Dorado teachers’ factual knowledge is strong.
However, the data showed that there were gaps in conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), there are four types of knowledge and skill
enhancements that support the achievement of performance goals. These enhancements are
information, job aids, training, and education. When people can successfully apply something to
practice what they already know, they need information. When people can use a self-help tool
on the job to perform or improve on a task, they need a job aid. When people must acquire “how
to” knowledge and must practice new skills and receive personalized corrective feedback, they
need training. And when people must acquire foundational knowledge that will help them
handle future challenges, they need education.
Conceptual Knowledge Gaps
Conceptual knowledge happens when one understands the interrelationships among
basic elements with a larger structure that enables those elements to function together (Anderson
& Krathwohl, 2001). Conceptual knowledge is knowledge about concepts, theories, models, and
principles. The data showed that El Dorado teachers lacked knowledge about the theories and
principles grounded in the English language development (ELD) program. Gaps in conceptual
knowledge will likely continue until teachers understand the relationship between ELD and
overall student achievement.
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), research has shown that many learners do
not make important practical connections between what they learn in a classroom and the larger
system of ideas reflected in an expert’s knowledge of a discipline. Educating teachers in the
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specific theoretical constructs of ELD may be an effective solution to closing gaps in conceptual
knowledge. According to Clark and Estes (2008), people need to be provided with education
when problems or situations are novel, as in the case of the ELD program. Education gives
people general conceptual and analytical knowledge and equips them to handle unanticipated
problems and develop creative solutions. It is important to impart conceptual knowledge in a
way that allows teachers to make practical connections to every day classroom situations.
Otherwise this knowledge becomes “inert” and does not transfer to practice (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999).
Procedural Knowledge Gaps
Procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to do something (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). The data showed that El Dorado teachers lacked procedural knowledge about specifically
how to implement the ELD program, how to utilize instructional materials, and how to use data
to inform instruction. Teachers need step-by-step guidance on how to develop ELD schedules,
group students, use curriculum, and analyze data. According to Clark and Estes (2008), training
is the best way to equip people with “how to” knowledge. Training also provides guided practice
and corrective feedback to help people achieve specific work goals.
The goal of teacher professional development should be improved achievement for all
students (Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007). In order for student learning to take
place as a result of teacher training, it is essential that the teacher effectively transfer the
knowledge and skills that he or she has acquired to the classroom (Joyce & Showers, 2002).
Transfer is unlikely after a one-time workshop, particularly if the knowledge or skill is complex
and/or the concept is new or novel, as is the case for ELD and data-driven instruction (Bransford
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& Schwartz, 1999; Scott, Webber, Aitken & Lupart, 2011; Yoon et al., 2007). It is not enough to
tell people what to do; they must also know specifically how to do it. Procedural knowledge
happens with explicit directions, demonstrations in actual classrooms and guided practice.
Therefore, training that transfers to classroom practice includes development of knowledge,
modeling of skill, practice of skill, and peer coaching (Joyce & Showers, 2002).
Metacognitive Knowledge Gaps
Metacognitive knowledge is an awareness of one’s own knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Metacognition is the learner’s understanding of what they have learned and
how they have learned it, so that they may be better equipped to acquire new knowledge (Mayer,
2011). El Dorado teachers are notably experienced and well-educated professionals with a
wealth of knowledge in their current skill set, but may lack new knowledge about the education
of English learners and the use of data to inform instruction. Furthermore, the data suggests that
teachers do not know what they do not know. For example, they may be confident about the
success of students in their classrooms without the use of objective data to support their belief.
Solutions to these metacognitive gaps are rooted in training, with an emphasis on individualized
practice and corrective feedback (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Metacognition is a skill that can be improved using a variety of instructional strategies
(Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett & Norman, 2010; Schraw, 1998). Metacognitive skills do
not necessarily develop on their own. It may be logical to assume that well educated and
experienced teachers will know how to reflect on their own learning and monitor their own
performance along the way, but that may not necessarily be the case, particularly when the
subject matter, teaching strategies, and student populations change significantly. People do not
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employ metacognitive actions as well or as often as they should, especially when the situation
calls for a departure from the kind of monitoring and self-assessment that served them well in the
past. Metacognition can improve with the use of explicit guidance and modeling combined with
periodic structured support, also known as scaffolding (Ambrose et al., 2010; Schraw, 1998).
Explicit guidance and modeling. In order to self-regulate their learning and practice,
teachers need to understand the difference between cognition and metacognition (Schraw, 1998).
Experienced professionals that are accustomed to lesson planning and delivery in one
environment may not understand that they need to consistently reevaluate their methods in order
to differentiate their instruction in another environment (Ambrose et al., 2010). Extended
practice and reflection can improve metacognitive skills (Schraw, 1998). For example, a teacher
skilled in the use of SDAIE strategies could model a lesson for her colleagues. Prior to the
lesson she would meet with her team to talk through the mental processes she used to plan the
lesson and articulate learning goals. Afterward, she could debrief the teachers about the specific
strategies she used to monitor her own performance and adjust the lesson accordingly. Once
teachers had the opportunity to teach a lesson, there needs to be group discussion and reflection.
During the reflection, teachers need to systematically evaluate their own strengths and
weaknesses, and create goals for future lessons.
Scaffolding the metacognitive process. Scaffolding is the process by which
considerable support and structure is provided in the early phases of new learning, followed by
gradual release of support until the learner can perform the task independently (Ambrose et al.,
2010). The teaching of ELD, the use of SDAIE strategies, and the use of data to inform
instruction all represent new learning for teachers. Support providers need to communicate that
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their expertise came not from innate talent or superior intelligence, but from the use of strategies
and self-regulation. It is helpful for new learners to see that even experts constantly reassess and
adjust as they go (Ambrose et al., 2010). If learners attribute success to the use of practiced
strategies, they are more likely to self-assess and self-monitor their learning and persist through
challenges (Schraw, 1988). Knowledge about cognition and the belief that one has control over
cognition play an important role in learning (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Motivational Solutions to Close Third Grade Teachers’ Performance Gap
People who are motivated have energy, drive, and will persist through challenges (Clark
& Estes, 2008). According to Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008), motivation is the process
whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained. It involves active choice, persistence,
and sustained effort to generate new knowledge. It can be a challenge for a teacher to stay
motivated even under the best of circumstances. Add to that the need to make significant
changes in instructional strategies due to increasing numbers of students who cannot fully access
the curriculum because they are learning English, and there is the possibility that experienced,
knowledgeable teachers may lack the energy and persistence to accomplish ambitious student
achievement goals (Gallimore et al., 2009; Garrahy et al., 2005).
The data revealed that, overall, El Dorado teachers have energy, drive, and will persist
through challenges. They are generally optimistic, happy with their career choice, and willing to
put in long hours and expend effort towards improving their practice. They believe they can
make a positive difference in the lives of their students.
Motivational gaps at El Dorado are mostly context and situation specific. Teachers lack
buy-in when it comes to certain aspects the ELD program. They are not entirely convinced that
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ELD will improve student achievement. They avoid tasks such as performing SDAIE strategies
and using data to form student ability groups. They delay the implementation of ELD time due
to perceived scheduling conflicts. They procrastinate in developing new plans for instructional
aides, and talk about intending to institute program changes at a later date. In summary, teachers
are not displaying the three motivational indices of choice, effort, and persistence.
Furthermore, the data revealed that teachers maintain an external locus of control. They
cite lack of parent involvement and insufficient instructional time as reasons EL students cannot
succeed.
Finally, the data revealed that teachers lack self-efficacy. The teachers do not believe that
they can make a positive difference in the achievement of their EL students. “Motivation” means,
“to move”, and therefore the study of motivation is a study of action. If people are not taking
action in a certain context, it is important to determine whether they first understand what they
are supposed to do and how they are supposed to do it. Consequently it is important to provide
the training necessary and remove organizational barriers so that people believe they can be
effective in their efforts and achieve successful outcomes. Education, training, job aides, and
information were discussed in the knowledge and skills portion of this chapter, and
organizational factors will follow this section.
Provide Clear and Attainable Goals
Interviews, surveys, and document analysis revealed that El Dorado teachers perceive a
scattershot approach to goals. Therefore, it is important to establish no more than four goals for
teachers in an academic year, and clearly delineate shorter-term goals throughout the year.
Research shows that goal setting can be a powerful tool for improving student achievement.
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Hattie (2009) conducted a 15-year review of more than 800 meta-analyses and over 50,000
studies. He found that schools that doubled their performance followed a set of strategies that
included goal setting, analyzing student data, using formative assessments, collectively
reviewing evidence, and using time more effectively. Goals lead to success, and also build the
effectiveness and cohesion of a team (Marzano, 2003; Schmoker, 1999).
Biweekly staff meetings should be focused on strategies and progress towards goals, and
colleague discourse should be about learning, understanding, and improving. Each task must be
broken into parts, and then leaders and mentors need to provide procedural advice, monitor
performance closely, and give feedback. Specific goals for teachers can be found in the
implementation section later in this chapter.
Regular and focused feedback to teachers is one of the most powerful ways to improve
student achievement (Hattie, 2009; Marzano, 2003), and a three-minute classroom walkthrough
is one of the most effective ways to provide feedback (Downey, 2004). In the past three years
the walkthrough form used at El Dorado has undergone several renditions, mainly because the
form contains far too much information and was unwieldy for participants to use. The form
needs to be revised and streamlined to focus on specific teacher goals. Then walkthroughs
should be completed regularly and feedback provided to each teacher.
Leadership may use task, reward, and evaluation structures that promote mastery. Based
on the surveys and interviews, teachers clearly need positive incentives in an environment of
budget, program, and personnel cuts (Clark & Estes, 2008, Rueda, 2011).
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Promote and Create Value
People will choose to engage in tasks, expend mental effort and persevere through
challenges when they perceive that the activity in which they are engaged has value (Clark &
Estes, 2008, Rueda, 2011). Not all teachers are convinced, for example, that teaching the ELD
program will improve student achievement, and are therefore reluctant to change their current
schedules or practices. Research shows that perceived value of a program or initiative increases
when organizations and teams celebrate progress and share stories of success (McNulty &
Besser, 2011). Furthermore, value can increase when activities and materials that are relevant
and useful to people and connects to their interests (Schunk et al., 2008).
Improve Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy can be described as the teacher’s judgment about whether he or she
possesses the necessary knowledge and skills required to complete a task (Schunk et al., 2008).
Teaching efficacy is broadly defined as a situation-specific expectation that teachers can help
students learn (Bandura, 1997). When people believe they can produce desired effects, they have
a powerful incentive to act. Self-efficacy is hypothesized to influence choice, effort, persistence,
and achievement. Compared to learners who doubt their capability, people who are efficacious
participate more readily, work harder, persist through difficulties, and achieve at a higher rate
(Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 2010). It is therefore incumbent upon any organization to instill
individual and collective confidence in its members. At El Dorado, teachers need clear and
accurate feedback that focuses on the specific skill development. Provided tasks should stretch
individuals without overwhelming them (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Within a carefully
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designed structure, teachers also need opportunities to exercise choice and control over their
environment (Schunk et al., 2008).
Research has shown that when significant and practical connections are made between
theoretical learning and the classroom experience, teachers report a willingness to engage in new
practice and persist through change efforts. (Hoekstra et al., 2009; Olsen, 2010; Williams et al.,
2007). Teacher learning improves and ultimately student outcomes improve when professional
development incorporates social learning theory and particularly the construct of self-efficacy.
Activities include peer-coaching, collegial support groups, study groups, and video-taping (Bray-
Clark & Bates, 2003) This could be accomplished through strategic, targeted assistance in the
form of mentoring led by highly competent and supportive peer coaches or teachers from other
schools. According to Knoblauch and Hoy (2008), teacher efficacy is likely to improve and
external attributions diminish when a teacher observes a teacher in a similar circumstance
overcome their challenges, particularly in challenging urban schools with diverse learners. Gold
(2006) found that teacher efficacy at successful bilingual schools improved within a culture of
listening and questioning, and where the idea that everyone is a learner was promoted, including
the principal.
Adapt Attributions
Teachers need feedback from leadership that stresses learning and progress and praises
effort and the use of strategies (Rueda, 2008). A key element is that teachers shift attribution of
improved achievement to teaching rather than external causes. When a teaching staff clearly
identifies a problem and focuses on that problem for long enough to develop solutions, they are
more likely to see themselves as important and pivotal to their students’ learning. They make
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causal connections between their instruction and student outcomes (Gallimore, Ermeling,
Saunders, & Goldenberg, 2009). Competent models can demonstrate lessons, offer moral
support and suggest strategies, and debrief with El Dorado teachers. The implementation plan
could include multiple and ongoing opportunities for El Dorado teachers to observe, work with,
and learn from urban teachers who are meeting or exceeding their academic benchmarks with a
similar population of at-risk students. Numerous online resources exist whereby educators can
connect and learn from exemplary schools (Educational Results Partnership, 2013).
Organizational Solutions to Close Third Grade Teachers’ Performance Gap
Gaps in organizational culture and support represent the third area of the Gap Analysis
model (Clark & Estes, 2008). A positive culture is a foundational and vital ingredient to the
health of that organization. There are tangible aspects to organizational culture, such as the
availability of human and material resources, the implementation of procedures and schedules,
and the quality and frequency of professional development programs. There are also many
intangible or abstract aspects of organizational culture, often described in the context of core
values, goals, values, and beliefs (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The concept of the organization is complex. It is an interdependent and overlapping
series of processes, personalities, and functions. The organization permeates every aspect of job
performance. Even a highly motivated work force with exceptional knowledge and skills cannot
function when essential procedures are flawed, or when basic tools and materials are lacking
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 111

Analysis of surveys and interview data revealed that El Dorado teachers identified
organizational issues to be the most significant barriers to their ability to do their jobs well. Chief
among organizational issues were insufficient work processes and lack of material resources.
Insufficient Work Processes
Professional development. According to Clark and Estes (2008), there is a popular
misconception that if training is done poorly, nothing happens. But inadequate or inappropriate
training can result in trainees who perform worse after the training than they did before it began.
While education and training are used to develop knowledge and skills, it is part of the
discussion about the organization because all interviewees cited professional development as a
barrier to performing their jobs well. The need for professional development appeared in
solutions for knowledge and skills and motivation. It is the delivery of professional development
that is a function of the organization.
Teacher professional development is essential to efforts to improve our schools (Borko,
2009). Yet the current system of professional development has been criticized for being woefully
inadequate, intellectually superficial, and generating little or no improvement on student
learning. This is due in part to school districts’ uncritical and fragmented adoption of fads,
fancies, and popular but unproven innovations (Borko, 2009; Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). A
particular target for criticism is single-shot, one-day workshops that are prevalent but do little to
improve instruction (Yoon et al., 2007).
The goal of professional development should be improved student achievement. But
according to Yoon et al. (2007), there is a paucity of research that connects training to student
outcomes. Of 1300 studies identified as potentially addressing the effect of teacher professional
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 112

development on student achievement, only nine met rigorous research standards. But of those
nine studies, student achievement improved by an average of 21 percentile points if the teacher
received substantial professional development.
According to Merrill (2002), the most effective learning environments are those that are
problem-based and involve the learner in four distinct phases of instruction.
The problem principle. This principle states that learning is promoted when learners are
engaged in solving real-world problems. Because the instructional context is highly relevant and
focused on meaningful skills, there is a high probability that skills learned will transfer to
practice. Research supports transfer is more likely when professional development is job
embedded, rigorous, continuous, and challenging (Hattie, 2009; McNulty & Besser, 2011;
Shroyer, Yahnke, Bennett, & Dunn, 2007).
The activation principle. This principle states that learning is promoted when existing
knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge. The learner is directed to recall,
relate, describe or apply knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a
foundation for new knowledge. The research supports the design of the training closely related
to intended outcomes, with an emphasis on specific skill development. When there is explicit
focus on subject matter, teachers develop powerful understandings (Borko, 2009; Bray-Clark &
Bates, 2003; Hattie, 2009; Joyce & Showers, 2003; Shroyer et al., 2007).
The demonstration principle. This principle states that learning is promoted when new
knowledge is demonstrated to the learner. The learner is shown rather than merely told, with the
demonstration is in a context that is as close as possible to the environment where the learner
will use the strategy. The demonstration should be consistent with the learning goal, and include
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 113

variations to allow for differences in real-life circumstances. The research supports the
development of mastery by first demonstrating basic component skills. Transfer is more likely to
occur when people are not only told what to do; they are shown how to do it (Ambrose, 2010;
Hattie, 2009; Joyce & Showers, 2003).
The application principle. This principle states that learning is promoted when the
learner applies new knowledge. The learner solves a series of problems that are directly related
to the learning goal, and the learner is shown how to detect and correct errors. In this stage, the
learner is provided with simple, straightforward problems and given ample structured guidance
to solve the problem. Gradually the problems gain complexity and the guidance is decreased,
thereby eliciting learner independence. This process is also called scaffolding the learning tasks,
which helps motivate the adult learner and build self-efficacy. Practice is an integral part of this
principle. Current educational reforms require significant changes to classroom practices that are
difficult without sufficient practice, support, and guidance (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Borko,
2009; Joyce & Showers, 2003).
The integration principle. This principle states that learning is promoted when new
knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world. During this phase, the learner is required to
demonstrate his or her new knowledge or skill, and reflect on, discuss, or defend the new
knowledge or skill. Coaching and peer mentoring contributes to transfer, particularly in the
context of structured collaboration with a focus on critical examination of teaching (Borko, 2009;
Joyce & Showers, 2003).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 114

Proposed solutions. An analysis of the El Dorado professional development plan
revealed several areas for improvement. What follows are proposed professional development
solutions based upon the research, utilizing Clark and Estes (2008) as a framework.
• Distinguish between education, training, job aids, and information. Professional
development thus far has mainly been in the form of education. This is appropriate,
since the material was new and novel concepts such as structured collaboration.
But this has succeeded in telling people what to do. Education needs to be followed
with training, which gives people the how to do things. It may be appropriate to
change the vernacular, from “in-service” or “professional development” to
“training”.
• Structure and sequence job knowledge as the job is performed. At best, the
professional development featured videos with children. What is needed are
classroom demonstrations with children.
• Experts are sometimes wrong, so use trial and revise cycles. Professional
development has for the most part taken place in large venues with one subject-
matter expert (SME) delivering content. Then teachers are left to take one day or
several days of training back to school sites, where the implementation typically
breaks down. Training cycles need to include small teams that work with the trainer
to road test the implementation in classrooms, receive feedback, and make
adjustments. It is not uncommon for SMEs to become so expert that they forget
how to break down the task for the learners, or leave out key features of the
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 115

knowledge. This leads to a breakdown in implementation, which can have
devastating effects on the change process.
• Training objectives should be clear and linked to performance goals.
• Avoid learner control training strategies. While it is important for learners to
exercise choice and autonomy, some training needs to be explicit, direct instruction
with learner accountability.
• Training must show trainees how to act to achieve performance goals.
• Ensure that knowledge and skills transfer to the job. Monitor training goals against
performance goals.
• Integrate solutions. Organizational solutions must work in tandem with knowledge
and skills and motivational solutions.
Special education. Interview data revealed that teachers perceive that EL students are
under identified for special education services. Teachers perceived reluctance on the part of the
special education team to recommend any EL student for special education because of fear of
bias. There is currently no known criterion for helping teachers and school psychologists discern
learning problems from language problems. The standardized assessments used to determine
special education eligibility are norm-referenced for a population that may inadequately
represent English learners, and the tests are usually administered in English.
Research has supported the use of the Response to Intervention (RTI) model, which may
provide both systematic EL student intervention and a process by which students may be referred
for special education (Linan-Thompson, Cirino, & Vaughn, 2007). In RTI, students’ learning
rates and levels of performance are used to make instructional program decisions. Student
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 116

progress is carefully documented and instructional support increased until it can be determined
that special education assessment is appropriate. Eligibility and identification criteria listed
under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) include the use of RTI as part of
the evaluation criteria for special education services (USDE, n.d.).
Sheltered English immersion. There is currently no program for students who arrive at
El Dorado speaking little or no English. The District’s Services for English Learners division
needs to be consulted as to the best avenue for providing language acquisition and subject-area
instruction for newcomers.
Lack of Material Resources
ELD curriculum. There are currently five different ELD curriculum programs on the El
Dorado campus, and teachers are unsure of which one to use. Two programs are missing key
pieces, and two contain so many disconnected modules that extensive planning is needed to
implement them. One program uses special computer hardware and can only be implemented in
one classroom. A District standard needs to be established for ELD curriculum, and materials
need to be updated and made complete. The problem is not unique to El Dorado or the district.
The California State Board of Education elected not to adopt explicit ELD materials in 2002, and
voted down the criteria for the 2008 Language Arts programs that would have resulted in
materials written specifically for English Learners (Olsen, 2010).
Time. The issue of time needs to be a two-pronged discussion. First, there needs to be a
deliberate examination of instructional minutes according to subject matter and the content
standards to determine if there is enough time in a school week to cover the standards. When
nine instructional days are cut from the year, the question of whether enough time remains to
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 117

cover the standards is legitimate. When a half hour of ELD time is added to the instructional
day, it is reasonable on the part of the teacher to wonder how that is possible. Second, it is
important to examine each teacher’s schedule to find any potential activities that may be cut or
shortened in order to facilitate the teaching of required subjects. According to Reeves (2003) the
schedule can be more revered than the Pledge of Allegiance, the Constitution, and the Magna
Carta combined. However, prioritizing literacy and making appropriate adjustments to teachers’
schedules can lead to substantial student achievement gains.
Personnel and programs. Until the 2012-13 school year, El Dorado received
$85,000.00 in federal funds to help low-achieving students. That is just one example of
significant budget, personnel, and program reductions experienced in the past several years. If
the budget picture improves, it is important to restore as many of the people and programs as
possible.
Technology. The District technology plan needs to be reviewed in order to adopt a
baseline goal for site hardware, software, and teacher training. Avenues for funding further
technology upgrades should be explored. Two teachers reported a dramatic increase in student
engagement and first trimester benchmark assessments for formerly low-performing EL students.
If the use of technology can make a positive impact on student achievement, it is essential that
the resources be provided for students and teachers. Furthermore, information and
communications technology (ICT) are skills that 21st century citizens need to know in order to
thrive in today’s global economy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2013).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 118

Implementation
Ideally, knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational structure solutions are never
implemented independently, as integration is key to a successful plan (Clark & Estes, 2008). As
a construct, effective professional development is a recommended solution in each of the three
cause domains. Therefore, professional development—or rather education, training, job aids,
and information—is a way to integrate knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions. At
least one half of all teachers surveyed and all teacher interviewed said that they did not know
how to implement certain aspects of programs, curriculum, materials, or procedures. By
providing teachers with the information, job aids, and training they need, there is great potential
to remove the reported job performance barriers.

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 119

Table 5.1
Summary of Causes, Solutions, and Solution Implementation

Knowledge &
Skills
Motivation
Culture/Context/
Capital/Policy
CAUSES
• Conceptual
knowledge: ELD
program
• Procedural
knowledge: ELD
program
implementation and
materials
• Procedural
knowledge: data
analysis
• Metacognitive
knowledge: self-
knowledge
• Choosing to
teach ELD
• Choosing to
utilize
SDAIE
strategies
• Choosing to
use data to
inform
instruction
• External
locus of
control
• Low self-
efficacy
• Insufficient work
processes,
professional
development
• Lack of protocol
identifying EL
students for special
education
• No program for non-
English-speaking
students
• Lack of material
resources, ELD
curriculum
• Insufficient time to
teach standards
• Loss of key
personnel, programs,
and technology
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 120

SOLUTIONS
• Education
• Training
• Job aids
• Information
• Provide clear
and
attainable
goals
• Promote and
create value
• Improve self-
efficacy
• Adapt
attributions
• Create professional
development plan
that appropriately
utilizes education,
training, job aids,
and information
• Create protocol for
identifying ELs for
special education
• Create structured
English immersion
program for new
ELs
• Provide training and
support for teachers
of at-risk students
• Develop site
technology plan
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 121

IMPLEMENTATION
• Create ELD schedule
• Protect ELA from all
interruptions
• Create common ELD
and ELA time
• Adhere to
instructional minutes
• Administer all
benchmarks
• Agree on one ELD
curriculum
• Create student ability
groups
• Identify most
effective SDAIE
strategies
• Create job aids
• Connect with
exemplary
similar
schools and
mentors
• Provide
meaningful
feedback
(revise and
simplify
walkthrough
form)
• Build
positive
culture:
talent show
and
technology,
celebrate
success,
revise school
vision and
mission,
create
incentives
• Provide relevant,
practical, succinct
training conducted
by people who can
help integrate
learning into
classrooms
• Include training for
teachers of students
with special needs
• Review district
technology plan and
seek to implement
minimum standards
• Provide support for
teachers as
appropriate (mental
health, family
interventions)

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 122

Teacher Cascading and Performance Goals
An effective goal is an accomplished goal. Part of the frustration on the part of
interviewees was the fractured nature their job descriptions. All teachers interviewed said that
initiatives were introduced and were subsequently abandoned, or that more was continually
added to their responsibilities without anything being taken away. Therefore it is important to
focus on four concrete goals, and set intervals that can be monitored. Goals that can be
completed with days or weeks are more likely to be accomplished than goals that are months or
years away from being accomplished (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Therefore, longer-
term goals need to be broken down into daily or weekly goals that have a greater potential for
being accomplished.
This is referred to as creating a hierarchy of cascading goals. The timeframe of the
organizational goal is one or more years. Cascading goals are those that are months or a year
away from being accomplished; however, each cascading goal must be achieved to achieve the
stakeholder’s goal. Performance goals are clear, concrete, current and challenging objectives
that a stakeholder must achieve in a relatively short time, usually days or weeks. Performance
goals contribute to the achievement of a cascading goal and ultimately the organizational goal.
Based upon the implementation plan, the organizational goal, and cascading and sample
performance goals for teachers are summarized in Table 5.2.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 123

Table 5.2
Organizational, Cascading, and Performance Goals for Third Grade Teachers
School District Organizational Goal
• Among all students and within significant subgroups, the percent of students scoring
Proficient or Advanced on the CST will increase by 5% in all content areas within all
grade levels
Stakeholder Cascading Goal I
• Third grade teachers will teach 100% of the essential content standards for English
language arts during the academic school year
Stakeholder Cascading Goal II
• Third grade teachers will provide 30 minutes of ELD instruction per day for their EL
students for the entire school year
Stakeholder Cascading Goal III
• Third grade teachers will utilize SDAIE strategies in content-area instruction
Stakeholder Cascading Goal IV
• Third grade teachers will use data to inform instruction

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 124

Third Grade Teacher Performance Goals Goal Measure
• Teach 100% of the first trimester ELA
standards by November 30
• Pacing guides
• Lesson plans
• Conduct 30 minutes of ELD
instruction daily throughout
September
• Classroom walkthroughs
• Lesson plans
• Implement at least one research-based,
school-targeted SDAIE strategy per
lesson for one week.
• Classroom walkthroughs
• Generate reports based on one
common formative assessment
• Formulate student groups at
September 30 grade level team
meeting
• Copies of assessment reports
• Student group lists

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 125

CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION
The purpose of this inquiry project was to examine third-grade teaching practices and
strategies currently employed at El Dorado Elementary School in English language arts and the
English language development (ELD) program. Using Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
model as a problem-solving framework, this study sought to identify the challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the successful
implementation of the school’s organizational goal to improve the achievement of third grade
English learners. Additionally, the study identified potential solutions to address determined
causes in knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may deter the
successful achievement of El Dorado’s organizational goal to improve the achievement of
English learners. In this chapter, Kirkpatrick’s (2007) Four Levels of Evaluation framework will
guide El Dorado Elementary School to determine if the suggested solutions are successful in
improving student achievement.
The research questions were:
1. What are the challenges in 3rd grade teachers’ knowledge and skills, motivation,
and organizational issues that may affect the successful achievement of 3rd grade
ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
2. What are the potential solutions to address the 3rd grade teachers’ challenges in
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational issues that may affect the
successful achievement of 3rd grade ELs to achieve proficiency in the CST?
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 126

Synthesis of the Results
Following are the results found for knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
issues. The results were obtained from teacher surveys, interviews, and document analysis.
Knowledge and Skills
The surveys, interviews, and document analysis show that teachers have strong factual
knowledge of content standards, the ELD program, SDAIE strategies, and the use of data to
inform instruction. They lack conceptual knowledge about the ELD program. Teachers also lack
procedural knowledge about how to use ELD instructional materials and about how to data to
inform instruction. There appears to be a discrepancy between what teachers assume they know
and need to know and what they actually know when asked additional probing questions.
Teachers placed a heavy importance on core curriculum and sound teaching practice, but little
importance on the need to offer a specialized curriculum and strategies for students who are
learning English. There is also evidence that some metacognitive knowledge is low; they may
not know what they do not know. Teachers profess confidence in their knowledge about ELD,
SDAIE strategies, and the use of data to inform instruction, but document analysis showed that
this knowledge is not translating to classroom practice and may not be demonstrated by CST
scores.
Motivation
Overall, the data shows that El Dorado teachers are motivated, optimistic, feel
appreciated, and are happy with their career choice. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that
gaps in motivation stem mostly from situational aspects of their job, and not from core beliefs
about the teaching profession in general. During the interviews teachers described choosing to
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 127

work long hours, expending mental effort on problem solving, and persevering through
challenges. However, when asked about specifics such as the ELD program, teachers did not
consistently apply the motivational indices of choice, effort and persistence.
With regard to the index of choice, there is evidence to suggest that that some teachers
are choosing not to implement ELD time, perform SDAIE strategies, and utilize data to inform
instruction. There is also evidence to suggest that some teachers do not make the effort to find
ELD instructional materials and plan instruction, and do not persist through program challenges
and resistance from colleagues.
There is also evidence to suggest that teachers maintain an external locus of control.
They report that without more parent involvement they cannot improve the achievement of some
students, and that there is insufficient time to teach all the required standards.
And finally, there is evidence to suggest a lack of self-efficacy. Teachers report that they
lack the confidence to meet the needs of all their students.
Organizational Culture
The data revealed that El Dorado teachers perceive that there are significant
organizational barriers that prevent them from performing their jobs well. Chief among these
barriers are inadequate material resources and insufficient job processes. The shortage of
appropriate curricular materials, personnel, and time were the most often named resources.
Furthermore, teachers perceive inequity in allocated resources such as technology. Under job
processes, the surveys and interviews indicated that the teachers perceive that the quality of
professional development is very low, and the training they received is not relevant to their
instruction. They also perceive that ongoing professional support is very low.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 128

Implementation of Solutions
During the course of this study, through the process of conducting the gap analysis,
several root causes were identified that were easily validated. Several potential solutions
identified in Chapter Five could be applied immediately. The implementation resulted in
important changes to teacher behaviors. Those changes are listed below.
• Each teacher generated a list of student test scores. He or she created specific goals
for each student; e.g., score proficient or raise score by 10%;
• In grades 4-6, taught an English learner component of a reading literacy
intervention program with fidelity, as measured by online reports;
• Leveled students in grades 4 through 6 for language arts; regrouped students as
needed;
• Established common English/language arts time and provided recommended
instructional minutes;
• Protected instructional time from all interruptions such as announcements,
assemblies, and other activities;
• Significantly improved student on-time attendance and began instruction at the bell
each day, thereby increasing instructional minutes;
• Participated in regular classroom walkthroughs and provided specific feedback to
colleagues.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The gap analysis framework provides a clear, sequential, and comprehensive structure for
an organization to diagnose problems and identify and implement solutions. One strength of the
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 129

model is that it can be precisely tailored to fit the unique needs and circumstances of each
organization. Another strength is that the model is not linear but rather cyclical, and each cycle
can take into account changes within the organization. It is a dynamic model; thereby it
encourages the members of the organization to adopt a philosophy of continual improvement.
The framework helps quantify gaps, which provides stakeholders with clear goals and outcome
measures. In the case of El Dorado Elementary School, there is some evidence that the model
was effective, as student achievement improved as measured by several results indicators. The
results are listed below.
• State of California accountability measure, API, rose 25 points, from 889 to 914;
• Similar schools ranking rose from 5 out of 10 to a full 10 of 10;
• Percent proficient for all EL students rose from 46.1% to 62.2%;
• Percent proficient for 3rd grade students rose from 28% to 43%;
• Number of students redesignated fluent in English rose from 5 students to 25
students;
• Met 100% of federal accountability goals established by No Child Left Behind
(NCLB);
• Named one of the top elementary schools of Orange County (Orange County
Register, 2013);
One weakness of the framework is that it requires a significant time and human resource
commitment. El Dorado personnel consistently named the lack of time as an impediment to
performing their jobs well, so it would be difficult to devote the necessary time to the gap
analysis process. Furthermore, the process requires leadership. The leader needs to be
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 130

adequately trained and be able to implement the process in addition to performing their existing
responsibilities. In addition, solutions to close a gap can cause other gaps to occur (Clark &
Estes, 2008). If goals of the organization are not met, the process needs to repeat until the right
solution close the gap. The process may also identify factors for which there are no feasible
solutions. For example, the El Dorado analysis determined that there are students with profound
areas of need in the general education classroom. There is currently no support system in place
for the students, which leaves teachers feeling discouraged and frustrated.
Recommendation and Implications
The implementation of the solutions will help the close the gaps of knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization. It is recommended that the solutions begin as soon as practically
possible, since none of the policies or procedures are new. The most challenging aspect will be
to change some teachers’ current practices, as they have been in place for many years.
While this study focused on third grade teachers, all stakeholders in the school
community must be involved in the solutions. This includes the principal, parents, other school
staff, and students. Leadership, in particular, is key to the success of the school.
Evaluation
Kirkpatrick’s (2007) four-level framework is a tool that will help the school evaluate the
effectiveness of the solutions. Often an organization will fail to evaluate a solution, or utilize
only superficial end-of-course surveys, sometimes called “smile sheets”, and never find out if the
solutions helped close the gap. Kirkpatrick’s (2007) model consists of four levels: reaction,
learning, behavior, and results.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 131

Level 1: Reaction. This level measures what participants think and feel about a program,
and is essentially a measure of motivation. Teachers will be surveyed regarding their level of
satisfaction and enthusiasm about the ELD program, the use of SDAIE strategies, and the use of
data to inform instruction. Level one will inform the organization about the motivational impact
the program is having on teachers. It will be important to get 100% survey participation
(Kirkpatrick, 2007). Motivation is important because it influences whether people choose to
engage in an activity and persist through challenges. Chances of successful solutions
implementation will diminish if there are problems at Level 1 (Rueda, 2011). If the solutions
offered are effective, the survey results will result in positive feedback from teachers.
Level 2: Learning. This level measures the increase in knowledge and skills while the
solutions are being implemented. Teachers will be asked to identify what they have learned.
The most effective way to measure learning is through direct assessment rather than self-report
assessment (Rueda, 2011). For teachers this would be in the form of a demonstration lesson, or
electronic report completion, rather than paper and pencil. If the solutions offered are effective
there will be accurate reports completed and model lessons demonstrated.
Level 3: Behavior. This level measures whether the recommended solution transfers to
practice. The data collected showed that this is where a program or policy breaks down,
particularly over time. It is important to measure behavior in intervals, because even when the
staff embraces a practice wholeheartedly, it can fade over time. Weekly or bi-weekly classroom
walkthroughs can determine if teachers are teaching content standards, implementing ELD time,
and performing SDAIE strategies. Analysis of electronic reports, learning goals, and student
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 132

ability groups can determine if teachers are using data to inform instruction. If the solutions
offered are effective it would be verified by classroom walkthroughs and reports generated.
Level 4: Results. This level measures whether the organization makes progress towards
their organizational goal. This is how the organization determines if the solutions offered helped
close the gap. If the solutions offered were effective, the organization should improve student
achievement.
Limitations
Six teachers volunteered to be interviewed, and interviews were completed for all
volunteers. The researcher did not press for further volunteers, because responses were
consistent with one another and a pattern of redundancy began to emerge, and further interviews
were likely to reap a diminished return of information (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). By working
strictly with volunteers, there is some risk that teachers with alternative views did not have input.
For example, each person interviewed mentioned a significant challenge in the form of lack of
knowledge or motivation on the part of “other members of the staff”, sometimes members of his
or her own grade-level team. Therefore, whenever possible, the data was triangulated through
document analysis.
It is also important to note that while survey participation is high (72%), the sample was
also comprised of volunteers, and the data from those who did not participate may be telling.
Teachers who are less knowledgeable or motivated, for example, may have been less inclined to
participate. No statistical analysis of the quantitative data was performed due to the small
sample size. The purpose of the survey was to provide an easy and convenient way for more
teachers to participate in the study, and the results were analyzed in a qualitative fashion.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 133

In qualitative inquiry, the researcher is the instrument (Patton, 2002). By definition, the
researcher gets close to the situation and the people in the study. The researcher must avoid
becoming too involved, which can cloud judgment. The researcher must also avoid remaining
too distant, which can reduce understanding. Patton (2002) has offered the term “empathetic
neutrality” (p. 50) to suggest a middle ground. In this study, the former principal served as the
researcher. While every effort was made to maintain empathetic neutrality, it is possible that the
researcher’s familiarity with the people and the organization may have had a bearing on the
interpretation of the results.
As Patton (2002) has noted, “A traditional concern over the validity and reliability of
qualitative research data is the effects of the observer on what is observed” (p. 269). Teachers
may have behaved differently and answered survey and interview questions differently because
they were aware that they were the subjects of a case study, and the researcher was a former
supervisor. Furthermore, because the study began when the researcher was still serving as
principal, several of the recommended solutions were implemented during the course of the
study. Therefore, it should be noted that the researcher might have influenced performance
outcomes.
This study was intentionally limited to teachers in order to make it manageable. This is
not to imply that all stakeholders are not important to any school plan, particularly the change
process. This project was a case study on a single school. The recommendations are only
applicable to El Dorado Elementary School, however, one goal of the study was to provide
foundation for discovering the barriers that prevent an elementary school from improving EL
achievement. Once the barriers are clearly identified it will be possible to find potential
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 134

solutions, which could benefit the students at other elementary schools. The solutions may not
be applicable a different school setting, since the gaps found are unique to El Dorado.
Future Research
There is a dearth of literature focused specifically on Spanish speaking, low
socioeconomic status, elementary EL students with very low literacy in their native language.
Many of the studies focused on bilingual education, or students in other countries, or college-age
students. The low achievement of a unique population of English learners in California is a dire
situation, and a stronger research base is needed.
It stands to reason that the loss of instructional days, professional development days,
intervention programs, and the rise in class size would negatively impact student achievement,
but more research is needed to examine the impact of budget cuts. More research is needed to
examine the aspect of time in education. For example, how many hours per week does a teacher
work? Does the number of hours affect student achievement?
There is a need to further research the impact several of the things that El Dorado
teachers named as vital to the health of the organization. One is extra-curricular activities such
as the talent show, and another is non-academic classroom activities such as creating holiday
crafts. And finally, there is a need to research the impact of mental health support for students
and families, the use of effective paraprofessionals in the classroom, and the use of classroom
technology, particularly mobile devices.
Conclusion
One in three elementary school students in California attended school knowing limited or
no English and therefore could not participate in mainstream English instruction (CDE, 2011).
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 135

The students’ academic challenges are profound, and those challenges are reflected in their
academic achievement. Approximately half of all students learning English leave school without
a high school diploma (Bos et al., 2012). Not only must students obtain at minimum a high
school education and specialized skills in order to participate in the 21st century job market, they
must also achieve advanced English proficiency. Their very livelihood depends on preferably
native-like proficiency in the dominant social language of the United States (CDE, 2010). The
living-wage manufacturing, manual labor, and agricultural jobs from a generation ago have been
replaced with minimum-wage service jobs of today (Verdugo & Flores, 2007).
At El Dorado Elementary School, achievement of English learners in English language
arts was 46.1% proficient, while English-only students scored 84%. Elementary school and early
literacy instruction form the foundation of a child’s academic future. Without sufficient English
language acquisition and solid reading comprehension and writing skills, student achievement
will suffer. Once students fall below proficient on the California Standards Test (CST), it is very
difficult for them to gain the academic language necessary to catch up in the higher grades. For
these reasons, it is important to provide all primary students with the language and skills that will
carry them to higher learning. Because English learners are typically one to two grade levels
behind their English-only peers, it is essential to provide systematic early intervention to ELs
before the prospect of closing the gap in academic achievement becomes much more
challenging.
The purpose of the project was to use the gap analysis model as a framework to help
identify gaps in knowledge, motivation and organization that could be hindering the school from
reaching its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Using the model, gaps were identified and validated
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 136

through surveys, interviews, and document analysis. After the gaps were identified, solutions
were suggested that could help El Dorado Elementary School reach its goal. Lastly, the project
suggests how the school can evaluate the solutions implemented using Kirkpatrick’s (2007) Four
Levels of Evaluation.
In our quest for improved student achievement, we should consider a combination of
activities and strategies that are most successful for a community of learners. Because each
school community is very different, each school needs to examine and implement the strategies
that have the most benefit for the specific needs of their unique culture. By employing the gap
analysis process and conducting a deliberate analysis of the challenges of the organization and
engaging in collaborative and purposeful activities that lead to solutions, a school community
can have a positive impact on student achievement.
While this case study is not generalizable to other sites, the model may provide a
template for school improvement. If the El Dorado community continues to identify, address,
and close performance gaps, the achievement of English learners will likely continue to improve,
thereby increasing the probability that those elementary school students will grow to be thriving,
productive, 21st century citizens.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 137

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CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 147

Appendix A:
California Standards Tests, Grade 3 English Language Arts
(Blueprints adopted by the State Board of Education, 10/02)
CALIFORNIA CONTENT STANDARDS: READING
Items
# %
1.0
WORD ANALYSIS, FLUENCY, AND SYSTEMATIC VOCABULARY
DEVELOPMENT:
• Students understand the basic features of reading;
• They select letter patterns and know how to translate them
into spoken language by using phonics, syllabication, and
word parts;
• They apply this knowledge to achieve fluent oral and silent
reading.
20
31
1.1
Decoding and Word Recognition: know and use complex word
families when reading (e.g., -ight) to decode unfamiliar words
2

1.2
Decoding and Word Recognition: decode regular multisyllabic
words
2
1.3
Decoding and Word Recognition: read aloud narrative and
expository text fluently and accurately and with appropriate
pacing, intonation, and expression
NA*
1.4
Vocabulary and Concept Development: use knowledge of
antonyms, synonyms, homophones, and homographs to
determine the meanings of words
4
1.5
Vocabulary and Concept Development: demonstrate knowledge
of levels of specificity among grade-appropriate words and
explain the importance of these relations (e.g.,
dog/mammal/animal/living things)
2
1.6
Vocabulary and Concept Development: use sentence and word
context to find the meaning of unknown words
4
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 148

1.7
Vocabulary and Concept Development: use a dictionary to learn
the meaning and other features of unknown words
2
1.8
Vocabulary and Concept Development: use knowledge of
prefixes (e.g., un-, re-, pre-, bi-, mis-, dis-) and suffixes (e.g.,
-er, -est, -ful) to determine the meaning of words
4
2.0
READING COMPREHENSION:
• Students read and understand grade-level-appropriate
material.
• They draw upon a variety of comprehension strategies as
needed (e.g., generating and responding to essential
questions, making predictions, comparing information from
several sources).
• The selections in Recommended Readings in Literature,
Kindergarten through Grade Eight illustrate the quality and
complexity of the materials to be read by students.
• In addition to their regular school reading, by grade four,
students read one-half million words annually, including a
good representation of grade-level-appropriate narrative and
expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature,
magazines, newspapers, online information).
• In grade three, students make substantial progress toward
this goal.
15
23
CALIFORNIA CONTENT STANDARDS: READING
Items
# %
2.1
Structural Features of Informational Materials: use titles, tables
of contents, chapter headings, glossaries, and indexes to locate
information in text
2

2.2
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
ask questions and support answers by connecting prior
knowledge with literal information found in, and inferred from,
the text
2
2.3
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
demonstrate comprehension by identifying answers in the text
2
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 149

2.4
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
recall major points in the text and make and modify predictions
about forthcoming information
2
2.5
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
distinguish between main idea and supporting details in
expository text
2
2.6
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
extract appropriate and significant information from the text,
including problems and solutions
3
2.7
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
follow simple multiple-step written instructions (e.g., how to
assemble a product or play a board game)
2
3.0
LITERARY RESPONSE AND ANALYSIS:
• Students read and respond to a wide variety of significant
works of children’s literature;
• They distinguish between the structural features of text and
the literary terms or elements (e. g., theme, plot, setting,
characters);
• The selections in Recommended Readings in Literature,
Kindergarten through Grade Eight illustrate the quality and
complexity of the materials to be read by students.
8
12
3.1
Structural Features of Literature: distinguish common forms of
literature (e.g., poetry, drama, fiction, non-fiction)
1

3.2
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text:
comprehend basic plots of classic fairy tales, myths, folktales,
legends, and fables from around the world
2
3.3
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text: determine
what characters are like by what they say or do and by how the
author or illustrator portrays them
2
3.4
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text: determine
the underlying theme or author’s message in fictional and non-
fiction text
1
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 150

CALIFORNIA CONTENT STANDARDS: READING
Items
# %
3.5
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text: recognize
the similarities of sounds in words and rhythmical patterns
(e.g., alliteration, onomatopoeia) in a selection
1

3.6
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text: identify
the speaker or narrator in a selection
1

CALIFORNIA CONTENT STANDARDS: WRITING
Items
# %
1.0
WRITTEN AND ORAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS:
• Students write and speak with a command of standard
English conventions appropriate to this grade level.
13
20
1.1
Sentence Structure: understand and be able to use complete and
correct declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory
sentences in writing and speaking
1

1.2
Grammar: identify subjects and verbs that are in agreement and
identify and use pronouns, adjectives, compound words, and
articles correctly in writing and speaking
1
1.3
Grammar: identify and use past, present, and future verb tenses
properly in writing and speaking
1
1.4
Grammar: identify and use subjects and verbs correctly in
speaking and writing simple sentences
2
1.5
Punctuation: punctuate dates, city and state, and titles of books
correctly
2
1.6
Punctuation: use commas in dates, locations, and addresses and for
items in a series
1
1.7
Capitalization: capitalize geographical names, holidays, historical
periods, and special events correctly
2
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 151

1.8
Spelling: spell correctly one-syllable words that have blends,
contractions, compounds, orthographic patterns (e.g., qu-,
consonant doubling, changing the ending of a word from -y to
-ies when forming the plural), and common homophones (e.g.,
hair/hare)
2
1.9 Spelling: arrange words in alphabetical order 1
1.0
WRITING STRATEGIES:
• Students write clear and coherent sentences and paragraphs
that develop a central idea;
• Their writing shows they consider the audience and purpose;
• Students progress through the stages of the writing process
(e.g., pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing successive
versions).
9
14
1.1
Organization and Focus: create a single paragraph that

1) develops a topic sentence 1
2) includes simple supporting facts and details 2
1.2
Penmanship: write legibly in cursive or joined italic, allowing
margins and correct spacing between letters in a word and
words in a sentence
NA*
1.3
Research & Technology: understand the structure and
organization of various reference materials (e.g., dictionary,
thesaurus, atlas, encyclopedia)
3
CALIFORNIA CONTENT STANDARDS: WRITING
Items
# %
1.4
Evaluation and Revision: revise drafts to improve the coherence
and logical progression of ideas by using an established rubric
3
TOTALS 65 100%

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 152
Appendix B:
Elementary Walkthrough Feedback
School: _________________________ Grade: _________ Subject: __________________ Date: _______________
Materials used: _____________________________ Number of ELs: ____________ ELD Level: B EI I EA A
Please write next to each action any evidence from your observation and provide a tangible example.
Action Evidence Action Evidence Strategies used…
Lesson Objective clearly
stated, identified, and
addressed.
Teacher circulates frequently to
monitor the students’ execution of
task and their use of language.

• Chants
• Choral Response
• Cloze Reading
• Cooperative
Groups/Pairs
• Dramatization
• Echo Talk/Read
• Found Poem
• GLAD
• Graphic
organizer…
o Cluster map
o KWL
o Pictorial Input
Chart
o T chart
Print rich environment to
support student learning.
Specific and meaningful feedback is
given to students.

Explicitly links new
concepts to students’
background experiences
and past learning.
Formative assessment is used to
modify, monitor and/or adjust
instruction.

Circle domain/s used in
the lesson by the students.

L S R W
Speaking domain:
___ % teacher
___ % students

Instruction is
differentiated to address
the proficiency levels of
all students.
Teacher uses strategies to actively
engage students.

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 153
Questions promote higher
level thinking.
Teacher uses alternative techniques to
select students to respond or perform
a task.

o Thinking Maps
o Venn Diagram
• Quick Draw/Talk/
Write
• Manipulatives
• Reader’s Theater
• Realia – Visuals
• Response Cards
• Sentence: Frames-
Patterns-Strips
• Talking
Chips/Stick
• Technology
• Think/Pair/Share
• Thumbs up-down
• Total Physical
Response (TPR)
• White
Boards/Slates
Appropriate “think/wait
time” is given for students
to respond.
Teacher models and/or provides
guided practice.

Instruction:
Whole _____

Small group _____

Leveled group _____

Students can articulate learning.
Students are on
task_____%
Other:

0 = NA 1 = No evidence 2 = Some evidence 3 = Substantial evidence 4 = Completely addressed

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 154

Appendix C:
Interview Questions
1. Briefly describe your educational background and teaching experience.
2. What specific training or coursework have you received related to the education of ELs?
Include pre-service and in-service training.
3. What follow-up support has been provided after the training?
4. Describe the ELD textbooks and curriculum support materials.
5. Describe how EL students are grouped, and how your grade level provides ELD time.
6. If someone walked into your classroom today, what strategies would they see that are
specifically designed to help ELs master content standards?
7. How have Data Director and Illuminate been helpful to you? Describe how you use the
data to form student groups. How do you use the data to plan instruction?
8. What is the main challenge for teachers at El Dorado that may affect the successful
achievement of ELs to obtain proficiency in the CST?
9. What should I have asked that I did not think to ask?
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 155

Appendix D:
Survey Questions
1. Grade level you are now teaching:
a. K-2
b. 3-4
c. 5-6
2. Years teaching at the elementary level:
a. 0-5
b. 5-10
c. 11-15
d. 16-20
e. 20+
3. Highest degree earned:
a. BA/BS
b. MA/MS
c. Doctorate
4. The in-service training I have received has prepared me to help my EL (English learner)
students acquire proficiency in the English language.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 156

5. The training I have received has prepared me to help my EL students read and write well.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
6. I have all the textbooks, and supplemental instructional materials and supplies that I need
to successfully teach all content areas to my EL students.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
7. I am familiar with the ELD content standards and understand how to incorporate those
content standards into my English/language arts lessons.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 157

8. I thoroughly understand SDAIE strategies and routinely incorporate those strategies into
my lessons on a daily basis.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
9. I utilize Illuminate data to place students into ability groups.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
10. I utilize Illuminate data to plan student interventions and guide my instruction.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
11. I understand and support the need to provide 30-minutes per day of English Language
Development to our EL students.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 158

12. Classroom walkthroughs have helped me grow and develop as a teacher.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
13. I understand the instructional goals of the district and have the training, ongoing support
and the materials I need to achieve those goals.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
14. Until our students are better supported at home, it will be impossible for them to score
proficient on the California Standards Test (CST).
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
15. I feel my hard work and effort is understood and appreciated by my principal.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 159

16. There is adequate instructional time in the day and week to cover all of standards I am
expected to teach.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
17. Instructional time for English/language arts is given priority and protected from all
interruptions.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
18. My workload is manageable.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
19. I look forward to coming to school most days.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 160

20. The current environment at school is such that I can perform to the best of my ability.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
21. If I had the opportunity to start over in a new career, I would choose to become a teacher.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
22. I am satisfied and feel personally and professionally fulfilled as a teacher.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
23. I do not understand the goals of English language development, nor how to use the
instructional materials.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 161

24. The teachers at El Dorado are generally motivated and optimistic.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
25. Overall, I am very satisfied with my job.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
26. I am confident that I can teach 100% of the ELD standards during the course of the
school year.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
27. I am confident about teaching SDAIE strategies in my lessons.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree

CHALLENGES FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH LEARNERS 162

28. SDAIE strategies are valuable in teaching the content areas.
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This case study applies the Gap Analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) approach in order to (a) analyze the challenges and barriers in knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture (b) determine causes of these challenges (c) identify and implement solutions by which third grade teachers can improve the achievement of their English learners (EL) in English language arts. This study focused on teachers at El Dorado Elementary School as its sample population. As a case study employing both qualitative and quantitative research methods, this study provides an understanding of the complex socio-cultural landscape in a single elementary school and how numerous factors converge to impact the educational experience for students. Mixed methods were used to collect survey data from thirteen participants and interview data from six participants to identify and validate the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization root causes that may contribute to the third grade teachers’ impact on EL student achievement. Study findings illuminated gaps in teachers’ knowledge and skills and motivation

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sacks, Laura S. (author)

Core Title Addressing the challenges for teachers of English learners in a California elementary school using the gap analysis approach

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/12/2013

Defense Date 03/04/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,elementary school,English learners,OAI-PMH Harvest,Teachers

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth A. (committee chair), Petersen, Terry (committee member), Rueda, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email canzone@usc.edu,laurasacks1020@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-236642

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Legacy Identifier etd-SacksLaura-1546.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Sacks, Laura S.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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