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Pre-cast concrete envelopes in hot-humid climates: examining envelopes to reduce cooling load and electrical consumption

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Pre-cast concrete envelopes in hot-humid climates: examining envelopes to reduce cooling load and electrical consumption

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Content 1

PRE-CAST CONCRETE ENVELOPES
IN HOT-HUMID CLIMATES

EXAMINING ENVELOPES TO REDUCE COOLING
LOAD AND ELECTRICAL CONSUMPTION

By
Fahad Alshiddi

A Thesis presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the thesis of
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
August 2015

2

Student Name:
Fahad Alshiddi

Email: alshiddi@usc.edu
shiddi@gmail.com
Cell: +1(949)870-7376
+966-554-808084
Committee chair:
Professor Douglas Noble
Email: dnoble@usc.edu
Cell: +1(213)446-5416

Committee members:
Professor Joon-Ho Choi
Email: joonhoch@usc.edu
Professor Karen Kensek
Email: kensek@usc.edu

3

To my father.

4

Acknowledgements

This work would not have been possible without the contributions of my Chair,
Professor Douglas Noble, who was always enthusiastic and ready to help; Professor
Joon Ho Choi, Professor Karen Kensek and Professor Marc Schiler for their valuable
inputs.
I would also like to thank Ahmad Alosaimi the CEO of Bina Precast Factory, Kim
Seeber, Saad Alhajri from Saudi Electricity Company, Abdulrahman Almuaibid from
Arweqah Real Estate Develpment Company, Edward Losch, Hisham Alshawan from
Saudi Construction Concept Company and Douglas Mooradian from the Precast
Concrete Organization for adding immeasurably to my knowledge about precast
concrete.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank the entire MBS group at The Chase L. Leavitt
Graduate Building Science program in the USC School of Architecture for being
extremely supportive and fun to work with.

5

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................14
Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................14
1. CHAPTER ONE: PROBLEM ..............................................................................................15
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................15
1.1.1. Sustainability and Zero Energy: ...........................................................................15
1.1.2. Increasing Saudi Arabia oil consumption .............................................................15
1.1.3. Definitions: ...........................................................................................................16
1.1.4. Support for Reducing Energy Demand by Saudi Arabian Authorities ...................19
1.2. Middle East, Saudi Arabia, and City of Dammam. .......................................................20
1.2.1. Planning development in City of Dammam ..........................................................21
1.2.2. Saudi Arabia map and climate characteristics. .....................................................22
1.2.3. Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, City of Dammam location. .................................23
1.2.4. City of Dammam Climate description. ..................................................................24
1.2.5. Monthly Diurnal Averages and Relative humidity in city of Dammam. ..................25
1.3. Building envelopes in hot-humid climates ...................................................................27
1.3.1. Vernacular architecture on the Arabian Peninsula, hot-humid climate. .................29
1.4. Research objectives .......................................................................................................35
1.4.1. Thesis Boundaries: ..................................................................................................36
1.4.2. Thesis Structure .......................................................................................................36
2. CHAPTER TWO: Pre-Cast Concrete .................................................................................38
2.1. Pre-cast concrete building envelopes..........................................................................38
2.1.1. Pre-cast concrete advantages .............................................................................41
2.1.2. Pre-cast concrete housing ...................................................................................41
2.1.3. Pre-cast production ..............................................................................................43
2.2. Site Visits ....................................................................................................................45
2.2.1. Bina pre-cast factory ............................................................................................45
2.2.2. Siporex Pre-cast Factory .....................................................................................46
6

3. CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES .......................................................48
3.1. Energy Simulation .......................................................................................................48
3.1.1. Box ......................................................................................................................48
3.1.2. House ..................................................................................................................49
3.2. Software .....................................................................................................................50
3.2.1. Climate Consultant 5.5 .........................................................................................50
3.2.2. Home Energy Efficient Design (HEED) ................................................................50
3.2.3. Opaque ................................................................................................................51
3.2.4. Green Building Studio (GBS) ...............................................................................52
3.2.5. Project Solon. .................................................................................................52
3.2.6. Autodesk Revit .....................................................................................................53
3.2.7. Factors that affected energy simulations ..............................................................53
3.2.8. Variables ..............................................................................................................54
3.3. Physical Model ............................................................................................................55
3.3.1. Elements and components in the experiment.......................................................55
3.3.2. Variables of wall assembly ...................................................................................58
3.3.3. Test the box with insulation only ..........................................................................59
3.4. Back to Autodesk Revit ...............................................................................................64
4. CHAPTER FOUR: Description of a selected building and climate analysis ........................65
4.1. Data collection of Arweqah house ...............................................................................65
4.1.1. Description of selected building “Arweqah house”. ...............................................66
4.1.2. Arweqah house summer 2014 electrical consumption .........................................69
4.1.3. Annual weather data. ...........................................................................................73
4.1.4. Summer season – June, July, and August. ..........................................................73
5. CHAPTER FIVE: ENERGY SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1. Home Energy Efficient Design (HEED) Results ..........................................................78
5.2. Opaque .......................................................................................................................79
5.2.1. Opaque Results ...................................................................................................80
5.3. Autodesk Revit and GBS Results ................................................................................83
7

5.3.1. Potential energy saving ........................................................................................84
5.4. Project Solon Results ..................................................................................................86
5.5. Climate Consultant Results .........................................................................................88
5.5.1. Suggested Design Strategies ...............................................................................88
6. CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS FOR THE PHYSICAL MODEL AND REVIT SIMULATIONS ....93
6.1. Physical experiment results for three wall assemblies .................................................93
6.1.1. Wall assembly one (2’’ Insulation, 4’’ Concrete) ...................................................94
6.1.2. Wall assembly two (2’’ Concrete, 2’’ Insulation, 2’’ Concrete) ...............................97
6.1.3. Wall Assembly Type Three (4’’ Concrete, 2’’ Insulation) .................................... 101
6.1.4. Comparing wall assemblies ............................................................................... 103
6.1.5. Total resistance of the wall................................................................................. 104
6.2. Revisiting Energy Simulations in Revit and Green Building Studio ............................ 106
7. CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS SUMMARY ..................................................................... 109
7.1. HEED results analysis .............................................................................................. 109
7.2. Opaque Results Analysis .......................................................................................... 109
7.3. Physical experiment results analysis ......................................................................... 109
7.3.1. Wall Assembly Type One ................................................................................... 110
7.3.2. Wall Assembly type two ..................................................................................... 110
7.3.3. Wall Assembly Type Three ................................................................................ 111
7.4. Autodesk Revit results analysis ................................................................................. 111
7.4.1. Overhangs and Shading .................................................................................... 111
7.4.2. Wall Assemblies in building envelope in Revit.................................................... 111
8. CHAPTER EIGHT: RECOMMENDATIONS, FUTURE WORK, AND CONCLUSIONS ..... 113
8.1. Recommendations .................................................................................................... 113
8.1.1. Wall Assembly ................................................................................................... 113
8.1.2. Windows and openings .......................................................................................... 113
8.2. Future Work .............................................................................................................. 114
8.2.1. Software testing ................................................................................................. 114
8.2.2. Physical testing .................................................................................................. 115
8

8.2.3. Other ................................................................................................................. 115
8.3. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 115
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................. 116
Bibliography: ........................................................................................................................... 118
References: ............................................................................................................................ 120

9

List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Saudi Arabia – Oil price and consumption................................................................16
Figure 1-2 Erection of precast concrete wall panels ..................................................................17
Figure 1-3 Truck agitator for ready mixed concrete ...................................................................18
Figure 1-4 Map of the Middle East in the world (green) .............................................................21
Figure 1-5 Middle East map. .....................................................................................................21
Figure 1-6 Saudi Arabia Map ....................................................................................................22
Figure 1-7 City of Dammam location .........................................................................................23
Figure 1-8 City of Dammam annual average temperatures .......................................................24
Figure 1-9 World map of global horizontal irradiation ...............................................................25
Figure 1-10 Monthly Diurnal Averages ......................................................................................26
Figure 1-11 Psychrometric Chart for City of Abu Dhabi, UAE. ...................................................27
Figure 1-12 Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical ...............................28
Figure 1-13 Design strategies in hot humid climate ...................................................................28
Figure 1-14 Shade outdoor and large openings ........................................................................29
Figure 1-15 Vernacular wall’s materials in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia. ................................30
Figure 1-16 Albstikiah – Preserved area in Dubai, UAE. ...........................................................30
Figure 1-17 Courtyard house ventilation, morning, afternoon, and night....................................31
Figure 1-18 Illustrated model of a traditional house in Qatar. ....................................................32
Figure 1-19 Wind tower – Dubai, UAE Figure 1-20 Wind tower – Bahrain. ...........................33
Figure 1-21 Wind tower and Qanat cooling system. ..................................................................34
Figure 1-22 Windows in vernacular houses in Qatar .................................................................35
Figure 2-1 Cladding precast panel ............................................................................................38
Figure 2-2 Load-Bearing wall ....................................................................................................39
Figure 2-3 Shear wall ................................................................................................................40
Figure 2-4 Formwork walls ........................................................................................................40
Figure 2-5 Jubail Industrial City, Saudi Arabia, precast housing project ....................................43
Figure 2-6 Laborers in Bina Factory…....................................................................................... 46
Figure 2-7 Bina Factory Plant…………………… .......................................................................44
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Figure 2-8 Bina Factory………………………………………………………………………………...46
Figure 2-9 Precast material storage ..........................................................................................44
Figure 2-10 Sandwich panel ......................................................................................................46
Figure 2-11 Shop drawings sample. ..........................................................................................47
Figure 3-1 Energy simulation study box ....................................................................................48
Figure 3-2 3D model of Arweqah house. ...................................................................................49
Figure 3-3 Climate Consultant 5.5 .............................................................................................50
Figure 3-4 HEED .......................................................................................................................51
Figure 3-5 Opaque wall section .................................................................................................51
Figure 3-6 Monthly electricity consumption ...............................................................................52
Figure 3-7 Project Solon ...........................................................................................................52
Figure 3-8 3D model of Arweqah house. ...................................................................................53
Figure 3-9 Number of people per family in the U.S. vs Saudi Arabia .........................................53
Figure 3-10 Building planning layout. ........................................................................................54
Figure 3-11 R_TECH Insulation Sheet ......................................................................................56
Figure 3-12 iButton Data Logger ...............................................................................................56
Figure 3-13 USB Adapter ..........................................................................................................56
Figure 3-14 Concrete Block.......................................................................................................56
Figure 3-15 Insulated Box .........................................................................................................56
Figure 3-16 starting one of the experiments ..............................................................................56
Figure 3-17 Sandwich panel ......................................................................................................57
Figure 3-18 Elevation and section of the panel .........................................................................57
Figure 3-19 Wall assemblies – 6’’ thickness for each ................................................................58
Figure 3-20 Section of The insulated box ..................................................................................58
Figure 3-21 60 W light bulb Figure 3-22 40 W light bulb Figure 3-23 10.5 W LED ....................59
Figure 3-24 Insulated box section Figure 3-25 the box’s outside face .....................................59
Figure 3-26. 24h the ARC indoor temperature (°F) ....................................................................60
Figure 3-27 60 W incandescent light bulb temperatures chart ...................................................61
Figure 3-28 First insulation layer shrank Figure 3-29 Inside view of the upper layer ................61
Figure 3-30 second experiment before closing the box .............................................................62
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Figure 3-31 60 W incandescent light bulb temperatures chart ...................................................62
Figure 3-32 LED light experiment ..............................................................................................63
Figure 3-33 LED 10.5 W bulb temperatures chart .....................................................................63
Figure 4-1 Arweqah project in city of Dammam .........................................................................65
Figure 4-2 Arweqah house – South West elevation. ..................................................................66
Figure 4-3 Arweqah House layout. ............................................................................................67
Figure 4-4 Arweqah house during construction, 2012. ..............................................................68
Figure 4-5 Electrical bill for June, 2014. ....................................................................................69
Figure 4-6 Psychrometric Chart during a year – City of Abu Dhabi, UAE. .................................73
Figure 4-7 Psychrometric Chart, 1
st
of May until the end of September. ....................................74
Figure 4-8 Hours of Sun during the summer. ............................................................................74
Figure 4-9 Mean High and Mean low – from 1
st
of May until end of September. ........................75
Figure 4-10 A week forecast in July 2014. .................................................................................75
Figure 4-11 August daily Min/Max temperatures. ......................................................................76
Figure 5-1 Arweqah House in HEED energy simulation ............................................................78
Figure 5-2 Time lag and Decrement factor ................................................................................79
Figure 5-3 Opaque 6’’ concrete 3’’ insulation .......................................................................80
Figure 5-4 Opaque 6’’ concrete 6’’ insulation .........................................................................81
Figure 5-5 Opaque 8’’ concrete 3’’ insulation .........................................................................81
Figure 5-6 Opaque 8’’ concrete 6’’ insulation .........................................................................82
Figure 5-7 Opaque wall section .................................................................................................82
Figure 5-8 Revit box tool Figure 5-9 Energy use electricity ......................................................83
Figure 5-10 Energy potential savings ........................................................................................85
Figure 5-11 Annual electricity and fuel consumption .................................................................86
Figure 5-12 Cooling Load ..........................................................................................................87
Figure 5-13 Monthly Electricity and Fuel Consumption ..............................................................87
Figure 5-14 Electrical Energy Consumption ..............................................................................87
Figure 5-15 North façade fins ....................................................................................................88
Figure 5-16 Suggested overhangs designs ...............................................................................89
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Figure 5-17 Insulation layer is placed outside face of the wall ...................................................90
Figure 5-18 Indoor air vs. high mass interior surface temperatures differences day and night...90
Figure 5-19 High mass interior surface conduction ...................................................................91
Figure 5-20 Air conditioner and cross ventilation .......................................................................91
Figure 5-21 Whole house fan, cross ventilation, and jump duct .................................................92
Figure 6-1 Wall assemblies – 6’’ thickness for each ..................................................................93
Figure 6-2 Section of The insulated box ....................................................................................94
Figure 6-3 wall’s assembly one .................................................................................................95
Figure 6-4 wall’s assembly one temperatures ...........................................................................95
Figure 6-5 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly one) .............................................96
Figure 6-6 Wall’s assembly two .................................................................................................97
Figure 6-7 Wall’s assembly two temperatures (5 hours) ............................................................98
Figure 6-8 Wall’s assembly two temperatures (13 hours) ..........................................................99
Figure 6-9 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly two) ........................................... 100
Figure 6-10 Wall’s assembly three .......................................................................................... 101
Figure 6-11 Wall’s assembly three temperatures .................................................................... 102
Figure 6-12 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly three) ....................................... 103
Figure 6-13 Hour by hour heat flow ......................................................................................... 104
Figure 6-14 The wall assembly used in calculation ................................................................. 105
Figure 6-15 Export parameter from Revit to GBS .................................................................... 107

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List of Tables:

Table 2-1 Effect of Repetition on Panel, Square-Foot Cost. ......................................................41
Table 3-1 R-TECH Insulation sheet R-value .............................................................................55
Table 4-1 Arweqah house information .......................................................................................66
Table 4-2 Arweqah house floors and functions..........................................................................68
Table 4-3 Concrete block specifications ....................................................................................69
Table 4-4 June electrical consumption. .....................................................................................70
Table 4-5 July electrical consumption. ......................................................................................71
Table 4-6 August electrical consumption. ..................................................................................72
Table 5-1 West Windows With and without overhangs on 25
th
July ...........................................78
Table 5-2 Materials’ thermal properties from Opaque ................................................................80
Table 5-3 Opaque 6’’ concrete 3’’ insulation……. ......................................................................80
Table 5-4 Opaque 6’’ concrete 6’’ insulation……. ......................................................................81
Table 5-5 Opaque 8’’ concrete 3’’ insulation……… ...................................................................81
Table 5-6 Opaque 8’’ concrete 6’’ insulation……….. .................................................................82
Table 5-7 Opaque wall section details .......................................................................................83
Table 5-8 Box tool’s specifications ............................................................................................84
Table 6-1 Comparing walls’ assemblies .................................................................................. 104
Table 6-2 Revit wall specifications .......................................................................................... 106
Table 6-3 GBS Energy simulations results .............................................................................. 107

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ABSTRACT
Saudi Arabia is considered one of the fastest growth countries in population and construction,
and housing has become an important issue that should be managed to meet the needs of
people while minimizing energy consumption. Buildings are the main contributor to energy
consumption due to the need for cooling, especially during the summer season. The use of pre-
cast concrete in the building envelope of houses can contribute to savings in energy
consumption. Its use might make it possible to substantially reduce cooling loads in hot-humid
climates. The aim is to find optimal configurations and design for the building envelopes using
pre-cast concrete in hot-humid climates such as city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. An energy
simulation and thermal analysis will be on an existing typical house for single family in the hot-
humid climate of the city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The analysis was based on the software
programs of Autodesk Revit, Green Building Studio, Autodesk Revit, HEED, Climate Consultant,
and Opaque to study and implement a set of variables using different scenarios. The variables
include building orientation, windows and openings, and properties of the envelope’s materials
placement that could apply on hot-humid climate. In addition physical mock-ups were
constructed to compare and study the results of different concrete and insulation wall assembly.

Hypothesis
Cooling load and electrical consumption can be reduced by 50% for new construction residential
buildings (single family house) in the hot-humid climate in the city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia,
during the summer season (June, July, and August) using pre-cast concrete envelopes
compared against similar houses that currently use concrete insulated blocks.
This hypothesis was proven false.

15

1. CHAPTER ONE: PROBLEM
1.1. Introduction
Pre-cast concrete is a building material that has been used in Saudi building construction since
the mid-1900s. Pre-cast concrete can be constructed quickly, and it is possible to control the
characteristics of pre-cast panels to resist external factors and climate. Significant increases in
building construction in Saudi Arabia generates demand to find construction systems that fits
the needs of local market and cope with the characteristics of the climate in Saudi Arabia.
Through pre-cast concrete is widely used in hot-humid climate at the Eastern Province, Saudi
Arabia, where the pre-cast concrete industry has evolved from several aspects, the focus will be
on the buildings’ envelopes to reduce the consumption of fuel needed to cool houses.
The Saudi society is one of the fastest growing communities in the world, and the percentage of
that growth in 20 years is about 86% (Monetary Agency. 2013). Saudi Arabia population was
28.4 million in 2011. While the expected growth rate between 2010 and 2015 is about 2.1%, at
the same time the expected global growth is 1.1% (Monetary Agency SA 2013). This growth in
demography in Saudi Arabia is a result of the continuous improvement of the economic
conditions, health and social, in addition to the ongoing developments in the economic structure
and large investments in infrastructure. Furthermore, that vast growth will increase the demand
of housing and its needed construction materials and operation to meet people comfort in their
homes.
1.1.1. Sustainability and Zero Energy:
In 2008, California started a plan to achieve Zero Net Energy (ZEN) residential buildings by
2020. Many aspects of this study could help towards achieving net zero energy in Saudi Arabia
residential buildings as well. Although the climate in Saudi Arabia is different, reducing energy
consumption would potentially save the environment and natural resources. Moreover, it is
essential to consider environmental sustainability that help architects and engineers to design
new buildings using passive houses strategies that will in return meet the internal thermal
comfort (US EPA. 2014).
1.1.2. Increasing Saudi Arabia oil consumption
An economic report published in Alsharq Alawsat newspaper in 2013 that there will be huge
growth of oil consumption in Saudi Arabia from 3.86 million barrels currently to more than five
million barrels a day in 2016. This huge increase in consumption should be reduced and
controlled. Oil is the main source of electricity generation and water desalination in Saudi
Arabia. In addition, 70% of housing units in Saudi Arabia are currently experiencing poor
thermal insulation, yet some of them do not have any kind of isolation. This places a strain on
the electricity distribution network due to the use of air conditioners extensively. The efficiency
of air conditioners in Saudi Arabia is equal to one-third of the efficiency of their counterparts in
developed economies, in fact; approximately 65% of electricity consumption in Saudi Arabia’s
homes goes to run air conditioners only (Alhuqail. 2013).
16

The consumption of oil barrels per person in Saudi Arabia has increased by approximately 40%
since 2008 (Figure 1-1). This vast increase should be controlled, and the Saudi government
should take serious actions not only to make this consumption stable, but to reduce it as much
as possible to save energy.

Figure 1-1 Saudi Arabia – Oil price and consumption
(Economywatch. 2013)
1.1.3. Definitions:
1.1.3.1. Pre-Cast Concrete
Precast concrete is a developed product and construction method of the ordinary cast-in-place
concrete construction method created by mixing cement, sand and fine aggregate in a reusable
form or "structure" which is then cured in a controlled situation and molds, transported to the
project site and placed into spot (Figure 1-2). Conversely, standard solid is filled site-particular
structures and cured on location (Wikipedia 2014).
17

Figure 1-2 Erection of precast concrete wall panels
New Zealand (A. Charleson)
http://www.nexus.globalquakemodel.org/gem-building-taxonomy/overview/glossary/precast-concrete--pc

1.1.3.2. Cast in Place Concrete
“Cast-in-place concrete is transported in an unhardened state, primarily as ready-mix, and
placed in forms. Ready mixed concrete is proportioned and mixed off the project site (Figure 1-
3). The concrete is delivered to the site in a truck agitator” (PCA. 2015).

18

Figure 1-3 Truck agitator for ready mixed concrete
Portland Cement Association (PCA No. 69926)
www.concretethinker.com/applications/Cast-in-place.aspx

1.1.3.3. Building Envelopes
“A building envelope has been defined in many ways. A building envelope is a collective term
for all the components of a building that enclose its conditioned space and separate conditioned
spaces from unconditioned spaces” (Cleveland and Morris. 2005).
1.1.3.4. Zero Energy Building
Net Zero Energy Building has different definitions depending on which aspect is more important
and closely related to the subject or to who is defining the ZEB. The amount of energy is
different when it is counted on the building site than at the source location. Making energy
consumption saving an obligation and a required aspect in building construction will force
buildings owners to care about energy conservation. For consumers, cost is main criterion
issue, yet energy emissions is the most important standard for people who care more about the
environment. Here are four different definitions from National Renewable Energy Laboratory:
• “Net Zero Site Energy: A site ZEB produces at least as much energy as it uses in a year,
when accounted for at the site.
• Net Zero Source Energy: A source ZEB produces at least as much energy as it uses in a
year, when accounted for at the source. Source energy refers to the primary energy
used to generate and deliver the energy to the site. To calculate a building’s total source
energy, imported and exported energy is multiplied by the appropriate site-to-source
conversion multipliers.
19

• Net Zero Energy Costs: In a cost ZEB, the amount of money the utility pays the building
owner for the energy the building exports to the grid is at least equal to the amount the
owner pays the utility for the energy services and energy used over the year.
• Net Zero Energy Emissions: A net-zero emissions building produces at least as much
emissions-free renewable energy as it uses from emissions-producing energy sources.“
(NREL 2006).
1.1.3.5. Hot-Humid Climates
Hot-humid climates are defined as when one of the two following conditions exist as what it
have been defined by ASHRAE.
• “A 67 Fahrenheit degree or higher wet bulb temperature for 3500 hours or more during
the warmest six consecutive months of the year.” (ASHRAE, 1989)
• “A 73 Fahrenheit degree or higher wet bulb temperature for 1750 hours or more during
the warmest six consecutive months of the year.” (ASHRAE. 1989).

1.1.4. Support for Reducing Energy Demand by Saudi Arabian Authorities
1.1.4.1. Saudi Electricity Company:
The Saudi Electricity Company’s annual report shows that the annual increase of the electricity
produced in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during the year of 2013 was 6.8%, and the number of
subscribers who receive the service also increased by 6.1%.
The residential sector takes the first place in terms of the number of subscribers. The number is
reaching 5,685,355 subscribers, which is (48%) of electricity consumers, while the commercial
sector came in second place with (14.8%) 1,151,546 subscribers, and the public sector that
includes government buildings, mosques, schools, public parks etc, occupied the third position
with 228.268 subscribers, by (12.2%), while the industrial sector came fourthly reaching 8.586
subscribers, by (21.2%) (SEC 2013).
The Saudi Electricity Company is the main entity that is concerned with the vast increase in
electricity consumption because the company will spend a lot of effort extending cables, hiring
more employees, and therefore spending money to cover the vast future demand especially in
the residential sector.
1.1.4.2. The Saudi Center for Energy Efficiency:
The Saudi Arabia government subsidizes many of basic materials and goods that serve citizens.
The support in particular is to the petroleum sector and its derivatives of gasoline, diesel, gas,
and electricity generation. The subsidies by the government amount approximately 60 billion
dollars annually.
20

As a response to the problem, Saudi Arabia’s government has already established The Saudi
Center for Energy Efficiency in December 12
th
2011, under the supervision King Abdul-Aziz City
of Science and Technology in Riyadh city.
The committee members are: Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, Ministry of Water
and Electricity, Ministry of Transportation, Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Ministry of Media and Culture, Ministry of Housing, Customs
Department, Saudi Standards Metrology and Quality, The Royal Commission for the two
industrial cities Jubail and Yanbu, the General Presidency Meteorological and Environmental
Protection, Water Desalination Company, King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy,
Saudi Oil Company (Aramco), Saudi basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), Saudi Electricity
Company, in cooperation with other representatives from private sector.
The Saudi Center for Energy Efficiency’s goal is to rationalize and enhance efficiency of energy
consumption with cooperation between government and public organizations that are involved
in the issue, and to achieve the lowest possible consumption’s levels (The Saudi Center for
Energy Efficiency 2014).
1.1.4.3. Customs Department and Ministry of Commerce and Industry:
The Customs Department prevented the entry and distribution of about 100 thousand air
conditions in February 27
th
2014, to Saudi Arabia that below the energy efficiency standard as a
part of their obligation on the committee of The Saudi Center for Energy Efficiency. Also, the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry destroyed about 15 thousand air conditioners that were
incompatible with the energy efficiency new standard. The air conditioners’ destruction was after
the deadline that had been given and announced by the ministry to the local market to stop
selling these types of air conditioners (Saudi Arabian Ministry of Commerce and Industry 2014).
1.2. Middle East, Saudi Arabia, and City of Dammam.
Middle East is the geographic area includes the countries of West Asia and North Africa.
Specifically at the confluence of three continents, Africa, Asia and Europe, the green area in
(Figure 1-4). The Middle East, overlooking the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf and the
Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Sea as displayed in a smaller scale in (Figure 1-5) Middle
East map.

21

Figure 1-4 Map of the Middle East in the world (green)
Middle East, the free encyclopedia (Wikipedia. 2014).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East

Figure 1-5 Middle East map.
(MAPS DB. 2013) World Map Middle East Countries
http://musica-numeris.com/world-map-middle-east-countries

1.2.1. Planning development in City of Dammam
The Arabian Peninsula and specifically the Persian Gulf area witnessed a big transformational
phase that lead to change the cultural structure of the region. The oil explorations made the
Arabian Peninsula a center of not only regional, but international attention. Before finding oil, the
economy of the area depended mainly on fishing and pearl hunting in addition to farming in
some areas where the land and water resources allowed it. The area also had some trade
activities that depended on its location being a hub connecting the trade lines between the west
and the east, specifically India. This trade significance was lost after the opening of the Suez
Canal (Ibrahim, 1980).
22

The oil operations in the area made it a center of economic development regionally and globally,
which caused a significant change the area's economy, architecture, and demographics. This
appeared as a boom in the sizes of some of the small villages on the Gulf's shorelines that were
inhibited mainly by fishermen. Those small villages turned into big cities such as city of Kuwait,
Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Dammam and Khobar. For example, Dammam, in the eastern province of
Saudi Arabia, grew from a small village with a population of 4000 people in 1934 to a population
of 128,000 in 1974. And Khobar grew from having 500 inhabitants in 1934 to 49,000 in 1974.
The tri-city area of Dammam, Dhahran, and Khobar is expected to reach a population of over a
million by the end of the 20th century (Ibrahim. 1980).
1.2.2. Saudi Arabia map and climate characteristics.
Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the Middle East by land area; it occupies four-fifths of the
Arab Peninsula with an area of 2,250,000 square kilometers. The topography of the country
from the west to the east consists of a narrow plains on the Red Sea coast (Tehama) plains,
followed by mountain along the country from the north to the south (Hejaz Mountains and Asir
exceed the maximum height of 2000 m), then deserts and rocky plateaus in the middle, then the
two largest desert, Dahna at the north, and the Empty Quarter at the south. In the east, along
the Gulf Coast, wide coastal plains. The capital is city of Riyadh, the main cities are the two
holly cities Mecca and Madinah, and city of Dammam (Figure 1-6). Saudi Arabia has five
different climate zones, Asir at southwest, Alhasa at east, Hijaz at west, Najed at central and
north, and Rub Alkhali at southeast. The study will focus on Eastern Province climate only (The
Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs. 2013).

Figure 1-6 Saudi Arabia Map
(Ezilon Regional Maps 2014)
http://www.ezilon.com/maps/asia/saudi-arabia-physical-maps.html

23

1.2.3. Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, City of Dammam location.
The Eastern Province is the largest state in Saudi Arabia by land area. The province is between
the Arabian Gulf seafront in its east side and the Dahna desert in the west. The length of the
province is about 1200 km from the Kuwait border in the north to the desert of the Empty
Quarter in the south, which is the largest continues sand desert in the world, which occupies
26% of Saudi Arabia’s area with land area of 77 850 km
2
. The Eastern Province shares a border
with Kuwait in the north, Qatar, Kingdom of Bahrain, and United Arab Emirates in the east, and
Oman in the south. The city of Dammam is the capital of Eastern Province located on the
Persian Gulf, the red circle in (Figure 1-7). The length of the coastal plain of the gulf is about
500 km and an average width of 60 km (The Emirate of the Eastern Province. 2013).

Figure 1-7 City of Dammam location
City of Dammam, Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia (Map data Google. 2014)
Maps.google.com
24

1.2.4. City of Dammam Climate description.
The Eastern Region climate is hot humid in summer and cold humid in winter. The hottest three
months during a year are June, July, and August. Over the course of a year, the temperature
typically varies from 51°F to 109°F and is rarely below 44°F or above 114°F. The warm season
lasts from May 15 to September 28 with an average daily high temperature above 101°F. “The
hottest day of the year is July 20, with an average high of 109°F and low of 86°F” (Weather
Spark. 2014). The daily average low (blue) and high (red) temperature, and comfort zone is the
shaded green area (Figure 1-8). Saudi Arabia and Middle East is located in the highest solar
radiation zone in the world. (Figure 1-9) Thermal mass could be a useful passive strategy based
on these characteristics.

Figure 1-8 City of Dammam annual average temperatures
Dashboard. King Abdulaziz Air Base (Dhahran International Airport), Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia (Weather Spark. 2014)
http://weatherspark.com/#!dashboard;ws=32761;t0=1/1;t1=12/31;graphs=temperature:1

25

Figure 1-9 World map of global horizontal irradiation

1.2.5. Monthly Diurnal Averages and Relative humidity in city of Dammam.
Abu Dhabi is located on the coast of the Persian Gulf close to city of Dammam. Abu Dhabi was
chosen because there is no climate file data for the City of Dammam, and Abu Dhabi the best
available match in weather data during summer season that could be uploaded in Climate
Consultant 5.5. The direct normal and defuse radiation are highest from May to September
(Figure 1-10).
26

Figure 1-10 Monthly Diurnal Averages
Climate Consultant 5.5

The psychrometric chart for City of Abu Dhabi shows how the humidity percentage is very high
in that location which very similar to city of Dammam (Figure 1-11). In fact, all cities that are
located on the west side of Persian Gulf have similar climate conditions. Main cities that have
simmelar climate are: Dubai, Dhoha, Kuwait, Manamah, Jubail, and Dammam. The green dots
are each in a year day avarage tempreature, the curved lines are relative humidity reaching
100% at the last curved line, vertical lines are dry bulb temperature, and the horizontal lines are
humidity ratio. Each poligon is represinting the comfort zone expantion from the origenal comfort
zone “the blue polygon” by applying the suggested design strategies at the upper lift corner of
(Figure 1-11).

27

Figure 1-11 Psychrometric Chart for City of Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Climate Consultant 5.5

1.3. Building envelopes in hot-humid climates
Vernacular architecture provides clues to time-tested methods of how to build each climate due
to the need to adapt to the limitations imposed by nature, techniques and resources available in
each region (de Gracia, et al. 2013). Although there are variations, due to uniqueness of each
culture or availability of material, the shape of the local housing stems and inspired from its
relationship with its surrounding environment. Hot-humid climates are no exception.
In the warm climates based in the equatorial, tropical and subtropical bands on the planet, due
mainly to the great influence from the sun on these regions, in which the rays strike almost
perpendicularly above the atmosphere, providing further warming. The warm subtropical climate
develops in the Gulf of Mexico, in southern Brazil and northeastern Argentina. Winters are mild
and summers warm. Rainfall is abundant and occurs throughout the year. On the other hand the
warm tropical weather covers Central America and northern South America. Average
temperatures are above 68°F (20°C) (Shea, et al. 2012). The vernacular architecture in warm
humid climate is light weight structure, and buildings are surrounded by trees to shade them.
Cross ventilation is essential to reduce uncomforting humidity high level indoor through walls
and under the building that has to be lifted from the ground (Figure 1-12).
28

Figure 1-12 Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical
Climate Responsive Building Regions (SKAT. 1993)
http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/en/d/Jsk02ce/3.4.html

In hot climates where temperatures are high, with small variations between day-night during the
summer season, there is no advantage to having thermal inertia in the building material. Due to
the intense radiation and humidity, it is important to have the maximum protection from the sun
possible. The humidity is constantly high making it very important that ventilation goes beyond
reducing humidity and dissipating heat. One of strategies of urban character is that there should
be ample space between buildings for ventilation, and wind movement, the streets should have
a regular line that facilitates air circulation and it is valuable that the presence of vegetation
provide shade in public spaces. Some of Climate Consultant software recommendations for this
climate is Minimize or eliminate west facing glazing to reduce summer and fall afternoon heat
gain, and design large windows facing north. Vegetation and trees are also contributing in
shading the building preventing unwanted direct sunlight (Figure 1-13).

Figure 1-13 Design strategies in hot humid climate
(Climate Consultant 5.5. 2013)
29

The buildings can have exterior spaces become open galleries, protected from direct sunlight,
and ventilated, creating a comfortable place to rest or perform various activities space, also
have large overhangs shade these areas, and in turn protect against radiation and rain. (de
Gracia, et al. 2013). The cover is usually composed of two layers and inner tube, and
lightweight to prevent storage of heat by radiation. Large voids are used for ventilation,
protected with shutters, or overhangs, which provide protection from radiation and allow air
circulation. Light colors that reflect solar radiation are used on the facades. (Figure 1-14) is
another example of Climate Consultant suggested design strategies that matching with the
description of exterior spaces around the building.

Figure 1-14 Shade outdoor and large openings
Climate Consultant 5.5
In general three major characteristics to consider when designing a building for the hot humid
climate are: sun protection, maximum ventilation, and lack of thermal mass/inertia. For example,
landscaping such as palm trees and wide eaves on the building protect it from solar radiation.
There should be maximum ventilation by the absence of walls, large ceiling heights, and
orientation relative to the wind, thinking allows maximum ventilation to cool the building and
remove moisture. With constant high temperatures and this little difference between day and
night, especially during the summer, building materials generally lack thermal inertia and have
low heat capacity to the point of having some walls that does not store heat, or have the ability
of releasing the amount of heat that had been gained during day. Vernacular architecture on the
Arabian Peninsula, hot-humid climate.
The traditional Arab architecture was a product of the different factors affecting the environment.
It reflected the geographical nature of the area on one side and also represented the religious
and political situation in the area. The products used in building old homes are also considered
to be green since they come from natural resources and interact with the surrounding climate.
This kind of architecture spread around different regions with different climate and geography.
Courtyards, wind towers, thick walls built by mud and clay or mud and stone (Figure 1-12).
Openings are small in size toward streets and outdoor corridors, and large toward the courtyard.
Privacy is a reason why openings are small toward streets, and usually there is only one space
between the envelope and the courtyard arcade.
30

Figure 1-15 Vernacular wall’s materials in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia.
Gulf Architecture (John Lockerbie. 2015)
http://catnaps.org/islamic/gulfarch3.html

The use of courtyard in houses is considered to be one of the architectural resolutions in the old
cities. Abistikiah neighborhood is a preserved area in Dubai state, UAE. Mostly all houses were
designing to have a central courtyard back in the 1950s in Persian Gulf area (Figure 1-13). This
kind of architecture provides flexibility in laying the spaces around it based on the use of those
spaces. In addition, this central space provides natural lighting and ventilation to the closed
spaces. It also has a belief representation of the connection between the Muslim and the sky, or
heaven.

Figure 1-16 Albstikiah – Preserved area in Dubai, UAE.
Albstikiah, Dubai, UAE (Map data Google. 2014)
Maps.google.com
The central courtyard acts a heat, or air, controller of the change in temperatures between day
and night by creating areas with different air pressures between the dark small alleys and the
31

open yards that absorb heat quickly during the daytime and release it slowly at night (Figure 1-
14). The cooler air in the alleys during creates a high pressure area, causing the air to flow
towards the open warmer inner yards, which leads to cooling those areas. The opposite
happens at night and the inner yards become cooler, making them suitable to become a living
and sleeping area. The cool air also flows from the inner yard to the warm chambers in the
house that preserved heat during the day due to their thick walls. This process is called "night
flush", which means cooling down the inner spaces and releasing the preserved heat.

Figure 1-17 Courtyard house ventilation, morning, afternoon, and night.

The central courtyard has many climatic advantages, such as creating shaded areas and taking
the advantage of temperature change between day and night to ventilate the house. The
climatic function of the central yard also depends on its size, shape, height, and the number of
windows and their locations in the walls surrounding it. In addition, the homes with central yards
depend on the different uses of the yard throughout the day based on migration between
spaces.
This is why the walls in the old homes are thick. Walls’ thickness are range between 45 and 75
cm (Talib. 1984). Thickness reaching 75 cm, serves the theory of thermal time lag and also
provides support to the structure of the walls because they are made with a mixture of clay,
stones, mud, and hay. Those materials are not strong as steel or concrete, but their natural
features go along with their surrounding environment (Figure 1-15). That thickness also provide
a projection to shade openings within the thickness of the wall without using overhangs.
In the morning, the yard's temperature is cool then it becomes warmer at noon when the sun
rays reaches the ground and the air starts elevating to higher levels. The air flow starts flowing
from the shaded alleys nearby at noon and in the afternoon the warm air elevates to a higher
point due to its lower density.
In the evening, the yard starts losing its temperature to the external surroundings that start
having a cooler temperature and therefore the yard starts sucking the cool air above the house.
This cycle continues during day and night time.
32

Figure 1-18 Illustrated model of a traditional house in Qatar.
Gulf Architecture (John Lockerbie. 2015)
http://catnaps.org/islamic/gulfarch3.html
In addition, there could be two yards, one shaded and the other open, thus creating areas of
different air pressure causing it to flow from higher to lower pressure areas providing for natural
ventilation.
Thermal mass is not recommended in hot humid climate, yet it had been used in city of
Dammam and other cities in Persian Gulf region. In fact the weather is not always humid and it
is extremely hot. Other reason of using courtyard house and small openings toward streets is
because of the privacy in Arabian Peninsula culture. The aspect of using cross ventilation might
be resolved by using wind towers and courtyard houses as open space for natural ventilation
and large openings facing inside of the house.
The need for natural ventilation also lead to a wind tower called badjeer. An old technique that
has been used long time ago, wind tower technologies date back over 1000 years (Bahadori.
1978).
The badjeer (Figure 2-9 and 10) is a high structure that rises above the home and open from
four sides to collect air and pass it through the house to create an air flow inside the home to
reduce the high summer temperatures. The four openings of the badjeer can be controlled by
opening and closing them as needed.
Based on the theory of differential air pressure, there needs to be two areas; one of high and
another of low pressure in the home or the building. Therefore, the Badjeer doesn't work alone
inside the building to create an air flow, but needs to have an open yard or an area that holds
33

water to cool the air off. This keeps the cool air in the lower levels of the home and the warmer
air goes higher and pushed out of the building through another opening. This process of cool air
flowing in and warm air flowing out of the building creates a refreshing breeze inside the house
in summer. The areas of cooler air become convenient for sitting and enable having plantations
that provide shade and help in creating an area of different air pressure and therefore air flow
through the building and its tower.
This air flow mechanism depends on differences in air pressure is scientific and shows how the
architecture in the gulf area adapted to the climatic conditions in the area in general, and in
Bahrain, UAE, and Dammam specifically. It also shows the flexibility in developing architectural
designs that not only look nice, but also adapt to the nature of the area.

Figure 1-19 Wind tower – Dubai, UAE Figure 1-20 Wind tower – Bahrain.
(Reda Salem Photography. 2010) (Allan C. Donque. 2010)
http://redasalem.blogspot.com/ http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bahrain_wind_tower.jpg

Wind tower can be enhanced by connecting it to an underground stream (Bahadori. 1978).
Another traditional cooling system had been used in Iran (Figure 2-6), at the opposite side of the
Persian Gulf. It has the same mechanism as the Arabian wind tower, but Qanat has an
underground water canal to cool hot air that passes through the Qanat.
34

Figure 1-21 Wind tower and Qanat cooling system.
(Bahadori, M. N. 1978)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wind-Tower-and-Qanat-Cooling-1.jpg

The building materials that were from available raw materials such as wood and clay formed the
final product in the form of a home. In the environmental perspective, those materials played a
major role in reducing the extremely high temperatures and protecting the residents of the
homes from the hot summer weather. Wood logs mostly palms, mud and stone from desert, and
palm’s fronds are widely used in building construction. They are the available affordable
materials initially there.
In Dammam and other hot humid areas of Saudi Arabia, more about what have mentioned
before, vernacular architecture houses are usually one floor, and if there is another floor, the
material of the roof is lighter than the floor. Walls are thicker in the first floor and thinner at the
second, and palms fronds are used to cover the roof. For passive cooling, wind tower is built
higher than roof level of the house, but the different from hot arid climate houses water is not
used to evaporate the indoor air. In fact, water tank is located under the wind tower to cool the
water only. Some houses have large windows towards the streets and they are covers by
wooden screen to let natural ventilation by controlling the privacy (Figure 1-19).
35

Figure 1-22 Windows in vernacular houses in Qatar
Raya Newspaper. 2013
http://www.raya.com/news/pages/45877dc8-16fe-4973-a037-a549769ab93f

Vernacular architecture in city of Dammam is mostly like what have been mentioned in hot
humid climate in general, but light weight structures and raised floors has not been applied in
Dammam vernacular architecture. The heavy weight structure as wooden structure homes are
not available in Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia, and stone or mud floors are very hard to be
supported with the available construction methods.
What is important from learning about vernacular architecture for the Eastern Region is the use
of thermal mass as solution of insulation and thermal mass, and the importance of natural
ventilation using large openings covered with wooden screen.
1.4. Research objectives
• To design insulated pre-cast concrete panels for building envelope, which helps to
reduce the cooling load and electrical consumption energy.
36

• To keep walls and windows to be within acceptable and reasonable size and thickness
for the building envelope comparing with pre-cast concrete price in Saudi Arabia market.
• To update the Saudi Building Code (SBC) with specifications and regulations for the five
different climate zones because now it is only one for all Saudi Arabia provinces.
• To provide software and model based data determining the usefulness of pre-cast
concrete for wall construction in the city of Dammam for reducing cooling energy
consumption in the months of June, July, and August.

1.4.1. Thesis Boundaries:
• Single family detached house in city of Dammam made from pre-cast concrete for the
envelope, which is the focus of the study.
• Three story house, the third floor is 50% of the first floor area. Any house that is more
than three stories is not included. It is not allowed in to design more than three stories
house in city of Dammam municipality houses’ regulations.
• The study will focus on the summer season only for cooling electricity consumption.
• Passive design strategies that could improve the internal thermal comfort will be tasted to
reduce using the cooling mechanical system. For instance, natural ventilation, openings
overhangs, and thermal mass.
• Air conditioning will be included as a performance and operation schedule to calculate the
saved amount of energy.
1.4.2. Thesis Structure
The research has 8 chapters:
1. Introduction.
2. Literature review.
3. Research methodologies.
4. Description of a selected building and climate analysis.
5. Energy simulations and results.
6. Results for the physical model and Revit simulations.
7. Results summary.
8. Recommendation, future work, and conclusions.

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Conclusion:
The research is aimed at finding out if a well-designed pre-cast concrete building envelope can
save 50% of energy in the summer. Research’s results could be design guide-lines on saving
energy for individual as well as organizations if they decide to use precast concrete as their
construction system in their projects. The study will be beneficial for citizens to save energy and
spend less on their electricity bills. Furthermore, saving more energy and controlling the internal
comfort of homes would raise the durability of the house’s equipment and appliances. The
benefits of saving will be also for the oil and electricity companies as an opportunity to invest the
saved amount of that energy in other fields rather than wasting it.

Next Chapter:
Chapter two provides two background sections. The firs is about envelopes, housing
advantages, and production of precast. The second part is a description of site visits to pre-cast
concrete factories in Saudi Arabia. The factories are Bina Precast in the city of Dammam, and
Siporix Factory in the city of Riyadh.

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2. CHAPTER TWO: Pre-Cast Concrete
2.1. Pre-cast concrete building envelopes
Architectural precast concrete has been used since the early twentieth century and came into
wide use in the 1960s. The exterior surface of precast concrete can vary from an exposed
aggregate finish that is highly ornamental to a form face finish that is similar to cast-in-place.
Some precast panels act as column covers while others extend over several floors in height and
incorporate window openings (Ozden, et al . 2010).
Whole Buildings Design Guide classified the pre-cast concrete panels into four types of that are
used as part of building envelopes: cladding or curtain walls, load-bearing units, shear walls,
and form work for cast-in-place concrete (WBDG. 2015) .
“Pre-cast buildings’ cladding or curtain walls are architectural elements, and they are the most
common use of pre-cast concrete for building envelopes” (Figure 2-1) (Roberts, 2008). Cladding
walls are not caring load or structural elements.

Figure 2-1 Cladding precast panel
Perot Museum of Nature & Science precast panels (Gate Precast. 2015)
The Architect's Newspaper
http://blog.archpaper.com/2011/09/morphosis-museum-of-nature-science-facade-gate-precast/

39

“Load-bearing wall units (Figure 2-2) resist and transfer loads from other elements and cannot
be removed without affecting the strength or stability of the building. Typical load-bearing wall
units include solid wall panels, and window wall and spandrel panels” (WBDG 2014). Ceilings
and roof could be directly attached and supported by this type of walls. Columns or beams are
no necessary to construct buildings that have load-bearing walls.

Figure 2-2 Load-Bearing wall
(We International Consultants Limited. 2010)
http://we-inter.com/Conceptual-Design-for-a-Precast-Concrete-Hotel-in-Iraq.aspx

“Precast concrete shear wall panels (Figure 2-3) are used to provide lateral load resisting
system when combined with diaphragm action of the floor construction are load bearing units.
The effectiveness of precast shear walls is largely dependent upon the panel-to-panel
connections” (WBDG 2014). The shear-wall framework for the most part uses stair structure and
elevators for general supporting, utilizing the floors as solid load caring for the transmittal of
strengths into shear dividers situated at staircase and elevators shaft positions.
40

Figure 2-3 Shear wall
(Archi Expo. 2015)
http://www.archiexpo.com/prod/precast-concrete-structures-ltd/prefab-wall-reinforced-concrete-59278-492629.html

“In some cases, precast panels are used as formwork for cast-in-place concrete. The precast
panels act as a form, providing the visible aesthetics of the system, while the cast-in-place
portion provides the structural component of the system.” (WBDG 2014). Walls that formed the
footing is made of precast concrete to act as the frame for cast-in-place (Figure 2-4). Precast
formwork has more stiffness and stability than wood formwork, and it could also be a part of
footing not only frame.

Figure 2-4 Formwork walls
(Federal highway administration. 2015)
http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/prefab_bridges/executive_summary.cfm
41

2.1.1. Pre-cast concrete advantages
An advantage of using precast concrete is that it is manufactured in a precast plant where it is
easy to control the accuracy and quality of production, unlike construction at the site, which is
determined by a number of natural and geographical factors, and it is one of the safest methods
of construction for labors and builders (Allen and Lano, 2004). There is a preservation of natural
resources also by using precast concrete because precast concrete mold many times not like
the ordinary cast-in-place construction method. Maintaining natural resources by reusing molds
for more than thirty times creates substantial savings in a panel price per square foot (Table 2-
1).
Number of Reuses Panel Size sq. ft. Mold Cost $ Cost per sq. ft. $
1 200 5000 25
10 200 5000 2.5
20 200 5000 1.25
30 200 5000 0.83
Table 2-1 Effect of Repetition on Panel, Square-Foot Cost.
(Douglas Mooradian. 2015)

There are many other advantages of pre-cast concrete:
- Flexibility in design
- Cost control
- Speed of execution and assembly
- Low cost of implementation
- Comprehensive quality control
- Increased durability
- Fire resistance
- Increased sound insulation
- Low existence of debris
- Building stronger and more resilient
- Less site disturbance

2.1.2. Pre-cast concrete housing
Prefabricated buildings are buildings that are divided into sections and assembled on site. The
two most common types of prefabricated buildings are modular and manufactured homes.
Prefabricated buildings are suitable for many different purposes and offer several advantages to
the owners. Other types of prefabricated buildings include commercial buildings, medical
offices, restaurants, stables, barns and sheds. Some example buildings include prefabricated
metal structures used as barns, shops and garages. (Hong, et al. 2012). They are delivered in
sections and installed on concrete slabs and foundations. The interior of the prefab buildings are
42

usually insulated and covered with drywall or paneling. Some buildings have floors installed,
while others do not. Precast concrete buildings, residential or commercial, could include other
construction materials than precast concrete.
Most prefabricated buildings are priced per square foot. The price per square foot varies
depending on the type of building and terminations included therein. Most companies that offer
these types of buildings sell standard and custom prefabricated buildings. People who want to
customize their own building will pay a higher price per square meter. Precast products prices
are different from project to another in city of Dammam, main factors that effect on prices are,
project type, location, and size (Alshaibani. 2014).
When a prefabricated building is shipped to the construction site, comes in sections. The
number of sections depends on the building type and size. When it arrives, the construction
workers assembled at the company. One advantage of prefabricated buildings is the speed at
which are constructed. This is an advantage for people who need a building in a short time.
Another major advantage is that prefabricated buildings usually cost less per square foot than
buildings that are built in an ordinary or a traditional way.
Prefabrication today is understood simply as the "industrialization of construction," that is, the
application of production techniques in stationary high performance (Liu, et al. 2013). High
levels of control and quality, can lead not only to better finishes also but at lower prices. There is
a promising for precast concrete market Saudi Arabia due to the vast increasing demand for
housing. 14,000 houses have to be built by 2016 in industrial city of Jubail, Saudi Arabia,
(Alshahrani. 2013). Construction of the project began in 2013 and will be delivered in 2016
(Figure 2-1), precast concrete was selected to ensure the quality and speed of construction, and
it could not delivered if other than precast as a construction system have been chosen.

43

Figure 2-5 Jubail Industrial City, Saudi Arabia, precast housing project
www.ifpinfo.com/Top-MiddleEast-Arabic-2039
2.1.3. Pre-cast production
In order to operate precast concrete plant in an effective way, there are many factors that need
to be put into consideration: Mainly it is the integration between precast factory’s departments
and how to operate the precast production in well managed system. Five sections of the factory
make up successful precast plant under the leadership of management: factory, engineering,
construction, logistics, and marketing (Alshaibani. 2014). Followings are the five sections that
Bina Precast Factory has:
a) The factory including engineers, labors, and staff to produce the precast concrete that
consists of cement, aggregate, sand, and rebar while the water is used in the mixing process
(Figures 2- 6 and 7).

44

Figure 2-6 Laborers in Bina Factory Figure 2-7 Bina Factory Plant
Each precast concrete piece varies in specification depending on customers demand. In some
cases, special chemicals are added to the mixture to increase the stiffness or production time.
For example, it is necessary to have the concrete mixers next to the production line in order to
reach the needed quality level (Figure 2 –8 and ).

Figure 2-8 Bina Factory Figure 2-9 Precast material storage

b) The engineering department is concerned with design as per customers need and the
specific location condition. This part is also tasked with the quality control duties making sure
that products are up to the quality level needed. What makes it an important section is that the
engineers would also know the plant capabilities and the matters related to the standards and
45

engineering details, as well coordinating activities to reach the best outcome. Moreover, the
engineering department can estimate the price of any project by determining the quantity
needed. Additionally, as part of the quality control, the do the precast stiffness test in special
labs before delivering and start construction.

c) The construction department is the section that should be integrated and in line with
production plan once there are site engineers and labor highly trained and qualified to operate
machinery to produce what engineers have designed. What makes the construction section
important is staying within schedule and meeting deadlines and delivering the project precisely.
Moreover, construction section should be able to interact easily will plant and engineering
section.

d) The logistics services department is considered important and is the only link between the
plant and construction site. It is hard to produce the precast without having the ability to transfer
if from the plant to construction site. Failure to transfer the precast will result either in
construction stoppage or overstock in construction yard.

e) The marketing department is concerned about studying markets to determine demand for
both commercial and individuals. All products need to be well marketed to be able to reach
customers. In the marketing process targets will be put in place and marketing segment will be
chosen. Selecting the marketing channel is one of the most important steps in the marketing
process and will be derived from the targeted customers.

2.2. Site Visits
2.2.1. Bina pre-cast factory
The Bina pre-cast factory and it is one of the largest factories in Saudi Arabia. The site visit was
on July 20th 2014. The Bina pre-Cast produces several kinds of wall elements which could be
considered as buildings envelopes.
This factory was visited for several reasons: (1) the factory is located in Dammam city, which
represents the same climate conditions discussed in the study, (2) to take a closer look at the
real process of pre-cast production versus the theoretical once described in the previous
section, (3) it is considered one of the biggest factories in the area dealing with government
projects, and (4) the factory is mature in the precast industry which make good demonstration
for the study.
46

The factory produces three types of panels: sandwich panels, cladding panels, and solid wall
panels.
Sandwich panels are made of two layers of steel reinforced concrete separated by insulation
material. Insulation material (extruded polystyrene etc.) provides a low thermal U-value and
improved sound insulation properties (Figure 2-10, left). Two concrete layers are connected
together using stainless steel girders or pins. Cladding panels are solid concrete units with
architectural finishing (Figure 2-10, middle). Elements are used as wall panels for facing the
building. Solid wall panels are used as part of the building system for load-bearing walls or non-
load-bearing walls (Figure 2-10, right). Electrical conduits and other required cast in parts are
incorporated into the element during production process. (Bina 2014)

Figure 2-10 Sandwich panel
Bina precast factory (Bina 2014)

2.2.2. Siporex Pre-cast Factory
The second site visited was to the Siporex pre-cast factory in the city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
(23
rd
July, 2014). The material (ALC - Aerated Light Weight Concrete) they produce is less than
one quarter of a pre-cast concrete panel’s weight that has exactly same size. Their panels has
the following advantages: light weight, excellent thermal insulation (thermal conductivity is 0.144
W/m deg C), workability, fire resistance, dimensional accuracy, and fast erection. The purpose
of the visit was to identify the method of manufacturing and to explore the production line
processes as a factory which similar to precast concrete factories in production and the method
of construction.
This factory designed the projects they manufactured in collaboration with the owner or investor
to maintain and control the production of the project to be within their standards. They always try
to have small number of mold for one project and use it as a typical panel to accelerate
production and construction, for example shop drawings for a small building use limited panel
size and design (Figure 2-15).
47

Figure 2-11 Shop drawings sample.
(Sioprex Precast Factory. 2014)
Conclusion:
There is a verity in precast production and advanced techniques in design. This is making the
selection of construction methods and design options became very wide. Precast concrete wall
is not only a plain panel, it could be architectural cladding elements or a part of the building’s
structure by itself.
The site visits revealed that Bina Precast factory is able produce what their client want. They
have huge plant and well organized factory. On the other hand, Siporex Precast Factory is
limited in their production line. The production line is fooling standardized sizes and properties
of wall panels, and they are trying to work in a collaboration with their clients to modify the
design to make it functioning with their production.
Next Chapter:
Chapter three provides to parts of research methodologies. The first one is about in energy
simulations and software that are used on them, and factors that affected energy simulations.
Second part is about physical model that had been used in examining the wall assembly.
48

3. CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Chapter three defines the research methods. It includes a discussion of the energy software
used, the choice of parameters to test, and a description of the building that was chosen as the
case study and an overview of construction and design details. The second part of the chapter
describes the methodology for physical testing.
3.1. Energy Simulation
The energy simulations were first done on a simple box and then for a house.
First, the energy simulation scheme on the same 3D Box is conducted with overhangs and
different wall’s specifications. This is to help architects and engineers to design internal zoning
and activities. Different zoning location and activities will affect the type of wall insulation and
overhangs depth and size. Function of each zone will determine how the envelope will be
constructed, the operation and space use is different from a sitting area and a storage.
3.1.1. Box
This box (20x20x10m) is a tool to explore all possible changes and options from the original
house to get quick results in the way of changing materials, properties, and design of building’s
envelope. After studying all possibilities and influences, the application of the best combined
options and solutions will be adapted on the 3D model of Arweqah house.

Figure 3-1 Energy simulation study box

49

3.1.2. House
The house is a 3D Autodesk Revit model of one of Arweqah’s housing project (Figure 3-2), that
will be described in detail in Chapter 4.

Figure 3-2 3D model of Arweqah house.
Autodesk Revit. 2014

Several energy simulations have done to study the impact of the house envelope on the internal
thermal comfort using a study model (3D box) in three wall assemblies and overhangs for
openings.
More energy simulations using different wall assemblies of the envelope to specify the most
affected components on the envelope. Wall thickness and insulation type was tested in many
categories.

Concrete:
1. Thickness
2. Layers’ assembly configuration (Place or location of the material)
3. Mold shape (plain, engraved, geometric texture)

Insulation:
1. Material Type (thermal specifications)
2. Thickness
3. Layers’ assembly configuration (Place or location of the material)

Exterior layer:
1. Material
2. Texture (self-shading)
3. Thickness
50

Third, energy simulations scheme to study the impact of overhangs and fins to specify size,
angle, and depth of overhangs and fins in all directions. The impact of neighbors’ buildings
height should be considered. Retractable and dynamic shading device might be a solution, but
the study will focus on the envelope itself deeply. The impact of overhangs will be included as a
suggestion and one of the applicable solutions.
3.2. Software
Following is a list of software programs that have been used to conduct energy simulation.
3.2.1. Climate Consultant 5.5
This software is used to explore the climate characteristics of a city. It uses annual 8760 hour
EPW format climate data that is made available at no cost by the Department of Energy for
thousands of weather stations around the world (Figure 3-3), (Milne. 2014). And there are some
suggested design strategies that are useful to include in buildings located at the same climate
zone.

Figure 3-3 Climate Consultant 5.5
3.2.2. Home Energy Efficient Design (HEED)
This software is capable to show how much energy and carbon the building could save by
making various design or remodeling changes. It is usually used in houses and small scale
projects no more than four stories and basement. The energy simulation by using this software
in this study is only to explore the effect of overhangs on energy saving only. Openings have
huge impact in building envelope, and the most popular solution is using overhangs to reduce
the direct sunlight during summer (Milne. 2014).
51

Figure 3-4 HEED
http://www.energy-design-tools.aud.ucla.edu/heed/

3.2.3. Opaque
Opaque is used to study a two-dimensional detail of wall or roof sections. From it, it calculates
U-value, time lag, and decrement factor. It also plots the temperature drop through the section.

Figure 3-5 Opaque wall section sample

Opaque also “draws 2-D daily and 3-D annual plots of outdoor and solar air temperatures,
normal and total surface radiation, and heat flow through the envelope” (Milne. 2014). This
software also helps in how to design the wall’s layers assembly, each materials’ thickness and
location can be chosen and placed from a list of options provided in the software. The list has
wood, steel, and concrete as a structural elements in the wall, and it has also insulation and
finishing materials. However, options of each marital are very limited.
52

3.2.4. Green Building Studio (GBS)
GBS is a cloud-based service to run building performance simulations to optimize energy
efficiency. It can input a Revit file for simulation. (Figure 3-6) is a sample of what GBS provide
after energy simulation.

Figure 3-6 Monthly electricity consumption

3.2.5. Project Solon.
It is a new system that allow users to customize the energy simulation tool in GBS (Figure 3-7)
in order to be compatible with studies’ variables and options. The main reason to use this
software is to generate charts that have been generated in GBS (Figure 3-6) and get results of
energy usage for only electricity cooling consumption during summer season.

Figure 3-7 Project Solon
Autodesk. 2014.

53

3.2.6. Autodesk Revit
Revit is a building design software for creating building information models (BIM). On the 3D
model energy properties will be selected with all building’s envelope thermal conditions,
materials’ specifications, and the location of the building to study and analyze the performance
of the improved design of the envelope then export it to GBS to run simulations (Figure 3-8).

Figure 3-8 3D model of Arweqah house.

3.2.7. Factors that affected energy simulations
Energy consumption is effected by a number of different factors. For example, number of users,
and building offset, and operation schedule. These factors are different based on location,
building design, and culture and life-style.
3.2.7.1. Number of users (Family size)
In all energy simulation the operation schedule and number of users will be nulti-family with
number of no less than 6 users because single family in Saudi Arabia average is 6 members
while the number of users in the U.S. is 3.1. (Figure 3-9). The blue human figure represents
U.S. single-family and green represents the Saudi single-family. The difference in the box
simulation results between single and multi-family is approximately 2 kBtu/sf/yr

Figure 3-9 Number of people per family in the U.S. vs Saudi Arabia
54

3.2.7.2. Building offset
In most of Saudi Arabia cities, houses offset from its land edges is two meters from neighbors’
sides, and one-fifth of the streets’ width from streets sides. That regulations plays a role in
shading the building with adjacent buildings and the land fence which usually has 3 m height.
(Figure 3-10) One of new housing project in the city of Dammam by Retal real-estate Company
that follows the latest city hall building regulations. Building offset and fence height are showing
the effect of adjacent building shading on other buildings.

Figure 3-10 Building planning layout.
Retal.com.sa
3.2.8. Variables
All variables will be simulated individually and in groups to specify each variable impact, then
the best of each part will be combined to get the best results on saving energy.
3.2.8.1. House’s Wall
Concrete:
1. Thickness
2. Layers’ assembly configuration (Place or location of the material)
3. Shading the wall
Insulation:
1. Material Type (thermal specifications)
2. Thickness
3. Layers’ assembly configuration (Place or location of the material)
Exterior layer:
1. Material
55

2. Shading
3. Thickness
3.2.8.2. Building Orientation
There should be a huge impact of building’s orientation, but the urban planning pattern in city of
Dammam is making most of the buildings close to each other. The simulation will focus on both
free standing house that has no surrounding buildings, and an ordinary planning pattern
neighborhood that all buildings have only 4 meters offset between them. This is discussed in
HEED and Autodesk Revit software programs, yet it is just to prove that there is an impact of
shading on cooling load and electrical consumption.
3.3. Physical Model
A physical study model of the pre-cast concrete wall, window, and door will give good results,
but since it is hard to build a physical small size model, a small part of the pre-cast concrete wall
will be helpful to test the time lag and heat transfer behavior though the wall section. If that small
size panel could have the ability to reflect in and outdoor temperatures as an existing operated
building (Schiler. 2015).
3.3.1. Elements and components in the experiment
An insulated box made of foam thermal insulation sheets “R_TECH” (Figure 3-11), (Table 3-1)
that used in the sandwich wall element also, a piece of sandwich panel, a source of heat “40
watt lamp”, and data loggers “iButton” (Figure 3-12) to measure the temperature in different
layers in the sixth face of the box where the panel will be placed.
Thermodata Viewer software and a Blue Dot™ receptor cable and a 1 ‑ Wire™ adapter (Figure
3-13) are required to use Thermodata software (Thermodata.net. 2015)
The insulated box’s wall thickness is 4.5 inch in five sides of the box, and the internal chamber’s
size is 16" x 16" x 16 “as shown in (Figure 5-15)

Table 3-1 R-TECH Insulation sheet R-value
(Insulfoam. 2015)
R- Value R-TECH Test Method

Warranted R-Values @
20 years

4.8/inch
4.4/inch
ASTM C518
@40˚ F
@75˚ F

Published R-Value
(Thermal Resistance)

4.8/inch
4.4/inch
ASTM C518
@40˚ F
@75˚ F
56

Figure 3-11 R_TECH Insulation Sheet Figure 3-12 iButton Data Logger

Figure 3-13 USB Adapter Figure 3-14 Concrete Block

Figure 3-15 Insulated Box Figure 3-16 starting one of the experiments

57

The concrete portion of the sandwich panel is four pieces of concrete blocks companied
together. Each block is 2’’ x 8’’ x 16’’ (Figure 5-18). These four concrete blocks is 4’’ width, and
there is another 2’’ of insulation to form the sandwich panel. The insulation portion (Figure 5-21)
will be within the panel to get the total thickness of 6’’ for the sandwich panel (Figure 5-22).

Figure 3-17 Sandwich panel

Figure 3-18 Elevation and section of the panel

58

3.3.2. Variables of wall assembly
The (Figure 3-19) illustrates the three wall assemblies where insulation layer is placed in
different locations within the wall from out to inside the building envelope. Wall assembly one is
composed of 2’’ of R-TECH insulation sheet then 4’’ of concrete, wall assembly two is 2’’ of
concrete, then 2’’ of R-TECH insulation, and 2’’ of concrete. Wall assembly three is 4’’ of
concrete followed by 2’’ of R-TECH insulation sheet. The left side of each section on (Figure 3-
19) is what is facing the box’s internal chamber (Figure 3-20), which represents outdoor
temperature of a building in a hot climate, and the right side is represents the indoor
environment within comfort zone temperature.

Figure 3-19 Wall assemblies – 6’’ thickness for each

Figure 3-20 Section of The insulated box
59

3.3.3. Test the box with insulation only
To begin with the experiment there should be one heat source for all walls’ assemblies that will
be tested. To choose that heat source, three experiments had been examined with three
different heat source and same insulation thickness before started the test on the location of the
insulation within the wall. The insulation was 3’’ in thickness, and heat sources were, 60 watt
incandescent frost light bulb (Figure 3-21), GE 40 watt incandescent crystal clear light bulb
(Figure 3-22), and Toshiba LED lamp, bright white 3500K, 120V, 10.5W (Figure 3-23). Three
data logger “iButton” were placed on the insulation sheet, black dots in (Figure 3-24). First data
logger was on the internal insulation surface toward box’s chamber, the second was at the
middle of insulation layer’s thickness, and the third was on the outside insulation face (Figure 5-
25).

Figure 3-21 60 W light bulb Figure 3-22 40 W light bulb Figure 3-23 10.5 W LED

Figure 3-24 Insulated box section Figure 3-25 the box’s outside face

All experiments were conducted at the south side of the Architectural Research Center (ARC),
3
rd
Floor Watt Hall, School of Architecture at University of Southern California. Some
experiments were during daytime, some were during night, and some lasted day and night.
60

Indoor temperatures of the ARC were a range between 67 °F and 75 °F (Figure 3-26).
Temperatures were measured every five minutes in all experiments.

Figure 3-26. 24h the ARC indoor temperature (°F)

3.3.3.1. Heat source one (60 watt incandescent light bulb)
The experiment lasted for about 3 hours by turning on the 60 W light bulb (Figure 5-30). Data
loggers were placed in three different places (Figure 5-26). The temperature inside the insulated
box’s chamber exceeded 185 °F in the first hour, which is the highest limit of iButton data logger
to measure (Maxim Integrated. 2015). The blue line shows the data from the first iButton inside
the box, the orange shows the in-between iButton, and the gray line is the outside iButton that
did not change (Figure 3-27). The upper first internal insulation chamber’s layer have been
effected and shrank because of the enormous heat generated by the light bulb (Figure 3-28
and, 29).
61

Figure 3-27 60 W incandescent light bulb temperatures chart

Figure 3-28 First insulation layer shrank Figure 3-29 Inside view of the upper layer
3.3.3.2. Heat source two (40 watt incandescent light bulb)
The second experiment lasted for about 4 hours by turning on the 40 watt light bulb (Figure 3-
30). Data loggers were placed in three different places (Figure 5-26). The temperature inside
the insulated box’s chamber had increased fast in the first hour then started to stabilize at the
last 1 hour. The temperature exceeded 185 °F in approximately 3 hours. The blue line shows
the data from the first iButton inside the box, the orange shows the in-between iButton that
62

reached 130 °F which the highest from this iButton, and the gray line is the outside iButton that
have started to increase up to 84 °F at the same point of the highest temperature for the blue
line (Figure 3-31).

Figure 3-30 second experiment before closing the box

Figure 3-31 60 W incandescent light bulb temperatures chart

63

3.3.3.3. Heat source three (10.5 W LED lamp)
The third experiment lasted for about 4 hours by turning on the 10.5 watt LED light bulb. Data
loggers were placed in three different places (Figure 3-32). The temperature inside the insulated
box’s chamber was increasing gradually in a nearly flat slope. The blue line shows the data from
the first iButton inside the box, the orange shows the in-between iButton that was increasing
nearly parallel with the blue line, and the gray line is the outside iButton that remained flat with
no change (Figure 3-33).

Figure 3-32 LED light experiment

Figure 3-33 LED 10.5 W bulb temperatures chart

64

3.4. Back to Autodesk Revit
There are also two boxes, 3D models, that have same height which is 20’, the first one is 30’ x
30’, and the other is 60’ x 60’. Both have been used in Autodesk Revit to compare the results of
wall assemblies in the physical model that is explained in (3.3. Physical Model). There were
three simulation for each box, all three included the same wall assembly as the physical model.

Conclusion:
Energy simulations have been done on the 3D box model to adapt the simulations later on the
house 3D model. Results from all software that have been mentioned have been discussed in
chapter five. Climate Consultant, HEED, Opaque, Project Solon, Green Building Studio, and
Autodesk Revit. Factors that effected on energy simulation were considered on the software
that has number of users and operation schedule like Revit.
On the physical model, there were some obstacles to start testing the variables, yet some
experiments have been conducted to make the model ready to examine wall assemblies. The
40 watt incandescent light bulb had been selected to conduct the walls’ assemblies’
experiments as the heat source after the three different heat source was examined. The 40 watt
light bulb was selected because it is generating an adequate heat level that will not make the
insulation sheets shrinks and lost its ability to prevent heat exchange between the insulated
box’s chamber and the ARC at Watt Hall indoor temperature, and it is providing enough heat to
proceed insulation and walls assembly’s experiments.

Next Chapter:
Chapter 4 has two parts, first one is concentrating on Arweqah house that have been chosen as
a model to apply the study on it. The second part is describing the climate condition of city of
Dammam where Arweqah house located.

65

4. CHAPTER FOUR: Description of a selected building and climate analysis
This chapter is focusing on the selected house that have been used as a model to apply
findings from energy simulations and the physical wall examine model. Also the climate
conditions of the location during summer season.
4.1. Data collection of Arweqah house
Arweqah is part of Almuaibed Company’s Group; its field is real estate development for housing
in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. One of Arweqah’s projects was a construction of five simple
family houses (Figure 3-1). The project was designed and supervised by Design Concept
Architecture firm, and Fahad Alshiddi (author) participated in the design and construction
phases of the project. Those houses have been selected because they follow the new concept
of Saudi house area, function, and zonings which smaller in size than what houses size were 10
years ago. Also, they follow the latest city hall conditions and regulations for new houses in city
of Dammam. The case study house is the second building from the left (Figure 4-1).

Figure 4-1 Arweqah project in city of Dammam
DesignConcept.cpm.sa

As a result, the majority of people are choosing the concept of small house in City of Dammam
to make it affordable, and more convenient. The average price per square meter of suitable land
for a house that has almost all services is up to 1500 SAR which is equivalent to $400; this is
considered a very high price.

66

4.1.1. Description of selected building “Arweqah house”.
Architect Design Concept Architectural Engineering Firm
Location Dammam, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
Date 2013
Building type Private villa
Contractor Almuaibid’s Group - Construction Concept
Context Urban
Land area 3444.5 sq. ft. (320 m
2
)
1
st
floor area 1733 sq. ft. (161 m
2
)
Total built up area: 4349 sq. ft. (404 m2)

2
nd
floor area 1830 sq. ft. (170 m2)
3
rd
floor area 786 sq. ft. (73 m2)
Construction type Concrete insulated blocks – Cast-on-site
Table 4-1 Arweqah house information

Figure 4-2 Arweqah house – South West elevation.
67

4.1.1.1. Siting
The building parameter is 193.5’ (59 m), and the building is surrounded by neighbors from three
sides. The distance from all three sides from the edge of the land is 6.5’ (2 m). Neighbors also
have the same distance, so the total distance between two buildings is 13’ (4 m). The fourth
side, which is the main side facing the street must have more than 40’ (12 m) in width to make it
possible to have a garage, main entrance, and electrical meter box with other service facilities
(Figure 4-3).
4.1.1.2. Arweqah House layout
The house has three floors, first floor is mainly for day activities such as sitting, dining, and
hosting. Second floor is bedrooms plus a smaller sitting area than the one in firs floor. Third floor
is sharing between the roof and maid room (Figure 4-3). A description of each floor and spaces
areas are in (Table 4-2).

Figure 4-3 Arweqah House layout.
Design Concept Architectural Engineering Firm

68

First floor Secund floor Third floor
Male sitting area Master bedroom Laundry
Dining room One Bedroom with bathroom Maid room
Visitors living room Two bedroom with bathroom Hall
Family bathroom Family living room
Visitors bathroom Outside
Garage
Driver room
Table 4-2 Arweqah house floors and functions.

4.1.1.3. Building envelope material
Two types of concrete blocks have been used in the building’s construction (Figure 4-4), hollow
concrete blocks (blue circle at the left), and insulated concrete sandwich blocks (red circle at the
right). The hollow concrete blocks for the interior walls, and the insulated is for the building
envelope.

Figure 4-4 Arweqah house during construction, 2012.
Concrete insulated blocks (8” sandwich block non load bearing) is the main element of the
building envelope. There are two layers added to this concrete insulated blocks out and inside
faces of the envelope. Both sides are painted with yellow color outside and white color inside.

69

Density 20 – 24 Kg/m³

Thermal conductivity 0.037 W/m². C°
Size 400 x 200 x 200mm
Table 4-3 Concrete block specifications
(Almanaratain. 2010)
www.almanaratain.com

4.1.2. Arweqah house summer 2014 electrical consumption
Here is only one original copy of the electrical consumption bill for Arweqah’s house during
June, 2014 (Figure 4-5). The copy is in Arabic Language and Saudi Riyals, so there is a
translation to English, and conversion to U.S. Dollars in (Table 4-4). The translated copies show
that the electrical consumption in Kw/h is 3146 in June 2014. (For July and August
consumption see the two (Tables 4-5 and 6). See Appendix A for the other original versions.

Figure 4-5 Electrical bill for June, 2014.
(Saudi Electrical Company. 2014)

70

June electrical bill for the period from 4
th
of June to 3
rd
of July, 2014.
Electricity Bill Province
Eastern
Subscriber Name Bill Number
1011796592
Address:
Block # 1003 Land # 992 From
4
th
Jun.
Unit # 2 Building # 0 To
3
rd
Jul.

Account Number 10001579111 Bill Date
Due Amount 61.2 $ Distribution Date
Due Date 8
th
Aug. Cut Off Date

Subscriber
Number 31011796592 Consumption Charges 57.2$
Reader Number 14656 Reader Charges 4$
Voltage Capacity 150
Current Period
Chargers 61.2$
Current Reading 46809
Previous Period
Charges 0
Previous
Reading 43663
Multiplier 1
Consumption 3146 Kw/h Number of Days 30
Total
Consumption 3146 Kw/h Previous outstanding 0
Area Number 312 Due Amount 61.2 $

service Office
Khobar
Customer Service Number
92000100
Emergency Number
933
Website
www.se.com.sa
Consumption Category
KW/h
Bill Date
June, 2014
Table 4-4 June electrical consumption.

71

July electrical bill, the period is from 4
th
of July to 6
th
of August, 2014.

Electricity Bill Province
Eastern
Subscriber Name Bill Number
1011796592
Address:
Block # 1003 Land # 992 From
4
th
Jul.
Unit # 2 Building # 0 To
6
th
Aug.

Account Number 10001579111 Bill Date
Due Amount 62.5 $ Distribution Date
Due Date 8
th
Sep. Cut Off Date

Subscriber
Number 31011796592 Consumption Charges 58.5$
Reader Number 14656 Reader Charges 4$
Voltage Capacity 150
Current Period
Chargers 62.5 $
Current Reading 50139
Previous Period
Charges 0
Previous
Reading 46809
Multiplier 1
Consumption 3330 Kw/h Number of Days 34
Total
Consumption 3330 Kw/h Previous outstanding 0
Area Number 312 Due Amount 62.5 $

service Office
Khobar
Customer Service Number
92000100
Emergency Number
933
Website
www.se.com.sa
Consumption Category
KW/h
Bill Date
July, 2014
Table 4-5 July electrical consumption.

72

August electrical bill, the period is from 7
th
of August to 7
th
of September, 2014.

Electricity Bill Province
Eastern
Subscriber Name Bill Number
1011796592
Address:
Block # 1003 Land # 992 From
7
h
Aug.
Unit # 2 Building # 0 To
7
rd
Sep.

Account Number 10001579111 Bill Date
Due Amount 70.6 $ Distribution Date
Due Date 8
th
Nov. Cut Off Date

Subscriber
Number 31011796592 Consumption Charges 66.6$
Reader Number 14656 Reader Charges 4$
Voltage Capacity 150
Current Period
Chargers 61.2$
Current Reading 53704
Previous Period
Charges 0
Previous
Reading 50139
Multiplier 1
Consumption 3565 Kw/h Number of Days 32
Total
Consumption 3565 Kw/h Previous outstanding 0
Area Number 312 Due Amount 70.6 $

service Office
Khobar
Customer Service Number
92000100
Emergency Number
933
Website
www.se.com.sa
Consumption Category
KW/h
Bill Date
August, 2014
Table 4-6 August electrical consumption.

73

4.1.3. Annual weather data.
Only 10% of measured temperature data of a year are within the comfort zone (blue polygon) on
Figure 3-2 the Psychrometric Chart during a year – City of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates,
Based on California Energy Code. The temperature reaches 110 °F (43 °C) in summer, and 50
°F (10 °C) in winter. The red dots represent hourly measured temperatures outside the range of
the comfort zone, and green dots represent hourly temperatures within the range of comfort
zone (Figure 4-6).

Figure 4-6 Psychrometric Chart during a year – City of Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Climate Consultant 5.5
4.1.4. Summer season – June, July, and August.
Focusing on the summer season, only 1% of measured temperatures are within the comfort
zone for the period from 1
st
of May throughout September, (Figure 4-7). The lowest recorded
temperature for the study period was in June which is 74°F (23°C), as the dry bulb temperature
it is within the comfort zone, but the relative humidity was above the comfort zone range.

74

Figure 4-7 Psychrometric Chart, 1
st
of May until the end of September.
Climate Consultant 5.5

The length of the day during the summer exceeds 12 hours, actually, it is 13.5 at mid of June.
That long time of the day should have a huge impact in the time lag of the temperature between
in and outdoor temperatures, especially in hot climates (Figure 4-8). Preventing the building
from the direct sunlight could have remarkable results on energy saving as a possible passive
design strategy.

Figure 4-8 Hours of Sun during the summer.
Weatherspark.com

At the beginning of June, summer season has already started. The mean high temperature in
May and September (red upper curved line in Figure 4-9) is 100 °F (37 °C), and the study period
is 109°F (42°C). The average mean low (blue lower curved line) for May and September is 82
°F, and 86° for the study period.

75

Figure 4-9 Mean High and Mean low – from 1
st
of May until end of September.
Weatherspark.com
4.1.4.1. A week in forecast in July 2014.
Exploring a week during July (Figure 4-10), the highest recorded air temperature was 126 °F (52
°C) in Tuesday July 15
th
with relative humidity of 64%, actually it is the highest recoded
temperature during the year. An inverse relation between relative humidity and temperatures
day and night. Relative humidity increases at night time, it exceeds 90% on some nights, and it
decreases when the temperature increases during day time.

Figure 4-10 A week forecast in July 2014.
Weatherspark.com
76

4.1.4.2. August daily Min/Max temperatures.
Orange lines that begin and end with small dots at their edges define the highest and lowest
temperature recorded each day in August (Figure 4-11). Almost all days have the same inverse
relationship in the previous chart (Figure 4-10) for the week of July, which was the different
between relative humidity and dry bulb temperatures. 100% of the days’ temperatures, minimum
and maximum, are out of the comfort zone (blue polygon). The difference between the
maximum and minimum temperatures is approximately 25 degrees Fahrenheit. Despite the fact
that the minimum temperatures is approximately 25 degrees less than the maximum, there are
also about another 5 degrees less needed to reach the comfort zone. June and July have nearly
the same, but August was selected to make the chart clear with fewer lines for each day.

Figure 4-11 August daily Min/Max temperatures.
Climate Consultant 5.5

77

Conclusion:
By looking at the house design and its envelope, materials, and location in addition to the
climate conditions it reveals that the climate condition is extremely hot and humid. Many climate
factors, architectural element, and design strategies may possibly be included and examined on
the house. Natural ventilation, overhangs, building envelope are some issues that are possible
to be changed. Not only as new construction project, but some are applicable to retrofit the
house.
Next Chapter:
Chapter five includes the energy simulation results discussion for HEED, Opaque, Green
Building Studio, and Climate Consultant.

78

5. CHPTER FIVE: ENERGY SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS
The energy simulation results are discussed for HEED, Opaque, Green Building Studio, and
Climate Consultant.
5.1. Home Energy Efficient Design (HEED) Results

The energy simulation in HEED is focused on the impact of overhangs in overall cooling load
and electricity energy savings during summer. To prevent direct sunlight during summer season
the depth for south, east, and west windows must be equal to windows’ height (Figure 5-1). As a
design issue, overhangs could be break up into different levels for less projection. Fins are
needed for east and west windows, and the depth was half of the window’s width. The
simulation here was to explore the west windows with and without overhangs on 25
th
July which
is within peak period in summer.

Figure 5-1 Arweqah House in HEED energy simulation

Table 5-1 West Windows With and without overhangs on 25
th
July
79

5.2. Opaque
Opaque helps in how to design the wall’s layers assembly, each materials’ thickness and
location, and thermal properties. Also it gives results of time-lag, total R-value, and decrement
factor of the wall.
R-value is: “a measure of the resistance of an insulating or building material to heat flow,
expressed as R-11, R-20, and so on; the higher the number, the greater the resistance to heat
flow” (dictionary.reference.com. 2015). R-value of precast concrete insulated wall panel is
mainly deepens on the thickness of insulation layer, “the range is from R-5 to R-50” (Handorf,
2012).
Time lag and decrement factor: (Figure 5-2) “The time delay due to the thermal mass is known
as a time lag. High thermal mass and thicker wall section will take longer time to the heat loss or
gain longer through the wall. The reduction in cyclical temperature on the inside surface
compared to the outside surface is knows and the Decrement factor. Thus, a material with a
decrement factor of 0.5 which experiences a 20 degree diurnal variation in external surface
temperature would experience only a 10 degree variation in internal surface temperature”
(CLEAR. 2015). Decrement factor lower is butter (closer to zero) because it is determining the
ability and performance of thermal properties of the wall and how it rejects and delays heat
transfer from outdoor to indoor environment.
Decrement factor is calculated as:
F = Ti (the maximum swing from the ambient temperature on the inside) / Te (the swing in
external temperature)

Figure 5-2 Time lag and Decrement factor
Greenspec. 2015
greenspec.co.uk/building-design/decrement-delay
80

5.2.1. Opaque Results
More than 50 wall’s assemblies have been tested in Opaque to find the most appropriate wall
section design that later could be used in a residential buildings’ envelope. This was then
applied to the wall section (wall assembly) in Revit 3D model to run energy simulations on the
selected house. All wall’s assemblies were a combination of concrete and insulation, and each
of them, concrete and insulation portions, have different thickness and place within the section
of the wall. Walls are covered by 0.5 of stucco plaster to protect the wall from outside. The 50
wall’s assemblies have been simplified to two types, 6’’ and 8’’ of concrete, the two types have
also two different insulation thickness, 3’’ and 6’’.
Thermal properties of each material used in this simulation from Opaque:
Material Thickness
(in)
R-value U-value Decrement
Factor
Time Lag
Concrete 1 0.19 5.26 0.99 -0.49
Polystyrene insulation 1 5 0.2 1 -0.05
Stucco Plaster 1 0.2 5 0.95 -1.80
Table 5-2 Materials’ thermal properties from Opaque
5.2.1.1. Wall’s assembly (6’’ of concrete + insulation)
This is the first group of the walls, 6’’ concrete wall + insulation in two different thickness, 3’’ and
6’’. There is also a 0.5’’ of stucco plaster that covers the wall from outside of the building. Eight
walls have been selected to compare and figure out the best thickness and location of the
insulation layer within the wall. Four of the eight were 9.5’’ in thickness for each by adding 3’’ of
insulation to the 6’’ of concrete and moving the insulation from outside to inside the building.
The other four is 12.5”, same thickness in the concrete portion but have 6’’ of insulation, (Figure
5 – 3 and 4), (table 5 – 3 and 4) Each column is representing one wall’s assembly, the blue
color is the concrete portion, and the orange color is the insulation layer showing the place of
the insulation within the wall. Time lag is the scale that have been chosen to compare the
thermal properties between walls because each wall of the four in this group have the same R-
value and thickness.

Figure 5-3 Opaque 6’’ concrete 3’’ insulation Table 5-3 Opaque 6’’ concrete 3’’ insulation
81

Figure 5-4 Opaque 6’’ concrete 6’’ insulation Table 5-4 Opaque 6’’ concrete 6’’ insulation
So far, from all of eight walls, time lag is longer when insulation layer is placed closer to the
outside face after a 2’’ of concrete.
5.2.1.2. Wall’s assembly (8’’ of concrete + insulation)
The second group of the walls, 8’’ concrete wall + insulation in two different thickness, 3’’ and
6’’. As the previous group there is also a 0.5’’ of stucco plaster that covers the wall from outside
of the building. Eight walls have been selected to compare and figure out the best thickness and
location of the insulation layer within the wall. Four of the eight were 11.5’’ in thickness for each
by adding 3’’ of insulation to the 8’’ of concrete and moving the insulation from outside to inside
the building. The other four is 14.5”, same thickness in the concrete portion but have 6’’ of
insulation, (Figures 5 – 5 and 6), (Tables 5 – 5 and 6).

Figure 5-5 Opaque 8’’ concrete 3’’ insulation Table 5-5 Opaque 8’’ concrete 3’’ insulation

82

Figure 5-6 Opaque 8’’ concrete 6’’ insulation Table 5-6 Opaque 8’’ concrete 6’’ insulation

So far, from all of eight walls, time lag is longer when insulation layer is placed closer to the
outside face after a 2’’ of concrete, yet there is no huge different if the insulation layer is placed
at the center of the wall.
5.2.1.3. Selected wall assembly:
6’’ of concrete and 6’’ of insulation wall’s assembly have been selected (Figure 5-7) because of
its thickness and thermal properties compared to the other 15 walls. The layers from outside to
inside are Stucco Plaster 0.5 in, Concrete wall 2 in, Polystyrene Insulation 6 in, Concrete Wall 4
in. For decrement factor the closer to zero is better, and in this wall the factor is 0.16. Thickness
of insulation in this wall is equal to the concrete portion.
The problem with this layer’s assembly is the insulation layer cannot be continuous as if it’s
located at the edge of the wall, so this will increase the infiltration rate. And the results from all
types of assemblies shows that if the insulation is located at the edge, time-lag will be less than
this type.

Figure 5-7 Opaque wall section
83

Table 5-7 Opaque wall section details

5.3. Autodesk Revit and GBS Results
A box tool have been used to act as a building to figure out changes in energy simulations
results while changing and test different variables. This box “tool” made it easy to change and
compare variables before applying the study on the house 3D model. It is one space building:
30’ x 30’ x 20’ (Figure 5-8) without any openings to analyze walls performance only.
The Total EUI: 46 kBtu / sf / yr. for the box tool during a year.

Figure 5-8 Revit box tool

Figure 5-9 Energy use electricity

84

Table 5-8 Box tool’s specifications

5.3.1. Potential energy saving
Wall insulation has huge potential in energy saving as shown in (Figure 5-10). A cap over the
box tool was added to explore the impact of self-shading strategy on walls (lift side box building)
compare it to the right side box building without shading. The results shows that there is 10%
less in wall insulation saving potential if the wall is been shaded. As a design issue, there could
be other solutions to shade the wall. For instance, changing the geometry of the walls’ façade.
85

Figure
5-10 Energy potential savings
Green Building Studio
After the energy saving potential had been explored in GBS, another energy simulation have
been used to figure out how much electrical energy could be saved by shading the walls. The
box is 4x4x4 meters. Located in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Annual simulation (Figure 5-11).
Results shows a reduction in electricity and increasing in fuel by approximately 3%. That is
showing how the shading strategy is contributing in saving electricity consumption, on the other
hand, there is an increasing in heating energy consumption.
86

Figure 5-11 Annual electricity and fuel consumption

5.4. Project Solon Results
Project Solon software have been used in the study because it calculates the energy use during
a specific period of time. It is a new system that allow users to customize the energy simulation
tool in GBS in order to be compatible with studies’ variables and options. A variety of many
study templates could be designed in this tool which facilitate the comparison process to reach
the goal of a study. Charts below are the results of energy simulations during the summer using
the box.
Obviously, there were errors accrued during energy simulations as it shown in the charts. All
charts (Figure 5-12, 13, and 14) should show differences in each category as a results of
changing in variables that have been made in the box tool which are shading the entire
envelope and the location of the insulation within the wall, yet no changes had been shown in
the results.
The electrical energy consumption chart in (Figure 5-14) should show all selected tasks’
electrical energy consumption, month by month, because all were selected during energy
simulation. As shown, it could not show all but lights, pumps and auxiliaries, and vent fans
which seems the energy simulation did not operate sufficiently in Project Solon.
87

Figure 5-12 Cooling Load

Figure 5-13 Monthly Electricity and Fuel Consumption

Figure 5-14 Electrical Energy Consumption
88

5.5. Climate Consultant Results
Climate Consultant provides design strategies depends on the psychrometric chart that have
been generated in the software by selected weather station. The weather station in this
simulation was city of Abu Dhabi, UAE.
There should be a comfort model to define the comfort zone within the generated
psychrometric, so California Energy Code Comfort Model, 2008, was selected. The code is “For
the purpose of sizing the heating and cooling system the indoor Dry Bulb temperature should be
70°F (21.1°C) to 75°F (23.9°C). The maximum humidity is set at 80% with a lower Dew Point of
27°F (-2.8°C)” (California Energy Code. 2008).
5.5.1. Suggested Design Strategies
Followings, fins / overhangs, insulation / thermal mass, and air conditioner / natural ventilation.
These are design strategies that are applicable for humid climate, especially, during summer
season.
5.5.1.1. Fins and overhangs:
Arrange the greater part of the glass and openings in the north façade, and use vertical fins
(Figure 5-15) to prevent direct sunlight. Heat gain is unwanted in very hot climate.
Dynamic overhangs, or fixed designed for city of Dammam latitude “26.39” (Figure 5-16) that
allow direct sunlight in winter season only is recommended to reduce the electrical load for
cooling in summer season.

Figure 5-15 North façade fins
(Climate Consultant. 2013)
89

Figure 5-16 Suggested overhangs designs
(Climate Consultant. 2013)

5.5.1.2. Insulation and thermal mass:

Exposed high mass materials toward inside surfaces like tiles or marbles in floor finishes, and
masonry concrete in walls have the ability to store cool temperature if the insulation layer placed
outside the wall (Figure 5-17).
The advantage of storing cool temperature in high mass material during night and by
mechanical system will reduce the swing of temperatures difference between day and night
(Figure. 5-18). The interior high mass surfaces will release the cool temperature to the indoor
environment by convection and conduction (figure 5-19).
90

Figure 5-17 Insulation layer is placed outside face of the wall
(Climate Consulted. 2013)

Figure 5-18 Indoor air vs. high mass interior surface temperatures differences day and night
(Climate Consultant. 2013)

91

Figure 5-19 High mass interior surface conduction
(Climate Consultant. 2013)

5.5.1.3. Air conditioner and natural ventilation:
In this very hot climate, air condition is essential (Figure 5-20), yet natural ventilation will reduce
the needed amount of air condition at night when temperatures drop. Allow cross natural
ventilation, and air movement that could be enhanced by ceiling fan, whole house fan, of jump
duct, to get the advantage of cooling the interior high mass surfaces which, as previously
mentioned, will release the cool stored temperature to the indoor air during day time (Figure 5-
21).

Figure 5-20 Air conditioner and cross ventilation
(Climate Consultant. 2013)

92

Figure 5-21 Whole house fan, cross ventilation, and jump duct
(Climate Consultant. 2013)

Conclusion:
The energy simulation results are discussed for several software: first in HEED that shows the
impact of overhangs in energy saving, especially in the west façade. Second, Opaque that
shows different wall assemblies and their thermal properties, time lag and the location of
insulation layer were the main concerns. Third, Green Building Studio that was hard to show the
results that were needed to prove summer cooling load. Last, are some design strategies,
passive / active, and suggestions on buildings’ architecture that are located at hot humid climate
zone from Climate Consultant.
Next Chapter:
Chapter six has two parts. First part is results for the physical model. Second part is the new
energy simulations from Autodesk Revit. Both are discussing and examine the three different
wall assemblies and their reaction and impact on cooling electricity consumption.

93

6. CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS FOR THE PHYSICAL MODEL AND REVIT
SIMULATIONS
The results for the physical model and the new energy simulations from Autodesk Revit are
discussed. The physical model it to examine the behavior of heat flow within the wall, and to find
the best insulated concrete wall assembly. Wall assemblies are three, all have the same
thickness and materials, but the location of the insulation layer is different. All tasted wall
assemblies are examined in Autodesk Revit to compare the results with the physical model.
6.1. Physical experiment results for three wall assemblies
The following describes three tests of insulation placed in different locations within the wall from
out to inside a building envelope (Figure 6-1). First panel is composed of 2’’ of R-TECH
insulation sheet then 4’’ of concrete, second wall panel is 2’’ of concrete, then 2’’ of R-TECH
insulation, and 2’’ of concrete. Third panel is 4’’ of concrete followed by 2’’ of R-TECH insulation
sheet. The left side of each section on (Figure 6-1) is what is facing the box’s internal chamber
(Figure 6-2) which represents outdoor temperature of a building in a hot climate, and the right
side is represents the indoor environment within comfort zone temperature.

Figure 6-1 Wall assemblies – 6’’ thickness for each

94

Figure 6-2 Section of The insulated box

6.1.1. Wall assembly one (2’’ Insulation, 4’’ Concrete)
Experiment one represented a panel that has insulation placed on the first layer of the building
envelope from outside. The experiment lasted for about 3 hours by turning on the 40 watt
incandescent light bulb. Data loggers were placed in three different places “green, blue, and
yellow dots, where green is the first one from inside face of the panel” (Figure 6-3).
The temperature on the first layer inside the insulated box’s chamber was increasing sharp in
the first 30 minutes then started to increase gently up to 185 °F for the rest of the 3 hours, the
upper green line on (Figure 6-4). The blue shows the iButton placed after the 2’’ of insulation
that was nearly flat with very small increase, and the yellow line is the outside iButton that
remained flat with no change.
95

Figure 6-3 wall’s assembly one

Figure 6-4 wall’s assembly one temperatures
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Temperature (°F)
In Beteween Out
96

Temperatures had been increasing gradually and reached 185 °F inside the insulated box. After
3 hours of that increasing of temperature the slope became asymptotic with the horizontal line
(Figure 6-4). At the beginning of experiment one, measured temperatures had larger increasing
compared with temperatures at the end when the slope of the temperatures started to became
flat, while the same behavior of increasing in temperatures scenario was after the insulation
layer that measured by iButton 2 “the blue line”, but the increasing was very small compared to
the insulation internal surface temperature. Insulation layer played an important role in rejecting
the energy to get through the wall assembly not as the concrete portion of the wall.
All data loggers “iButtons” were configured to measure the temperatures every five minutes
during the experiment period, yet to compare the behavior of heating source and its effect on
the wall assembly, every hour temperatures were simplified to compare each hour from the
beginning until the light bulb turned off (Figure 6-5). The difference before and after the 2’’
insulation layer in temperature was 96 °F while it was 13.5 °F between the 4’’ of concrete.

Figure 6-5 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly one)

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
In Between Out
Temperature (°F)
11:36:00 AM
12:36:00 PM
1:36:00 PM
2:41:00 PM
97

6.1.2. Wall assembly two (2’’ Concrete, 2’’ Insulation, 2’’ Concrete)
Experiment two represented what is known as a sandwich wall, a panel that has insulation
placed in-between two portion of concrete. The experiment lasted for about 5 hours by turning
on the 40 watt light bulb. Data loggers were placed in four different places “green, blue, yellow,
and red dots” (Figure 6-6).
The temperature on the first layer inside the insulated box’s chamber had a stabilized increasing
during the 5 hours and reached up to 125 °F. The blue line on that represents temperatures
from the second iButton was increasing parallel with the green line with different of
approximately 20 °F degrees. The yellow and red lines remained flat with no change in
temperature (Figurer 6-7)

Figure 6-6 Wall’s assembly two
98

Figure 6-7 Wall’s assembly two temperatures (5 hours)

In the last experiment, the temperature of the surface of the first layer which is the 2’’ of
concrete did not reach or get closer to the wall’s assembly one. It seems that the concrete
portion needs longer time to gain heat because of its thermal properties. In the wall’s assembly
one the first layer which is the 2’’ R-TECH insulation was rejecting and penetrating heat which
made it easy for the internal temperature to increase.
To get the same amount of heat inside the box’s chamber, a longer time experiment have been
conducted to the sandwich panel (Figure 6-8). The experiment lasted for about 13 hours. The
temperature of the surface inside reached 175 °F, and the temperature of the second iButton
“the blue line” which was placed before the insulation layer also was increasing parallel with the
green line. The two iButtons, the yellow and red which have been placed after the insulation
layer remained nearly flat with nothing noticeable.
Noteworthy, after the heat source turned off at 1:00 AM, the concrete layer started to release
the amount of heat that had been gained during the experiment. Obviously it took nearly same
time to releasing as gaining the heat amount for the concrete.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
8:31:00 AM
8:41:00 AM
8:51:00 AM
9:01:00 AM
9:11:00 AM
9:21:00 AM
9:31:00 AM
9:41:00 AM
9:51:00 AM
10:01:00 AM
10:11:00 AM
10:21:00 AM
10:31:00 AM
10:41:00 AM
10:51:00 AM
11:01:00 AM
11:11:00 AM
11:21:00 AM
11:31:00 AM
11:41:00 AM
11:51:00 AM
12:01:00 PM
12:11:00 PM
12:21:00 PM
12:31:00 PM
12:41:00 PM
12:51:00 PM
1:01:00 PM
1:11:00 PM
1:21:00 PM
1:31:00 PM
Temperature (°F)
In Insulation 1 Insulation 2 Out
99

Figure 6-8 Wall’s assembly two temperatures (13 hours)

Same as experiment one, the 2’’ insulation layer in the sandwich panel also preventing the heat
amount to penetrate the wall assembly even if it’s placed between two portions of concrete. 2’’
at each side of it. At the very last hour measured, the difference in temperature before and after
the 2’’ insulation layer was 74 °F while the differences were no larger than 11 °F in both two
sides of the concrete portions (Figure 6-9). Also the measured temperatures had been simplified
to hours rather than every five minutes as what all iButtons had been configured to measure.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
11:01:00 AM
11:36:00 AM
12:11:00 PM
12:46:00 PM
1:21:00 PM
1:56:00 PM
2:31:00 PM
3:06:00 PM
3:41:00 PM
4:16:00 PM
4:51:00 PM
5:26:00 PM
6:01:00 PM
6:36:00 PM
7:11:00 PM
7:46:00 PM
8:21:00 PM
8:56:00 PM
9:31:00 PM
10:06:00 PM
10:41:00 PM
11:16:00 PM
11:51:00 PM
12:26:00 AM
1:01:00 AM
1:36:00 AM
2:11:00 AM
2:46:00 AM
3:21:00 AM
3:56:00 AM
4:31:00 AM
5:06:00 AM
5:41:00 AM
6:16:00 AM
Temperature °F
In Insulation 1 Insulation 2 Out
100

Figure 6-9 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly two)

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
In Insulation 1 Insulation 2 Out
Temperature (°F)
11:01:00 AM
12:01:00 PM
1:01:00 PM
2:01:00 PM
3:01:00 PM
4:01:00 PM
5:01:00 PM
6:01:00 PM
7:01:00 PM
8:01:00 PM
9:01:00 PM
10:01:00 PM
11:01:00 PM
12:01:00 AM
1:01:00 AM
101

6.1.3. Wall Assembly Type Three (4’’ Concrete, 2’’ Insulation)
Experiment three represented a panel that has insulation placed on the first layer of the internal
side of the building. The experiment lasted for about 15 hours by turning on the 40 watt light
bulb. The 15 hours have been decided to be the experiment period of time after the results from
the first experiment of the wall’s assembly two, also the longest day of the year is not more than
13 hours in the City of Dammam. Data loggers were placed in three different places “the green,
blue, and yellow dots” (Figure 6-10).
The temperature on the first layer inside the insulated box’s chamber was increasing sharp in
the first 30 minutes then started to increase gently up to 163 °F for the rest of the 13 hours, the
green line on (Figure 6-11). The blue shows the iButton after the 4’’ of concrete that was also
increasing parallel with the green line with a difference about 20 °F. Lastly, the yellow line is the
outside of the box iButton that remained flat with no change in the insulation surface.

Figure 6-10 Wall’s assembly three
102

Figure 6-11 Wall’s assembly three temperatures

Temperatures increasing behavior were exactly same as the previous two experiments, yet it
took longer time in this experiment to heat up the box’s chamber because of the time needed to
heat the 4’’ of concrete that was placed as the first layer inside the box facing the heating
source. Obviously the 2’’ insulation layer is preventing heat from the light bulb inside the box,
but the amount of heat that was heating up the concrete portion made the highest temperature
hit before the insulation layer 140 °F only, not like the previous two experiments that exceeded
170 °F.
In fact, the differences before and after the insulation is still higher than before and after the
concrete portion also in this assembly. It was 20 °F gap before and after the 4’’ of concrete, and
93 ° before and after the 2’’ of insulation (Figure 6-12).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
10:51:00 AM
11:26:00 AM
12:01:00 PM
12:36:00 PM
1:11:00 PM
1:46:00 PM
2:21:00 PM
2:56:00 PM
3:31:00 PM
4:06:00 PM
4:41:00 PM
5:16:00 PM
5:51:00 PM
6:26:00 PM
7:01:00 PM
7:36:00 PM
8:11:00 PM
8:46:00 PM
9:21:00 PM
9:56:00 PM
10:31:00 PM
11:06:00 PM
11:41:00 PM
12:16:00 AM
12:51:00 AM
1:26:00 AM
2:01:00 AM
2:36:00 AM
3:11:00 AM
3:46:00 AM
4:21:00 AM
4:56:00 AM
5:31:00 AM
Temperature (°F)
In Between Out
103

Figure 6-12 Hourly measured temperatures (wall’s assembly three)
6.1.4. Comparing wall assemblies
All three walls have exactly the same thickness and size (figure 6-1 andb13), and the heating
source that had been used to run the experiments was the 40 watt incandescent light bulb for all
of them. Results and outputs are slightly different in their behavior and scenarios in heat flow
within the wall (Table 6-1). Noteworthy, is the different in the experiments period of time that
took only 3 hours in the wall assembly one, and more than 13 hours in wall assemblies two and
three. (Figure 6-13) Shows how was the heat energy penetrated the wall in each case, hour by
hour. The colored line that started from the bottom of the panels in blue color is the first
measured hour, each line is representing the measured temperatures hourly. Dark red color line
at the top is when each of experiments finished.
In all cases the temperatures started flat with no difference between in and outside, then all had
different slopes at the end of each case.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
In Between Out
Temperature (°F)
11:01:00 AM
12:01:00 PM
1:01:00 PM
2:01:00 PM
3:01:00 PM
4:01:00 PM
5:01:00 PM
6:01:00 PM
7:01:00 PM
8:01:00 PM
9:01:00 PM
10:01:00 PM
11:01:00 PM
12:01:00 AM
1:01:00 AM
2:01:00 AM
104

1 2 3
Experiment period of time 3 hours 13 hours 15 hours
Temperature difference before and after insulation 96 °F 74 °F 93 °F
Temperature difference before and after concrete 13 °F 11 and 7 °F 20 °F
Highest temperature recorded inside the box 185 °F 175 °F 163 °F
Inside the box temperature started at 77 °F 72 °F 73 °F
Table 6-1 Comparing walls’ assemblies

Figure 6-13 Hour by hour heat flow
6.1.5. Total resistance of the wall

Temperature drop is proportional to resistance to heat Flow.
“Temperature at the junction between two layers is proportional to the sum of the resistances at
that point divided by the total resistance of the wall, times the total temperature
differential“(Schiler. 2015).

105

Tp = Ti + (To – Ti) (∑Ri-p) / (∑Rtot)

Refer to the wall section (Figure 6-14) the letters in the equation are:
Tp, is temperature at the point before the insulation.
Ti, is the temperature on the inside surface of the wall which is after the insulation layer.
To, is the temperature of the outside surface of the wall.
∑Ri, is the total resistance of the insulation layer only.
∑Rtot, is the total resistance of the wall.
Calculating the total wall’s resistance need to have ether each layers’ R-value, or temperature
drop and heat flow within the material.
The R-value of the 2’’ insulation layer is known from its specifications provided by manufactures
which is 4.4/in. (Table 5 - 4), that became 8.8 in the insulation layer in this wall (Figure 6-14)
The temperature dropped from 162 °F to 143 °F within the 4’’ of concrete, and dropped from
143°F to 78 °F. All needed data are available to solve to equation of the total R-value of the wall.

Figure 6-14 The wall assembly used in calculation
106

Solution of the equation:
Finding the R-value of concrete…
143 = 78 + (162 – 78) (8.8 / (8.8 + Rc)
65 = 84 (8.8 / (8.8 + Rc)
7.38 = 84 / (8.8 + Rc)
0.087 = 1 / 8.8 + Rc
0.087 (Rc) + 0.087 (8.8) = 1
0.087 (Rc) + 0.765 = 1
0.087 (Rc) = 0.235
Rc = 0.235 / 0.087
Rc = 2.7
Rc = 0.67 / inch.

Total R-value of the wall is (0.67 * 4’’) + (4.4 * 2’’) = 11.5

6.2. Revisiting Energy Simulations in Revit and Green Building Studio
A similar wall thermal specifications and exactly same thickness of what had been examined in
the physical model have been used to run energy simulations. There were two buildings to
apply the same walls’ assemblies on the house, first one was on a small two stories house (30’
x 30’), and the second was (60’ x 60’) to figure out the impact of changing the walls’ assemblies
on energy saving and on the changing in building size. The roof for both buildings is (Basic Roof
12’’) and the floor is (Generic 12’’). The houses have no openings at all to focus on the concrete
and insulation behavior without any other factors like infiltration and heat exchange rate in glass
type of windows or doors.
Three energy simulations have been examined in each size to compare the three different walls’
types as what the previous physical experiment had. The wall specifications in Revit for all
simulations are as followed in the (Table 6-2):
Total thickness 6 inches
Total Resistance (R) 11.0 (h.ft2.°F) BTU
Total mass 3.1862 BTU/°F
Resistance (R) of 2’’ of insulation 8.2 (h.ft2.°F) BTU
Resistance (R) of 1’’ of concrete 0.067 (h.ft2.°F) BTU
Table 6-2 Revit wall specifications
The models have to be exported to GBS after generating the energy model in Revit. Some
features and parameters before exporting step must be checked and changed to be sure that
the outcome from the energy simulations by changing the insulation layer within the wall is close
to accurate. HVAC system that have been selected is (11.3 EER packaged VAV, 84.4% boiler
107

heating) to make sure that heating of the house will be by using Gas. And that to get the
electrical consumption for the HVAC system during summer season for cooling only (Figure 6-
15).

Figure 6-15 Export parameter from Revit to GBS

Results of both 30’ x 30’ and 60’ x 60’ houses are as flowed in the (table 6-3).
• IC is 2’’ of insulation outside the building followed by 4’’ of concrete
• CIC is 2’’ of concrete outside the building followed by 2’’ of insulation and 2’’ of concrete
• CI is 4’’ of concrete outside the building followed by 2’’ of insulation

30’ x 30’ IC CIC CI
Energy use intensity 11 kwh/sf/yr 11 kwh/sf/yr 11 kwh/sf/yr
Total electricity annual cost ($) 942 942 937
HVAC annual cost ($) 497 497 492

60’ x 60’ IC CIC CI
Energy use intensity 11 kwh/sf/yr 11 kwh/sf/yr 11 kwh/sf/yr
Total electricity annual cost ($) 3739 3738 3736
HVAC annual cost ($) 1960 1959 1957
Table 6-3 GBS Energy simulations results
108

The lowest in electricity consumption in both houses is when the insulation layer was placed
inside the building, yet there are not a noteworthy differences between all of them.
Conclusion:
Results were illustrated and explained form the physical model for the three wall assemblies.
The unknown R-value of the concrete portion have been calculated by using one of the wall
assemblies’ results. It had been found that the R-value of the box envelope wall assembly in
Autodesk Revit is similar to the physical model panels’ R-value.
Six energy simulations were conducted in Autodesk Revit to that have same wall assemblies
that have been used in the physical model to compare the results and analyze them in next
chapter.
Next Chapter:
Chapter seven includes analysis of simulation results from HEED, Opaque, and Autodesk Revit,
and a dissection of each wall assembly in the physical experiment.

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7. CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS SUMMARY
The results of the testing are summarized for HEED, Opaque, the physical experiment, and
Revit.
7.1. HEED results analysis
The simulation focused on the summer season, and the sun’s effect on the building’s openings.
Overhangs were added to all the windows in all façades. The simulation showed that at the
peak time of summer season that was in July 25
th
afternoon overhangs have a huge impact in
electrical energy consumption saving, especially for east, south, and east façades. Overhangs
reduced the heat gain from the direct sunlight by approximately 2000 BTU/h for the west
windows.
Because the sun altitude in summer is +26.43, the depth of overhangs should be equal to the
opening’s height. Also fins in east and west façades should be half of openings’ width. This is
only for standing alone building that has no neighbors because the setback from the land edges
is approximately 6’’ in Saudi Arabia residential buildings regulations (The Ministry of Municipal
and Rural Affairs. 2006). This makes the distance between two buildings 12’’, so mostly first
floor will be shaded by the adjacent buildings height that reached 20’’ in some buildings.
7.2. Opaque Results Analysis
Results of the different 16 walls that had been examined and compared with each other from
Opaque software. It appeared that for the selected wall assembly the software is not giving the
accurate results in the behavior of heat flow and time lag if the insulation layer is moved within
the wall thickness. The discussion led to study the wall assembly by using a physical model
which have been examined and analyzed.
7.3. Physical experiment results analysis
After reviewing the results of all three experiments, it could be definitely decided which one of
the wall assemblies is the best. Wall assemblies needed more tests to show more specific
detailed results of such differences and diversity in the concrete layers thickness, insulation
layer thickness, and the external and internal finishing layers of the of the building envelope. All
previous experiments were for insulation and concrete only.
There is no large difference in the efficiency of preventing heat from penetrate the wall,
especially in the insulation layer in all its different locations. The large differences were in the
time needed for heat to travel throughout the wall and different materials’ thickness.
It could be said that what formed the differences between the experiments are concrete's ability
to gain heat and also the time needed to release the heat amount that had been gained during
the experiments’ period of time. The greater the thickness of concrete layer the longer time
needed to increase its temperature.
110

For each type of the three types of the walls that have been tested there are number of positives
and negatives. To find out which type is best suited for the building envelope, the properties and
specifications of each type need to be better known.
7.3.1. Wall Assembly Type One
In the first type a 2’’ of insulation layer placed at the out surface of the house followed by a 4’’ of
concrete layer. Among the advantages are the possibility to add insulation layer on the buildings
envelopes that were built without insulation. It is easy install because it is an external membrane
that does not effect on the structure of the building, especially the added weight will not be so
large that it cannot bear the structure, and it will be also an opportunity to combine the added
layer with the external envelope as a finishing material. For the 4’’ concrete portion placed
inside, there is also a feature which is the possibility to gain the temperature of the conditioned
air inside while mechanical system is running by users. This material’s property makes it difficult
for the heat amount that has already penetrated the insulation layer to get inside and affect the
indoor environment since the inner concrete layer of the wall temperature approach the desired
degree of dwelling. It also helps to balance the internal temperature of the air layer near the wall
by convection.
Negatives for wall assembly type one are that the surface area to cover is larger than the
internal surface, and there should be a layer to protect the insulation from outside climate
conditions, especially the humidity and direct sunlight.
7.3.2. Wall Assembly Type Two
The second type consists of a layer 2’’ of thermal insulation that is covered by two layers of 2’’
of concrete outside and inside the building. The most important feature is the way to maintain
the insulation layer in between the two concrete portions. Direct sunlight is what could be
prevented to reach the insulation, moisture from the hot-humid climate is prevented also from
reaching the insulation. Somehow there is a balance between what could be gained or lost of
the amount of heat in both sides of the wall in concrete portions. It can be said that this type has
the properties of concrete on both sides but in a lower effect than what it was in the 4’’ portion.
The experiment shows that the time exceeded 12 hours with a heat source inflicted on the outer
layer of the wall, and the concrete layer was gaining more heat amount and delayed the time for
heat to reach the thermal layer. Same issue is also in the inner layer, which had been influenced
by the indoor temperature opposite of what is happening in outside layer. Both sides of concrete
are making the temperature that could reach the thermal layer lower by approximately 10 °F,
which enhances the ability to reject the heat for the insulation layer.
Negative aspects of this type is the insulation layer in the middle of the concrete wall is not a
connected and continues one layer all over the entire building envelope. There should be some
gaps and breaks where there are columns and bridges, as it’s known columns and bridges is a
solid concrete reinforced by steel bars, those structural elements play a role of a heat transfer to
and from inside the house. This of course depends on the design of the building and the way
membrane mounted on the structure. Yet after seeing some of the housing projects in Jubail
111

Industrial City in Saudi Arabia, there are gaps in the insulation layer when it is connected to the
structural elements of the house.
7.3.3. Wall Assembly Type Three
The third type of wall is, 4’’ of concrete placed outside followed by a 2’’ insulation layer on the
inside. Some advantages of this type that to possibilities of adding the insulation layer even if
the building envelope had been built before, it will be also possible to insulate some rooms that
needs to be insulated within a multi-story building or any room has a special conditions that
other spaces in the building. Moreover, the insulation layer is fully protected from moisture,
direct sunlight, heat and dust. The layer will be subjected to the characteristics of the indoor
environment of the building, even if the surface of insulation layer placed adjacent to the
concrete that is affected by the outdoor temperature the effect on it will be lower compared with
walls’ assemblies one and two. The time to heat the concrete portion was longer than what it
was in wall 2, and it was longer to release the heat amount. This could be a negative aspect
because the insulation layer will be detached to a layer that has a higher temperature that the
actual outdoor temperature. The concrete portion gain and stores the high temperature from
outside while same behavior of gaining and storing the comfort temperature in wall one.
7.4. Autodesk Revit Results Analysis
7.4.1. Overhangs and Shading
Shading the building envelope will reduce the electrical consumption by approximately 3% as
what Revit energy simulation shows in the 30’ x 30’ house when the external walls was shaded
with an overhangs equal to the height of the building, yet it will increase the heating
consumption during winter season by 4% because of the prevented direct sunlight to the
building envelope.
7.4.2. Wall Assemblies in building envelope in Revit
By using the similar wall thickness and thermal properties that had been tested in the physical
experiment in Revit energy simulations tools (GBS) there is less than 1% of energy
consumption and total annual electricity cost in both houses results that have been examined in
Revit by changing the wall assembly as what the physical experiment has. 1% is not a huge
amount or a desirable outcome that could convince buildings’ owners to select a type that helps
to reduce energy consumption. It could be beneficial in a large scale like a city saving amount,
however, another strategies could be applied to get more in energy saving rather than changing
the insulation place within the wall.

Conclusion:
A summary of each software program have been discussed in more detail. In HEED the results
shows considerable saving potential by using overhangs, especially in the west elevation where
the greater influence from sunlight. Opaque is not providing an accurate thermal properties such
112

as time-lag and decrement factor, but it could be used as a tool to understand the wall assembly
and an idea of how heat is traveling through the wall.
The physical model results analysis shows that all wall assembly types are similar in insulating
the indoor environment, yet some advantages and disadvantages are what shape the
differences between them. Material thickness and thermal mass proprieties the aspects that
should be considered when selecting the type.
Back to Autodesk Revit to compare the results with the physical model results show that Revit is
giving same results for the all three wall types in their relation with cooling load and electrical
consumption.

Next Chapter:
Chapter eight is discussing recommendations in the wall assembly types that have been
examined in all previous software programs, and recommendations on buildings envelope
openings.
Future work in software programs and in the physical model testing is suggested as continues
ideas for researches that help to improve and develop building envelope in hot humid to save
cooling load and electricity consumption. Lastly, is the research conclusion.

113

8. CHAPTER EIGHT: RECOMMENDATIONS, FUTURE WORK, AND
CONCLUSIONS
There is no one solution that is must to adapt in building envelope to reduce cooling load, and
building envelope is not the only element that is contributing in it. However, by analyzing the
results from all what have been done, several findings are helpful and worth to consider in the
design phase or also some might be possible in buildings retrofit.
8.1. Recommendations
8.1.1. Wall Assembly
The wall assembly in a building envelope that should be selected to be used in the construction
of a single family Saudi house is the one that is available in Saudi market, easy to build, and
compatible with the building design. As discussed in results analysis, there is no huge different
in electrical consumption between all of suggested and tested in the three walls’ assemblies for
the building envelope. What should be considered is the advantages and disadvantages of each
type, and using the more adequate type in constructing the building.
In type one and three where the insulation layer is placed outside the building in type one, and
placed inside the building in type three is the way that likely possible to retrofit buildings or
improving the performance of the envelope if it’s needed. There is no need to rebuild the entire
wall to add insulation layer only. In wall assembly type one, it is recommended from Climate
Consultant design strategies to use it. That is because of the thermal mass that is storing the
cool temperature indoor.
Which need further attention is, the thickness of each material has a larger impact on heat flow
behavior than the place of that material within the wall. It could be said that the place of
insulation within the wall does not reducing energy usage significantly and does not deserves
attention.
8.1.2. Windows and openings
The research is focusing in summer season only. The period of a year when openings’
overhangs is recommended to reduce the amount of direct sunlight that will penetrate the
building envelope thought the windows when sun altitude is higher than winter. Openings should
be covered to control the heat exchange between indoor and outdoor environment.
Using overhangs elements is contributing in energy saving if the winter season is counted. The
results shows a reduction in electricity during summer, but there is also in increasing in energy
use during winter because of overhangs.
Glazing type have not been examined in this research, so overhangs and fins are not the only
solution that could contribute in energy saving because daylight is an issue that plays an
important role in artificial lighting needed indoor.

114

8.2. Future Work
What has been achieved in this research is a small part of a long series of many steps to
contribute in reaching the goal of reducing energy consumption general. Walls and buildings
envelope performance for residential buildings need more research and additional tests, and the
building envelope studies are not enough to cover the concept of energy conservation alone.
Software and physical experiments that have been used gave variety in results and output and
stereotactic that need extra time and extra research to reach the goal of energy saving. Access
to the results could be useful for subsequent steps that aiming same goal. Which could be a
starting point in counseling additional future studies that can be applied to what has been
studied, as well as suggestions for future research. All together might have an impact to get to a
total integrated and consistent results with the goal of energy conservation.
Following is what could be used as a starting point by using this study results, and other
suggested future work that may well be integrated to the awareness of energy saving:
8.2.1. Software testing
More energy experiments and energy simulations on different types and thickness of walls
assembly that have been studied in this project to find more results that might help improving or
finding better resolves in saving electrical consumption. This study is focused on new
construction residential buildings (single family house) in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. There
could be a study to find solutions to renovate existing residential building that located in same
climate conditions, and study the same type of buildings that are located in different climate
zones, for example, hot-arid, cold-arid, cold humid, and tropical climates.
Manipulate architecture in insulation solutions in chapter five. For example, the finishing in and
outside of the building envelope if one is selected. Openings also is considered as an
architectural issue, openings and its proportion and material could be studied as an important
part of building envelope. Commercial buildings that has larger buildings’ facades and floor
area. Also use of daylight and operation schedules different than this house study.
Try and analyze other building materials like, wood and dry-wall, steel frame structure buildings,
and or, cast in site construction buildings for the building envelope.
All in all, reducing the use of energy is an important issue in the built environment, yet making it
generating energy and being passive is the goal that will make studies finding and improving all
buildings elements to reach better resolutions.
Some of passive design strategies are able to include either on new construction or building
retrofit. Overhangs and fins could be added and studied in detail with deep analysis on its effect
on building energy saving. In addition, natural ventilation during winter, fall, and spring in
Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, when the climate is within the comfort zone.
115

8.2.2. Physical testing
What have been examined in the model are same in thickness, materials portions and types.
Also all experiments were in a conditioned indoor environment. What could be valuable in future
to examine are:
- Multi-layer wall that have exterior and interior finishes.
- Examine same walls thickness that are different in the outside finishing layer. Many
factors could be studied on the outside surface like, color, reflection, and texture.
- Examine the panels in unconditioned room.
- Deferent materials rather than concrete and insulation.
- Examine some precast concrete panels that were produced for construction of a
building.
- Using infrared camera to study infiltration and heat transfer.
- Include humidity and/or ventilation as factors with the heat source to study the impact of
all of them on the outside wall surface.
- Heat up a panel by direct contact, radiation, and air temperature to figure out which type
has the highest effect on the outside surface of the building envelope.

8.2.3. Other
Renewables such as solar panels and hot water panels have an impact on energy saving.
There are variety of methods that have been used to save energy, there should be one that
have huge impact and suitable for residential buildings in hot-humid climates especially in city of
Dammam.
8.3. Conclusions
The goal of saving 50% of cooling load and electrical consumption for Saudi family houses in
hot humid climate like city of Dammam during summer season was not achieved. However,
passive design strategies are useful, some are contributing in energy saving more than others
depends of their location or building operation. For example, in thermal mass the walls should
be cooled and conditioned during night time to add on cooling the indoor during day time, and
overhangs are more important in an orientation than another, it is more important in the west
direction than the north direction.
Adding insulation to building envelope, and use the mechanical system to cool the indoor
environment is essential in city of Dammam houses.
A side observation is that a research should be careful what software he chooses to use for his
research. Not all energy programs take into account items like thermal lag that might be critical
in a study. It is apparent that the three wall assemblies with the insulation in different locations
should have produced different energy consumption profiles, but they did not.

116

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117

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Saudi Arabia is considered one of the fastest growth countries in population and construction, and housing has become an important issue that should be managed to meet the needs of people while minimizing energy consumption. Buildings are the main contributor to energy consumption due to the need for cooling, especially during the summer season. The use of pre-cast concrete in the building envelope of houses can contribute to savings in energy consumption. Its use might make it possible to substantially reduce cooling loads in hot-humid climates. The aim is to find optimal configurations and design for the building envelopes using pre-cast concrete in hot-humid climates such as city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. An energy simulation and thermal analysis will be on an existing typical house for single family in the hot-humid climate of the city of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. The analysis was based on the software programs of Autodesk Revit, Green Building Studio, Autodesk Revit, HEED, Climate Consultant, and Opaque to study and implement a set of variables using different scenarios. The variables include building orientation, windows and openings, and properties of the envelope’s materials placement that could apply on hot-humid climate. In addition physical mock-ups were constructed to compare and study the results of different concrete and insulation wall assembly.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Alshiddi, Fahad (author)

Core Title Pre-cast concrete envelopes in hot-humid climates: examining envelopes to reduce cooling load and electrical consumption

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Publication Date 08/07/2015

Defense Date 05/01/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Concrete,Dammam,Envelope,insulation,OAI-PMH Harvest,precast,Saudi Arabia,wall

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Noble, Douglas (committee chair), Choi, Joon-Ho (committee member), Kensek, Karen M. (committee member)

Creator Email alshiddi@usc.edu,shiddi@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-631004

Unique identifier UC11307045

Identifier etd-AlshiddiFa-3815.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-631004 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AlshiddiFa-3815.pdf

Dmrecord 631004

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Alshiddi, Fahad

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA