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The use of gap analysis to increase student completion rates at Travelor Adult School

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The use of gap analysis to increase student completion rates at Travelor Adult School

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Content Running head: THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT 1

THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT COMPLETION RATES
AT TRAVELOR ADULT SCHOOL

by

Blanca Estela Gil

___________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Blanca Estela Gil

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this journey to my dad. When I was a young girl, my dad would
encourage me to try my best at anything I did. He would work long hours to feed the
family and to provide a home for us. He would remind me to take advantage of school,
so I would not have to work the long hours he had to work. When I shared with my dad
that I wanted to attend college, he told me I had his support and he would help me in
any way he could. My dad had to find a second job in order to help me pay for my
college tuition. The day I graduated with my bachelor’s degree, he was able to leave his
second job. There were times during my schooling were I wanted to take a break but
my dad encouraged me to keep going. When I faced challenges, I would think back on
all the sacrifices my dad has made for me to be able to obtain an education. My dad did
everything he could to ensure I would have an education since he never had the
opportunity to attend school. Thank you dad for all your help and for believing in me;
without you this would not have been possible.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Going through the program there were milestones to overcome, such as finishing
the first semester, finishing the core classes, and finishing the dissertation process. I
would not be here without the help and support of Dr. Yates. I was not familiar with the
dissertation process but Dr. Yates guided me through the entire process. Not only did I
have fears from not knowing what to expect, I experienced different types of feelings. I
left my meetings with Dr. Yates, feeling confident and calm, knowing that completing
the dissertation was possible. Every time I met with Dr. Yates, he always had a big
smile. I will miss communicating with Dr. Yates every Sunday morning. Not only did
he support me emotionally but also guided me through my many revisions. I am
thankful for his insight and the many hours he dedicated to reading, to revising and to
guiding me.
While Dr. Yates supported me academically, my family supported emotionally,
always reminding me that I could accomplish this goal. There were times, especially
when I contemplated extending the program, that my parents encouraged me to
continue and always reminded me that they believed in me. My family always made
sure there were no distractions and helped me in anyway they could as I was working
on my dissertation. Going through this process was both exciting and emotionally
draining. I am very thankful for both the support of Dr. Yates and my family.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 5
Abstract 6
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem 7
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 12
Chapter Three: Methodology 30
Figure 1.Gap Analysis Model 32

Chapter Four: Results 55
Chapter Five: Solutions and Implementation 80
Chapter Six: Discussion 118
References 129
Appendices 138
Appendix A: High School Diploma Student Survey 138
Appendix B: Teacher Interviews Questions 144

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Summary of Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, 46
and Organization
Table 2: Statement Results Categorized by Type of Knowledge in Ascending 58
Order from Highest to Lowest Mean
Table 3: Knowledge Statements, Means and Standard Deviation (descending 59
order by mean)
Table 4: Statement Results Categorized by Motivation Variable in Ascending 65
Order from Highest to Lowest Mean
Table 5: Motivation Statements, Means and Standard Deviation (descending 67
order by mean)
Table 6: Statement Results for Culture and Organization in Ascending Order 72
from Highest to Lowest Mean
Table 7: Culture/Organization Statements, Means and Standard Deviation 73
(descending order by mean)
Table 8: Summarizes the Validated Causes From the List of Assumed Causes 78
from Table 1 for Motivation, Knowledge and Organization/culture
Table 9: Summary of Solutions and Implementation for Knowledge/skills, 113
Motivation, and Culture/organization
Table 10: Summary of Organizations Main Goal, Short Term Goals, Cascading 114
Goals, and Performance Goals
Table 11: Summary of Performance Goals, Timeline and Measurement of 116
Performance Goals

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ABSTRACT
This project applied the gap analysis problem-solving framework (Clark & Estes, 2008)
in order to help develop strategies to increase completion rates at Travelor Adult
School. The purpose of the study was to identify whether the knowledge, motivation
and organization barriers were contributing to the identified gap. A mixed method
approached was used to collect data. Fifty-eight students participated in a survey; in
addition, 10 students and 4 teachers were interviewed. The surveys and interviews
helped validate assumed causes that were formulated after conducting scanning
interviews and reviewing scholarly literature. The validated assumed causes for
motivation were: lack of goal setting, motivated by external factors, lack of mental
effort, and lack student persistency in the program. The surveys and interviews
validated the following assumed causes regarding to knowledge and skills: students lack
metacognitive skills, students do not know how to study effectively, students are unable
to assess that they need help, and students do not know where to obtain help. For
culture and organization barriers, it was found that students are faced with: contextual
issues, distractions in the classroom, and not being allowed to take books home.
Solutions to close the validated causes were developed. Research on adult schools has
been limited. The use of the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in this study
demonstrates one approach adult schools could use to guide the organization in reaching
its goals.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM
The problem of the high school dropout rate is a critical issue in education and
society. Students who do not complete high school are more likely to earn less money,
be unemployed, engage in delinquent behavior, use drugs, and receive welfare (Garnier,
Stein, & Jacobs, 1997; Battin-Pearson & Newcomb, 2000; Christenson & Thurlow,
2004; Suh & Suh, 2007). The California Department of Education (2011) reported that
in the school year of 2008-2009, 47,965 students dropped out in the 12
th
grade. That
number is increased to 89,895 students when the dropouts from 9
th
to 12
th
grade are
added (California Department of Education, 2011). A decade’s worth of high school
dropouts cost the country over 3 trillion dollars (California Department of Education,
2011). There are negative consequences for not completing a high school diploma
program for both the individual and the community. Studies show that individuals who
drop out of high school are more likely to be dissatisfied with their life and feel isolated
from society (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003). Dropouts are more likely to join gangs, use drugs
and engage in criminal behavior. Additionally, dropouts make less money when
compared to individuals who obtained a high school diploma. A report released by the
National Center of Education Statistics (2011) found that the median annual income for
high school dropouts was $19,225 compared to $26,399 for those who obtained high
school diplomas (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003).
Background of the Problem
Adult schools offer dropouts an opportunity to continue work toward their high
school diploma or earn an equivalence certificate. Students who were not successful in
finishing high school in traditional schools have the opportunity to finish at adult
THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT

8
school. One of the reasons most cited in literature for students enrolling at adult schools
was to finish the requirements and pass the required exams mandated by the state (Kelly
& Prevatt, 2003). Other reasons for enrolling in an adult high school diploma program
included obtaining a job and receiving referrals to the program by welfare or by the
criminal justice system (Flugman, Perin, & Spiegel, 2006). The United Bureau of
Justice (2003) reported that 68% of state prison inmates did not receive a high school
diploma (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003). It is reported that half of families on welfare are
supported by a high school dropout (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003). Not only did earning a
high school diploma increase the likelihood of obtaining a job, but it also helped the
community because students who work contribute to a community’s economic growth.
Adult schools offer students over the age of eighteen an opportunity to complete
their high school diploma. Students can choose to earn a high school diploma, which is
what they would have earned in a traditional high school, or they can choose the
General Education Degree (GED). The high school diploma requires a certain number
of credits in specific courses in addition to passing the California High School Exit
Exam (CAHSEE). By contrast, the GED does not require credits but rather the passing
of five sections of the exam. In California, each year the enrollments for the CAHSEE
and GED have increased; in 2005-2006 there were 196,995 students enrolled. By 2008-
2009, the enrollment had gone up to 226,053 students (California Department of
Education, 2011).
Adult schools receive federal funds; therefore, they need to provide evidence
that students are showing growth. In order to measure progress, the Comprehensive
Adult School Assessment System (CASAS) has been established to ensure students are
THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT

9
meeting the mastery skills and competencies for the completion of the high school
diploma (California Department of Education, 2011). Adult schools report the number
of diplomas earned during the school year. In addition, the passing rate of the
California High School Exit Exam is also reported. A successful high school diploma
program is one in which students are earning their diploma (California Department of
Education, 2011).
Context
All names, organizations, and locations are identified with pseudonyms. At the
time of this study, Travelor Adult School was located in Southern California, west of
Los Angeles. The school offered both a high school diploma program and the General
Educational Development preparation course. In order to receive a high school diploma
from Travelor Adult School, a student must have completed 210 credits and have
passed both parts of the California Exit Exam.
Statement of the Problem
Travelor Adult School offered a high school diploma program for students who
were over eighteen years of age and were not successful in completing their diploma in
the traditional high school setting. Students were able to complete courses needed in
order to earn a high school diploma. The school was open in the mornings and
evenings to accommodate various schedules. Students could choose to attend class at
any time between the hours of 9:00AM -12:00PM and 4:00PM-8:30PM. Since students
came in at different times and completed a variety of courses, they worked
independently. Students came in at their desired time and worked on the courses they
needed. In addition, students had the option to work at home.
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Students at Travelor Adult School were not persistent in earning credits towards
their high school diploma. Approximately 800 students enrolled in the high school
diploma program but only an average 150 students attended courses and earned credits.
Students voluntarily enrolled for their diploma but only around 60 students graduated.
Students took the first step of enrolling, attended the mandatory orientation, and
attended early classes. But, after a few days, weeks or months, students did not
continue attending classes. Many of the students came back and re-enroll but again,
they stopped attending courses. Re-enrolling becomes an empty cycle of failure and
students do not earn their high school diplomas.
It is important to increase completion rates because there are many
consequences for the student, the school and the community. Travelor Adult School
wants every student to acquire lifelong skills and be ready for the work force. Students
without a high school diploma struggle to find jobs and earn less money than a student
with a diploma. Additionally, if students are not attending classes, teachers can suffer
consequences such as job termination because if students do not attend classes’,
teachers are not needed. Then, when the student enrolls again, there may be fewer
teachers to help the student. In the future, Travelor Adult School might receive funding
per student attending class; therefore, it is essential for the school to be able to keep
students attending. The community will also be effected if students do not learn the
basic skills in order to perform needed jobs.
The goal is for 100% of the students who enroll in the high school diploma
program to graduate and earn their high school diploma. Travelor Adult School wants
every student to become lifelong learner and keep learning in order to meet the demands
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11
of the job market. The school’s goal is to meet the needs of the students and support
their efforts in earning their high school diploma.
Purpose of the Project and Guiding Questions
The purpose of the study was to identify the causes for the current student
completion rates and find strategies to increase student completion rates using the gap
analysis model (Clark & Estes, 2008). The focus of the study was on the students. The
gap analysis model was used as a guide to help increase completion rates by identifying
whether the problem was caused by lack of knowledge, motivation or culture. Goals
and measurement indicators will then guide Travelor Adult School in their goal of
increasing completion rates. In addition, the use Kirkpatrick’s (2006) four levels of
evaluation not only provided additional framework to this study but also will also help
to determine success of increasing completion rates among students at Travelor Adult
School.
Thus, the questions that guided this project were:
1. What are the underlying causes for students’ failure to complete the
requirements for high school graduation from the perspectives of:
a. Knowledge and skills
b. Motivation
c. Organizational culture and context?
2. What strategies could Travelor Adult School implement in order for all
students to earn their diploma?
3. How could Travelor Adult School evaluate the effectiveness of these
strategies?
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The high school dropout rate in this country is a major concern for society.
Approximately 3,039,015 students drop out of school each year in the United States
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). In California alone, approximately
101,188 students drop out of high school per year (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2011). Not only do students suffer the consequences of dropping out, but
communities and society are impacted as well. Dropouts generally have a difficult time
finding and keeping employment. In addition, dropouts earn less money than students
who have their high school diploma. Communities need members who have the
necessary skills to fulfill jobs and who can contribute to the economy. Deciding to drop
out of high school is a process the students experience over time. Research has
identified factors associated with dropping out of high school such as student’s social
economic status and ethnicity.
Some students who drop out eventually find that they need a high school
diploma, either for personal, financial, or educational reasons. Society and American
culture emphasize the need for continued learning (California Department of Education,
2011). Jobs require a certain level of educations, leaving students who drop out unable
to meet required skills. Adult schools offer students an opportunity to earn their high
school diploma. In 2008-2009, 226,053 students enrolled in adult education programs
in California with the goal of finishing their secondary education (California
Department of Education, 2011). Research has explored how motivation plays a role in
adult education programs. Adult programs are flexible in order to meet the students’
THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT

13
needs. Students need to have flexibility in attending the program in order to be able to
meet other responsibilities, such as work and family. Since adult programs are flexible,
there is an emphasis on students being responsible for their learning, meaning students
need to have the necessary skills and knowledge in order fulfill that responsibility.
The Process of Dropping Out of High School
The decision to stop attending high school does not happened suddenly but over
a period of time. Studies show that dropping out of high school is a process that occurs
over many years following a series of events leading to the decision to leave. Research
proposes that the process of dropping out of high school is influenced by childhood and
family dynamics (Garnier, Stein, & Jacobs, 1997). The decision to drop out is a result
of a combination of individual, family, and school experiences. One single experience
does not lead students to drop out; instead, it is a combination of experiences that
contribute to the outcome (Garnier, Stein, & Jacobs, 1997). The most critical
experiences are the social context within the family and classroom. Decisions teens
make about their social and academic lives are based on experiences throughout
childhood and early adolescences (Garnier, Stein, & Jacobs, 1997).
The research of Christenson and Thurlow (2004) revealed that leaving school
early is the outcome of a long process of disengagement from school. Jimerson (2000)
suggests the process begins before the student enters elementary school. During this
process, many factors contribute to the final decision to drop out high school. Jimerson
(2000) concluded that early home environment, quality of caregiving, socioeconomic
status, IQ, behavior problems, academic achievement, peer relationships and parent
involvement, were associated with dropping out of high school.
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Anderson, Jimserson, and Whipple (2002) proposed a transactional model,
which states that, the contact between the individual and their environment becomes a
mutual transaction through which each is altered by the other. Individual and
environmental interactions reinforce each other over time. Results suggest that early
grade retention is one of the most powerful predictors of later school withdrawal.
Students who are retained in one grade are 40% to 50% more likely to drop out than
students who are promoted. Students who are retained two years are 90% more likely
to drop out (Anderson, Jimserson, & Whipple, 2002). Researchers have explored
different theories to explain and predict the issue of dropping out of high school. These
studies offer insight in possible interventions and how to effectively support students.
Battin-Pearson and Newcomb (2000) compared five theories that predict the
likelihood of dropping out of high school. The first is meditation by academic
achievement, which is characterized by the student not bonding or making a connection
to the school. The second theory addressed deviant behavior and sexual involvement.
The third theory addressed deviant affiliation and bonding to antisocial peers. The
fourth theory addressed family, emphasizing poor family socialization. The last theory
presented was structural strains, which is one’s gender, ethnicity, and social economic
status (Battin-Pearson & Newcomb, 2000). Structural equation modeling was used to
test theories seeking to predict dropping out of high school before completing 10th
grade. Results suggested that none of the theories fully explain the data for dropouts,
but each theory is partially supported. Poor academic achievement was found to be the
strongest predictor of dropping out school before the 10th grade (Battin-Pearson &
Newcomb, 2000).
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Preventing students from becoming high school dropouts needs to start in the
beginning of students’ education. It is important to have an understanding of the
process of dropping out in order to implement preventative strategies. The dropout
issue is the responsibility of the family and school. Adult programs need to take into
consideration that negative experiences can contribute to students discontinuing their
education and it is important for students to have positive experiences at the adult
school. It is also essential for adult education programs to be aware of how students
became high school dropouts. By knowing the process of dropping out, adult schools
can incorporate strategies into adult programs in order to support students earning their
high school diploma. Family plays an important role for students continuing their
education; therefore, if there is no family support, it is important to develop that support
somewhere else, something that may be done by the school.
Risk Factors
Previous studies have identified risk factors associated with dropping out of high
school. Risk factors found include: school, family, community, and students
themselves (Suh & Suh, 2007). A combination of two or more risk factors increased
the likelihood of dropping out. When a student experienced two or more risk factors,
she or he was less motivated to do school work (Suh & Suh, 2007). Students who
experienced a single risk factor in early adolescents displayed a moderately increased
likelihood of dropping out. Suh and Suh (2007) also found that low grade point average
(GPA), low supplemental educational services (SES), or behavioral problems were
associated with dropping out of high school. Barringtion and Hendricks (1989)
conducted a study where high school dropouts were asked questions and their school
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16
attendance was reviewed. Forty-four percent of the students reported not liking school
as their primary reason for dropping out. In addition, 48% of students had missed 10
days or more of school while 39% percent were receiving poor grades (Barringtion &
Hendricks, 1989).
Cook (2004) investigated ethnicity as a risk factor, finding that Hispanic and
African American students had the highest dropout rates. Hispanic dropout rates were
27.8%, and African American were 13.1%. The lowest dropout rate was among Asian
and Caucasian students. The dropout rates for students of Asian descent were 3.8% and
Caucasian students were 6.9%. For the past 30 years in the United States, 3 out of 10
Hispanics from the ages of 16 -2 4 were out of school without a high school diploma or
GED (Cook, 2004). Hispanics who are recent immigrants have higher dropout rates
than Hispanic students born in the United States. Data from 2000 showed the dropout
rates for Hispanic students’ ages 16 - 24 born outside of the United States was 44%
(Cook, 2004). For both African American and Hispanic students the difference in
culture and identity has been associated with dropping out of high school (Cook, 2004).
Family income has also been associated with dropping out. Students from the
lowest 20% income bracket were six times more likely than students from the top 20%
to drop out of high school (Cook, 2004). Ten percent of students from the lowest 20%
income dropped out of high school, while only 5.2% in the middle 60% dropped out.
For students from the top 20% income bracket only 1.6% dropped out (Cook, 2004).
These percentages suggest that students in low socioeconomic neighborhoods are more
likely to drop out of high school than those from more affluent ones.
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Grade retention was found to be strong predictor of dropping out (Cook, 2004).
Retained students were 2 - 11 times more likely to drop out during high school than
non-retained students (Cook, 2004). In Texas, 80% of the students who dropped out
were over age for the grade they were attending. Students retained two grades had a
90% risk of dropping out of high school with economically disadvantaged and urban
students more likely to be retained (Cook, 2004). Hispanic and African American
students were retained more than twice as often as white students. Schools offering
more challenging courses and fewer remedial courses had a lower drop out rate. School
size influenced retention, with small schools (less than 1,500 students) being more
effective in retaining students than large schools (more than 2,500 students). Markey
(1988) found that dropouts were more likely to score lower on ability tests and to come
from families with relatively low income and education. Dropouts’ family income had
a median of $12,100; families with a high school graduate had a median income of
$22,700. Parental education has also been found to be a risk factor associated with
dropping out of high school. More than half of dropouts were in families where
members of the household had completed less than 12 years of schooling (Markey,
1988). Dropouts were also more likely to come from single homes headed by women.
Glennie and Stearns, (2006) investigated the reasons for dropping out of high
school. Two theories were used to investigate possible reasons of why students drop
out. Pull out theorists argue that students made a cost-benefit analysis of their
economic interest to remain in or leave school (Glennie & Stearns, 2006). If the student
needed to economically aid their family, then dropping out of school brought more
benefit to the student. Employment was found to be a pull factor because of the
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increase of importance of income for adolescents as they age and move through grade
levels (Glennie & Stearns, 2006). This pattern was found to be consistent by gender
and across ethnic groups. The power of employment may pull students out of school
for better access to jobs that increase their human capital. As students become older,
societal pressures to provide for their families becomes greater. There was a significant
relationship between gender and dropping out for family reasons (Glennie & Stearns,
2006). African American and Latina girls were more likely to drop out for school for
family reasons than Caucasian girls. Ninth grade had the highest dropout rates with
ninth graders and students under 16 more likely to leave schools for disciplinary
reasons. Older males were more likely than younger males to leave school for
employment (Glennie & Stearns, 2006). Push out theorists argue that school factors
discourage students from continuing with their education (Glennie & Stearns, 2006).
Push out theorist believes that students leave school not only because of their individual
attributes but also because of the school structure. In California, four types of dropouts
were identified: pregnant female adolescents or male students who were parents,
working youth, minority or foreign-born youth, and delinquent youth (Fagan & Pabon,
2003). Primary reasons for leaving school was loss of interest and need for
employment, reasons which were consistent regardless of race and / or sex (Fagan &
Pabon, 2003). Both male and females reported pregnancy or expectant fatherhood as
reasons for leaving school.
Garnier, Stein, and Jacobs (1997) found that adolescents who use drugs and who
drop out of high school had similar characteristics, such as a lower commitment to
conventional values and institutions. Prior use of cigarettes, marijuana, and other drugs
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at any age increased the risk of dropping out high school (Garnier , Stein, &
Jacobs,1997). It was also found that stressful events such as divorces, financial
difficulties, and single parenthood contributed to the decision to drop out. Lower
academic achievement, lack of motivation, and drug use were directly related to
dropping out. Teen stress was correlated with lower academic potential and drug use in
high school but did not directly predict dropping out (Garnier, Stein, & Jacobs, 1997).
A study conducted by Griffin (2002) found that academic “disidentification”
was associated with dropping out. Furthermore, African American and Hispanics were
found to have higher levels of academic “disidentification” and “disidentification”
hypothesis was consistent with results. Students indicated they had low self-efficacy
and academic motivation. Previous research suggests that 9
th
graders have the highest
dropout rate (Griffin, 2002), making it important to work on the issue before students
enter high school. High school, for any student, is a life changing transition. It is
important to be able to identify risk factors associated with dropping out. These risk
factors can be a sign the student’s family needs support in order to prevent the student
from leaving school early (Griffin, 2002).
Schools, communities and families need to make sure that factors associated
with dropping out are minimized. If students display characteristics of these factors,
intervention needs to take place. These factors are products of the school, community,
and family structures, therefore interventions need to be comprehensive throughout the
students’ environment. Dropping out is not caused by a single factor, rather by multiple
factors interacting with each other. If a student shows factors associated with dropping
out, it is a warning sign the student needs help. Minimizing the number of risk factors
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20
is essential since the more factors students possess, the more likely the students are of
dropping out of high school.
Knowledge and Skills
To be successful in a self-directed learning program, students need to possess
metacognitive knowledge and be able to apply study skills when learning. Garrsion
(1997) proposed a model of self-directed learning. He claimed that in order for students
to be effective in self-directed learning, they need to have motivation to begin and
continue tasks. In addition, they need to have self-management and control over the
context (Garrsion, 1997). Students successful in a self-directed learning environment
need to be able to set goals, apply appropriate learning methods, and seek support if
necessary. They also need to self-monitor their learning to make sure new and existing
knowledge structures are integrated in a meaningful manner (Garrsion, 1997).
Metacognition is the ability of learners to be aware of and monitor their learning
process (Imel, 2002). Two types of metacognition have been identified. Self-
assessment is ability to assess one’s own cognition. Self-management is the ability to
manage one’s further cognitive development (Imel, 2002). Students who are skilled in
metacognitive self-assessment are aware of their abilities and are able to use more
strategic planning to determine how to be successful (Imel, 2002). Teachers who are
aware of their own metacognition are more effective in helping students’ learn skills in
metacognition (Imel, 2002). Derrick (2003) suggested that students who work in a
nontraditional setting, such as independent learning, must developed specific skills that
foster independence. Students need to be able to take initiative, have resourcefulness,
persistence, and motivation to learn (Derrick, 2003).
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Martinez and Zimmerman (1986) concluded that self-regulated learning
measures are the best predictor of high-standardized achievement test scores. Students
with high scores reported significantly greater use of self-regulated learning strategies
than students with low scores. Half of the students with high scores reported seeking
assistance from others, while only one fourth of students with low scores sought out
assistance. In a later study, Martinez and Zimmerman (1990) found students’
perceptions of verbal and math efficacy were related to their use of self-regulated
strategies. Females reported using significantly more record keeping, monitoring,
environmental structuring, and goal setting than males (Martinez & Zimmerman, 1990).
Results indicated that high achievers made greater use of certain self-regulated learning
strategies such as greater organization, and reviewing notes. These strategies are part of
the triadic spectrum of self-regulating learning, personal process, one’s own behavior
and one’s environment (Martinez & Zimmerman, 1990).
Research found that even though students are aware of effective strategies they
do not implement those strategies (Tomes, Mockler, & Wasylkiw, 2011). Time spent
studying was not indicative of either test performance or GPA. The way students
studied was found to be more important for success than the amount of time spent
studying. Active strategies, such as developing deep meaningful and elaborative
processing, produced positive outcomes (Tomes, Mockler, & Wasylkiw, 2011).
Studying with a partner improved academic outcomes. Tutoring improved retention of
material for the student who explained material (Tomes, Mockler, & Wasylkiw, 2011).
Caffarella and O’Donnel (1987) found that in order for adults to be successful in
a self-directed learning environment they must possess certain competencies. Adult
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learners need to be able to diagnose their own learning needs, understand the objectives
being mastered, identify resources, and evaluate their learning (Caffarella & O’Donnel,
1987). Students need to be aware of when they need assistance from others, know how
to select material, be able to analyze, plan and evaluate their progress. Learners should
be provided with different types of assistance in order to foster better understanding and
use of self-directed learning projects (Caffarella & O’Donnel, 1987).
Carr, Derrick, and Ponton (2005) identified five personal initiatives as co-
occurring behaviors: goal directedness, action-orientation, active approach to problem
solving, persistence in overcoming obstacles, and ability to begin new projects.
Research emphasizes the importance of establishing goals and working toward them
(Carr, Derrick, & Ponton, 2005). Learner resourcefulness is seeing future rewards of
learning, prioritizing learning over other activities and solving one’s own problems.
Persistence in autonomous learning is the ability to sustain the effort and perseverance
necessary to focus on the achievement of the goals, despite obstacles and distractions
(Carr, Derrick, & Ponton, 2005). Autonomous learning is the process in which the
learner makes an intentional decision to assume responsibility for a learning situation.
Four factors found that determine the state of the learner include initiative,
resourcefulness, persistence, and a coupling of persistence and self-efficacy.
Metacognitive skills and study skills are essential to be successful in a self-study
program. Students have to be aware of their learning and assume responsibility.
Assessing their skills and what they need to do to improve is essential (Carr, Derrick, &
Ponton, 2005).

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Motivation
Students’ motivation plays a role in beginning and continuing in adult education
programs. Daehlen and Ure (2009) analyzed differences in motivation for formal
education. Low-skilled learners were found to be motivated by extrinsic incentives
such as getting a job and claiming benefits. Boshier (1971) identified three types of
displayed motivations:
 Goal-oriented - the student is engaging in learning for a particular purpose and
once the purpose is attained, they stop attending.
 Activity oriented – the student is taking part in learning for reasons unrelated to
the purpose or contents of the activity
 Learning oriented - the student is using every opportunity to learn.
Adult students enroll in adult education to break homeostasis. When tension increases,
it leads to participation and later leads to satisfaction, which causes tension to decrease
(Boshier, 1971). Morstain and Smart (1974) replicated Bosher’s study using a sample
of adult learners from the United States with similar results. The results of the study
indicated the importance of the student’s reason for attending the program. The results
also revealed variation across different age-sex grouping. Younger adults scored higher
on the social relationship scale. Men were motivated by external expectation reasons
and women scored higher on the cognitive interest scale (Morstain & Smart, 1974).
Beder and Valentine (1990) explored the reasons why low-literate adults
participate in adult education programs. A factor analysis of motivational items
identified 10 dimensions for the motivation of attending adult education, which
included: self-improvement, family responsibilities, diversion, literacy development,
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community involvement, job advancement, economic need, educational advance, and
urging of others (Beder & Valentine, 1990). Teachers benefit from knowing what
motivates the student to attend the program as it helps in guiding the instruction in the
classroom so it matches the aspirations of different adult learner types. In addition,
knowing the underlying motivation of each student enhances learner growth and
program retention (Beder & Valentine, 1990).
Self-efficacy affects an individual’s choice of activities, effort, and persistence
(Schunk, 1991). People with a low sense of efficacy for accomplishing a task might
avoid the task. Individuals with high sense of self-efficacy show persistence though
difficulties (Schunk, 1991). Goal setting is important to the cognitive process that
effects motivation. In a study conducted by Schunk (1991) students who set goals
experienced a sense of self-efficacy for attaining their goals. Self-efficacy explains
students learning and performance of achievement related behaviors (Schunk, 1991).
Task engagement variables include models, information, goal setting, attribution and
performance feedback, strategy instruction, cognitive processing, and reward
contingencies. Relationships between differences in motivation and self-regulated
learning were examined in a correlational study (Paris & Paris, 2001). Students who
had positive motivation reported having intrinsic orientation, mastery, positive
perceptions of interest, and value. Students with high self-efficacy reported using more
self-regulated learning strategies than students with low self-efficacy. Classroom work
that provided more choice was related to higher self-efficacy. Dropouts believed that
outcomes happened due to chance, which is the locus of control (Barringtion &
Hendricks, 1989). They also believed they did not have control over their lives and that
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good luck was more important than hard work (Barringtion & Hendricks, 1989). A
study found evidence that environmental support, particularly support from siblings and
peers, was associated with educational self-efficacy beliefs for lower SES (Ali,
Chronister & McWhirter, 2005). Consistent with other research, the study confirmed
that self-efficacy is an important predictor of outcome expectations (Ali, Chronister,
McWhirter, 2005).
Motivation was necessary not only to begin a program, but also to continue.
Self-efficacy is important to motivation, but many students who have dropped out might
have low self-efficacy. Adult programs need to foster self-efficacy. Students who drop
out of high school plan to continue their education. Many students have only
experienced failure in school, therefore they need to be aware that success is attainable.
Goal setting is important because it gives direction to the student. Goals setting sets
value on the process in order to reach the end goal.
Organization and Culture
The organization and culture of adult programs emphasizes students’
responsibility to learn because students guide their own learning. Reder and Strawn
(2001) followed 1,000 randomly selected participants. These participants were between
the ages of 18-44 years and had not earned a high school diploma or GED. A
comparison group of similar participants were used, but the participants in the
comparison group were not enrolled in an adult education program. The guiding
question of the study was: would students who never attended school before benefit
from self-directed learning? Thirty-three percent of students who never participated in
adult programs studied on their own to improve basic skills. Forty-six percent of
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participants who had previously participated in adult programs also used self-studies to
improve their basic skills. Adult programs face the challenge of high turnover in HSD
and GED courses (Reder & Strawn, 2001). Most programs used 12 hours of seat time
per term as the standard for minimum participation, which is the minimum time
required for a program to receive federal funds. Ten percent of learners stopped
participating before completing 12 hours of instruction (Reder & Strawn, 2001).
Individuals with higher skills were less likely to engage in self-study efforts compare to
individuals with low-level skills. Students who felt that self-directed learning did not
help them “at all” were not satisfied with the program (Reder & Strawn, 2001). On the
other hand, students who responded that they were improving their skills “a great deal”
were satisfied with the program.
Being able to work independently in a self-study program is a successful tool
needed in adult education programs (Onnismaa, 2003). Providing counseling is
essential in order to redefine goals. Programs need to be personal and individualized
since students are coming with different education levels (Onnismaa, 2003). It is
important to assess students’ levels properly at their entrance to the program in order to
ensure the best fit. Students need to be aware of how skills they learn from the program
will transfer into their daily lives in order to find value and utility in the task
(Onnismaa, 2003).
Assessment is important in order to clarify outcomes because it benefits the
learner, organization, and society (Kasworn & Marienau, 1997). Adult learners usually
do not study full time; instead it is incorporated into their schedules. Students are likely
to have attended 2-3 prior intuitions. They come in with varied past educations and
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experiences. Programs need to be flexible and individualized for the students (Kasworn
& Marienau, 1997). Kasworn and Marienau (1997) identified five principles to guide
adult assessment:
1. Learning comes from multiple sources.
2. Learning engages the whole person.
3. Learning contributes to personal development.
4. Learning and self-direction is promoted by feedback, occurs in the context.
5. Learning from experience is a unique meaning-making event that creates
diversity among adult.
Derrick (2003) emphasized creating environments conducive for lifelong
learning. He argues that cultural transformation is occurring because society has
become knowledge driven. Therefore learning opportunities for adults need to be
accessible any time (Derrick, 2003). Adult students desire for learning needs to be
sustained while conditions for facilitating and enhancing capacity for sustained and
enduring learning required understanding which behaviors are important for
independent, autonomous learning (Derrick, 2003). Distance learning is efficient, cost-
effective and flexible for students’ schedules. Programs need to foster a culture that
emphasizes learner initiative, resourcefulness, and persistence through the development
of personal autonomy (Derrick, 2003). They must not only meet students’ needs, but
also have to teach specific skills independently, quickly, and in a nontraditional format.
Two modes of teaching and learning were proposed. Asynchronous, which is teaching
and learning are not limited by time and place and synchronous, which is teaching and
learning requiring a definitive time and specific location (Derrick, 2003).
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Comings (2007) suggested adult students continue their secondary education
due to legal mandate, or social and cultural forces. They found that most students make
an active decision to participate in a HSD or GED program. Students’ educational
goals require hundreds or thousands of hours of instruction to achieve the desired
outcome (Comings, 2007). Persistence has two parts: intensity and duration.
Persistence is a continuous learning process that lasts until an adult meets their
education goal (Comings, 2007). The findings suggested 100 hours of instruction is the
minimum of hours needed to show measurable progress. Policies of the organization
must support persistence in order to ensure students spend sufficient hours engaged in
learning (Comings, 2007). Beder and Valentine (1990) suggested that motivation is
what aids student to overcome challenges and barriers. They suggest that adult
education programs must change their recruitment and instruction practices to be
aligned with motivations of adult students. Students weigh the benefits and costs
associated with continuing the program and drop out when they decide that the costs
outweigh the benefits. Wikelund (1992) suggests the need to emphasize and broaden
the definition of participation beyond instructional hours. Research findings suggest
that negative attitude towards education affects persistence (Bartol et al., 2010).
Implications for practice include having intake and orientation that will help prepare
students to be successful in the program. It is important to help students express clear
goals representing their motivation for participation. In addition, having a written
document that has students’ goals, skills, and knowledge helps the students to reach
those goals (Bartol et al., 2010). It is also helpful having students meet other students
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who were successful, with regular counseling meetings aiding students in reaching their
educational goals (Bartol et al., 2010).
Students coming to adult programs come for their own improvement. They
come with a wide range of previous knowledge and educational experiences. Adult
programs need to be individualized to the students’ goals and prior education. Reaching
measurable knowledge gain takes time and it is important to keep the student motivated
until they can see those gains. Self-study and self-paced programs work best for adult
students. It is important to assess students’ prior knowledge and also to provide
feedback to the student.
Summary
Adult education programs strive to support students in order to help them reach
their goals by offering open entry, flexible class schedule, flexibility to work at home
and / or complete online course and by having free or low cost registration. Even with
all the accommodations for each individual learner, research shows students are not
completing credits towards earning their high school diploma. It is essential for the
school and to community to produce lifelong learners so society will have prepared
citizens who are able to meet the demands of the job market.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to identify strategies to increase student completion
rates at Travelor Adult School using the gap analysis model (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
gap analysis model was used as a guide to help identify whether the problem is caused
by lack of knowledge, motivation, or culture. In addition, Kirkpatrick’s (2006) four
levels of evaluation was used as the framework to suggest a way to measure the success
of the recommended interventions in increasing completion rates among students at
Travelor Adult School.
Patton (1990) suggests that a way to strengthen a study design is through
triangulation. Triangulation uses a combination of methodologies in a study. This
study used quantitative and qualitative methods to identify the gaps in students’
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational culture and the potential causes of
these gaps in student completion of the high school diploma program at Travelor Adult
School. Quantitative methods use standardized measures, perspectives, and experiences
of people, which can be categorized to a limited predetermine response with values
assigned (Patton, 1990). On the other hand, detailed information and perceptions were
gathered using a qualitative approach. The qualitative analysis was used to capture
student and staff’s perceptions of the culture of the school. Interviews with the students
and staff yielded information about experiences and perceptions.
Guiding Questions
The questions developed for this project were designed to examine the potential
gaps of Travelor Adult School students’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
culture. The results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis provided insight in the
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causes of these gaps from both students and staff. Thus, the questions that guide this
project are:
1. What are the underlying causes for students’ failure to complete the
requirements for high school graduation from the perspectives of:
a. Knowledge and skills
b. Motivation
c. Organizational culture and context?
2. What solutions could Travelor Adult School implement in order for all
students to earn their diploma with respect to:
a. Knowledge and skills
b. Motivation
c. Organizational culture and context?
Project Approach
The gap analysis framework guided this project. The framework includes
measuring the current progress, developing a goal, diagnosing, implementing solutions
and evaluating performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). The gap analysis framework
suggests three main root causes for the identified performance gaps: lack of knowledge,
lack of motivation and organization barriers (Clark & Estes, 2008). After determining
what factors are contributing to the problem, solutions are implemented and the results
evaluated to determine whether revisions are required (See Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Gap Analysis Model. Adapted from Clark, R. E. & Estes, F. (2008). Turning
research into results. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Step 1: Identify Multilevel Goals
After reviewing the number of students enrolled in the high school diploma
program and comparing it with the number of students who earn their diploma, a large
discrepancy was found. The main goal of the institution is for students to earn their
diploma. To earn a diploma, specific credits and certain numbers of hours are required.
In order to track the progress of the number of credits earned, the number of hours
logged in the classroom and the number of students who earned their diploma were used
to track progress towards the goal. The institution’s goal is to increase the number of
students receiving their high school diplomas by 20% each school year.
Step 2: Quantify the Current Performance
Since at the time of the study school was currently in session, the amount of
credits and diplomas earned were unknown. Therefore, last year’s number credits
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earned, amount of classroom hours logged, and the number of diplomas earned was
used as the current level of achievement. Last school year, 58 students’ earned their
high school diploma.
Step 3: Determine the Gap in the Current Performance
Last, year 58 students earned their diploma. The desired level is a 20% percent
increase over last year. Therefore, 70 graduates is desired goal. After subtracting the
desired outcome with the current status, the gap of 12 students was found.
Step 4: Hypothesize and Empirically Validate Causes
Many times causes of performance gaps are assumed. Action is taken by
purchasing programs, buying equipment, and conducting workshops without validating
the assumed causes. Institutions and people invest time and money into solutions
without actually targeting the cause of the gap. In order to detect the possible cause of
the gap, informal interviews with stakeholders should be conducted. During these
interviews the causes may be identified for the categories of motivation, knowledge and
culture. A literature review is conducted to identify additional causes found in the
research.
Scanning Interviews
Informal interviews with students were conducted with 12 students to
investigate potential causes of students failing to complete their high school diploma.
The knowledge of potential causes gained through these interviews helped guide the
development of an appropriate instrument to validate those causes. In these interviews,
students were asked questions regarding knowledge, organization, and motivation.
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Knowledge
Informal interviews revealed a gap in knowledge. When students were
prompted to answer questions regarding their knowledge about how Travelor Adult
School worked, five out of twelve students shared that they did not understand how the
class worked. Students were not sure whether they should only work on one class at a
time or multiple classes. Students expected a class schedule similar to the traditional
high school or college. Additionally, students did not know whether there were
requirements of minimum hours that needed to be completed in the classroom.
Students expressed that they felt classes were beyond their skill level, an
assertion that was especially common for the math classes. They explained that some
courses were very difficult and they did not understand the content. Students suggested
having directed instruction or tutoring would be helpful. Students shared that
sometimes they did not understand how to do an assignment and there was no one at
home who could help them. Students do not ask for help in the classroom for various
reasons such as feeling embarrassment, the teacher being unavailable, or because they
believed that even with help they will not understand. All students responded that to
prepare for a test they read and highlighted their books. In some cases, textbooks had
every single word highlighted. One student mentioned the use of flash cards as a study
aid. Six out of twelve students said they studied the day of the exam in order to
remember details and due to time constraints.
Motivation
When students were ask if motivation plays a role in earning their diploma, all
expressed that they are motivated to earn their diploma but they get frustrated with
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organizational barriers they face. When students were asked about their future goals
after earning the diploma, only two students had future goals. The other nine students
were unsure of their next step. When students were asked about their self-efficacy in
their current course, ten students said they had low-self efficacy. Students expressed
that they had failed this course several times in the traditional high school, that they had
not been able to pass the CAHSEE or it had been many years since they had gone to
school. Students also commented they are not good in school and that learning the
information was a challenge. Students’ reasons for enrolling were to obtain jobs, enter
college, enter vocational programs, or a mandatory enrollment appointed by a third
party. Four of the twelve students worked full time and attended classes. The other
students were unemployed and seeking jobs.
Organization and Culture
Students identified organizational issues that make it a challenge for them to
persist in earning their diploma. All students expressed the need for a large classroom
as there are times no seats are available. In addition, students also expressed the need
for more teachers. The interviewees said sometimes they had to wait twenty minutes
for a teacher, and then may have had to leave before receiving assistance since they
came in before work. Six out of twelve students expressed the need for a system where
students are allowed to borrow books as sometimes they are unable to spend hours in
the classroom due to other obligations and they believed they would work at home if
they had books.
Vygotsky (1976) suggested that culture establishes ways of thinking with
language and other cultural symbols, therefore the way one thinks is developed through
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culture. In addition, he suggested that instruction proceeds and leads to cognitive
development. Students from Travelor Adult School have various levels of education
and different cultural backgrounds. Around 70% percent of the students were not born
in the United States. Students’ experiences with education vary from being home-
schooled by a parent, never attending an institution, or attending a school in another
country. Students bring their schemas of what school is from previous experiences.
Symbols used at the school might not mean the same thing to one student as it does to
another. Therefore, teachers at Travelor Adult Schools need to explain the program
step by step and guide students in the school.
Learning and Motivation Theory
A review of learning and motivation theory helped reveal additional causes of
the gap.
Knowledge. In order to assess whether there is a gap in knowledge it is
important to distinguish what type of knowledge students lack. Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) identified four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes isolated elements such as terminology
and specific details. This type of knowledge is basic in order to communicate in the
context of specific situations, in this case the school setting. Students must be
knowledgeable of common terms used at the school, such as credits, courses, and
CAHSEE. The institution cannot assume that students are aware of basic jargon,
especially since students come from different educational backgrounds and countries.
Factual knowledge also includes information such as hours of the program, room
numbers, and who the teachers are.
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The second type of knowledge is conceptual knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001), which includes knowledge of classification and categories.
Conceptual knowledge includes schemas and mental models. Schemas and mental
models represent the knowledge an individual has about a particular subject and how it
is organized. Students from Travelor Adult School needed to understand that in order
to obtain a high school degree they need 210 credits from certain categories with
category requiring a different number of credits. Some students had difficulty
understanding that, even though they had more than 210 credits, they did not meet the
graduation requirements since they did not meet the minimum credits required for a
specific category. In addition, students failed to realize that one class contributed to the
overall 210 credits. Because of this, students asked not to take a certain course without
realizing that the course was part of the overall requirements for earning a high school
diploma.
The third type of knowledge is procedural which includes knowledge of skills,
techniques, methods, and knowledge of criterion used to determine when to do what
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Students need to know what the procedures are for
turning in work, taking exams, and earning credit. It is also essential that they be able
to access their own knowledge and determine what is needed in order to be successful.
If students are having trouble in math, they need to be able to access their knowledge
and skills and find the appropriated resources in order to master the skill.
The fourth type of knowledge is metacognitive knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001), which includes knowledge about cognitive tasks and self-knowledge.
This includes a student’s self-regulation behavior such as pacing the course, knowing
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when to ask for help, and knowing what study skill to use. Students critiquing their
own work and finding their weaknesses is an example of them using their metacognitive
knowledge. Likewise, students who prepare themselves for the writing portion of
CAHSEE, critique their essays and determine what skills they need to work on in order
to be able to pass are using metacognitive knowledge.
Previous theorists, such as Vygotsky (1976), suggest that the instruction process
leads to cognitive development. There are three main components of instruction,
determining the appropriate level of instruction, implementing the genetic law of
cognitive development, and developing students’ verbal thinking. Students’ cognitive
level must be determined in order to ensure the students have the capability of
accomplishing the task by themselves, which is known as zone of proximal
development. If students are not capable of accomplishing the task themselves it is
important they are scaffold or guided either by instructors or peers (Vygotsky, 1976).
It is essential that the students and teachers interact with each other; teachers need to
explain, inform, correct, and force students to recall information. In order for learning
to occur teachers need to model, explain, and have students explain the material in their
own other words because verbalizing facilitates self-questioning and is an effective way
to study (Vygotsky, 1976).
Motivation. Self-efficacy plays a role in motivation. Self-efficacy is the belief
in one’s capabilities to accomplish a particular task (Bandura, 1977). Students’
perceived efficacy is significant in choosing activity and persistency. Students with low
self-efficacy do not persist when faced with a challenge; ones who failed courses tend to
have low self-efficacy (Meece, Pintrich & Schunk, 2008). Students at adult schools
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have failed courses in the past, leading one to expect low self-efficacy. In addition, four
types of influence contribute to individual’s self-efficacy.
1. First is a mastery experience, which is experiencing success by developing
cognitive and behavioral capabilities for executing a task. Students who
experience success are easily discouraged when they fail because they are
used to quick results. When students experience mastery experiences they
are convinced there are capable of succeeding even though they might face
challenges.
2. Second is vicarious experience, which is observing others who are similar in
skill level, accomplish a task.
3. Third is verbal persuading which can help overcome self-doubt.
4. Fourth, physiological and emotional states such as tension and stress provide
information about efficacy. Individuals tend to associate negative
physiological reactions with performing poorly. To increase self-efficacy, it
is important to teach students how to reduce these physiological signals.
(Meece, Pintrich & Schunk, 2008).
Self-efficacy also influences the types of activities and environment individuals choose
(Bandura, 1977). Individuals with low self-efficacy avoid activities they believe are
above their capabilities. Students with high self-efficacy see the task as a challenge to
overcome and are energize to face the particular task. Students who have low self-
efficacy make less effort, give up on difficulty tasks, and focus on their perceived
deficiencies (Bandura, 1977). Long-term effects included avoiding enriching
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environments, anxiety, undermining the effective use of one’s own skills, and having
lower aspiration in order to avoid stress.
Attribution theory suggests that students learn more effectively when they
attribute academic success and failures to effort during learning (Weiner, 1986). When
students experience failures, they may attribute failure to ability, effort, task difficulty,
and luck. A student who did not pass an exam might believe the cause was due to
ability and they might conclude they are not good in the particular subject. The student
can also conclude the exam was too tough or it was luck and they were not lucky. It’s
important for teachers to direct students’ attributions to effort because students have
control over effort (Meece, Pintrich & Schunk, 2008). Students do not have control
over ability, task difficulty, or luck. In addition, students used cues to make their
attributions. Teachers need to be aware of the cues they might be sending their
students. If a teacher gives them the answer the student might believe the teacher did
not think they had the ability to produce the right answer. Teachers need to avoid
sympathizing when students fail and emphasize to students they have control when
learning (Mayer, 2008).
Goal orientation theory suggests there are three types of goals: mastery,
performance, and performance avoidance (Dweck, 1975). Student with mastery goals
learn because they want to understand the material. They are not concerned about the
grade; they are concern about learning. Performance approach goal involves wanting to
perform better than others (Dweck, 1975). Students with performance approach goals
are interested in their grade. On the other hand, students with performance avoidance
goals are focused on not performing low. Both mastery goals and performance goals
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are associated with academic motivation. Mastery goals are more powerful because
when student does not perform well, they are motivated to learn (Meece, Pintrich &
Schunk, 2008). Mastery orientation is positive, related to effective learning strategies,
but not to grades. Performance approach is not related to learning strategies but to
gaining higher grades. Student with mastery goals will put more effort and persist over
time (Meece, Pintrich & Schunk, 2008).
Organization and Culture. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) suggest that
when assessing culture it is important to consider cultural settings and cultural models.
Cultural models are shared mental models on how the world operates which includes
behavior, cognitive and affective mechanisms. Cultural models are common in specific
settings and help understand what is valued, and what is avoided in that particular
setting. Cultural setting is defined as occurring when two or more people gather over a
period of time and are able to accomplish a task. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
believe that culture is present in settings when people come together to accomplish a
task they value. Their study focused on Latino immigrants’ families and their cultural
models regarding reading to their children. These families’ cultural models believed
that reading to children under five years old was unproductive since children under the
age of five were believed not to fully understand. When the families were exposed to
other settings different from their current practices, they were open to making changes
when they believed the new change would benefit their children (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). One mother in the study worked as housekeeper and while
working, she observed a mother reading to her child. The housekeeper mentioned that
reading to a child is not a common practice in her house. She tried reading at home
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after observing the event but she discontinued because she thought it was strange. This
mother was not able to construct a new setting. Travelor Adult School has a large
population of Hispanic students, many whom are first or second generation. These
students come in with their own cultural models of what schooling is. It is important to
create a cultural setting in the school where students accept new practices and
understand how they will help them. The classroom needs to provide a cultural setting
conducive to learning by such things as having the materials needed and guiding
students in how the classroom operates. Over time, students adapt and incorporate new
mental models that are part of their new setting.
Another way to view culture is through the framework of Clark and Estes
(2008). They describe culture as the core values, goals, and beliefs people develop
from spending time in an environment. The culture of an organization influences
performance. There are three ways to view culture in an organization according to
Clark and Estes (2008). The first way is to view the culture as the organization or
environment. Changing the culture of the organization can help change performance. It
might be that Travelor Adult School needs to change its culture in order to be able to
increase completion rates of the high school diploma program. The second way is to
view culture as groups. In some cultures, groups are emphasized. In these cultures, the
group is prioritized before oneself, while in other cultures, the individual is emphasized.
Many of the students at Travelor Adult School are from Mexico. When they arrive at
the school, teachers have to remind the students that work and tests must be completed
by themselves and not as a group. These students are used to working as a group and
helping each other. Individuals’ cultures sometimes can conflict with the organizations
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expectations. Changing students’ beliefs and knowledge will help develop new cultural
patterns. The third approach focuses on the individual. In order to help increase
performance, it is important to think about what work processes are effective for the
person and know why and how they do things (Clark & Estes, 2008). In order to help
increase performance, it is important to change the environment, knowledge, skills and
motivation of the individuals. When implementing new programs the goal is to change
the organization’s culture and change people’s behaviors (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that in order for an organization to meets its
goal, knowledge, skills and motivation must interact with each other. If one of these
processes is not supporting the goal of the organization, there is a great risk of the
organization not reaching its goal. Polices and rules the organization establishes need to
help support their desired goals (Clark and Estes, 2008). For example, some students
want to listen to music in the classroom; the policy of the classroom is if someone can
hear the music, it is too loud. Students don’t understand that the policies are enforced to
have a classroom where all students can focus and some students are distracted by
music. When implementing the solutions to the gaps, students might be faced with
challenges. According to Clark and Estes (2008) people responded to challenges by
creating new patterns. This would be the goal of the organization if the current behavior
is not supporting the organization’s goal. As the organization changes and is faced with
challenges, the culture will slowly begin to change. Over time, people will make the
new behavior part of what is expected from the culture of the organization (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
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Schein’s (1984) research also supports the idea that the organizational culture is
the main ingredient needed for an organization to succeed. He defined organizational
culture as a group’s assumptions that they have acquired, discovered, and adapted when
faced with challenges (Schein, 1984). When a new way of doing things is effective, it
is taught to new members of the group. One of the ways to assess culture in an
organization is to look for visible artifacts, such as use of technology, modes of dress,
visible behavior patterns, and organizational documents (Schein, 1984). These help in
understanding how a group makes their environment and what behaviors are common
for that group. In order to understand why a group behaves in a certain way, values that
govern behavior are analyzed (Schein, 1984). It is also important to understand the
underlying assumptions, which are normally unconscious, to determine how the group
members perceive, think and feel. Taking into this research into account helps
understand the culture of the high school diploma classroom. It is important to
investigate what the students’ find important and value. In addition, it is beneficial to
observe the students’ behavior and whether they conducive to reaching their goals.
Assumed Causes from Review of the Literature
The literature review helped identify potential causes for students not
completing the program at the adult school. The following section summarizes the
assumed causes found for knowledge, motivation and culture.
Knowledge and skills. As the literature suggests, in order for students to be
successful in a self-directed learning program, students need to possess meta-cognitive
skills (Garrison, 1997). Students not only need to have knowledge of types of study
skills but they also need to apply those skills to their learning (Garrison, 1997).
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45
Students need to be able to set goals, apply appropriate learning methods and seek
support when needed (Garrison, 1997). Students also need to self-monitor their learning
to make sure new and existing knowledge is integrated in a meaningful manner.
Motivation. Literature suggests that low skilled learners were found to be
motivated by extrinsic incentives (Daehlen & Ure, 2009). In a study conducted Boshier
(1971) he found that students displayed three types of motivation: goal, activity and
learning oriented. Self-efficacy affected students’ choice of activities, effort and
persistence (Schunk, 1991). Students with low self-efficacy avoided tasks; when they
were faced with a challenge there were more likely to quit. On the other hand, students
with high self-efficacy persisted and tried to overcome the challenge. Past research
suggests that dropouts believe good luck was more important than hard work
(Barringtion & Hendricks, 1989). Luck is something that cannot be controlled making
students feel defeated. If students associate dropping out with a lack of hard work, that
is something that can be controlled by the student. Students need to be aware of how
the skills learned in the class will transfer or help them in their daily lives (Onnismaa,
2003). Learning is challenging at times; students need to know how their hard work
impacts their lives.
Organization. Adult programs face the challenge of high turnover and student
retention (Reder & Strawn, 2001). Adult students stop attending for many different
reasons, such as finding employment, moving out of the area or deciding their goal is
not attainable. Being able to work dependably is needed to be successful in an adult
self-study program. Adult programs need to be individualized to accommodate
different educational levels and need to be able to accommodate various schedules.
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Research suggests the importance of assessing prior knowledge and placing the student
in the correct level. There has also been evidence regarding the importance of
providing counseling to help redefine goals (Onnismaa, 2003).
Summary
Table 1
Summary of Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Sources/
Causes Knowledge Motivation
Organizational
process
Scanning
Interviews
- Lack of knowledge
about the program and
logistics
- Lack of knowledge
about the procedure
and requirements of
earning of credits
- Material beyond skill
level
- Lacking
metacognitive skills
and not being to access
when help is needed
- Not using effective
learning strategies
- Lack of knowledge
how the education
system runs in the U.S.
- Motivation
decreases when faced
with challenges
- Majority of students
could not identify
future goals
- Students responded
to having low-self
efficacy due to having
failed courses in the
past
- Low self-efficacy
due to taking the
CAHSEE and not
passing
- Reason for enrolling
the in programs was
due to external
rewards
- The classroom
structure fosters
individual learning
- No help beyond the
classroom
- Unable to get help
from teacher due the
teacher being busy
with other students
- Need for a larger
classroom
- Not having seats
available
- Needing more
teachers in the
classroom
- Not being able to
take books home

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Table 1, continued
Sources/
Causes Knowledge Motivation
Organizational
process
Learning
and
Motivation
Theory
Anderson &
Krathwohl (2001)
identified four types of
knowledge: factual,
conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive
- Three main
components to
instruction: determine
appropriate level,
implementing
cognitive development
and developing
students verbal
thinking (Vygotsky,
1976)
- Scaffolding by
teacher or peers
- Modeling desired
behavior
- Verbalizing to
facilitate self-
questioning
- Self-efficacy plays a
role in choosing a task
and persisting
(Meece, Pintrich &
Schunk, 2008)
- Students with low
self-efficacy tend to
give up when faced
with a challenge
- Four sources that
contribute to self-
efficacy: mastery
experience, vicarious
experience and verbal
persuading
- Attribution theory
suggest students learn
more effectively when
they attribute
academic success and
failures to effort
during learning
- Goal orientation
suggest three types of
goals: Mastery,
performance, and
performance
avoidance
- Students with
mastery goals will put
more effort and
persist over time
Vygotsky (1976)
culture establishes
ways of thinking
with language and
other cultural
symbols

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Table 1, continued
Sources/
Causes Knowledge Motivation
Organizational
process
Background
Literature
- To be successful in a
self-directed learning
program students need
to possess meta-
cognitive skills and
apply study skills
(Garrsion, 1997)
- Students need to be
able to set goals, apply
appropriate learning
methods and seek
support when
needed(Garrsion,
1997)
- Students need to self-
monitor their learning
to make sure new and
existing knowledge are
integrated in a
meaningful manner
- Self-efficacy was
related to the use of
self-regulated
strategies
(Zimmerman, 1990)
- Low skilled learners
where found to be
motivated by extrinsic
incentives (Daehlen &
Ure, 2009)
- Boshier (1971)
observed that students
displayed three types
of motivation: goal,
activity and learning
oriented
- Self-efficacy affects
students choice of
activities, effort and
persistence (Schunk,
1991)
- Student with low
self-efficacy will
avoid and task
- Student with high
sense of self-efficacy
show persistency over
challenges
- Dropout believed
that good luck was
more important than
hard work
(Barringtion &
Hendricks, 1989)
- Students need to be
aware of how the
skills learned in the
class will transfer or
help them in their
daily lives
(Onnismaa, 2003)
- Adult programs
face the challenge of
high turnover (Reder
& Strawn, 2001)
- Being able to work
dependably in a self-
study program
- Adult programs
need to be
individualized to
accommodate
different educational
levels
- It is important to
assess prior
knowledge
- Providing
counseling is
essential to help
redefine goals
(Onnismaa, 2003)

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Step 5: Validation of the Cause of the Performance Gap
The purpose of the project was to investigate the possible causes which
interfering with the school’s goal of increasing completion rates. Scanning interviews
and the literature review suggested possible causes for the gap between students who
start and students who complete at Travelor Adult School. Using the gap analysis
model, the school set a goal, the goal was subtracted from the current performance and
possible causes for the gap between the two were determined. After determining
possible causes, the causes were validated by using a mixed method approach. The
instruments used were designed to validate the assumed causes. In addition, a mix
method approach helped triangulate the data. Triangulation helped to ensure the data
from the surveys and interviews converged. After the causes were determined,
solutions were offered to close the gap (Clark and Estes, 2008).
Sample and Population
The primary focus of the data collection was on what was happening to the
students in the Travelor Adult School high school diploma program and how their
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational setting affected their graduation
rate. Therefore, the unit of analysis was students in the program. At the time of the
study, 800 students were enrolled, with 60 students completing the requirements to earn
a high school diploma. Students were not completing the program at the rate set by the
school. In order to gather information about the perspective of current, former and re-
enrolling students, all three categories of students were sampled. The amount credits
students needed varied, as did their level of education; therefore all students in the
classroom were invited to participate. Since students are allowed to come in at their
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50
chosen time, surveys were administered at different times of day. The survey was given
throughout a week period to make sure as many students as possible were represented.
The purpose of the Travelor Adult School high school diploma program is to support
the students, it was essential to get the students perspective of the program in order to
examine possible gaps which prevent the school from reaching its goal of increasing
completion rates. In addition, teachers from the high school diploma program were
interviewed in other to gather their perspectives on possible gaps students face in the
classroom. Gathering teachers’ and students’ perspectives of the program provided the
opportunity to triangulate the data.
Instrumentation
Patton (1990) suggests that the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods
is essential in order to make a study strong. In addition, use of triangulation of multiple
data also strengthens the study. Therefore, student surveys were used as the
quantitative method and interviews were used as the qualitative method.
Survey. In order to measure whether there was a gap in knowledge, motivation,
and culture, a student survey was created. The survey was paper based since many of
the students lack computer skills. Since the skills of students in the program vary, the
language use for the survey was simple and clear. The survey asked for basic
demographics such as gender and age. The survey was anonymous in order to promote
honest responses by students. It included items pertaining to the potential assumed
causes listed in Table 1. The students responded to statements using a Likert scale. A
copy of the survey may be found in Appendix A.
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Knowledge and Skills. In order to find out if the gap between students starting
at the Travelor Adult School high school diploma program and students graduating was
caused by the lack of knowledge or skills, a student survey was constructed. The first
part of the survey included general questions about the program such as how to earn
credits and policies of the classroom. In the literature review, a study by Onnismaa
(2003), suggested that students were coming to school with different levels of
experience and knowledge about how schools in general operate. This might be the
first time a student has ever participated in an educational program. Adult high school
diploma programs are run differently than the traditional high school. In adult programs
the student is responsible for their own learning. Students need to know the location of
the classroom, hours they can attend, when and where work can be completed, and
whom they can ask for help. Survey questions included ones which looked at whether
students knew how to earn credits, the hours of classroom teaching, minimum hours of
attendance required, who the teachers were, and how the program worked in general.
Literature suggests that students who work in self-directed learning need to have
knowledge of study skills since they are conducting their own learning. In the study by
Tomes, Mockler, and Wasylkiw (2011), they suggested that even though students were
able to identify effective learning strategies, students were not implementing them in
their learning. The student survey included questions are about cognitive strategies use,
metacognitive strategy use and management of efforts. As previous studies suggest,
even though students may be aware of cognitive strategies, they often do not implement
those strategies in their own learning.
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Motivation. In order to assess whether the gap of program completion was due
to lack of motivation, students were asked questions to assess their motivation and self-
efficacy towards earning their high school diploma. Research on motivation has
suggested that self-efficacy plays a role in motivation. If students believe they can
accomplish the task, they are motivated. If students believe they are not capable of
completing the task, their motivation towards the task decreases (Schunk, 1991).
Culture and organization. In order to investigate whether culture is the root
cause of the gap between students starting at the Travelor Adult School high school
diploma program and students graduating, students were asked questions about the
culture and organization. Questions included how students perceived the school
climate, student-teacher relationships, academic expectations, safety, and discipline. In
addition, the survey included questions about student satisfaction with the format and
organization of the program. Previous research suggests that adult schools need to be
able to meet the needs of different types of learners with different amounts of prior
knowledge (Derrick, 2003). Finally, statements pertaining to students’ satisfaction with
the format of classes, open entry policy, and school hours were also included.
Interviews. In order to triangulate data, open-ended interview questions were
conducted. Currently enrolled students, re-enrolled students, and teachers were asked a
different set of questions in order to assess students’ and teachers’ perceived causes of
the gaps. The questions asked pertained to potential gaps identified in the literature
review with regards to motivation, knowledge, and organization. In addition, questions
about home environment and parents’ education were included in order to assess
support available at home. The questions in the interviews pertained to the assumed
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53
causes of the gap. Student questions were adapted for the teacher interviews. For
example, students were asked the reasons why they stop attending class. Teachers were
asked why they thought students stop attending class. See Appendix B for the complete
interview protocol.
Data Collection
Survey. Following the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board approval, the student survey was distributed to 60 students currently attending
the Travelor Adult School high school diploma program. Five-eight surveys were
returned. The survey was conducted in the classroom with the teachers’ permission.
The surveys were given to all students in the classroom. All the surveys and interviews
were kept anonymous and information about questions was only used for analysis
purposes. Students were not timed and their participation was voluntary. Since
students choose what days and hours to attend, data collection for currently enrolled
students took place over a full week. Surveys were administered in both in morning and
evening shifts.
Interviews. In order to triangulate data, interviews were conducted to yield
additional information not collected in the student survey. Currently enrolled students
and students who re-enrolled in the program were interviewed. Students who had
dropped out of the program and had not re-enrolled were also contacted; unfortunately,
none of these students was available to interview due to inaccurate contact information.
Teachers had the option of participating in the interviews with all four teachers
participating in an interview. The purpose of the interview was to find out the teaching
staff’s perception of school culture, specifically, to examine whether the staff
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54
perception was similar to students’ perception of the culture. Interviews were held after
school and were conducted individually. Interview responses were kept confidential
and used only for analysis.
Data Analysis
Frequencies and common themes were analyzed. In addition, data was
observed for correlations between variables. When coding whether the gap was caused
by lack knowledge and skills, types of knowledge were categorized as factual,
procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge. When examining whether there
was a lack of motivation, variables associated with motivation were identified such as
interest, self-efficacy, attributions, goal orientation, active choice, persistence, and
metal effort. When examining organization and culture, policy procedures, resources,
values and culture were analyzed.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Travelor Adult School has identified a goal of increasing completion rates of its
high school diploma program. This project seeks to identify the causes for the low
completion of the high school program. After recognizing the causes of the problems,
strategies were be identified. The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process Model
served as the framework for the project. The model first identifies whether the problem
is caused by a lack of knowledge, motivation or cultural / organizational barriers. After
the gap was identified, solutions are proposed in order to close the gap. Following their
implementation, the effectiveness of the solutions will be evaluated.
As described in Chapter 3, this study used a mixed method approach, making
use of both quantitative and qualitative methods. Surveys were used to gather the
quantitative data; interviews provided the qualitative data. Both the survey and
interviews helped answer the project’s question on identifying potential gaps in
motivation, knowledge and culture. In the next section, the results of the survey and
interviews are reported.
Report of the Findings
Research Question. What are the underlying causes for students’ failure to
complete the requirements for high school graduation from the perspectives of:
knowledge, motivation, and culture?
In order to investigate the root cause of students not completing the high school
diploma program, 57 current students participated in a survey that helped identify
whether the root cause was lack of motivation, lack of knowledge, and/or cultural
barriers. The survey was conducted using a four-point Likert scale. Students indicated
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56
whether they strongly disagreed, disagreed, agreed or strongly agreed with the
statements presented. When coding the students surveys, strongly disagree was
represented by a 1, disagree by a 2, agree by a 3 and strongly agree by a 4.
In addition, five current students were interviewed and asked questions to assess
whether the root cause of non-completion was lack of knowledge, motivation and / or
cultural barriers. Five additional students who had dropped out of the program and re-
enrolled were also interviewed. The questions were modified for students re-enrolling
into the program in order to investigate the barriers they faced which lead them to
decide to leave the program. A total of 10 students were interviewed. In order to obtain
comprehensive results of the root causes, students and teachers were interviewed
including all four teachers who worked in the high school diploma program. Teachers
were asked questions about their personal experience and students’ perceived
experience in the program. The following results are for each of the possible root
causes.
Knowledge and Skills
Survey results. Knowledge was assessed using the taxonomy for learning and
statements in the survey representing the four types of knowledge: factual, conceptual,
procedural and metacognitive. Factual knowledge was confirmed by asking students
basic questions about the program that included: identifying the location, identifying
teachers, hours of the classroom, and the requirements of earning credits. Conceptual
knowledge was assessed by statements about understanding of how credits from various
categories worked, understanding the importance of the diploma, and understanding
how the school system operates. In order to assess if students knew the appropriate
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57
procedures for earning credits and a diploma, statements regarding procedures were
included. Statements for procedural knowledge also included knowing what the steps
to take when a student is unable to attend class. Metacognitive knowledge was assessed
by asking students about study skills they applied in their studies such as pacing the
course, creating diagrams, reviewing main ideas and connecting new ideas to previous
knowledge. Students were also asked about their awareness of assessing their own
knowledge and being able to assess appropriate resources when needed.
Table 2 summarizes the results of the statements corresponding to knowledge.
The two statements with the highest mean corresponded to factual knowledge, which
had means of 3.71 and 3.64. Overall, the mean for factual knowledge was between 3.71
and 3.26. Students scored high in both factual knowledge and conceptual knowledge,
meaning they had basic knowledge of the program and courses. Students understood
the basic concept of the school system. For procedural knowledge, the highest
statement was being aware of assignments needed to earn credit, which had a mean of
3.47. Students in the high school diploma program understood the process of earning
credit and how the program and school function. The lowest statement, with a mean of
3.11 for procedural knowledge, was describing the steps to earn a diploma. The two
lowest means of all the statements corresponded to metacognitive knowledge. The
mean for metacognitive knowledge ranged from 3.45 to 2.55. The five statements with
the lowest mean corresponded to study skills. These five statements had a mean below
3.00, which means students disagreed with the statements and did not utilize these study
skills.

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Table 2
Statement Results Categorized by Type of Knowledge in Ascending Order from Highest
to Lowest Mean
Strongly Agree Statements with means between 3.71-3.57
Statement Type of Knowledge
Times the classroom is open Factual
Locate the classroom Factual
Credits are needed from various categories Conceptual
Aware of requirements Factual
Agree Statements with means between 3.47-3.00
Aware of assignments needed to earn credit Procedural
Ask for help Metacognitive
Knowing the steps to work at home Procedural
Asking for help when needed Metacognitive
Identifying teachers Factual
Understanding how school system works Conceptual
Connecting new material to previous materials Metacognitive
Reviewing material to assess what to improve Metacognitive
Explaining organization of school Factual
Knowing where to find appropriate resources when needed Metacognitive
Asking questions to make sure one understands material Metacognitive
Taking into account teachers feedback Metacognitive
Reading teachers feedback Metacognitive
Relating new material to daily activities Metacognitive
Highlighting sections and reviewing at later time Metacognitive
Disagree statements with means of 2.98-2.55
Spacing out study sessions Metacognitive
Reading over table of contents to organize material Metacognitive
Summarizing after reading material Metacognitive
Drawing diagrams or maps to understand material Metacognitive
Describing what I learned to another classmate Metacognitive

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Table 3
Knowledge Statements, Means and Standard Deviation (descending order by mean)
Statement/type of knowledge M SD
Times the classroom is open (F) 3.71 .49
Locate the classroom (F) 3.64 .51
Credits are needed from various categories (C) 3.57 .53
Aware of requirements (F) 3.52 .60
Earning a diploma will open many doors (C) 3.52 .57
Aware of assignments needed to earn credit (P) 3.47 .53
Ask for help (M) 3.45 .71
Knowing the steps to work at home (P) 3.40 .59
Asking for help when needed (M) 3.40 .62
Identifying teachers (F) 3.39 .65
Understanding how school system works (C) 3.35 .74
Connecting new material to previous materials (M) 3.32 .57
Reviewing material to assess what to improve (M) 3.28 .70
Explaining organization of school (F) 3.26 .61
Knowing where to find appropriate resources when needed (M) 3.25 .79
Asking questions to make sure one understands material (M) 3.24 .73
Taking into account teachers feedback (M) 3.18 .84
Reading teachers feedback (M) 3.14 .80
Relating new material to daily activities (M) 3.07 .69
Highlighting sections and reviewing at later time (M) 3.00 .79
Spacing out study sessions (M) 2.98 .92
Reading over table of contents to organize material (M) 2.85 .82
Summarizing after reading material (M) 2.85 .68
Drawing diagrams or maps to understand material (M) 2.66 .93
Describing what I learned to another classmate (M) 2.55 .90

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Interview results. Current students were asked to describe a typical school day
and activities they conducted before and after school; only one student disclosed that
studying was part of their daily routine. The four other students responded with daily
routines such as grooming oneself, attending to a child, and work. When students were
asked about where they study and how many times, every student had a place at home
where they could study without distractions. Four of five students responded they study
about three to five times a week for times ranging from twenty minutes to two hours.
When re-enrolled students where asked what they were going to do differently, only
two out five mentioned pacing and breaking down the course. Even though four out of
five students mentioned they want to be successful, they were not aware of the skills
that would help them achieve this. Students were asked what challenges they foresee in
earning credit and their plan. Three out of five students responded they did not foresee
any challenges. Two students were able to identify challenges they might face and had
plans to overcome those challenges. These two students mentioned blocking out their
time to help with time management, and attending tutoring to help to pass their toughest
courses.
All four teachers who were interviewed responded that students had trouble
understanding the process of earning credits. In addition, they believed students did not
have the necessary appropriate studying skills. Teachers mentioned that students
studied for tests by having books open in front of them but never reading the material.
Other students studied by flipping through pages of books. Teachers stated that
students do not understand why they fail exams, not attributing their outcomes to their
study skills. All teachers expressed how students did not review the table of contents,
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61
did not pull out main ideas from the text, did not pace out courses, and had trouble with
time management. All teachers agreed that students were unable to assess when they
needed help. Teachers shared that students sit for hours not understanding how to do
the work; if he or she is lucky, the teacher notices and offers to help. In addition, all
teachers shared that for many of the questions students asked, students had the resources
and access to the information in the classroom. Students have appropriate resources
available to them, such as the dictionaries, course outlines, and the answers to the
classwork. Teachers referred students to these resources but students did not seek the
resources for themselves until they were told to do so. Two out of four teachers
mentioned that students had trouble understanding certain rules such as not being able
to use phones during exams, not listening to music and not eating in class. Teachers
expressed explaining many times the purpose of the rules.
In regards to the teacher’s knowledge and skills, all of the four teachers have a
minimum of 12 years experience working in the classroom. All teachers shared they
felt comfortable teaching the subjects required. On a scale of one being the lowest and
ten being the highest, one teacher rated themselves as a seven in one specific course,
another teacher as an eight and the two others as a nine. All teachers expressed only
having one course in which they would not rate themselves as ten, but in the rest of the
courses, they would. All teachers expressed how supportive the administration was
when they need additional training. Teachers also mentioned that they help one another
since some are stronger in one area than another.
Synthesis of survey and interview results. The results from the student survey
and teacher and student interviews validated that students’ lacked metacognitive
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62
knowledge. In the survey, the responses with the lowest means were those measuring
metacognitive knowledge. The statements assessing study skills had the lowest overall
mean of all the statements in the knowledge and skills category. The students’
interviews revealed that students cannot identify specific learning strategies. Teachers’
interviews confirmed the gaps mentioned above, students are unable to assess their
knowledge and cannot determine when they need help.
Both the student survey and interviews showed that students lacked
metacognitive skills. In the literature regarding adult high school diploma programs,
one of the most important skills is possessing metacognitive knowledge (Caffarella &
O’Donnel, 1987). When students are working in a self-directed learning environment it
essential to access ones knowledge, find the appropriate resources when need and study
effectively. Every student at Travelor Adult School had either failed a high school
course in the traditional high school or had never attended school. Both the surveys and
teachers’ interviews confirmed that students did not know how to study. Students
became frustrated when faced with a challenge and gave up. Students who re-enrolled
in the program mentioned they wanted to be successful, but when asked what they were
going to do differently, they did not know how to respond. Students wanted to be
successful but lacked the skills required to succeed in a self-directed environment.
Students were not able to set goals for themselves, which is essential in adult programs
since the program is accommodating different levels of student skills and a flexible
class schedule.
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63
Motivation
Survey results. Motivation was assessed in the student survey by including
statements about students’ interest, self-efficacy, and attributions to success or failure.
Students’ interests were assessed by statements about choosing courses, placing more
effort into courses, easier time focusing on courses that interest the students. Interest
was also measured by statements seeking to understand the motivation for earning a
diploma such as leading to future rewards, for personal enjoyment, and helping reach
next goal. For self-efficacy, statements were intended to find out if students had high or
low self-efficacy regarding assignments, earning a diploma, and confidence in reaching
proposed goals. Self-efficacy is an indicator whether students will persist if they face a
challenge. Also, as mentioned in Chapter 3, self-efficacy affects the type of work the
students seeks. Statements were asked about their persistence when faced with a
challenge since it affects the type of assignments the student chooses to work on.
Statements for assessing attribution included statements about students’ perceived cause
of the outcome. Students attributed the outcome either to their effort or ability.
Table 4 summarizes the results for statements measuring motivation. In
addition, the table indicates what was measured: interest, mastery goal, performance
goals, self-efficacy, and attribution. The two statements with the highest means
measure interests, with means of 3.77 and 3.73. Statements from interest had means
that ranged between 3.77 and 2.63. The statement with the mean of 2.63 asked if the
students had started with the class that interested them the most; these results indicated
that they did not always start with the class that interested them but took the one they
needed. Overall, the results from the student survey did not indicate a lack of interest.
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Two types of goals were measured: mastery and performance. The two highest
means for mastery goals were for the statement “making mistakes is a part of the
learning process,” with a mean of 3.56 and “challenge is an opportunity for learning,”
with 3.5 mean. The lowest mean was for mastery goals, “Even if I get help I won’t
understand,” with a mean of 1.83, which indicated students disagreed with the
statement. The highest mean for performance goals was, “I am only concerned with a
grade,” which had 2.78 mean indicating the students generally disagreed with the
statements. Overall, these data would suggest that the students had a mastery
performance orientation. Statements measuring self-efficacy ranged from a mean of
3.47 to 2.58. The question with the lowest mean asked if they left the hardest course
last; responses to this question suggested that students have a high self-efficacy.
Usually when students have low self-efficacy they avoid challenging tasks.
The results for the statements measuring attribution suggested that students
attribute outcomes to effort and unstable events. Students were aware that if they study
effectively they can do well. The previous statement measuring attributions had the
highest mean, with a mean of 3.43. The two statements with the lowest means for all
types of motivation, including attribution, was the statements of, “I received a low grade
because the teacher was in a bad mood,” with a mean of 1.78 and, “the teacher does not
like me, therefore I received a low grade,” with a mean of. 1.75.

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Table 4
Statement Results Categorized by Motivation Variable in Ascending Order from
Highest to Lowest Mean
Strongly Agree Statements with means between 3.77-3.50
Statement Motivation Variable
It is important for me to earn a diploma Interest
Earning a diploma will help me reach my next goal Interest
Passing courses will lead me to future rewards Interest
Making mistakes is part of the learning process Mastery Goal
Receiving a good grade makes me feel accomplished Interest
Challenge is an opportunity for learning Mastery Goal
Agree Statements with means between 3.47-3.00
I am confident I can my high school diploma Self-efficacy
I can reach goals that I set Self-efficacy
I want to understand course material Mastery Goal
If I study effectively I can earn a high grade Attribution
I know the importance of the course Interest
I will keep tying in the course even if I face a challenge Self-efficacy
I did well on the exam because I studied effectively Attributions
I did not do well on the exam, next time I will study harder Attributions
I have an easier time focusing on subjects that are interesting Interest
My confidence in reaching my HS diploma has increased Self-efficacy
I can apply what I am learning in class to the outside Interest
Information I learn in class has importance to me Interest
My effective use of learning strategies has increased Self-efficacy
Making sacrifices to attend school but worth it Interest
Confident I can complete assignments Self-efficacy
I do well on a subject test because I am good at that subject Attribution
In the toughest class I can earn a passing grade Self-efficacy
I put more effort in subjects that I enjoy Interest
I enjoy learning the subject I am working on Interest

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Table 4, continued
Disagree statements with means of 2.98-2.00
When I do not do well on an exam, I did not study effectively Attribution
I begin with assignments that are easiest to me Self-efficacy
There have been times subjects have been made interesting Interest
I did not put as much effort in studying as I could of Attribution
I am only concerned about the grade I will earn Performance Goal
Outcome is not important as long as, I understand Mastery Goal
I scored high on the exam because the exam was easy Attribution
I chose my first course to be the one that interests Interest
I leave the hardest course last Self-efficacy
My goal is for people to think I am smart Performance Goal
When I do not do well on the exam, it was because it was
difficult
Attribution
I avoid challenging tasks Performance Goal
My main goal is to outperform my classmates Performance Goal
No matter how much I study, I won’t receive a high grade Attribution
I would of done better if the teacher had given me more time Attribution
I do not have to study because I am a good test taker Attribution
I do well on the exam because I am lucky Attribution
I did well on the exam because the weather was perfect Attribution
Strongly Disagree statements with means of 1.98-1.75
I have a low IQ, therefore I cannot score high grades Attribution
If I failed a course in the past, why try again? Performance Goal
Even if I get help, I will not understand Mastery Goal
I received a low grade because the teacher was in a bad mood Attribution
The teacher does not like me, therefore I received a low grade Attribution

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Table 5
Motivation Statements, Means and Standard Deviation (descending order by mean)
Statement/type of motivation M SD
It is important for me to earn a diploma (I) 3.77 .42
Earning a diploma will help me reach my next goal (I) 3.73 .48
Passing courses will lead me to future rewards (I) 3.58 .59
Making mistakes is part of the learning process (M.G) 3.56 .53
Receiving a good grade makes me feel accomplished (I) 3.50 .57
Challenge is an opportunity for learning (M.G.) 3.50 .54
I am confident I can my high school diploma (S.E.) 3.47 .69
I can reach goals that I set (S.E.) 3.47 .64
I want to understand course material (M.G.) 3.46 .50
If I study effectively I can earn a high grade (A) 3.43 .56
I know the importance of the course (I) 3.40 .80
I will keep tying in the course even if I face a challenge (S.E.) 3.39 .63
I did well on the exam because I studied effectively (A) 3.38 .62
I did not do well on the exam, next time I will study harder (A) 3.26 .79
I have an easier time focusing on subjects that are interesting (I) 3.26 .79
My confidence in reaching my HS diploma has increased (S.E.) 3.25 .78
I can apply what I am learning in class to the outside (I) 3.25 .85
Information I learn in class has importance to me (I) 3.24 .68
My effective use of learning strategies has increased (S.E.) 3.24 .72
Making sacrifices to attend school but worth it (I) 3.23 .91
Confident I can complete assignments (S.E.) 3.20 .73
I do well on a subject test because I am good at that subject (A) 3.12 .71
In the toughest class I can earn a passing grade (S.E.) 3.05 .73
I put more effort in subjects that I enjoy (I) 3.00 .91

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Table 5, continued
Statement/type of motivation M SD
I enjoy learning the subject I am working on (I) 3.00 .93
When I do not do well on an exam, I did not study effectively (A) 2.98 .82
I begin with assignments that are easiest to me (S.E.) 2.96 .98
There have been times subjects have been made interesting (I) 2.87 .90
I did not put as much effort in studying as I could of (A) 2.80 .82
I am only concerned about the grade I will earn (P.G) 2.78 .80
Outcome is not important as long as, I understand (M.G.) 2.70 .92
I scored high on the exam because the exam was easy (A) 2.64 .99
I chose my first course to be the one that interests me (I) 2.63 .95
I leave the hardest course last (S.E) 2.58 .87
My goal is for people to think I am smart (P.G) 2.40 .92
When I do not do well on the exam, it was because it was difficult (A) 2.40 .82
I avoid challenging tasks (P.G.) 2.34 .78
My main goal is to outperform my classmates (P.G) 2.27 .94
No matter how much I study, I won’t receive a high grade (A) 2.12 .98
I would of done better if the teacher had given me more time (A) 2.11 .86
I do not have to study because I am a good test taker (A) 2.08 .85
I do well on the exam because I am lucky (A) 2.00 .92
I did well on the exam because the weather was perfect (A) 2.00 1.01
I have a low IQ, therefore I cannot score high grades (A) 1.98 1.00
If I failed a course in the past, why try again? (P.G) 1.94 .84
Even if I get help, I will not understand (M.G.) 1.83 .92
I received a low grade because the teacher was in a bad mood (A) 1.78 .83

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Interview results. Current students were asked their reasons for enrolling in the
diploma program. Two students responded as being externally motivated and, “the
diploma will help them reach their main goal of earning more money.” In contrast,
three students responded they were motivated by the internal satisfaction of earning
their diploma.
All five re-enrolled students were motivated to come back to school and re-
enroll. Four out of five students were externally motivated. These students wanted a
diploma in order to reach a certain goal such as attending college or joining the military.
These students also expressed they were motivated to earn their diploma because they
would be able to earn more money and have a better life. Three students wanted to
attend college and two students were planning in joining the military. Only one student
was motivated by internal motivation for self-improvement. Even though the student
did want to attend college, she made it clear that her main goal was for personal
satisfaction and to be a role model for her little sister. When re-enrolled students were
asked what they were going to do differently than they had done last time, all responded
that they were going to persist in earning their diploma.
In the survey, the statement “earning a diploma will open many doors” had a
mean 3.52, which indicated students do understand the need and value of earning a high
school diploma. Current students were not able to verbally address the importance of a
earning a high school diploma. In contrast, all five students who re-enrolled addressed
the need for a diploma, since they had personally experienced negative effects of not
having a diploma. These students realized that earning a diploma is not merely part of
the process of being able to receive financial aid, being able to attend college and being
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be able to earn more money in their lifetime. When current students were asked about
their short-term goals, only one student out of four had realistic short-term goals. All
five students did have long-term goals, which included becoming a Certified Nursing
Assistant, being rich, playing for the NFL, owning their own business and buying a
house.
When teachers were asked about why students were not successful in earning
credits towards their diploma, all four teachers replied that students lack motivation and
effort. As soon as they face challenges, they stop attending courses. Students do not
want to put in the effort and are looking for the easiest way to earn a diploma. Teachers
mentioned students switched back and forth from the high school diploma and GED
hoping that it would be easier than their current program. Teachers also mentioned that
students entered motivated but their motivation dwindles once they see the work they
have to put in.
All of the teachers shared they are motivated to help students for internal
rewards and the satisfaction they are making a difference. Teachers enjoyed observing
students reach their goals and witnessing students applying what they had learned in the
class to their daily activities. They were willing to deal with behavior issues, work
long hours and grade papers because they felt there were making an impact on a
majority of the students’ lives. Teachers also expressed they they enjoyed creating
relationships with students and positively impacting their lives.
Synthesis of survey and interview results. The student survey did support the
results found in the interviews with teachers and students. The data from the survey
suggest that students do not lack interest; students are mastery orientated, have high
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self-efficacy and are persisting in earning their diploma. In addition, the data suggest
that students attribute outcomes to effort and unstable events. The interviews did not
support the findings of the student survey. This might have been due to students
censoring their responses in order to look favorable. The questions asked in the student
interviews were opened ended, giving students time to think about their responses as
they did in the survey. Both the student and teachers interviews revealed that students
were motivated for external reasons. Being motivated by external reasons is not
necessarily bad, but if students were motivated for internal reasons they would put in
more effort and have greater persistence. Both teacher and student interviews revealed
that students do not set goals and are unable to connect the material learned in class to
their lives. Teachers agreed that students lose motivation as soon as they are faced
with a challenge, but the results of the survey indicated that their self-efficacy was high.
A gap was found in students persistency and effort the student exerted in earning their
high school diploma.
Culture / Organization
In order to assess their perception of the school culture and organization,
students responded to statements about the classroom in general including whether the
classroom is conducive to learning and if the classroom is a place where they can study
free of distractions. Statements also included how safe they feel in classroom and
school. In order to obtain information about the student’s culture, students were asked
if they were the first to earn a diploma in their family, and if they had attended school in
a different country. The statement with the highest mean was 3.41, which was, “when I
have a question in class it always gets answered.” The second highest mean at 3.37,
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was teachers are available in a timely manner. Two statements regarding safety in the
classroom and school had the same mean with 3.30. The means for culture and
organization ranged from 3.41 and 2.10.

Table 6
Statement Results for Culture and Organization in Ascending Order from Highest to
Lowest Mean
Agree statements with means of 3.41-3.03
When I have a question in class it always get answered
Teachers are available in a timely manner
My classroom teachers want me to earn my high school diploma
I feel safe in the classroom
I feel safe in the school
I have a quiet place at home where I can study
If I need additional support I will find it in the classroom
Students are here to study and earn their diploma
I can always find a place to sit
I have previous knowledge on the subject I am working on
Disagree statements with means of 2.94 and 2.84
The classroom is a place I can work and study free of distractions
I have all the books necessary to work at home
Strongly Disagree statements with means of 2.33 and 2.10
I will be the first in my family to earn a high school diploma
I have attended school in a different country

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Overall the results of the surveys and interviews indicated the organization is
meeting students’ needs. The two statements regarding supporting students were below
a 3.00 mean, “is the classroom is free of distraction,” and “I have all the books
necessary to work at home.” The two lowest statements with a mean of 2.33 and 2.10
gave information about students’ culture. The majority of the students were not the first
in their family to earn a diploma and did not attended school in a different country.

Table 7
Culture/Organization Statements, Means and Standard Deviation (descending order by
mean)
Statement M SD
When I have a question in class it always get answered 3.41 .65
Teachers are available in a timely manner 3.37 .70
My classroom teachers want me to earn my high school diploma 3.35 .72
I feel safe in the classroom 3.30 .63
I feel safe in the school 3.30 .63
I have a quiet place at home where I can study 3.28 .79
If I need additional support I will find it in the classroom 3.26 .61
Students are here to study and earn their diploma 3.21 .73
I can always find a place to sit 3.07 .76
I have previous knowledge on the subject I am working on 3.03 .90
The classroom is a place I can work and study free of distractions 2.94 .95
I have all the books necessary to work at home 2.84 .99
I will be the first in my family to earn a high school diploma 2.33 1.04
I have attended school in a different country 2.10 1.19
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Interview results. When re-enrolling students were asked their reason for not
continuing the program, all five students responded with contextual responsibilities.
Two of the students did not have transportation from school to work; taking public
transportation was not an option since they would have less than 20 minutes to attend
class. Two other students had to leave the country due to family emergencies. One
student mentioned having to work many hours in order to make a living. Every student
interviewed did mention they had a place to study outside the classroom free of
distractions. When students were asked if their parents had earned a high school
diploma, all five of the students said no, their parents did not earn a diploma. Students
were asked if they could change three class rules, what they would be. Four out of the
ten students interviewed said they would not change any rules. These students could be
satisfied with the organization, which supports the results previous mentioned or they
might have problems identifying when they need help and what kind of help they need,
since there was a gap found in the students possessing metacognitive skills. Two
students did mentioned the noise level in the classroom, which is supported by the
results from the above, the statements about being able to work in the classroom free of
distraction had the second lowest mean.
When students were asked in the students’ survey about always getting
questions answered and whether teachers are available in a timely matter, those
statements had the highest mean, which does not indicate a gap. One student mentioned
that it would be helpful if there were due dates for assignments. This would help
students pace the course since they lack of metacognitive skills.
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Current students were asked if their family supported them in earning their high
school diploma. All five students mentioned their parents supported them. Even
though the parents did not earn a diploma, they were willing to help their son or
daughter. Some of the help mentioned was motivating them to continue and reassuring
the student that this was an obtainable goal. Other ways included watching their
children, respecting their study time at home, not charging rent, providing money for
books, and providing transportation to and from school.
Teachers were asked about challenges they faced in the classroom. Three
teachers mentioned keeping up with student progress. Of these, two teachers shared
that it is difficult to keep up with the students since students leave and arrive at different
times. One teacher did mention that providing immediate feedback is difficult since by
the time she corrects the work the student is no longer in the classroom.
All of the teachers feel supported by each other and the school. They mentioned
that when they ask for help and support, it is given to them. Overall, they were content
with the rules of the classroom and school. All teachers mentioned that having a
required number of hours logged in before receiving a grade has helped with students’
progress and helped them master the material. Teachers also commented that there was
a need for a CAHSEE preparation class, and it was provided. When teachers were asked
what they dislike about being a teacher the responses were contextual, such as the long
hours, grading papers, dealing with behavioral issues and not being able to help every
single student.
Synthesis of survey and interview results. The student survey and interviews
indicated that the program is meeting students’ needs. Students feel safe on the campus
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and in the classroom and are satisfied with their teachers’ support. The interviews
revealed gaps causes by the context. The survey did not indicate a gap caused by the
context but this might have been due to the nature of interviews, which provide rich
detail not obtained in surveys.
Family emergencies, having to work, grading papers, and not helping every
student cannot be changed; it is part of the context. In addition to the ten student
interviews, five additional interviews were planned with students who had dropped out
and not returned to the program. Out of twenty-one calls, no single student was
available to be interviewed for various reasons such as the wrong telephone number,
incarceration, no longer living in that residence or the student having moved out of the
state or country. Context plays an important role in students earning their diploma but
unfortunately it is difficult to address the students’ contexts.
The two statements with the lowest mean in the survey were distractions in the
classroom and not being able to take books homes. Though these statements were the
lowest, they were high enough to be satisfactory. Both of these issues also were found
in the students’ survey. Teachers also mentioned one of the issues was keeping track of
student’s progress and being able to provide immediate feedback. There needs to be a
way for teachers keep up progress and be able to communicate with students even
thought the students are coming in and out of the classroom.
Statistical Analysis of the Comparison of Knowledge and Skills, motivation, and
Organizational Results
Fifty-eight students responded to surveys. The statements do not have correct
responses. Therefore, the Cronbach’s Alpha, which helps determine if there is internal
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consistency among items, was calculated. (Salkind, 2008) A strong correlation is
indicated by correlation coefficient between 0.6 and 0.8. If the coefficient is below .6,
the reliability of the items is jeopardized. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for
motivation was .913, for knowledge and skills questions it was .878, and for
organizational culture questions it was .841. These results suggest that all the questions
are reliable and that the question used help identify the gaps are consistent among each
other.
Summary of Gaps Found
The following section summarizes the gaps found by triangulation of data,
which supports that the findings are indeed accurate. Students’ surveys, students’
interviews and teachers’ interviews were used to triangulate the data.
Knowledge and skills. The survey and interviews support the findings that
students lack metacognitive knowledge. The survey results indicate that the statements
with lowest means were those associated metacognitive knowledge. The survey
specifically suggests that students lack learning strategies and skills. The interviews
found similar results, confirming the gaps found in the survey.
Motivation. The survey results did not support the findings found in the teacher
and student interviews. The results of interest, motivation, self-efficacy, persistency
and attribution were all found to be positive in the survey. This might have been due to
students trying to look favorable. In addition, students in the surveys had time to think
about their responses; whereas in the interviews student did not have the opportunity to
preview the questions they were asked and therefore had no time to censor their
responses. Both teachers’ and students’ interviews revealed that students were
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motivated for external reason and were not able to set goals. It was also found that
students lacked effort and persistency.
Culture and organization. The survey and interviews support the gap that
students face distractions in the classroom and that students would like to take their
books home. The mean of the statements in regards to distractions in the classroom and
taking books home were the lowest in the category of culture and organization, but the
means were in the satisfactory range. In the interviews only two out of five students
expressed concern for these statements. The surveys did not offer the detail obtained in
the interviews. Both teacher and students interviews revealed that students faced
contextual issues that prevent them for earning their high school diploma. Table 8,
summaries the assumed causes identified above.

Table 8
Summarizes the Validated Causes from the List of Assumed Causes from Table 1 for
Motivation, Knowledge and Organization/culture

Validated Causes
Motivation Motivated for external reasons
Students exert the least mental effort possible
Students are not persisting in the program
Knowledge and Skills Lack of metacognitive skills
Do not know how to study effectively
Unable to assess when they need help and do not know
where to obtain help
Do not set goals
Organization and culture Distractions in the classroom
Contextual issues
Not being able to take books home

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Solutions to the Perceived Performance Gaps
Research Question: What strategies could Travelor Adult School implement in
order for all students to earn their diploma?
Taking into account the gaps found in knowledge, motivation and culture,
solutions were researched using scholarly literature. The literature review guided the
solutions proposed to reduce the gaps found. Solutions attempt to increase student’s
metacognitive knowledge, increase internal motivation, effort, persistency and make
changes to the organization to better meet students’ needs. The recommendation
solutions will be discussed in further detail in Chapter Five.
Research Question: How could Travelor Adult School evaluate the
effectiveness of these strategies?
In order to evaluate the solutions implemented Travelor Adult School,
Kirkpatrick’s (2006) four levels of evaluation will be used to determine if the solutions
are in fact leading to the desired goal. This framework will be presented in further
detail in Chapter Five.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Process Model was used as a guide
and framework to help Travelor Adult School reach its goal of increasing completion
rates in the high school diploma program. Following the gap analysis model, Travelor
Adult School identified the goal, narrowing the gap between the desired outcome and
current performance. Scanning interviews and observations helped identify potential
causes of the gap, and along with previous research, literature guided the construction
of a survey and a set of questions to test potential causes of the gap. The gaps were
identified through student surveys, and student and teacher interviews. This chapter
identifies potential solutions Travelor Adult School may adopt in order to reach their
goal of increasing completion rates in the high school diploma program. This chapter
offers aid to the school in the process of the implementing the solutions. The following
chapter discusses how to evaluate the solutions in order to ensure the solutions are
indeed helping to close the identified gaps.
Solutions
Research Question. What are the underlying causes for students’ failure to
complete the requirements for high school graduation from the perspectives of
knowledge, motivation, and culture?
Knowledge
Both the survey and the interviews validated that students lack metacognitive
skills. Students with metacognitive skills are able to regulate their learning, assess how
to study, and determine what tools they need (Zimmerman, 1998). Having these skills
not only helps the student be successful in academics generally, but also is especially
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important in a learning environment where students are responsible for their own
learning. Both the survey and teachers’ interviews confirmed that students did not
know how to study. Teachers mentioned that one of the most common ways students
study is by having their textbook open without ever reading the book, summarizing or
taking notes on the chapter. Students lack effective and appropriate study skills, are
unable to assess when they need help and do not know where to obtain help. They are
also unable able to set short or long term goals. Students expressed they want to be
successful in earning their high school diploma but do not know how they can better
help themselves earn credits towards their diploma.
Increasing Metacognition
Research suggests that metacognitive knowledge plays a critical role in being
successful at learning. Zimmerman (1998), suggest that metacognition knowledge
helps students to be self-regulated learners that are academically motivated, thus their
achievement increases. Many of the students at Travelor Adult School have never
experience academic achievement; they are used to failing courses. By increasing
metacognitive knowledge and empowering the students with the right tools to be
successful it will help increase their motivation and persistency in the program
(Zimmerman, 1998).
Schraw (1998) defined metacognition as knowledge of cognition and regulation
of cognition. Knowledge of cognition refers to the students knowing about their
cognition in general. He also suggested that metacognition is teachable. Schraw
(1998) identified three types of cognition: declarative, procedural, and conditional.
These three types of cognition are very similar Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy
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(2000), which was discussed in further detail in Chapter 3. Declarative knowledge is
“knowing” about things. This includes knowing about oneself as a learner and what
factors influence one’s performance. Students who know what factors influence their
performance appear to have more knowledge about different aspects of memory such
as: capacity limitation, rehearsal, and short study sessions (Schraw, 1998). The second
type of cognition is procedural knowledge, which Schraw (1998) defines as knowing
how to do a task. Students with high procedural knowledge are able to perform a task
automatically without having to think of each step. In addition, students with high
procedural knowledge are more likely to be familiar with many different strategies and
they know how to sequence strategies. These students will tend to integrate and
categorize new information. The third type is conditional knowledge. Conditional
knowledge is “knowing” the why and when (Schraw, 1998). Conditional knowledge is
being able to use declarative and procedural knowledge together. Conditional
knowledge is important because it helps students choose their resources and use
strategies more effectively. This type of knowledge also helps students adjust to
different types of situation demands of a specific learning task (Schraw, 1998).
The second aspect of metacognition, according to Schraw (1998), is regulation
of cognition, which refers to a set of activities that aid students to control their learning.
Research supports the idea that metacognitive regulation improves performance and
helps students use resources appropriately, such as by using existing strategies (Schraw,
1998). Students reported significant improvement in learning regulatory skills and
understanding of how to use these skills when they are included as part of the classroom
instruction (Schraw, 1998). The essential aspects that make up regulating skills are:
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planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Planning is selecting the appropriate strategies
and the resources that affect the performance. This includes making predictions before
reading, strategy sequencing, and allocating time to learning. Monitoring is the
awareness of comprehension and task performance. This includes self-testing to make
sure one understands the intended task (Schraw, 1998). Evaluation is the act of
reviewing the end product and the efficacy on one’s learning. Usually this is when
students re-evaluate their goals and conclusions.
Promoting general awareness promotes metacognitive awareness (Schraw,
1998). It is important for students to understand the differences between cognition and
metacognition. Reflections play a critical role in helping students understand this
difference. Schraw (1998) proposed that teachers and students should model how they
think about and monitor their performance rather than just teaching / learning how to
perform a task. At the adult school it is hard to use models since many students work
outside the classroom and are working on different courses and coming to class at
different times. When students do ask for help, teachers can model the use of
metacognition and not only discuss how to perform the task but explain how to think
about and monitor performance (Schraw, 1998). Schraw’s study reported that using a
strategy evaluations matrix (SEM) or using a similar matrix improves learning. The
matrix includes a list of strategies, how to use them, when to use them and the way to
use them. The matrix helps ensure students use the three types of knowledge:
declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. Listing the different types of
strategies promoted declarative knowledge, how to use the strategies covered
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procedural knowledge, and when and why to use them promoted conditional knowledge
(Schraw, 1998).
Using a matrix such as strategy evaluation matrix (SEM) helps improve
knowledge of cognition but does not impact regulation. Schraw (1998) suggested
composing a checklist to help students regulate their cognition. The checklist would
include planning, monitoring and evaluation. Schraw (1998) suggested that having a
checklist helps novice learners to implement a systematic regulatory sequence, which
helps them control their performance. Schraw’s (1998) research and suggestions are
very similar to Zimmerman’s (1998) research regarding increasing metacognitive
knowledge. Zimmerman (1998) also suggested that students need to know different
types of learning strategies, and know how and when to use them. Zimmerman (1998)
also emphasized the need to plan, monitor, and evaluate in ways similar to Schraw’s
(1998) research.
Taking into account the previous research, students at Travelor Adult School
will have to fill out a worksheet prior to beginning a unit of the course. Students
generally have eight to ten units in a course with each unit consisting of reading the
book and answering questions. After the student completes their work, they take a test
on the unit. After the test is completed, the student attaches the work and test; in
addition they will now also attach the worksheet. The worksheet will be similar to the
SEM’s. The worksheet will include strategies that could be used, when to use these
strategies, and how to use them. Prior to beginning the unit, they will need to select a
plan to use for that unit. Students will be asked to write down the steps of how these
strategies will be implemented. They will need to indicate when they plan to study and
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where. There will be a section where students will need to write down goals for the unit
and they will need to record a date by which they plan to finish the unit. Many of the
students have had a hard time progressing through the unit since they do not pace the
course. This means that at the end of the school year students are struggling to make up
prior units.
In addition, before taking the exam, students at Travelor Adult School will need
to fill out the rest of the worksheet, which will ask them to monitor their progress and
evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies used in that unit. The last question will be to
identify a goal for the next unit, taking into account their progress through the current
unit. Both the matrix Schraw (1998) proposed and the checklist will be incorporated
into one worksheet. Students will work on a worksheet prior to every unit in order to
monitor their effectiveness at learning the material from the previous unit and make the
necessary adjustments for the next unit.
Helping Students Become Self-Regulated Learners
In the Chapter 2 literature review it was found that students working at adult
programs need to be self-regulated learners. Adult programs try to accommodate
various schedules, abilities, and meet student’s individual needs. Most adult schools
including, Travelor Adult School, offer flexible schedules and give students the
opportunity to work from home. Students come in at different times and need credits
from different courses. Teachers, during the interviews, mentioned that in order to be
successful in adult schools, students need to possess certain skills because the students
drive their own learning. Literature emphasized that students need to be self-regulated
learners. Zimmerman (1990) described students who are self-regulated as being aware
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when they know a fact or have acquired a skill and also knowing when they have not
acquired a skill. Self-regulated learners, according to Zimmerman (1990), proactively
seek out information when they need it and take the necessary steps to master the
material and overcome challenges. Self-regulated learning emerges from possessing
metacognitive skills, motivation and being active in their learning (Zimmerman, 1990).
Metacognitive skills help to self-regulated, learn to plan, set goals, organize, self-
monitor, and self-evaluate their progress at various points (Zimmerman, 1998). Self-
regulated learning is a continuous cycle where the student is motivated by the effectives
of their learning strategies, reacts to the feedback, and implements changes or continues
with the process (Zimmerman, 1990).
It is also important to assess when the implementation of strategies is increasing,
because it takes time, effort, and preparation to regulate learning (Zimmerman, 1990).
If the outcomes of these efforts are not what the student wishes, she or he will not be
motivated to regulate his or her learning and may stop persisting. This is why it is
essential to know how to apply strategies and understand why students choose a specific
strategy. Incorporating a matrix such as SEM at Travelor Adult School will aid in
helping students choose the correct strategy and implement it. The worksheet will aid
in guiding students to become self-learners. The worksheet will also include a section
where students need to plan what resources they might need and to identify where these
resources may be obtained.
Study Skills Workshops
Brown and Haslam (1968) researched the effectiveness of the Brown-Hotzman
Effective Study Course, to see if the course could produce significant improvement in
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academic motivation, behavior and academic achievement. The study course instructed
students in how to study effectively. The instructor of the program focused on the
following: motivating each student towards developing more effective study habits,
better utilization of their study time, and improving students’ organization. Also, the
course helped to improve students’ effectiveness in preparing for and taking exams, and
help students establish meaningful and realistic academic goals (Brown & Haslam,
1968). The program ran for nine weeks. Students who were part of the study course
were found to have significantly improved their study habits and attitudes.
Cornoldi, De Beni, and Meneghetti (2007) found that study skills play an
essential role in mastering material. Teachers might conclude the student is having
difficulty learning the material due to poor content knowledge or lack of effort, but it
could be the student is not learning the material effectively (Cornoldi, De Beni, &
Meneghetti, 2007). It is essential to consider the strategy the student is using to learn
the material. Cornoldi et al. (2007) observed two groups of students with poor and
good study skills. Students rated their knowledge and use of the 22 good strategies and
10 less effective strategies. It was found that students who struggled to master the
material were not able to distinguish between the effective and not so effective learning
strategies (Cornoldi et al., 2007). In addition, this group of students had a difficult time
picking the most appropriate learning strategy to their match their current knowledge
(Cornoldi et al., 2007). This study suggests that students with difficulties learning
material know what strategies are effective and not so effective but they struggle in
assessing what strategies work best for the task at hand. Being able to assess what
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strategies work best for the individual and the task is part of having metacognitive skills
(Cornoldi et al., 2007).
A study conducted by Veenman and Verheij (2003) found that metacognitive
skills could be generalized to different tasks and disciplines. Sixteen participants were
assessed by a series of ability tests. The students performed a series of computer-
stimulated tasks. During the tasks, participations were requested to think aloud. The
researchers then transcribed and analyzed the data for metacognitive skillfulness. In
addition, credits earned and exams passed were used as measure of study success. The
results indicated that metacognitive skillfulness on tasks is strong predictors of both
performance and study success (Veenman & Verheij, 2003). The results found that
metacognitive skillfulness contributed to learning. The study emphasizes the
enhancement of metacognitive skills for students who are at risk. This study also
suggests that metacognitive skillfulness is not entirely part of intellectual ability, but
that metacognition is malleable rather than fixed. Helping student increase their
metacognitive skills may be advantageous for both high and low intelligence students
(Veenman & Verheij, 2003).
Students at Travelor Adult School need to be aware and understand they have
control over their own learning. A study found that students with perceived control
over learning self-regulated their study strategies. Students who believed they did not
have control over their studies did not engage in study strategies (Ferla, Schuyten, and
Valcke, 2009). By having workshops on study skills at Travelor Adult School, students
will have the opportunity to learn about learning strategies, how to use them, when to
use them, and why to use specific ones. When students not only know about strategies
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but also know when and how to use each strategy, this knowledge will empower
students to have control over their studies. In addition, students will notice that their
effort does lead to learning the material, which will lead to many rewards and ultimately
their earning their high school diploma.
In addition to providing a worksheet on different learning strategies, Travelor
Adult School students will also review learning strategies at the time they meet with the
counselor to enroll in the program. In order to enroll in the high school program each
student must meet with counselor in order to evaluate the student’s transcript, go over
the program and assign the course in which the student will work. During this
consultation, students will be given a guide on what learning strategies they can use,
and when and how to use them. When the student then attends class they will be more
familiar with the strategies and will be able to select an appropriate study skill and
begin filling out the worksheet, which will be implemented before beginning a unit.
The introduction to learning strategies offered in the counseling appointment is
good, but students need to practice and become comfortable incorporating learning
strategies. Twice a month the counselors at Travelor Adult School will provide
workshops on different strategies students can use, discuss when to apply them, and
how to choose the best one for the task. The workshops will be offered in the morning
and evening to accommodate different schedules. The workshops will be optional, but
students who received a failing grade in a unit exam will be referred to the workshops.
In addition to study skills, the workshops will aid increasing metacognitive skills in
students, which, as the literature suggested, is important for at risk students.
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Providing Feedback
In order to increase metacognitive awareness it is essential to receive feedback
on what is being done well and what could be improved. Logan, McLaughlin, and
Skinner (1997) found that assessment influences learning. This also supports the idea
of monitoring learning as suggested by Schraw (1998). Students need to assess their
learning by quizzing themselves on what they are learning. Logan, McLaughlin, and
Skinner (1997) also stressed the importance of providing students with feedback
because not only does providing feedback reinforce their students’ effort, but it also
helps improve their learning (Logan, McLaughlin, & Skinner, 1997). Feedback helps
direct the student on how they can improve and reinforces what is being done correctly
(Logan, McLaughlin, & Skinner, 1997). It was found that teacher feedback and self-
assessment helped the students understand and use knowledge as tools rather than
knowledge as a goal of performance (Dochy, Sluijsmans, & Moerkerke, 1999).
Encouraging students to self-assess and take feed back into account, helps create future
reflective professionals.
The results of this project indicated that Travelor Adult School teachers have a
difficult time providing feedback to students because by the time they check students’
work the students are no longer in class. As mentioned above, feedback needs to be
given immediately. When student enroll in the program after they meet with counselor
students must attend a mandatory orientation that covers how the program operates, its
rules, and how to earn credits. During this time students will be asked for an email
address, which will aid in providing feedback to the student in a timely manner. The
study skills workshop will cover the ways in which feedback is important to reinforce
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whether what the student and teacher are doing is effective, and in order to receive
direction on what could be improved. If a student does not have an email address they
will be encouraged to obtain one. Students without computer access will have a folder
with their name on it that stays in the classroom. The teacher can file the feedback so
when the student comes to class they have access to the teacher’s feedback. Many
students, after taking an exam, ask the teacher for the grade. The teachers will provide
the student with both the grade and give feedback on what they could improve.
Providing Social Support
Vygotsky (1976) suggest that for students who are working beyond their zone of
proximal development it is essential for students to have scaffold. Zone of proximal
development refers to capability of the student to do on his or her own, without help.
When the student is scaffolded or offered guidance, the student capabilities increase.
Vygotsky (1976) not only suggested that teachers can support the student but peers can
support each other. By students working in groups they help to scaffold each other
(Vygotsky, 1976).
Fantuzzo, King, and Heller (1992), found that students math scores increased
when students participated in a peer-learning group. They also found that when the
students received rewards, such as understanding, helping a peer or receiving a
compliment, students’ scores increased. Students who were in peer groups who did not
experience rewards had a lower increase in their scores than those students who did
experience rewards (Fantuzzo, King, and Heller, 1992).
Peer learning groups not only offers an opportunity for each student to scaffold
each other but also provides the social rewards of working together. Students at
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Travelor Adult School will benefit from peer-learning groups. Students in the class
have different abilities and skills, which would help them to scaffold each other and
support their learning. In addition, being part of a study group will give the students the
opportunity to help each other and interact with their classmates. Those students who
are interested in a study group, will sign up in the classroom indicating the times they
are available and the course they are working in. Teachers will help guide the first three
sessions, in order to ensure students are working together and are benefiting from peer
learning. The study groups will not only help students to learn from each but provided
an opportunity for students to interact with each other and observe different methods of
learning material.
Goal Setting
Interviews with both students and teachers revealed that students did not set
short or long-term goals. Goal setting is part of metacognition knowledge, being able to
assess what is needed and make a plan to reach the desired goal (Schraw, 1998). Goal
setting helps the student set a direction where they want to be headed. One of the ways
to increase metacognition is to set goals and monitor progress (Schraw, 1998). Harford
(2008) suggested that setting goals helps students notice growth, and when their
performance increases they are motivated to learn. The goals students set need to be
specific, realistic and measurable (Harford, 2008).
The worksheet, which will be implemented for Travelor Adult School, will ask
students to make goals for each specific unit. During the counseling session the student
will write down short-term and long-term goals, along with necessary actions and steps
in order to reach those goals. In addition, the students will commit to a date for
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reviewing the progress toward the goal. Each student’s goal will be kept in their file so
the next time the counselor meets with the student, they can evaluate the progress of the
goal. Students need guidance and feedback on goal setting since it is something they
lack. As their metacognition increases, their goals settings skills will become more
automatic (Zimmerman, 1990).
Professional Development for Teachers
In order to be able to support students, teachers need to have knowledge of how
to help students set goals, increase metacognitive skills and transition to internal
motivation. Teacher professional development is an opportunity for teachers to learn,
in ways similar to students learning the classroom. Cwikla (2003) found that effective
professional development workshops need to have goals. Having goals guides the
content of the development and helps assess whether the goals were meet. Professional
development training is an opportunity to model for teachers strategies they can use in
their classrooms (Cwikla, 2003).
Putman, Smith, and Cassady (2009) found that specific elements in professional
development are effective in helping the teachers incorporate new practices into the
classroom. They recommend that, before beginning the training, teachers reflect on
their current practices and the theories supporting them. Reflecting helps teachers
contribute goals and be a part of the planning process. It is also important that the
training includes how to apply the practices in the classroom and provides examples on
conducting the specific strategy. It is also important to create a safe environment
during the professional development. This gives teachers the opportunity to practice
strategies and be able to receive and provide feedback by being coached on how to
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implement what they are learning and have an opportunity to practice. Lastly, it is
important to measure the impact of the strategies in the classroom. The goal is that the
strategies will help student achievement, therefore it is essential to evaluate whether the
strategies are helping students learn. During this time it it is possible to determine
whether additional support is needed or that strategies are indeed making a difference in
students learning.
Motivation
In this project, the survey results did not validate any potential causes for
motivation. On the other hand, the interviews with students and teachers did validate
potential motivation causes. The student interviews revealed that students are
motivated for external reasons such as owning a home or earning a higher salary.
Students in general are not concerned with learning and mastering the material; instead
students are trying to do only the work needed to earn a passing grade. Teachers
confirmed that students try to exert the least mental effort possible by taking short cuts.
Students try to skip work and try taking exams without learning the material. They also
do not exert effort in learning, with many students having their books open in front of
them, looking at the pages without reviewing the material. It is also common for
students to switch back and forth between the General Education Certificate (GED) and
the High School Diploma program seeking the easiest route. Teachers’ main concerns
were that students lacked effort and were not persisting in the program. The enrollment
numbers support the teachers’ concern that students stop attending the program after a
period of time. In addition, a large majority of the students who do attend log many
hours in the classroom but produce minimal work.
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Promoting Intrinsic Motivation
The interviews suggested students stop attending adult school after obtaining a
job as for many students their initial reason for attending school is to obtain a job.
When they did obtain a job, they stopped attending the program even though they did
not earn their high school diploma. Some students disclosed in the interviews that they
are rewarded for attending school; their parents do not charge them rent while they are
attending school, they are given allowances, and some are provided with childcare
while attending classes. A majority of the students are in programs where they receive
reduced rent, low or free childcare and monthly allowances. These types of rewards are
extrinsic rewards so these services are incentives for students to attend the program.
Research shows that these types of incentives can negatively impact students’
perception of a task or their abilities (Benabou & Tirole, 2003). Extrinsic motivation is
a weak motivator and it will only work for a short period (Benabou & Tirole, 2003). It
is essential that students become intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation can be
useful and effective when individuals have a low initial interest in the task. Then,
providing rewards and incentives can help the individual begin the task (Cameron, Deci,
Koestner, & Ryan, 2001). But it is essential for individuals to transition to intrinsic
motivation. Rewards and incentives that help students’ performance can help them
build skills (Cameron et al., 2001). By building skills they will be able to maintain and
enhance their effort and persist in the task (Cameron, Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 2001).
It is essential that students at Travelor Adult School build the necessary skills to
transition to intrinsic motivation and keep persisting in their task (Cameron, et al.,
2001). The workshops, counseling sessions, and the reflective worksheets that will be
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implemented at Travelor Adult School will help empower students with the necessary
skills to be successful. Research suggests that empowering students helps increase
intrinsic motivation; thus, empowering students can be more successful than providing
incentives (Benabou & Tirole, 2003). By teaching students to study effectively and
helping them increase their metacognitive skills, students will not only have the tools to
succeed, but will be empowered to succeed (Benabou & Tirole, 2003).
In addition to empowering students, verbal rewards, which were found to be
beneficial to adults, help enhance intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Deci, Koestner, &
Ryan, 2001). Intrinsic motivation can be fostered by providing interesting learning
opportunities, providing choice, and creating challenging tasks (Cameron, Deci,
Koestner, & Ryan, 2001). These types of tasks help promote task engagement and aid
in transitioning students to internal motivation (Cameron, Deci, Koestner, & Ryan,
2001).
Linnebrink (2005) found that personal performance goals were maladaptive and
it was important to develop mastery goals. One of the ways to increase mastery goals is
to provide students with meaningful tasks (Linnebrink, 2005). If students can identify
how the task will help them and how the task is important to them they will begin to
cultivate mastery orientation. It is also important to provide students with opportunities
to make choices and for teachers to acknowledge their improvement (Linnebrink,
2005). Many students have never experience positive feedback in their academic career.
Making mistakes is part of learning. A study conducted by Meyer, Thorpe, and
Turner (1998) investigated how affect played a role after making a mistake. The study
identified groups of students who were disengaged in learning. When students do not
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have learning and ability goals, they have performance goals (Meyer, Thorpe, and
Turner, 1998). These students had a negative affect after failing the goal of the task.
Students, whose goals were to exhibit performance, were trying to avoid displaying a
lack of ability. It was also found that students with performance goals avoid seeking
help. This is one of the gaps found at the adult school where students avoid seeking
help. The study concluded that when learning goals are low and performance goals are
high or equal, there is a negative pattern of affect. The findings of the study support the
idea that affect plays an essential role in the implementation of motivational goals.
Negative affect about making mistakes was related to lower levels of beliefs and
behaviors that have been associated with positive motivation and achievement (Meyer,
et al., 1998). Teachers need to emphasize the value of error. Intrinsic motivation can
occur when the challenge of the task matches student ability; when this occurs their
motivation to continue the task is developed. Students eventually realize they want to
overcome greater challenges and feel empowered to do so.
As such, it is important that teachers at Travelor Adult School analyze the
entrance exam before students begin the course. The results help identify whether the
student needs additional help. The course needs to be a task the student can complete
and a match with their current ability level. If the course is beyond the student’s ability,
the teacher can work on scaffolding the student. In addition, when an error is made, it is
important to learn from the error and analyze what went wrong instead of focusing on
finding the right response (Meyer, et al., 1998).
Bong (2001) found that the importance and usefulness of learning tasks plays an
important role for students in developing mastery orientation goals. It was also found
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that students value some subjects more than others depending on how important the
subject is for the student (Bong, 2001). It might be the student puts effort in learning
math because their goal is to work in a bank. This suggests that when the counselor and
the student are developing long and short term goals it is important to help the student
realize that all subjects will help them reach their goal (Bong, 2001). For example, the
student who wants to work in the bank also needs to be able to read and write
effectively. Counselors and teachers need to aid the students in making connections
between the course material and their lives. It is important that students find meaning in
tasks in order to promote their intrinsic motivation (Bong, 2001).
Providing choices for students can help increase intrinsic motivation (Cooper,
Patall & Robinson, 2008). Choosing the task should not be a hard decision. More
choices can be better than fewer, but only to a point. Providing too many choices can
overwhelm students (Cooper et al., 2008). It was also found that students who make
multiple choices receive greater benefits than those making only one choice. Providing
choices, to a certain point, guides the student in their learning and gives autonomy,
which enhances motivation, persistency and performance (Cooper et al., 2008).
When students begin a course at the Travelor Adult School, they have the choice
of any activity in the syllabus. Some courses have between seven to eight activities the
student can choose from. In the future, the student may choose between three activities
instead of the whole course. Student will still be in control of their own learning but
now will have guidance in the course. Currently, students jump from activity to activity
never finishing one.
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The research of Cordova and Lepper (1996) also confirmed the benefits of
providing choice to students as a way to increase intrinsic motivation. Their research
also suggests that context and personalization increases students’ motivation to persist a
take and increases the depth of engagement in their learning, and time spend on the task
(Cordova & Lepper, 1996). By personalizing activities, students become actively
involved in their learning. Personalization can occur when learning involves
information about students’ backgrounds and interests (Cordova & Lepper, 1996). The
results of the study found there was an increase of intrinsic motivation when learning
activities were presented in familiar contexts that allowed learners to draw on their
experiences for those contexts (Cordova & Lepper, 1996). This would suggest that
teachers at Travelor Adult School should incorporate student context and personal
information when helping him or her learn the material. Many students at the school
work in the fields. If a teacher is explaining multiplication, they can use a context that
is familiar to the students, such as rows of the crops, to multiply how many plants there
are in total.
Increasing Student Persistence
Four essential components of adult education programs were found to be critical
in increasing student persistency (Kerka, 2005). Persistence is defined by the California
Adult Literacy Professional Development Project as the length of time adults attend
class before they stop attending the program (Kerka, 2005). Students may stop
attending the programs when they meet their goals. Many students’ goal is obtaining a
job; once they find a job they stop attending the program. Two aspects were found to
be associated with persistence. Students who attended a program before were more
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likely to persist than others (Kerka, 2005). Also, students who had a specific goal were
more likely to persist than those students who did not have a goal or could not identify a
goal.
California Adult Literacy Professional Development Project suggests the
importance of intake in adult programs (Kerka, 2005). During intake, the counselor
helped students identify potential obstacles and come up plans to overcome them. It is
also essential to take into account students’ educational background in order to
appropriately place students in courses that match their skills. Social support was also
associated with student persistency (Kerka, 2005). The support from friends, family,
community, classmates, and teachers was important to students. It was also found that
students need to feel respected by teachers (Kerka, 2005). It is important teachers and
counselors help student develop new learning strategies and time management skills.
As previously discussed, goal setting influences students’ persistence at adult
schools. Having goals and noticing progress towards achievements are powerful
motivators to continue learning (Kerka, 2005). One of the key finds suggests by the
California Adult Literacy Professional Development Project is that adults who
mentioned a specific goal were more likely to persist than those who had no goals
(Kerka, 2005). The project conducted found that goal setting questionnaires helped
students identify negative and positive forces that might get in the way or help them
reach those goals (Kerka, 2005). Every four weeks the goals should be revisited to
review progress toward them. It was also suggested that classroom learning needs to
provide mastery experiences where the adults can successfully learn, especially early in
the program (Kerka, 2005). During this time, teachers need to help students cope with
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faults. It was also found that vicarious experiences by social models aid in increasing
student persistency. Models can be successful for students (Bandura, 1977). Having
former students speak to current students reinforces that they too can complete the
program and be successful (Kerka, 2005).
Castles (2004) found the most important aspect of support was that it could
come from anyone, so long as the student received support. Strong coping strategies
were also found to increase persistency (Castles, 2004). It was found that students who
did not have a crisis during the course of the program, or a lacked new stressors, who
reflected and assessed their progress and had a relationship with their instructor were
likely to persist (Castles, 2004). The study suggested the importance of having a
counselor trained to advise students. It was also suggested monitoring students
continuously and following up with those students who fail to submit assignments
(Castles, 2004).
Comings, Parrella and Soricone (1999) found that adult students over 30 years
of age persist longer due to both their maturity and that they no longer have the
responsibility of caring for small children. Programs must help students develop an
understanding of possible negative and positive forces that affect persistency (Comings,
et al., 1999). Positive forces include a desire for a higher income and support received
in an adult program. Negative forces include obstacles that interfere with the
completion of the program, such as lack of free time to study (Comings, et al., 1999).
Each student should make a plan on how to overcome negative forces. In addition,
verbal reinforcements are essential; especially to overcome the negative self-efficacy
students might have built up from previous schooling (Comings, et al., 1999).
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Peetz, Strahan and Wilson (2009) investigated how the distance of future goals
affects motivation and persistency. It was found that when students felt closer to an
event, they anticipated success. If the student believed they were going to fail an exam,
the exam was felt as a distant event. The study divided the participants into two groups.
One group was induced to feel close to their graduation, while the other was induced to
feel farther from graduation (Peetz, et al., 2009). Students who were induced to feel
closer to graduation reported greater academic motivation and persistency that those
induced to feel far from graduation (Peetz, et al., 2009). This would be an effective
strategy when pacing the courses for students at Travelor Adult School. Counselors
could use this strategy when giving students an approximate time for finishing the
program. If the students see that graduation is near and obtainable, it could help with
academic progress. The counselor could also point out the graduation date and
encourage the student to finish in time to walk. This strategy could also help in students
finish in a timely manner and help them pace their courses.
The research of Spinath and Steinmayr (2012) suggests that in order to foster
intrinsic motivation it is essential for the student to experience the learning progress and
for teachers to provide feedback. Feedback helped students to work in the right
direction (Spinath & Steinmayr, 2012). It was also suggested that the feedback needs to
be honest; if not, it could undermine students’ intrinsic motivation. Providing feedback
was mentioned in the solutions of knowledge. Not only will providing feedback help to
fill the gap in knowledge, but also in motivation.
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Mental Effort
Brookhart and DeVoge (1999) found that students’ perceptions of both self and
the task predicted the amount of mental effort an individual student will invest
(Brookhart & DeVoge, 1999). If students find interest, utility, and relevance in the task,
they are more likely to exert mental effort. For Travelor Adult School, this suggests the
importance of relating the task to the students’ interests and helping them find utility in
that the tasks they are working on. It is also important that when the counselor and
student meet, they review how the course is relevant to the goals developed. Teachers
at Travelor Adult School expressed that they were concerned with the lack of mental
effort student exert, which they described as minimal to none. The lack of mental effort
by students could be because they perceive the tasks to be easy and unchallenging
therefore they do not exert mental effort (Brookhart & DeVoge, 1999). The results of
the student surveys in this project indicated that students have high self-efficacy in the
courses they are working on and are confident they can earn their diploma. The
students are confident they will earn their diploma but do not exert the mental effort
necessary to earn their diploma.
McDill and Natriell (1986) found that teachers and peers categorize individuals
by their levels of competence and assign them roles appropriate to those levels. It may
be that students are afraid of making a mistake and are therefore not exerting mental
effort. This study also found that teachers and peers set higher standards for students
who appear to be more able to deal with challenges (McDill & Natriell, 1986). There
could also be an issue that teachers are setting low challenges for students and students
are not motivated to exert mental effort.
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Another possible reason for the lack of mental effort is that students do not have
the cognitive capacity in working memory for learning to occur. Cognitive load theory
is based on the idea that the cognitive capacity in working memory is limited (De Jong,
2010). If a task requires a large amount of working memory, there could be cognitive
overload, which hampers learning (De Jong, 2010). Three types of loads are identified
as: intrinsic, extraneous and germane. Intrinsic load refers to inherent characteristics of
the content to be learned. Extraneous load is caused by the instructional material and
context used to present instruction. Germane load refers to the load imposed by
learning processes (De Jong, 2010). Intrinsic load depends on the previous knowledge
the student brings to the task, not by the number of elements the student is exposed to.
Many of the students at the school have never attended school or their previous
knowledge is minimal, since they were not able to pass courses in traditional high
schools. Intrinsic load cannot be changed by instructional treatments (De Jong, 2010).
It also was found that there is a limit on how low extraneous load can be. It is
recommended that material align with students’ prior knowledge, which is intrinsic load
(De Jong, 2010). Because students take a pre and post-test in order to report to the state
the increase in their knowledge, teachers can use the pretest results to modify, support
and scaffold the student if the material is above their current ability.
Sweller (2010) suggested that the more elements which interact, the heavier the
working memory load. For novice learners, there are more elements that interact with
learning than for an experience learner. Novice learners benefit from having text and
diagrams, which help students, understand (Sweller, 2010). Both the text and diagrams
are part of the intrinsic load for a novice learner, but an experience learner might not
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benefit. For them, they may act as extraneous load since experienced learners
understand the material presented. Novice learners might need to be presented with
more worked-examples while an experienced learner may need more problems to solve.
Worked-examples involve showing the steps of how a problem was solved (Sweller,
2010). This way the student does not experience cognitive overload.
Atkinson and Renkl (2003) stated that when a novice learner is learning new
information, there are many factors the learner cannot attend too, which minimizes the
space available for the student to process the information. When instructional material
has text and graphics that are not integrated into each other, it creates extraneous load
(Atkinson & Renkl, 2003). When a student with low skills is beginning to learn the
material, they are unable to apply task specific solution so instead they used general
problem solving strategies and the intrinsic lead is high (Atkinson & Renkl, 2003).
Usually, the student uses means-ends analysis strategy. Means-ends analysis uses a
large portion of the working memory since the learner needs to maintain several
components in their working memory, such as the current problem, the goal and the
difference between the current problem and the goal (Atkinson & Renkl, 2003). This
strategy does not foster learning since a large portion is taken by extraneous load,
leaving little or no room for intrinsic and germane load.
Worked-out examples are advantageous for novice learners, since they reduce
extraneous load, leaving room for learning. Students need to actively self-explain the
process when they use a worked-out example. Self-explanation has been found to be
critical in order for worked-out examples to be effective (Atkinson & Renkl, 2003).
First, the students must identify the main domain principle and be able to understand the
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principal in the example. Second, the student must be able to identify the goals, the
structure of the goal, and knowledge of the relevant operations. Lastly, the student
needs to identify consistency among the examples, which nurtures the induction of
abstract schemas that help the learner solve problems when they contain new features
(Atkinson & Renkl, 2003). Atkinson and Renkl (2003) found that fading steps as the
learner masters the material is effective which works as follows. A complete worked
example is provided. After, an example is given in which one solution step is missing.
After a time, there are more steps missing which need to be solved. This method
coaches and scaffolds the student until their skills improve (Atkinson & Renkl, 2003).
Backward fading was more effective that fading from the beginning of the example.
The last few steps are omitted in the backward fading strategies (Atkinson & Renkl,
2003). One of the reasons why backwards fading was found to have a significant effect
is learners spent less time on examples without performance being negatively affected.
It would be beneficial to provide students who score low on the pre-test with worked-
out examples. As students become more experience with the material, the student can
be transition to backwards fading. If the student scores high on the pre-test they would
not benefit from worked-out examples since they would create extraneous load.
One of the ways to reduce extraneous load is to isolate elements for new learners
(Sweller, 2010). When the learner masters one element, additional elements could be
integrated. Instead of learning while trying to learn many elements at one time, students
are able to focus and master a single element before moving on (Sweller, 2010). This
could be applied to the classroom. For example, all students need to pass an algebra
course. The student might be trying to solve for “x”, but not know how to add or
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subtract. The student would need to work on adding and subtracting before trying to
solve for an algebraic equation. It is important that teachers take into consideration the
students’ prior knowledge.
Culture/Organizational Barriers
Although, the survey responses had means at 3.00 or greater, there were two
statements that had the overall lowest mean for culture and organization: being able to
take books home, and distractions in the classroom. Both the teachers’ and students’
interviews revealed that the current policies are helping students earn credits towards
the completion of their high school diploma. During the students’ interviews it was
found that students stopped attending when faced with contextual issues, such as having
to leave country or having to work long hours. In addition, teachers mentioned the
difficulty they have in providing feedback to students due to the open hours students
could attend. The current culture of the classroom was to exert the lowest possible
mental effort and not being able to take charge of one’s own learning.
Helping Students with Contextual Issues
Many of the validated causes were contextual in nature. Students were unable to
continue attending school due to family emergencies, having to work or moving to a
different country. Travelor Adult School’s structure and current policies accommodate
these contextual issues. Clark and Estes (2008) claimed that if the organization’s
polices do not support the process there could be disorganization. At Travelor Adult
School, students can be absent as many days as they need and can attend as many or
few hours they wish. Students can work at home, at school, or combination of either.
Students who cannot attend class can work from home either in workbooks or online.
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Eventually, the student will need to attend class and take exams but they can already
have the course work completed. The current hours of the classroom were established
to accommodate different schedules. Students can attend any amount of time and go in
and out at any time. The classroom is open from 9:00 am to 12:00 pm and 4:30 pm-
8:30 pm, Monday through Friday. There is no evening class on Friday. Students, who
work or need childcare, have the flexibility of choosing when to attend class. Students
can attend any time and on any day the class is open. One of the reasons why adult
school is a self-directed instruction is so the student can attend class when they are able
and work from home. If the student needs to leave the country, there is some work that
can be taken with them as well as online courses. The organization needs to make
students aware that even if they cannot physically attend class they can continue to
work outside the classroom. Students need to be aware during the counseling session
and the mandatory orientation about how to overcome crises that might arise. In
addition, increasing students’ metacognitive skills and motivation will help students be
disciplined and persist when faced with challenges.
Establishing Follow-up Procedures
In this project, the intention was to interview students who stopped attending the
program and never returned. Twenty calls to former students were made but not a
single student could be interviewed. Many of the telephone numbers were not working.
Some of the reasons for this might be that students moved from the home, changed their
mobile telephone number or cut off their telephone line or mobile phone. A couple of
telephone numbers did work, but in those cases the student no longer lived there or was
incarcerated. Travelor Adult School has begun to collect emails during registration; this
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should help with follow up. It is important to remind students to keep their emails and
telephone numbers current. Every semester there will be verbal reminder and fliers
reminding students to update their information. Office staff and counselors will make a
habit of verifying the addresses and emails. Having a contact method will help the
counselors and teachers follow up with students who stop attending.
Aiding Students with Distractions in the Classroom
There were two statements with the lowest overall mean. The two statements
with the lowest overall mean had acceptable means since the means obtained are
relative. The surveys and student and teacher interviews indicated that the current
polices are helping students earn their diploma. Having distractions in the classroom
and not being able to take books home suggested as a cause for students not being able
to complete courses. The classroom has a no talking or listening to music out loud
policy. The rules in the classroom are enforced in order to keep the classroom
distractions to a minimum. Students who are distracted by others coming in and out, or
by other students asking teachers for help can sit farther from the door and teachers
desk. There are sections of the room where students could face an empty patio or the
wall, which could help students who are easily distracted. The teachers and counselors
can identify students who are easily distracted. When these students are identified, the
teacher or counselor can suggest the students sit away from distractions. There is also a
GED classroom where students are working on computers and teacher questions are
minimal compared to the high school diploma class. Currently, students from the high
school diploma class are invited to work in the GED classroom, since there are fewer
students and distractions.
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Helping Students Have the Necessary Materials
Not being able to take books home was also a concern students had. Books are
available in the classroom for students to use. If a student wishes to take a book home
they need to purchase the book. When the courses are developed, the prices of the
books are taken into consideration since many books can be expensive for both the
school and the student. The books range in cost from $5 to $40. There is also a board
in the classroom where students can sell their old books and buy books from other
students. Students are reminded of this during orientation and the board is visible for
students. There was a time where students were able to take books home, but many of
them were never returned which caused a shortage of books in the classroom. It is
essential that students have access to the books and supplies they need in the classroom
and at home if possible. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that an organization needs to
have the supplies necessary to achieve the desired goal. There is also a scholarship fund
the school provides that helps students with extreme circumstances pay for books. In
addition, most of the courses have contained assignments that do not require books. If
students are unable to buy books or receive the scholarship money, students are advised
to work in the classroom on assignments that require a book and work assignments that
do not require a book at home.
Providing Feedback
Teachers did mention that the problem of keeping track of students’ progress
and providing immediate feedback were drawbacks of students being able to choose the
hours they attend class. Keeping track of students needs to be the responsibility of all
the teachers and counselors. Students have files with the date and the work completed.
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Every other Friday, teachers need to make an effort to go through the files and create a
list of students that need attention. Both the teachers and counselors can make contact,
catching the student next time they attend, or by calling or emailing the students.
The problem of providing immediate feedback was an issue identified by the
teachers. As mentioned in the solutions, both knowledge and motivation feedback are
essential and solutions were discussed on ways of providing feedback. The solutions to
help provide immediate feedback included collecting emails, updating contact
information and not only releasing a grade of a test but also providing feedback in
addition to the grade.
The result of knowledge, skills and motivation indicated a need for change in the
culture of the classroom. Currently, students are performing the minimum amount of
work needed to earn a passing grade or not completing the work required to earn
credits. Students are trying to take short cuts and take unit exams without doing the
work beforehand. Students are not studying effectively and have limited access to
metacognitive skills. The solutions for motivation and knowledge will aid in changing
the culture of the classroom where students are active in their learning. The solutions
discussed here will help students identify and use appropriate learning strategies.
Students will set goals and measure their progress and be guided in understanding that
feedback is as important as the grade. The goal of the classroom is to create an
environment of deep processing where students want to understand the material
(Boekaerts, 1999). The culture will encourage students to self-regulate their own
learning and emphasize that teachers are there to guide them. The solutions from both
motivation and knowledge were not only developed to close those identified gaps but it
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will also help change the culture of the classroom to one where students are active in
their learning and ultimately earn their diploma.
Implementation
The solutions for all gaps found are interrelated. The solutions offered for
closing the gap of knowledge will also aid in closing the gap of motivation and
fostering a classroom of learning. Students ultimately are in the program to earn high
school diplomas, which is not an easy task. The solutions proposed will help students’
achieve their goals. When the implementation of the program begins, students will be
introduced to these solutions, which will aid them in earning their diplomas. In regards
to teachers, teachers want students to succeed and the solutions proposed are intended to
aid the students in earning their diplomas. Table 9 summarizes the causes, solutions
and implementation of the solutions to aid in closing the gap for knowledge / skill,
motivation and culture / context. Table 10 outlines the organizations goal, which is
broken down by short-term goals that will aid in reaching the main goal of the
organization. Table 11 summarizes the performance goal, time frame of the
implementation and how the performance goals will be measured.

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Table 9
Summary of Solutions and Implementation for Knowledge/skills, Motivation, and
Culture/organization
Solutions Implementation
Knowledge
and skills
Increase students’
metacognition
Help students become self-
regulated learners
Provide feedback
Learning strategy worksheet
Checklist
Goal setting
Email accounts
Introduce learning strategies in the
counseling session
Workshops
Peer learning groups
Teacher professional development
Motivation Promote intrinsic
motivation
Increase student persistency
Encourage students to exert
mental effort
Verbal rewards
Provide choices
Meaningful task
Establish learning goals
Modify course work
Identify potential obstacles and
solutions
Provide models
Pacing course
Provide feedback
Culture and
Organization
Help student continue the
program when faced with
contextual crisis
Change culture of the
classroom to emphasize
learning
Increase follow up with
students who stopped
attending the program
Informing students about options when
faced with a contextual issues
Book selling/book buying board
Refer students to scholarship fund
Offer ways to minimize distractions
Remind student to update their contact
information

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Table 10
Summary of Organizations Main Goal, Short Term Goals, Cascading Goals, and
Performance Goals
Organizational Goal: Travelor Adult School will increase completion rates of the
high school diploma program by 12 students by the end of the spring semester of
2014.
Goal 1: Students
will be able to carry
out and implement
learning strategies
effectively by the
spring semester of
2014.
Goal 2: Students will continue to carry
out their course work with minimum of
60% passing grade by the end of the
spring semester of 2014.
Goal 3: Teachers
and counselors will
help students
develop plans on
how to overcome
contextual issues
by the end of the
fall semester of
2013.
Cascading Goal 1:
Students will be
able to explain why
a learning strategy
is best for a specific
task by the spring
of 2014.
Cascading Goal 2:
Students will be
able to plan,
monitor, and
evaluate their
learning by the
spring of 2014.
Cascading Goal 2:
Students will
explain their
motivation for
learning is due to
internal reasons by
the spring of 2014.

Performance
Goal: Students will
be able to select
and apply learning
strategies by the
end of the semester
of fall 2013.
Performance
Goal: Students
will be able to
monitor their
progress and
evaluate if changes
are needed in order
to reach their goals
by the end of the
fall semester of
2013.
Performance
Goal: Teachers
will identify and
help the students
construct meaning
to the material
learned in the
classroom to
student’s daily
lives by the end of
the fall semester of
2013.
Performance
Goal: Students will
be able to recall
and list classrooms
procedures and
policies by the fall
semester of 2013.

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Table 10, continued
Performance
Goal: Students will
be able to recall
and state 5
metacognitive
strategies by the
end of the fall
semester of 2013.
Performance
Goal: Students will
be able to recall
their short
term/long term
goals and explain
the necessary steps
to reach their goals
by the end of the
fall semester of
2013.
Performance
Goal: Teachers
will select various
work assignments
and provide
students with the
opportunity to
choose what
assignments to
work on, this will
be done by the end
of the fall semester
of 2013.
Performance
Goal: Teachers
and counselors
detect and monitor
students who need
additional support
by the end of the
fall semester of
2013.

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Table 11
Summary of Performance Goals, Timeline and Measurement of Performance Goals
Stakeholder Performance Goal Goal Measure
Students will be able to recall and state 5
metacognitive strategies.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
By asking student to list a minimum of 5
learning strategies they are aware of.
Also, by reviewing the worksheet
required in the beginning of the unit that
asks students to identify which learning
strategies they are going to u
Students will be able to select and apply
implement learning strategies.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
By reviewing students worksheet,
observing students and by the unit exam
scores.
Students will be able to recall their short
term/long term goals and explain the
necessary steps to reach their goals.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
Students will be able to write down short
and long term goals and necessary steps
to achieve their goals.
Students will be able to monitor their
progress and evaluate if changes are
needed in order to reach their goals.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
Progress will be measured by classroom
worksheet that asks students to write
down the steps and changes that they
could make next time to improve their
learning.
Teachers will select various work
assignments and provide students with the
opportunity to choose what assignments
to work on.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
This will be measured by student’s order
of activities and the students’ syllabus
that contains all necessary assignments
for the course and comparing order of
assignments to different students taking
the same course.

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Table 11, continued
Stakeholder Performance Goal Goal Measure
Teachers will identify and help the
student construct meaning to the material
learned in the classroom to student’s daily
lives.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
Students will be asked to identify how
they can apply what they are learning in
their course to their lives. Also, how
meaningful the activities are they are
taking part of.
Teachers and counselors detect and
monitor students who need additional
support.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
There will be a logged kept of number of
students identify with the outcome of
each student.
Students will be able to recall and list
classrooms procedures and policies.
Implement by: Fall 2013 Semester
Evaluate Progress by: Ending of Fall
Semester
This will be measure by asking students
list the policies and procedures of the
classroom.

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CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION
The purpose of the project was to help Travelor Adult School reach its goal of
increasing completion rates by identifying causes and offering solutions. The project
was guided using the gap analysis model, in which gaps of knowledge, motivation, and
organization were found (Clark & Estes, 2008). Research based solutions were offered
in order to help close the identified gaps. In this chapter, Kirkpatrick’s (2006) four
levels of evaluation framework guides Travelor Adult School in order to determine
whether the suggested solutions are indeed successful in increasing completion rates.
The questions guiding the project were the following:
1. What are the underlying causes for students’ failure to complete the
requirements for high school graduation from the perspectives of:
a. Knowledge and skills
b. Motivation
c. Organizational culture and context?
2. What strategies could Travelor Adult School implement in order for all
students to earn their diplomas?
3. How could Travelor Adult School evaluate the effectiveness of these
strategies?
Synthesis of the Results
Following are the results found in knowledge, motivation, and organization.
The results were obtained from student surveys, and student and teacher interviews.
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Knowledge and Skills
The results of the survey and interviews indicated that students lack
metacognitive skills. Having these skills are essential when working in a self-directed
environment where students are responsible for their own learning. Students expressed
they want to earn their diploma but the current practices they are displaying in the
classroom are not conducive to learning. Teachers shared how students studied by just
sitting with their book open, glancing at the pages. Students try to skip the work for the
unit and then try to take the exam. In the survey, students indicted they do implement
learning strategies. These responses might have been due to students wanting to look
favorable. Both teachers and students confirmed that students are unable to set short or
long term goals. Students who did have goals had unrealistic goals. Literature has
suggested the importance of goals setting, which is part of metacognition (Schraw,
1998). Goal setting not only helps with closing the gap of knowledge and skill but also
help close the motivation gap.
Motivation
The results of the survey did not support the results of the interviews. This
might have been due to students censoring their responses in order to look favorable.
The interviews did reveal students are motivated by external reasons, such as receiving
money for attending school or by not paying rent. Students are performing the task for
reasons other than for learning the material itself. They are not internally motivated;
instead they are motivated for the monetary rewards which they believe will come from
earning a diploma. Teachers shared that students lose motivation as soon as they face a
challenge. Students who are externally motivated are more likely to stop persisting
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when faced with a challenge (Benabou & Tirole, 2003). The survey indicated that
students perceive themselves as having high self-efficacy in regards to the course there
are working on and obtaining their diploma. Teachers agreed that students’ lose
motivation when faced with a challenge. Student and teacher interviews confirmed that
students are not persisting in the program and many students return but stop attending,
making it a cycle.
Organization and Culture
The gaps found are contextual issues students’ face that prevents them from
attending class. Some of the obstacles included leaving the country, family
emergencies, or conflicting schedules with work. Students who had dropped out the
program and had not re-enrolled were not available for interviews since contact
information was no longer current. When there was someone who did answer, they
mentioned the students had either moved homes, left the county, or were incarcerated.
Two statements, which had the lowest overall mean, were in the category of
organization and culture. Even though the means were the lowest, they were in the
acceptable range. In the interviews, three out of the ten students mentioned that one of
the issues of the classroom is the noise and distractions. Two out of ten students
mentioned that it would be helpful if they could take books home. Teachers mentioned
that they have a difficult time keeping up with students’ progress and being able to
provide feedback. By the time the teachers correct assignments and were ready to
provide feedback, the students were no longer in the classroom. Since students come
and go it is difficult to keep up with students’ progress. The results and interviews
indicated the current culture of the classroom is not a culture where students want to
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learn. Instead, students are studying ineffectively, trying to exert the least amount of
mental effort, and take tests without learning the material. Students switch back and
forth between the GED program and the high school diploma program looking for the
easiest route. Students are not setting short-term or long-term goals. The ones who
attend class are not producing passing work and are not finishing courses that will earn
them credit towards their diploma.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The gap analysis framework aids in helping the institution to step-by-step reach
their goal. This framework takes into consideration that each organization is distinct
and the cause of the problem is unique. The framework helps quantify the gap that
needs to be closed, which provides clear goals and measurable outcome. One of
drawbacks of the framework is the time commitment. Especially in schools, there is
pressure to provide immediate results. The gap analysis requires time and commitment
from the organization. In addition, solutions to close a gap can cause other gaps to
occur (Clark & Estes, 2008). If goals of the organization are not met, the process needs
to be repeated until the right solution closes the gap.
Kirkpatrick’s (1998) four-level framework is a tool that will help the school
evaluate the effectiveness of the solutions. In many times organizations skip the
evaluations or use basic level one evaluation without investigating if the solutions are
helping in closing the gap. The framework is detailed which helps implement the
evaluations process.
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Recommendation and Implications
The implementation of the solutions will help the close the gap of knowledge,
motivation, and culture/organization. It is recommended that the solutions begin the
following school year. This will give time for the teachers and counselors to prepare
the necessary materials to carry out the solutions. Students have been studying the
same way for years; students will need to change their mindset to the goal of mastering
the material. At first, students might be resistant, thinking they are doing extra work but
solutions are being made to aid students in learning effectively. Currently, students are
retaking exams several times since they do not study effectively. The most challenging
aspect is going to be changing students’ habits, especially for students who have
previously been in the program. Implementing the program in the fall is a good strategy
because newly enrolled students will have not known the changes that have.
Eventually, a shift of culture will begin in which students are using their metacognition
knowledge and are being successful in earning their diploma.
Not only the teachers and counselors are involved in the solutions, but the whole
school is as well. The school needs to be an environment where deep learning is
emphasized. Staff at the school needs to use available opportunities to help relate what
the student is learning with their daily lives and goals. In addition, there needs to be an
understanding of how important it is to keep students’ information current. Following
up with students is essential, especially since they are not always physically present in
the program (California Adult Education, 2011).
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Evaluation
The adult school will utilize Kirkpatrick’s (1998) four-level program model to
evaluate the action plan of the adult school. The first level will evaluate the reactions of
the teachers and students to the implementation of the action plan. The second level
will look at the impact of the program, targeting the impact of all programs while being
implemented (Clark & Estes, 2008). The gap of knowledge will be examined in level
one to ensure that learning is taking place. Level three focuses on the continued
effectiveness of the program. Level four will evaluate whether the action plan has
contributed to the achievement of goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Level 1 Reactions
This level evaluates reactions participants have towards the program. Teachers
and students will be asked to fill out a survey with questions regarding the value and
effectiveness of the program. The survey will measure motivation, values, emotional
reactions, and impact on persistence. Level one will inform the organization about the
motivational impact the program is having on teachers and students. The survey will
ask open ended questions such as “What would you change about the program?” and
“What do you value most about the program?” The survey will also include a few
questions on a Likert scale about how much they enjoy the program, what skills they are
applying, and how confident they are in applying learning strategies. If the solutions
offered are being effective the survey results will be indicated positive feedback from
students.
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Level 2 Learning
This level measures the impact of the program while the solutions are being
implemented. This level investigates whether learning is taking place. Students will be
asked to identify what they have learned. In addition, they will fill out a survey that
asks about the learning strategies they know, how many times they use the strategies in
their studies, and how well they are planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning.
If the solutions offered are being effective the survey results will be shown by observing
students in the classroom studying effectively, scores of unit test, completion of credits
by students and by the responses of the survey.
Level 3 Transfer
This level evaluates whether the program gains made during the implementation
are present after the termination of the program. Teachers will be asked on a monthly
basis to report whether students are studying effectively, are implementing learning
strategies, have become self-regulated learners, and if students are continuing to exert
mental effort and persist in the program. If the solutions offered are being effective it
would be verified by teachers’ comments and observations. In addition, the
effectiveness will be verified by students increasing completion of courses and having
passing results on unit tests.
Level 4 Impact
This level investigates whether the organization has made progress towards their
organizational goal. This is where the organization will determine if the solutions
offered helped close the gap. If there were no results found in level 2 and 3, there will
not be a need to move to level 4. Level 1 and 2 are when modifications to the program
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125
would have been made. If the solutions offered were effective, the organization should
have gotten closer to its goals of increasing student completion by 20 percent. In addition,
if levels 1, 2 and 3 were successful, it should of helped close the gap of motivation,
knowledge, and organization/culture.
Limitations
In order to accommodate for different schedules, students are able to attend class
when they can. Students can attend class daily, weekly, biweekly, etc. The survey was
distributed over a two-week period and was offer both in the morning and evening.
Therefore, results of the survey only include students who happened to be there during
the distribution of the survey. In addition, the survey and interviews were conducted
towards the end of the semester. Many of the students who began the program earlier
might not have been included in the survey.
Initially, students who have dropped out and never returned were part of
procedure. Unfortunately, this group of students could not be contacted due inaccurate
contact information. Students at the adult school tend to move often since a majority of
the students work in the fields and move to other cities where there is a harvest. In
addition, the adult school serves a transient population of students who dropout and re-
enroll due to various reasons such as conflicting hours with their work schedules,
moving to a different country, and attending to other obligations (California Adult
Education, 2011).
Self-reported questionnaires can have its drawbacks. Some of the responses
obtained from the survey and the interviews could have been censored by the students
and teachers in order to make themselves look favorable. Many of the students reported
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126
they work on assignments at home on a daily basis but when looking at their work
production of the course, it did not triangulate with the students responses. In addition,
there is always the risk that students filled out the survey without really reading the
questions.
This project was a case study on a single school. The recommendations are only
applicable to Travelor Adult School. The solutions cannot be functional for a different
school setting, since the gaps found are particular to Travelor Adult School. The gaps
identified and solutions recommended cannot be generalized to other adult schools due
to this being a case study of a particular school.
The author of the project works at the school. This could bring bias to the
project. It could be that the author interprets the data to confirm or disconfirm their
own believes in the cause of the gap. Patton (1990) suggests that the researcher can
influence the data by their own opinions and judgments. It could be possible the author
was not objective and confirmation bias played a role.
Future Research
Finding literature about adult students earning their secondary education is
difficult. Many of the studies focused on the GED and not the High School Diploma
Program. In addition, there is a large amount of literature for adults that are pursing
post-secondary degrees. Many adult schools have been impacted with the state budget
which caused some schools have closed or eliminated the high school diploma program.
There is a need to further research adult students who are earning a high school diploma
since it could have different implications than students earning their GED.
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Conclusion
Students who do not earn a high school diploma faced more challenges than
those students who earned their diploma. Students without a high school diploma have
a high probability of earning less money, being unemployed, engaging in criminal
behavior, and receiving welfare (Garnier, Stein, & Jacobs, 1997; Battin-Pearson &
Newcomb, 2000; Christenson & Thurlow, 2004; Suh & Suh, 2007). It was reported that
in the school year of 2008-2009 California had 89,895 students who dropped out of
high school (California Department of Education, 2011). California will spend over
three trillion dollars over a decade due to students not earning a high school diploma
(California Department of Education, 2011). There are negative consequences in not
completing a high school diploma program for the individual and their community.
Students without a diploma are more likely to be discontent with their lives and feel
isolated from society (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003). In addition, students who do not earn a
diploma are more likely to be part of gangs and use drugs (Kelly & Prevatt, 2003).
Students who were unable to obtain their high school diploma in traditional high school
are able to do so in an adult school.
Adult schools offer students over the age of eighteen an opportunity to complete
their high school diploma. Every year the number of enrolled students in a program to
earn their secondary education increases (California Department of Education, 2011).
Students at Travelor Adult School are not being successful in earning their high school
diploma. About 800 are enrolled in the program but there is an average of 60 students a
school year who complete the program and earn their high school diploma. Travelor
Adult School’s goal is to increase the number of students who complete the program
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128
each school year. The school wants students to be prepared for the work force and be
lifelong learners. In addition, the school needs to be able to full its duty of helping
students earn their diploma.
The purpose of the project was to use the gap analysis model as a framework to
help identify gaps in motivation, knowledge, and organization that could be hindering
the school from reaching its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Using the model, gaps were
identified and validated through surveys and interviews. After the gaps were identified,
solutions were suggested that could help Travelor Adult School reach its goal. Lastly,
the project suggests how the school can evaluate the solutions implemented using
Kirkpatrick’s (2006) Four Levels of Evaluation.
Students at Adult Schools come from different backgrounds and levels of
schooling. Students earning a high school degree at an adult school faced obstacles that
prevented them from earning their diploma in the traditional high school setting.
Therefore, it is essential to keep in mind each learner’s deficiencies such as lack of
metacognitions skills, and learning strategies. These students were not successful
before and need additional support. Each adult school caters to different population of
students. Schools might implement solutions without investigating the cause of the
problems. The gap analysis is a useful tool in investigating what are the gaps in that
particular school setting.

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APPENDIX A
HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA STUDENT SURVEY
Please provide the following demographics.
Please indicate age:
Sex:

INSTRUCTIONS: Please rate how strongly disagree or agree with each of the
following statements by placing a check mark in the appropriate box.

Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
I can locate the classroom used for the
high school diploma program

I know the times the classroom is open
I can identify the teachers of the high
school diploma program

I am aware of the requirements for earning
a high school diploma including the
number of credits required

I feel comfortable explaining the
organization of the school to a friend

In order to obtain a high school diploma,
credits are needed from various categories

I understand how the school system works,
from elementary to post-secondary
education

Earning a high school diploma will open
many doors such as being able to receive
financial aid and finding a job

I can describe all the steps to earn course
credit

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Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
I am aware of the assignments needed in
order to earn credit for the current course I
am working on

When I need help in a particular skill, I
know where to find the appropriate
resources in order to master the skill

I know the steps to take when I am unable
to attend class and want to work at home

When I need assistance on a task I ask for
help

For an exam I space out my study sessions
I review my own work in order to know
what I can improve on

When I am studying I connect material I
already know with new information I am
learning

I ask myself questions in order to make
sure I understand the material

When studying I draw diagrams or maps
to help me understand the material

When reading a text book I read over the
table of contents in order to organize the
information I will be learning

When reading I highlight sections to go
back and review at a later time

After reading I summarize what I have
read

When I am learning new material I try to
relate to my daily activities

I read the teachers feedback on my
assignments

After receiving feedback from the teacher
I make changes to the assignment taking
into account the feedback

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Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
I work with another classmate and
describe to them what I learned in class

When I do not understand what I am
studying I ask for help

I want to learn in order to understand the
course material

The outcome is not important as long as I
understand the information

Challenge is an opportunity for learning
Making mistakes is a part of the learning
process

My goal is for people to think I am smart
I am only concerned about the grade I will
earn

My main goal is outperforming my
classmates

I avoid challenging tasks
If I failed a course in the past, why try
again?

Even if get help I will not understand
I avoid a task I am not good at in order to
avoid people seeing me fail

I am confident I can complete the
assignments for the class I am working on

I am confident I can earn my high school
diploma

I can reach goals that I set
My confidence of reaching my high school
diploma has increased over time

My effective use of learning strategies has
increased

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Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
In the class I have the toughest time in, I
am confident I can earn a passing grade

When choosing the classes to take I make
sure the hardest class is the last one

Even though I face a challenge in the
course I will keep trying

When receiving the syllabus for the
course I begin with the assignment that is
the easiest to me

When I do not do well on an exam it was
because I did not study effectively

I did well on the exam because I studied
effectively

I did not put as much effort in studying as
I could of

If I study effectively I can earn a high
grade

I do well on subject test because I am good
in that subject

No matter how much I study, I won’t
receive a high grade

I have a low IQ, therefore I cannot score
high grades

I do not have to study because I am a good
test taker

When I do not perform well on an exam it
is because the exam was too difficult

I do well on the exam because I am lucky
The teacher does not like me, therefore I
received a low grade

I scored high on the exam because the
exam was easy

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Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
I did not do well on the exam but next time
I will study harder

I did well on the exam because the weather
was perfect

I would have performed better on the test
if the teacher had given me more time

I received a low score because the teacher
was in a bad mood

I chose my first course to be the one that
interests me the most

I will put more effort in subjects that I
enjoy

I have an easier time focusing on subjects
that are interesting

There have been times when subjects were
made interesting in the classroom

It is important for me to earn a high school
diploma

Earning a diploma will help me reach my
next goal

I see the importance of the course I am
working on

I can use what I am learning in the
classroom outside of the classroom

I am enjoying learning the subject I am
working on

The information I am learning in class has
importance to me

Receiving a good grade makes me feel
accomplished

Passing courses will lead me to future
rewards

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Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree
I make many sacrifices to attend school
but it is worth it

My classroom teachers want me to earn
my high school diploma

The classroom is a place I can work and
study free of distractions

I can always find a place to sit in the
classroom

Teachers are available to help me in a
timely manner

When I have a question in class it always
gets answered

I feel safe in the classroom
I feel safe in the school
Students at the school are here to study
and earn their high school diplomas

If I need additional support I will find it in
the classroom

I have a quiet place at home where I can
study

I have all the books necessary to work at
home

I will be the first in my family to earn a
high school diploma

I have attended school in a different
country

I have previous knowledge on the subject I
am currently working on

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APPENDIX B
TEACHER INTERVIEWS QUESTIONS
1. What are challenges that you see students facing?
2. Why do you think students tops attending classes?
3. What do you think the organization could do to better support students in earning
their high school diploma?
4. What are challenges you face in the classroom?
5. What are current procedure/practices that help students in earning credits?
6. How confident do you feel teaching the various courses? In a scale of 1 to 10. One
is being not confident and 10 very confident.
7. Do you feel you need additional support? What would that be?
8. What do you like about being a teacher? What do you dislike?
9. Do you feel you are making an impact in students’ lives?
Interview Questions for Re-Enrolling Students
1. What motivated you to come back to school?
2. Why did you stop attending classes?
3. What are you going to do differently?
4. How is earing your diploma going to impact your life?
5. What challenges do you foresee in earning credits for your diploma? Do you have a
plan? What is that plan?
6. When you were unable to attend class what was the main reason?
7. Where do you plan to study? Describe the location, including any distractions that
you might face.
THE USE OF GAP ANALYSIS TO INCREASE STUDENT

145
8. Did your parents obtain a high school diploma or higher degree? How about your
siblings?
9. What are your plans after earning your high school diploma?
10. If you could change 3 class rules what would they be?
11. If you could change 3 school rules what would they be?
12. What could the school do to support your goals of earning your diploma?
Interview Questions for Current Students
1. Describe a typical school day, what activities or task you do before and after
attending class?
2. When you cannot attend school what is the main reasons?
3. Where do you study? Describe the location? Including any distractions that you
might face. How many times do you study at this location?
4. Does your family and friends support you in earning your high school diploma? If
so, what do they do to support you?
5. What was the reason for enrolling in the high school diploma program?
6. What are your short-term goals?
7. What are you long term goals?
8. What are your plans after earning you high school diploma?
9. If you could change 3 class rules what would they be?
10. If you could change 3 school rules what would they be?
11. What could the school do to support your goals of earning your diploma?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This project applied the gap analysis problem-solving framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) in order to help develop strategies to increase completion rates at Travelor Adult School. The purpose of the study was to identify whether the knowledge, motivation and organization barriers were contributing to the identified gap. A mixed method approached was used to collect data. Fifty-eight students participated in a survey

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gil, Blanca E. (author)

Core Title The use of gap analysis to increase student completion rates at Travelor Adult School

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/16/2013

Defense Date 02/13/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adult school,gap analysis,increasing completion rates,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Advisor Yates, Kenneth A. (committee chair), Rueda, Robert (committee member), Sinatra, Gale M. (committee member)

Creator Email blancagi@usc.edu,blancagil@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-238423

Unique identifier UC11294652

Identifier etd-GilBlancaE-1543.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-238423 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GilBlancaE-1543.pdf

Dmrecord 238423

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Gil, Blanca E.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA