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Implementing competency based education training in a technical and vocational institute in Brunei: a gap analysis
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Implementing competency based education training in a technical and vocational institute in Brunei: a gap analysis
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Content
Running head: IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING 1
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING IN A TECHNICAL
AND VOCATIONAL INSTITUTE IN BRUNEI: A GAP ANALYSIS
by
Sheikh Lukman Hamid
_____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2015
Copyright 2015 Sheikh Lukman Hamid
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My heartiest thank you goes out to my dissertation chair, Dr. Robert Filback, for his
constant support, leadership and excellent supervision throughout this Global Ed. D educational
journey and unforgettable experience. No words can express my thanks for the insightful
guidance and knowledge that he had bestowed to me throughout the past twenty-five months. I
shall miss our Skype meetings and our extensive discussions throughout the entire journey of
writing the dissertation of practice.
I am also grateful to His Majesty’s Government of Brunei Darussalam and the Ministry
of Education, Brunei for giving me the opportunity to pursue my studies and inspire me to
pursue my education beyond education boundaries.
My immortal thanks to my wife, Hjh Siti Sofina and my two lovely boys, Sheikh Haziq
and Sheikh Raziq, who always been there for me to provide love, caring, understanding and
allowed me to continue writing and had became my inspiration and the strength to continue this
educational journey. Not to forget my two mothers, Jainap, Hjh Noorzainah and fathers Sheikh
Abdul Hamid, Hj Mohd Yusof, sisters, Malai Hayati, Dr Malai Haniti and Dr Malai Zeiti, a
special thanks to them who always been there for me throughout the hard times.
Special thanks to all the professors, teaching faculty at USC who had supported me
greatly and provided guidance since July 2013. I could not have made it without everyone’s
never ending encouragement and guidance. A deep appreciation to all my colleagues of Global
Ed.D cohort two, Fawzi, Alajji, Russell Brodie, Leeanne Dunsmore, Iris Chang, Kenneth Iong,
Kenneth Ito, Abdulhannan Kareem, Dulcie Kermah, Patrick Liew, Michael Lozano, Rhonda
Parks, Kathryn McFarland, Ing Phansvath, and Brenda Sinclair, for always been there motivating
each other and helping me got through each stages of the work during the entire journey of the
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
3
Global Ed.D. I will never forget the wonderful and unforgettable experience we have shared
together. Thank you and hope we can stay friends forever.
I felt truly blessed with gratitude to everyone as each and everyone of you has
contributed in reaching this life-changing goal. I cannot thank you enough.
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Statement of the Problem 11
Introduction of the Problem 11
Organizational Context and Mission 12
Organizational Problem 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Problem 15
Organizational Goal 15
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals 16
Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap 19
Purpose of the Project and Questions 20
Methodological Framework 21
Organization of the Dissertation 21
Keywords 22
Chapter 2: Literature Review 23
Global Issues of Youth Unemployment 23
Historical Perspective of Youth Growth and Unemployment 27
Importance of Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) 30
Employment Rates of Graduates in Technical and Vocational Institutions 32
Competency-Based Curriculum in TVET Systems 34
Summary and Conclusion 44
Chapter 3: Methodology 46
Purpose of the Project and Questions 46
Framework for the Study 47
Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap 48
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap 55
Participants 74
Procedures 75
Data Collection 76
Role of Investigator 78
Data Analysis 79
Limitations of this Study 82
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Chapter 4: Results and Findings 84
Introduction 84
Instrumentation 84
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 85
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 98
Results and Findings for Organization Causes 116
Summary 137
Chapter 5: Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation 139
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale 139
Solutions for Knowledge Causes 143
Solutions for Motivation Causes 149
Solutions for Organization Causes 151
Implementation Plan 158
Evaluation Plan 164
Strengths and Weakness of the Approach 169
Limitations 170
Future Research 171
Conclusion 172
References 173
Appendices 200
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 200
Appendix B: Technical and Vocational Education Questionnaire 203
Appendix C: KMO Abbreviations Used in the Survey 210
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder’s Goal 18
Table 2. Summary of Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and 57
Organizational Issues
Table 3. Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation 60
Table 4. Example of Survey and Interview Questions 63
Table 5. Motivational Variables of Survey and Interview Questions 65
Table 6. Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation 67
Table 7. Summary of Assumed Causes for Organizational/Culture/Context Problems 72
Table 8. Summary of Coding System used in the Survey Instrument and Interview 80
Protocol
Table 9. Results of the Knowledge Survey Questions 86
Table 10. Summary of Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes 97
Table 11. Results of the Motivational Survey Questions 99
Table 12. Results of the Motivational Survey and Interview 114
Table 13. Results of the Organization Survey Questions 117
Table 14. Results of the Organizational Survey and Interview Data 134
Table 15. Results of List of Validated Causes from the List of Assumed Causes 137
from Table 2 for Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Culture
Table 16. Selection and Rationale of the Validated Causes 142
Table 17. Summary of KMO Causes, Solutions and Implementation of the Solutions 160
Table 18. Outline of Organizational Goals, Cascading and Performance Goals 163
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Gap analysis process 48
Figure 2. Factual knowledge Question 1: A multiple choice question to choose 88
“the highest in-demand jobs in Brunei”
Figure 3. Factual knowledge Question 2: “Choose from the list below the best 89
definition to describe the term “Performance-based training (PBT)”
Figure 4. Factual knowledge Question 4: “I used proficiency-based approaches 90
in most of my teaching in the college”
Figure 5. Procedural knowledge Question 3: “Choose from the list below the 91
evaluation method that best describes the term ‘Performance-based
assessment’”
Figure 6. Procedural knowledge Question 5: “I evaluate my students’ performance 92
using assessments on their actual proficiencies on their tasks or skills”
Figure 7. Self-efficacy Question 6: “I am confident in my ability to use teaching 101
approaches that focus on students’ performance”
Figure 8. Self-efficacy Question 7: “I believe I can do a good job in teaching an 102
outcome-based curriculum”
Figure 9. Self-efficacy Question 13: “I feel that teaching an outcome-based 103
curriculum is very manageable”
Figure 10. Self-efficacy Question 16: “Through my teaching, I can help students 104
to graduate from the college with a positive attitude towards work”
Figure 11. Extrinsic (utility) value Question 8: “It is important for me to teach 105
students using an outcome-based curriculum for the students’ future
career prospects”
Figure 12. Attainment task value Question 10: “I believe teaching with an 106
outcome-based curriculum will improve the students’ overall
performance”
Figure 13. Intrinsic (interest) value Question 14: “It is important for me to learn 107
different approaches to my teaching pedagogies”
Figure 14. Extrinsic (utility) value Question 15: “I believe that using an outcome- 108
based curriculum will help me become a better instructor”
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Figure 15. Outcome expectancy Question 9: “Our institute has a goal to ensure 109
all the students who graduate will attain employment”
Figure 16. Outcome expectancy Question 11: “The students who graduate from 110
this college are well prepared to enter a competitive workforce”
Figure 17. Outcome expectancy Question 12: “The students who graduate from 111
this college possess necessary critical thinking and problem-solving
skills”
Figure 18. Resistance Question 24: “I am often asked to share my views about my 119
job and organizational plans”
Figure 19. Resistance Question 21: “I feel helpless about getting support from the 120
college when urgently needed”
Figure 20. Attitude of helplessness for Question 22: “I feel that my ideas and 121
requests are not respected by the college administration”
Figure 21. Resistance Question 17: “I feel that the non-instructional responsibilities 122
interfere with my ability to be a good instructor”
Figure 22. Lack of resources Question 18: “The college admin provides adequate 123
facilities, equipment and resources to conduct performance-based
education training”
Figure 23. Lack of resources Question 20: “All the resources required to teach 124
a performance-based education training are readily accessible in the
college”
Figure 24. Lack of autonomy Question 23: “I have a lot of freedom and choice over 125
my tasks at work”
Figure 25. Lack of autonomy Question 25: “I do not feel overly restricted by the 126
college rules and regulations in performing my routine tasks”
Figure 26. Resistance Question 19: “The college is responsive to the TVET training 127
in general”
Figure 27. Lack of strategic plan Question 26: “There is a clear strategic vision in the 128
college to reach its performance goal”
Figure 28. Lack of strategic plan Question 27: “There is sufficient work procedures 129
and support from the college in order to reach its organizational goal”
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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ABSTRACT
This gap analysis project examines the root causes to identify and analyze the existing barrier
preventing graduates of a technical institution in Brunei; Mechanical Training Centre (MTC).
The study applies Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Model and approach used to define MTC’s
organizational goals and identify the gap that exists between actual performance level and
desired level of performance. Clark and Estes identified these barriers under three distinct
factors: lack of knowledge and/ or skills variables; lack of motivation; and,
organizational/cultural barriers. Fifty-six instructors had participated in a survey conducted at
MTC; in addition, inclusive of ten heads of department/assistant heads were interviewed who
had contributed in the data collected in this study. The surveys and interviewed supported in
validating the assumed causes that were formulated after conducting scanning interviews and
validating assumed causes of the performance gap at MTC in the domains of knowledge,
motivational and organization. The validated root causes has lead to assume the inability of the
instructors at MTC to apply competency-based education training (CBET) to an aligned
industrial-curriculum in Brunei. The surveys and interview validated the knowledge and skills
gap related to the four cognitive knowledge processes; factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive. The motivational barriers identified at MTC were: instructors not making active
choices of teaching a CBET and a lack of self-efficacy. For the organizational and cultural
barriers, it was found that two distinct reasons at MTC categorized under cultural models and
cultural settings. The cultural models were found for instructors to attitudes of helplessness,
‘busy work’ or bureaucratic work not aligned to the college vision and mission. The cultural
settings gap was due to the lack of equipment and facilities and lack of strategic plan found
within the college to teach effective competency-based education training to their students. An
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
10
integrated management strategy and solution were developed to close the validated and assumed
causes through the learning of the motivational theory and literature review found in this study.
Clark and Estes’ gap analysis framework was used to provide strategic initiatives and
recommendations. Also, Clark and Estes approaches were applied to close MTC’s performance
gap to ensure 100% of students were able secure job within six months after their graduation.
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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CHAPTER 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction of the Problem
Youth unemployment is a global phenomenon faced by many well-developed countries
(Fillingham, 2012). High levels of unemployment are associated with complex interaction of
economic, social and demographic factors (Assaad & Levison, 2013). According to estimates
from the United Nation’s International Labour Organisation (ILO), the global youth
unemployment rate was 12.6% as of 2013 and is projected to rise to 12.8% by 2018 (ILO,
2013a). These figures mean that almost 75 million current job seekers worldwide are between
the ages of 15-24 years old. Another study conducted by Fasman (2013) stated that there was a
30% increase in youth unemployment across the Organisation Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) nations over the past five years. Risberg (2012) reviewed 2011 data from
the United States and found that about 1.5 million, or 53.6%, of bachelor’s degree-holders under
the age of 25 were under-employed and seeking relevant employment. These data suggests that
unemployment rates in many nations are a problem among youth.
In the case of Brunei, there is strong indication that youth unemployment turned into a
national concern. According to Hong-Huat Lim (2009), 70% of registered job seekers in Brunei
were between the ages of 18-30 years old while 90% of the registered jobseekers from the same
figure represented school dropouts from secondary or primary schools in the country. These
statistics demonstrate that Brunei also experiences unemployment issues among the younger
generation, which is similar to the situation in other nations.
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Organizational Context and Mission
Mechanical Training Centre (MTC) was founded in 1986 and is one of seven publicly
funded Technical and Vocational Colleges categorized as a post-secondary education under the
Higher Education sector of the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Brunei. The college is located
strategically in the capital city of Bandar Seri Begawan, which is the most densely-populated
area in the Brunei-Muara district. The mission of the college is to provide knowledge, skills and
values to all graduates for employment and lifelong learning through fulfilling national
aspirations of producing a high-quality workforce for a global economy (MTC, 2012).
As of 2014, the MTC population consisted of 754 full-time students, 87% of this
student body consisted of males and 13% females. All of the students at MTC consist of
Bruneian citizens and only 3% of the total figures composed of permanent residents. There were
a total number of 82 full-time faculty members teaching at MTC. In addition, 34 members
consisted of administration and support staff. MTC offers qualifications in Diplomas,
Apprenticeship schemes, Industrial Skill Qualifications and Skill Certificates 2 and 3. Currently,
MTC provides fourteen different programs ranging from automotive, vehicle-body repair and
heavy machinery engineering up to various energy industry certified programs. Upon completion
of these various programs, the graduates will opt for employment at two levels certification,
either at the skilled-worker level or at the technologist level.
Organizational Problem
MTC is currently undergoing major educational reform and transformation under a
statutory board of a new Institute of Brunei Technical Education (IBTE). Under this new
institute, MTC has a key performance indicator to be achieved by 2017, which is to produce
graduates who can attain a minimum of 80% employment after graduation. In April 2011,
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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according to an employment study conducted by the Research Unit of the Department of
Technical Education (DTE) in the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Brunei, only 50% of the
graduates who participated in the survey at MTC were employed in areas that appeared to be
suitable to their qualifications and field of study. The employment study has identified that the
recent curriculum revisions conducted over two years ago for MTC programs had left some
confusion among many MTC faculty, particular in the concept of applying performance-based
education training or competency-based education training (CBET). Under the new
transformation of IBTE, the focus of the development of practical skills emphasized the entire
program curriculum should be purely “competency-based” (IBTE, 2013, p. 8).
On these grounds, based on one of MTC’s organizational goals, the institution aims to produce
graduates who can secure jobs suitable in their field of study within six months after graduation.
However, a performance gap appears to exist within MTC’s own organizational goals, as almost
half of the graduates were still unemployed. A discrepancy gap analysis project was then used to
investigate the possible factors that contributed to the gap.
Related Literature
According to the United Nations Population Fund (2013), the world’s population is made
up of approximately 50% children and youths between the ages of 15-24 years. In 2013, the
figure for unemployed people worldwide was almost 200 million and 12.3% of this population
consisted of youths. According to International Labour Organization [ILO] (2013a), between
2008 and 2012, many advanced economies, including the European Union, experienced an
increase of 2 million unemployed individuals; with a 25% increase in unemployed youths with
the figure continuing to rise at a staggering rate. These figures indicate that prolonged youth
employment could cause a social inequality gap among youths and adults, potentially, resulting
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
14
in distrust in socio-economic and political systems (ILO, 2013b). Countries experiencing
persistent high levels of unemployment could also experience depreciation in human capital and
withdrawals from the labour market (OECD, 2011). In another report cited by ILO (2012), the
crisis of youth unemployment is not only about quantity but also about the quality of jobs
declining. Consequently, young workers were falling victim to traps of temporary employment
and fixed-term contracts, misconstrued as a pathway towards permanent employment.
For Brunei, a recent study has revealed that the estimated total number of youths who
were unemployed in 2011, including those with higher education attainment, was 18,000 (Kamit,
2013). Another study conducted by Brunei’s labour department cited by Bandial (2011)
suggested that the unemployment figure continued to rise every year and currently, local
unemployment accounts for 3.7% of the total labour force in the country. According to Hong-
Huat Lim (2009), the youth unemployment crisis in Brunei is a consequence of a mismatch
between qualifications of the local labour force and the demand of required skills needed in both
the public and private sectors. He added that the youth crisis is further intensified by the low
educational attainment of many of the young generation in the country.
“Youth bulge” has been perceived as one of the major contributors to youth
unemployment in many developing countries. According to Lin (2012), youth bulge is a
common phenomenon in countries where infant mortality rate is successfully reduced whilst
mothers still maintain high fertility rates. He suggested that the youth bulge could be used to
develop human capital using young people’s skill to enhance a country’s labour market. Lin
(2012) continued to argue that in order to increase productivity in a country would imply
absorbing youths as new competitors to the local workforce. In many oil-exporting countries like
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Brunei, there are still inadequate jobs available for youths, due to the higher concentration and
investment towards capital-intensive industries (Lin, 2012).
Importance of the Problem
If the performance gap were not addressed adequately, the development of human capital
in Brunei would be negatively affected in the long run. This would further become one of the
possible barriers for achieving Brunei’s national goals for its vision in 2035. An increase in
youth unemployment has several implications to the future social and economic progressions of
a country. According to Podesta (2013), immediate and long-term economic damage caused by
high youth employment results in social instability, low economic growth, and lower tax
receipts. It has been reported by UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013) that a country’s economic growth
is affected by youth employment prospects. In a recent study conducted by the ILO (2013a), the
youth unemployment crisis has caused an increase in poverty and slow economic growth.
The recent employment study conducted in Brunei’s MTC also indicates a high mismatch
between the supply and demand of skills required by the local industries, resulting in the high
unemployment rate of MTC graduates (DTE, 2011). If this problem were not addressed, the
credibility of MTC would be affected in the eyes of many future employers and local industries.
Moreover, it is important to solve the discrepancy gap that existed in order to maintain the future
prospects of MTC.
Organizational Goal
By January 2016, MTC’s organizational main goal is to ensure that 100% of graduates
are able to secure jobs after completing their respective courses within six months after
graduation. In order to determine whether the goal is achieved, an assessment would be done by
measuring the number of graduates who have gained employment after two years. A follow-up
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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survey will also be conducted to investigate if there is strong indication of the quality of MTC’s
education, which is to be measured against the total number of employers who are satisfied with
the turnover of MTC’s graduates within the time frame. The Department of Technical Education
(DTE) in MOE, Brunei will be responsible for tracer studies of all graduates by collecting
feedback and information from all relevant industries and employers that have offered jobs to the
MTC’s graduates.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals
The key stakeholders for MTC are students, instructors, and administrators. The
stakeholders play a significant role in MTC to enable the institution to reach its organizational
mission and goals. MTC is committed to delivering the best value in education and training, with
exceptional learning experiences to meet the needs of students, industries, and communities.
The first stakeholder was the group of students who undertake their studies at MTC. The
students were accountable for completing and obtaining the necessary credits in order to fulfill
the course requirements and graduate from their respective programs. Students who graduated
should attain all required lifeskills and competencies from their training at MTC. Students who
have received good quality technical education at MTC are expected to be highly employable.
The second stakeholder is the teaching staff at this institution. The instructors were
composed of the academic staff responsible as deliverers of quality programs at MTC. MTC
instructors must demonstrate high teaching proficiencies in the classroom. These teaching
instructors were responsible for delivering the knowledge and based on industry requirements.
The Human Resource (HR) Unit from the DTE prepares the timetable for the teaching of
instructors at MTC. The HR unit at MTC is thus responsible for conducting a six-monthly review
that covers factors such as industry demand and proposed number of student intake. The HR unit
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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ensures that academic teaching instructors at MTC obtain adequate industry exposure to improve
their teaching experiences and practices.
The third stakeholder is the administration team from MTC. The team is composed of the
principal, deputy principals, department heads, senior managers, industry liaison officers, and
program directors. All administrator personnel work directly with instructors to design courses,
implement quality assurance, coordinate and support student services. This stakeholder group is
important because their main responsibility entails students graduate successfully from MTC.
Their other roles included providing the knowledge and expertise to students and assisting in
helping create good relationship between local industries and future employers in the country.
The industries thus supported the college by providing input and feedback in terms of the design
of the curricula of the various programs offered at MTC. The administrators also facilitated and
focused on securing a Memorandum of Understandings (MOUs) to be established between MTC
and various key industry players in Brunei. Table 1 identifies the three key stakeholders at MTC
and outlines their respective organizational goals
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal and Stakeholder’s Goal
Organizational Mission
The mission of Mechanical Training Centre (MTC) is to provide knowledge, skills, and values
to all graduates for employment and lifelong learning through fulfilling national aspirations of
producing a high quality workforce for a global economy.
Organizational Global Goal
By January 2016, 100% of students who graduate will secure jobs within six months after
graduation.
Students
By January 2016, 100% of the
students will score excellently
on a mock interview given by
employers.
Instructors
By January 2016, 100% of
the instructors will be
teaching competency-based
approaches in their teaching
using a curriculum that is
aligned to industry
requirements.
Administrators
By January 2016, MTC will
obtain 20 more MOU’s with
all its industry partners and
future employers.
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Stakeholder for the Study and Stakeholder Performance Gap
The combined efforts of the three key stakeholders described above are fundamental to
ensure that 100% of graduates at MTC will be able to secure jobs related to their respective
fields of study. Although each of the stakeholders contributes by assisting MTC in reaching its
organizational goal, it was also important to observe any barriers and to identify any causes that
contribute to a stakeholders’ performance gap. Many research studies accounted for the
importance of having instructors who assisted in improving the quality of teaching and raise the
level of student’s skills and competencies. Instructors who do not meet employers’ expectations
and failed to help students in reaching minimum levels of competency in their respective training
would lead students to low employment after graduation. Consequently, the reputation of MTC
as an effective technical training institute would be affected in the long run. Therefore, the
instructors are required to teach a curriculum that is constantly aligned to industry standards. In
addition to this an industry-based curriculum should predominantly be implemented by applying
task-based instructions in their education and training or competency-based education training
(CBET) in short. Therefore, the key stakeholders for this gap analysis study were found to the
instructors at MTC.
The discussion so far indicates the importance of the course curriculum be constantly
reviewed and focused on enhancing both students’ academic knowledge and generic skills. A
well-developed curriculum should also be taught and integrated with student engagement
strategies based on recommendations by local industries in Brunei. The revised and updated
course curricula would be embedded with life skills to enable students to adapt and apply
multiple skillsets to a wider range of working conditions throughout their working life.
Currently, according to a study conducted by Research Unit at DTE only an estimated 50% of
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
20
the curriculum at MTC comprised of course material that was tailored to be industry-relevant
(DTE, 2011). The goal for the instructor group in the program was to teach a well-developed
knowledge and skill-based-curriculum that was aligned to industry needs in Brunei.
Additionally, this curriculum enhances students’ lifelong learning experiences that were
measurable within the course objectives. The goal for the instructors at MTC is by January 2016,
100% of the instructors will be teaching competency-based approaches to applying a curriculum
that are aligned to industry requirements. If this gap is reduced, the students at MTC will be fully
equipped with transferable lifeskills as a preparation for their future employment.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the
low rate of only 50% of the students who graduated from MTC and were able to secure
employment opportunities. The analysis focused on the causes and factors that showed possible
gaps in the areas of knowledge and skills, motivational, and other organizational issues. The
analysis began by generating a list of possible causes and then examining factors that
systematically focused on actual and validated causes. While a complete gap analysis would
focus on all key stakeholders as mentioned above, for practical purposes the stakeholder that was
chosen in this analysis was the group of instructors.
The two questions addressed that guided this study were shown as follows:
1. What was the knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs of MTC instructors to
successfully implement a competency based approach in their teaching?
2. What were the recommended solutions to closing the 50% gap in knowledge, motivation,
and organization for students, in order to raise employment with local employers in
Brunei?
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
21
Methodological Framework
Gap analysis research was conducted using a methodical, systematic, and analytical
process for finding the potential causes as to why MTC’s graduates were unable to achieve 100%
employment in their related fields of study after graduation. Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
model and approach was used to define MTC’s organizational goals and to identify the gap that
existed between the actual performance level and the desired performance level. Assumed causes
for the performance gap were also generated, based on personal knowledge, learning and
motivation theory, and related literature. Focus groups, interviews, surveys, and content analysis
was used to validate these causes. Research-based solutions was recommended and evaluated in
a comprehensive manner.
Organization of the Dissertation
There are five chapters included in this study. Chapter one describes the organizational
problem of only 50% of graduates of a technical college in Brunei named Mechanical Training
Centre (MTC) who were able to secure jobs after six months upon graduating. The key
stakeholders chosen to address the performance gaps are the teaching instructors. Chapter two
provides a detailed literature review concerning youth unemployment, the importance of
technical vocational education training (TVET) to economic growth and the usage of
competency-based curriculum (CBC) in TVET systems. Chapter three provides detail of the
assumed causes for the stakeholders’ performance gap to be addressed using data collection
methods of instruments, participants within the gap analysis study. Chapter four summarizes all
the results collected from the surveys and interview findings identified at MTC. Finally, Chapter
five presents all the recommended solutions, data analysis with useful literature in order to close
the performance organizational gap existing at MTC. In addition, an integrated strategic solution
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
22
was proposed in chapter five, followed by four-level evaluation methods for future research and
recommendations.
Keywords
Competency-based education and training (CBET), competency-based curriculum (CBC),
competency-based approaches (CBA), Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET),
Vocational and Technical Institutions (VTIs), and Mechanical Training Centre (MTC).
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
As discussed in chapter one, the purpose of this study was to examine the causes of the
low employment rate of graduates at MTC, which is a Technical Vocational college in Brunei.
The study will apply Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model to identify and analyze existing
barriers preventing graduates of MTC from attaining 100% employment. This chapter also
provides a synthesis of the literature on global issues of youth unemployment, importance of
technical and vocational education and training (TVET), employment rates of graduate in
technical vocational institutions (TVIs) and competency based curriculum in TVET systems.
Global Issues of Youth Unemployment
According to a recent study by the International Labour Organization (ILO), the global
youth unemployment rate has been on the rise since 2011 (Asaad & Levison, 2013). The global
youth unemployment rate was 12.3% in 2011, increased again to 12.4% in 2012 and continued to
grow to 12.6% in 2013 (ILO, 2013a). That was an increase of more than 700,000 over the
previous year and it is expected to rise to 12.8% by 2018 (ILO, 2013b). In another report by ILO
(2012) over a period of ten years from 1997-2000 even before the financial crisis of 2008, youth
unemployment has been increasing over on average by 60, 000 per year.
Youths comprise approximately 40% of the total unemployment worldwide, with almost
one-fourth of young people aged between 15-29 years (ILO, 2014). Youths between 15-29 are
primarily at interest as evidence indicates that if these youths experience unemployment in their
transition to adulthood and work, they were more likely to experience prolonged unemployment
in future (Asaad & Levison, 2013). Young job seekers, when compared to adults, are 2.8 times
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
24
more likely to be unemployed (ILO, 2014). Studies have revealed that prolonged unemployment
results in negative consequence for a person’s working life such as lower wages and longer
spells of unemployment (Fares & Tiongson, 2007; Arulampalam, Gregg & Gregory, 2001;
O’Higgins, 2001). All of these findings suggest that the long term impact of youth employment
was a generation at risk of work deficits and distrust in the socio-economic and political systems
(ILO, 2013b).
Many countries that have shared high level of long-term unemployment would face
higher risk of prolonged unemployment despite any economic recovery (OECD, 2011). Based
on these facts, it is possible to infer that youth unemployment has reached unacceptably high
levels globally. If these issues were not addressed adequately, youth unemployment would pose
further threat to a country’s future social, economic prosperity and political stability.
Historical Perspective of Youth Growth and Unemployment
According to Assaad and Levinson (2013), in 1970, youth as a percentage of working
age population peaked in earliest Asia reaching approximately one-third of the entire working
population. Assaad and Levinson (2013) noted that in most developing countries, the number of
young people has been increasing at an unprecedented rate over the period of 1960 to 1990. He
added in 2010, the combined regions of East Asia, South East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, the
figures of young population estimated to be at 760 million, which is 63% of the world population
and expected to grow to 832 million in 2050. Studies derived from the 2008 financial crisis have
shown that youth were the hardest hit by unemployment regardless of any economic growth
(Bell & Blanchflower, 2009; Verick, 2009). As explained by Blanchflower and Freeman (2000),
youth unemployment has declined in advanced economies from the 1970’s into the 1990’s. In
another study conducted by O’Higgins (1997), between the early 1980s and mid 1990s, across
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
25
the European countries, the labour participation of youth has decreased largely, due to the
increase of youths attending school full-time (O’Higgins, 1997).
Youth Bulge
Many developing regions in the world, particularly countries in South East Asia, such as
Indonesia, Philippines and Brunei, face similar variations in their demographics as a result of as
a result of a phenomenon known as the “youth bulge” (Dahiya, 2012). Dahiya (2012) defined
“youth bulge” as a ‘demographic dividend’ associated with the temporary increase in young
people age 15-24 years. Assaad and Levison (2013) explained youth bulge as an explosive
growth in the developing world where both the number and share of the population of youths
increase substantially, compared to other age groups, of both the younger and older. A third
definition of youth bulge was a demographic trend where the proportion of persons aged 15-24
in the population increases significantly compared to other age groups (Ortiz & Cummins, 2012).
Economists have argued that the youth bulge does not necessarily lead to negative implications
for youths, if these working youths can be fully employed, engaged in productive activities, they
would contribute to the human capital of a country (Assaad & Levinson, 2013; Lin, 2012).
There are more than 120 million new potential workers entering the world’s labour
market annually, “90% of this workforce” was derived from developing countries (Ortiz &
Cummins, 2012, p. 32). These developing countries were the most vulnerable in terms of
political and social instability, in addition to the problem of lack of employment opportunities
(Ortiz & Cummins, 2012; Lin , 2012). The literature emphasizes the importance of governments,
policy makers around the world to focus on the issues discussed particularly in youth’s
unemployment. If no immediate actions were made immediately, the implication of this crisis
would further erode prior investments in education and health, which would potentially hinder
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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long-term socio-economic recovery (Tse, Exposito & Chatzimarkakis, 2013; Ortiz & Cummins,
2012).
Growth of Youth Unemployment in Developed Countries
According to ILO (2013b), youth unemployment in 2012 was the highest in the Middle
East at 28.3%, and with percentages varying at 23.7% in North Africa, 9.5% in East Asia, and
9.3% in South Asia. Studies have shown that in many advanced economies such as the European
Union, young people (aged 15-29) possessing high levels of education were increasingly taking
jobs that they were overqualified to do (ILO, 2013a). The figures from ILO (2013a) suggested
that many developed economies and European Union as a whole have a higher risk of job
mismatch for a population distribution at the bottom of the pyramid. This was reflected by the
relatively high unemployment rates for low skilled jobs (ILO, 2013a).
Furthermore, ILO (2013a) reported in Belgium for example, in 2009-2011, the
unemployment rates of workers with primary education increased from 30.2% to 31%. Similarly
on average index of 28 countries increased from 13.2% in 2010 to 3.7% in 2011, which reflected
a “deteriorating position of youth with primary education” in most of these countries (ILO,
2013a, p. 26). As a result, less-educated youths find themselves at the back of the queue doing
jobs that they were best qualified to do (ILO, 2013a). It was noted in the International Labour
Conference (ILC) report (2012) that developed countries needed to sustain their economic
development to balance the effect of declining labour force by ensuring that youths have
productive employment. To review, many countries regardless of the economic level or social
development, youth’s unemployment was caused by deeper issues such as slow economic
growth, rigid labour market and mismatch between education and training outcomes (Tse et al.,
2013; ILO, 2013a).
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Factors Contributing to High Unemployment Rates in Brunei
Brunei Darussalam has a small but wealthy economy due to the abundant natural
resources. This small population country has one of the highest levels of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) per capita in Southeast Asia. However, the GDP per capita growth rate has been the
lowest in the region and raised the concern of economic unsustainability by the government.
According to OECD (2013), structural reforms have been implemented to move away from the
hydrocarbon-dependent development. Subsequently, there has been a need to diversify the
economy to foster the developments of other higher value-added manufacturing and services
sectors. Hong-Huat (2009) stated that the unemployment rate in Brunei was 3.7% in 2008. These
types of unemployment figures were best described as frictional unemployment rather than
structural employment.
Economists defined frictional unemployment as occurring as a result of people moving
from one job to another, due to labour market turnovers (Moffatt, 2014). Structural
unemployment was defined as a category of unemployment arising due to a mismatch between
job availability in the market and the skills that people possess. This type of unemployment was
often due to the rising technological advancements and changes in demands of products that
people need (Moffatt, 2014). According to Blanchflower and Freemen (2000), technological
changes such as computerization, might be factors that positively impact the demand for youth
labour. Another reason for the high unemployment rates of youths in Brunei was the lack of
skills in job-searching and Curriculum Vitae (CV) preparation (Cheong & Lawrey, 2009; ILO,
2006). In general, many adults had more experience in finding employment, due to their informal
networks and connections compared to young people (ILO, 2006). For educated youths, high
unemployment among university graduates was due to the reduction in education standards,
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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mismatch between graduate skills, and lack of available jobs (ILO, 2012). Higher-skilled people
should obtain average or lower unemployment rates when compared to low-skilled people (Bell
and Blanchflower 2011; OECD & ILO 2011; Gomez-Savador & Leiner-Kellinger, 2008).
Another study by Scarpetta, Sonnet and Manfredi (2010) reported that untrained youths
tend to experience longer-term “scarring” effects of early unemployment problems and were
more vulnerable to weak labour market demands. Experts refer the term “scarring” as
disadvantaged youths lacking basic education facing failure getting their first job resulting in
negative long-term consequences of career prospects (Scrapett et.al, 2010). To illustrate,
O’Higgins (2001) reported that when comparing youths and adults, there was a difference
between the amount of time spent in the labour markets looking for jobs. Likewise, this was
particularly evident for youth with higher education, who preferred to be spending less time
searching for jobs in their lifetime (O’Higgins, 2001).
Unemployment Data in Brunei
A recent study conducted by the Department of Economic Planning & Development
(DEPD), Brunei Darussalam had revealed that in 2009, 70% of the registered job-seekers in
Brunei were between the ages of 18 to 19. Based on this figure, 93% of the unemployment
population consisted of school- leavers coming from middle or primary schools. According to
Hong-Huat (2009) the major reasons for having the high number of job-seekers experiencing
difficulties in securing jobs were due to their educational level attainment, absence of work
experience, and job-hopping attitudes. In 2007, the labour force data cited by the DEPD reported
that the unemployment rate in Brunei stands at 3.4% (Cheong & Lawrey, 2009).
The latest unemployed data released by the DEPD for Bruneian citizens and permanent
residents aged 18-59 years since May 2014 were found to be 11, 546 (BruDirect, 2014). Hong-
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Huat (2009) argued that unemployment in Brunei were due to the salary benefit offered by the
government are higher than the ones in the private sector. There was also a significant mismatch
between the acquired skills and qualifications in the labour force and the demands of the required
skills in the private sectors in Brunei (Hong-Huat , 2009). Other problems encountered by many
private sector employers in Brunei were that they faced problems with lack of discipline, dealt
with negative attitudes, and inefficiency among the locals. In Brunei, many youths tend to view
employment in private sectors as temporary whilst waiting for a more stable and secure jobs in
the public sectors. These youths viewed the private sector employment as temporary jobs and so
they were unable to commit fully to their task in hand (Hong-Huat 2009).
In another employment study conducted by Cheong & Lawrey (2009) in Brunei, it was
found that the promotion of skilled and semi-skilled trades as a career path for locals would have
a positive impact on the economy. A long-term possible solution for solving unemployment in
Brunei requires the creation of more jobs though economic growth and diversification
particularly in areas involving entrepreneurship and innovation (Cheong & Lawrey, 2009). With
regards to providing appropriate skills and training, the Technical Vocational Education Training
(TVET) system should be expanded to cater for the increasing numbers of school-leavers in the
country.
As mentioned in the earlier chapter, in 2011, the tracer data released by the Department
of Technical Education in Brunei indicated that only 50% of the graduates of the Technical and
Vocational Institutions (TVIs) were employed in industries related to their field of study. The
latest tracer study data recorded and conducted by the same department reveals that only 64% of
the graduates from TVET managed to obtain employment in 2013. According to Law (2007), the
real measures for the success of TVET in any system were the employability of graduates,
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30
personnel developments, and any opportunities for further education and career development. In
summary, it was important that the goals of TVIs in Brunei should be working towards ensuring
their graduates attain 100% employment from the local industries within the country.
Importance of Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET)
Quality Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) have the potential to
close skill gaps and reduce unemployment (Puckett, Davidson & Lee, 2012; UNESCO-
UNEVOC, 2013). Lewin (1993) stated that relevant TVET systems could increase productivity
and accelerate economic development. More recently, Langhtaler (2013) proposed that as result
of global financial crises, TVET has been seen as a key solution for solving unemployment
issues particularly among youths since 2008. TVET focused on the transition between the world
of learning and career pathways that enable youths to acquire employable skills and overcome
any mismatch of future skills challenges (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2013).
According to ILO (2012), there was a relationship between education, the world of work
and the community as a whole. Moreover, TVET system should exist as part of a system of
lifelong learning and be adapted to the particular needs of a country and to worldwide
technological developments (ILO, 2012). Other similar studies have indicated that TVET yields
higher returns than general secondary or other tertiary education due to the focus on providing
work-relevant skills (Herschback, 2009; Kuepie et al, 2009). In general, the research has drawn
the important roles of TVET in the development of economic workforce and productivity.
Roles of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
In the era of globalization and rapid technological change, institutions need to constantly
evolve and undergo major transformation for improvement (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2013). The
role of TVET in both industrialized and developing countries for the development of their
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
31
economy has been increasingly recognized (Abrokwa, 1995; Chung, 1995; Lewin 1993, Qureshi,
1996). The relationship between Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) and
economic productivity has been confirmed in numerous studies in education, economics and
social sciences (Min, 1995). Pucket, Davidson & Lee (2012), found that countries having
effective TVET systems could help close skill gaps and meet the labour demands of private-
sector employers, reduce unemployment, and increase national productivity and competitiveness.
As reported by UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013), TVET institutions need to keep up-to-date with
labour market analyses and skills forecasts in order to remain relevant, particularly in developing
greater partnerships with private sectors to support their programs.
TVET Goals Towards Skills Development and Economic Prosperity
The quality of a nation’s workforce is crucial to its economic growth and social
prosperity (Marshall & Tucker, 1992). Lee, Goh, Fredrikson & Tan (2008) stated that the
increasing number of young people in the global population and their employment prospects
affect the future economic growth of a country, both nationally and globally. Research has also
drawn the importance of promoting critical manpower projection and skills development, in
order to stimulate the economic growth of a country (Lee, Goh, Fredrikson & Tan, 2008).
As identified by Langthaler (2013), TVET was relevant as a process of lifelong learning,
and to continue aligning training developments in the rapidly changing needs of a country. The
purposes of TVET involved the studies of “technologies, related sciences, practical skills
acquisitions, attitudes, and understanding the knowledge” related to occupations in various
economic and social life (UNESCO, 2001, p.7). In brief, the relevance of TVET to employers
was to generate real value in education and training and to contribute to the national economy by
ensuring that people attain employment and productive work.
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Employment Rates of Graduates in Technical and Vocational Institutions
TVET has the potential to tackle youth unemployment due to their orientation towards
the world of work and acquisition of employable skills (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2013). According
to Tse, Exposito & Chatzimarkakis (2013), some of the most competitive economies in the world
like Germany, have the ability to harmonize vocational and professional aspirations as equal
levels of education. On these grounds, TVET systems in any country continue to face challenges
in order to meet their manpower demands due to their changing needs of the economy.
Challenges Faced by Technical and Vocational Institutions
Key stakeholders must align their interests and collaborate with the TVET ecosystems by
aligning manpower projections and workforce demands to all key economic sectors within a
country (Pucket, Davidson & Lee, 2012). As a result, TVET institutions should continuously
involve private sector partners in the design and implementation of the TVET curriculum.
Furthermore, this becomes challenging for TVET systems to be effective, as all educational
system stakeholders, such as government and industry players, should create better partnerships
for the purpose of adopting best practices among each other (Pucket, Davidson & Lee , 2012).
According to Law (2007), the focus of TVET today, was more towards its value and
responsiveness in a globalized economy. In addition, TVET should be shaped and aligned to
economic and social needs of a country that remained distinctive compared to other tertiary
education sectors. Likewise, education systems continued to be directed towards preparation for
university education even though many students move directly to the labour force (Hienz, Kell,
Witzel & Zinn, 1998; Morris, 1996). Hence, all of this challenges caused TVET to be often
viewed as inferior to the academic education regardless of student’s ability or interest.
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Public perception of Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) and its
Graduates
There has always been negative views by society on TVET and often regarded as the
“weakest” link to the total education system in many countries (Law, 2007). The image of
vocational and technical programs and their graduates has been valued low by society (Tse et.al.,
2013; Hiebert & Borgen, 2002; Chung, 1995). Many parents in society continued to hope that
their children aspire to pursue university degrees, which generally created unrealistic expectation
and add more burdens for schools to perform better (Law, 2007). TVET was often regarded as
second-class education leading to lower status employment (Hiebert & Borgen, 2002; Chung,
1995, Lyons, Randhawa, & Paulson, 1991; Psacharopoulos, 1991, Lewis & Lewis 1985). On the
contrary, Law (2007) argued that having vocational education and technical skills were often the
source of solving gaps in human resources development. There have been numerous studies that
reveal conflicting information and attitudes about public perception of TVET. Most studies have
indicated the positive attitudes of parents, vocational students, and educators in comparison to
non-vocational students and non-vocational educators (Gilberston, 1995; Phillips, 1981; Slamet,
1987; Small 1984).
Impact of Unemployment in a Social and Economic Perspective
According to Oslo (2010), high unemployment rates have great economic and social
impacts, such as short-term and long-term progressive losses of skilled workers to a growing
economy. This unemployment factor caused stagnant and sluggish economic growth,
undermining social cohesion and risking the stability of a country (Oslo, 2010). ILO (2014)
stated that longer spells of unemployment could have persistent effects, such as the diminishing
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34
of longer market attachments and depreciation of skills. This prolonged unemployment status has
personal and social implications, including decreased life satisfaction stigmatization (ILO, 2014).
However, TVET improves younger workers’ access in obtaining better jobs and more
useful employment (Biavaschi et. al, 2010). Lewin (1993) agreed that appropriate TVET should
increase productivity and accelerate economic development. The job-training in TVET allows a
direct transition from school to work, which generally leads to better pay in the short term.
Similarly, the acquisition of skills without certification was restricted to learning on the job,
which creates less value for TVET graduates when shifting careers (Biavasaschi et. al, 2010). In
a similar study, Neuman & Ziderman (1989), found that TVET is associated with positioning a
formal education system with the needs of employment. These studies suggested that the success
of school-based training depends on the alignment of skills taught in TVET to the labour market.
This was highly dependent on the closer collaboration of employers and Technical Vocational
Institutions (Biavaschi et.al., 2010). More broadly, educated and trained workers were better-
prepared to learning new skills, in order to climb up the occupational ladder (Middleton,
Ziderman, & Adams, 1993).
Competency-Based Curriculum in TVET Systems
Rapid technological development and information transfer has formed new pathways of
delivering knowledge to today’s learner. Consequently, in order to guarantee today’s learners a
brighter future, there was a need to design a more improved curriculum in their post-secondary
years. This could be achieved by applying competency-based education training (CBET) in the
teaching approaches for these types of learners. According to Norris (1991), it was essential for
CBET to drive towards more practical orientations, requiring a higher emphasis on the
assessment of performance rather than knowledge. Ruby (1992) stated the key feature of CBET
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35
was to divert education and training away from inferring competence from tests of knowledge to
the assessment of an individual’s capacities to perform in particular contexts. The term ‘skills’
did seem to be a conceptual problem, unlike “knowledge and understanding” that advocated
CBET (Wolf, 1989).
Subsequently, CBET was designing a new well-developed competency-based curriculum
(CBC) that focused on enhancing students’ academic knowledge, critical thinking, and generic
skills (Wolf, 1989). Enniss (2008), proposed that critical thinking was one of the most
recommended skills in higher education due to the added value to student’s learning outcomes.
Schools must foster critical thinking facilities for effective thinking which lead to problem-
solving and creativity, enabling learners to articulate knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving
that are essential in the world of work (Halpern, 1999; Smith, 2003).
According to Cooper (2006), the curricula in TVET was designed to encourage and
incorporate problem solving and creativity but were less focused on the more complex process of
teaching and learning critical thinking. A TVET system has the potential to offer this type of
learning in response to the changing needs of employment in response to demands of modern
industries. The TVET curriculum’s prime focus is emphasizing employability skills (Leven,
2005). Hyslop-Margison & Armstrong (2004), stated that critical thinking in TVET systems
represents transferable employability skills that would allow students to become more competent
and employable in their working careers. Freeman and Wise (1982) argued that vocational
training in high school was not necessarily related to youth success in the labour market.
Academic success in high school was positively related to both employment and wages after
graduation (Wise and Freeman, 1982). To sum up, TVET needs to apply the right curriculum in
order to deliver employability skills to their students by qualified instructors.
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Importance of the Instructor
The key success of an educational institution was highly dependent on acquiring qualified
and effective instructors. These instructors were the most important part of an institution, as they
were the curricula and policy implementers. These instructors held the responsibilities of
achieving the goals and success of the institution. There were a lot of researchers that had argued
that a strong relationship between the students and the instructors was one of the key factors for
increasing students' performances in schools. Evidence indicates a predictive relationship
between quality instruction and positive student outcomes (Hamre & Pianta, 2006).
Additionally, an important school-based factor for achieving high student performances
has been recognised by the teaching quality of instructors (McCaffrey, Lockwood, Koretz, &
Hamilton, 2003; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2000). Student learning has been found to be long
lasting and cumulative as a result of effective instructors (Kain, 1998; McCaffrey et al., 2003;
Mendro, Jordan, Gomez, Anderson, & Bembry, 1998; Rivers, 1999; Sanders & Rivers, 1996).
The nature of the relationship between the instructors and the students could also be affected,
based on the instructor’s self-efficacy beliefs.
Instructors in TVET assume that their role in was to convey information to their students
as they continue to learn and grow as professionals and to incorporate updated content and
teaching strategies (Kugel, 1993). According to Grant (1988), instructors need to master the
subject matter as well as organize and construct their instructional practice. Teaching strategies
practiced by instructors could encourage students’ critical processes, such as active learning
(Duron et al., 2006), cooperative learning (Cooper, 1995), debating, role-playing (Gratton,
2010), problem-based learning (Mimbs, 2005), and writing (Gunnick & Bernhart, 2002).
According to Hawley (2007), the teaching and learning processes could be exciting and engaging
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if instructors possess the right skills to deliver knowledge effectively and react positively to
situations in their lessons. In the United States, TVET programs focused on market demands
(Dennis & Hudson, 2007).
Similarly, in the context of Brunei, TVET programs in their technical institutions were
offered as the result of collaboration among government, industries, and academia, for the
purpose of providing vocational skills related to specific competencies (Haas, 1999). In the case
of MTC, the instructors need to impart state-of the art knowledge and skills, which required
continuous updating through attachments within industrial sectors (UNESCO, 1997). To
summarize, it was important to address the performance gap of MTC instructors as the
stakeholder in this study. This was implemented by determining the root causes in knowledge,
motivation and organization that prevent MTC instructors from teaching a skills-based curricula.
Moreover, this skills-based curriculum should be aligned to industry requirements through
learning and motivational theory as reviewed within the literature.
Learning and Motivational Theory
The four main types of knowledge domains stated by Anderson and Krathworl (2001)
were factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge gaps. The six cognitive
processes were categorized under remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating,
and creating. The three motivational ‘indexes’ stated by Clark and Estes’ (2008) were lack of
active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Pintrich (2003) addressed these three motivational
indexes by underlying solutions related to the variables of self-efficacy, value, interest,
attribution, control beliefs, and goal orientation.
The issue of solving organizational gaps, Gallimore & Goldenberg (2001) defined the
concept of understanding the root causes of culture with two variables of learning: cultural
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models and cultural settings. As previously mentioned, all these theories would be developed and
applied as the framework for this study, to address the three domains of the performance gap
through knowledge, motivation and organization (KMO). These KMO domains all coexist in the
current status of instructors at MTC, a technical institution in the context of Brunei Darussalam.
Instructor Knowledge Issues
Blooms’ taxonomy is significant in the fostering of critical thinking, which enabled
students to “establish clarity and accuracy, assess relevance, and demonstrate the ability to think
in depth” (Brown, 2004, p. 76). The first assumed cause for MTC instructors not reaching their
performance goal was the presence of a factual knowledge gap. The assumed knowledge gap in
this situation was ‘remembering’ the latest market trend for job listings currently in high demand
in the country. This assumed cause would be to define the dimension of ‘factual’ knowledge
itself.
The second knowledge gap that exists at MTC would be the conceptual knowledge gap.
MTC instructors failed to understand the interrelationship among basic elements with a structure
of knowledge to enable them to function together (Kranthwohl, 2002). Instructors should have
abreast knowledge of applied science and generalization, such as various theories, models, and
structures.
The third gap within the knowledge and skills domain would be in the procedural
knowledge basis. It was important for these instructors to acquire procedural knowledge of
determining the appropriate events of teaching a competency-based curriculum (CBC). The last
knowledge gap would be the metacognitive knowledge gap experienced by many of these
instructors. MTC instructors did not know how to reflect on their own teaching pedagogies using
differentiated instructional methods catering to the needs of their students. Anderson and
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
39
Krathwohl’s learning taxonomy was used to assess the metacognitive knowledge gap by
determining how instructors evaluate their students’ progress by using contextual and conditional
knowledge solutions to be addressed.
Instructor Motivational Issues
There were three indicators to reflect MTC instructors’ behavior for their decision not to
teach their students a CBC. These three behaviors for MTC instructors were related to choice,
persistence, and effort. (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 2007). The first index
of behavior for MTC instructors would be a lack of an active choice among them, teaching a
CBC to their students. Two possible motivational causes for these problems of choice would be
low self-efficacy and having low task utility value. MTC instructors exhibited low self-efficacy,
as they often doubt their own abilities and frequently avoid difficult tasks when presented.
Besides, these instructors would perceive that delivering a CBC required additional mental effort
in teaching when compared to using an academic curriculum, which focused less on assessing a
student’s competencies. The task value variable of MTC instructors would be the lack of
extrinsic value or utility, in terms of attaining future goals for their students. Additionally, the
instructors at MTC would have difficulty understanding the purpose and comparing any
significant difference between using an academic-based versus a CBC. The instructors failed to
see that a CBET would be more focused on job performance and not the course’s content. In
summary, many MTC’s instructors were still teaching TVET courses using academic programs,
as they have failed to integrate the course content into job-specific tasks.
Another index of behavior of many MTC instructors was the lack of mental effort. In the
case of instructors at MTC, they were making negative attributions of students related to their
low ability in the classroom. Attribution theory focused on how an individual used information
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
40
to understand himself and his environment and other factors, to arrive at a causal explanation in
order to form a causal judgment (Fiske & Taylor, 1991; Weiner, 1986). When we applied this
concept to MTC instructors, the theory helped to explain the factors of why instructors had
negative attributions of the students’ low abilities and performances in the classroom. In the
perception of many MTC instructors, even if they taught a CBC, they would observe no
difference in the final outcomes of their students.
Instructor Organizational, Cultural, and Resource Issues
In MTC, in order to understand the organizational gap in this study, both organizational
culture models and cultural contexts needs to be distinguished with one another. MTC ‘s
organizational performance gap was identified as having instructors who were teaching students
with an academic-based curriculum that was not industry aligned. The reason for this gap could
be due to their underlying values, beliefs, and principles. Also, this was a foundation for the
college’s management practices and behaviors that exemplify and reinforce basic principles
(Denison, 1990). The possible organizational barriers at MTC have resulted in a performance
gap by MTC instructors who chose not to use CBC in their teachings. There were currently two
cultural model gaps identified at MTC: 1) a strong resistance to change and 2) an acceptance of
passivity, social loafing, non-participation, and lack of accountability among colleagues. The
performance problems that MTC faced related to cultural settings were more visible in specific
work settings. To illustrate, two examples of cultural models expressed by MTC instructors’
behaviors were first, a lack of equipment and facilities to teach a CBET and second, missing
college strategic visions and goals.
Assumed Causes from the Review of the Literature
Based on the literature review, there were a number of possible factors contributing to the
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MTC instructors’ inabilities in teaching their students CBET that was not aligned to industry
requirements. CBET was viewed as the foundation for reform in vocational and post-secondary
education and as the means of increasing skill levels and productivity (Beevers, 1993; Smith &
Keating, 1997). According to Kuhlich (1991), there was a growing trend in education toward
more competency-based programs of study in many higher-education institutions that had
reached a global scale.
Research suggested that discussions of CBET came from all regions of the world
(Fretwel & Pritz, 1994; Grootings 1994; Hargraves, 1995; Stennet, 1984 Stevenson, 1992).
Bowden & Masters (1993) stated that CBET was consistent with the current views of learning, as
the learning process varied from a conception of learning as a process of satisfying pre-specified
‘objectives’. Meaningful learning could be achieved by CBET, due to the increasing recognition
of a learner’s active processes through the construction of relating new information to prior
knowledge and understanding (Bowden & Masters, 1993).
Knowledge and skills issues. The word ‘competency’ was defined as a cluster of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that correlate to the job performance of an individual’s role and
responsibility, measured against a set of standards constantly being improved by further training
and development (Parry, 1996). An effective TVET needs to be in a practical scenario combined
with a various blend of teaching pedagogies. The best TVET learning broadly involved hands-
on, practical, experiential, and real-world environment learning that comprised constant
feedback, questioning, application, and reflection of theoretical models and explanation (Lucas,
Spencer & Claxton, 2012).
In the context of MTC, the instructors lack the factual knowledge domain of having
industry-specific vocational competencies in their professional work. According to Field,
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Hoeckel, Kis & Kuczera (2009), the knowledge and skills of teachers and trainers in TVET
institutions need to be constantly maintained and kept up-to-date. The study also revealed the
importance of the workplace, because the objectives of TVET required instructors to be
encouraged to spend more time in the industry, particularly in the involvement of practical skills
training. Many instructors of TVI(s) assumed that they were too busy to update their skills and
knowledge if in-service training was not part of their workload (Dalton & Smith, 2004). The
second knowledge gap faced by MTC instructors was the procedural gap of inadequate
knowledge to design good instructional methods in order to deliver effective CBET in their
programs. For instructors to be effective with diverse students, it was essential that the teachers
recognized their own worldviews; only then will they be able to understand the worldviews of
their students (Bennet, 1993).
Motivational issues. There were a few reasons why MTC instructors had motivational
barriers that hindered them from reaching the performance organizational goal. The first barrier
validated was that MTC instructors lack the active choice of teaching using a competency-based
curriculum (CBC). Competency-based education training (CBET) was seen as the improvement
of education and training for the complex contemporary world (Harris et al., 1995). CBET was
viewed as a way for promoting improvements between education/training and workplace
requirements. In the perspective of behaviorism, competence was broken down into the
performance of discrete tasks with functional analyses identified by work roles. The standards of
competence were assessed toward the achievement of how CBET was directed (Kerka, 1998).
Instructors of MTC must make a decision as to how they should be training students to use a
CBC instead of utilizing an academic-based curriculum. These instructors who applied CBET in
their teaching had executed an act of choice and had displayed a motivational drive to applying
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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CBET within their teaching pedagogies.
Thus, motivational domains, such as active choice and persistence, could be measured
using feedback forms given to these instructors to determine how much they were using a CBC
in their teaching. It was possible that these instructors would only be using CBC for a certain
period of time, but it does not guarantee that they have understood the content of the CBC.
Alternatively, these trainers might lose attention if CBC content were not perceived of any value
or importance to them in the future. This would be the second motivational cause of lack of
persistence of inability to achieve the performance goal. Thus, measuring the mental efforts of
MTC instructors of applying CBET would face challenges related to validity and reliability
(Flad, 2002; Gimino, 2000). Despite these challenges, measuring these three indices of
motivation remained the best variable for describing the MTC instructors’ motivational drives
(Clark & Estes, 2002; Pintrich & Skunk, 2007).
Organizational issues. Both cultural models and cultural settings defined the
organizational barriers faced by the MTC instructors, as both challenges would be validated in
this study. The cultural settings would be the resistance to change, due to the lack of autonomy in
the colleges faced by the MTC instructors. Teaching CBET requires education outcomes that
were industry-driven which will be benchmarked against industry-generated standards. The
evidence indicated that there was less autonomy for MTC instructors with their own teaching
style, to teach students. These instructors were required to abide by industry principles for all the
assessment, learning materials, and instructional programs, in order to evaluate their students’
attainment of specific competencies.
The cultural settings that were verified in this study would be the lack of equipment and
facilities to teach CBET. The main challenges faced by CBET implementers were the cost of
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training itself, emphasizing on adequate human resources for facilitation, equipment,laboratories,
and other teaching and learning materials for training (Anane, 2013; Kaaya, 2012). The increased
number of trainees would have huge cost implications, as many TVET institutions had already
faced previous budgetary constraints. Other challenges faced by CBET implementers were the
industrial placement that required students to put into practice real work situations to test their
acquired competencies. This implied that industries were pressured to provide all these trainees
the relevant work experience or industrial attachment due to the limited numbers of industries
available to accommodate all of these students (Anane, 2013).
Summary and Conclusion
The focus of this gap analysis research was to investigate the root causes of why MTC
graduates have been unable to achieve 100% employment in disciplines related to their field of
study. In general, several studies had revealed the importance of supplying effective and
employability skills to local youth as the key factors that would lead to desired employability in
TVI(s). It was crucial to align all TVET systems to labour force projection for the purpose of
solving the mismatch between the economy’s demand of proper skills to promote growth, as well
as to reduce unemployment. The research from the literature has drawn the conclusion that
graduates who undergone education under CBET had developed effective reasoning, analyzing,
and problem-solving skills that were required by many industries and prospective employers.
In contrast, TVET cannot solve all the negative social implications of unregulated labour
markets, high unemployment, and lack of job security. However, the provisions of appropriate
policies of TVET, such as clear vision and strategic planning at the national level, would offer
high potential solutions in a longer term. These policies need to include all stakeholders of both
the public and private sectors in the curriculum design of TVET and on-the-job training
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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provisions involving not only industries and companies but also all non-governmental
organizations. To elaborate further, one of the most important challenges faced by TVET was to
remain relevant. In addition, this requires an education system be to continuously integrate and
flexible, in order to accommodate the changing needs of the economy, people, and its society.
Thus, for a nation to be able to compete in a global economy, a motivated, skilled, and educated
workforce should acquire competencies at work that were focused on productivity and be able to
adapt to the changing needs of technology.
In conclusion, based on all the literature, countries that have effective TVET were able to
close the skill gaps and meet the labour demands of their industries, reduce unemployment, and
increase national productivity and competitiveness. Beside these economic gains, TVET offers
higher returns in regard to multiplying effects of societies, keeping students in school, reducing
poverty, and fostering lifelong learning for their citizens. The review of the literature in this
chapter had presented an importance case to MTC to reach its institutional organizational goal.
Moreover, many of the information provided was particularly focused in areas to increase MTC
graduates' employability. The methodology in the next chapter seeks to examine the issue that
affects the graduates applying the gap analysis model. This model was applied to analyze the
knowledge, motivational, and organizational gaps that offer findings as to why these graduates
were unable to achieve 100% employment.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine the root causes that prevent Mechanical
Training Centre (MTC) from preparing all graduates to gain employment in areas that were
suitable to their qualifications and field of study. The recent employment study conducted in
Brunei’s MTC indicates that only 50% of surveyed graduates were employed in their relevant
field. Conversely, this suggested a high mismatch between the skills required by local industries
and the preparation provided by MTC. If this problem is not addressed adequately, the
credibility of MTC among employers and local industries in Brunei will be at stake. This
analysis focused on the root causes in the area of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
(KMO) that was preventing MTC from achieving this organizational mission. The analysis
began by generating a list of possible causes and to examine factors that systematically focused
on actual and validated causes. While a complete gap analysis should focus on many
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder of interest in this gap analysis was the group
of instructors at MTC.
The questions to be addressed that will guide the study are as shown below:
1. What are the knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs of MTC instructors to
enable them to successfully implement a competency based approach in their teaching?
2. What are the recommended solutions to close gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organization in order to attain 100% employment for MTC students with local employers
and industries in Brunei?
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Framework for the Study
A gap analysis study was conducted to investigate the potential causes as to why MTC’s
graduates were unable to achieve 100% employment in their related fields of study within six
months after graduation (MTC organizational goal by 2016). The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis model was applied to specify MTC’s organizational goal and to identify the present gap
that exists between their actual performance and the desired level of performance. Clark & Estes
(2008) asserted the gaps in performance was caused by three distinct factors; lack of knowledge
and/or skills; lack of motivation; and organizational/cultural barriers. Gap analysis begins with a
very clear statement of the context of the organizational/institutional problem. The organization’s
problem was rewritten as the organizational goal followed by the analysis of the stakeholder’s
goal. Additionally, this must be accomplished in terms of achieving the organization’s goal and
further solving this problem. The stages of the gap analysis answer seven key questions. The
questions were:
• What is the current performance goal within the organization?
• Where is the organization related to this goal?
• What is the size of the gap between the performance goal and the current
situation?
• What is causing this gap in the three distinct factors of KMO barriers?
• What solutions have been be implemented in order to close this gap?
• How do we implement the solutions?
• How do we measure progress for improvement?
This gap analysis model utilizes several different approaches of gathering and analyzing data,
specifically, qualitative methods such as interviews, document analysis, observations,
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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quantitative method such as surveys, and mixed methods, which combine both a qualitative
studies. According to Clark and Estes (2008), the gap analysis process was shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Gap analysis process (Clark and Estes, 2008)
Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap
Gap analysis is very important in solving many performance gap problems. This is
because evidence suggests how people in many organizations often jump into conclusions of
identifying immediate solutions. Many organizations assumed these solutions would solve a
problem without taking necessary steps and sufficient time to analyze the root cause of the actual
problem (Clark & Estes, 2008). Studies suggested many of these organizations impose to select
and implement wrong solutions. Studies have revealed that 70% of these organizations failed to
solve any of their organizational problems. These wrong solutions were being implemented
instead had created more harm and forced these organizations to perform worst and hinder their
ability to survive (Clark & Estes, 2008). Many of these solutions were presumed and not
validated as they actually address other solutions to other sort of problems. Thus, the actual
problem of the performance gap within the organizational still remains unclear. Another
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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advantage of applying this gap analysis framework is that it aids organization in gaining a deeper
understanding of the possible root causes that impedes them from achieving their main
organizational goals.
In addition, gap analysis assesses many causes supported by decades of research drawing
upon learning motivation and organizational theories. The existing literature demonstrates that
the performance gap for MTC instructors was dependent on three major domains of: i)
knowledge and skills (cognitive variables), ii) motivational variables to achieve a goal(s) and iii)
organizational causes (context) (Clark & Estes, 2008). These domains were likely the root causes
for MTC instructor’s inability to teach a well-developed competency-based curriculum (CBC)
that was aligned with industry standards. The foregoing discussion implies that in order for
graduates of MTC to attain employment, it is essential that the course curriculum is constantly
reviewed by industry partners and focuses on enhancing both students’ academic knowledge
integrated with skill practices. A well-developed curriculum should also be designed and merged
with student engagement strategies based on occupational standards defined by employers and
industry sectors in the country. The revised and updated course curriculum will be embedded
with life skills for student’s life long learning process. This will inevitably allowed MTC
students to have the flexibility to adapt and apply multiple skillsets to a wide range of working
conditions particularly throughout their working life.
There were many informal conversations and observations with MTC instructors about
the distinct factors of KMO and possible assumed causes. This has led to the conclusion that the
inability of MTC instructors to teach a well-developed competency-based curriculum, which is a
key factor affecting the performance outcome of graduates. It may be said with a moderate level
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of confidence that it was a result of this performance gap at MTC as only 50% of graduates were
able to secure employment upon six months after their graduation.
Knowledge and skills. As identified by Anderson and Krathwohl (2002), the revised
Bloom’s taxonomy has a two-dimensional form. First is the knowledge dimension (the kind of
knowledge to be learned) while the second identifies the cognitive process dimension (or the
process used to learn). For the case of MTC, there were also four challenges related to the
different knowledge type: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. The factual
knowledge gap for MTC instructors was the lack of knowledge of the latest market trend for job
listings currently in high demand in Brunei. The second assumed cause for conceptual
knowledge was the lack of principles of applied science knowledge for many MTC instructors
teaching engineering subjects. For the procedural knowledge the possible cause would be the
instructor’s lack of ability to design good instructional methods to teach a competency-based
curriculum (CBC). The last metacognitive knowledge gap would be the lack of instructors’
understanding of how to appropriately reflect and assess their student’s learning using CBET.
Motivation. The assumed motivational barrier for MTC instructors was the lack of
application of competency-based education and training (CBET) in their mode of teaching.
Moreover, these instructors were not making an active choice to use a CBC due to two possible
factors of low self-efficacy and task value. In the perception of these instructors, applying CBET
in the classroom would not make any difference in contributing to the success or improving their
student’s overall performance. The student’s ability to perform well in their training would be as
a result of other external uncontrollable factors and not on their teaching efforts of teaching
CBET.
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Organization. There were two possible reasons why MTC instructors were not using a
CBC in their teaching. These were categorized under the cultural model/settings of
organizational causes at MTC. The two types of cultural model challenges described at MTC:
first the strong resistance to change and second, acceptance to passivity, social loafing, non-
participation and lack of accountability in the college. With respect to the cultural settings, MTC
instructor’s lack of human resources, equipment and facilities in the college to conduct an
appropriate CBET.
Summary of assumed causes of knowledge, motivation and organization
The sources of assumed causes categorized under KMO barriers for the case of MTC
have already been included and identified in Chapter Two. This table reflects findings that were
reviewed in this previous chapter, which was stated earlier in the sections under learning and
motivation theory. See the summary of Table 2.
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Issues
Causes
Sources
Knowledge (indicate
for each if (F)actual,
(C)onceptual
(P)rocedural or
(M)etacognitive) Motivation Organizational Processes
Scanning
interviews,
personal
knowledge
§ MTC instructors do
not have enough
knowledge (F) and
skills in teaching a
competency-based
curriculum (CBC)
§ Most instructors do
not know what are
the latest trend and
skillset required
based on industry
§ MTC instructors
do not see the
purpose of
teaching CBET
§ MTC instructors
do not feel the
usefulness of
teaching a CBET
§ MTC instructors
are not confident
of teaching a CBC
Cultural Models:
§ MTC has strong
resistance to change
especially in
changing from using
their standard-based
curriculum
§ MTC instructors have
conflict avoidance
and hostile attitudes
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standards (F)
§ Instructors lack the
knowledge (C) and
skills of applying
the science
knowledge to their
teaching
(low self-efficacy)
§ MTC instructors
feel that teaching
CBC would seen
as an
uncontrollable
causes and not a
result of their
CBET
(attribution)
with one another
Cultural Settings:
• Lack of resources,
equipment and
facilities to teach CBC
• Lack of
communication with
other instructors
• Lack of effective role
models (enthusiasm)
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Table 2, continued
Causes
Sources
Knowledge (indicate
for each if (F)actual,
(C)onceptual
(P)rocedural or
(M)etacognitive) Motivation Organizational Processes
Learning and
motivation
theory
• MTC instructors do
not have the
knowledge of the
latest market trend
for job listings
currently in high
demand in the
country (F)
• MTC instructors
lack the specific
vocational
competencies in
their professional
work (F)
• MTC Instructors do
not know the
principles of
applied science and
knowledge (C) and
generalizations
such as teaching
“Newton’s law of
motion”
• Instructors do not
know how to reflect
on their own work
using effective
teaching strategies
(M)
Self-Efficacy
§ Instructors do not
have the self-
efficacy in
teaching a
competency- based
curriculum
(Extrinsic)-Utility
Value
§ Instructors do not
value the purpose
of teaching a
competency-based
curriculum
Attainment Value
§ Instructors do not
see the importance
of teaching a
competency-based
curriculum
Attribution
§ Instructors are
making negative
attributions of
students related to
low ability and
performance
Cultural Models:
§ Instructors have a
resistance to change
due to lack of
autonomy
§ Instructors have an
acceptance of
passivity, social
loafing, non-
participation, lack of
accountability
Cultural Settings:
§ MTC instructors do
not have enough
resources, equipment
and facilities to teach
CBET
§ Instructors have to
abide by unnecessary
and restrictive rules,
policies and barriers
from the college
§ Instructors lack vague
or constantly
changing college
performance goals
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Table 2, continued
Causes
Sources
Knowledge (indicate
for each if (F)actual,
(C)onceptual
(P)rocedural or
(M)etacognitive) Motivation Organizational Processes
Background
and review of
the literature
§ MTC instructors
lack knowledge (F)
domain of having
industry specific
vocational
competencies
§ Instructors have a
knowledge (P) gap
of teaching and
delivering effective
CBET
§ MTC instructors
lack active choice
a teaching a CBC
§ Instructors of
MTC have
persistence in
teaching CBET
§ MTC lack of
mental effort in
applying CBET in
their lessons
Cultural Setting:
§ MTC instructors’
resistance to change
due to the lack of
autonomy in their
teaching pedagogies
due to abiding CBET
standards and
practices
§ Lack of human
resources, equipment
and facilities to teach
CBET due to
budgetary cuts in the
college
§ Insufficient industries
to support students as
trainees during
industrial placement
for real work practice
environment
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Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap
This section describes how Knowledge, Motivational and Organizational assumed causes
mentioned in this chapter were validated in order to determine what would be the best solutions
to apply to all of these problems. Some of the assumed causes may not turn out to be problems
and therefore require no propose solutions.
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Knowledge
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), the revised bloom’s taxonomy model
states that knowledge is an outcome or product and not a form of thinking. This revision was
applied on the taxonomy in use and would be useful as an authentic tool for curriculum planning,
instructional delivery and assessment. Based on this literature, the different types of knowledge
at four different levels of knowledge domain including factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive. There were six cognitive dimension processes: remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate and create. These four types of knowledge category and six categories of
cognitive processes will provide guidance for developing solutions to the MTC’s assumed causes.
Factual knowledge causes’ validation. One of the assumed causes as listed in Table 2
for the instructors not reaching their performance goal was the presence of a factual knowledge
gap. The assumed knowledge gap in this situation is ‘remembering’ the latest market trends for
job listings currently in high demand in the country. According to UNESCO-UNEVOC (2013),
in order for Technical Vocational Education Training (TVET) providers to deliver training that is
continuously updated and relevant for the student’s future career prospect, an accurate projection
of labour market information and skills forecasting is required. Applying Anderson and
Kranthwohl’s cognitive dimension of ‘remembering’ for instructors was assessed using a series
survey items inquiring their knowledge with examples questions such as:
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1. Please list at least 5 jobs that are currently in high demand in the country. Explain your
answer.
2. List out the top 5 career choices for youths based on market trends in the country.
Explain your answer.
As explained by Mayer (2011), the cognitive domain process require a learner to recall, restate
and remember information after transfer has occurred from ‘working’ to ‘long’’ term memory
capacity. Requiring the latest information of job listing is necessary for the validation of this
factual knowledge gap. Another factual knowledge gap proposed in Table 2 is the instructor’s
lack of industry specific vocational competencies in their professional work.
According to an OECD report by Field et al. (2009), the key elements of ensuring quality
control in a Technical Vocational Institution (TVI) was an outcome from the quality of trainers
and instructors within these institutions. The key issues highlighted in the report was the lack of
instructors’ and trainer’s experience in the actual workplace, which was essential. As a strategic
objective, trainers and instructors in TVET should be encouraged to be equipped with practical
workplace skills to reduce any gap in the delivery of training as a result of inadequate vocational
skills and competencies (Field et al., 2009). Anderson and Kranthwohl’s cognitive process
dimension recommended applying all six cognitive levels of remembering, understanding,
applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating to increase the instructor’s vocational skills and
competencies. The assumed cause was defining the dimension of ‘factual’ knowledge itself. To
assess this assumed cause, investigative question inquired to instructors as illustrated:
1. Please list out the steps of how to conduct Health, Safety and Security Environment
(HSSE) test in the work place.
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2. Please list out the criteria or steps of how to setup a 3G welding equipment during a
welding practical training workshop.
Factual knowledge causes’ validation. Instructors were not given enough information
that would build on prior knowledge of current market trends of jobs availability in the country.
This new information will be organized in or referred to some kind of mental structure (schema).
Conversely, this would help MTC instructors to make connections that will encode new
information again from instructor’s working memory into long-term memory.
Conceptual knowledge causes’ validation. Another knowledge gap that had existed
within MTC instructors was the facet of conceptual knowledge. These instructors had failed to
understand the interrelationship among basic elements with a larger structure of knowledge to
enable them to function together (Krathwohl, 2002). These instructors should have the applied
knowledge of science and understanding of various theories, models and structures. Moreover,
they should also be able to apply this knowledge for example, of Newton’s law of motion to
demonstrate an understanding through calculations and principles that can be applied in their
engineering mathematics subject. These instructors had been trained by experienced trainers to
be familiar with these mathematical concepts using audio and visual aid. Their students will be
engaged using these concepts, enabling them to learn and apply their knowledge in their
exercises during classes.
According to Mayer (2011), prior knowledge plays a significant role in learning such as
schemas of organizing structures for connecting knowledge elements and transferring into
coherent structures. These would allow more information to be held into the working memory
due to the organization of knowledge into a single knowledge element (Mayer, 2011).
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Procedural knowledge causes. According to an OECD report by Field et al. (2009), in
any TVET program, a good balance between having generic and specific skills is crucial for
these graduates to be successful in the workplace. This is due to the need to have the
occupational specific skills that will allow them to enter skilled jobs without extraneous
additional training when they enter the labour market. These generic transferable skills were
necessary the graduate’s working career in order to adapt to a rapid changing operating
environment at their workplace. The report emphasized the importance of providing appropriate
pedagogical and preparation for trainers of trainees and apprentices in the workplace.
A partnership between TVI(s) and industries was crucial to allow instructors to spend
more time in industry to update their knowledge and skills and vice versa for industry experts to
spend their time in TVI(s) to enhance their pedagogical teaching skills (Field et al., 2009). In
short, in order to determine the procedural knowledge gap, an assessment strategy had been
prepared to assess instructors’ comprehension by classroom observations of redesigning the
curricula to make them more relevant to workplace requirements. This was carried out with an
analysis of identification of workplace ‘competencies’ which were organized into a set of
‘competency standards’ for an occupation. The assessment method to determine this gap was to
examine how MTC instructors had taught industrial skills competencies integrated into their
teaching curriculum. According to Krathwohl (2002), procedural knowledge is the method of
inquiry, criteria of using skills, techniques and methods used to determine subject-specific
techniques and methods.
Metacognitive knowledge causes validation. Metacognitive knowledge is a strategic
knowledge dimension of general cognition and awareness of an individual’s own learning
intuition. The assumed cause is that MTC instructors do not know how to reflect on their own
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teaching pedagogies using differentiated instruction methods catering to the needs of their
student learners. Additionally, an effective teaching method should be conducted in a TVET
system as heavily emphasized by industry experts CBET usage. Anderson and Krathwohl’s
learning taxonomy was used to assess this metacognitive knowledge gap by determining how
these instructors evaluate student’s progress using contextual and conditional knowledge. MTC
instructors were assessed using in-depth interviews, survey forms to be filled up to judge their
own teaching effectiveness.
An illustration of an application of assessing metacognition knowledge was to train
students to critique each other. Specifically, it was to allow these students to have an activity of
developing a rubric for an evaluation of their project/product created using equipment in the
workshop. This project/product was evaluated based on the criteria and feedback given by each
of the students. Instructors should have been aware that this activity itself was a metacognitive
approach to learning. A solution principle to narrow this metacognitive knowledge gap was made
by demonstrating to instructors how to apply and design rubrics as an effective teaching strategy.
The appropriate approach for a proposed solution was to bring assessment expert coaches to train
instructors how to incorporate the use of rubric to consider student’s project/product in all lesson
plans. The use of these metacognitive strategies would have developed instructors to become
self-regulated and self-reflective of their own teaching and learning activities. In future, this
process will allow instructors to understand themselves better particularly in measuring their
overall performance. A summary is of these validation are shown in the Table 3.
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Table 3
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation
Assumed Knowledge Cause* How Would It Be Validated?
Factual:
Instructors did not have the knowledge (f) of
the latest market trend for job listings
currently in high demand in the country
Using Survey items to:
Ask the instructors to list out the trends of job
listing and current market demands
Factual:
Instructors lack the industry specific
vocational competencies in their professional
work (f)
Using Interview questions to:
Test their knowledge to describe key features
of process of practical precautions. Example
of “How do you teach Health Safety Security
Environment in the workplace?”
Conceptual:
Instructors did not know the principles of
applied science knowledge (c) and
generalizations such example of teaching
‘Newton’s laws of motion’
Using Survey items to:
Describe and list applied skill principles to
demonstrate an understanding of teaching an
applied science knowledge in their subject
Procedural:
Instructors did not know how to design good
instructional methods and teach an
competency-based curriculum (p)
Using Observation and Survey instruments:
Observe a class of teaching instructors to
validate how industry skills are integrated in
the curriculum. Demonstrate the ability of
teaching a competency-based curriculum
(CBC)
Metacognition:
Instructors did now know how to reflect on
their own work using effective teaching
strategies (m)
In depth interview of questions:
“How do you learn from your past
experiences as an instructor?”
“How do you use different teaching strategies
to teach student how to asses their own
work?”
*Indicate knowledge type for each assumed cause listed using these abbreviations: (F)actual;
(C)onceptual; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive
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Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) pointed out that motivation is an internal, psychological process
that keeps an individual motivated to continue to behave in a certain way to enable a job to be
done. There are three motivational “indexes”, or processes are active choice, persistence and
mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation theories can be divided into three main types:
motivation as “deriving from the individual”, motivation as a result of environment, and
motivation derived from an “interaction” of the self and environment (Hallam, 2002, p. 225).
The motivation variables that were used in this study to guide the analysis of the stakeholder’s
performance goal would be; self-efficacy, attribution, expectancy-value, emotion and
achievement goal theory.
Motivation causes. The first motivation index was “active choice” of task. Active choice
refers to an individual’s choice of circumstances to a particular situation or task given and how
the person view to act upon it with personal engagement and interest. For the case of MTC, there
was a lack of active choice among instructors to teach their students a competency-based
curriculum (CBC). This motivation indicator indicates that a motivation problem of choice was
present within MTC instructors. Two possible motivational causes for this problem of choice
were both low self-efficacy as well as task utility value. According to Bandura (1994), self-
efficacy is a self-judgment of one’s ability to perform a task or ability to execute within a
specific domain. The measures of self-efficacy were better predictors of behavior that what a
person is actually capable of achieving (Bandura, 1989). People with high efficacy tend to stay
committed into achieving challenging goals even in the face of failure (Bandura, 1986; Schunk,
1991). The effects of self-efficacy beliefs were viewed in various ways. The effects were: it
influences the choice of tasks one undertakes (active choice), it determines the amount of effort a
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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person put into a task (persistent and mental effort), and lastly affects one’s ‘perseverance’ in the
face of difficult situations which influences a person’s resilience over the amount of stress level
after being engaged in that particular task (Pajares, 1997; Bandura, 1994; Alderman, 1999).
Subsequently, MTC instructors had exhibited low self-efficacy as they often doubt their
own ability and frequently avoid difficult tasks when presented with them. These instructors
thought that delivering CBET requires more mental effort in teaching when compared to using
an academic curriculum, which focuses less on evaluating student’s competencies. The
curriculum in a CBET consists of a combination of both professional practice and academic
discipline. The task value variable of MTC instructors was the lack of extrinsic value or utility in
terms of attaining future goals for their students. The instructors MTC had difficulty
understanding the purpose and comparing any significant difference between using an academic
based versus a competency-based curriculum. The instructors had failed to see that a CBET was
more focused on job performance and not the course’s content. Additionally, many MTC’s
instructors were still teaching TVET as though they were teaching academic programs.
Moreover, instructors had failed to integrate the course content into job specific tasks. These
instructors should have transformed their traditional role as teachers toward a conception of
facilitating and provoking generating applicable lesson to complex situations.
In contrast, MTC instructors did not value teaching a CBC due to the lack of
understanding what the outcomes of CBET would influence students. A major purpose of CBET
was to make the educational outcomes of formal education and training more appropriate to
future workplace needs (Bowden & Masters, 1993). Therefore, for the purpose of validating
these assumed causes, both survey instruments and in-depth interview protocols had been used to
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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investigate these motivational gaps. Table 4 shows examples of the survey and interview
questions that had been used to validate these assumed causes.
Table 4
Example of Survey and Interview Questions
Possible causes
(Motivational variable)
Survey or Interview Questions
1. Instructors have low confidence
in teaching a competency-based
curriculum (low self-efficacy)
Survey items
1. I am sure I can do an excellent job in
teaching a competency-based curriculum
2. I am an expert in teaching a competency-
based curriculum
Interview protocol
1. Explain how confident you are in
teaching a competency-based curriculum
2. Instructors do not see the value
of teaching a competency-based
curriculum (utility value)
Survey items
1. I am sure that using competency-based
education training will enable students to
be more marketable
2. I believe teaching a competency-based
curriculum will benefit the students in
future
Interview protocol
1. Do you see any benefit of teaching a
competency-based curriculum to the
students
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The second motivational index to be considered is persistence. The behavior of engaging
any tasks required for goal achievement within a time interval whilst avoiding distractions was
defined as persistence. Measuring persistence was as complex as measuring the time taken for a
person to pursue a goal. According to Wegner (1997), a direct measure of performance delays
has confounded lack of persistence with intrusive, or ‘ironic’ mental processes. When working
memory was overburdened, a lack of persistence would have existed to an individual due to the
effect of excessive cognitive load as a result of this ironic mental process.
The third motivational index to be considered is mental effort. Mental effort is defined as
“the number of non-automatic elaborations necessary to solve a problem” (Salomon, 1984, p.
231). When deeper cognitive processes were required in order to organize new information upon
constructing existing knowledge in the schema of knowledge processes, mental effort becomes
an important requirement (Condly, 1999; Gimino, 2000: Ormrod, 2004; P.R. Pintrich &
DeGroot, 1990). According to Bandura (1997), an individual’s general ability, perception and
efficacy beliefs among others will affect their mental effort either positively or negatively. These
findings led to believe MTC instructors had been making negative attributions of their students
related to their low ability in the classroom.
Attribution theory focuses on how an individual uses information to understand
themselves and their environment and other factors to arrive a casual explanation in order to
form a causal judgment (Fiske & Taylor, 1991; Weiner, 1986). Individuals will perceive how
this causal determinants either external (environmental) or internal (personal factors) to
determine their success and failures in life (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Furthermore, attributions
were classified along three causal dimensions of: “locus of control, stability and controllability”
(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 95). When applied to MTC instructors, the theory helps to explain
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factors of why these instructors were making negative attributions of the student’s low ability
and performance in the classroom. In the discernment of many MTC instructors, even if they
teach a CBC, there would observe no significant difference in the final outcomes of students.
Both survey instruments and interview protocols were used to validate these assumed causes.
The examples questions are shown in Table 5:
Table 5
Table of Motivational Variables of Survey and Interview Questions
Possible causes
(Motivational variable)
Survey or Interview Questions
Instructors were making negative
attributions of students related to their
low ability and performance
(attribution)
Survey items
1. I do not believe the students will succeed
even using a competency-based
assessment
2. I don’t feel that teaching a competency-
based education training will benefit the
students in any form
Interview protocols
1. What are the reasons why students will
not perform well during their lessons
2. Give reasons why competency-based
education training will not benefit the
students
Motivation validation. The two main assumed motivational causes that needed to be
validated was self-efficacy and utility value (extrinsic). First, generalizations about MTC
instructors to exhibit self-efficacy could be increased by providing clear and accurate feedback
focusing on improving their confidence, expertise and skill (Pintrich 2003). Pintrich, (2003)
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studies revealed that lack of utility value for instructors could be addressed by providing tasks
and activities relevant to improve their understanding of training applying competency-based
approaches. Moreover, MTC instructors should focus on the importance of higher level of utility
and content and activities to train students for future employment.
Table 6
Summary Table of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation
Motivational
Problem
(describe what
the motivational
issue is)
Type of Indicator
(describe whether
this is an issue of
active choice,
persistence, or
effort or some
combination)
Possible Cause(s)*
How Will it Be
Validated?
Instructors
demonstrate a
lack of active
choice to teach a
competency-
based
curriculum
(CBC).
Active choice
• They do not see any
difference in teaching
an academic curriculum
versus a competency-
based curriculum. (low
task value) (P)
• Instructors do not
believe they were
capable of teaching
effectively a
competency-based
curriculum.
(Low self-efficacy) (P,
T)
• Written 6 point
Likert-scale survey
items (“strongly
agree” to “strongly
disagree”): “I am
sure I can do an
excellent job in
teaching a
competency-based
curriculum.”
• Interview questions:
“How confident are
you in teaching a
competency-based
curriculum?”
Instructors do
not value the
importance of
teaching a CBC
Active choice,
Mental effort
• They do not value
teaching a competency-
based curriculum.
(utility value). (P,T)
• They did not view the
importance of teaching
a competency-based
curriculum. (attainment
value). (P, T)
• Interview questions:
“How do you see
the value of
teaching
competency-based
approaches in your
professional work?”
Instructors are
making negative
Mental effort
• They feel that the
student’s low
• Interview questions:
“ How can using
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attributions of
students related
to their low
ability and
performance
competencies in
performing a task are
due to the lack of
student’s ability and not
their own efforts at
instruction. (attribution)
(P)
competency-based
approaches in your
teaching help
students to become
more marketable?”
*Indicate if the source is Personal Knowledge (P) or the Literature (L) or Motivation Theories
(T)
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Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation
Through interview protocols and survey instruments, it was found that the two main
reasons for motivational performance gap for MTC instructors were low self-efficacy and utility
value for the instructors. Many MTC instructors assumed that the graduates of MTC were
continually prepared for entry to the workplace. They were not aware of high number of students
who had graduated from MTC had still remained unemployed. Many MTC instructors had
assumed that teaching an academic-based curriculum was sufficient for the students to obtain
immediate employment upon entering the labour market in Brunei. Introducing CBET to
instructors had made them experience low confidence or low self-efficacy if teaching becomes a
mandate to utilize a competency-based curriculum. Therefore, a solution was developed based on
all of these findings to close the motivational performance barriers at MTC.
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap: Organizational/Culture/Context
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) addressed the concept of culture and context through
two key ideas of cultural models and cultural settings. These two cultural concepts was used to
analyze these organizational problems within this study.
Organizational causes and validation
According to Rueda (2011), organizational culture in the context of school, the cultural
models would help shape ways how the school should be structured, such as values, practices,
policies or reward structures. Organizational culture is linked to organizational effectiveness and
factors or activities (Smart & Hamm, 1993; Cameron & Ettington, 1988). Schein (1985) defined
meaning of culture as “observed behavior regularities” as basic assumptions and beliefs that are
shared with members within the organizations as learned responses to problems in the survival of
the group often referred as internal integration. The concept of culture helps to explain all these
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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irregularities and phenomena within any organization especially in the context of organizational
performance gap (Schein, 2004). In the case of MTC, in order to apply the organizational gap,
both cultural models and settings were needed to be distinguished with one another. Cultural
models are shared mental schema of how the world works or ought to work incorporating
behavior both cognitive and affective domains (Rueda, 2011). Cultural models encode shared
environmental, what was valued and ideal settings that was being enacted and avoided, who
should participate, the rules and purpose of interactions (D’Andrade, 1995: Holland & Quinn,
1997: Shore, 1996: Weisner, 1984). Cultural settings were defined as settings as occurring
“whenever two or more people come together, over time, to accomplish something” (Sarason,
1972, p.1). Organizations such as schools have specific types of cultural settings and normally
characterized with one or more cultural models (Rueda, 2014).
Organizational causes. The organizational performance gap at MTC was identified as
instructors currently not using an academic-based curriculum that is aligned to industry
requirements. The reasons could be due to their underlying values, beliefs and principles that
served as a foundation for the college’s management practices or behaviors that exemplify and
reinforce basic principles (Denison, 1990). To illustrate, it was assumed that MTC faculty were
not using CBET as part of their teaching practice. There were two cultural model gaps identified;
firstly, a strong resistance to change and secondly, acceptance of passivity, social loafing, non-
participation and lack of accountability. According to Lindahl (2006), organizational climate can
be measured using quantitative survey instruments to gather stakeholder’s perceptions of the
environment. In MTC context, to validate this assumed cause, survey and interview protocols
were used as evaluating instruments. A survey instrument would ask MTC instructors the
following questions using a Likert-scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree:
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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1. Most people in the college do not value change
2. There is a lot of participation among instructors on tasks given to them
In the interview protocols, MTC instructors were questioned about their feelings in making a
change in their teaching instructions by applying competency-based approaches (CBA) in
teaching and learning. Interview protocols include questions such as:
1. What is the norm of teaching students using standard-based curricula?
2. Is it easy to implement changes in the college policy such as curriculum development?
3. What is valued in the college for implementing change?
Teaching students in Technical Vocational Institutions (TVIs) using CBA had proven to be
useful due to the development of high competency standards. According to Bowden and Masters
(1993), in CBET, student outcomes were expressed in precise, observable terms; assessment
becomes a process of establishing whether the student is able to demonstrate defined
competencies. MTC instructors’ belief were questioned about their cultural change if they shift
their teaching styles using CBA. Clark & Estes (2002) defined this as an organizational barrier
that impedes people’s ability to be successful in preserving and accomplishing their goals. The
performance problems that MTC faces related to cultural setting were more visible in specific
work settings. Such examples of cultural settings expressed by MTC instructors’ behavior were
defined by four possible factors. There assumed cases were:
• lack of equipment and facilities to teach a CBET
• instructors have to abide with unnecessary and restrictive college rules
• lack of autonomy and choice
• missing college strategic vision and goals
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To validate these assumed causes, surveys, focus groups, observations and interview protocols
was used to assess these cultural setting problems. MTC instructors were asked the following
questions in a survey instrument with examples as shown below:
1. I have adequate resources, materials and facilities to teach CBET
2. I have many non-instructional and administrative duties that are burdening which
affects my teaching periods
3. I have enough autonomy in my work and not restricted to unnecessary college rules
4. There is a clear strategic vision in the college to reach its performance goals
Organizational validation. Dixon (1994) studied factors that produce success to help
organizational change processes succeed (Clark & Estes, 2008). The recommendation for this
organizational change processes was to align the structures and processes of the organizational
with strategic goals. There were a few assumed organizational causes that have been summarized
in Table 6 below revealing a performance gap in the organizational context of MTC. A few
solution principles were also summarized in the table with strategic proposals of how to reduce
the performance gap at MTC. The main organizational barrier validated was the lack of
resources, materials and facilities to teach CBET. MTC management had address the cultural
setting problems by shifting priorities of re-allocating funds appropriately more than other
activities that focused on preparing students for employment in a TVET system (Rueda, 2011).
Another assumed organizational cause remains that the academic-curriculum currently
being utilized did not match to industry standards. This strategy had allowed MTC administrators
to work closely with employers and curriculum experts aligning the student learning goals to
ensure industry needs were met. With regards to the curriculum, MTC instructors had promoted
closer collaboration with local industries to acquire up to date information constantly, keeping
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track with rapid changes in technology, environment and future developments of the curriculum
content.
According to Bowden and Masters (1993), many higher education universities and
institutions often emphasize too much theoretical knowledge at the expense of practical
competencies required in professional practice. In today’s context, many higher education
institutions focused on systematic disciplinary knowledge and methods of critical inquiry and
analysis. This was not easily definable in terms of skills training and professional competency.
Nowadays, many higher educational goals in these institutions were required to be more inclined
towards vocational-oriented competencies relevant in the development of general employment
for their students (Bowden & Masters, 1993). A summary of the assumed causes at MTC is
shown in Table 7.
Table 7
Summary of Assumed Causes for Organizational/Culture/Context Problems
Organizational
Problem
Possible Organizational
Cause(s)* How Will it be Validated?
MTC instructors did
not use a
competency-based
curriculum to teach
their students
Cultural Models:
• Resistance to change due
to lack of autonomy (P,
T)
• Acceptance of passivity,
social loafing, non-
participation, lack of
accountability (P, T)
Observations
Survey items:
1. I feel that I have a lot of non-instructional and
administrative duties that hinder my professional
work
Interview protocols:
“Are you burdened with non-instructional and
administrative duties besides your teaching tasks?”
MTC instructors were
burdened with too
many non-
instructional and
other unnecessary
administrative duties
Cultural Settings:
• Lack of equipment and
facilities to teach CBET
Observations
Survey items.
1. I have enough resources, materials and facilities to
teach CBET
2. All the resources required by CBET is readily
accessible
Interview protocol:
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“Do you think that the college has enough resources and
facilities to conduct Competency-based education
training (CBET)?”
• Instructors had to abide
by unnecessary and
restrictive rules, policies
or barriers (P, T)
Observations
Survey items:
1. I have enough autonomy to complete my tasks and
am not restricted by unnecessary college rules or
policies
Interview protocols:
“Do you have sufficient autonomy to perform the tasks
given to you by the college administration?”
• College lack any
strategic vision and
goals which was
constantly changing (P,
T)
Survey item:
There is a clear strategic vision in the college to reach its
performance goals
Interview protocols:
“Is there a clear strategic vision in the college that is
understood by everyone?”
* Indicate in this column if the source is Personal Knowledge (P) or the Literature (L) or Theories related to
culture/context (T)
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Summary of assumed organization causes and validation
All the strategies proposed were intended to assist MTC in closing its performance gap to
ensure all graduates secure jobs within six months after graduation. In this respect, both
organizational culture and organizational settings were viewed as two important concepts, which
impact on organizational changes through various programs. Identifying organizational barriers
that were related to cultural context in achieving performance goals suggests a strong correlation
with organizational performances. The key challenge remains in the measurement for validating
the cultural/performance relationship by taking into account other cultural variables that were not
be necessarily related to organizational processes within the same context.
Participants
The gap analysis study had involved all of the teaching faculty at MTC, constituting a
group of fifty-six participants. The sampling used in this experiment was a single-stage
sampling. According to Creswell (2014), single-stage sampling procedure is when a researcher
sampled people directly and had access to names of the population. These instructors were the
academic staff responsible for the creation and delivery of courses at MTC using competency-
based approaches (CBA). The Deputy Principal of Education (DPET) and Training was also
included as a participant. This was due to his involvement as a manager of all teaching
instructors at MTC and as he influenced the ‘teaching culture’ within the college. Any new
policy changes particularly with any latest teaching and learning methodologies implemented in
the college was under his direct supervision as the DPET. His other responsibilities include
assessing, appraisal and evaluating the performance of all academic instructors at MTC. All
fifty-six participants were asked to complete a survey. The participants for the interview
component of this study, however, consisted of two heads of department, one assistant head and
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the remaining were program leaders and teaching instructors carrying middle management roles
at MTC. The selection procedure for the interviewers used a purposeful and saturation method.
According to Parahoo (1997), data saturation method was a term applied during gathering to the
point at which no data had emerged. The themes identified were extracted after transcribing
interview transcripts from the first three interviewers from the interviewed participants.
Procedures
In order to validate the Knowledge, Motivation and Organization (KMO) causes, the
procedures used to conduct the study consisted of one-to-one interviews and survey
questionnaires with instructors from MTC. These two methods were used to gather data from the
instructors’ perspectives in order to validate these KMO causes. The participants were given
relevant information on filling in the survey instrument one week in advance. All items and
questions designed in both the survey and interviews were formulated to ensure participants’
responses were analyzed and categorized under KMO causes. A coded running number had been
assigned to each instrument in order to maintain the anonymity of the respondents. See Appendix
C for details of coding.
Each interviewee was asked in English a set of ten to twelve questions in dealing with the
KMO barriers as described in the beginning of this chapter (see Appendix A for interview
protocols). Each interview session with the participants had lasted for a period of approximately
one hour. The sessions were audio-recorded with the interviewee’s permission and later
transcribed and coded for further analysis. Interview responses were further coded to identify a
specific type of KMO root cause.
The instrument items designed in this survey were generated based on the two research
questions of KMO barriers and solutions as described earlier in this study. The instrument items,
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format and procedures designed in the survey were based on existing research studies and
literature related to technical and vocational education (See Appendix B for survey instrument).
The first part of the survey contains a section on the purpose of the survey, instructions, and
demographic information. The information required was included in the instrument had contain
items which referred to student’s teaching qualification level, position, number of years teaching
with/without administrative experience, number of training/courses attended throughout the
instructor’s career. The second part of the survey contained instructions and consisted of three
multiple-choice questions for participants to choose the best possible answer. The third section
consisted of thirty items that required participants to rank their levels of agreement and
disagreement to the question using a six-point Likert-scale. In the last section of the survey, four
open-ended questions were included to focus on the instructor’s opinion of major factors and
barriers, related to TVET. These questions were designed to investigate other possible barriers of
planning, suggestions of improvement of knowledge and skills, and recommendations of TVET
employability that were not included in the survey or interview protocol instruments.
Data Collection
Data collection for this gap analysis study was achieved through two methods: interviews
and surveys. Data generated from both methods had provided greater breadth of perspectives that
was necessary for validating the assumed causes within the KMO domains. Moreover, using
multiple data collection methods allowed different types of information to be gathered to
consider both their strengths and limitations. Applying these methods had provided a broader
data set to develop a stronger understanding of the possible causes described in the earlier part of
the chapter. Other procedures to ensure that the data collection methods were suitable and
reliable to all participants included early piloting of both the survey instruments and interview
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questions to a small group of respondents as a trial exercise. This was to ensure the respondents
understand the language use, meaning and content of the questions posted and to ensure
instructions were clearly stated in both methods of data collection practice.
Surveys
The survey was distributed to participants in-person via paper based between the months
of September and October of 2014 upon receiving approval from the University of Southern
California (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB). The plan for distributing the survey was
made throughout a three-week schedule via two methods. The first method involved
disseminating the survey instrument directly to MTC instructors who had been selected to
participate in the study. Instructions and guidelines on completing the survey were included on
the front cover of each instrument. The cover page had included the purpose, importance of the
study, submission date and request of participants’ assistance and full cooperation in returning
the instrument after three weeks upon receiving the instrument. This was a standard procedure
of administering survey protocols at MTC. The instructors had returned the survey forms to the
information desk at the main entrance building at MTC. In the past, survey forms disseminated
to MTC instructors have a typical response rate of around 50%. If the response rate using this
first method falls below 50%, a second method had been proposed.
This second method ensures a higher response rate by calling upon the assistance of the
Quality Assurance (QA) officers from MTC. The QA officers will assist the researcher in
administering and distributing the survey during their training session with the MTC instructors.
These officers were composed of highly trained personnel who have vast experience in
administering survey instruments to respondents. The QA officers focused on all instructors to
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complete the survey and collect all their responses anonymously in the study. Once all the
surveys were compiled, descriptive statistics was tabulated using SPSS to analyze the data.
Interviews
Personal interviews had been conducted face to face with the selected MTC participants.
The interviewees were informed of anonymity of the data collected through the interviews to
help alleviate possible concerns of becoming participants in the study. The participants were
encouraged to express their ideas and opinions in a relaxed and comfortable setting. Verbal
permission had been obtained beforehand from the interviewees for the purpose of data
recording. All responses were kept confidential and their responses were only used for research
purposes only. Any reporting on findings would not identify any of the interviewees as a
respondent in the study. Refer to Appendix A for details of the interview protocol instrument. A
high quality digital voice recorder was used to record the interview sessions. The short
handwritten notes had allowed for consistency of information to be recorded with the
interviewees. Each interview session had taken approximately one hour to complete with each
participant.
Role of Investigator
The current role of the investigator in this study as the principal of MTC was to ensure
that any key performance goal would be achieved by developing strategic action plans of
increasing their graduate’s employability. In this way, the investigator had dual roles, one, as an
action researcher and two, as the current principal of the college.
According to Locke, Spirduso, and Silverman (2013) qualitative research that involves
participants with close knowledge of the investigator introduces a range of strategic, ethical and
personal issues. I have posed some concerns about conducting the current study due to my
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sustained intensive experience with the participants (Creswell, 2014). These concerns include my
possible bias, values and personal interests concerning the research topic or the process involving
participants that I work with regularly (Creswell, 2014). This gap analysis study, however, was
to investigate effective methods of reaching MTC’s organizational goal. Based on this fact, the
potential for a conflict of interest for me as the investigator was reduced since this gap analysis
was targeting directly on achieving one of MTC’s major performance goals. Moreover, all of the
participants in this project were aware of this broader background for this project.
Various steps had been undertaken to ensure the study was carried out with a clear
rationale way that had reduced any possible perceived pressure to participate or to provide
inauthentic responses. The investigator had informed all participants in advance on the purpose
of the study as an important part of an action plan for attaining MTC’s key performance goal.
MTC instructors had realized the need to increase the employability of their graduates for the
overall benefit of their students. Additional provisions had also been prepared in order to
preserve the anonymity of all participants. Any personal information or questions was restricted
and kept solely for the purpose of the study and concealed the true identity of each participants.
Furthermore, MTC participants were given the choice to participate voluntarily in the gap
analysis study. Even with the assistance of the QA officers for the survey instrument, MTC
instructors were still given the autonomy to choose whether to participate or otherwise in any
part of this study.
Data Analysis
The data analysis process involved making interpretation of the actual meaning of the
data. According to Creswell (2014) this includes preparing for data analysis, getting deeper
understanding, segmenting and taking apart as well as putting it all back together. Tesch (1990)
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provided detailed guidance for an “Eight Step Coding Process” that I used to analyze the data
that was collected through survey and interviews. These codes had identified different types of
knowledge, motivation and organization causal categories that assisted in identifying themes
emerging from these data collection procedures.
The qualitative study contain semi-structured interviews that comprised of ten to twelve
broad, pre-determined, open-ended questions, with subsequent probing questions. For the ease of
clarity, each of the interview questions (1-12) was broken down into different codes as shown in
Table 8.
Summary of Coding System used in the Survey Instrument and Interview Protocol
Presumed Gaps
Coding
Acronym Presumed Gaps
Coding
Acronym
Knowledge Factual
Knowledge Procedural
Motivation Self-efficacy
Motivation Utility Value
Motivation Attribution
KF
KP
MSE
MVU
MA
Organizational Resistance
Organizational Non-participation
Organizational Resources
Organizational Autonomy
Organizational Strategic Plan
OR
ONP
ORE
OA
OSP
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The process of summarizing the data from the interviewees had identified patterns or themes
through the interview responses from the participants. The data obtained was categorized and
matched to correspond with the codes to all possible KMO presumed causes. If a variety of
themes emerge, the themes were grouped together or individually in an articulated and
systematic way. Observations and assumptions were made based on each category/grouping such
as the sentiments of younger participants, which had vary greatly from older participants.
The findings written in the interview transcript were summarized particularly with the main
themes emerging from the data collected and shared with the first three/four of interviewed
participants. This was a method of member checking process implemented in formative stages
during the interview process. Using this technique, the participants could verify the data
collected by the investigator was interpreted as accurately as possible and no deviation in actual
meaning after dictation. Other grouping for comparison in the analysis was also considered such
as the possible gender differences and varying levels of enthusiasm among others.
A survey instrument consisting of thirty-three items had been developed to validate the
assumed causes of the three KMO barriers. From all the thirty-three items in the survey, all ten
codes as shown in Table 6 were used in the analysis. The Likert Scale used in the survey
instrument consisted of six types of response i.e. Strongly Agree [1], Agree [2], Somewhat Agree
[3], Somewhat Disagree [4], Disagree [5], and Strongly Disagree [6]. For items 4 and 5, the
items measured the instructor’s knowledge gap within the four domains of factual, conceptual,
procedural and metacognitive. Items 6-17 measured the motivational gap of self-efficacy, utility
value and attribution. Finally, for items 18-33 measured organizational gaps of resistance,
organizational resources, autonomy and strategic plan within the college administration. Data
collected through the survey was coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics. This was to
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indicate which KMO causes from the above coding scheme determined significant information
in explaining the instructor’s performance at MTC. Advanced statistical analysis was used to
view any significant findings or correlations that will support to understand the causes and/or
help inform solutions and recommendations as stated in chapter five. Descriptive and inferential
statistics was used to organize, analyze and interpret data using calculations based through
application of the SPSS program. Descriptive statistics, which included the analysis of means,
frequencies, percentages-value, rank-orders of scores for the variables and standard deviations.
Limitations of the Study
All methodologies have its limitations. However, this gap analysis attempts to answer the
root causes of performance gap currently present at MTC. Furthermore, this study only focuses
on one key stakeholder, i.e. the MTC instructors, an in-depth investigation of possible presumed
causes involving other stakeholders within the KMO barriers should also be pursued. Due to
time constraint, these limitations had remained beyond the scope of the gap analysis study. This
study had investigated the behavior of the instructors at one institution, which could also create
biasness towards providing answers not being a true representation of their actual experience in
the college. Another limitation was when the assumed causes and recommended solutions were
highly dependent on the assumption that all participants have completely understood all the
language, questions and survey items presented to them.
The data collected using the survey instrument also has its own limitation. The data could
not reflect the actual intended variable that the researcher had wished to achieve. Hence, the
interpretation of the data from the surveys ought be analyzed with caution. Moreover, on
measuring motivation variables such as self-efficacy, utility value, and attribution, these
variables were highly influenced by the ability of individuals and their prior knowledge that were
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related to a specific task (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich & Skunk, 2007). Thus, it was important to
acknowledge the different level of participant’s understanding to CBET. Additionally, this was
to ensure a more accurate picture of their motivational indices of active choice, persistent and
mental effort was achieved. In summary, measuring such variables other than the above
mentioned was beyond the scope of the proposed study and any statistical analysis made were
based on a correlation and not a causational relationship.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to examine the root causes of why only 50% of graduates
from Mechanical Training Centre (MTC) can obtain employment in areas that are suitable to
their choice of study or program. The framework used in this study is the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis model, which is designed to find the root causes of performance in areas of
knowledge, motivation and organization (KMO). This model was applied to determine why the
graduates of MTC were not able to secure 100% employment upon completion of their course.
Each of these three dimensions was assessed to generate the possible root causes at MTC that
were later examined and validated at the end of each section. In this chapter, I describe the
findings after analyzing the results and identify which assumed causes could be validated or
partially validated. In the next chapter, solutions and recommendations will be proposed in order
to close the unemployment gap that exists for students graduating from MTC.
Instrumentation
A reliability of both surveys and interview instruments were used to gather information
about the inability of instructors to teach a well-developed competency-based curriculum that is
aligned with industry standards in Brunei. The survey instrument also provided black spaces to
enable these participants to give further comments and feedback for improvements purposes. The
University of Southern California (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB) has approved the
usage of both the survey and interview protocol instruments applied in this gap analysis study.
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Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), the revised bloom’s taxonomy model
states that knowledge is an outcome or product and not a form of thinking.
There are four knowledge domains, including factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.
Two of these domains, factual and procedural, were identified as possible factors influencing the
employment rates of MTC graduates. In this section, I will describe the findings related to these
assumed knowledge causes.
Survey Results
In the survey instrument, there were a total of five knowledge items, which were
comprised of three factual knowledge and two procedural knowledge questions. The first three
items were multiple-choice questions and the remaining two items consisted of a six-point Likert
Scale. Table 9 below summarizes the overall results, which reveals that the instructor’s surveyed
scored lower in factual knowledge, but had mixed results on procedural knowledge. In the next
section, I will describe these results in the areas of factual and procedural knowledge in more
detail.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), the revised Bloom’s taxonomy model
states that knowledge is an outcome or product and not a form of thinking. There are four
knowledge domains, including factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Two of these
domains, factual and procedural, were identified as possible factors influencing the employment
rates of MTC graduates. In this section, I describe the findings related to these assumed
knowledge causes.
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Survey Results
In the survey instrument, there were a total of five knowledge items, which were
comprised of three factual knowledge and two procedural knowledge questions. The first three
items were multiple-choice questions and the remaining two items consisted of a six-point Likert
Scale. Table 9 below summarizes the overall results, which reveals that the instructor’s surveyed
scored lower in factual knowledge, but had mixed results on procedural knowledge. In the next
section, I describe these results in the areas of factual and procedural knowledge in more detail.
Table 9
Results of the Knowledge Survey Questions
Assumed Cause & Type Item Mean
Standard
Deviation
Factual
MTC instructors do not have
the knowledge of the latest
trend for job listings currently
in high demand in the country
Multiple-choice item (Q1)
Choose from the list of the
highest in demand jobs in Brunei
2.26 1.485
Factual
MTC instructors do not have
enough knowledge and skills
in teaching a competency-
based curriculum
Multiple-choice item (Q2)
Choose from the list below the
best definition to describe the
term “Performance-based
training
2.47 0.905
Factual
Most instructors do not know
what are the latest trend and
essential skillset based on
industry requirement
Likert-scale item (Q4)
I use proficiency-based
approaches in most of my
teaching in the college
4.63 1.921
Procedural
Instructors do not know how to
design good instructional
methods to teach a
competency-based curriculum
Multiple-choice item (Q3)
Choose from the list below the
evaluation method that best
describe the term “Performance-
based assessment”?
2.68 0.946
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Procedural
Instructors have a knowledge
gap of teaching and delivering
effective competency-based
education training
Likert-scale item (Q5)
I evaluate my student’s
performance using assessments of
their actual proficiencies on tasks
or skills
4.47 1.264
Factual Knowledge. The first item of Question 1 in the survey was designed to seek the
factual knowledge of MTC instructors about the highest in demand jobs in Brunei. Consequently,
the results have shown only 4 (21%) of the respondents answered this question correctly.
Nevertheless, 10 (52%) of the respondents had chosen the wrong answer and the remaining 4
( 21%) participants did not respond to this particular item. In view of this, there is partial
validation that a factual knowledge gap existed at MTC based on the results shown in the Figure
2 below. These results need to be cross-checked with the interview data in order to confirm any
validation.
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Figure 2. Factual knowledge Question 1: A multiple choice question to choose “ the highest in
demand jobs in Brunei”.
Question 2 asked, MTC instructors to select the best definition to describe the meaning of
the term “performance-based training (PBT)”. This was designed to demonstrate how many
MTC instructors possessed factual knowledge of the terms commonly used to define the phrase
used to describe the definition of ‘PBT’. The results as shown in Figure 2 show that out of the
whole 19 respondents, only 12 (63 %) instructors answered this question accurately. The
remaining instructors 7 (37%) answered inaccurately to this question. Judging from the
responses, there are still many instructors who are not familiar with the term used to define the
meaning of “performance-based training (PBT)”. All MTC instructors should have a common
understanding of the term, so this suggests additional evidence of a partial factual knowledge gap
existing at MTC.
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Figure 3. Factual Knowledge Question 2: “Choose from the list below the best definition to
describe the term “performance-based training (PBT)”.
Another question measuring the factual knowledge was applied in Question 4, which
produced a mean value of 4.63 out of possible 5.0. This is a very important item to consider as it
suggests the instructors’ understanding to describe the meaning of the term used to define
proficiency-based approaches in their teaching and learning.
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Figure 4. Factual knowledge Question 4: “I used proficiency-based approaches in most of my
teaching in the college”.
The results as shown in Figure 4 indicate that a total of only 8 (47%) participants agreed
to the following statement. Additionally, 8 (47%) of instructors only partially agreed to the
statement in the question. Moreover, the standard deviation values for all items (Q1, Q2 and Q4)
were smaller than the mean value with a typical distribution ranging from 0.9 to 1.5. An
illustration of the above results from Question 4 denoted that the assumed factual knowledge was
partially validated. However, judging from the result of Question 4 showed that more than half
of the instructors do not use proficiency-based approaches to their teaching at MTC. This shows
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a strong indication that the assumed cause of factual knowledge barrier does in fact existed
among many of MTC instructors.
Procedural knowledge. As indicated from Question 3, a total of 15 (79%) of MTC
instructors did not accurately define the evaluation method that best reflects the definition of the
term “performance-based assessment (PBA)”. Only 4 (21%) of the participants answered this
multiple-choice question accurately. This suggests that many of the participants seem to lack the
understanding of the term used to define the meaning of PBA.
Figure 5. Procedural knowledge Question 3: “Choose from the list below the evaluation method
that best describe the term ‘Performance-based assessment’.
The second procedural knowledge Question 5 sought to elicit how many instructors
actually applied competency-based assessments as their evaluation method. The results of this
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question gave a high mean value of 4.47. The standard deviation of this question was found to be
1.264, which again shows a much lower value than the actual mean. This showed the data
collected from the sample size was quite close together. Refer to the figure below for details.
Figure 6. Procedural knowledge Question 5: “I evaluate my student’s performance using
assessments on their actual proficiencies on their tasks or skills”.
In view of the results above, a total of 14 (74%) agreed to the following statement. In
contrast to the above results, it can be argued that this particular question in the survey might be
very confusing to some of these instructors. The other choices of answers to define PBA listed in
this question had very similar meaning to the correct statement. Judging from this question, this
suggests a partial validation of the assume causes for some of the instructors having a procedural
knowledge gap. In brief, based on this two procedural knowledge questions, there were only
partial validation of this assumed knowledge cause existed among the participants.
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Summary of knowledge survey findings. The survey results have suggested that MTC
instructor’s lack factual and some procedural knowledge of the statements to describe the
meaning of the terms used in either PBT or CBET. This is insufficient evidence to confirm
complete validation of the assumed procedural knowledge gaps among the participants. On the
other hand, half of these instructors agreed to apply competency-based assessments to their
teaching in their classrooms. Nevertheless, there were some misconceptions of the usage of these
two terms by many of the instructors. In summary, there was validation of a factual knowledge
gap and partial validation of a procedural knowledge gap that existed among them. In short, no
firm conclusion can be drawn based on this data along, and further analysis and comparison with
the interview data will be discussed in the next section.
Interview Results
Nine instructors were asked five questions to assess factual knowledge and one
procedural knowledge barrier at MTC. The first question asked the instructors to elicit the top
most favorable choices of careers of youths based on the latest market trends in Brunei. Six of
the participants (67%) answered confidently, giving accurate responses such as, “oil and gas
related careers” or “mechanical engineering, chemical engineering and IT related fields.” This
was very consistent as the respondents were very familiar with the current most in demand jobs
in the country. These responses seemed to understand that more than 80% of the country’s
wealth comes from the oil and gas sector. Besides, it is only logical why many of the instructors
strongly agree that most of the available careers exist within this sector of the economy.
According to Zailani (2014), there more than 1000 jobs available currently in Brunei Darussalam
specifically in the oil and gas sector. Additionally, these answers consistent with the results from
one of the survey item where 50% of the respondents chose petroleum engineering and
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underwater welder to be the highest ranked most in demand jobs in Brunei. In contrast, the first
multiple choice item in the survey instrument measuring the factual knowledge showed a
discrepancy between the interview and survey data initially collected. In short, this result
indicates a partial validation existed among MTC instructors.
The next factual knowledge question asked “What skills and knowledge that all technical
vocational graduates should possess in order to improve their marketability?”. Five (56%) of the
interviewees replied “soft skills particularly in the aspect of acquiring interpersonal skills”. Most
of them mentioned having effective communication skills and good attitude in the workplace
chosen as the most common answer. Besides having technical skills, five interviewees mentioned
“Lifeskills” which include teamwork, self-management and the willingness to learn as an
essential core skill to acquire for all successful career progression. This question determined that
many of MTC instructors were aware of the necessary skills and knowledge that all graduates
should possess in order to become more marketable. Thus, there was no validation of any
assumed factual knowledge causes that existed among any of these instructors.
The third interview question asked instructors to examine their understanding of the term
“Health Safety Security Environment” or HSSE in short. Almost all of the instructors understood
the meaning of HSSE and they all commonly answered “safety awareness at work which is
compliant to policy of international safety standards ”. One instructor said “HSSE is necessary to
all trainers and employers to ensure they comply with the workplace safety Health order 2009 in
Brunei”. On this note, judging from these responses, again there was no validation of any factual
knowledge gap existing among any of these participants.
The second last two interview questions involved in examining the instructor’s factual
and procedural knowledge of the term used to describe; “How familiar are you in applying
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performance-based/outcome-based learning (PBT) as part of a teaching strategy in the
classroom”? This item was designed to test the instructors’ understanding of the meaning of the
term ‘PBT’. According to the interview responses, one instructor claimed to be a newly recruited
instructor and he admitted of not being familiar in using any of these terms. Then, another
instructor was only slightly familiar of the definition and application during the implementation
process of applying PBT assessments. Six of the participants (67%) being interviewed had a
reasonably good understanding of applying PBT as part of their teaching approaches in the
classroom. In addition, this showed partial validation of any factual or procedural knowledge
barrier existing among these instructors.
The last question in the interview protocol asked, “What are the important elements in
teaching a PBT to your students”? This question will seek to validate the assumed procedural
knowledge gap present among these interviewed participants. Surprisingly, many of the
instructors answered correctly to this question such as, “ to apply proper assessments procedures
in any form of skilled-based training”. More importantly, many instructors suggested that for
conducting successful implementation of PBT, proper training and industrial experience is
required by all instructors for the attainment of the relevant skills and knowledge in their
teaching career. More than half of the interviewed participants listed, “resources and up-to-date
equipment or facilities are very important for hands on practices for successful PBT
implementation”. Based on the previous survey data acquired, a total of 15 (79%) instructors
chose the wrong answer to this particular statement. Furthermore, there was discrepancy with the
two findings from both interview and data results. In conclusion, there was no validation of this
procedural knowledge gap existed among these participants at MTC.
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Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The results from both instructor’s survey and interview results have did not validate some
of the factual and the procedural assumed causes for PBA and competency-based education
training (CBET) implementation at MTC. There was only partial validation based on the overall
findings of the interview data and survey responses. The survey results confirmed not all of the
participants are aware of the latest market trend of the highest in demand jobs in Brunei. In
addition, not all instructors at MTC were fully aware of the definition or the term used to define
PBT as the data suggested only 12(63%) instructors understood the actual meaning and usage of
these two terms. Thus, it can be concluded that only partial validation existed at both of the
assumed causes of factual and procedural knowledge barriers existing at MTC. The assumed
knowledge causes based on the survey and interview results are summarized as shown in table
10.
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Table 10
Summary of Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes
Knowledge
category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated Explanation
Factual Instructors do not have the
knowledge of the latest
market trend for job listings
currently in high demand in
the country.
Partially
✔
Survey: Only 4 (21%) or respondents
answered the item in the survey
accurately.
Interview: 67% of instructors gave the
correct response of ‘oil and gas’
careers, which is accurate.
Factual Instructors lack the
knowledge to define the
meaning of “Performance
Based training (PBT).”
Partially
✔
Survey: Only 63% know the meaning of
the definition of either PBT or CBT
based on the statements.
Interview: No validation for this gap as
many instructors understood the
meaning of both terms used in defining
PBT and CBT.
Factual Instructors do not use
proficiency-based
approaches in their teaching.
Partially
✔
Survey: Only 43% of respondents
agreed on using competency-based
approaches in their teaching.
Factual Instructors are not familiar
with the term “performance-
based outcomes” as an
important part of their
teaching strategy
X
Interview: Many instructors understood
the correct definition of performance
based outcomes and defined the
meaning similarly to competency-based
training (CBT).
Procedural Instructors failed to answer
the correct meaning to
define the term
“performance-based
assessment (PBA)”.
Partially
✔
Survey: 79% of respondents failed to
select the correct definition of the term
used for PBA.
Interview: More than 67% of
interviewees gave the correct definition
of the terms used to define the term
PBA.
Procedural Instructors failed to
differentiate between the
two terms of performance-
based assessments (PBA)
and competency/
performance based training
(CBT/PBT).
Partially
✔
Survey: Only 74% of instructors agreed
in using PBA as part of their evaluation
methods.
Interview: More than 67% of
instructors knew that the meaning of
PBA and CBT were interrelated and
similar.
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Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
According to Clark and Estes (2008), there are three types indicators of motivational
issues, including active choice, persistence and mental effort. These can be used as a guide to
study the stakeholder’s underlying motivation issues such as self-efficacy, task value, attribution,
outcome expectancy and goal orientation. In the case of MTC, three possible underlying
motivational barriers that were analyzed, which were self-efficacy, task value and outcome
expectancy.
Survey Results
The survey instrument used to consider the motivational barriers for MTC instructors
consisted of eleven items utilizing a six-item Likert scale. Table 12 summarizes the results
obtained from the responses of the survey instrument.
A brief review of this table suggests that the areas of self-efficacy, task value, and
expectancy outcomes are possible motivational barriers existing at MTC. In addition, the mean
values for self-efficacy produced the highest mean value of 5.05 and lowest standard deviation in
comparison to the other assumed motivational causes. On the other hand, the motivational bands
of goal orientation, affect, goal and attribution may not represent any concern to MTC
participants. A detail description of the motivational questions will be further described in the
next section.
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Table 11
Results of the Motivational Survey Questions using a six-point Likert scale (Strongly agree,
Agree, Somewhat Agree, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree and Strongly Agree)
Assumed Cause &
Type Item Mean SD
Self Efficacy (MSE)
Instructors have low
confidence in
teaching a
competency-based
approaches to their
teaching
(Q6) I am confident in my ability to use teaching
approaches that focus on student performance
4.89 1.197
(Q7) I believe I can do a good job in teaching an
outcome-based curriculum
5.05 0.780
(Q13) I feel that teaching an outcome-based
curriculum is very manageable
4.84 1.385
(Q16) Through my teaching, I can help students
to graduate from the college with a positive
attitude towards work
4.89 0.737
Task Value (MUV)
Instructors do not see
the value of teaching
a competency-based
training
(Q8) It is important to me to teach students
using an outcome based curriculum for the
student’s future career prospect
4.42 1.539
(Q10) I believe teaching with an outcome-based
curriculum will improve the student’s overall
performance
4.89 1.100
(Q14) It is important for me to learn different
approaches to my teaching pedagogies
4.68 0.820
(Q15) I believe that using an outcome-based
curriculum will help me to become a better
instructor
4.26 1.447
Outcome Expectancy
(OE)
Instructors do not
believe that the
overall preparation
students receive will
lead to successful
employment
outcomes.
(Q9) Our institute has a goal to ensure all the
students who graduate will attain employment
4.68 0.820
(Q11) The students who graduate from this
college are well prepared to enter a competitive
workforce
4.74 1.485
(Q12) The students who graduate from the
college possess necessary critical and problem
solving skills
4.53 1.712
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Self-efficacy. Due to the prior feedback and interaction between instructors, the
motivational causes that were present at MTC were assumed to be low self-efficacy and low task
value in the instructors’ ability to teach a competency-based education training (CBET). Some
MTC instructors, for example had talked about frequently of avoiding difficult tasks that
required higher mental effort, such as teaching a curriculum that focuses on assessing multiple
level of competencies. To validate this assumed cause, there were three questions in the survey
that measured this motivational category. However, in general the results indicated that many
MTC instructors were very confident in their ability to teach and using an outcome-based
curriculum. All of the results for self-efficacy questions from the survey produced a relatively
high mean values ranging from 4.8 to 5.05 on a six-point Likert scale. Results from the responses
of the first two self-efficacy questions (Question 6 and Question 7) produced positive results of
12 (63%) and 13(68%) respectively. There is evidence that many instructors felt very confident
in their ability to practice teaching approaches that focuses more on assessing student’s various
levels of proficiencies. All of the instructors agreed that they “could do a good job” and only one
response somewhat disagreed to that following statement. Refer to the Figure 7 below for details
as follows:
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Figure 7. Self-efficacy Question 6: “I am confident in my ability to use teaching approaches that
focused on student’s performance”. A total of 12 (63%) of MTC respondents agree to the
following statement. Only 1 (5%) of instructors disagreed to the following statements.
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Figure 8. Self efficacy Question 7: “I believe I can do a good job in teaching an outcome-based
curriculum”. A total of 13 (68%)) responses agree to this statement. Only 6 (32%) of instructors
gave in between answers.
The next question asked whether instructors agree that teaching an outcome-based
curriculum is manageable or otherwise. A total of 10 (53%) instructors responded positively,
either agreeing or strongly agreeing, and 8 (42%) responses denoted that they somewhat agree.
Only 2 (10%) of MTC instructors disagreed or strongly disagree with this statement. This
question provided evidence that only two instructors out of 19 might feel that teaching a CBET is
overly demanding for them, further validating the assumed cause of possessing low self-efficacy
among many instructors in the college.
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Figure 9. Self-efficacy Question 13: “I feel that teaching an outcome-based curriculum is very
manageable”. In response to this question, 10 (53%) out of 19 instructors agreed or strongly
agreed that applying an outcome-based curriculum is very manageable. Whereas the remaining 5
(37%) participants somewhat agreed and 1 (5%) instructor disagreed to the statement.
This means that while the majority of these instructors believe that using a CBC is
manageable, a significant number 8 (42%) were less sure or either disagree to the statement. The
results of this question may provide partial validation of the assumption that some MTC
instructors feel that teaching an outcome-based curriculum might be challenging to some
instructors. In summary, the results of these three self-efficacy motivation questions suggest that
all of the items in the survey invalidate this particular motivational assumed cause among
instructors at MTC.
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Figure 10. Self-efficacy Question 16: “Through my teaching, I can help students to graduate
from the college with a positive attitude towards work”. Referring to the figure above, it can be
concluded that 15 (79%) of respondents agreed to this statement. 4 (21%) of respondents are in
between answers.
This implied that MTC instructors understood the importance of teaching a CBET, which
will allow their students to be more marketable in attaining higher critical skills or competencies.
All of self-efficacy questions produced high mean values of nearly 5, which is consistent to all
respondents from the other self-efficacy questions.
Task value. This motivational variable will be used to validate instructor’s lack of either
intrinsic (interest) or extrinsic (utility) value with regards of student’s attainment of success.
MTC instructors were observed to have difficulty in understanding the purpose of teaching a
competency-based curriculum, which focuses more on job performance and not course content.
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Besides, the assumption was that many of these instructors would not value that the teaching of
CBET. Hence, this is probably due to their lack of understanding for the real educational
outcomes and benefits of applying this type of teaching method. There were four positive
statement questions asked in the survey to measure all task value motivation indexes. Thus, the
results obtained would validate this particular assumed cause. Refer to the figure below for
details:
Figure 11. Extrinsic (utility) value Question 8: “ It is important for me to teach students using an
outcome-based curriculum for the students future career prospect”. Based on the results of the
respondents, more than 15 (79%) participants agreed and strongly agreed to this statement.
This implied that many MTC instructors believed that teaching an outcome-based
curriculum is very important to their students in order to achieve high employment in the labor
market.
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Figure 12. Attainment task value Question 10: “I believe teaching with an outcome-based
curriculum will improve the student’s overall performance”. A total of 11 (58%) respondents
agreed to the statement on the above item. From the figure above, 11 (58%), a majority of
respondents agreed to the statement as stated in this question survey.
The mean and median of the results obtained has produced a high mean value (close to 5)
and the standard deviation produced a small value of 1.10. This indicates that the variation of the
respondents (width of distribution) is tightly clustered (bell curve is steep) around the mean and
median represents that the respondents seemed to agree on the statement to this question. The
results also showed one instructor that disagreed to the statement and a significant number 7
(37%) participants were less sure or disagreed to this question.
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Figure 13. Intrinsic (interest) value Question 14: “It is important for me to learn different
approaches to my teaching pedagogies”. The results from the respondents above indicated that
more than 15 (79%) or respondents have self-motivated interest and agreed to the following
statement. MTC instructors believed that they should apply different approaches of teaching for
different types of learners in the classroom.
Continuing to the next item that measures the extrinsic (utility value) of results from
question 15. The results from the statement below indicated that 12 (63%) of the respondents
agreed and strongly agreed to the statement below. This indicated that many MTC instructors
believed that using an outcome-based curriculum will be very valuable for them in the context of
their their future goals of becoming a better instructor.
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Figure 14. Extrinsic (utility) value Question 15: “I believe that using an outcome-based
curriculum will help me become a better instructor”.
Hence, the consensus view judging from all the results of the respondents to all the task
value motivation Questions 8,10,14 and 15, this assumed cause of motivation task value were
found to be not validated.
Outcome Expectancy. The expectancy value theory focuses on outcome expectations
where certain behaviors will lead to certain outcomes (e.g. the believe that practicing will
improve one’s performance). This expectancy theory believes that different individuals can
believe that a certain behavior will produce a certain outcome (Eccles & Wigfield , 2002). In
practical terms many MTC instructors do not believe that the overall preparation of students in
their learning in the classroom will lead to successful outcomes such as employment. For
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instance, the students who have enrolled to MTC were students of K-11 and above and these
students were known to not have achieved high scores in their academic performance. There
have no other choice but to enter our Technical Vocational Education Training (TVET) systems
in order to continue their education and to aspire to attain relevant industrial skills for future
employability. In the survey instruments, there were three Questions (9,11 and 12) used to
validate this assumed outcome expectancy theory. The figure below shows details for illustration
purposes of this type of motivational cause.
Figure 15. Outcome Expectancy Question 9: “Our institute has a goal to ensure all the students
who graduate will attain employment”. More than 15 (79%) agreed and strongly agree to the
above statement.
In short, many of MTC instructors are aware of the significance of students who
graduated from this college will attain 100% employment.
The next question asked a similar question to validate another outcome expectancy
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motivation theory.
Figure 16. Outcome Expectancy Question 11: “The students who graduate from this college are
well prepared to enter a competitive workforce. The results obtained referring to the above figure
implied that more than 11 (58%) of MTC instructors agreed to the above statement that the
students who graduated would be well prepared before entering the workforce within the
country.
The last question below is used to validate the final assume outcome expectancy cause
existing among MTC instructors.
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Figure 17. Outcome Expectancy Question 12: “The students who graduate from this college
possess necessary critical thinking and problem-solving skills”. The results above indicated 10
(53%) of instructors agree that all the students who graduated from MTC will have the necessary
skills before they enter the labor market.
This question tested the expectancy beliefs of instructors at MTC of how critical are their
teaching outcomes will lead to an increase in student’s performance. To review, the overall
results from the respondents above have shown no validation of any of this assumed motivational
cause at MTC college in Brunei.
Summary of motivational survey results. In summary, it can be concluded that the
results compiled from the eleven items measuring all of these motivational barriers of; active
choice on self-efficacy, task value of extrinsic, intrinsic, attainment and outcome expectancy for
all of the assumed causes could not be completely validated. On the contrary, these results are
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required to be compared to the interview data before any conclusions can be made. However,
judging from the first impression, the results showed that MTC instructors do not have any high
level of motivational barriers despite one or two instructors who responded negatively to some of
these statements indicated in the survey results.
Interview Results
There were two motivational questions asked during the interview sessions with the nine
participants from MTC. Initially, two highly structured question comprised of two parts used to
elicit their views of how much value they place in teaching an outcome based curriculum
(determining task value) in their professional work. The second question entailed in seeking
knowledge of how an outcome-based curriculum will benefit in improving the student’s overall
performance determined to measure the instructor’s level of self-efficacy. Four of the
interviewees (44%) replied to the first question positively. A majority of the participants agreed
that teaching an outcome-based curriculum was very important particularly to all students in
general. However, there was one instructor who emphasized that teaching CBET is very
challenging even to an experienced instructor. He affirmed by answering “many instructors need
to execute student’s performance more than once in order to meet the industry standards”. He
added, “this can be very time consuming and stressful for both students and instructors”. Another
instructor stressed the importance of how CBET requires the curriculum to be very versatile and
continuously updated with positioning the content against industry requirements. Overall, the
interview data has revealed no factual evidence of any concerning motivational issues that exists
among any of these instructors in the college.
The second interview question asked, “ How can teaching performance-based approaches
be challenging to you?”. This question will test these instructors’ confidence and beliefs of how
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applying competency-based approaches in their teaching is beneficial towards their learners. Out
of the nine responses, seven instructors (88%) agreed to the statement inquiry. Only one
instructor disagreed with the rest and gave a negative response. A majority of the interviewed
participants strongly agreed that applying competency-based approaches were very challenging
and time consuming generally. Another participant said, “Our students who don’t acquire any
academic background can still perform well as the learning instructions focused on assessing
their hands-on and practical proficiencies”. On the contrary, another instructor argued that,
“teaching using competency-based approaches is not really and issue for me especially if you
have enough industrial experience”. He said, “Professional training for instructors is still
important and given enough time and effort, teaching CBET and applying the right pedagogies
will be easy especially if you are used to it”. On these grounds, there is a partial validation that a
motivational self-efficacy gap exists among a minority of these instructors within the college.
Synthesis and Findings for Motivation Causes
The synthesis of the results from both surveys and interview protocols, have some
supporting evidence to determine whether any of the earlier motivational assumed causes can be
completely validated. The results from the instructor’s survey have not validated any of the
motivational causes of self-efficacy, utility value, and outcome expectancy. Neither of the data
from the survey instrument as well as the interview finding was able to validate any of these
assumed motivational causes at MTC.
In addition based on the data collected, many of MTC instructors were confident in their
ability to apply competency-based approaches to their teaching and learning. In contrast, the
findings of the interview has confirmed that a majority of teaching instructors at MTC admitted
that teaching a competency-based curriculum at times is very challenging to any instructor. In
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summary, this indicated a partial validation of the assumed causes for instructors to possess low
self-efficacy in teaching a competency-based training. To summary, the final results of the
survey and interviews are summarized as shown in the table below.
Table 12
Results of the Motivational Survey and Interview
Motivation
category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated Explanation
Active
Choice
Instructors have a lack
of active choice to
teach a competency-
based curriculum
Partially
✔
There is a discrepancy between
the responses from the surveys
and interviews results.
Survey: More than 60% of
instructors agree that they are
confident in teaching
competency-based approaches to
their students (invalidated)
Interview: Seven participants
(78%) admitted that teaching
competency-based training (CBT)
is difficult and very challenging
for them
Self-efficacy Instructors do not
believe they are
capable of effectively
teaching CBT
Partially
✔
Utility-value
(Extrinsic)
Instructors do not see
the value of teaching a
competency-based
curriculum
Χ Survey: More than 60% of the
respondents agree that teaching a
CBT is crucial for the students’
success and future career prospect
Interview: Four interviewees
(44%) agreed that teaching a CBT
will motivate the students to
perform better and useful for
them to acquire successful
employment
Instructors do not view
that teaching applying
competency-based
approaches will help
the students to become
more marketable
Χ
Expectancy Instructors do not
believe that the overall
preparation in student’s
learning will lead to
successful employment
outcomes
Χ Surveys: 60% (from three items)
of the respondents agreed that the
students who graduate from MTC
will attain successful
employment.
Interviews: A total of 66% of the
interviewed participants agreed
that using a competency-based
curriculum (CBC) will improve
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the student’s overall performance
overall.
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Results and Findings for Organization Causes
An organization’s internal culture can either promote or impede its productivity and the
achievement of either its short-term or long-term goals (Rueda, 2001). According to Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001), the culture of an organization can be understood as being comprised of
cultural models, which are values, beliefs, attitudes that are generally invisible and automated.
Furthermore, in the domains of cultural settings which are the visible, concrete manifestations of
the cultural models, such as; lack of goals, communication norms, resources, and high employee
turnover. In the case of MTC, assumed causes related to both cultural models and cultural
settings were investigated thoroughly. Interview protocols and surveys were applied to validate if
these assumed organizational causes were influencing MTC’s ability to meet its 2016 goal for
enabling its graduates to attain 100% employment.
Survey Results
In order to validate these the organizational assumed causes, a total of eleven items were
used in the survey instrument to extract data for these types of barriers from MTC instructors.
There were two assumed causes under cultural models of non-participation and attitudes of
helplessness and hopelessness and four assumed causes under the category of cultural settings.
These cultural settings includes, “busy work” or bureaucratic work, lack resources, a lack of
autonomy at work and the absence of any strategic plan existing in the college. In the sections
below, I will discuss the findings concerning the cultural model barriers as well as cultural
setting barriers in detail using frequency tables to illustrate the instructor’s responses.
As with the previous items in the survey, a six-point Likert scale was used to identify the
participant’s overall responses. A brief summary of the overall results as indicated in the table
below suggests the areas of cultural models of non-participation, attitudes of helplessness and
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hopelessness. In addition for cultural settings, the organizational factor of “busy work” or
bureaucratic work not aligned to goals, lack of resources, autonomy and strategic plan are
possible organizational concerns for many instructors at MTC. On the contrary, organizational
barriers such as dishonesty, hypocrisy and unfairness, social loafing, pessimistic or negative
beliefs of attitudes, lack of communication may not represent any major concern that hinders
MTC to reach its organizational goals. The results obtained from the eleven organizational item
survey responses produced the highest mean value of 4.74 under the lack of autonomy assumed
causes and the lowest standard deviation value was found to be 1.742 obtained from the lack of
resources assumed factor. All of these results gained were compiled and compared and
summarized by each of their means and standard deviation as indicated in the table below.
Table 13
Results of the Organization Survey questions using a six-point Likert scale (Strongly agree,
Agree, Somewhat Agree, Somewhat Disagree, Disagree and Strongly Agree)
Result
Assumed Cause
& Type Item Mean SD
Cultural Models
Non-participation
(Q24) I am often asked to share my views about my
job and organizational plans
3.89 2.025
Attitudes of
helplessness and
hopelessness
(Q21) I feel helpless about getting support from the
college when urgently needed
3.58 2.294
(Q22) I feel that my ideas and request are not
respected by the college administration
4.05 1.779
Cultural Settings
“Busy work” that
is not aligned
with goals
(Q17) I feel that the non-instructional
responsibilities interfere my ability to be a good
instructor
2.63 1.985
Lack of resources (Q18) The college administration provides
adequate facilities, equipment and resources to
3.95 1.985
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conduct a performance based education training
(Q20) All the resources required to teach a
performance-based education training are readily
accessible in the college
3.53 1.742
Lack of autonomy (Q23) I have a lot of freedom and choice over my
tasks at work
2.47 1.896
(Q25) I do not feel overly restricted by college
rules and regulation in performing my routine tasks
4.74 1.790
Absence of a
clear strategic
plan
(Q26) There is a clear strategic vision in the college
to reach its performance goal
3.79 1.843
(Q19) The college is responsive to the TVET
training in general
4.21 1.960
(Q27) There is sufficient work procedures and
support from the college in order to reach its
organizational goal
3.58 2.224
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Non-participation. Non-participation on the part of faculty was the first factor assumed to be
causing the organizational performance gap at MTC. There was only one question in the survey
used to measure this cause. The results of the respondents are provided in Figure 18 below.
Figure 18. Resistance Question 24: “I am often asked to share my views about my job and
organizational plans”.
The responses indicate that there were mixed views about this statement. A total of 6
(35%) of instructors agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, whereas 5 (30%) of the
instructors at MTC disagreed or strongly disagreed. The remaining participants in the survey
include two instructors who did not respond to this statement and another 6 (35%) of instructors
agreed or somewhat disagreed. Given that the question produced a relatively equal distribution
of responses across the scale, the validation of this organizational barrier is inconclusive. It
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seems that there are instructors who experience the invitation to participate by giving their view
and others who don’t.
Attitudes of helplessness or hopelessness. There were two items used to measure this
organizational cause under the cultural model category. It was assumed that the MTC instructors’
felt that their views or requests for support were not accepted or perceived insignificant by the
college administration. The first item assessed how the instructors feel about getting institutional
support when needed. The results of the participants were shown below in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Resistance Question 21: “I feel helpless about getting support from the college when
urgently needed.”
The results reveal that 10 (59%) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the
statement, and an additional 2 (12%) somewhat agreed. On the other hand, only 5 (30%)
respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed. While there was a split in views, the larger number
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of instructors responding with agree and strongly agree suggests that some instructors were not
getting the support from the administration when urgently needed. This result supports there is
partial validation of this specific assumed cause.
The next item used to measure this similar organizational barrier is shown in the Figure
20.
Figure 20. Attitude of helplessness for Question 22: “I feel that my ideas and request are not
respected by the college administration”. This is a negative item and instructors should response
accordingly to the statement.
A total of only 9 (53%) respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the above statement.
Whilst another 5 (29%) of the instructors strongly disagreed with the statement, the overall
results obtained from these participants produced a relatively high mean value of 4.05 in
comparison to the other organizational items as described previously. The results of item
indicated that some of these instructors’ agreed that they are not getting the respect that they
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need from the college. In summary, judging from the analysis of the results of the two items as
indicated above, there is partial validation of this type of assumed organizational cause.
“Busy work” or bureaucratic work. This is the first statement under the cultural
settings category used to measure this type of assumed organizational gap. MTC instructors were
asked their opinion about the non-teaching responsibilities that were adhered to them, which at
times develop beyond their job description. These instructors were given only one question to
measure to this organizational gap and the results are indicated in the figure below.
Figure 21. Resistance Question 17: “I feel that the non-instructional responsibilities interfere
with my ability to be a good instructor”.
There was a mixed response based on the data computed as shown above. A total of 5
(28%) respondents agreed to the statement. Another 6 (34%) of the participants completely
disagreed. One instructor didn’t respond at all and the remaining 7 (39%) respondents neither
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agreed nor disagreed. On these grounds, there is no validation towards assuming this particular
organizational barrier existing at MTC.
Lack of resources. Next, the cause of the performance problem faced by MTC
instructors, which is related to the cultural settings found at MTC. There were two items used to
validate this assumed cause. The results for the first item obtained are shown in the Figure 23
below.
Figure 22. Lack of Resources Question 18: “The college admin provides adequate facilities,
equipment and resources to conduct performance based education training”.
As indicated in the figure above this organization statement showed a total of only 8
(35%) instructors who completely agreed to the above statement. Moreover, a total of 3 (17%)
respondents disagreed, one instructor didn’t respond and the remaining 7 (39%) respondents
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were in between answers. These data provide inconclusive evidence to validate this assumed
cause.
The next question confirmed the instructor’s responses to another organizational gap,
which also measured the lack of resources at MTC College.
Figure 23. Lack of resources question 20: “All the resources required to teach a performance-
based education training are readily accessible in the college”.
This question is quite similar to the previous question with regards to readily available
resources that is accessible in the college. In contrast to the earlier question, this question
produced a more normal distribution of responses, with fewer instructors giving agreement to the
statement. Similarly, another 4 (24%) disagreed with the statement completely. The results show
a slight disparity from the earlier question about resources, although ideally, the data should
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reveal a more similar result. Based on these survey results, there appears to be partial validation
that the organizational performance gap on account of the lack of resources existing at MTC.
Lack of autonomy. This is the second cultural setting used to measure the performance
organizational gaps at MTC. These items were used to measure how much autonomy MTC
instructors were given in their current job prescription. The results were shown in the figures
below.
Figure 24. Lack of autonomy for Question 23: “I have a lot of freedom and choice over my tasks
at work”.
Only 4 (24%) respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the above statement. The
remaining respondents produced a mix of responses. Also, 2 (11%) participants didn’t answer
this question. Again, the next item in this survey continues to measure the organizational
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autonomy of instructors at MTC. The results are indicated below.
Figure 25. Lack of autonomy for Question 25: “I do not feel overly restricted by the college rules
and regulation in performing my routine tasks”.
A total of 8 (45%) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the above statement,
while only one instructor disagreed. This has shown a discrepancy in the results between these
two statements measuring the same cause of the organizational gap.
The combined results from the two questions measuring the autonomy for MTC
instructors have shown evidence that there may be a partial validation of a lack of autonomy is a
concern for some instructors in performing their routine tasks at work. Thus, for many of these
instructors, the need for a lot of autonomy to teach effectively a competency-based curriculum
could not be completely fulfilled. This lack of autonomy could be the result of too many
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restrictions due to college rules and regulations. However, this will need to be further validated
by the interview results. Thus, these survey results will be compared with what respondents said
in the interviews in order to confirm the validation of any existence of this type of organizational
barrier.
Lack of an effective strategic plan. The final cultural setting category to be measured is
the lack of an effective strategic vision and goals. There were three questions used to measure
the organizational strategic plan assumed cause. The questions from the survey instrument have
produced the following results as indicated in the figures below.
Figure 26. Resistance Question 19: “The college is responsive to the TVET training in general”.
A total of 10 (53%) of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statement on the
above item shown in Figure 26. Additionally, none of the participants disagreed with the
statement, and of the remaining participants only three somewhat disagreed. Accordingly, this
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survey question produced the highest mean value of 4.21 when compared to the other questions
used to measure organizational barriers.
The Figure 27 below shows the results for the other question measuring any strategic plan
barrier that may have existed at MTC.
Figure 27. Lack of strategic plan for Question 26: “There is a clear strategic vision in the college
to reach its performance goal”.
A total of 10 (50%) of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the above statement,
whereas 4 (22%) of MTC instructors disagreed or strongly disagreed, implying that the college
may lack a strategic plan or one that is sufficiently clear to instructors. Similarly, the next
question measured another aspect of a possible lack of a strategic plan. The results of this
question are presented below in Figure 28.
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Figure 28. Lack of strategic plan for Question 27: “There is sufficient work procedures and
support from the college in order to reach its organizational goal”.
A total of only 5 (29%) of respondents agreed with the above question. Four instructors
(24%) did not agree or strongly disagreed with the statement. Overall, this statement produced an
almost even mix of response from all of these instructors; with 8 (47%) of the respondents giving
mixed reactions between somewhat agree and somewhat disagree. This mix of responses means
that this question only partially validates the assumed cause of the college not having a lack of a
strategic vision. On this basis, the interview data will be compared next to validate further
whether the lack of a strategic plan is validated as an organizational barrier.
In summary, out of the eleven questions used to measure the organizational barriers, there
were a few assumed causes that were either validated or partially validated as organizational
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barriers based on the cultural models and cultural settings framework. The assumed
organizational cause that was partially validated by the survey results was the attitude of
hopelessness and helplessness, lack of resources and finally the lack of autonomy for many
instructors within the college. The other six items from the survey have not validated the
remaining assumed organizational barriers.
Findings from Interviews
These organizational assumed causes were further investigated by analyzing the
interview data and comparing it with the survey results. Six structured questions were used in
inquiring about the organizational causes with nine participants from MTC. Three questions
examined the “busy work” or bureaucratic work cause, one question looked at organizational
resources, one investigated the instructors’ autonomy at work and the last examined the views of
instructors on the college’s strategic vision and goals.
“Busy work” or bureaucratic work not aligned with goals. There were three questions
used to validate this assumed cause. The first question asked how instructors view their current
range of responsibilities specified to them in their workplace. A follow-up question was asked on
whether these responsibilities could affect their ability to teach effectively. Out of the nine
instructors, five gave responses that suggested that their responsibilities at times were to great
and these extra duties pose a challenge for them and can be very disruptive and interfere with
their teaching timetable. One instructor claimed, “It is very disrupting especially when you have
too much work and high number of teaching hours and teaching material to cover”. Another
instructor said, “I believe too much admin work is very disrupting even to administrative staff as
during peak hours, at times the responsibilities are too much”. He added, “I need to prepare my
lesson plans and notes before hand as I have a lot to catch up especially during peak semesters”.
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In contrast, another instructor stated, “the key to this is time management. You need good
management skills in order to work responsibly and efficiently. Don’t forget to prioritize them
accordingly”. On the other hand, two instructors said the work given was manageable and the
stressful part is when students have lack of motivation during lessons. One instructor claimed
that the work is highly dependent on your ability to deliver the tasks in time and managing
teaching times effectively. Based on these views, the results suggest a partial validation for this
type of organizational cause as a majority feels that the administrative duties are disruptive to
their teaching period and affect their lessons.
The third question assessed the same “busy work” organizational barrier for participants
with regards to the curriculum that they were currently using. Many of these instructors were
involved in the design of the curriculum and they are aware of how much the current curriculum
being used is actually aligned to industry requirements. This question was designed to assess the
instructor’s perception of whether the bureaucratic work in the college hinders their ability to
design a curriculum that is aligned to industry needs. Based on the responses, nearly all of the
participants agreed that the current curriculum that they were using was very much aligned to
industrial standards. It was apparent that busy work or bureaucratic work was not a barrier in
developing a properly industry aligned curriculum. One instructor said, “These programs have
been developed with full collaboration with many industry personnel which is aligned to the
national competency standards that is very well established”. In this respect, these responses are
in line with the survey data, and the interview answers also indicate no validation for this
assumed organizational barrier among MTC instructors.
Organizational lack of resources. The next question asked during the interview
assessed whether a lack of resources presents an organizational barrier within the institution.
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Almost all of the instructors admitted that the lack of facilities and resources were a concern in
order to teach an effective competency-based training to their students. One instructor said,
“There were not a lot of support provided to teach an effective CBET particularly if the
equipment is outdated”. In contrast, one instructor mentioned, “institutional support is there, but
there is still a lack of proper equipment such as good working environment, teaching materials
still remains a challenge for me”. One instructor said, “its not just about facilities, you need to be
properly trained in order to teach CBET”. Hence, the consensus view in the interview results is
comparable to the survey results and indicates some validation of this type of organizational
barrier existing at MTC.
Organizational autonomy. The next question in the interview protocol was used to
validate the assumed cause of lack of autonomy for these instructors within their workplace.
Almost all of the participants agreed that they have enough autonomy and particularly in their
teaching practice. One participant said, “ I have a lot of autonomy especially in my teaching
instruction. But I still need to follow guidelines provided by the college”. On the other hand, one
instructor mentioned, “Even though, I have full autonomy in my work especially in teaching, you
still need to gain a lot of trust in order to exceed expectation from others”. Based on their
responses, it was concluded that a lack of autonomy is not a hindrance to instructor’s
performance at the workplace. In view of this when comparing to the survey data, there is a
contradiction with the earlier results, suggesting that there is not a conclusive validation for this
type of organizational cause.
Organizational strategic plan. MTC instructors were asked, “How do you feel about the
strategic vision of the college? Does everyone understand it? ” More than 7 (78%) of the
participants answered negatively. Two instructors agreed that the strategic vision of the college
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has not been properly translated to the middle management level. One instructor said, “The
vision of the college is not clear as it keeps changing. Any improvement of schools needs to be
conducted step by step so that everyone is on the same page”. Likewise, another instructor said, “
Only the top and middle management are aware of the college’s strategic vision, they should be
more communication and consultation from all levels of management.” This person added, “By
doing this, you will allow more people to have ownership of the vision applying the SMART
principles. You will end up building a family organization”. The interview data denoted that
many of the participants were not clear or aware of the existence of any college strategic vision
and goals within MTC. Judging the results of both the interview data and survey results, there
was a partial validation of the lack of strategic plan barrier existing within the college.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Causes
The overall results obtained from this gap study for the organizational barriers at MTC
were only able to validate one of the six assumed organizational causes under variables of
cultural models and cultural settings. The only assumed causes that were not validated were
found to be the non-participation assumed cause. Next, the partial validated causes were found
to be the attitude of helplessness, “busy work” or bureaucratic work, lack of autonomy and lastly,
the lack of any strategic plan within the college. Finally, the only assumed causes that were
validated based on the overall data compiled were found to be the lack of adequate resources
available at MTC to teach an effective competency-based curriculum (CBC). Consequently,
many of MTC instructors argued that the lack of resources and equipment in the college was one
of the major factors hindering their inability to design and teach an effective competency-based
curriculum.
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In summary, the data from the surveys and interviews for the organizational barriers
present at MTC are summarized as indicated below:
Table 14
Results of the Organizational Survey and Interview Data
Organization
category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated Explanation
Non-
participation
Cultural Models
MTC instructors were
asked to share their
views and opinions
about their job and
organizational plan
Χ Survey: Roughly equal split on
both extremes, with 35%
agreeing that their views were
widely accepted and 30%
disagreeing.
Interview: No question was
asked to validate this
Attitudes of
helplessness
and
hopelessness
MTC instructors
viewed themselves as
unimportant, as their
requests, suggestions
are often rejected and
unsupported by the
college administration
Partially
✔
Survey: 59% of the participants
agreed or strongly agreed with
not getting enough support and
respected within the college
administration.
Interview: No question was
asked to validate this cause
“Busy work” or
bureaucratic
work not
aligned to goals
Cultural Settings
MTC instructors felt
that the non-
instructional
responsibilities hinders
their ability to teach a
well-designed industry
aligned curriculum and
become a good
instructor
Partially
✔
Survey: Equal distribution of
results where 28% agreed and
34% disagreed to the statements
of the non-instructional
responsibilities disrupting their
teaching capacity.
Interview: More than 55% of
instructors claimed to have too
many disruption caused by
unnecessary administrative
responsibilities affecting their
overall teaching ability
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Table 14, continued
Organization
category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated Explanation
Lack of
resources
Many MTC instructors
experienced lack of
equipment and
facilities to teach
competency-based
training (CBT)
effectively
✔
Survey: Two items gave an in
between responses. One item
produced 15% of the respondents
who disagreed with the
statements completely. The other
item gave 21% of respondents
who disagreed with the statement
of the readiness of the college to
have adequate resources.
Interview: 8 (89%) out of 9
instructors being interviewed
admitted that the college have
insufficient resources to teach an
effective CBT
Lack of
Autonomy
MTC instructors felt
that they do not have
enough autonomy and
freedom to teach and
effective competency-
based curriculum
Χ Survey: One item produced 4
(24%) of the participants
admitted in having enough
autonomy in their teaching. The
remaining 5 (30%) participants
disagreed completely to the
statement. The other item gave
only 8 (45%) responses agreed in
having enough autonomy in their
workplace.
Χ Interview: 77 % of respondents
agreed in having enough
autonomy in the workplace.
Lack of an
effective
strategic plan
Many MTC instructors
felt that the college
lack any strategic
vision and goals that
are consistent
Χ Survey: Two items in the survey
produced 53% who agreed to the
college having enough strategic
initiatives to reach its
organizational goals
✔
Interview: Total of 77%
instructors admitted that the
college is lacking in a strategic
plan to reach its mission and
vision.
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Summary
The following section summarizes the validated causes based on the data derived and
triangulated from both the interview and survey instruments applied in this study. Out of the
sixteen assumed causes of knowledge, motivation and organizational (KMO), only two of these
KMO causes were fully validated and the other remaining assumed causes were either partially
validated or not validated at all.
Knowledge and Skills
In the knowledge domain all of four of the assumed causes of factual and procedural
domains were partially validated due to a discrepancy between the results of the survey and
interview data collected.
Motivation
The results from the survey and interview have partially validated two of the assumed
motivational index of lack of active choice and the domains of lacking in self-efficacy among
some of the instructors at MTC. On the other hand, the other assumed causes such as utility
value and expectancy were not validated, as it was found that many MTC instructors value the
importance of applying competency-based approaches in their teaching and learning.
Furthermore, these instructors believe that using competency-based approaches in their teaching
will help develop their student’s ability to become more proficient, which in time will lead to
higher employment outcomes for all of their students.
Organization
The results of data collected from both interview and survey instruments confirmed the
validation of only two of the assumed organizational causes existing within this variable. This
validation was found to be the lack adequate resources and effective strategic plan existing
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within the college. Overall, this will affect the instructor’s performance in teaching an effective
competency-based education training (CBET) to their students. The assumed organizational
causes of attitudes of helplessness, “busy work” or bureaucratic work not aligned with goals
were found to be partially validated found within this gap analysis study. In addition, some of the
instructors argued that the lack of the college’s strategic vision and mission were related to the
core of the institutional culture viewed as a significant hindrance for MTC to reach its
performance goals. A summary of the final results of the assumed causes for all KMO variables
within the college are summarized as illustrated in the table below:
Table 15
Results of list of Validated Causes from the List of Assumed Causes from Table 2 for
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Culture
Validated Causes Partially Validated Causes
Knowledge Factual
1. Instructors lack of factual knowledge of the latest
job listings currently in high demand in the
country
2. Instructors failed to understand the meaning of
the term “Performance Based Training (PBT)”
3. Instructors do not use proficiency-based
approaches in their teaching
Procedural
1. Instructors failed to choose correctly meaning of
the term “performance-based assessment”.
2. Instructors failed to differentiate between the
terms performance-based-assessments and
competency-based training
Motivation Active Choice
• Instructors have a lack of active choice to teach a
competency-based curriculum
Self-efficacy
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• Instructors do not believe they are capable of
teaching competency-based training effectively in
the classroom
Organization Lack of resources
• MTC instructors
experienced lack of
equipment and facilities
to teach competency-
based training (CBT)
effectively
Lack of strategic plan
• Many instructors felt
that the college lack an
effective strategic
vision and goals that
were consistent
Attitudes of helplessness and hopelessness
• MTC instructors viewed themselves as
unimportant, as their requests, suggestions are
often rejected and unsupported by the college
administration
“Busy work” or bureaucratic work not aligned to goals
• MTC instructors felt that the non-instructional
responsibilities hinders their ability to teach a
well-designed industry aligned curriculum and
become a good instructor
Case Study Question: What are the knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs of MTC
instructors to enable them to successfully implement a competency-based approach in their
teaching and learning?
The recommended solutions to close this knowledge, motivational and organizational
gaps will be closed by implementing findings as recommended by the research literature that will
be discussed further in the next chapter.
Case Study Question: What are the recommended solutions to close this gap in knowledge,
motivation, and organization in order to attain 100% employment for MTC students with local
employers and industries in Brunei?
There will be recommended solutions presented in Chapter 5 to ensure that by January
2016, all of the validated causes in the areas of KMO existed at MTC will address all the
challenges faced by its graduates to attain employment upon six months after their graduation
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CHAPTER 5
SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that will allow the Mechanical Training
Centre (MTC) to reach its organizational goal in achieving secure employment for 100% of its
graduates in areas that were suitable to their field of study. Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
model was used as a procedure to minimize the gap between current performance and desired
outcome by addressing underlying knowledge, motivation and organizational causes. This study
was designed to validate root causes of why students were not able to secure employment based
on the knowledge, motivation and organizational (KMO) aspects related to MTC faculty
instructional methods of applying competency-based approaches in their teaching and learning.
The expectation was to determine which causes of KMO could be validated by supporting
literature reviewed to help identify possible causes and to support the design of the methodology.
Surveys and interviews were used to identify the root causes of performance problems at MTC
resulting in the validated causes as described in chapter four.
This chapter describes recommendations for MTC for addressing validated and partially
validated causes that arose from having conducted this study. A description of each
recommendation is provided, to be followed by steps for implementation. An evaluation plan is
also included to ensure that each recommendation could be carried out in the most effective way.
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale
In the previous chapter, there were eleven assumed causes that were validated or
partially validated and four causes that were not validated. In this section, the validated or
partially validated assumed causes would be further discussed to work out the order of
significance and to recommend steps, which will allow MTC to narrow its performance gap.
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In the domains of knowledge, there were five partially validated causes that were found
hindering instructors from achieving MTC’s organizational performance goals by the year 2016.
These partial validated causes were found to consist of three factual and two procedural
knowledge domains. First, the factual knowledge barrier was due to their lack of knowledge
about the highest demand jobs in the country. Another factual knowledge barrier that was
partially validated was MTC instructors’ lack of understanding of the meaning of the term
“proficiency-based education training” (PBET), a finding that was in line with data which
suggested that instructors do not use proficiency-based approaches in their teaching. For the
procedural knowledge category, many instructors appeared to be confused with the term
performance-based assessments (PBA). Some instructors seemed to fail in differentiating the
meaning between performance-based assessments (PBA) and competency-based education
training (CBET). These validated and partially validated knowledge causes will be addressed in
the sections below.
In the motivation domains, results from this study indicated that only one partially
validated cause of low self-efficacy seem to be evident among MTC faculty members. It was
found that 78% of the interviewed instructors admitted to having difficulty in teaching
(competency based education training or CBET) to their students. In addition, 90% of the
interviewed instructors agreed that teaching CBET is very challenging even for an experienced
instructor. This partially validated will be further addressed in this chapter.
For the organizational causes, it was found that two validated and two partially validated
causes existed among MTC instructors. First, 89% of the interviewed instructors revealed that
lack of resources is a major obstacle for instructors to teach effectively using CBET. Other
partially validated causes include attitudes of helplessness and ‘busy work’ (or bureaucratic
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work), which is not aligned to the college vision and mission. In the area of strategic planning,
77% of instructors expressed that the college lacks an effective strategic plan to reach its vision
and mission.
In short, ten out of the sixteen assumed causes will be addressed, of five are related to
knowledge, one is related to motivation and four are related to organizational barriers. Table 16
shows the summary of the selected causes that will be addressed in the recommended solutions
offered at the end of this chapter.
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Table 16
Selection and Rationale of the Validated Causes
Category Validated causes
Knowledge Factual 1. Instructors lack of factual knowledge of the latest job
listings currently in high demand in the country
2. Instructors failed to understand the meaning of the term
“Performance-based training”
3. Instructors do not use proficiency-based approaches in
their teaching and learning
Procedural 4. Instructors failed to choose the correct meaning of the
term to describe “performance-based assessment”
(PBA)
5. Instructors failed to differentiate between the terms
performance-based-assessments (PBA) and
competency-based education training (CBET)
Motivation Self-efficacy 6. Instructors do not believe they were capable of teaching
CBET effectively
Organization Lack of resources 7. Instructors experienced lack of adequate equipment and
facilities to teach competency-based education training
(CBET) effectively
Lack of effective
strategic plan
8. Many instructors felt that the college lack an effective
strategic vision and consistent goals
Attitudes of
helplessness and
hopelessness
9. Instructors viewed themselves as unimportant, as their
request and suggestions were often rejected and
unsupported by administration
“Busy work” or
bureaucratic work not
aligned to goals
10. MTC instructors felt that the non-instructional
responsibilities hinders their ability to teach a well-
designed industry aligned curriculum to industry
standards and become a good instructor
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Solutions for Knowledge Causes
This section will describe the proposed solutions to address knowledge barriers that have
been identified in this study within the facets of factual and procedural knowledge.
Factual
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) described factual knowledge as knowledge of specific
information and details acquainted with a discipline in order to solve problems. According to
Anderson, Krathwohl & Bloom (2001), two subtypes of knowledge include knowledge of
terminology and knowledge of specific details and elements. MTC instructors’ lack of awareness
of their job demand in the country represents a factual knowledge gap, which needs to be
addressed immediately. Similarly, the lack of knowledge about basic terminology related to
CBET is also an important knowledge gap, which must be resolved.
Solution 1: Equip faculty with accurate data about highest demand jobs in the
country.
The triangulation of data from the survey results and interview findings indicated MTC
instructor’s lack of factual knowledge of awareness on the latest market trends concerning the
most highly demanded jobs in Brunei. Middleton, Ziderman & Adams (1993) argued that
educational training is related to labour demand needs. Training in high demand vocations is
important for students to receive market relevant skills and to eventually experience higher
employment levels (World Bank, 2006).
On these grounds, the MTC instructors should have a clear understanding of the labor market in
order to ensure our TVET training is demand-driven and meet the needs of the local employers
in Brunei. This would help ensure TVET graduates at MTC receive transferable skills that can be
applied across viable economic sectors nationwide. Additionally, demand driven training for
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programs offered at MTC will be viewed as more cost effective when graduates attain high–
demand jobs or occupation that result in higher initial salaries. In the perspective of MTC
faculty, acquiring factual knowledge and updated labor demand jobs information will make
programs more interesting and relevant to students and help ensure that students were actively
engaged in the processes of learning (Rueda, 2011).
Equipping MTC instructors with labor demand knowledge is considered to be manageable.
There have been existing examples to indicate how other governments across developed nations
include labor market analysis to ensure their TVET institutions supply graduates with easily
marketable skills (Prasad & Bahr, 2010). In addition, MTC instructors themselves have already
been engaged in the curriculum development for the various TVET programs offered within the
institution. Therefore, acquiring and incorporating updated information on the labor market
demands in Brunei will be viewed as not too difficult to do and will allow MTC to offer
programs that are in high demand locally. Knowing more about local industry needs will also
allow instructors to design demand-driven programs that can help to prepare students with both
hard (cognitive, technical) and soft (communication) job-related skills. Eventually, a more
relevant, demand driven model offered at MTC will provide one of the nation’s responses to
fulfilling the gap in local human resource. Finally, this process will be readily supported by the
Department of Economic Planning and Development (DEPD) under the Prime Minister’s Office,
the current national and human resource planning centre in Brunei which offers the latest
information on future emerging workforce opportunities for the country.
In relation to proposed solution 1, the process will involve several components. One of
the first processes is to form a network of industry partners as part of an advisory council
committee to help inform MTC and its instructors on the ongoing needs of the local industries. A
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bi-annual meeting is expected to commence in October 2015, which involves various faculty and
their engagement in information sharing with two major oil and gas and business operators in
Brunei. The venue for the sharing session will be the Brunei Asia Pacific Shell Learning Hub
(BAPSLH), a complex area fully equipped with learning and development facilities in the Seria
district of Brunei. The complex is located at a strategic location at the heart of the industrial park
and the major business centre for oil and gas in the country.
The regular meetings will hope to improve the networking between MTC faculty
members and the local industries, particularly in areas of understanding each other’s needs
through human resource needs projections, input in curriculum development and bridging any
technological and knowledge gaps. According to Raihan (2004), industries are the major
consumers of TVET graduates. Industry participation would be essential in the successful
implementation of TVET, particularly in curriculum development and industrial attachment.
Moreover, industries need to be involved in all process of specific skills and behavior
development to ensure they justify the relevance of linking TVET and skills requirement (Raihan
2004).
Solution 2: Conduct professional development on competency-based education
training (CBET) and its application.
The data collected from interviews and survey instruments in this study have validated that there
is a lack of understanding among the instructors on the meaning of the terms `performance-based
assessments’ (PBA) and `competency-based education training’ (CBET). The data suggested in
this study revealed that not all of the instructors were aware of the usage of both of these two
terms. MTC instructors’ lack of factual knowledge about these terms could possibly reveal a
direct impact on their students’ learning process. This finding has been supported by the data,
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which suggested that MTC instructors do not use proficiency-based approaches to assess their
student’s performance level.
Several countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia too have adopted the
concept of CBET in the reform of their TVET systems. As Rueling (2002, p.15) pointed out, the
approach of an “outcome-based learning” is seen as a major driver or motivator of learning for
students. According to Deißinger & Hellwig (2011), using CBET approaches in teaching and
learning will result in better acquisition of competencies and qualifications in the development of
human capital. Applying CBET, however, requires instructors to be well versed in proficiency-
based approaches in training. CBET also require teachers to prepare learners to not only “know”
but “do” and in such cases, teachers must use competency-based assessments to validate learning
(Adelmon 2013; Klein-Collins, 2013).
It will be imperative to secure appropriate trainers, coaches and curriculum specialists
who could carry out monitoring tasks. A professional development plan will need to be
developed to increase MTC instructors’ knowledge of CBET teaching strategies and practices.
Additional information that identifies the gaps among the instructors on their lack of knowledge
on CBET must also be collected. Once diagnostic information have been collected and relevant
trainers identified , MTC will able to narrow the instructors’ skills and competencies gaps on
subjects related to CBET. This process to identify the current position and desired goals for
instructors’ level of competencies and to ensure relevant professional development will be
further outlined in the implementation process.
Procedural
Procedural knowledge focuses on tasks that require performance of an individual to
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achieve a particular goal or set objectives. According to Byrnes & Wasik (1991, p.777)
procedural knowledge is the “knowing how” or knowledge of the steps required in attaining
various goals often characterized using constructs such as skills, strategies and interiorized
actions.
Solution 3: Equip instructors with strategies and assessment tools for applying
performance-based assessments (PBA).
The data collected in this study have validated a lack of procedural knowledge for MTC
instructors about how to carry out PBA accurately. MTC instructors should not only be aware of
the components of CBET, but should be able to promote the development of higher competence
among students by applying appropriate PBA. Assessments thus play a major role in the
concepts of teaching CBET particularly in providing clear guidance to teachers and trainers
(Deißinger, & Hellwig, 2011).
On this account, MTC instructors must be able to use PBA to measure the skills and
abilities of their students in relation to the particular job for which the assessment is conducted
(Moral, 1997; Wood & Payne, 1998). As observed by Van der Merwe & Potgieter (2002), the
advantages of PBA include the perception by individuals of inherent fairness by focusing on
behavior and not personality or cultural factors. Applying PBA also cuts across cultural, gender
and racial differences, perceptions, stereotypes and subjectivity (Fisher & Maritz, 1994). Thus,
for the successful implementation of CBET, MTC instructors should understand how to apply
PBA in their teaching to produce graduates of higher competencies as stipulated by industries.
The professional development plan will also be used to carry out this solution to increase
MTC instructors’ ability to apply performance-based assessments (PBA) and design rubrics for
student’s evaluation purposes. The coaches and curriculum experts will be able to provide
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training and ongoing mentoring to MTC instructors in the implementation of PBA(s). With
sufficient professional training and teaching practices, MTC instructors will develop mastery of
utilizing PBA(s) for their students’ evaluation. The effective use of PBA will ensure that MTC
students would be engaged in deep learning, critical thinking and the development of employable
skills and competencies. This could be achieved through the use of authentic real-world learning
content.
Summary
For the purpose of closing the knowledge at MTC to produce graduates in attaining
higher employment, three solutions have been recommended to greatly reduce and narrow the
factual and procedural knowledge gaps among instructors.
• The first solution entails in improving the instructors’ engagement by increase
collaboration through network formation with industries, update on manpower planning,
curriculum design, and bridging technological knowledge gap. Alternatively, tapping into
these close industrial relationships, collecting labour market information will allow MTC
to offer programs that will lead to higher employment opportunities for students.
• The second solution is to conduct awareness workshop to assess the instructor’s
understanding on CBET. The aim of this workshop is to increase the competency gaps of
faculty of MTC and subject matters related to CBET.
• The third solution is to increase MTC instructors’ procedural knowledge of applying
performance-based assessments (PBA) such as designing rubrics for student’s evaluation
purposes. Coaches and CBET experts will be invited to provide training to MTC
instructors in the implementation of CBET and PBA(s) within their training context.
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Solutions to Motivation Causes
The validated cause in the area of motivation at MTC was found to be a lack of self-
efficacy. In this section, some solutions will be recommended in order to close the motivational
gap among MTC instructors.
Self-efficacy
As stated in chapter three, the effects of self-efficacy beliefs include influences on active
choice, mental effort and how much an individual perseveres in the face of difficult situations
over a period of time (Alderman, 1999; Bandura, 1994; Pajares, 1997). According to Ashton
(1985, p.142), self-efficacy for teachers means a “teacher’s beliefs in their ability to have a
positive effect on student learning.” Bandura (1997, p.3) stated that self-efficacy refers to the
“beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce
given attainments.” In the case of MTC, the lack of self-efficacy was evident as instructors
admitted to being fairly new to utilizing a competency-based curriculum (CBC). Nine out of ten
instructors admittedly experiencing difficulty in applying performance-based assessments (PBA)
to evaluate their students’ performance. For these reasons, addressing the self-efficacy beliefs of
MTC faculty is important in order to close the performance gap.
Increasing the self-efficacy of MTC instructors will help them develop higher abilities,
knowledge and skills necessary to implement effective and efficient CBET teaching processes
(Rosenberg, Sindela & Hardman, 2004). In contrast, if the instructors’ self-efficacy is not
addressed, eventually the outcome will be a mediating factor in the student’s acquisition of skills
and knowledge and subsequent performance (Bandura, 2006, Schunk & Pajares, 2001). If self-
efficacy is maximized, MTC instructors will develop higher confidence in class management,
demonstrate higher levels of lesson planning, focus on higher standards and spend more time on
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interactive instruction within the classroom settings. Additionally, increasing the instructor’s
self-efficacy could also lead to the implementation of other innovative methods of teaching and
experimentation with different types of instructional materials (Allinder, 1994; Guskey, 1988;
Stien & Wang, 1988). Similarly, this will create a positive impact to MTC instructors and
motivate them to train students to meet high standards of learning.
Solution 4: Increase instructors’ confidence in using CBET by promoting effective
leadership strategies.
According to Bandura (1997) self-efficacy is created by four main sources of
information: (1) enactive mastery experiences often viewed as authentic successes in carrying
out particular tasks; (2) vicarious experiences, referred to observational experience provided by
social models; (3) verbal persuasion emphasizing encouragement and evaluation feedback
expressed by others and (4) physiological and affective states that include experiences such as
tension and stress. The recommended solution is to apply Bandura’s (1997) framework to ensure
that MTC instructors were adequately supported. This should be carried out as part of the
professional development plan.
For the enactment experiences and vicarious influences, MTC instructors’ will be given
opportunities to develop teaching mastery by applying a competency-based curriculum (CBC)
and observing experts through a structured professional development plan. This should include
providing practice opportunities, peer-coaching and mentorship with the assistance of outside
coaches and experienced instructors at MTC. In the verbal persuasion aspect, encouragement
and corrective feedback regarding their teaching skills, will help MTC instructors develop self-
confidence in applying CBET. Verbal persuasion could also involve MTC top management and
instructors with long-term teaching experiences sharing their personal teaching mastery
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experiences during dialog sessions. According to Hipp (1996), good principals exhibit leadership
that influences behaviors related to self-efficacy. Additionally, there should be opportunities for
MTC instructors to build a collective efficacy through sharing with each other their own positive
experiences. Finally, MTC instructors will increase their self-efficacy through the provision of
opportunities to reflect on and discuss their perceived physiological reactions such as fatigue and
stress and other emotions. The opportunity sharing affective experiences among colleagues will
allow for reflection on their development which will help raise instructors’ self-efficacy, and
which is also aligned to competence-based approaches in teaching and learning (Ritzen &
Kösters, 2002; Struyven & De Meyst, 2010). Ultimately, MTC instructors will develop higher
self-efficacy if these components were built into activities that are embedded within the staff
development plan.
Summary
As stated above, this was one of the solutions proposed to narrow the motivational gaps
at MTC. The data revealed that MTC instructors were less confident to conduct CBET in their
lessons. The solution proposed will lead to increasing the faculty’s self-efficacy, or personal
beliefs about their ability to successfully teach a competency-based curriculum (CBC).
Moreover, MTC instructors will develop the confidence through staff development activities for
attaining higher levels of teaching mastery through applying Bandura (1997) self-efficacy
framework.
Solutions to Organization Causes
Organizational beliefs and practices that were not aligned to the goals within any system
can impede the performance of stakeholders in that system (Gallimore and Goldenberg 2001).
The gap in this study found that the work of faculty members at MTC in terms of using CBET is
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impeded by a lack of resources, the absence of a clear strategic plan, attitudes of helplessness and
hopelessness and “busy work” or bureaucratic work that is not aligned to institutional goals. The
following solutions aim to address the organizational causes and will be discussed further under
the constructs of cultural models and cultural settings.
Cultural Models
Rueda (2011) explained that cultural models were shared mental schemas of how the
world works or ought to work including cognitive and affective domains of human behavior.
Leaders play an important role in establishing the cultural models of any organization, including
how change ought to occur. According to Kerr (1984), organizational change will not occur if
there is no buy-in from individual with positional power. In addition, several studies have
indicated that change was facilitated through the support of individuals with power and positions
(Birnbaum, 1991a; Eckel, Hill, Green, and Mallon, 1999; Kerr, 1984). Specifically,
organizational change was created due to environmental conditions (Levinthal, 1991) or derived
from strategic decision making. On this account, MTC top management should recognize the
importance of providing full support for any change management to occur within the institution.
Solution 5: Promote collaborative leadership among faculty members.
The promotion of collaborative leadership is recommended as a proposed solution to resolve the
feeling of hopelessness and helplessness among MTC instructors. Collaborative leadership
should be enhanced to ensure instructors’ opinions and ideas were valued. Similarly,
collaborative leadership has the potential to create significant impact by increasing instructors’
levels of commitment, empowerment and engagement (Gardenswartz and Row, 1994; Kotter,
1996). The implementation of a collaborative leadership will support MTC to create aligned
shared values to enhance the overall organizational performance. Also, the impact of bottom-up
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leadership will allow instructors to foster visions and realize the importance of accomplishing
goals and mission of the college.
The recommended solution begins by having an effective principal-instructor interaction
with MTC faculty in the area of instructional support and management. An effective instructional
leadership should focus on establishing a pattern of dialogue with instructors to promote
reflection on their teaching and encouraging and modeling a culture of ongoing professional
growth. As noted by Kezar & Eckel (2002) the importance of mechanism of collaborative
leadership is to develop people’s leadership capacities of creativity for successful institutional
direction. The MTC principal can form a continuous dialog to encourage instructors to critically
reflect on their ongoing professional practices and development. This could take the form of
regular individual consultations involving suggestion making, feedback, modeling and the use of
inquiry-based strategies. Furthermore, instructors will be involved in many of the decision
making process together with top management at MTC.
Cultural Settings
Cultural settings were visible, concrete everyday manifestations of underlying cultural
models in an organization (Gallimore and Goldenberg, 2001). Sarason (1972) pointed out that
cultural settings appear “whenever two or more people come together, over time, to accomplish
something” (p.1). The two causes related to the cultural setting at MTC found in this study were
a lack of resources and the need for greater strategic planning.
Solution 6: Increase budget in the procurement of more equipment and training
facilities for CBET.
This gap study has provided evidence that there were inadequate resources to teach
effectively using CBET at MTC. It was found that 90% of MTC instructors highlighted the need
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to improve the current physical resources and equipment to teach CBET effectively. Policies and
performance expectations within an organization should be supported with enough resources to
overcome shortcomings and lack of adequate resources. These challenges were found to be one
of the major barriers that hinder people from reaching their performance goal within an
organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, the recommended solution in this case is to
increase the funding allocation to all MTC departments in order to adequately equip instructors
with appropriate training, curricula and other supplies needed to effectively carry out CBET.
Adequate resources have been perceived to be relevant in TVET. According to Bolina
(1996), Technical Vocational Educational Training (TVET) systems were often more expensive
due to their high capital intensive nature as classes were smaller with lower student to instructor
ratio. Gupta (2007) pointed out, however, that adequate facilities should be provided to teachers
for training in order to utilize the experiences of institutional training. Holvikivi (2007) also
observed that institutions must supply technical equipment and learning materials that were
relevant to industrial applications. As Brown (2003) noted, the success of students is highly
dependent on their ability to engage with tools and technologies of a given industry.
In light of this, MTC management should prioritize the need to procure better teaching
equipment for effective lesson delivery and increase the fiscal budget allocated to each
department at MTC. Likewise, each head of department at MTC will need to come up with an
effective strategic and execution plan for academic budgeting that takes into account the required
resources for effective CBET delivery. Each department will optimize their budget planning,
resources allocation included in the budget proposals in accordance to the steps as indicated
below:
1. identify the additional resources and actions that were needed in order to more adequately
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support faculty in teaching CBET;
2. identify the cost of proposed action plans and needed resources for teaching CBET;
3. include data in the proposal such as student population, student’s attrition, number of
programs offered and human resource planning;
4. ensure conformity to the financial regulations, which includes stating priorities and
rationales for the procurement of equipment exceeding USD100,000; and,
5. include plans to assess budget performance based on cost-effectiveness/cost-benefit
analysis and efficiency of spending.
After these steps were carried out, MTC finance committee will review, recommend, and
revise each budget proposal with the executive committee. The research committee at MTC will
work closely with the respective MTC departments to compile information and data on student
assessment outcomes. This unit will provide outcome reports to support all initiatives to ensure
each instructional program and student support services were aligned to MTC departmental plan.
MTC executive committee will then analyze the report and include each assessment together
with the departmental budget proposal for further review before any final decisions can be made.
Accordingly, after the executive committee at MTC approves the budget proposal, a tentative
budget is prepared and submitted to the Board of Governors at the Institute of Brunei Technical
Education (IBTE) headquarters. A final budgetary master plan will be prepared by the end of
February of each year before the approval of the next college fiscal year commencing every 1
st
of
April of the upcoming year.
Solution 7: Facilitate strategic planning by college management.
The interview and survey data gathered in this study indicated that instructors faced challenges
from the lack of strategic planning within MTC management. The recommended solution is to
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develop a plan encompassing strategic, operational and tactical levels at MTC. In the current
global climate, there is a stronger need to apply strategic planning process in many higher
education institutions around the world. Globalization impacts such as increasing enrollments,
declining public funding, and demographic changes among students were some of the emerging
challenges facing higher education (Lerner, 1999). Benjamin & Carroll (1998) suggest that
higher institutions need to “make major structural changes in their decision-making systems...and
reallocate scarce resources” (p. 21).
MTC is currently undergoing a transformation process and ensuring its alignment to the
Ministry of Education (MOE) goals by focusing on addressing unemployment in Brunei.
Moreover, MTC is one of the seven colleges under the management of the Institute of Brunei
Technical Education (IBTE), a publicly funded higher education institute. The goals of IBTE are
to promote academic innovation under a new corporate governance model. This was mandated
by Ministry of Education, Brunei to encourage TVET strategic alignment of programs offerings
by each college under IBTE. In addition, IBTE will ensure a continuous supply of national
skilled manpower demands within the country. Therefore, the timing and conditions were ideal
for MTC to develop a strategic plan that could support and guide faculty and other stakeholders
in the college more effectively.
A highly educated and skilled workforce will help to ensure all government investments
will benefit and build a modern Bruneian economy that creates quality employment
opportunities, strengthening both public-private sectors. Complementary to this, MTC is required
to be more strategic, particularly in the aspect of offering demand-driven TVET programs.
Moreover, all of the discussion and planning with MTC instructors will allow the integration of
plans by each department to increase employability of graduates.
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A team leader for each department will be appointed by the MTC principal to lead the
process of execution of each departmental strategic objective. To illustrate, each MTC
department will establish targets of a minimum increase of 20% of successful graduate work
placement. These team leaders will then prepare a comprehensive employability strategy to reach
the main goal, which will include mission, objectives, SWOT analysis, curriculum and
instructional strategies, resource planning and timelines per each department. In addition, the
research unit at MTC will collect all student tracer studies data, alumni and keep track of all
previous graduates and conducting a qualitative study, which examines their present career status
and salary levels of students. A final subsequent report will be compiled to measure results
against each employability strategic goal for comparative data, study, and assessment of methods
to be submitted to MTC top management. Key aspects of successful change management include
planning, assessment, incentives, leadership, strategy, restructuring and reengineering (Brill and
Worth, 1997; Carnall, 1995; Huber and Glick, 1993). Consequently, MTC will undergo a
transformational activity, which includes implementing a management of change process
MTC management will ensure that the college’s strategic goals could be realistically
achievable through the involvement of every level of management within the college. Cameron
and Tschichart (1992) stated the importance of collegial forms of decision-making, information
sharing and other cultural or cognitive processes in order to foster organizational change. Hence,
the meaningful engagement of faculty members at MTC will also be crucial for the strategic
planning process leading to successful operational accomplishments. More importantly, the
support of senior leadership will be essential in promoting participation by all stakeholders
within the planning process so that they were not seen as the sole drivers for the strategic plan
(Sanaghan & Hinton, 2013). In short, MTC top management should be transparent in pursuing
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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the organizational goal of widespread engagement among all key stakeholders, particularly the
teaching instructors.
Summary
The objective of this study in narrowing the MTC organizational gap is to ensure its
graduates attain employment by January 2016. Three solutions were recommended. These
solutions were summarized to include both cultural models and settings of MTC organizational
constituents.
1. The first solution is to promote collaborative leadership among MTC instructors. Thus,
MTC instructors will influence more people to share the institutional goals of increasing
student’s employability over a long term period.
2. The second solution is to increase MTC departmental budget to invest more in better
equipment and facilities encompassing high capital investment costs aligned to ensure
each programs were conducted effectually for CBET. Hence, this high capital investment
is critical in order to close this organizational gap at MTC.
3. The third recommendation is to apply an employability strategic planning process at each
MTC department. Hence, it is also important to develop a clear overall strategic planning
process to achieve MTC’s vision and goals for all stakeholders in the long run.
Implementation Plan
An implementation plan will be developed to integrate the knowledge, motivation and
organizational solutions that have been described above. A summary of the validated causes,
solutions, and target activities that were being recommended in order to close all of the
performance gaps is provided in Table 17.
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Table 17
Summary of KMO Causes, Solutions and Implementation of the Solutions
Causes Solutions Implementation
Knowledge
Instructors posses low level
of knowledge of the latest
job listings currently in high
demand in the country
1: Equip faculty with
accurate data about
highest demand jobs in
the country
• MTC principal will assign
instructors to collect, organize,
data, facts and information for
manpower planning starting
October 1
st
2015
Instructors were not familiar
with the terms competency-
based education training
(CBET) and its teaching
application
2: Conduct professional
development on
competency-based
education training
(CBET) and its
application
• From 1
st
September 2015 MTC
management will hire a trainer
or coach to provide in house
training/workshops for all
faculties for the familiarization
and practical application of
CBET
Instructors failed to
differentiate between the
meaning of the terms used to
define CBET and PBA
3: Equip instructors
with strategies and
assessment tools for
applying performance-
based assessments
(PBA)
• From September 1
st
2015 MTC
will develop a professional
development plan to increase
faculties ability to apply
performance-based assessments
and design rubrics for student
evaluation purposes.
Instructors do not know how
to use proficiency-based
approaches in their teaching
and learning
Motivation
Instructors do not believe
they were capable of
teaching CBET due to low
self-efficacy
4: Increase instructors’
confidence using
CBET by promoting
effective leadership
strategies
• By October 29
th
2015 MTC
principal will ensure instructors
acquire skills and knowledge of
teaching a CBC. They will
develop confidence through
applying Bandura (1997) self-
efficacy framework as part of
the professional development
plan in attaining higher levels
of teaching mastery
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Table 17, continued
Organization
Instructors viewed
themselves as unimportant,
as request and suggestions
were often unsupported by
MTC administration
5: Promote collaborative
leadership among faculty
members
• MTC principal will exhibit a
more decentralized leadership
approach in dealing with
instructors for the promotion
of collaborative leadership
Instructors do not have
adequate training equipment
and other physical resources
to teach competency-based
education training (CBET)
effectively
6: Increase budget in the
procurement of more
equipment and training
facilities for CBET
• By November 5
th
2015, MTC
instructors to create a
proposal submitted to top
management as inputs in the
formation a budgetary master
plan prepared before the next
fiscal year before 1
st
April for
the upcoming year
Instructors felt that the
college lack an effective
strategic vision and
consistent goals
7: Facilitate strategic
planning by college
management
• From September 19
th
2015
MTC instructors will create a
comprehensive strategic plan
outlining mission, goals in
order to increase student’s
employability by December
13
th
2015. Team leaders will
be appointed by the principal
to lead the targeted goals of
increasing at least by 20% by
December 31
st
2015
• By November 19
th
2015
MTC principal will ensure the
human resources are adequate
to avoid instructors do other
administrative duties not
directly related to their
teaching.
Instructors felt the non-
instructional responsibilities
hinders their ability to teach
an industry aligned
curriculum
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Knowledge
For the knowledge solutions, MTC instructors will be assigned to collect, organize, data,
facts and information of the latest market trend and job availability for manpower planning by 1
st
October 2015. Starting in the fall semester of 2015, MTC will organize a series of engagement
sessions with industries, employers, DEDP from the Prime’s Ministers Office in Brunei to
provide data to produce graduates who can develop career pathways and participate in industrial
attachment within their vocation. Consequently, by February 1
st
2015, all graduates will have
sufficient work placements for job securement after completing heir training at MTC. In order to
address the procedural knowledge gap, by 1
st
September 2015, MTC will hire a trainer or coach
to provide in house training/workshops for all faculty for the familiarization and practical
application of CBET such as developing rubrics in performance-based assessments for student’s
evaluation. By December 2015, all relevant MTC instructors will be able to demonstrate skills
and competencies in applying rubrics as a form of assessments included within their lesson
plans.
Motivation
In order to narrow and eventually close the self-efficacy motivational barrier, the
objective is to develop high level of confidence by achieving teaching mastery in teaching CBET
and its assessment practices. First, By October 29
th
, MTC will focus on teacher leadership
training to boost faculty’s morale through proper training for the acquisition of knowledge and
skills of teaching a competency-based curriculum. Second, instructors will be able to develop
confidence through professional development that is based on Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy
framework as part of the effort to facilitate higher levels of teaching mastery.
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Organization
In order to address MTC organizational barriers, the MTC principal will first apply a
more decentralized approach in managing the college to promote collaborative leadership.
Second, by November 5
th
, a departmental budget proposal will be prepared by instructors to
procure new equipment and facilities for CBET. The departmental budget will be part of a
budgetary master plan prepared before the next fiscal year before the 1
st
of April 2016. Third,
MTC top management will set clear goals for the purpose of creating a comprehensive strategic
plan by December 13
th
, 2015, particularly aligned to increasing students’ employability. In
addition, by September 13
th
, team leaders will be appointed to coordinate with other teams for
the successful implementation of targeted goals and objectives as agreed by each MTC
department. These various MTC departments will set specific targets and develop strategies to
increase student’s employability before end of December 2015. Fourth, by November 19
th
2015,
MTC management will ensure that the human resources are adequate in the college to prevent
instructors from having to do other administrative duties not directly related to their teaching.
This will greatly support their day to day tasks by eliminating any unnecessary administrative
duties assigned to them by the management. Furthermore, instructors will able to focus more on
lesson preparations and apply more innovative teaching practices to maximize their student’s
outcomes. Table 18 outlines the organizational goal, specifically allocated by short-term goals
aiding to achieve the main goals of MTC.
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Table 18
Outline of Organizational Goals, Cascading and Performance Goals
Organizational Goal:
By January 2016, 100% of all students who graduate will secure jobs within six months after
graduation
Goal 1:
By January 1
st
2015, MTC
instructors will highly proficient
in teaching CBET and designing
rubrics to measure student’s
performance
Goal 2:
By October 29
th
2015 MTC
principal will provide leadership
training to enhance instructor’s
leadership skills.
Goal 3:
From September 19
th
2015
MTC instructors come up with
a comprehensive student
employability strategic plan
outlining, mission, goals,
environmental analyses by
January 1
st
2015
Cascading Goal 1:
Instructors will develop a training
for trainers workshop to reach out
to other instructors in teaching
CBET and using PBA approaches
by 1st February 2016
Cascading Goal 2:
A leadership forum will be
conducted between February to
March 2016 attend by all
instructors to learn leadership
skills and sharing
acknowledgement of good
practice
Cascading Goal 3:
A task force will be created to
develop, monitor, evaluate
graduate employment metrics
and explore evidence to asses
the outcomes of the
employability strategies
Performance Goal 1:
By January 2016, at least 80% of
instructors at MTC will use
rubrics included in their lesson
plans by applying performance-
based assessments to evaluate
their students by March 2016
Performance Goal 2:
By January 2016, 80% of
instructors will present their
work and provide evidence of
CBET and its approaches in all
teaching and learning
Performance Goal 3:
By January 2016, MTC
instructors would have
submitted a proposal to the
executive committee as inputs
in the formation a budgetary
master plan
Performance Goal 4:
By January 2016, MTC would
have undergone in house
training/workshop by a
curriculum specialist, trainer to
ensure faculties become well-
versed on CBET and its practical
application
Performance Goal 5:
By January 31
st
January 2016,
MTC principal exhibit a more
collaborative leadership
approach in college management
for better transparency and
bringing faculties involved in
various decision-making process
Performance Goal 6:
By January 1
st
2016, MTC
faculties would have
undergone the Bandura (1997)
self-efficacy framework to
develop their confidence in
teaching CBET
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The next section will outline an assessment procedure to indicate signs of success and
measure the impact of the implementation plan depicted in Table 17. Each step will require
systems to measure results, monitor progress, and compile management information, ensuring
successful implementation plan if it is carried out effectively. Additionally, assessment tools will
be employed to track progress to measure deliverables. A final review of the work accomplished
for each goal will be compiled and submitted to MTC principal for additional feedback.
Evaluation Plan
The main purpose of designing the KMO evaluation plans in applying the proposed
solutions is to measure the impact after applying the employability strategic plan at MTC. Hence,
any impact of any training conducted in applying a strategic plan would be a form of evidence of
the effectiveness and relevancy in a long term plan. The measurement of any form of evidence of
any success or failure applied is to provide evidence of any reduction of the performance gap at
MTC. Specifically, all data collection methods of survey instruments, interview protocols would
be used to measure the total percentage of MTC graduates attaining employment over a longer
period of time. Kirkpatrick’s Four – level Training Evaluation model will be used to guide the
assessment of implementing this proposed solution. There are four levels of evaluation include:
1) Reaction (immediate personal feedback); 2) Learning or Performance (what did they learn); 3)
Transfer of Behavior (the ability to demonstrate skills in their work) and 4) Result (whether the
gap is closed).
Level 1: Reaction/awareness
The objective is to improve MTC instructor’s abilities to increase their students’
employability over a period of time. The measureable goal would be to obtain feedback from
instructors based on their subjective personal reaction after attending the strategic planning
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workshops. At this level, an evaluation will determine whether these instructors were satisfied by
any of these proposed solutions. The evaluation plan will be conducted by January 1
st
2016.
A survey instrument will be introduced to measure this reaction level of instructor’s
satisfaction during the end of the strategic planning workshops. This will enable instructors to
provide feedback on the effectiveness of the workshops and to test whether the goals and
objectives of the training were accomplished. The survey forms distributed will use a five-point
scale to assess their response: Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree.
MTC instructors will answer the survey questions anonymously. The survey will provide MTC
instructors an opportunity to write their comments or suggestions on ways to improve the
proposed solutions. This will be a post-only one-shot assessment.. In short, this evaluation level
process should be generally fast, easy and inexpensive form of measuring their feedback, which
has an important consequence for the next learning process (level two). Although positive
reactions by the instructors do not guarantee learning, negative ones would certainly minimize
the possibility of learning. To illustrate, an example of the survey form is as follows:
Please circle the number that represents your reaction after undergoing the strategic planning
workshop:
1. I am very satisfied with the strategic planning workshop.
2. It is very important to apply the strategic planning in order to improve the students’
employability.
3. The strategic planning workshops provided were very relevant to my work.
4. I manage to capture the entire concept ideas shared during the strategic planning
workshop.
5. I enjoyed the training session and felt that the workshop is useful for me in future.
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Level 2: Learning
The second level of evaluation under the Kirkpartick model is on measuring the learning
aspect of participants. According to Kirkpartick (2006) participants will acquire the intended
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and confidence, commitment based on participating in the training
activity. The acquisition of knowledge attained by MTC instructors will be measured under this
evaluation level after learning how to design student’s employability strategic plan. MTC faculty
will have the necessary skills and knowledge in designing the strategic objectives for
implementation as indicated in the strategic planning document. A pre (before) and post (after)
measurement test will be directed to move beyond the instructor’s learning satisfaction level.
This level attempts to assess MTC instructor’s advancement either in knowledge, skills and
attitudes particularly in designing the employability strategic objectives and goals for their
students. The methods of measuring this level would range from either formal to informal testing
to each team assessment; survey, interviews or observations used to measure the instructors’
learning level after the training.
After having attended professional development, MTC instructors would have achieved the
skills to create their own strategic objectives to increase their student’s employability depending
on their individual trade or discipline. The purpose of measuring this learning level is to validate
the learning objectives of the training being provided. These learner assessments were created to
allow a judgment to be made about MTC’s instructor’s performance personal capability. The two
parts of processes in measuring this learning level would be the gathering of information or
evidence (testing the learner) and judging of the information (representation of data). This
assessment level should not be confused with evaluation. According to Tovey (1997), this
assessment level is more geared towards measuring achievements of the individual learners,
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while evaluation is about the whole learning program. In the case of MTC, two types of surveys
will be administered, first before training (pre-test) and second, a survey given out at the end
(post-test) to assess the amount of learning that has occurred after undergoing the training.
Similarly, both survey forms will use a five-point scale to assess the response to measure their
knowledge, skills and attitudes to include (Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree). Three sample questions included in the second (post-test) survey instrument are:
1. I have learned how to develop my own employability strategic planning.
2. I have acquired new skills of how to execute the strategic objectives to increase my
student’s employability.
3. I am very confident in my ability to design my own strategic objectives for future
purposes.
4. I believe it is important to create my own strategic objectives particularly in professional
career.
Level 3: Transfer
This level is the most challenging one to be measured most effectively. It measures the
learning transfer that has occurred on MTC instructor’s behavior after undergoing the training
program (Kirkpartick, 2006). According to Clark & Estes (2008), this level measures how the
program or training continues to be effective after it was implemented. This is a long-term
activity that will take place weeks or months after the initial training. Additionally in the trainer’s
perspective, this is a true measurement of the effectiveness of the training program. This
evaluation level measures MTC instructor’s learning capability to perform their newly acquired
knowledge and skills while on the job. This third level attempts to answer the question, “Are
instructors actually using their newly acquired skills on their job?” The best method to measure
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this behavioral level would be to conduct document analysis (review of current syllabus),
observations and interviews over a period of time. More importantly, repeated evaluation should
be conducted at appropriate intervals. To carry out this assessment level, instructors at MTC will
be randomly selected to be surveyed and interviewed. The interview protocols may include
questions such as:
• Are you still using the employability strategic plan that was formed during the strategic
planning workshops?
• Are you able to teach others new knowledge, skills or attitudes of other types of strategic
planning objectives to other people?
• Are you aware of changed behavior in your teaching?
An important aspect to be recognized would be that behavior will only change if the
environmental conditions are favorable. Learning could have taken place during the training
sessions, but if the organizational culture were not conducive to behavioral change, MTC
instructors would not be able to apply what was learned after the training period.
Level 4: Results
The desired outcome to be measured in the results level is whether or not the
organizational global goal was reached in order to close the performance gap at MTC and if
100% of MTC graduates would be able to secure jobs within six months after their graduation.
The assessment of this result will indicate whether the implementations of solutions were
effective and if the employability strategies implemented have enabled MTC students to become
more marketable. Student data on job placement will be collected. In addition, an employer
satisfaction survey form will be administered to measure the employer’s satisfaction level with
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MTC graduates by January 2016. A one-time survey will be administered to local employers
with questions that include:
1. I am very satisfied with MTC graduates.
2. I will employ any student from MTC to work in my company.
3. I believe the training conducted in MTC is aligned to industry requirements.
In short, the assessment conducted will measure the final impact in order to close the
organizational performance gap at MTC. However, level four evaluations are difficult to measure
and correlate with training. For example, the increase in MTC graduates could be attributed by
several external factors such as economic growth or foreign direct investments in Brunei. This
may not be directly correlated to the recommended solutions in this study conducted at MTC.
Nevertheless, a tracer study will be conducted to track the status of MTC graduates after one
year. This would be a strong indication to validate whether any performance gap has been
reduced or closed in the upcoming year.
In conclusion, Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model will provide a way to measure the
outcomes of the recommended solutions.. Any mid-course corrections in performance can be
made throughout the duration of the implementation process to ensure the impact is beneficial
and sustained over a period of time.
Strengths and Weakness of the Approach
The gap analysis framework applied in this study will assist the institution to reach its
organizational goal by January 2016. The approach will help to identify the organizational
problems and provide MTC with clear solutions, goals and measurable outcomes. One of the
major strengths of applying this framework is the ability to customize the process and tailor it to
address the institutional needs. The data collected were based on actual responses from MTC
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instructors to find the root causes of the performance problems as identified in this study. The
solutions suggested in this study were recommended by considering the stakeholders at MTC
carefully. In addition, the gap analysis framework will help MTC reach its own specific
organizational goals in a timely manner.
However, the gap analysis approach does have its drawbacks. One of challenges is the
time and effort required to analyze each knowledge, motivation and organizational barrier to
address each domain and apply the recommended solutions accordingly. In the fast changing
world of technical education, where policymakers and decision makers must respond to the
immediate needs to address concerns, applying this gap analysis study may not be feasible.
Another drawback are the external factors such as the political environment and other
complexities that constantly change, which could represent other root causes of all the validated
performance problems existing within the institution. These political and environmental factors
are outside the scope of this gap analysis approach. These external considerations, however, may
have affected the stakeholders’ perceptions, which could have a significant impact on final data
collected from the survey and interviews. In this view, the solutions that were recommended may
not be relevant for solving other important issues and problems linked to external influences.
Hence, diagnosing other performance problems in the organizational context becomes essential
as the gap analysis cycle continues.
Limitations
There were constraints and limitations that may have affected the final results of this
study. The first limitation was the low response rate for the survey instruments. There was only a
thirty-four percent response rate, which suggests that not all of the instructor views may have
been taken into account in the study. Furthermore, the questionnaire for the study was distributed
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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during the end of a semester when instructors were busy preparing exam questions, which may
be the one of the causes for the low response rate. The second limitation was the little amount of
time MTC instructors spent in responding to each item on the survey. It was uncertain whether
these participants had provided enough thought in answering each item, which may have affected
the overall accuracy of the responses. The discrepancy of results gathered from the survey and
interview protocols also raises speculation that the level of proficiency in English of the
participants was not sufficient to respond to all of the questions. Some of the instructors may not
have provided the correct responses due to the lack of understanding of some of the terminology
used in the survey instrument. Finally, some of the participants who were new to MTC, may also
lack the knowledge and experience to respond to all of the questions appropriately.
Future Research
A continuation of this gap analysis study could be continued to investigate the opinions
of other key stakeholders such as MTC administrators, who play a significant role in ensuring
that goals to increase graduates’ employability can be realized. Further gap analyses would also
help the Institute of Brunei Technical Education (IBTE) to accomplish its key performance
indicators under the grand initiative of the Ministry of Education in Brunei. MTC is only one of
the seven colleges under the governance of IBTE. The other six colleges should also implement
similar employability studies using the Clark and Estes Gap analysis KMO framework. For
example, a study that investigates the causes of problems related to the students with low socio-
economic backgrounds could be useful in understanding the unique challenges these graduates
face in attaining employment. To understand the causes of other problems, new survey
instruments and interview protocols will be helpful in gathering data. However, additional
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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mechanisms, such as observations or focus groups, may also be needed to pinpoint genuine
causes for the occurrence of these problems.
Conclusion
Solving unemployment problems has become a high priority for the Brunei Government
in recent years. In the era of globalization, it has become a public policy to address the concerns
of unemployment for the future stability and economic growth of Brunei and to avoid other
negative social consequences in the long run. MTC is one of the leading TVET institute in
Brunei and as a source of highly skilled graduates for the labor market in both private and public
sector. MTC plays an important role in providing requisite skills and competencies to youth and
to address the needs for Brunei’s fast growing economy and society. The rising number of
unemployed youth, however, has indicated signs of weakness in the current strategies,
regulations and policies of corporate and government entities in Brunei. Hence, this is a call for
all private and public agencies to collaborate and help tackle this growing concern before it
propagates into a larger social issue in the future.
There was no doubt that stronger competency-based education training (CBET) would
benefit all learners in TVET systems as recommended in this study. Hopefully, the planned
strategies would create better understanding among MTC key stakeholders of how instructors
can develop a more robust, competency-based teaching approach. To conclude, applying CBET
more effectively would enable instructors to produce graduates who are well prepared for a
competitive employment environment and to further the development of human capital in
Brunei.
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Introduction Key
Components:
• Thank you
• Your name
• Purpose
• Confidentiality
• Duration
• How interview will be
conducted
• Opportunity for questions
• Signature of consent
Hello and Good Morning/Afternoon.
I want to thank you for taking the time to meet with me
today.
My name is Mr. Luke Hamid and I would like to ask you are
few questions about your teaching experience in the college.
Specifically, looking for information and feedback from
many instructors about the curriculum used to teach students.
The interview should take less than an hour. I will be
recording the session because I don’t want to miss any of
your comments. I would still be taking notes during the
interview sessions. Please be sure to speak up so that I wont
miss any of your valuable comments.
All responses will be kept confidential. This means that your
interview responses will only use strictly for research
purposes and my report will not identify you as the
respondent. Relax, sit back and answer the questions in your
honest opinion. Do you have any questions for me? If you
need further clarifications, do ask. Can we start the
interview?
__________________ __________________
Interviewer Signature Witness
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Points to note:
• Choose at least 10-12 open-ended questions to be asked
• Questions will be mostly factual rather than opinion
• Probing will be used whenever necessary
Structured Interview Protocol
Interview Questions for Mechanical Training Centre
Date: September xx, 2014
Participants: MTC instructors
Interviewer: Mr. Luke Hamid
Interviewee: Mr/Ms. XX
Position:
Teaching Subject:
Teaching Experience:
1. If you had to list the top 5 career choices for youths based on market trends in Brunei, what
would those be? (KF=Knowledge factual)
Option: How confident are you in knowing the best in demand careers currently
in Brunei?
Option: What would help you stay informed about the market trends as they
impact your students?
2. What do you think are some of the most important skills and/or knowledge that all technical
and vocational graduates should possess to improve their marketability?
3. What are the key components of teaching the subject Health and Safety, Security
Environment (HSSE)? (KF= Knowledge Factual)
4. How familiar are you in applying “Performance-based/outcome based- training as part of
your teaching strategy in the classroom?” (KF= Knowledge Factual)
5. What do you consider important elements in teaching a performance-based training for your
students? (KF= Knowledge Factual)
6. How do you feel about teaching students using an outcome-based curriculum? Can this
curriculum improve the student’s overall performance? (MUV= Motivation Utility Value)
7. How can teaching using performance-based approaches be challenging for you? (MUV=
Motivation Utility Value)
8. How do you feel about the range of responsibilities placed upon you?
Does it affect your ability to teach effectively? (OR=Organizational Resistance)
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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9. What do you think about institutional support for you to conduct outcome-based training to
your students? (OR= Organizational Resources)
10. How do you feel about the standard-based curriculum that you currently using to teach your
students? Has it been aligned to industry requirements? If No? Why? (ONP= Organizational
Resistance)
11. How much autonomy do you have in your current job? (OA= Organizational Autonomy)
12. How do you feel about the strategic vision in the college? Does everyone understand it? If
No? Why? (OSP= Organizational Strategic Plan)
Closing Key Components:
• Additional comments
• Next steps
Is there anything else you would like to add or
comment?
Thank you for your time
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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APPENDIX B
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION QUESTIONNAIRE
MECHANICAL TRAINING CENTRE
Directions: Please check the appropriate box and provide the requested information. All
information will kept confidential
Section I
1. Teaching qualification level:
[ ] Industry Skills Qualification [ ] Skill Certificate 2
[ ] Skill Certificate 3 [ ] Diploma
2. Present Position:
[ ] Administrator [ ] Instructor
3. Years of teaching experience: __________
4. Years of industry experience: __________
5. Years of administrative experience: __________
6. How many in service courses/workshops/training seminars have you attended during the past
5 years? __________
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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Section II: These questions are multiple choice questions
Directions: Please check your best answer
1. Please choose from the list below the highest in demand jobs in Brunei? (KF)
r Chemical Engineer, Dentist, Software developer, Pharmacist and Plumber
r Web developer, Architect, Accountant, School physiologist and Mechanical engineer
r Underwater welder, IT Security analyst, Chemical engineer, Financial analyst and
Lawyer
r Petroleum engineer, University professor, Software engineer, Occupational therapist and
Biomedical engineer
Option 2:
1. Please select from the following list the top five highest demand careers in Brunei:
r Underwater 6GR Welder
r Lawyer
r Petroleum Engineer
r Software Engineer
r Occupational therapist
r Chemical Engineer
r Mechanical Engineer
r Software developer
r Pharmacist
r Plumber
r Architect
r Accountant
r Financial Analyst
2. Choose from the list below the best definition to describe the term “Performance-based and
training (PBT)” (KF)
r PBT is an approach to acquiring knowledge or skills through study, experience via
informal classroom activities
r PBT is defined as a cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that affects a major
part of learner’s responsibility to perform on a job measured against well-accepted
standards (aligned to industry requirements)
r PBT is concerned with a broader subject matter or theoretical nature of the development
of a learner’s personal attitudes via learning experiences, on and off the job training
r PBT is defined as a form of acquiring knowledge or skill through training that concerns
with teaching of specific, factual, subject matter leading to long-term changes in behavior
potential
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
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3. Choose from the list below the evaluation method that best describe the term “Performance-
based assessment”? (KP)
r A form of assessment that focuses on learner ‘outcomes’ in a form of performance that is
derived from a set of articulated competency standard(s)
r A short term assessment method, as learners are in the process of making meaning of new
content and integrating into their prior knowledge and skills
r An assessment method that measures practical work, simulations & exercises, laboratory
work, problem solving, reflective learning statements for all learners
r An assessment that evaluates student’s performance at periodic intervals assessing their
strengths, weaknesses, knowledge and skills and dispositions
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
206
Section III
Directions: Please circle the appropriate response for each of the following statements:
Strongly
agree Agree
Somewhat
agree
Somewhat
disagree Disagree
Strongly
disagree
1 2 3 4 5 6
4. I use proficiency-based approaches in most of my teaching in the college (KF)
1 2 3 4 5 6
5. I evaluate my students’ performance using assessment of proficiency-based approaches (KP)
1 2 3 4 5 6
6. I am confident in my ability to use performance-based approaches in my teaching (MSE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
7. I believe I can do a good job in teaching an outcome-based curriculum (MSE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
8. It is important for me to teach students a outcome-based curriculum for the student future
career prospect (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
9. We have a goal to ensure all the students who graduate will attain employment (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
10. I don’t believe teaching an outcome-based curriculum will make any difference to improve
the student’s overall performance (MA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
11. The student who graduates from this college are already well prepared to enter a competitive
workforce (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
12. The student who graduates from this college posses necessary critical thinking and problem-
solving skills (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
13. I don’t see why I should use performance-base approaches in my teaching to help to student
to succeed in the workplace (MA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
207
14. I feel that teaching a outcome-based curriculum is very challenging (MSE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
15. It is important for me to learn different approaches to my teaching pedagogies (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
16. I believe that using a outcome-based curriculum will train me to become a better instructor
(MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
17. The student who graduates from the college posses positive attitude towards work (MUV)
1 2 3 4 5 6
18. I feel that I have too many responsibilities in the college (ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
19. I am too busy to use performance-based approaches in my teaching (OR)
1 2 3 4 5 6
20. I feel that the non-instructional responsibilities interfere my ability to be a good instructor
(ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
21. I have enough resources, materials and facilities in the college to conduct outcome-based
education training (ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
22. The college administration provides adequate facilities, equipment and resources to conduct
performance-based education training (ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
23. The college is responsive to the needs of technical and vocational education and training in
general (ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
24. All the resources required to teach a performance-based education training are readily
accessible in the college (ORE)
1 2 3 4 5 6
25. I am not in favor of any changes in my job (OR)
1 2 3 4 5 6
26. My department does not like change in any changes implemented in the college (OR)
1 2 3 4 5 6
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
208
27. I feel helpless about getting support from the college when urgently needed (OA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
28. I feel that my ideas and request are not respected by the college administration (OA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
29. I have a lot of freedom and choice over my tasks at work (OA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
30. I am often asked to share my views about my job and organizational plans (ONP)
1 2 3 4 5 6
31. I do not feel overly restricted by college rules and regulation in performing my routine tasks
(OA)
1 2 3 4 5 6
32. There is a clear strategic vision in the college to reach its performance goals (OSP)
1 2 3 4 5 6
33. There is sufficient work procedures, and support from the college in order to reach its
organizational goal (OSP)
1 2 3 4 5 6
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
209
Section IV
Directions: Please provide your suggestions or recommendations regarding the following
statements.
1. What are the three most significant factors that you consider to be important in planning the
improvement of technical and vocational education and training
1) ___________________________________________________________
2) ___________________________________________________________
3) ___________________________________________________________
2. What are your views to be the three most important barriers that hinder efforts to improve
technical and vocational education and training programs
1) ___________________________________________________________
2) __________________________________________________________
3) ___________________________________________________________
3. What do you consider the three most important skills and/or knowledge that technical and
vocational graduates should possess to improve their marketability?
1) ___________________________________________________________
2) ___________________________________________________________
3) __________________________________________________________
4. Consider listing out other important issues that you feel should be included that were not
addressed in this survey.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE
IMPLEMENTING COMPETENCY BASED EDUCATION TRAINING
210
APPENDIX C
KMO ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE SURVEY
Knowledge Gaps:
Factual KF
Procedural KP
Conceptual KC
Metacognitive KM
Motivation Gaps:
Self-efficacy MSE
Utility Value MUV
Attainment Value MAV
Attribution MA
Organizational Gaps:
Resistance OR
Non-participation ONP
Resources ORE
Autonomy OA
Strategic Plan OSP
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This gap analysis project examines the root causes to identify and analyze the existing barrier preventing graduates of a technical institution in Brunei: Mechanical Training Centre (MTC). The study applies Clark and Estes’ Gap Analysis Model and approach used to define MTC’s organizational goals and identify the gap that exists between actual performance level and desired level of performance. Clark and Estes identified these barriers under three distinct factors: lack of knowledge and/or skills variables
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Hamid, Sheikh Lukman
(author)
Core Title
Implementing competency based education training in a technical and vocational institute in Brunei: a gap analysis
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Global Executive
Publication Date
08/12/2015
Defense Date
08/12/2015
Publisher
University of Southern California
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University of Southern California. Libraries
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Tag
CBA,CBC,CBET,competency-based approaches,competency-based curriculum,competency-based education and training,Mechanical Training Centre,MTC,OAI-PMH Harvest,technical vocational education and training,TVET,vocational and technical institutions,VTIs
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Filback, Robert A. (
committee chair
), Robison, Mark Power (
committee chair
), Seli, Helena (
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)
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lukman.hamid@ssrtc.moe.edu.bn,shamid@usc.edu
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Tags
CBA
CBC
CBET
competency-based approaches
competency-based curriculum
competency-based education and training
Mechanical Training Centre
MTC
technical vocational education and training
TVET
vocational and technical institutions
VTIs