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Educational factors in relationship to overall and lifelong wellbeing

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Educational factors in relationship to overall and lifelong wellbeing

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Content Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
1

Educational Factors in Relationship to Overall and Lifelong Wellbeing

by

Grace Colman Losada

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACTULY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August, 2015

Copyright 2015 Grace Colman Losada

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ABSTRACT
The dropout rate has long been a concern of educators, and also is a harbinger for
increased challenges later in life, such as correlation to unemployment and incarceration.
Even more broadly concerning are recent trends in the general population that reveal a
growing sense of dis-ease. Depression, anxiety and other mental health issues appear to be
on the rise. There has been an increased focus on the promotion of well-being in both the
research and the popular media. Three factors, strong teacher student relationships, at risk
status while in high school, and achievement in higher education, were examined for possible
correlation with well-being over time. Strong teacher student relationships have been shown
to have a positive impact on student outcomes, particularly reported well-being while in
school and graduation rates. However, it is not known if, or how, strong teacher student
relationships (TSR) might continue to impact long term outcomes for students after they
graduate. It may be that strong TSR can have an impact on the overall trajectory of an
individual’s life. This study examined the current sense of wellbeing of adults and their
perceptions of the teacher student relationships they had while in high school. It also
examined well-being outcomes related to students who self-reported being at risk for high
school dropout. Finally this study explored attainment of higher education and outcomes of
wellbeing. In order to answer these questions, subjects responded to a survey which
included 3 parts: demographic information, perceptions of TSR while in high school, and the
Flourishing Scale (Diener &Biswas-Diener, 2009). Analysis of correlation were run and
revealed no significant relationship between TSR, at risk designation, attainment of higher
education degrees and wellbeing over time. However, important trends were apparent,
warranting additional research.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Overview of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 5
Background ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Conceptual Underpinnings for the Study ............................................................................................ 8
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................. 9
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................................... 11
Limitations, Assumptions, and Design Controls ................................................................................ 13
Definition of Key Terms..................................................................................................................... 14
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Review of Related Literature ................................................................................................................ 17
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Wellbeing .......................................................................................................................................... 18
Positive Education ............................................................................................................................. 19
What is Teacher Student Relationship? ............................................................................................ 19
Academic Achievement & Career Development ............................................................................... 23
Behavior ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Social Emotional Competence and Character ................................................................................... 25
Life Satisfaction and Well-being ........................................................................................................ 26
Significance of Student Teacher Relationships .................................................................................. 27
Outcomes of Dropout ....................................................................................................................... 27
Outcomes of Higher Education ......................................................................................................... 28
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 30
Research and Design Methodology ...................................................................................................... 30
Problem and Purposes Overview ...................................................................................................... 30
Research Questions .......................................................................................................................... 31
Population and Sample ..................................................................................................................... 31
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................................ 32
Data Collection .................................................................................................................................. 33
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Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 4: ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Results .................................................................................................................................................. 36
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 36
Study Population ............................................................................................................................... 37
Education .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Work ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Perception of TSR .............................................................................................................................. 41
At Risk and High School Completion ................................................................................................. 43
Wellbeing .......................................................................................................................................... 44
Correlation ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Question One .................................................................................................................................... 45
Question Two .................................................................................................................................... 46
Question Three ................................................................................................................................. 46
Additional Findings ........................................................................................................................... 47
Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 5: ............................................................................................................................................... 49
Discussion ............................................................................................................................................. 49
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Summary of findings ......................................................................................................................... 50
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Implications for practice ................................................................................................................... 53
Recommendations for future study .................................................................................................. 60
Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 62
Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 63
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................. 65
APPENDIX A: Flourishing Scale ................................................................................................................. 73
APPENDIX B: Flourishing Scale Data ......................................................................................................... 74
APPENDIX C: Correlation Data: Teacher Student Relationship and Wellbeing ......................................... 78

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CHAPTER 1
Overview of the Study
Background
According to the Gallup Student Poll of 2011, student engagement steadily declines from
grades 5-12. The United States has a dropout rate around 20% (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani,
2010), a troublingly high number. This statistic has large implications for society as a whole, as
the dropout rate has been linked to multiple negative outcomes. Students who fail to complete
high school earn approximately half the annual income of students who do hold a diploma and
dropouts have a much higher percentage of unemployment. Dropouts report worse health than
those who did complete high school. Perhaps most alarming, dropouts represent a higher
percentage of prison and death row inmates (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani, 2010). High
school completion is not the only concern. Students have experienced an increase in school
tragedy and a decrease in school safety and belonging (Gallup, 2011). Globally, we have seen an
increase in depression and anxiety (Seligman, 2009, 2011), which may not be directly related to
school problems, but Seligman makes the argument that schools may be able to do something
about this phenomenon.
What can be done to reengage our nation’s disengaged students and improve overall
outcomes? Poplin and Weeres (1994) found that school stakeholders identified relationships as
the number one problem with schools. Respondents in the study reported that relationships
between students and teachers were most problematic. They also most often cited positive
relationships with people who care, listen, understand, respect others, and are honest, open and
sensitive, in relation to positive aspects of school. From this information it seems plausible that
the failure or success of a school may be, at least in stakeholder perception, highly correlated
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with the kind of relationships present within that organization. Research has shown that students
who feel a sense of belonging are less likely to dropout (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani, 2010).
Further, schools with low dropout rates emphasize positive school climate and positive
relationships (Christle, Jolivette & Nelson, 2007). Even just one strong teacher student
relationship is shown to be a protective factor for a student who is at risk of school failure and
dropout (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani, 2010). At-risk students have been shown to expend
more effort in school when they believe that their teacher cares about them (Muller, 2001).
There is also evidence, through research done in the field of positive psychology, that humans
are more productive and open to learning when they are happy (Bolte, Goschke, & Kuhl, 2003).
Further, research is beginning to show that there are things teachers can do to increase the
happiness of their students (Seligman et al, 2009). By focusing first on students’ emotional state,
we may actually be priming them for more learning (Seligman et al, 2009).
In fact, there is much empirical evidence that teacher-student relationships are important
for a multitude of outcomes. Most of the vast research focuses on younger students, but there is
evidence that TSR is also of critical importance for adolescents, and there may be clear
developmental reasons for this. Unfortunately, studies also show that there is a shift in middle
and high school away from relationships (Eccles et al, 1993). We have legislation that controls
class size in the elementary grades which creates an environment in which strong TSR can
develop. Schools are not designed to continue the emphasis on TSR at the middle and high
school level; rather, the traditional model is designed to deliver subject area content. Classes are
larger, a shorter amount of time is spent with teachers, and not as much opportunity is available
to devote to relationship. Teachers worry more about boundaries with older students and also
report that they feel attending to emotion pulls the class away from curriculum. In the context of
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high stakes education, there is heavy pressure to deliver curriculum in the hopes of preparing
students well for standardized tests. Unfortunately, it may also be that adolescents need
continued strong relationships with teachers during middle and high school just as schools are
reducing focus on TSR (Eccles eta l, 1993). Noddings makes the claim that central to the
problem of relationship in school is a failure of schools to respond to rapid social change which
has occurred in tandem with tremendous population growth and demand for education. As
communities and schools have grown, so too have relationships suffered, leaving youth with
diminished meaningful adult connection. Noddings states that the best classrooms have an
atmosphere of natural caring, but this element is challenging to achieve given the structure of our
current school system (2005).
In recent years there is growing interest in shifting educational goals away from only
traditional academics, to a more holistic approach that includes elements of emotion,
relationship, well-being, and mindfulness. Simultaneously, there is increasing dissatisfaction
with what is referred to as “high stakes education”. This terminology is used to describe an
educational culture that places great emphasis on standardized testing, competition, and
achievement. Opposition to this approach was well presented in the documentary, Race to
Nowhere, directed by Vicki H. Abeles. The creation of the documentary was prompted by the
stress related illness of the 12-year-old daughter of Abeles, the cause of which was attributed to
school related stress. During the filming of the documentary, a 13-year-old girl, living in the
same community as Abeles, committed suicide after receiving a poor grade on a math test,
adding further urgency to Abeles’ mission. Abeles advocates for a grass roots movement to
change this high pressure culture in education which she believes is creating an “epidemic of
unhealthy, disengaged, unprepared kids”.
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Martin Seligman, one of the leading researchers in the field of positive psychology,
introduced “positive education” as an extension of his study of positive psychology. Positive
psychology is a branch of psychology which has the purpose not to focus on mental illness, but
to study and enhance talent and thriving in people. Positive education is the teaching of skills of
achievement, traditional in education, along with skills of well-being. Seligman (2009, 2011)
asks, “What do you most want for your children?” He points out the disparate goals of parents,
which center on elements of well-being, such as happiness, confidence, and kindness, and the
elements that schools teach which center around academic skills. Seligman makes the argument
that skills of well-being can, and should, be taught in schools. He presents the worldwide
prevalence of depression as cause to include positive education in school curriculum and has
conducted several studies which demonstrate such teaching can be effective in promoting well-
being. Perhaps most convincing to stakeholders in education who are reluctant to embrace any
deviation from traditional academics is the argument that greater well-being enhances learning.
Much research has shown a link between positive mood and broader attention, creative thinking
and holistic thinking (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005). Seligman’s work focuses on teaching
wellbeing through curriculum and, so far, findings are demonstrating that wellbeing can be
taught. But how does TSR impact wellbeing? Can positive TSR function as a vehicle for
improving wellbeing? Suldo et al (2009) have shown that higher levels of wellbeing and strong
TSR often are correlated.

Conceptual Underpinnings for the Study
Teacher student relationships and student well-being have long been an interest of school
stakeholders and researchers alike. There is general consensus that both of these elements are
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important within schools and can have a meaningful impact on student success in a variety of
areas. The field of education has largely borrowed from psychology and therapeutic approaches
in understanding the teacher-student relationship.
Carl Rogers, the founder of client-centered therapy, gives us the basis for a theory of
education that grew into learner-centered education. In this approach, the goal of education is
holistic and aims to create fully functioning citizens through personal relationship between the
learner and the facilitator (Cornelius-White, 2007). From his work on attachment theory,
Bowlby (1969) explains that secure parental relationships are required for children to develop
healthy self-concepts and senses of wellbeing. The research around attachment has largely
informed research on teacher-student relationships (Cornelius-White, 2007). Nel Noddings
(2005) emphasized the role of caring in schools, drawing attention to its diminishing presence in
modern schools and the importance to foster caring relationships in the classroom. Most
recently, Martin Seligman has expanded his theory of positive psychology to positive education,
an approach that emphasizes teaching skills of wellbeing along with academic skills (Seligman et
al, 2009).
Statement of the Problem
When Seligman surveyed parents and asked “what do you most want for your children?”,
parents predictably answered, “happiness, confidence, contentment, balance good stuff,
kindness, health, satisfaction,” etc. In summary, parents reported that they most wanted a sense
of wellbeing for their children (Seligman et al, 2009). However, this response seems to be in
direct conflict with the current educational climate which is driven largely by standardized
testing and a high stakes race to graduation and college. The possible link is the notion that a
student must succeed academically, graduate from high school and successfully matriculate
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through college in order to be able to build a life as an adult that will bring them a sense of
happiness. However we don’t know that this formula actually delivers the holistic outcomes
parents are hoping for, and there is some evidence that this high stakes atmosphere might even
be damaging to wellbeing. Further, the current approach to high school minimizes all of the
elements of wellbeing that parents state they value. The relationship of student and teacher is
minimized, students’ individuality and emerging interests and passions are minimized in the path
to achievement on standardized tests which insist that all students glean from education the same
knowledge and skill and demonstrate that knowledge and skill in a measurable way on
standardized tests. Great effort is invested into reducing the very high dropout rate, but the
number of students who leave high school every year continues to grow. Less is known about
how at risk students fare after high school, and if the efforts of educators are currently well
placed to support positive wellbeing outcomes.
Poplin and Weeres (1993) found that school stakeholders believed negative or weak
relationships were the number one problem impacting schools. Currently, we only test
academic, intellectual knowledge. Social emotional competence is critical to wellbeing, but we
don’t often measure it, if at all. However, stakeholders do report wanting a more holistic
approach and expect student outcomes to include social emotional learning (Seligman, 2011;
Wentzel, 1998). Social and emotional learning has been shown to positively impact academic
learning (Wentzel, 1991). Research has also linked wellbeing to positive school outcomes
overall (Suldo & Huebner, 2005; Suldo et al, 2006; Suldo et al, 2008). It is also evident that
wellbeing can be taught (Seligman et al, 2009; Seligman, 2011). Students who report a high
level of wellbeing also report strong teacher-student relationships (Suldo et al, 2006; Suldo et al
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2008) which might indicate that TSR is an important element of the school experience to foster is
the goal is overall and lasting wellbeing.
The desire to connect with students through meaningful relationship is what brings many
teachers to the field of teaching, and the fuels the passion that teachers have for their work. In
practice, many secondary teachers are not able to build strong relationships with students due to
large student loads, minimal time spent with students due to rapidly rotating schedules, and
intense focus on intellectual curriculum. This is unfortunate, as positive teacher-student
relationship has been consistently shown to be related to increased academic achievement in
school (Wentzel, 1997). The decline in student engagement from grades 5-12 and the high
dropout rate do need attention, but we also need to know more about the worthiness of the goals
we set out for our high school students. We know that graduation and higher education deliver
higher incomes, but until we know that graduation and higher degrees in fact can deliver the
wellbeing parents are hoping for, we can’t know for sure that the pursuit of these things is
actually likely to result in the desired outcome. An increase in research of educational factors
expected to impact overall and lifelong wellbeing, including TSR, graduation from high school
and attainment of higher education degrees, is critical to either strengthen the current approach to
education, or encourage systemic change in schools, to lead the field of education in new,
productive directions.
Purpose of the Study
Strong teacher student relationships have been shown to have a positive impact on
student outcomes. We know that Strong TSR can improve both academic and social-
emotional outcomes. However, we do not know if, or how, strong TSR might continue to
impact long term outcomes for students after they graduate. Attachment research shows that
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relationships can have long lasting and personality forming impacts (Bowlby, 1969), but
much of this research has been done with respect to parental relationships. Given that
relationships outside of parental relationships gain importance for adolescence (Eccles et al,
1993), it may be beneficial to understand the ways in which TSR impacts students
longitudinally.
In looking at long term outcomes, academic success may or may not be relevant, as
students may or may not have decided to pursue further education. Certainly, for those
students who do continue their education beyond high school, it would be important to
understand if they are experiencing academic success. But it is also important to cast a wider
net in looking at long term success. Particularly when considering at risk students, it is
important to understand if getting these students to the milestone of graduation is correlated
with multiple measures of success later in life. Studies show us that high school graduates
earn higher income, are less likely to be incarcerated and will have fewer health problems
during their lifetime (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani, 2010). However, if intervention
changes the trajectory of an at risk student’s educational path, can we expect that they will
have a more positive life path overall?
The intention of schooling is to fortify students with the skills necessary to lead
productive and satisfying lives. To do so requires more than purely academic skills, but also
social and emotional skills that can be taught through strong relationships. This study seeks
to determine if strong teacher student relationships continue to impact student outcomes,
particularly outcomes of wellbeing, beyond graduation. Further, this study seeks to
understand if the achievement of the educational milestones of graduation and attainment of
higher education degrees are connected not only to higher income, but also an enhanced
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experience of wellbeing. If the ways in which these educational elements might be
connected to outcomes of wellbeing can be better understood, educators and parents can
make more intentional decisions about what is emphasized in schools and homes.

Research Questions.
1. Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high
school?
2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
Limitations, Assumptions, and Design Controls
These research questions are important to ask, however they are difficult to answer definitively,
as myriad factors impact a sense of wellbeing. The primary limitation when looking at the
relationship between TSR, at risk status, attainment of higher education and wellbeing over time
is that it is impossible to control for the myriad variables in a person’s life over time. Relatedly,
it is then very difficult to isolate the existence of, let alone the impact of, these three factors on
wellbeing. As a result, this study can only look for strong correlations between these three
factors and wellbeing over time. It is possible that other life events and circumstances will make
it difficult to determine any relationship between TSR and wellbeing at all. Nonetheless, it may
prove valuable to explore the potential long term impact of TSR, at risk status and higher
education achievement on wellbeing. If there does appear to be a relationship with TSR, it
increases the importance of TSR as an aspect of the school experience, that is important not only
to the wellbeing of students while in school, or as a protective factor for graduation, but also as
an aspect of school that may have long lasting impact on the trajectory of students’ lives.
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One assumption that will be made is that a subject reporting having considered dropping
out of high school was in fact at risk for dropout. While the brief survey will not reveal the
depth of the consideration given to dropout, the analysis will be able to determine if the subject
did in fact drop out of high school, successfully passed the GED or graduated. This will not
reveal the nature or magnitude of the challenges facing that subject in high school, but it will
allow visibility into the high school achievement outcome of all subjects.

Definition of Key Terms
Defining teacher-student relationship (TSR) is challenging. Gelbach, Brinkworth and
Harris (2011) describe TSR as made up of the unique perspective of both the teacher and student,
and will have both positive and negative elements. TSR is constructed of many different
elements, and all of those elements, both individually and in totality, may be perceived
differently by the different members of the relationship. TSR is made of factors such as, but not
limited to, trust, respect, expectations, and caring. Each element can be present in either a
negative or positive form (example: mistrust or trust) and both positive and negative elements
may coexist within the relationship. In this way, relationships are not purely positive or
negative, but containers of strong and weak features. Rudasill et al (2010) describe TSR not as
positive or negative, but as high or low quality. High quality teacher relationships are
characterized as those with mutual respect, caring and warmth, while low quality relationships
are those with high conflict, discord, frustration and anger.
In this study wellbeing will be defined as an overall concept. However, many theories
address wellbeing as both an overall construct, and also as consisting of multiple distinct
elements. Seligman (2011), probably the most well-known theorist in this field, identifies
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wellbeing as consisting of five elements, as described by positive psychology theory with the
addition of one element developed by the Geelong Grammar School. The five elements making
up wellbeing as defined by Seligman are positive emotion, engagement, meaning, positive
relationships, and accomplishment (PERMA). This definition was chosen for its dynamic view
of wellbeing as being composed of multiple elements. Seligman (2011) points out the need for a
multi-faceted view, having expanded upon his first Theory of Authentic Happiness to
incorporate additional elements rather than describing wellbeing in terms of positive emotions
only, which he now describes as superficial. The Geelong Grammar School built upon
Seligman’s model and added an element of positive health, which focuses on habits around
optimal physical and psychological health, including the development of resilience.
Ryff and Singer (1998) and Ryan and Deci (2000) include human psychological needs as
important to wellbeing, such as need for competence, relatedness and self-acceptance. Putnam
(2000) and Helliwell, Barrington-Leigh, Harris, and Huang include “social capital” as central in
their construct of wellbeing. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) presents flow, interest and engagement as
components of wellbeing.
Given the myriad constructs of well-being, defined by various facets, this research will focus
on a general, all-encompassing definition of wellbeing. The work of Seligman will be used, as
his theory of authentic happiness is robust, multifaceted, and includes most components explored
by researchers in the field.
The term at risk is used and defined in many different ways. For the purposes of this study,
the term at risk will be used to describe a student who is in danger of failing to graduate from
high school, regardless of the reason why.

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Summary
Every year there are tragedies in ever larger high schools, high numbers of dropouts,
intense pressure to reach college despite skyrocketing tuition, and a decreasing sense of
wellbeing reported by adults globally (Seligman, 2011). Certainly, there are multiple drivers of
these negative outcomes. Ultimately, people consistently report wanting, above all, a sense of
happiness, fulfillment and wellbeing in life. Better understanding of educational factors that
drive wellbeing could inform and improve the way we approach schooling. Is it possible that by
refocusing efforts in schools to include fostering positive relationships, faculty might impact not
only student academic outcomes, but also lifelong outcomes of wellbeing? Where positive
relationships are found in schools, so are myriad positive student outcomes including
achievement, motivation and wellbeing. Strong teacher student relationship is particularly
important for adolescents, although it is precisely at the transition into middle school that
teacher-student relationship begins to deteriorate (Eccles et al, 1993). Further, positive teacher-
student relationships appear to be particularly critical for at risk students (Muller, 2001). If, in
fact, fostering strong student-teacher relationship can be shown not only to increase the
likelihood of high school completion, but also positively impact the long term wellbeing of at
risk students, specific related interventions may be developed and implemented, having
widespread societal impact. Additionally, the range of educational achievement from no high
school diploma through to doctoral degrees have been well connected to earning potential. But
what bearing does this this have on wellbeing, if at all? In the exploration of these questions
relationships may be revealed that suggest ways in which we can improve not only education,
but our communities as a whole.

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CHAPTER 2
Review of Related Literature
Introduction
According to Seligman, most people report their highest hope for their children is that they
will be happy. Yet, we are still learning what factors in an individual’s life influence the success
or failure to attain wellbeing. There is strong evidence that teacher student relationships (TSR)
are important to myriad outcomes in school. Most often student learning outcomes are identified
as a positive outcome of strong TSR, but student wellbeing and teacher job satisfaction are also
impacted by the relationships that teachers do or do not have with their students (Hargreaves,
2000). Both in research and in practice, teacher student relationships are considered with greater
attention at the elementary level. TSR does not receive strong focus as students’ transition into
adolescence and middle school, and TSR receives even less attention at the high school level.
There are some reasons for this, such as increased student to teacher ratio, fear of boundary
violations and curriculum demands. However, the practice of neglecting TSR in middle and high
school may be misguided and detrimental to student learning. There is evidence that adolescents
may be in particular need of strong relationship with adults other than their parents (Eccles et al,
1993). If this is true, then it may also be true that teachers are shifting their focus away from
relationship with students just as students need that relationship most. This study focuses
primarily on TSR in high school, as this time in an individual’s life is foundational to the myriad
paths available to her as she launches into life. However it is also important to consider other
school factors, as TSR has been shown to be foundational to both graduation and the pursuit of
higher education. The goals that parents set for their children, typically including graduation
from high school and higher education, are unproven drivers of wellbeing.
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Wellbeing
This paper begins with the exploration of existing literature with the end in mind. As
wellbeing is the outcome that will be measured, let us first explore what is known about this
topic. Seligman defines wellbeing as consisting of five components: positive emotion,
engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and achievement. Seligman (2011) is insistent
upon a multifaceted approach, in contrast to his original writings which were monistic in nature,
and focused solely on the emotion of happiness. He now considers this to be a superficial
description of what flourishing people actually experience, and argues that a state of flourishing
is emotionally experienced in varied ways largely dependent upon personality. Feelings of
happiness may be one way in which some individuals experience wellbeing, but many people
will experience wellbeing in richer, more diverse ways. Seligman expanded his thinking to
include ideas of flow theory into the element of engagement. Engagement is described as a state
of being when time seems to stop as the individual becomes absorbed in a given task or activity.
Strong emotion is typically not present, or prominent, during flow, but afterwards individuals
report positive emotions in relation to the period of engagement. Meaning is described as a
sense of belonging to, or serving, something larger than the self, and Seligman argues that this is
an important element of a person’s sense of wellbeing. Achievement speaks to a person’s sense
of accomplishment, and is often pursued for its own sake. Certainly, within the context of
education, we want to increase this pursuit, as it drives motivation and fuels learning. As a social
species, it is not surprising that positive relationships are included as central to the human sense
of wellbeing. Positive relationships will be explored in more detail further on. These five
elements, collectively, make up what Seligman (2011) refers to in his theory of wellbeing.
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Intuitively, the idea that increasing wellbeing will increase overall life satisfaction and a
multitude of outcomes makes sense. There is also a plethora of research to support this notion.
Positive emotion has been shown to broaden attention (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005) and
contrastingly, negative emotion restricts attention (Bolte et al, 2003). Flow is experienced when
concentration, interest and enjoyment converge, and the nature of this engagement invokes a
growth principle. As students seek to master new challenges, they learn new skill, and ultimately
must seek out increasingly challenging activity to maintain engagement. This cycle of seeking
increasing complexity to maintain engagement serves the process of learning quite well
(Shernoff et al, 2003). Howell & Buro (2011) found that positive achievement emotions were
associated with achievement related self-regulation, an important component of success both in
school and later in life.
Positive Education
Within the broader context of positive psychology, positive education attempts to teach both
traditional academic skills, as well as skills associated with wellbeing. The importance of
wellbeing is being embraced by a wide range of schools from well-known private prep schools,
like Riverdale Country School in New York and the Geelong Grammar School in Australia, to
the larger organization of KIPP Public Charter schools. In the cases previously mentioned, the
schools have developed or adopted a curriculum that attempts to teach skills of wellbeing as
described in the work of Martin Seligman, PhD.
What is Teacher Student Relationship?
Defining TSR is challenging. Gelbach, Brinkworth and Harris (2011) describe TSR as
the unique perspective of both the teacher and student, containing both positive and negative
elements.
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As any relationship, TSR is an amalgam of many different elements and all of those
elements, both individually and in totality, may be perceived differently by the different
members of the relationship. In discussing TSR, we are really discussing factors such as trust,
respect, expectations, and caring as individual elements, as well as parts of a whole. Each
element can be present in either a negative or positive form (example: mistrust or trust) and both
positive and negative elements may coexist within the relationship. In this way, relationships are
not purely positive or negative, but containers of strong and weak features. Rudasill et al (2010)
describe TSR not as positive or negative, but as high or low quality. High quality teacher
relationships are characterized as those with mutual respect, caring and warmth, while low
quality relationships are those with high conflict, discord, frustration and anger.
Students and teachers may not experience relationships in the same way. Teachers and
students have different needs and roles in the TSR. Teachers hold more power due to the natural
structure of the relationship, and may value compliant behaviors, while students may value
opportunities for autonomy. Conversely, both teacher and student may equally value respect as
an important element of the TSR. These unique value structures can lead to incongruous
perceptions of the same relationship. Further, teacher and student may simply not feel the same.
For example, the teacher may feel caring for a student who is unaware of, or does not
reciprocate, that caring sentiment. A teacher may interpret confusion as apathy and form an
incorrect negative judgment of a student which could impact their perception of the student and
their relationship with that student. As a result, teachers and students may perceive and report
about the same relationship in very different ways.
Relationships also change over time and develop based on interactions and so may look
markedly different depending on the point in time that relationships are considered.
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The Teacher Student Relationship is Reciprocal
Central to the definition of TSR is that these relationships are dynamic and reciprocal
(Howes & Ritchie, 2002); both teachers and students constantly contribute to, and are impacted
by, their relationships with each other. Pianta (1999) describes TSR as a dyadic relationship,
consisting of students’ and teachers’ interpersonal interactions, feelings, and beliefs as well as
teachers’ and students’ perceptions of those interactions, feelings and beliefs. Noddings (2005)
argues that caring is an act requiring two parties, each with a distinct responsibility; one to care
and one to receive the caring. A break down on either side can impede the flow of caring and
changes the nature of the relationship. Noddings further states that caring relationships in school
are not only good for the student, but also for the teacher. Caring relationships create a positive
feedback loop in which caring is reciprocal. Teachers feel rewarded when their students express
positive feelings towards them and their learning (Hargreaves, 2000). Noddings (2005) is also
clear that when there is a negative, or lack of, relationship characterized by low teacher or
student engagement, there is a negative feedback loop. Interestingly, teachers at different levels
of instruction report different value criteria around relationships with students. Secondary
teachers express positive emotion when they perceive a challenging student finding success
under their guidance (Hargreaves, 2000), which is different than primary teachers who most
often report positive emotions related to close, loving relationships with their young students. It
may be that teachers frustrated by struggling students perceive a negative relationship and
disengage from those students in greatest need of teacher investment in relationship.
Teacher Student Relationship and Adolescent Development
There is far more research regarding student teacher relationship with early education
students than with adolescents. In some ways this may seem appropriate, as developmental
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psychology tells us that adolescents become increasingly dependent on peer relationships rather
than on parental relationships, and teachers are often perceived as surrogate parents while
students are at school. Popular culture exaggerates this pulling away from the parental
relationship and characterizes adolescents as desiring to separate from adults. It is true that
primary to the developmental work of adolescents is increased autonomy from their parents,
however it is important to point out that autonomy is not the same as separation. Adolescents
require increasing control over decision making; however, they continue to require the emotional
support of adults (Davis, 2003). In fact, adolescents who experience detached relationships with
adults are more likely to report negative self- beliefs (Davis, 2003). As students attempt to gain
independence from their families, they often look to other adults for relationship and guidance
(Eccles et al., 1993) and teachers are a prevalent source for that support. In the case of students
who experience negative parental relationships, TSR may be of even greater importance (Davis,
2003). The nature of non-parent adult relationships can impact outcomes in positive and
negative ways. Pianta and Allen (2008) note that at the secondary school level “positive
relationships with adults are perhaps the single most important ingredient promoting positive
youth development” (p. 24). Suldo & Huebner (2006) found that while students reporting
extremely low and average life satisfaction experienced similar levels of teacher support,
students who reported extremely high life satisfaction experienced particularly high teacher
support suggesting that the role of the teacher in promoting wellbeing should not be
underestimated. The research overwhelmingly suggests that adolescents don’t need adults less
than younger children, but that they need different kinds of relationship with adults as they
mature (Davis, 2003). Teachers who succumb to the popular notion that they are helping
adolescent students by creating distance between themselves and their students may actually be
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hindering their students’ progress (Davis, 2003). Conversely, teachers who acknowledge and
nurture connection may be able to greatly impact the learning of adolescent students (Davis,
2003). This is never more true than in the case of at risk students (Muller, 2001).
Attachment theory also suggests that if students have not formed secure attachments by a
certain age, the individual has missed a critical window in development and may never be able to
overcome the challenges associated with attachment issues. Therefore, there would be no reason
to attempt to work with a student’s attachment at middle or high school. However, there is new
thinking that healthy attachment can be developed later than we thought. This opens the
possibility that we may want to focus on relationship in the higher grades after all.
Academic Achievement & Career Development
Positive TSR has been shown to have a positive impact on academic achievement in school
(Wentzel, 1997). Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles (1989) found that students who were offered
more teacher support demonstrated higher achievement in mathematics on a statewide
standardized test. Teacher support was also shown to predict end-of-year grades in English
classes (Goodenow, 1993). More generally, Wentzel (2002) found that teachers’ high
expectations also predicted middle school students’ end-of-year grades in the subject taught by
that teacher.
Teacher-student relationship has also been shown to assist in students’ career development.
Metheny et al (2008) found that seniors in high school who perceived high teacher support also
had higher career and decision-making self-efficacy and outcome expectations for themselves.
Qualities of teacher-student relationship that most mattered in this study were students’
perception of teacher investment in student’s future, caring, and having high expectations for
students. While this study was not longitudinal, and therefore we cannot be certain of actual
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career outcomes, the students’ high self-efficacy and expectations suggest that they will be well
prepared to meet challenges and be motivated to work towards their career goals.
Affect towards school
Adolescent students’ sentiment with regard to school is also associated with the
relationship they have with their teachers. Students who experience their teachers as being
supportive have been shown to hold more positive feelings toward school (Roeser, Midgley, &
Urdan, 1996; Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994). However, when students feel unconnected to their
teacher, or experience a negative TSR, they are more likely to feel alienated from school and
disengaged, which can lead to dropout (Murdock, 1999). There is evidence that TSR may have
an impact on student sentiment towards schooling for quite some time. Teachers’ expectations
of their seventh grade students were shown to be a better predictor of those students’ future
college plans than their own perceptions of their academic abilities (Murdock, Anderman, &
Hodge, 2000).
Behavior
There is much evidence relating TSR and student behavior. Wentzel (1997) found that
students who experience their teachers as caring are more attentive in class. On the other hand,
when students felt their teachers viewed them negatively, students’ behavior became
significantly less prosocial in the classroom (Wentzel, 2002). Murdock (1999) also found that
adolescents who believed their teachers viewed them in a negative light were more likely to be
identified as causing discipline problems.
It is also plausible that TSR impacts behavior beyond the classroom. Rumberger (1995)
found that positive TSR is protective with regards to dropout, even after controlling for factors
such as attitudes towards school and background characteristics. Strong TSR can help a student
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who does not like school, or is experiencing other barriers to school success, stay engaged rather
than dropping out. Further, strong positive TSR has been shown to decrease risky behaviors in
adolescents (Hargreaves, 2000). For example, adolescents who believed their teachers cared for
them delayed onset of sexual activity (Helleve et al, 2011).
Motivation
Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that relationship is foundational in human motivation. With
regards to school relationships, TSR has been shown to be correlated with specific elements of
student motivation. In particular, adolescent students’ perceptions of caring and teacher support
can predict student effort as reported by teachers (Goodenow, 1993) and students (Wentzel,
1997). Motivation is highly critical when considering an at risk student population. Gehlbach,
Brinkworth and Harris (2011) found that students who perceived an increase in positivity related
to TSR also showed an increase in both self-efficacy and effort that they expended in class.
According to Murdock et al (2000) levels of TSR as reported by middle school students is highly
predictive of motivation in ninth grade, even when middle school motivation and achievement
are controlled.
Social Emotional Competence and Character
Corrigan, Klein and Isaacs (2010) found that students who had high levels of trust in their
teachers not only had high motivation and academic self-esteem, but also demonstrated more
concern for others and stronger moral character. Further, these students perceived themselves to
have stronger character than their peers who reported lower levels of trust in their teachers. This
finding supports the notion that students learn about themselves through the lens of the adults in
their lives. Therefore, it may be that if teachers have strong positive views of their students,
students will perceive themselves in strong, positive ways.
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Jennings and Greenberg (2008) describe social emotional competence and TSR as being
related. Teachers who have strong social emotional competence form stronger relationships in
the classroom, and their students develop stronger social and emotional competence. Daniel
Goleman (1995) further states that emphasizing emotional learning reinforces not only TSR, but
also the emotional intelligence of the teacher, even for teachers who initially resist including
social and emotional learning in the curriculum. By prioritizing emotional learning, the quality
of TSR continuously develops as does teachers’ sophistication with regard to emotional
intelligence.
Life Satisfaction and Well-being
In a meta-analysis of current research, Suldo, Riley, and Shaffer (2006) found that
perceived high teacher support has been shown to be correlated with high life satisfaction and
happiness. This correlation has been shown to be true for both male and female adolescents,
though the behaviors they associate with teacher support may be slightly different. Girls tend to
focus on interpersonal interactions with teachers, while boys focus on academic support (Suldo
et al, 2009). In contrast, support from peers was not shown to be related to happiness (Suldo,
Riley, Shaffer 2006). In another study, Suldo and Huebner (2005) found that high levels of
teacher support were a differentiating factor between students reporting very low or average life
satisfaction and high life satisfaction. Those students reporting high life satisfaction reported
significantly higher teacher support. In a later study, Suldo, Shaffer and Riley (2008) found that
teacher-student relationship was the aspect of school climate most closely related to life
satisfaction. Longitudinal studies of middle school students have also shown that perceived
teacher regard was predictive of adolescents’ self-esteem, and positive teacher regard was related
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to declines in adolescent anger and depressive symptoms (Reddy, Rhodes, & Mulhall, 2003;
Roeser & Eccles, 1998).
Significance of Student Teacher Relationships
The impact that TSR can have on multiple student outcomes is clear. The literature
supports the notion that TSR is an important factor in student success. However, there is also
research that suggests that TSR is not as significant at the middle and high school level as it is at
younger grades, or compared to other relationships in students’ lives. While still associated with
high levels of student subjective well-being, relationships with teachers was shown to be less
significant than that of other adult relationships, such as parents (Suldo & Shaffer, 2008).
However, when considering that adolescence is a developmental stage in which individuals may
be in particular need of close adult relationships outside of the home, and also that the structure
of most middle and high schools discourage strong TSR (Eccles et al, 1993), it is possible that
TSR is less significant than other relationships because they have generally not been enabled to
flourish under current school structures. It may be that if TSR were emphasized and nurtured in
middle and high school, the significance of these relationships in the lives of adolescents would
indeed strengthen, providing increased opportunity for teachers to positively impact students’
subjective sense of well-being.
Outcomes of Dropout
It is well documented that the occurrence of dropout, or failure to complete high school,
is correlated with many negative outcomes. Students who fail to earn a high school diploma are
more likely to be unemployed, and those who are employed earn roughly half the annual salary
of an individual who had either a diploma or a GED (Rouse, 2007). Dropouts report worse
health than those who earned a diploma, regardless of income (Pleis, Lucas, & Ward, 2009).
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Dropouts represent a disproportionately higher percentage of prison and death row inmates
(Levin & Belfield, 2007).
Outcomes of Higher Education
The gaps in health and income that are observed between dropouts and high school
graduates are also apparent on a different scale between individuals with different levels of
higher education. With each additional degree earned, so does employment and income increase,
obesity rates decrease, and health improve. Further, the increase in resources available to those
with higher levels of education results in an increase in life expectancy (Wigley & Akkoyunlu-
Wigley (2006). It would seem intuitive that with all of these benefits, overall wellbeing would
also improve, however, Michalos and Orlando (2006) demonstrated that with increases in
education, overall satisfaction often decreases. Michalos (2008) calls this the conseseur effect, in
that as life situation improves, so does expectation increase, and this can cause an increased
sense of dissatisfaction. Phelan and Phelan, (1983) also found that while higher education was
correlated with greater income, it was not correlated with either job or life satisfaction.
Summary
Much is known about the importance of teacher-student relationships in the younger
grades, but less is known with regards to adolescents, and even less is known about carry over
impacts in later life. Of particular interest to this researcher is how TSR in middle and high
school impacts wellbeing, and, further, what relation, if any, does TSR during high school have
on individuals perception of well-being past graduation? Research indicates that elements of
wellbeing, such as positive emotion, present in adolescence are predictive of future successes
and wellbeing later in life. It stands to reason that if positive TSR, particularly in the case of at
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risk adolescents, is correlated with a greater sense of wellbeing, perhaps the existence of positive
TSR is sufficient to positively impact the life trajectory of struggling students in myriad ways.
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CHAPTER 3
Research and Design Methodology

Problem and Purposes Overview
The teacher-student relationship is important to multiple aspects of success in school and
may be particularly important during middle and high school, though less is known about the
significance of TSR in the upper grades as compared to preschool and elementary education.
Student engagement steadily declines from grades 5-12 and it is also at this time that the design
of schools changes. Most middle and high schools become much larger than elementary schools,
both overall and with relation to class size, and students’ days are structured in such a way, with
rotating classes, to actually discourage relationship by decreasing contact time with each teacher.
Students who are considered at risk for dropping out of school may be in even greater need of
positive TSR than other students. This is important because non-completion of high school has
been shown to be correlated with many negative outcomes, such as lower economic status,
higher rates of incarceration, and even lower life expectancy. It is possible that by focusing on
promoting positive TSR at the middle and high school level, educators may be able to not only
increase high school completion rate, but increase higher education achievement, and improve
students’ long term quality of life beyond high school.
Research also suggests that teaching wellbeing in schools has both immediate and long
term positive impact on students. However, it is not known how these two elements intersect,
how, or even if, attention to TSR in middle and high school continues to impact students as they
launch into adult lives.
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Research Questions
This study attempts to address the following research questions:
1. Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high
school?
2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
Population and Sample
Wide solicitation of responses to the questionnaire will be made via internet. Responses
will be requested from persons 18 years of age and older, who have either left high school or
graduated. As time passes after graduation, myriad factors accumulate and it becomes
increasingly difficult to disaggregate the impact of TSR from other life factors. This is one
limitation of the study; however the researcher will collect responses from individuals of all ages
in order to cast as wide a net as possible. The intention of this study is to solicit responses from a
diverse range of individuals. However, it is difficult to predict who will, in fact, respond. For
this reason, a portion of the survey will be dedicated to gathering demographic information on
responders to better understand the population. This information may also provide insight into
other factors that may impact the relationship between TSR and wellbeing. For example, it is
possible that factors such as school size, cultural background and other relationships during high
school may impact the level of importance that TSR plays in an individual’s life. There will
likely be some response from international subjects, however the survey will only be given in
English, which will be a limitation.

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Instrumentation
This study will follow a quantitative format and the data collection will be completed
using a survey created by the researcher. The survey will consist of 3 sections: section one will
gather general demographic information on subjects including whether or not they ever
considered dropping out of high school, if they graduated from high school, and highest degree
completed. Section 2 will investigate subjects’ perceptions of the TSR they experienced while in
high school, and section 3 will explore subjects current perceptions of well-being measured using
the Flourishing Scale (Diener, 2009).
Section one will contain some questions designed to gather general information about the
subjects. This information will be designed to better define the population being studied and
facilitate the analysis of research questions two and three:
2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
For example, subjects will be asked to comment on their current employment and level of
education achieved. It will be important to collect this information as the population will be non-
specific. Responses will be solicited using a snowball method (subjects will be asked to invite
others to participate) and, as a result, there is great variability in the potential population that will
need to be understood to assist in analysis of the survey responses.
Section two is designed to reveal subjects feelings about the TSR they experienced in
high school. For example: “Did you like your teachers?” and “Did you feel your teachers cared
about you?” Items in section two use a five point Likert scale. This section of the survey relies
not only on perception, but also will be impacted by memory of a time that for respondents will
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have greater or lesser duration of time. The accuracy of individuals’ memory of high school
could be impacted by multiple factors.
Section three attempts to gain perspective on the current perceived wellbeing of subjects.
The Well-Being Theory Questionnaire, a survey under development by Julie Butler and
Margaret L. Kern, was considered for section three, however it was ruled out for a few primary
reasons. First, there is no available Chronbach’s alpha for this measure, as it is currently under
development. Second, the entire Well-Being Theory Questionnaire is too lengthy, with 192
items taking roughly a half hour to complete, to be practical for this study. It is the belief of the
researcher that such a lengthy survey will discourage responses.
In an attempt to solicit a greater number of responses, the researcher chose to use a brief
scale of wellbeing that has been assessed for validity against other scales of wellbeing. The
Flourishing Scale (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2009) has been shown to have moderately high
temporal reliability, and high convergence with other similar scales (Diener et al., 2009). The
brevity of the scale does not allow for assessment of the individual components of wellbeing,
however it has been shown to offer a reliable overall assessment of wellbeing. The brevity was
also desirable in this study, as the researcher felt that a shorter survey would garner greater
participation in the study.
Data Collection
Data will be collected via survey. The survey will be made available on the internet and
responses will be solicited by invitation via email or facebook or both, and also by using a
snowball approach. Individuals who respond to the survey will be invited to share it with others
in an attempt to gather sufficient responses to draw meaningful conclusions. Wide public
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solicitation for responses will be made with the intent of including a diverse population.
Responders will not be offered any compensation for their efforts.
Data Analysis
Each survey item will solicit information about either the subject’s general background,
perceived TSR while in high school, or their current sense of well-being. Analysis of correlation
will be run to determine the relationship between TSR and well-being, self-reported at risk status
and well-being, and finally highest level of degree completion and well-being. This data will be
examined to determine if TSR and wellbeing are correlated over time, if wellbeing is associated
with at risk students, and if achievement in higher education is correlated with wellbeing. Strong
correlations could suggest that factors of education (strong TSR, at risk status, attainment of
higher education degrees) may have a lasting impact on the lives of students, impacting
wellbeing later in life.
Summary
Nationally, a high dropout rate concerns educators. There is urgency around exploring
ways to promote graduation, as failure to do so is correlated with other negative life events such
as higher rates on incarceration and lower overall physical health. Further, employability is
increasingly dependent upon attainment of at least a bachelor’s degree. As such, the aim of
educators is no longer simply to shepherd students through high school graduation, but to ensure
they matriculate to college and persist to degree completion. Educators are invested in better
understanding the factors that impact students’ ability to graduate, achieve higher education, and
progress to a life marked by wellbeing. Strong TSR may play an important role in this
educational progression.
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Teacher student relationship has been shown to be an important element of students’
overall school experience. Further, the quality of TSR has been shown to impact student
academic, emotional, social and behavioral outcomes. Positive TSR has been linked to
perceived wellbeing in adolescents (Suldo et al, 2009). It is unclear, however, what lasting
impact TSR may have on successful achievement of graduation and life beyond high school. Is
strong TSR correlated with a sense of wellbeing in adulthood and achievement in higher
education.
This study seeks to discover if there is any lasting relationship between educational
factors and wellbeing over time. Even one caring teacher is thought to be a protective factor for
at risk students (Muller, 2001). This study will attempt to add further support to the existing
research around the claim that strong TSR is correlated with successful high school graduation,
particularly for at risk students. Finally, what connections, if any, can be made between TSR,
achievement in higher education and overall wellbeing?

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CHAPTER 4:
Results
Introduction
The teacher-student relationship is important to multiple aspects of success in school and
may be particularly important during middle and high school. Student engagement steadily
declines from grades 5-12, and this happens at the same time as students report a decline in
emotional support from teachers (Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Way & Rhoodes, 2007). Most middle
and high schools become much larger than elementary schools, both overall and with relation to
class size, and students’ days are structured in such a way, with rotating classes, to discourage
relationship by decreasing contact time with each teacher. Additionally, secondary school
teachers report feeling averse to developing relationships due to concerns with boundary issues.
Students who are considered at risk for dropping out of school may be in even greater need of
positive TSR than other students, particularly if parents are unable to provide strong support
(Eccles & Roeser, 2011). This is important because non-completion of high school has been
shown to be correlated with many negative outcomes, such as lower economic status, higher
rates of incarceration, and lower life expectancy. It is possible that by focusing on promoting
positive TSR at the middle and high school level, educators may be able to increase the high
school completion rate and improve students’ long term quality of life beyond high school. In
an effort to explore the potential relationship between TSR and multiple factors over time, the
following research questions were asked:
1. Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high
school?
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2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?

To explore these questions a survey was administered online, made available to subjects
aged 18 and older, without offer of compensation, through facebook, email and a snowball method.
The survey consisted of three distinct parts: demographic information, perceptions of TSR in high
school, and the Flourishing Scale (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2009). Analysis of correlation were
run to identify any relationships between the variables.
In this chapter the data gathered through survey and subsequent analysis are presented. The
data does present some interesting insights, but it does not present any clear relationships between
TSR in high school and wellbeing overtime, graduation rates among at risk students or
achievement in higher education.
Study Population
Subjects for this study were invited to participate without compensation via facebook,
email or both. Subjects were then encouraged to invite others who might be willing to participate.
275 subjects participated in the survey, though not all responded to each item.
The intention of the researcher was to gather responses from a wide array of subjects.
However, the population, with respect to descriptors gathered, appears to be diverse only in age
range and years since exiting high school. The youngest subject reported an age of 18, while the
oldest reported an age of 82. As would be expected, the years since graduation represented a
similarly large range with the shortest time since graduation reported as one year, and the longest
time being 64 years. Other factors, such as level of education and perceived wellbeing were
strikingly similar and not representative of the diversity found in the population of the United
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States. Because there was so much similarity in the sample population, as will be discussed in the
following section, there is little generalizability of the data. The sample is not representative of
the general population.
Education
Demographic information given for participants was diverse in some respects, and lacked diversity
in other areas. Subjects reported graduation years from 1950 through 2013, or a range of 63 years.
The reported years from graduation mean was 22.3, the median was 20, and the mode was 21
years.
Years Since High School Graduation
Mean Median Mode
22.3 20 21

Questions were asked to provide visibility into pursuit of higher education. The researcher
wanted to know if students had pursued higher education, and if so, what level of education they
had achieved. The vast majority of participants, 98%, did attend college and 48.4 % earned at
least a master’s degree. This is well above national averages. According to the Digest of
Educational Statistics, published by the National Center for Educational Statistics, in 2013 33.6%
of the population achieved a Bachelor’s Degree and only 7.4% had achieved a Master’s Degree or
better. There were no statistics presented for Doctoral Degree.

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Did you Attend College?
Response Count Valid Percent
Yes 246 98
Vocational/Technical School 3 1.2
No 2 .8

What is the highest degree you completed?
Response Count Valid Percent
Associate’s Degree 8 3.3
Bachelor’s Degree 85 34.6
Master’s Degree 119 48.4
Doctoral Degree 22 8.9
No Degree 12 4.9

Similarity between subjects with respect to education is noteworthy. All subjects, with the
exception of 4 out of a total of 253 subjects, reported having graduated from high school. Of those
4, 1 reported not completing high school and 3 reported having taken and passed the GED exam.
It might be assumed that while the 3 subjects who took the GED were not engaged enough in high
school to graduate, they did possess enough engagement in education to successfully pursue an
alternate path. The United States has a dropout rate around 20% (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani,
2010), which would indicate that the population in this study is not representative of the general
population, and instead is far more engaged in education.
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Further evidence of this education gap is apparent in relation to highest level of education
earned. 98% of subjects attended college and a cumulative 99% attended either college or
vocational or technical school. Further, 95% of subjects earned some kind of degree, either
Associates, Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral. With 48% of subject representation, the most
commonly earned degree was a Masters degree. The population represented in this study has
considerably more formal education than a representative sample of the national population. This
is important to note, as it suggests that the subjects in this study are relatively homogenous in their
achievements in school.
While the dropout rate in the United States is about 20% (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani,
2010), only 14% of the subjects in this survey ever considered dropping out of high school, and
only 1 subject actually did not complete school or successfully pass the GED. These demographic
statistics of the subjects who responded to the survey are vastly different than the national
population. The homogeneity of the survey population presents problems when analyzing the
survey data. Without diversity in the population, it is difficult to reach any statistically significant
comparative conclusions.
Work
Questions were also asked about work life. The survey asked if respondents were currently
working. 89.7 % of responders reported employment. This number is considerably higher than
the national employment to population ratio, which the Bureau of Labor Statistics reports at 59.3%
as of February 2015. This indicates that the study responders are a highly educated and employed
population.

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Are you employed?
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 226 89.7
No 26 10.3

To further inform potential relationships between a sense of wellbeing and work,
responders were asked if they liked their job and responded on a four point likert scale with the
option to respond strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree. An overwhelming majority
responded that they do like their work.

I like my job.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 4 1.8
Agree 81 36.3
Strongly Agree 138 61.9

Perception of TSR
Subjects were not as homogenous with regard to teacher student relationships in high
school, but they were still quite similar. TSR was explored by asking subjects to respond to three
statements utilizing a 5 point likert scale.
1. Overall, I liked the teachers I had in high school.
2. Overall, my teachers cared about me.
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3. I had at least one teacher in high school that cared about me.
Most subjects reported that they liked the teachers they had in high school. In response to
question 1, a cumulative 9% either strongly disagreed or disagreed while 77% either agreed or
strongly agreed and 14% were neutral.
Overall, I liked the teachers I had in high school.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 5 1.9
Disagree 18 7
Neither Agree nor Disagree 36 14
Agree 144 56
Strongly Agree 54 21

More subjects felt neutral about their teachers’ caring in an overall sense. In response to
question 2, 9% again either strongly disagreed or disagreed, 23% responded neutral, and 68%
either agreed or strongly agreed with the statement: overall, my teachers cared about me.
Overall, my teachers cared about me.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 4 1.6
Disagree 19 7.4
Neither Agree nor Disagree 59 23
Agree 132 51.4
Strongly Agree 43 16.7

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When considering if at least one teacher in high school was caring towards them, subjects
overwhelmingly agreed, or even strongly agreed. Cumulatively, 90% of subjects either agreed or
strongly agreed that at least one teacher cared about them, and over half, 63%, strongly agreed.
Conversely, less than 1% (0.4%) strongly disagreed and only 2% disagreed.
I had at least one teacher in high school that cared about me.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 1 .4
Disagree 5 1.9
Neither Agree nor Disagree 20 7.7
Agree 69 26.6
Strongly Agree 164 63.3

This data supports the findings presented by Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani (2010) that
even just one strong teacher student relationship is shown to be a protective factor for a student
who is at risk of school failure and dropout. While 14% of subjects considered dropping out of
high school, only 1 subject did, and relatedly, the majority of subjects believed that at least one
teacher cared about them.
At Risk and High School Completion
For the purposes of this study, the term at risk describes any student who is in danger of
failing to graduate from high school. Multiple factors can contribute to a student’s non-completion
of high school. Research has shown that strong teacher student relationships are protective for at
risk students (Chapman, Laird, KewalRamani, 2010). In an effort to identify any subjects who
might have been considered at risk while in high school, subjects were asked if they ever
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considered dropping out of high school. Only 13.9% of subjects reported having considered
dropping out of high school.
Did you ever consider dropping out of high school?
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 35 13.9
No 217 86.1

Many more students consider dropping out than actually do. In order to better understand
the study population, subjects were asked if they did graduate from high school. Recognizing that
an equivalency exists, subjects were also given the option to indicate that they had successfully
passed the GED as an alternate to graduation. Only one subject responded that they had not either
graduated from high school or passed the GED exam, indicating a study population with a high
school completion rate that is far more successful than the general national population.
Did you graduate from high school?
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Yes 249 98.4
I passed the GED 3 1.2
No 1 .4

Wellbeing
The Flourishing Scale (see Appendix A) was used for the wellbeing portion of the survey.
Subjects responded to 8 statements on a 7 point likert scale (See Appendix B for all survey data of
the Flourishing Scale) . Responses were averaged to determine an overall wellbeing score with a
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score of 1 representing a low level of wellbeing and a 7 representing a high level of wellbeing.
The overall wellbeing score of the subjects in this study was 6.4 with a standard deviation of .6.
This represents a relatively high score of wellbeing. According to a study by Keyes (2002) just
17% of adults in the United States fit the criteria for flourishing. Keyes (2002) argues that the
absence of mental illness does not necessarily equate to mental health or a sense of flourishing.
The subjects in this study appear to be doing exceptionally well in comparison to the national
average.
Correlation
This study sought to answer the research questions:
1. Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high
school?
2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
Analysis of correlation was run in an attempt to answer each of these questions.
Question One
Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high school?
Analyses of correlation were run to determine if there is any statistically valid relationship
between subjects’ report of overall wellbeing at the time of response, and TSR while in high
school. Analysis was run between each individual question on the flourishing scale, as well as the
overall wellbeing score generated from the scale, and each of the three questions related to TSR
(see Appendix C). Pearson’s correlation did not reveal any significant relationship between the
TSR reported by subjects and any of the individual questions on the flourishing scale, or to overall
wellbeing.
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Question Two
Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
While no significant correlation was found, the survey data did revealed that, overall,
subjects who were considered at risk reported a slightly higher mean sense of wellbeing.

This is interesting when considered in the context that all but one of the 35 subjects who self-
reported as “at risk” ultimately did persist and either graduated from high school or successfully
passed the GED. In this way, the population of “at risk” individuals in this study only represent
one possible outcome of an “at risk” student: successful completion of high school despite
challenges. It is possible that “at risk” students who ultimately do fail to graduate or secure some
alternative method of high school equivalency would report lower levels of wellbeing. However,
according to this research, there is no significant likelihood that “at risk” students, who do persist,
will suffer lower levels of wellbeing later in life.
Question Three
Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
To explore this question subjects were grouped into three categories; those with no
degree, those with an Associates or Bachelors’ Degree, and those with a Master’s degree or
higher.
Degree Attained N Mean Well-being Score
Did you ever consider dropping out of school? N Mean Well-being Score
Yes 35 6.4
No 217 6.3
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No Degree 12 6.2
Associate’s or Bachelor’s 93 6.3
Master’s or higher 141 6.4
Like questions one and two, no statistically significant relationship was found between degree
attainment and well-being. However, a pattern was observed in that as individual’s attained
higher levels of degrees, so did their overall wellbeing score increase slightly. While this study
did not reveal a significant correlation, it may be that achievement of degrees does have some
impact on overall well-being over time.
Additional Findings
While no correlation was found between TSR and well-being, at risk designation and
well-being, or degree attainment and well-being, one significant relationship was revealed that
may inform the findings of this study. An analysis of correlation was run between years since
graduation and overall well-being. While no consistent pattern was revealed related to the
passage of time, a statistically significant difference between the level of reported well-being was
found between those subjects most recently out of high school and those who had been out of
high school the longest.
Years since graduation from high school N Mean Well-being Score
1-10 years 47 6.2181
11-20 years 87 6.3578
21-30 years 55 6.2925
31 or more years 61 6.5439

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Myriad explanations for this correlation could be explored. What is evident is that some
factor, or factors, is impacting an individual’s sense of well-being after they leave high school.
Summary
The survey used in this study contained three parts; questions to gather general
demographic information about the subjects, questions designed to determine the quality of TSR
the subjects experienced in high school, and the Flourishing Scale (2009), which contains eight
questions used to identify the overall sense of wellbeing of the subject. The demographic
information revealed that, while subjects were quite diverse in age range, they were extremely
homogenous in their experience of strong TSR in high school, high educational achievement,
and high sense of wellbeing. This study population was not representative of the overall
population of the United States. Analysis of correlation did not reveal any relationship between
TSR in high school and wellbeing over time, since graduation, however some interesting patterns
were observed which might warrant further exploration. In the following chapter conclusions
will be drawn and suggestions will be made for further research.

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CHAPTER 5:
Discussion

Introduction
Teacher student relationships and student well-being have long been an interest of school
stakeholders and researchers alike. There is general consensus that both of these elements are
important within schools and can have a meaningful impact on student success in a variety of
areas. The majority of the research has been conducted at the elementary school level. Less is
known about the importance of TSR at the high school level, or whether strong TSR might impact
wellbeing over time. The research does indicate that TSR does continue, as in elementary school,
to be important to high school students’ engagement in school, and strong TSR has been associated
in previous research with a reduction of the incidence of dropout, particularly for at risk students.
It is not understood if TSR is correlated with successful attainment of higher education degrees.
Much research exists around various educational outcomes, but the focus is rarely on outcomes of
wellbeing, and so relatively little is understood about the impact of various aspects of education
on wellbeing.
In this study the researcher asked the questions:
1. Is strong TSR in high school related to well-being over time, after graduation from high
school?
2. Are “at risk” students more likely to have a lower experience of wellbeing over time?
3. Does the attainment of higher education degrees impact wellbeing?
In an effort to discover any correlation between TSR in high school and wellbeing over time, a
survey was given, via internet, to 275 subjects who freely elected to participate without
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compensation. All subjects reported being 18, or older, and no longer in high school. The first
section of the survey asked demographic questions, the second asked three questions which
explored perceptions of TSR in high school, and the third section made use of the Flourishing
Scale (2009) to determine subjects’ sense of wellbeing. The survey revealed that the population
was heterogeneous in age range, but homogenous in experience of strong TSR in high school, high
level of education, and high sense of wellbeing. Analysis did not reveal any correlation between
TSR, at risk status, or achievement in higher education and wellbeing over time.
Summary of findings
The data gathered and analyzed in this study did not reveal any correlations between the
factors of TSR, wellbeing over time, at risk students and wellbeing, or achievement in higher
education and wellbeing. While there were some patterns discerned, none of the analyses of
correlation presented with statistical significance. Despite this lack of clear correlation, this
study does raise important questions for future research, as well as provide insights that could
inform the practice of educators.
The two findings that most educators will find most relevant are that at risk students who
do persist to completion of high school, either by way of graduation or GED, do not demonstrate
a diminished experience of wellbeing compared to those who were not at risk. This is
particularly interesting as a status of at risk in high school is often assumed to be a harbinger of
persistent negative outcomes, and so it would have been expected that subjects reporting at risk
status would also report lower wellbeing. In fact, the at risk population within this study
reported a greater experience of wellbeing, though not statistically significant, than those who
did not report at risk status.
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Second, study subjects did report a detectable pattern of increased wellbeing with
increased achievement in higher education, but this was not statistically significant. Given that
myriad positive outcomes, such as increased employment, income and improved health are well
correlated with higher education in the existing research, the expectation would have been to find
a correlation indicating increased higher education achievement is related to an increased
experience of wellbeing.
Conclusions
The data in this study indicates that there is no relationship between TSR in high school
and wellbeing over time, successful graduation for at risk students, or attainment of higher
education. However, it may be premature and misguided to conclude that this is true based upon
this brief study. The data indicated strong TSR in high school, strong subsequent engagement in
education, as indicated by high graduation rate and achievement of higher education degrees
disproportionate to the overall population of the United States, and experience of high level of
wellbeing, seem to indicate a positive pattern which begins with strong TSR. The statistical
analysis did not reveal any correlation between TSR and wellbeing overtime, however three
primary challenges exist which may have impacted the statistical outcomes of this study, falsely
indicating no relationship.
First, it is very difficult to determine the impact of TSR over time. As an individual
progresses through life, myriad factors impact overall experience and wellbeing. Circumstances
such as health, relationships, economics, and work impact a person’s wellbeing. It is very
challenging to control for all of the factors that also will impact wellbeing. A significant limitation
of this study is the lack of control for these additional factors that most certainly have impacted
the subjects’ wellbeing. Indeed, one such factor was detected in this study. The analysis revealed
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that there is a statistically significant relationship between age and a sense of wellbeing. The oldest
group of subjects reported the strongest sense of wellbeing. Given additional research, myriad
factors impacting wellbeing throughout a lifetime would likely be revealed.
Second, the homogeneity of the study population makes it very challenging to determine
if there is a relationship between TSR and well-being. Because the subjects responded so
consistently high on TSR and sense of positive wellbeing, there simply wasn’t enough variability
in the data to detect a relationship between these two variables. In order to understand if there is
a relationship between TSR and wellbeing, it is important to be able to analyze data that represents
a full range of TSR and wellbeing.
Third and lastly, brief quantitative research may not be sufficient to explore a question with
as many confounding factors as exist in this study. In order to determine the role of TSR in high
school to the overall trajectory of wellbeing across a lifetime, much more nuanced research is
indicated, both in the form of deeper quantitative and qualitative exploration. Particularly as TSR
and wellbeing are composites of myriad elements, it may be that the questions chosen in this study
did not accurately identify or describe TSR and wellbeing.
While no clear correlation was found between perceived TSR in high school and wellbeing
over time, there is a clear trend that is worth exploring. The population of this study is a very high
functioning population. The vast majority of respondents reported strong TSR in high school,
successful graduation, achieved higher education, are employed, and report a strong sense of
wellbeing. The analysis of data did not reveal a statistically significant correlation between any of
these areas, however, the similarity in responses of this high functioning population may indicate
that there is a relationship. Further research looking at a more diverse population, may reveal
relationship not visible in this study.
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The survey responders who self-reported as at risk in high school are further defined by
the fact that all but one persisted either to high school graduation or successful completion of the
GED. In this way, the sample population represents students who were considered at risk for
dropping out of high school, but had some protective factor in place, perhaps characteristics of grit
and perseverance, or a strong teacher relationship, that enabled them to ultimately reach the goal
of high school completion or equivalent. In this way, the responders were a very distinct group of
at risk students and it is possible to make some observations that are specific to individuals who
overcome challenges in high school and reach ultimate success. Interestingly, these individuals
showed no statistically significant difference in their report of wellbeing as adults, at the time of
the survey. This may suggest that if an at risk student can persist, despite their challenges in high
school, we may be able to expect that they will experience a strong sense of well-being later in
life. The data is insufficient to determine if it is the achievement of the milestone of graduation
that positively impacts the life trajectory of these at risk individuals, or if it is some other facture,
such as grit, that impacts both the ability to successfully graduate as well as achieve a high level
of well-being.
There was a slight, observable increase in reported well-being associated with achievement
of degrees in higher education, however, this was small, and not statistically significant. Given
the lack of statistically significant relationships, there does not appear to be a correlation between
achievement in higher education and well-being later in life. While there are multiple reasons for
the pursuit of higher education, this is an interesting finding in the context of the current social
climate surrounding education and high school in particular, which promotes standardized
achievement over all else in pursuit of college entrance.
Implications for practice
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Though strong TSR was not shown to be correlated with wellbeing over time, there is
abundant evidence in the existing research, that strong TSR is important to engagement in
school, students’ sense of wellbeing while in school, and overall school success. According to
the research, TSR appears to be particularly important for students who are at risk for school
dropout, or who lack significant adult relationships outside of school. For this reason, educators
are wise to invest in meaningful and caring relationships with students in the high school
environment. Most high schools are not designed to foster relationship at a time when,
developmentally, students may need it most. As a result, teachers must actively and consciously
foster relationship with their students.
Strong TSR, a predictor of wellbeing for students while in school, might not be enough to
impact wellbeing long term. It is important for students to feel strong TSR with teachers, but the
developing of strong relationships should be considered the vehicle that enables meaningful
learning to take place, rather than the end goal. A well-loved teacher may be highly regarded by
students, but that does not mean that they are learning from that teacher. The caring a well-loved
teacher provides is beneficial to students, but if the desired outcome is learning, teachers must
use strong TSR as a way into learning. Once the relationship is established, and the student feels
connected and safe, the teacher is in a position to challenge and stretch the thinking of a student
in a way that likely has the power to have a longer lasting impact than the memory alone of a
loved teacher. Establishing good relationships are critical, but what the teacher can accomplish
through harnessing relationship is likely the most important part of a successful learning
relationship.
When considering the different elements of wellbeing, teachers may need to consciously
and directly address and instruct multiple elements that make up a broader definition of
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wellbeing in order to have a lasting impact. Further, exploration of the concept of wellbeing
itself, and the components that support a sense of wellbeing need to be explored, as students may
not necessarily understand the choices and behaviors that can promote wellbeing. Many people
fruitlessly pursue things in life that they believe will bring them a sense of wellbeing, but in fact
these things may not only not promote wellbeing, but might even hinder the realization of
wellbeing. For example, Cheung and Chan (2011) found that a competitive motive in education
diminishes overall happiness, and yet schools have become highly competitive environments
where students are trained to compete relentlessly and the underlying message is that happiness
and meaning is in rising to the top of the class. Inviting students to reconsider this value system
and consciously question the popular notions of what leads to a life of wellbeing will be
important if a desired outcome of education is to develop wellbeing.
The lack of correlation between higher education and wellbeing, when conceptualized
within the context of existing research, indicates that educators, and students alike, may not
always be clear on the desired outcomes of higher education and it is not enough for individuals
to pursue higher education for the sake of the pursuit. If the desired outcome is increased
wellbeing, the conversation educators have with students around the “why” of education needs to
deepen. It may be that the promotion of higher education is based on the assumption that the
well documented positive outcomes of higher education, such as increased income, will lead to
an increase in positive wellbeing, but this does not appear to be true. There are many substantial
reasons to pursue higher education, but wellbeing may not be one of them, unless the pursuit of
higher education is grounded in personal meaning for the student rather than a task to be
accomplished for the sake of accomplishment itself.
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Positive relationships are one element of wellbeing, and so, developing relationships is
important. The process of developing relationships with students is instructive, as teachers can
serve as models for students to later call upon as they adopt behaviors to form new relationships.
Further, attending to TSR can build efficacy in students, enabling them to pursue and build other
relationships with confidence. If teachers also practiced bringing this process into the
consciousness of their students, through metacognition, they could also empower students with
specific skills and strategies to build relationships, which could have a lasting impact on
wellbeing. Currently, this kind of instruction in schools is reserved for students with an obvious
and significant deficit, for example, those diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. Regular
education students rarely are given the opportunity to explore content like this that has the
potential to impact their experience of wellbeing, instead being exposed only to core content
curriculum. Educators are likely missing a tremendous opportunity to bring significant and
meaningful learning to a broader population of students through direct instruction around
relationship building, among other topics.
In this study “at risk” students were shown to have no worse sense of wellbeing than
those subjects who did not report being “at risk” in high school. It is important to note that this
sub-group of subjects was unique in several ways. Not only did they report having been at risk
while in high school, they also reported strong TSR, persisted to high school completion either
through graduation or successful passing of the GED, and reported strong wellbeing. There are
several implications revealed by the shared attributes of these subjects. The study indicates that
these individuals who experienced a desire to drop out of high school, but persisted to graduation
are not experiencing any less wellbeing than those who did not consider dropping out. In fact,
while not statistically significant, this group actually reported a slightly greater sense of
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wellbeing than those who did not consider dropping out. There are several possibilities around
what might drive this phenomenon. It may be that the strong TSR reported was enough to help
the students stay engaged enough in the school process to persist. This line of thinking is
supported by existing research that emphasizes positive TSR as a protective factor for at risk
students. It may also be that when a student who struggles in high school is able, either through
inherent characteristics, or through external support, to persevere and find success after high
school, their potential to experience strong wellbeing is not diminished. This research also
seems to support the work by Duckworth et al. (2007) that indicates the most significant factor in
success is grit defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Finally, it may also be
that the desire to drop out is a response to a poor fit between the individual and the school
experience, and the process of struggle and self-evaluation necessary to identify what will be a
right fit may in itself lead to greater self-awareness and more informed choices that foster
increased wellbeing. This could be why at risk subjects who persisted report a greater sense of
wellbeing; the adversity of the experience led to a more pronounced opportunity for attaining
wellbeing. It may be wise for educators to invest in the promotion of perseverance and
identification of student passions, particularly if students are demonstrating a lack of connection
to traditional schooling. Regardless of the driving factors, this research indicates that it is
important for students to find a successful path to graduation, as if they do, they can expect to
live a life marked by strong wellbeing, whereas the outcomes associated with dropout are
significantly bleak and difficult to overcome. Educators should continue exploring and remain
committed to understanding the ways in which students can be supported in pursuit of high
school completion.
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It is important to ask the question, is it enough to bring students over the finish line of
graduation, or are there other factors at play? As discussed in chapter two, one element of well-
being, as defined by Seligman (2011), is achievement. When considering the impact of
successful high school graduation for a student who was considered at risk, or the power of
attaining a higher education degree, it may be telling that these are both representative of
achievement after the expenditure of great effort. It may be that the attainment of graduation is
significant and related to wellbeing later in life because it is an expression of achievement.
Interestingly, the attainment of degrees did not show as significant in this study, which is
contradictory. More research exploring the role of educational achievement could be
informative. When considering that wellbeing and achievement of higher education are not
correlated, it does appear that simply attaining milestones is not the critical factor in improving
wellbeing.
Certainly one aim of high school educators is to successfully matriculate students to
higher education in pursuit of degree confirmation. However, this research indicates that
attainment of higher education degrees has no bearing on wellbeing. This does not mean that
there is no reason to pursue higher education, on the contrary, there are many worthwhile reasons
people pursue education beyond high school. The research does, however, suggest that it may
not be reasonable to pursue wellbeing through traditional education alone. The work of
Seligman (2011) indicates that we can teach and learn practices and habits that foster wellbeing,
but these skills are not typically explored in school. If we want to promote wellbeing, it may be
important to include curriculum that explores these ideas with students. We cannot assume that
an individual who is successful at school will also be successful at life. If our aim is to build
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communities and civilizations of people who have a strong sense of wellbeing, we likely will
need to expand our work in schools to include skills beyond traditional academics.
It is clear that higher degrees do correlate clearly and strongly with increased income,
however this study finds that achievement in higher education is not correlated with an increased
sense of wellbeing. This is interesting, as it is often assumed that wellbeing will improve along
with many other well documented benefits of education, such as increased income. The lack of
relationship between educational achievement and wellbeing raises questions about the true
value of higher education. As apparent in Seligman’s research (2009), parents report that they
want happiness and wellbeing for their children more than academic achievement. Parents and
educators may be wise to widen the conversation with high school students and encourage more
thorough exploration. Another component that informs a sense of wellbeing is the ability to
glean meaning from the work and other activities one engages in. Humans report a greater sense
of wellbeing when they feel that they have a sense of meaning in their life (Seligman, 2009).
Rather than holding tight to the pursuit of higher education for the sake of achievement, it may
be important to engage students in deeper exploration of their talents, interests and passions
before they embark upon the pursuit of higher education. Phelan & Phelan (1983) found that
while, in general, higher education was not correlated with wellbeing, various majors of study
were correlated with wellbeing. It may be that it is not necessarily that students pursue higher
education, but what they pursue and why that is important to a sense of wellbeing. Students who
are encouraged to pursue higher education without deeply considering what they hope to learn
and what outcomes they are expecting may spend significant time, energy and money in pursuit
of empty goals that will not contribute to a sense meaning in their lives. For this reason,
educators should not simply encourage students to pursue higher education, but should also
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actively engage students in a process of inquiry to help students discover paths that will be a
good fit for them and provide a meaningful experience.
Further, the design of high school which currently facilitates the singular goal of
matriculating on to higher education, should be reconsidered. High schools should consider
offering opportunities to explore beyond the core content into areas that could lead to alternative
paths in life. While practical arts lost favor during the 1980’s, the high cost of college tuition
today prohibits many able individuals from attending. Emerging career paths in technology and
design, which require technical skill rather than a broad college education, should be viewed as a
valuable alternative path for high school graduates. In order to facilitate students ability to move
into work that does not require college, high school programs, course offerings, and course
progressions should be examined and expanded to allow for a broader range of learning. As the
perpetuated belief that success will only follow higher education achievement comes into
question, high schools must explore ways to remain relevant and provide meaningful experiences
for students.
Recommendations for future study
Though this study did not reveal any correlation between strong TSR in high school and
wellbeing overtime, at risk students and well-being, or attainment of higher degrees and well-
being, more research is needed. Given the evidence visible in a large body of research that strong
TSR is correlated with a higher sense of wellbeing in students, more work should be done to
understand the potential impact of this factor on life trajectory. While educators already
understand, through the research, that strong TSR leads to more student engagement and learning,
these relationships may be even more important than is currently understood. In order to more
thoroughly explore the potential relationship between TSR and wellbeing, more research is
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needed. Qualitative research may be particularly well suited to this endeavor, as it would allow
for the nuances of individuals’ stories to emerge through narrative. Interviews enable the
researcher to identify elements of TSR and wellbeing that subjects perceive to be particularly
important or impactful. This may be a necessary tool in detecting the driving components of TSR
that have more impact on students as they progress beyond high school. Qualitative study could
help to create a more robust understanding of the topic, and also inform refinements to future
quantitative studies.
Much research links failure to graduate with poor outcomes later in life, such as diminished
health, reduced employment, and even shortened lifespan. This study indicates that “at risk”
students who persist to high school completion may experience no reduction in overall well-being
later in life. The potential implications of this finding are important in that it may be that providing
alternate pathways to high school completion could be more important than we currently realize.
It also could be that the completion of high school is not the crucial factor, but in fact some other
underlying quality, such as grit, could be the driver of both persistence to graduation and a sense
of wellbeing. Additional research to better understand the impact of persistence to high school
completion among at risk students could be valuable to educators in their effort to launch
productive and happy citizens. Further understanding of this dynamic relationship could help to
inform areas of focus for educators working with at risk students and assist them in promoting
students not just through successful high school completion, but also into a life marked by a sense
of well-being.
Studies should be conducted with a larger pool of subjects drawing on more diversity. By
looking at a larger and broader sample population, currently hidden relationships may be revealed.
Also looking at larger aggregates of age ranges to determine if there is a diminishing effect of TSR
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as people age, might reveal the impact of other factors over time. Further, studies that control for
other factors, such as socio-economic status, major life events, health, etc. could help to identify
the potential impact of TSR over time vs. other factors. This survey used in this study was designed
to be brief with the intention of attracting a high number of responses. The assumption was that a
longer survey, with no offered compensation, would not attract enough responses. However, if a
longer, more detailed survey was used in future studies, the data could be considerably richer,
allowing for much deeper exploration.
This study did not reveal any relationship between TSR, at risk status, or higher education
achievement and wellbeing over time, but there is reason to continue investigations. TSR has long
been understood as a critical factor of school success. Graduation from high school is also
predictive of multiple indicators of success later in life, such as employment and positive health.
Conversely, failure to graduate from high school is associated with multiple negative factors, such
as a higher rate of incarceration. If educators, thought leaders and policy makers could better
understand the potential impact of TSR on wellbeing throughout the trajectory of a life, important
improvements could be made to our educational environments and impact far more than school
experience alone.
Limitations
The homogenous nature of the population of this study indicates limitations on
generalizability. To be able to generalize findings, it will be important to first obtain data that
represents a broader spectrum of subjects, more congruent with the general population. The
population represented in this study is well educated beyond national averages, and also reports a
sense of wellbeing much higher than average compared to the general population. Therefore, it
Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
63

is not reasonable to assume that outcomes for the population in this study would be
representative of, or generalizable to, the general population.
The findings in this study were derived from an absence of correlation, rather than an
emergence of relationship between factors. As such, more research is needed to better
understand what we can learn from these non-relationships. In particular, the study indicated
that at risk students, if they graduate, are equally likely to live a life marked by well-being, but it
is not clear what underlying factors drive this.
Conclusion
Seligman tells us that globally, adults report a decreasing sense of wellbeing (2011).
Through research we are beginning to understand what factors may be driving this loss of
wellbeing as well as what factors are linked to the promotion positive wellbeing. Limited
research has explored the role of different school factors in relation to life satisfaction and
wellbeing.
Ever larger high schools and a focus on standardization have made the educational
landscape impersonal precisely at a time of marked social development in a student’s life. Just
as adolescents require significant opportunities for social connection and learning, school design
changes to minimize students’ access to social and emotional connection with teachers. Strong
TSR has been shown to have many positive effects on student outcomes; it seems natural that
strong TSR might also be highly correlated with wellbeing later in life. However this study did
not find that to be true; no relationship was found between strong TSR and wellbeing later in life.
The national high incidence of dropout concerns educators. There is urgency around
exploring ways to re-engage at risk students and promote graduation, as failure to do so is
correlated with other negative life events such as higher rates of incarceration and lower overall
Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
64

physical health. Given these other factors, it would seem to follow that wellbeing might also be
negatively impacted. In this study, the self-reported at risk subjects were unique in that all but
one persisted to graduation or the GED. Perhaps because of this ultimate success, despite
challenges in high school, no correlation was found between at risk status and wellbeing. These
subjects who were considered at risk, but did complete high school, were no less likely to report
high wellbeing than those who were not at risk. This may suggest that educators focus on
assisting students towards successful graduation is, in itself, a worthwhile cause.
Employability is increasingly dependent upon attainment of at least a bachelor’s degree.
As such, the aim of educators is no longer simply to shepherd students through high school
graduation, but to ensure they matriculate to college and persist to degree completion. In this
study, degree completion was not correlated with wellbeing. Regardless of level of educational
achievement, subjects were equally likely to report a sense of strong wellbeing.
Parents report wanting for their children, above all, a sense of happiness, fulfillment and
wellbeing in life (Seligman, 2011). Better understanding of educational factors that drive
wellbeing could inform and improve the way we approach schooling. Deeper understanding of
educational factors that may be related to wellbeing may suggest ways in which we can improve
not only schools, but our communities as a whole.

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
65

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APPENDIX A: Flourishing Scale
FLOURISHING SCALE
©Copyright by Ed Diener and Robert Biswas-Diener, January 2009

Below are 8 statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the 1–7 scale below,
indicate your agreement with each item by indicating that response for each statement.

7 - Strongly agree
6 - Agree
5 - Slightly agree
4 - Neither agree nor disagree
3 - Slightly disagree
2 - Disagree
1 - Strongly disagree

____ I lead a purposeful and meaningful life
____ My social relationships are supportive and rewarding
____ I am engaged and interested in my daily activities
____ I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others
____ I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me
____ I am a good person and live a good life
____ I am optimistic about my future
____ People respect me

Scoring:
Add the responses, varying from 1 to 7, for all eight items. The possible range of scores is from 8
(lowest possible) to 56 (highest PWB possible). A high score represents a person with many
psychological resources and strengths

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
74

APPENDIX B: Flourishing Scale Data
I lead a purposeful and meaningful life.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 3 1.2
Neither Agree nor Disagree 5 1.9
Slightly Agree 16 6.2
Agree 100 38.8
Strongly Agree 134 51.9

My social relationships are supportive and rewarding.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 2 .8
Slightly Disagree 0 0
Neither Agree nor Disagree 6 2.3
Slightly Agree 18 7
Agree 102 39
Strongly Agree 130 50.4

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
75

I am engaged and interested in my daily activities.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 1 .4
Slightly Disagree 4 1.6
Neither Agree nor Disagree 3 1.2
Slightly Agree 25 9.7
Agree 95 36.8
Strongly Agree 130 50.4

I actively contribute to the happiness and well-being of others.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 1 .4
Neither Agree nor Disagree 3 1.2
Slightly Agree 15 5.8
Agree 100 38.8
Strongly Agree 139 53.9

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
76

I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 2 .8
Neither Agree nor Disagree 2 .8
Slightly Agree 10 3.9
Agree 96 37.4
Strongly Agree 147 57.2

I am a good person and I live a good life.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 1 .4
Neither Agree nor Disagree 3 1.2
Slightly Agree 10 3.9
Agree 101 39.5
Strongly Agree 141 55.1

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
77

I am optimistic about my future.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 3 1.2
Neither Agree nor Disagree 7 2.7
Slightly Agree 27 10.5
Agree 106 41.2
Strongly Agree 114 44.4

People respect me.
Response Frequency Valid Percent
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Slightly Disagree 2 .8
Neither Agree nor Disagree 7 2.8
Slightly Agree 23 9.1
Agree 119 46.9
Strongly Agree 103 40.6

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
78

APPENDIX C: Correlation Data: Teacher Student Relationship and Wellbeing
Overall, I liked
the teachers I
had in high
school.
Overall, my
teachers cared
about me.
I had at least one
teacher in high
school that cared
about me.
I lead a
purposeful
and meaningful
life
Pearson
Correlation

-.097

-.044 -.006
Sig. (2-tailed)

.123

486 .926
N

256

256 258
My social
relationships are
supportive
and rewarding
Pearson
Correlation

.031

.101 -.002
Sig. (2-tailed)

.624 .108 .971
N

256 256 258
I am engaged
and interested in
my daily
activities
Pearson
Correlation

-.027

.049 -.035
Sig. (2-tailed)

.667

.439 .579
N

256

256 258
I actively
contribute to the
happiness and
wellbeing of
others
Pearson
Correlation

-.130

.047 .045
Sig. (2-tailed)

.038

.450 .472
N

256

256 258
I am competent
and capable in
the activities that
are important to
me
Pearson
Correlation

-.068

.030 .074
Sig. (2-tailed)

.277

.633 .240
N

255

255 257

Running Head: EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND WELLBEING
79

I am a good
person and live a
good life
Pearson
Correlation

-.028

.090 .070
Sig. (2-tailed)

.654

.153 .263
N

254 254 256
I am optimistic
about my future
Pearson
Correlation

-.082

.044 -.052
Sig. (2-tailed)

.192

.482 .410
N

255

255 257
People respect
me
Pearson
Correlation

-.082

.074 .003
Sig. (2-tailed)

.193

.239 .956
N

252

252 254
Overall Well-
Being Score

Pearson
Correlation

-.081

.065 .012
Sig. (2-tailed)

.193 .302 .851
N

257

257 259

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The dropout rate has long been a concern of educators, and also is a harbinger for increased challenges later in life, such as correlation to unemployment and incarceration. Even more broadly concerning are recent trends in the general population that reveal a growing sense of dis-ease. Depression, anxiety and other mental health issues appear to be on the rise. There has been an increased focus on the promotion of well-being in both the research and the popular media. Three factors, strong teacher student relationships, at risk status while in high school, and achievement in higher education, were examined for possible correlation with well-being over time. Strong teacher student relationships have been shown to have a positive impact on student outcomes, particularly reported well-being while in school and graduation rates. However, it is not known if, or how, strong teacher student relationships (TSR) might continue to impact long term outcomes for students after they graduate. It may be that strong TSR can have an impact on the overall trajectory of an individual’s life. This study examined the current sense of wellbeing of adults and their perceptions of the teacher student relationships they had while in high school. It also examined well-being outcomes related to students who self-reported being at risk for high school dropout. Finally this study explored attainment of higher education and outcomes of wellbeing. In order to answer these questions, subjects responded to a survey which included 3 parts: demographic information, perceptions of TSR while in high school, and the Flourishing Scale (Diener &Biswas-Diener, 2009). Analysis of correlation were run and revealed no significant relationship between TSR, at risk designation, attainment of higher education degrees and wellbeing over time. However, important trends were apparent, warranting additional research.

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Creator Colman Losada, Grace (author)

Core Title Educational factors in relationship to overall and lifelong wellbeing

School Rossier School of Education

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Publication Date 08/03/2015

Defense Date 05/11/2015

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