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Improving early grade reading instruction in Ghana: a discrepancy gap analysis

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Improving early grade reading instruction in Ghana: a discrepancy gap analysis

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Content Running head: IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA

IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA:
A DISCREPANCY GAP ANALYSIS

by

Brenda T. Sinclair

____________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 11, 2015

Copyright 2015 Brenda T. Sinclair

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Mark Robison and Dr. Robert Filback for
accepting me into this groundbreaking Global Executive Doctor of Education program. It was
more than I could have ever dreamed of. I’ve grown in ways I did not even know, thanks to the
program curriculum and all the distinguished professors, colleagues, and guest speakers I have
had the pleasure of learning from over the past two years. I will forever be grateful for the
opportunity to become a USC Trojan and a Global Executive with a Doctorate of Education.
I would like to give thanks to all of my professors for providing me with valuable lessons
to carry forward to my international work. I admire each and every one of you for providing a
high quality education and making us feel personally supported.
I would especially like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Helena Seli, for always giving
me the benefit of the doubt, the motivation and positive feedback when needed, and for her light-
speed responses. Dr. Robert Rueda and Dr. Cathy Krop deserve special mention for proofreading
my dissertation and granting me their stamp of approval.
This dissertation would not have been possible without my sponsor organization, World
Education. I would like to specifically acknowledge Don Lippencott and Corrie Blankenbeckler
for hosting and facilitating my dissertation research in Ghana. I cannot thank World Education
enough for enabling me to conduct research on early grade reading in Africa, which propelled
my educational growth and professional career.
Working full-time while enrolled in a distance education program is no easy feat. I would
like to thank everyone in my cohort who shared this journey with me and helped me to overcome
personal obstacles or mental roadblocks, namely: Fawzi Alajji, Russell Brodie, Iris Chang,
Leeanne Dunsmore, Luke Hamid, Kenneth Iong, Kenneth Ito, Abdulhannan Kareem, Dulcie
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Kermah, Patrick Liew, Michael Lozano, Rhonda Parks, Kathryn McFarland, and Ing Phansvath.
I will always admire your unique talents and perspectives. Thank you for challenging me to
expand my worldview and gain a truly global perspective of education. I am deeply grateful to
Iris Chang, Patrick Liew, Fawzi Alajji, Luke Hamid, and Abdulhannan Kareem for your
friendship, for boosting my confidence, and for being there when I needed you. You are my
brothers and sister.
I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my dear family for your unconditional
love, patience, and understanding during my two-year absence from family and weekend events.
Thank you for not giving up on me and being present and excited at my commencement
ceremony. I would like to especially thank my brother, David Sinclair, for always checking up
on me and for hosting a family celebration in honor of my graduation.
The most important person in my life who deserves a world of thanks is my patient and
unconditionally supportive husband, Robert Hernandez. Thank you for sacrificing our vacations
and time together to help me pursue a terminal degree. Without you, none of this would have
been possible. Thank you for convincing me to explore this opportunity and for always believing
in me.
I would like to thank my cat, Duke, who was by my side through it all.
Last but not least, I give thanks to God for the doors that have opened throughout this
journey and for bestowing on me the preparation, strength, and wisdom needed to be an
exemplary leader in my current and future roles in life.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. ii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ................................................................ 1

Organizational Context and Mission .......................................................................................... 1

Organizational Performance Problem ......................................................................................... 2

Related Literature ........................................................................................................................ 2

Importance of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 7

Organizational Goal .................................................................................................................... 8

Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals ........................................................................................ 8

Stakeholder for the Case Study ................................................................................................. 10

Purpose of the Case Study and Project Questions .................................................................... 10

Methodological Framework ...................................................................................................... 11

Definitions................................................................................................................................. 12

Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ....................................................................... 14

Learning to Read in Early Childhood ....................................................................................... 14

Importance of Mother Tongue Instruction ................................................................................ 15

Literacy Challenges in Developing Countries .......................................................................... 17

Literacy and Early Grade Reading Challenges in Ghana ......................................................... 20

Research on Effective Reading Instruction ............................................................................... 26

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Reading Teacher Preparation and Professional Development .................................................. 38

Organizational Barriers to Fidelity of Implementation ............................................................. 45

World Education’s Response to NALAP ................................................................................. 52

Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Gaps from the Literature Review ....................... 53

Summary and Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 58

Purpose of the Case Study and Project Questions .................................................................... 58

Framework for the Study .......................................................................................................... 58

Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap ................................................................................ 60

Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap .................................................................... 65

Participants ................................................................................................................................ 75

Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 76

Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 77

Role of Investigator ................................................................................................................... 79

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 79

Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ................................................................................ 82

Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 82

Data Collection Methodology ................................................................................................... 83

Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes ............................................................................ 85

Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes ..................................................... 101

Results and Findings for Motivation Causes .......................................................................... 103

Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes ..................................................... 120

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Results and Findings for Organizational Assumed Causes .................................................... 121

Synthesis of Organizational Results and Findings .................................................................. 137

Summary of Validated KMO Causes ..................................................................................... 139

CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION ............................ 140

Validated Causes Selection and Rationale .............................................................................. 140

Solutions for Knowledge and Skills Gaps .............................................................................. 145

Solutions for Motivation Causes ............................................................................................. 152

Solutions for Organization Causes .......................................................................................... 153

Implementation Plan ............................................................................................................... 167

Evaluation Plan ....................................................................................................................... 181

Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 189

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 190

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 194

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 214

Appendix A: Sources for Identification of Assumed KMO Causes ....................................... 214

Appendix B: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods ................ 217

Appendix C: Summary of Assumed Motivational Causes and Validation Methods .............. 220

Appendix D: Summary of Assumed Organizational Causes and Validation Methods .......... 223

Appendix E: Data Collection Instruments .............................................................................. 226

Appendix F: Ghanaian Standards and Milestones of Bi-Literacy .......................................... 243

Appendix G: Ghanaian Standards and Milestones of Bilingual Speaking and Listening ...... 244

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Goals 9

Table 2. Bi-literacy Reading Milestones for Kindergarten (KG1-KG2) and Primary School (P1-
P3) 23

Table 3. Bilingual Speaking and Listening Milestones for Kindergarten (KG1-2) and Early
Primary (P1) 24

Table 4. Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes from Literature Review 56

Table 5. Data Collection Schedule 83

Table 6. Knowledge Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes 86

Table 7. Validated Assumed Factual Knowledge Gaps 87

Table 8. Teacher Proficiency in Ghanaian Language of Instruction 89

Table 9. Teacher conceptual knowledge of bilingual education 90

Table 10. Validated Procedural Knowledge Assumed Causes 92

Table 11. Procedural Knowledge Assumed Causes Not Validated 99

Table 12. Summary of Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes 102

Table 13. Motivational Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes 104

Table 14. Motivational Value Causes Not Validated 105

Table 15. Motivational Expectancy Theory Assumed Cause Not Validated 109

Table 16. Validated Self-Efficacy Causes 110

Table 17. Self-Efficacy Assumed Causes Not Validated 113

Table 18. Validated Attribution Cause 118

Table 19. Summary of Validated Assumed Motivational Causes 120

Table 20. Organizational Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes 122

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Table 21. Organizational Gaps: Validated Resource Assumed Causes 123

Table 22. Organizational Gaps: Resource Assumed Causes Not Validated 126

Table 23. Organizational Gaps: Curriculum Alignment Assumed Causes Validated 128

Table 24. Organizational Gaps: Curriculum Alignment Assumed Causes Not Validated 129

Table 25. Organizational Gaps: Professional Development Assumed Causes Validated 129

Table 26. Organizational Gaps: Support Structure Causes Validated 132

Table 27. Organizational Gap Assumed Causes Validated 138

Table 28. Ranking Criteria 141

Table 29. Validated KMO Gaps Ranked According to Selection Criteria 142

Table 30. Factual Knowledge Gaps and Solutions 147

Table 31. Procedural Knowledge Gaps and Solutions 149

Table 32. Motivational Gaps and Solutions 153

Table 33. Resource Gaps and Solutions 154

Table 34. Curriculum Alignment Gaps and Solutions 156

Table 35. Pre-Service Training Gaps and Solutions 157

Table 36. In-Service Training Gaps and Solutions 158

Table 37. Summary of KMO Gaps and Solutions 165

Table 38. Evaluation Instruments and Framework 188

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Gap analysis process 60

Figure 2. Survey results: What are the essential reading skills? 88

Figure 3. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is more important for children to learn to
read in L1 before L2. 90

Figure 4. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is more important for children to learn to
read in English when they enter school. 91

Figure 5. Classroom observation findings: Percent of teachers teaching decoding and phonics
skills. 93

Figure 6. Classroom observation findings: Did the teacher teach both decoding and
comprehension skills? 94

Figure 7. Examples of child-centered activities 96

Figure 8. Interview findings: How teachers assess students’ reading skills 97

Figure 9. Validation meeting survey results: Lesson planning is difficult 98

Figure 10. Strategies to support struggling learners (interview and survey results) 100

Figure 11. Strategies to support advanced learners (interview and survey results 101

Figure 12. Survey results: Perceived social status of teachers 106

Figure 13. Survey results: Perceived economic status of teachers 106

Figure 14. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is important for children to learn how to read
in L1 107

Figure 15. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is better for children to learn how to read in
English 108

Figure 16. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach reading 111

Figure 17. Survey results: Teacher confidence in managing classrooms and addressing the needs
of struggling learners 112

Figure 18. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to read and write the local language 114

Figure 19. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to read and write the English language
115

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Figure 20. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach the local language 116

Figure 21. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach English 116

Figure 22. Survey results: Teacher confidence in using NALAP teaching materials 117

Figure 23. Validation meeting results: NALAP strengths and weaknesses 118

Figure 24. Survey results: Teacher perceived influence on student achievement 119

Figure 25. Survey results: Number of schools with TGs and textbooks 124

Figure 26. Survey results: Textbook per pupil ratio 124

Figure 27. Validation meeting results: Inaccurate translation 125

Figure 28. Survey results: Teaching aids used to teach reading classes 127

Figure 29. Validation meeting: Inadequate training on integrated approach to literacy 131

Figure 30. Interview findings: Mentoring support received 133

Figure 31. Validation meeting results: Inadequate follow-up support 133

Figure 32. Survey results: Participation in professional development meetings 135

Figure 33. Validation meeting results: NALAP is exhaustive 136

Figure 34. Validation meeting results: Teacher guide has too many activities 137

Figure 35. World Education CPD program organizational structure 177

Figure 36. MOESS coordination structure 179

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ABSTRACT
Recent Early Grade Reading Assessments in Ghana have shown extremely low reading
proficiency rates in the early grades of primary school and poor teaching quality misaligned with
the national literacy curriculum. Applying a gap analysis framework, this case study examined
15 teachers’ reading instruction in five primary schools in the Akuapim North district of Ghana.
The primary purpose of the case study was to identify the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational barriers that are preventing teachers from effectively implementing the national
literacy curriculum and to develop context-relevant solutions to address the gaps. Data was
collected through surveys, interviews, document analysis, and classroom observations of
teachers in kindergarten and first grade. Findings showed that teachers lack factual knowledge
and self-efficacy to teach reading skills. Teachers also lack procedural knowledge for
implementing child-centered pedagogies and formative assessments. The study confirmed a
number of assumed organizational barriers, such as insufficient teacher training, inadequate
coaching in the classroom, and limited opportunities for professional engagement with peers. An
extensive literature review of proposed solutions indicated that, continuous training of up to 80
hours and consistent coaching in the classroom coupled with professional learning communities
that use student achievement data as the basis for instructional planning can have a significant
impact on student reading outcomes. Furthermore, the selection and training of coaches is critical
to the success of the professional development program. The proposed solutions in Chapter 5
provide concrete strategies for addressing the teacher performance gap. The paper concludes
with a detailed implementation plan and an evaluation framework for monitoring the
effectiveness of the proposed continuous professional development program.
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CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
In 2010, the Government of Ghana launched the National Literacy Acceleration Program
(NALAP) to address the growing literacy crisis in Ghanaian primary schools. While the NALAP
program has made laudable progress in developing teaching and learning materials in the mother
tongue and English, it has encountered difficulties with systematic implementation of the
NALAP curriculum in the classroom (World Education, 2014). Recent studies in Ghana provide
evidence from classroom observations and interviews that there is a high degree of infidelity
between teachers’ reading instructions and the lessons in the NALAP teacher’s guides (Casely-
Hayford et al., 2013; Mulcahy-Dunn, Valadez, Cummiskey, Hartwell, 2013). For instance, in
75% of classrooms observed, teachers did not adhere to the timeframes or activities in the
teacher’s guides, which limited the use of the materials, and lowered the effectiveness of
NALAP on student learning outcomes (U.S. Agency for International Development [USAID],
2011; Hartwell, 2010). As a result, the reading crisis persists. The first Early Grade Reading
Assessment (USAID/Ghana, 2014) conducted in 2013 found that 51% of children in Grade 2
were unable to read a single word in English or the local language, and only 2% could read
fluently with comprehension (Kochetkova & Brombacher, 2014).
Organizational Context and Mission
The Akuapim North district is located in the Eastern Region of Ghana. As of 2006, the
population of Akuapim North was 104,753 (“Eastern Akuapim North Demographic
Characteristics”, 2006). This district was selected for the case study. World Education randomly
selected a sample of 10 schools from a total of 120 in the district to participate in the World
Education teacher-training project. Among the 10 intervention schools, five were selected for the
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dissertation study on the basis that they met the following criteria; poorly resourced, low
performing, local in semi-urban or rural areas, and applied to participate in the project.
Organizational Performance Problem
According to the USAID/Ghana Reading Benchmarks for the Akuapim North District, at
least 5% of pupils in the Akuapim North district should be reading with fluency and
comprehension in the local language and English by the end of second grade (P2). In order to
meet this benchmark, P2 students must be reading at least 40 correct words per minute and
achieving 80% correct on the reading comprehension test. Results of a 2013 USAID/Ghana
Early Grade Reading Assessment conducted in this Akwapan Twi-speaking region found that
only 2.5% were achieving the fluency benchmark and 0.9% met the comprehension benchmark.
Overall, less than 1% (0.9%) of second grade students could read a story in the local language
fluently and with comprehension (Kochetkova & Brombacher, 2014). Over half (64.6%) of the
students in this language group could not read at all (USAID/Ghana, 2014). Consequently, while
the fluency and comprehension target in the Akuapim North district is 5%, less than 1% of
second grade pupils in this district are meeting proficiency benchmarks signaling an achievement
gap of 4%. As this gap represents a discrepancy between current reading levels and the
benchmark, the discrepancy gap analysis model (Smith & Ragan, 2005) is best suited to frame
this problem.
Related Literature
Learning how to read in the early grades is one of the most important foundational skills
for educational success, and has long-term social and economic implications (Snow, Burns, &
Griffin, 1998). Reading research shows that young children who are able to read fluently (fast
enough to retain what is read in working memory) may be able to build on these foundational
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skills and understand more complex text even if they drop out of school (Abadzi, 2006).
Conversely, learning to read fluently and at a sufficient rate becomes more difficult with age
(Gove & Cvelich, 2011). Thus, early acquisition of reading automaticity and fluency could be
the key to preventing illiteracy (Abadzi, 2006).
While literacy rates have been increasing globally, the UNESCO Institute for Statistics
data center (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2013a) reports that 123 million youth worldwide
still lack basic reading and writing skills. Nearly 90% of illiterate youth are concentrated in
South and West Asia (62 million) and sub-Saharan Africa (48 million) (Huebler & Lu, 2013).
Young women account for 64% of illiterate youth in South and West Asia, and 60% of illiterate
youth in sub-Saharan Africa (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2013b).
Youth illiteracy is particularly widespread in Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa, 40% of
young people and 60% of young women are unable to read a sentence (UNESCO Institute of
Statistics, 2014). In West Africa, more than 50% of youth are illiterate in eight low-income and
lower middle-income countries (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2014).
Youth and adult literacy rates in Ghana are currently estimated at 85% and 71%,
respectively (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014). However, there are stark regional, gender
and socio-economic disparities. For instance, the difference in youth literacy rates between the
urban rich and the rural poor in Ghana is more than 50 percentage points (UNESCO, 2014). In
terms of gender, Ghanaian women lag behind Ghanaian males at 65.3% compared to 78.3% for
men (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014).
Low literacy rates are largely due to the poor quality of education in developing
countries. The 2014 UNESCO Education For All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report estimates that
250 million children attending primary school in developing countries are struggling to read even
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basic words, even though half of them have spent at least four years in school. This finding is
confirmed by results from international Early Grade Reading Assessments that show large
numbers of children are failing to achieve basic reading skills necessary to facilitate learning in
the higher grades. In Ghana, the first Early Grade Reading Assessment (U.S. Agency for
International Development/Ghana, 2014) conducted in 2013 found that 51% of children in
second grade were unable to read a single word in English or the local language, and only 2%
could read fluently with comprehension (Kochetkova & Brombacher, 2014). In three of the 11
languages tested, none of second grade students could read fluently with comprehension
(USAID, 2014).
There are many causal factors for the weak performance of pupils in Ghanaian primary
schools. Similar to other African countries, some of these include low teacher quality and teacher
training, relative lack of appropriate materials, weak infrastructure, and very low time on task
(Etsey et al., 2009; Hartwell, 2010). However, it has also become increasingly recognized that a
major factor in low early grade literacy rates in Ghana is “pupils are attempting to learn to read
in a language which they do not understand well or speak with fluency” (Hartwell, 2010, p. 1).
From 2002 to 2009, the Ghanaian language of instruction policy called for English-only medium
classrooms from kindergarten through secondary education. Recognizing the limitation this
posed on learning for non-native English speakers and in response to critical debates on the
language policy due to the multi-lingual society, the Ghanaian government terminated the long-
standing English-only instruction policy in 2010 and introduced a nationwide scale-up of the
USAID bilingual pilot project (2006-2009) known as NALAP, the National Literacy
Acceleration Program. NALAP was established as a joint initiative between the Ghana
Education Service (GES) and United States Agency for International Development
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(USAID/Ghana) to provide the education system with technical assistance to properly implement
the mother tongue policy. USAID provided locally developed reading materials, teachers’ guides
and training (USAID/Ghana, 2011).
Under the NALAP policy, mother tongue instruction and English is used in kindergarten
through third grade with transition to English as the medium of instruction in fourth grade and
beyond in public schools (USAID/Ghana, 2011). Through NALAP, USAID and the GES
developed teaching and learning materials in 11 Ghanaian languages, published and distributed
over 5 million textbooks, and trained 80,000 teachers (USAID/Ghana, 2011).
Despite NALAP’s remarkable progress, it has faced a number of challenges with
implementation on a national scale. A NALAP implementation study conducted in August 2010
to assess the effectiveness of NALAP’s instructional strategies found that only 15-20% of trained
teachers were using the full instructions in the teacher’s guide to carry out classroom activities:
the majority of teachers used the NALAP materials in traditional ways focusing on pupil
repetition of single words and memorization of text. The results of the second NALAP study
carried out in April 2011, almost one year after NALAP had begun full implementation in
schools, showed that not much progress had been achieved. Classroom observations revealed
that two-thirds of the lessons did not adhere very closely to the scripts in the teacher’s guide
(USAID, 2011). As in the 2010 study, instruction seemed to be based on teaching the content of
the story or memorizing key words. There were no instances of instruction on letter sound
correspondence or segmenting a word in order to sound out the phonemes (decoding). There was
universal agreement among stakeholders interviewed that the five-day training was too short for
teachers to master the new methodologies (Hartwell, 2010).
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More recent assessments report that little progress has been achieved since the 2011
NALAP formative assessment. A 2013 study on the Quality and Inclusivity of Basic Education
across Ghana’s three northern regions found that, from 30 classroom observations and interviews
across a sample of 86 schools, the bilingual education policy is still not being universally
adhered to (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013). The study showed that some schools practiced a
“whole school English” policy and punished students for “using the vernacular” (Casely-Hayford
et al., 2013, p. 6). Researchers observed that students were taught to memorize the pronunciation
and meaning of each word in isolation and therefore “could not read a simple word taken out of
the context” (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013, p. 6). Only one teacher was observed discussing
reading strategies. In most classes, teachers used few child-centered teaching pedagogies
(Casely-Hayford et al., 2013). The general conclusion was that teachers lacked literacy teaching
skills and were not utilizing basic reading strategies, such as identifying words through context,
whole word decoding, or singing rhymes (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013).
The findings of past NALAP evaluation studies clearly indicate that teachers require
more training on the reading skills and child-centered pedagogies, and ongoing support with
implementing the new approaches in the classroom.
World Education Early Grade Reading Project
Building on the well-established NALAP materials and methodology, World Education is
planning to implement a pilot teacher-training project in the Eastern Region of Ghana to support
the government with improving mother tongue instruction in the first grade of primary school.
The goal of the project is to provide first grade teachers with the tools, skills and support
necessary to successfully implement the NALAP curriculum, and ultimately to improve reading
proficiency rates in the early primary grades (World Education, 2014). If implemented
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appropriately, P1 classrooms using NALAP curriculum would demonstrate the following
indicators of success; sufficient allocation of time to reading (at least 40 minutes per day), the
use of instructional approaches and teaching aids suitable to the selected mother tongue
language, and systematic instruction and assessment (World Education, 2014).
World Education is a private voluntary organization. The mission of World Education is
to bring hope through education to children and adults around the world. World Education has
worked in more than 50 countries, and in Ghana for the past 30 years.
Importance of the Problem
At the school level, the consequences of failing to establish early reading skills are
striking. Without strategic intervention, longitudinal research has documented that good readers
in first grade have an 88% chance of staying good readers in fourth grade, while poor readers in
first grade have an 87% probability of remaining poor readers (Edwards, Simmons, & Coyne,
2005). After third grade, when the importance of reading shifts from learning to read to reading
to learn, students’ trajectories of reading progress become even more stubbornly resistant to
change. From third grade onward, students who are in the bottom trajectory almost never become
good readers in the top trajectory (Edwards et al., 2005). Children who do not learn to read in the
first few grades are more likely to fall behind, repeat, and eventually drop out or graduate
without having acquired functional literacy skills (Gove & Wetterberg, 2009; Gove & Cvelich,
2011).
Without basic literacy, children have little chance of escaping the intergenerational cycle
of poverty. On a national level, reading and learning achievement are central to economic
productivity and growth (Gove & Wetterberg, 2009). Research reveals that a 10% point increase
in the share of students reaching basic literacy translates into an annual GDP growth rate of 0.3
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percentage points (Hanushek & Woessman, 2009). This is critical for Ghana, as the country has
recently achieved lower-middle-income status. Higher rates of illiteracy would impede the
country’s progress towards higher economic growth and development. At the international level,
a 2013 UNESCO report estimates that if all students in low-income countries left school with
basic reading skills, 171 million people could be lifted out of poverty.
Organizational Goal
The Akuapim North district’s goal is to have at least 5% of P2 students achieving reading
fluency and comprehension benchmarks in the Ghanaian language by June 2018 (USAID/Ghana,
2014). The goal is based on the proposed national benchmarks and targets for reading in Ghana
(USAID/Ghana, 2014). In order to achieve the fluency and comprehension benchmark, P2
students must be reading at least 40 correct words per minute and achieving 80% correct on the
reading comprehension test.
Stakeholders and Stakeholders’ Goals
The stakeholders necessary to achieve the goal at the school level include students,
teachers, the head teacher, supervisors and the World Education/Ghana project team. Each
stakeholder makes a unique contribution to achieving the 2018 goal, which is for at least 5% of
P2 pupils in the Akuapim North district to have achieved reading fluency and comprehension
benchmarks in the Ghanaian language and English, as measured by the national Early Grade
Reading Assessment.
To support the district with achieving this goal, World Education will develop
instructional materials in the mother tongue language and will train 100% of teachers and head
teachers in effective reading methodologies for early grades by the end of February 2015. By
October 2016, 80% of trained teachers in first grade will be teaching reading lessons in
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accordance with set standards in the NALAP/World Education teacher’s guide, including
adhering to the scripted lessons and time (40 min), administering assessment and tracking pupil
performance, and using appropriate teaching and learning aids to engage pupils in reading
activities. By June 2017, 4% of former P1 pupils, who would have been promoted to P2, will be
achieving 80% in reading comprehension (2018 benchmark: 5%). The stakeholders’ goals in the
context of the district’s global goal are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Ministry of Education is to provide relevant and quality education for all
Ghanaians especially the disadvantaged, to enable them to acquire skills, which will make
them functionally literate and productive, to facilitate poverty alleviation and promote the rapid
socio-economic growth of the country.
Organizational Goal
By 2018, at least 5% of P2 pupils in the Akuapim North district will have achieved reading
comprehension benchmarks in the Ghanaian language, as measured by the national Early
Grade Reading Assessment.
World Education
By end of February 2015,
World Education will train
100% of teachers and head
teachers in effective reading
methodologies for early
grades and L1.
Teachers
By August 2015, 80% of
trained teachers in first grade
will be teaching reading
lessons in accordance with
set standards in the
NALAP/World Education
teacher’s guide.
Students
By June 2017, 4% of pupils in
P2 will be achieving 80% in
reading comprehension (2018
benchmark: 5%)

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Stakeholder for the Case Study
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders (e.g., World Education, teachers, and students)
will be needed to achieve the reading fluency and comprehension benchmarks in the Ghanaian
language and English within three years, for practical purposes of this case study, only the
teachers were selected for analysis. Kindergarten and first grade reading teachers at five schools
participating in the World Education teacher-training pilot project will be the primary
stakeholder of analysis. As early primary school teachers are the key drivers of the NALAP
education policy, it is important to examine the barriers these teachers face in delivering high
quality, child-centered reading classes, and to understand the contextual factors leading to poor
reading outcomes from their perspective.
The stakeholder’s goal, supported by the Head Teacher and World Education team, is to
achieve 100% competency in implementing the NALAP curriculum, including the lessons and
assessment units in the teachers’ guide, and appropriate use of teaching aids by October 2016.
Past evaluations found about 20% of teachers fully adhering to the sequenced methodology in
the teacher’s guide (Hartwell, 2010; USAID, 2011). Thus, the performance gap is 80%.
Purpose of the Case Study and Project Questions
The purpose of this case study was to examine the root causes of low teacher fidelity to
implementation of the NALAP curriculum and to develop context-relevant, evidence-based
solutions to address the gaps. Specifically, the case study sought to identify why 80% of teachers
do not adhere to the set standards of the NALAP teacher’s guide. The set standards were defined
as following the reading methods, the child-centered activities, the recommended use of teaching
aids, the assessment units, and the allocated timeframes for the Ghanaian language and English,
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as prescribed in the NALAP teacher’s guide. The following research questions guided this case
study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivational and organizational barriers that inhibit 80% of
first grade teachers from adhering to the set standards in the NALAP teacher’s guide
by October 2016? Set standards were defined as following the reading methodology,
the child-centered activities, the proper use of teaching aids, the assessment units, and
the allocated timeframes for the Ghanaian language and English.
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
first grade teachers to effectively teach reading lessons in accordance with set
standards in the NALAP teacher’s guide?
Methodological Framework
The conceptual framework that will be applied to assess the potential causes of low
teacher performance is Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework. The framework
provides a systematic analytical method to identify the gap between the actual performance and
preferred performance. Through application of the framework, the assumed knowledge,
motivation and organizational (KMO) causes of the performance gap are identified. The findings
and results of data collection are systematically juxtaposed against the assumed causes to
determine validation. The validated causes become the root causes of the performance gap. Thus,
to close the performance gap, the final step in application of the framework is the development
of research-based solutions, an implementation plan, and an evaluation framework.

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Definitions
Early Grade Reading: Early grade reading refers to learning how to read in the first three
grades of primary school (grades 1-3).
EGRA: The Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA), developed by RTI with support
from the World Bank and USAID, measures foundational reading skills in the early primary
grades, 1-3.
Head Teacher (HT): The Head Teacher is equivalent to a school principal in the U.S.
education system.
KG1: This pseudonym refers to pre-school in Ghana and is known as Kindergarten 1.
KG2: Equivalent to kindergarten in the U.S., it is known as Kindergarten 2 in Ghana.
L1: L1 refers to instruction in the child’s first language or mother tongue.
L2: L2 is used to refer to classroom instruction in the child’s second language.
Local language: In Ghana, the local language refers to the language commonly spoken in
the school, the marketplace, or other places in the community. It does not always reflect the
mother tongue language. The language of instruction in Ghana is a local language, often not
children’s mother tongue.
Mother tongue language: The mother tongue language refers to the first language spoken
at home since early childhood.
NALAP: The National Literacy Acceleration Program (NALAP) is a joint initiative by the
Ghana Education Service (GES) and United States for International Development (USAID) that
was designed to provide the education system with linguistically and locally appropriate reading
materials, teacher’s guides, and training to properly implement the bilingual language policy.
P1: This is the first grade of primary school.
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P2: This is the second grade of primary school.
USAID: USAID is the United States Agency for International Development. USAID is
the lead federal government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid.
USAID’s mission is “to partner to end extreme poverty and to promote resilient, democratic
societies while advancing the security and prosperity of the United States.”
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1, presented above, is the
introductory chapter. This chapter introduced the performance gap and the key stakeholder for
analysis. It also provided readers with an overview of key concepts and issues related to early
grade reading instruction. Additionally, the case study goals and the gap analysis framework
were introduced. Chapter 2 is the literature review that provides readers with a review of current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. An array of relevant topics will be discussed,
including global literacy rates, the importance of bilingual education, characteristics of excellent
reading teachers, and factors affecting fidelity to NALAP implementation. Chapter 3 is the
methodology section. It describes the assumed causes generated within the gap analysis
framework for this study and discusses the research methodology. Chapter 4 presents the
findings and results of data collection and analysis. In Chapter 5, evidence-based solutions are
provided to address the validated gaps along with a proposed implementation plan, personnel
structure, and evaluation framework. The dissertation concludes with a summary of the case
study, the key findings, and its implications for the broader international development and early
grade reading community.

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CHAPTER 2:
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will examine the root causes of gaps in the implementation of the
National Literacy Acceleration Program (NALAP). The review begins with the importance of
reading skills acquisition and mother tongue instruction in early childhood. This is followed by
an overview of literacy and early grade reading challenges globally, in developing countries, and
specifically in Ghana. The review will present an in-depth discussion on scientifically based
reading instructional practices and characteristics of excellent reading teachers globally. This
section includes current research on knowledge of excellent reading teachers, teacher motivation,
teacher preparation, and professional development practices. This best practice research, largely
U.S.-based, is juxtaposed against teacher instructional practices and language policies in Africa
and Ghana in order to highlight the gaps. Finally, the review identifies factors affecting fidelity
to national language policy and provides insights into the assumed organizational causes
contributing to NALAP implementation gaps. The literature review concludes with a description
of the World Education project in Ghana (designed to support NALAP implementation) and a
summary of the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps.
Learning to Read in Early Childhood
Learning to read and write at a high level of proficiency is a lifelong process that begins
in early childhood. Early literacy serves as an important foundation for subsequent literacy
development (Neuman & Dickinson, 2001; Snow et al., 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 2001).
Numerous research studies have found that learning to read in early childhood is a strong
predictor of future academic success and has long-term social and economic implications (Snow
et al., 1998). Students who become confident, independent readers in the early grades are not
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only well prepared for the academic tasks they will encounter but are also well positioned with
the essential skills and strategies necessary to enter an information-based society with ever-
increasing literacy requirements (Edwards et al., 2005). As stated in a joint position statement
issued by the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC), “One of the best predictors of whether a child will
function competently in school and go on to contribute actively in our increasingly literate
society is the level to which the child progresses in reading and writing” (IRA/NAEYC, 1998, p.
30).
Importance of Mother Tongue Instruction
Research findings suggest that learning to read is most efficient when students are taught
in their mother tongue. The main reason is because spoken proficiency and fluency in language
is a pre-requisite for learning how to read (Akyeampong, Pryor, Westbrook, & Lussier, 2011).
Children who are taught in their mother tongue are able to build on their knowledge of speaking
and listening comprehension and can employ psycholinguistic guessing strategies to reading
once they understand the rules of the orthographic system (Benson, 2004). Research shows that
if students are taught in a language they speak at home, they are better able to develop phonemic
awareness, or understanding of the letter-sound relationships (Benson, 2004; Commeyras &
Inyega, 2005).
Learning in the mother tongue not only helps children to transfer oral language skills in
the first language to reading and writing in the mother tongue, but it also enables children to
learn a second language. There is strong historical evidence from past researchers that classroom
instruction in the mother tongue language enables students to transfer linguistic and cognitive
skills from the first language (L1) to the second language (L2) (Alidou et al., 2006; Dutcher,
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2004; Fafunwa, Macauley, & Funnso Sokoya, 1989; Heugh, Benson, Bogale, & Yohannes,
2007; Smits, Huisman, & Kruijff, 2008). Hence, bilingual education programs that use the
primary language of instruction with gradual transition to the second language are effective in
developing skills in both languages (Benson, 2005).
On the other hand, second-language submersion schooling can delay children’s language
skills development in both languages. Submersion schooling refers to language minority children
being placed in a mainstream classroom and submersed in a non-native language all day. This
type of instruction is dubbed submersion because it is akin to being submerged under water
without the ability to swim (Benson, 2005). In second-language submersion schooling, learners
are immediately taught in the second language without any connection to prior knowledge. The
teacher often does not speak the child’s mother tongue. Submersion programs may succeed in
teaching students to memorize words in L2, but it can take years before children discover
meaning in what they are reading (Benson, 2005). According to Benson, (2004, p. 3), “Bilingual
education programs even minimally implemented have the potential to reach those who have
traditionally been left behind by L2 submersion schooling.”
Bilingual, as opposed to monolingual or second-language submersion schooling, offers
significant pedagogical advantages that have been reported consistently in the academic
literature (Baker, 2001; Dutcher, 2004; Cummins, 2000). The first advantage, as previously
noted, is that students may develop basic literacy skills in L1 and communicative skills in L2.
After acquiring a strong reading foundation in L1, they can then efficiently transfer the literacy
skills they have acquired to L2. The pedagogical principles behind this positive transfer of skills
are Cummins’ (1991, 1999) interdependence theory. This theory is based on the notion that the
knowledge of language, literacy and concepts learned in L1 can be accessed and used in the
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second language once oral L2 skills are developed. Secondly, explicit teaching of the L2
beginning with oral skills allows students to learn the new language through communication
rather than memorization facilitating classroom interaction and integration of prior knowledge
with new learning.
There are also several advantages to learning a foreign language early. Ease of listening
comprehension is the greatest immediate benefit. The development of pronunciation skills is
another longer-term benefit (Cameron, 2001). Most importantly, children who learn a foreign
language early can achieve native-like proficiency. Hence, when the goal of language learning is
native-like proficiency, children should begin learning a second language early. Because younger
children learn the grammar of the L2 more slowly than older students, when the goal is
communicative ability in a foreign language, then older students have an advantage.
Literacy Challenges in Developing Countries
While the benefits of early language learning are well known, literacy rates are still
relatively low throughout the world. Worldwide, 123 million youth lack basic reading and
writing skills (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2013a, September). Nearly 9 out of 10 illiterate
youth are concentrated in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa and in South and West
Asia (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2013a, September). Youth illiteracy is particularly
widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, where 40% of young people and 60% of young women are
not able to read a sentence (UNESCO, 2014). In West Africa, more than 50% of youth are
illiterate in eight low-income and lower middle-income countries (UNESCO, 2014).
Poor quality education in developing countries is resulting in millions of children not
learning basic foundational literacy skills in the early grades of primary school. The 2014
UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report estimates 250 million children attending primary
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school in developing countries are struggling to read even basic words, even though half of them
have spent at least four years in primary school. This is confirmed by findings from various
international early grade reading assessments that have shown very low levels of basic literacy
skills in many low-income countries. The Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) developed
by RTI with support from the World Bank and USAID, measures foundational reading skills in
the primary grades 1-3 (USAID, 2008). Between 2008 and 2012, national early grade reading
assessments conducted in 26 countries among nationally-representative samples of grade 2
pupils revealed that one half of children tested could not read a single word (UNESCO, 2012). In
several countries (e.g., Malawi, Mali, Zambia, and Pakistan) over 90% of students could not read
a single word in a simple paragraph by the end of grade 2 (UNESCO, 2012).
One critical factor affecting reading achievement is the language of instruction. A study
by Dutcher (2004) found that an estimated 221 million school-age children speak languages not
used as the primary medium of instruction in the formal school system. Still today, children in
many countries are taught and tested in languages they do not understand. In many parts of
western Africa, French continues to be the main language of instruction, while the vast majority
of children speak another mother tongue seriously hampering their learning progress (UNESCO,
2014). In Mali, for example, 94% of grade 2 children receiving instruction in French were unable
to read one word of French text (Gove & Cvelich, 2010). In Benin, over 80% of grade 5 students
who speak the test language at home achieve minimum learning competencies in reading,
compared with less than 60% of students who speak another language (Altinok, 2013).
Students submersed into a foreign language in grade 1 without having prior knowledge or
foundational skills are likely to struggle with reading, and are more likely to fall behind, repeat,
and eventually drop out or graduate without having acquired functional literacy skills (Gove &
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19
Cvelich, 2010; Francis, Shaywitz, Stuebing, Shaywitz, & Fletcher, 1996; Juel, 1988; Vaughn et
al., 2003). This is evident in Sub-Saharan Africa, where many primary school graduates are
functionally illiterate (UNESCO, 2014).
Not only is learning to read in the mother tongue language important, but also the
duration of mother tongue instruction has implications for future success. The UNESCO report
on the Use of Vernacular Language in Education published in 1953 led to the belief that if
children learned their mother tongue in the first few years of school and studied the second
language as a subject, they would be able to successfully switch to the second language by grade
3 or 4 (Alidou et al., 2006). Since then, research has found that if a switch in medium of
instruction occurs before learners have developed a high level of written and spoken proficiency
in both L1 and L2, then learners will fall behind their peers (Alidou et al., 2006). In Cameroon,
children taught in their local language, Kom, in the early grades showed marked achievement in
reading comprehension compared with children taught in English (UNESCO, 2014). However,
these learning gains were not sustained in grade 4 when they fully transitioned to English. In
Ethiopia, children in regions where the local language is taught through upper primary,
performed better in grade 8 subjects than pupils taught only in English (UNESCO, 2014). By the
end of grade 3, most children, even in well-resourced African settings, had acquired only a
fraction of the skills in both languages needed for learning across the curriculum (Alidou et al.,
2006). To reduce learning disparities and to achieve literacy in both languages, mother tongue
instruction needs to be developed and reinforced for at least 6 years, and 8 years in under-
resourced schools (Alidou et al., 2006): in Africa, where conditions are not optimal, it could
possibly take longer. Language education models that transition pupils before grade 6 are likely
to lead to low performance and struggling readers.
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Achieving literacy goals and poverty reduction in developing countries continues to be an
overwhelming challenge. Education in developing countries is compounded by chronic
difficulties such as low levels of teacher education, poorly designed and inappropriate curricula,
lack of adequate school facilities (Benson, 2005), and multilingual societies. Less than 75% of
primary school teachers are trained according to national standards (UNESCO, 2014). The
UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report (2014) strongly asserts that investing in teachers is the
key to solve the learning crisis. According to UNESCO (2014, p. 30), all children must have
teachers who are “trained, motivated and enjoy teaching, who can identify and support weak
learners, and who are backed by well-managed education systems.”
Literacy and Early Grade Reading Challenges in Ghana
Since gaining independence in 1957, Ghana has increasingly prioritized education and
literacy as strategies for promoting economic development and social empowerment (UNESCO,
2009). As a result, primary and secondary school net enrollments have soared and the overall
literacy rates have grown steadily over the years. Youth and adult literacy are currently estimated
at 85% and 71%, respectively (UNESCO, 2014a). While impressive, there are stark regional and
gender disparities. The difference in youth literacy rates between the urban rich and the rural
poor is more than 50 percentage points (UNESCO, 2014b). Women lag behind males at 65.3%
compared to 78.3% for men (UNESCO, 2014a).
In addition to inequitable educational outcomes, literacy proficiency rates in the basic
education level are quite low. The 2012 USAID/Ghana National Education Assessment 2011
Findings Report found that only 37% of Grade 6 students and 22% of Grade 3 students are
meeting reading proficiency levels in English (Cummiskey, Kline, Mulcahy-Dunn, & Varly,
2012). Moreover, results from the first EGRA (Kochetkova & Brombacher, 2014) conducted in
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2013 found that 51% of children in grade 2 were unable to read a single word in an English or
local language passage. In fact, only 2% could read fluently with comprehension.
Over the last decade, a number of critics have blamed Ghana’s school language policy for
low literacy in the early grades (Akrofi, 2003). Throughout its history, Ghana has maintained a
school policy that emphasizes an English-only medium of instruction (Akrofi, 2003). Since its
independence, Ghana has shifted from English-only medium classrooms in primary school
(1957-1966), to the Ghanaian language being used in grades 1-3, (1967-1969; 1974-2002) to
English-only medium classrooms (2002–2005) from K-12 (Owu-Ewie, 2006; Rosekrans, Sherris,
& Chatry-Komarek, 2012). The English-only medium of instruction policy created significant
debate among academics, the international donor community, policymakers, and the general
populace (Owu-Ewie, 2006). Following several successful mother-tongue pilot programs, the
Government terminated the long-standing English only instruction policy and introduced the
nationwide expansion of the (2006-2009) USAID bilingual education pilot project (USAID,
2011; Akeampong et al., 2011) known as the National Literacy Acceleration Program (NALAP).
Ghana’s National Acceleration for Literacy Program (NALAP)
NALAP is a joint initiative by the Ghana Education Service (GES) and United States for
International Development (USAID) and was designed to provide the education system with the
linguistically and locally appropriate reading materials, teacher’s guides, and training to properly
implement a mother tongue instruction policy (USAID, 2011).
As an early-exit model, the mother tongue is taught from kindergarten through third
grade with transition to full English as the medium of instruction in grade 4 and beyond, in
public schools (USAID, 2011). Each language class devotes 90 minutes to learning both English
and the Ghanaian language. The majority of the time is spent on L1: as pupils become fluent,
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they gradually transition to English until a 50:50 balance in both languages is achieved in grade 3
(Rosekrans et al., 2012). In grade 4, students begin learning all subjects in English.
To support the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports (MoESS) with transitioning to
the new bilingual model, USAID developed teaching and learning materials in 11 Ghanaian
languages, published and distributed over 5 million textbooks, and trained 80,000 teachers.
NALAP curriculum and materials. The NALAP curriculum and materials are based on
competencies (standards) and milestones that pupils are expected to achieve in the Ghanaian
language at each grade level. Standards and milestones for reading in the Ghanaian language (see
Appendix F) and for bilingual speaking and listening (see Appendix G) were developed for
Kindergarten through Primary Grade 3. The reading standard is described as “a reader uses
knowledge, skills and techniques” (e.g., skimming, scanning) (Rosekrans et al., 2012). Table 2
shows the NALAP Bi-literacy Reading Milestones for Kindergarten (KG1-KG2) and Primary
School (P1-P3). It includes essential reading skills identified through scientifically based
research, such as print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary development,
reading comprehension, and text selection (August & Shanahan, 2006; Snow et al., 1998;
Akyeampong et al., 2011).
The NALAP standard for bilingual speaking and listening is, “speakers and listeners use
knowledge of language and the world together with communicative skills to converse in
everyday settings” (Rosekrans et al., 2012). The corresponding milestones for KG1-KG2 and P1
are shown in Table 3. Also considered state-of-the-art, the bilingual speaking and listening
milestones emphasize communicative strategies and interaction in social and school settings. The
standards for both bilingual speaking and listening and bi-literacy remain the same throughout
the grade levels (KG up to P3), whereas the milestones vary for grade-level clusters.
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Table 2.
Bi-literacy Reading Milestones for Kindergarten (KG1-KG2) and Primary School (P1-P3)

Print concepts
• Knows that print and written symbols convey meaning and represent spoken language.
• Knows that print is read from left to right and top to bottom, and recognizes familiar print
in the environment (e.g. labels, traffic signs, logos, such as those for vehicles and TV
stations, etc.).
• Knows that books have titles, authors, and often illustrators
• Knows the proper way to handle books (i.e., holds the book upright; turns pages from front
to back, one at a time).
Phonological Awareness
• Knows about the sounds words have, apart from their meaning – for example, knows about
syllables (e.g., “kitchen” has two syllables); knows about rhymes (e.g., “bed” and “bread”);
recognizes similar starting sounds (e.g., “cat” and “king”).
Decoding and Word Analysis
• Recognizes and produces letters, and differentiates them from numbers and shapes. Knows
the letters of the alphabet in order.
Vocabulary
• Knows some sight words, such as own name.
Comprehension
• Uses pictures and prior knowledge to aid comprehension and predict story events and
outcomes.

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Table 3.
Bilingual Speaking and Listening Milestones for Kindergarten (KG1-2) and Early Primary (P1)

Sound Production and Discrimination
• Begins to produce and discriminate distinctive sounds.
• Begins to understand speech containing pauses, errors and corrections.
Vocabulary
• Recognizes and uses meaningful chunks of language of different lengths (e.g. Can I have
___; I don’t know)
• Recognizes and uses frequently occurring content words (e.g. house, young, sing).
Comprehension and Communication
• Participates in communication in simple and often ungrammatical language.
• Uses background knowledge to understand and convey meaning.
• Initiates talking and responds to talking during conversation.
• Uses private speech as a learning strategy.
• Understands and expresses a number of basic communicative meanings (e.g. greetings,
expressing likes and dislikes, and, asking and answering questions).
• Recognizes and uses appropriate facial expressions, gestures and body movement that
convey meaning.
• Recognizes and uses stress, rhythm and intonation that convey meaning.
• Recognizes and uses basic word order patterns that convey meaning.
• Addresses communicative problems by clarifying or seeking clarification (e.g. through
rewordings and repetitions).

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Materials’ development. The NALAP materials consist of three teacher’s guides, a
learner’s textbook, supplementary reading books (e.g., ten big books) and teaching aids (e.g.,
conversational posters, alphabetic cards). These materials were developed in alignment with
standards and milestones for learning to read, write, listen and speak two languages. Although
Ghana is home to over 100 indigenous languages and dialects (Akrofi, 2003), the NALAP
materials were produced in 11 Ghanaian languages that have been approved for classroom
instruction in grades KG1, KG2, and P1-P3. For cost-effectiveness, only three teacher’s guides
were developed: each one covered three to four languages. For instance, for the Eastern region,
Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Fanti and Nzema are all included in one teacher’s guide (Rosekrans
et al., 2012). Teacher’s guides are predominantly in English, while activities (i.e., questions,
instructions, songs, poems, etc.) that teachers must communicate directly to students are in the
local language (Rosekrans et al., 2012). These highly scripted teacher’s guides were developed
based on results of a survey on teacher knowledge that showed low local language proficiency
rates. The guides thus were designed to help both teachers and their students to develop L1 skills
(Rosekrans et al., 2012).
The introduction to the teacher’s guides gives a general overview of the new approach, an
abbreviated version of the standards and milestones, and general guidelines. There are 24 lesson
plans or units developed around themes. Each unit covers ten lessons, comprised of five
Ghanaian language lessons and five English language lessons. Lesson 5 of each unit is often an
assessment of the four previous lessons. Detailed instructions are given for optimal, step-by-step
use of the teaching and learning materials (Rosekrans et al., 2012, p. 607-609).
The learner textbooks are organized in a similar fashion to the teacher’s guides. For
instance, in Primary 1 (P1), the learner textbooks include oral and written activities and periodic
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assessment units. There are 24 units divided into three parts. The first part includes activities to
promote early literacy (songs, tales to be read aloud, illustrations to be commented upon, etc.);
the second part aims at learning to read and write short texts (combining the whole-part-whole
approach and the phonics approach); and the third part contains supplementary reading texts and
a glossary (Rosekrans et al., 2012, pp. 607-609). The English as a Second Language (ESL) units
in the teacher’s guide are organized by the theme of the week and incorporate oral activities
(e.g., songs, poems, games and rhymes) aimed to develop speaking and listening skills. All
primary KG-P3 teachers were to have received the following NALAP materials: a teacher’s
guide, 10 big books, 10 conversational posters, and 76 alphabetic cards to help children build
vocabulary and develop oral fluency (Rosekrans et al., 2012, pp. 607-609).
Akpeampong (2011) notes that the overall NALAP curriculum and methodology is
grounded in research. For instance, reading lessons are 90 minutes, which allows sufficient time
to engage in meaningful tasks; there is an emphasis on oral activities for the second language and
reading in the Ghanaian language, which follows the bilingual education research; and, there is
systematic and explicit teaching of phonics and word recognition (reading whole words by sight
recognition) and phonics methods presented in one lesson. These strategies among other
components were implemented nationwide between 2009 and 2010, and an implementation
study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the program in 2010. The implementation and
effectiveness of the program are covered in subsequent sections of this review.
Research on Effective Reading Instruction
In recent years, the U.S. has invested an enormous amount of resources in improving
reading in the early grades of primary school in the U.S. and in Africa. The most notable in the
U.S. is the federal No Child Left Behind legislation enacted in 2001. Similar to literacy goals in
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Ghana, a central goal of this policy was to have all students reading at grade level by the end of
grade 3 (Duke & Block, 2012). Comparable to progress in developing countries, there has been
little improvement in the last decade. Two-thirds of fourth and eighth-grade students do not
reach the “proficiency” category on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP),
and performance gaps are greatest between low and high socioeconomic groups (Duke & Block,
2012).
The U.S. has conducted several landmark reading research studies to identify ways to
prevent reading difficulties. The two most noteworthy were the “Preventing Reading Difficulties
in Young Children” report in 1998 that examined reading in pre-school through grade 3 and the
“National Reading Panel Teaching Children to Read” report in 2000, which focused on
improving reading in K-12. Results of these seminal reports, which have been reinforced by
research studies over the past decade, have informed the development of scientifically based
reading instruction (SBRI), which calls for providing instruction on the five big ideas of
beginning reading instruction. There is widespread consensus among researchers (National Early
Literacy Panel, 2008; National Reading Panel, 2000; Snow et al., 1998; Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, &
Barnes, 2007; & Lyon, 1999, 2005) that these five skills are essential in preventing reading
difficulties: phonological awareness (discriminating sounds in spoken words), phonics
(relationship of sound and letter), fluency (ability to read orally aloud or silently with speed,
accuracy and proper expression), vocabulary (sight vocabulary and inferring new words), and
comprehension (connecting sentences, inference and deriving meaning) (National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development, 2000).
Despite having achieved consensus on the requisite reading skills for children in the early
grades, research shows these skills have not been well integrated into teacher preparation
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programs (Walsh, Glaser, & Dunne-Wilcox, 2006). Consequently, a significant number of
teachers and school administrators do not adequately know how to implement SBRI practices
into their reading curricula (Al Otaiba, Kosanovich-Grek, Torgesen, Hassler, & Wahl, 2005;
Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; Moats & Foorman, 2003; Moats & Lyon, 1996). This lack of
content and procedural knowledge has serious implications for children’s reading skills
attainment. While other factors may be correlated with low reading achievement (e.g., race,
ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, student motivation, or parental involvement) (Snow et al.,
1998; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Jaccard, 2003), Lyon and Weiser (2009) stress “it is ineffective
instruction that dooms children to a lifetime of reading failure” (p. 476). The U.S. Committee on
Preventing Reading Difficulties likewise concluded that the best intervention to prevent reading
difficulties is excellent reading instruction (Snow et al., 1998).
Factual and Conceptual Knowledge of Excellent Reading Teachers
First and foremost, to become excellent reading teachers, educators need to know the five
key elements of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary,
and comprehension. It is especially important for kindergarten and first-grade teachers to know
phonemic awareness (discriminating sounds in words) and phonics skills (associating written
letters with their sounds) (Denton, 2014). In order to provide explicit instruction to students,
teachers need to understand both the written structure and the spoken structure of the languages
(Podhajski, Mather, Nathan, & Sammons, 2009). Therefore, teachers (Akyeampong et al., 2011)
must be proficient in the language of instruction and must have in-depth knowledge of the
orthography. Akyeampong et al. (2011) recommends training teachers to write and produce short
stories, which in the process will help them to understand the language structure.
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Factual knowledge of the five key skills and language alone, however, is not sufficient.
Teachers also need to have conceptual knowledge in order to understand how the five
components working together contribute to reading proficiency; and, they need to know how to
teach them in an integrated fashion (Lyon & Weiser, 2009; Akyeampong et al., 2011). Research
shows that “easier to master skills” such as word reading and decoding skills are being taught in
the U.S. and Africa (Duke & Block, 2012; Dubek, Jukes, & Okello, 2012), but the higher-level
skills, such as vocabulary, comprehension and unfamiliar content knowledge are being neglected
(Duke & Block, 2012) in the early primary grades. Akyeampong et al. (2011) recommends that
teachers at all levels should be trained in teaching decoding and comprehension as integrated
components; and, easier word level approaches such as syllabic and ‘look and say’ approaches
(reading whole words by memorization or sight recognition) need to be coupled with more
difficult methods, such as identifying words from the context. These skills need to be integrated
into bilingual and multilingual classrooms. Teachers need to know how to teach reading in two
or more languages and to understand the important influence of mother tongue instruction on
learning a second language (UNESCO, 2014; Akyeampong et al., 2011).
Gaps in Factual and Conceptual Knowledge of Ghanaian Teachers
In a study of continual professional development in Ghana, researchers (Akyeampong et
al., 2011) observed 15 newly trained teachers teaching a reading class. They found that trainees
focused more on the easier to teach pronunciation and decoding skills, such as ‘look and say’ and
phonics approaches, rather than fluency and comprehension (Akyeampong et al., 2011). This is
likely attributed to a knowledge gap due to less emphasis on comprehension skills in pre-service
curriculum for the early primary grades (Akyeampong et al., 2011). Researchers found that many
trainers were not familiar or proficient in the local languages used for instruction and very few
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studied reading methodologies in the Ghanaian language. As a result, researchers observed a lack
of conceptual understanding about the crucial links of first and second language learning.
Teachers also did not understand the importance of printed text, longer passages, and teaching
aids for fostering vocabulary and comprehension skills (Akyeampong et al., 2011).
In a formative evaluation study of NALAP in 2011, results from teacher interviews
revealed a general lack of understanding of phonics instruction (USAID, 2011). For instance,
phonics, the understanding that printed words are composed of individual letters and sounds
(Edwards et al., 2005), is often taught through “decoding” strategies, such as segmenting and
blending sounds into recognizable words (University of Oregon Center on Teaching and
Learning, 2009). Teachers assessed cited the following examples for effective teaching of
phonics: using picture cards, singing, or repeating after the teacher. In fact, only one teacher
mentioned blending and segmenting. This finding indicates that teachers have little
understanding of phonics (USAID, 2011).
Procedural Knowledge Required for Delivering Scientifically Based Reading Instruction
According to the International Reading Association (2000), excellent reading teachers
share many characteristics of good teachers in general; they have strong content knowledge and
pedagogical knowledge in reading, know how to create active and participatory classrooms, are
able to facilitate self-guided learning, and use a variety of methods to support struggling learners.
The research to date shows that excellent reading teachers use six effective instructional
practices: (1) explicit and systematic reading instruction, (2) differentiated instruction, (3)
flexible grouping strategies, (4) opportunities for guided and independent practice, (5) sufficient
time to engage in meaningful learning tasks, and (6) monitoring of students’ progress.
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Explicit and systematic reading instruction. Excellent reading teachers provide direct,
explicit and systematic instruction (Denton, 2014; National Reading Panel, 2000) when needed,
model the skill, demonstrate how to use it, and explain why it is important (IRA, 2000).
According to Dubeck et al. (2012) explicit instruction means that the concept is directly taught so
that students do not have to infer what the teacher means while systematic instruction signifies
progressing in order of complexity from the easiest to the most difficult. Researchers (National
Reading Panel, 2000; Dubeck et al., 2012) recommend the explicit teaching of phonemic
awareness and phonics for preventing reading difficulties followed by guided practice as the
skills are applied. For example, the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement
(Taylor, Pearson, Clark, & Walpole, 1999) reported that the most effective reading teachers
taught phonics in isolation, but coached students to apply phonics skills in real reading situations
(Blair, Rupley, & Nichols, 2007). Numerous research studies have demonstrated that when
students receive explicit instruction in phonology and phonics, their reading performance
improves at a faster rate (e.g., Ball & Blachman, 1991; Bos, Mather, Narr, & Babur, 1999;
Cunningham, 1990; Foorman, Francis, Fletcher, Schatschneider, & Mehta, 1998; Moats &
Foorman, 2003; O’Connor, 1999; Podhajski & Nathan, 2005; Torgesen, 1997).
Lower-level skills, such as phonics and word reading, require more direct instruction than
do higher-level cognitive processes, such as comprehension skills, which require more use of
inquiry, modeling and coaching techniques (Blair et al., 2007). Effective strategies for teaching
comprehension include both pre-reading strategies such as making predictions about a text and
post-reading strategies such as summarizing a story or inferring main ideas from the context
(Taylor, Pearson, Peterson, & Rodriguez, 2005).
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Differentiated instruction. Excellent reading teachers know how to use a variety of
methods to teach reading, when to use each method, and how to combine the methods (IRA,
2000) to create a successful learning experience. For instance, effective teachers recognize the
influence of language, culture, ethnicity and individual ability in the learning process (Denton,
2014; Lyon & Weiser, 2009), and they know that instruction must reflect attention to these
individual differences.
Flexible grouping strategies. A type of differentiated instruction is flexible grouping
strategies, whereby teachers group pupils according to ability. A study on early primary literacy
in Kenya found that grouping students by ability, either pairing strong students with weak
students or same-level students together, was helpful for struggling readers; in fact, it was one of
four factors enabling effective literacy instruction (Dubeck et al., 2012). Numerous other
researchers (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Leeper, Witherspoon, & Day, 1984; Landry,
Swank, Smith, Assel, & Gunnewig, 2006) assert that both small and large groups aligned with
the learning objectives and abilities of students can maximize learning outcomes.
Opportunities for guided and independent practice. For children to master reading,
they need opportunities for independent and guided practice with support from their teacher or
peers. According to Blair et al. (2007) students who do well in learning isolated reading skills
during direct classroom instruction, but who do poorly in reading fluency and comprehension
may lack the opportunity to practice reading skills independently. Allington (1983) reported that
low-achieving students spent more time on worksheets and on isolated word-recognition
activities rather than on whole-text reading and comprehension activities. In contrast, teachers
who provide opportunities for independent practice often have students who achieve at a higher
level than teachers who do not (Rupley, Wise, & Logan, 1986). Feedback and guidance is
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important at the initial stages of reading practice according to Vygotsky’s (1986) theoretical
work on mediated instruction. The amount of guidance is great at the beginning, but then
gradually declines to little or none (Blair et al., 2007). The National Reading Panel (2000) further
recommends guided oral reading aloud with clear corrective feedback. This approach supports
students to read accurately when they transition to reading silently or in pairs.
Sufficient time to engage in meaningful learning tasks. The amount of time students
are engaged in reading tasks is important for learning to take place (Duke & Block, 2012).
CIERA researchers (Duke & Block, 2012) studied the quality of time and reported that effective
reading teachers engaged students on tasks 96% of the time while students of less effective
teachers were on task and engaged an average of 63%. Effective teachers also devoted
considerably more class time to small-group instruction per day in reading as compared to the
least effective teachers (48 minutes versus 25 minutes). In terms of total class time spent on
reading instruction, successful models of reading, such as Success for All, devote a 90-minute
period to reading instruction in schools with large proportions of disadvantaged children (Duke
& Block, 2012).
Monitoring of students’ progress. Excellent reading teachers assess their students’ oral
language and reading abilities on a continuous basis rather than relying on standardized tests
(Lyon & Weiser, 2009). Effective teachers use assessment data to select instructional strategies
that are appropriate to the desired reading outcomes and to their students’ existing reading
capabilities (Blair et al., 2007). These school-based assessments are typically informal where
teachers ask students to read text for 1–2 minutes and calculate how many words they read
correctly (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001; Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006). According to
UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Report (2014), teachers need to be trained in classroom
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assessment strategies so that they can detect learning difficulties early and use appropriate
strategies to address the deficiencies.
Gaps in Procedural Knowledge of Ghanaian Teachers
In the continual professional development study in Ghana, trainees in Ghana understood
the concepts of explicit and systematic instruction — directly teaching phonics and then moving
from simple to complex skills (Akyeampong et al., 2011). However, researchers observed that
there was a strong emphasis on developing oral language skills and word analysis with limited
opportunities for guided practice or interaction with text (Dubeck et al., 2012; Akyeampong et al,
2011). The ‘look and say’ method was predominantly used throughout all classrooms of newly
trained teachers observed in Ghana (Akyeampong et al., 2011). In terms of varying teaching
methods, one teacher observed was able to provide remedial and differentiated instruction to help
struggling learners with decoding and blending techniques, to form new words. However, the
teacher was not as adept at teaching decoding skills in the target language when dealing with
printed words or in using flexible grouping strategies to deal with large class sizes. As a result,
the teacher often resorted to oral repetition, choral whole class reading, and code-switching –
strategies that are less effective for supporting students in learning to read (Akyeampong et al.,
2011). Teachers also did not know how to produce or effectively use teaching and learning aids
to manage large, multilingual classrooms. Akyeampong et al.’s (2011) research further found
that classes were heavily teacher-centered with very few teachers using group work and paired
reading as recommended in the NALAP teacher’s guide.
In a NALAP implementation study carried out in 2010, classroom observations of 240
NALAP trained teachers across 13 districts revealed that there was virtually no teaching of
phonological awareness (the sound of words) or phonics (the link between sounds and letters),
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and there was improper use of teaching aids to instruct the essential reading skills outlined in the
teacher’s guide (Hartwell, 2010).
In conclusion, the available research indicates there is a knowledge gap with regards to
teaching the essential reading skills (phonological awareness, phonics, and decoding), using
teaching aids and flexible grouping strategies, providing opportunities for guided or independent
practice, and engaging students in meaningful reading tasks that build comprehension skills.
Factors Affecting Teacher Motivation and Performance
According to the International Reading Association (2000), excellent reading teachers
believe children can learn how to read and are able to motivate their students. Moreover,
effective teachers have a strong sense of self-efficacy — they believe in themselves and their
ability to improve students’ learning (Pressley, Allington, Wharton-McDonald, Block Collins, &
Morrow Mandel, 2001). Several factors can affect teachers’ self-efficacy such as a mismatch
between the training they receive in teacher preparation colleges and the realities they are
confronted with when they enter the classroom, teacher expectations of learning outcomes, or
overconfidence in their knowledge of reading. These factors are briefly described below.
Self-efficacy. Research has shown that teachers believe that they are more
knowledgeable and prepared for teaching reading than they really are (Podhajski et al., 2009). In
a study on teacher knowledge, Cunningham, Perry, Stanovich, and Stanovich (2004) found that
the majority of kindergarten to third-grade teachers who rated their knowledge of children’s
literature, phonemic awareness, and phonics as being high actually demonstrated limited
knowledge about phonemic awareness and phonics. In fact, teachers who reported that they were
experts in phonological awareness had trouble counting the number of phonemes in words. The
researchers concluded that teachers tended to overestimate their knowledge of reading skills,
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36
which may explain why they may not be open to new ideas presented in professional
development.
On the other hand, newly qualified teachers may have less self-efficacy because of under-
preparation in the teachers’ college. Research has found that newly qualified teachers who arrive
to schools with confidence of having successfully completed the training often become less
motivated and confident when they find they are ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of large
class sizes or lack of resources (Akyeampong et al., 2011). This finding is more prevalent in
Africa, and especially Ghana, where teachers are often trained in urban settings under ideal,
well-resourced demonstration sites, and then placed in rural areas for their initial teaching post
(Akyeampong et al., 2011).
Teacher expectations. Despite expectations of donors and the international community
that students should be able to read and understand meaning of text by the end of grade 2
(USAID/Ghana, 2012), research shows that teachers may have different expectations. Teachers
interviewed in six countries in Africa believed that students should not be able to read fluently
until grade 4 or 5 (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Trudell 2005).
Linguistic factors. In countries and schools where languages familiar to children are
used as languages of instruction, these language policies may be difficult to implement,
particularly where there is more than one language group in the same classroom and teachers are
not proficient in the local language (UNESCO, 2014; Alidou et al., 2006). For example,
Akyeampong et al. (2011) found that teacher trainees in Ghana were not always familiar with the
language they were expected to teach, and only 23% of trainees at one college studied reading
methodology in the Ghanaian language. When teachers are not confident, comfortable or
competent in teaching the mother tongue language, students are often taught reading through
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memorization and traditional methods rather than comprehension (Trudell et al., 2012) and
guided practice. Alidou et al. (2006) reports from cross-country studies in Africa (Benin, Burkina
Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, South Africa, Togo, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Ghana,
and Botswana) that when the medium of instruction is in a language children do not understand,
teachers are forced to use traditional teaching techniques such as chorus teaching, repetition,
memorization, recall, and code-switching. Without opportunities for meaningful interaction with
the language, effective learning cannot take place. The authors (Alidou et al., 2006) conclude
that the language of instruction and traditional techniques are largely responsible for low
academic achievement of students in Africa.
Teaching reading in multilingual classrooms. A prerequisite for learning to read is
spoken proficiency and fluency in the language of reading instruction (Akyeampong et al.,
2011). Hence, schools have the responsibility to accommodate children with limited proficiency
in the national language or English. The Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in
Young Children offers the following guidelines for addressing multilingual classrooms (Snow et
al., 1998, p. 11):
1. If language-minority children enter school with no proficiency in English, but there
are instructional guides, learning materials, and teachers proficient in the local
language, these children should be taught how to read in their mother tongue while
acquiring proficiency in spoken English and then they should gradually be taught to
extend their skills to reading in English.
2. If language-minority children arrive at school with no proficiency in English, and
there are insufficient instructional and learning materials, no local teachers proficient
in the language, and there are insufficient numbers of children to justify local
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language materials development, then the instructional priority should be to develop
the children’s proficiency in spoken English. While print materials may be utilized
for developing children’s understanding of English speech sounds, vocabulary, and
syntax, it is not recommended to use the materials for formal reading instruction until
students have achieved an adequate level of proficiency in spoken English.
Ideally, for bilingual education to be effective in developing countries where there are a large
number of language-minority speaking children, governments should provide appropriate
learning materials, instructional guides, and well-trained teachers who are bilingual. Training
should begin in the teacher’s college so teachers are prepared to deal with the realties in the
classroom. UNESCO (2014) suggests that governments should recruit teachers from minority
language groups, provide them with initial and in-service training to teach in both languages, and
deploy them to schools where there is a large number of minority language groups.
Reading Teacher Preparation and Professional Development
Professional Development Research
According to researchers (Moats & Foorman, 2003; Walsh et al., 2006), a substantial gap
exists between teacher professional development programs and effective reading instruction.
Teachers in past studies have reported that they possess limited knowledge in teaching word
recognition and phonics (Bos, Mather, Silver-Pacuilla, & Narr, 2000). Direct observations
further substantiate that teachers do not spend much time explicitly teaching word analysis skills,
such as decoding and letter sound (Juel & Minden-Cupp, 2000; Vaughn, Moody, & Schumm,
1998).
Researchers have found that this disconnect between what teachers must know and what
they are actually taught in their preparation programs (Joshi, Binks, Hougan, Dahlgren, Ocker-
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Dean, & Smith, 2009; Lyon & Weiser, 2009) is related to knowledge within teacher colleges,
universities and testing. Lyon and Weiser (2009) note that the majority of college and university
teacher preparation faculty may have inadequate knowledge of linguistic constructs needed for
effective literacy instruction. Additionally, tests for obtaining teaching credentials do not
adequately assess reading concepts (Lyon & Weiser, 2009).
In order to deliver scientifically based reading instruction that includes phonics integrated
with vocabulary and comprehension strategies, teachers need to be taught these specific,
evidence-based strategies in their pre-service and in-service training (Lyon & Weiser, 2009;
Moats, 2007; Moats & Lyon, 1996; Stainthorp, 2004). Ongoing professional development and
support is crucial to ensuring that all teachers know how to deliver excellent reading instruction
(Snow, Griffin, Burns, & the NAE Subcommittee on Teaching Reading, 2005; Porche, Pallante,
& Snow, 2012). However, research across three decades has consistently found that teachers
desire more and better quality in service support (Anders, Hoffman, & Duffy, 2000).
According to Porche et al. (2012), the challenge is to design effective professional
development that helps teachers incorporate the five key elements of reading into their teaching,
supports their continued use of them, and promotes collaboration throughout a school and
ultimately a district. A movement that has emerged as a result of research is, the development of
professional learning communities (DuFour, 2007; Eaker & Keating, 2008), which focus on
creating groups of teachers committed to changing instructional practices to achieve measurable
student gains. One example of this approach is the Collaborative Language and Literacy
Instruction Project (CLLIP) in the U.S. The CLLIP was designed to help teachers incorporate
research-based practices into literacy instruction (Porche et al., 2012). The CLLIP project
incorporates the core principles of professional learning communities: shared vision of student
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learning outcomes, ongoing formative assessment to identify individual student strengths and
weaknesses, use of data to assess and continuously improve instruction, and inclusion of
scientifically based knowledge in making choices about teaching methods (DuFour, 2007).
Apart from developing professional learning communities, research suggests three critical
components for the development of excellent reading teachers (Snow et al., 1998): coaching,
ongoing feedback from mentors or colleagues, and opportunities for self-reflection. For instance,
the National Association for the Education of Young Children recommends a comprehensive
professional development package that includes continual in-classroom coaching and mentoring
on the use of appropriate curriculum, instructional strategies, and assessment tools (Landry et al.,
2006). As a result of research studies, professional learning communities and continuous
professional development have become more popular in the U.S. and in Africa.
Pre-Service Training of African and Ghanaian Teachers
Research across Africa indicates that teachers’ pre-service training generally does not
prepare them to teach reading fluency and comprehension (Trudell et al., 2012). A study on
teacher preparation and continuing professional development in six African countries showed
that few teacher education courses focused specifically on learning how to teach reading and
writing (Akyeampong et al., 2011). In Ghana, for example, only one out of four semesters was
concerned with reading methods courses. Although Ghana allocates 30 hours to teaching reading
(which is relatively long compared to other countries), it is not sufficient to master the
pedagogical knowledge and methods in the curriculum (Akyeampong et al., 2011).
According to the review (Akyeampong et al., 2011) of the primary school curricula
across the six countries, children should be reading short texts with fluency and comprehension
in grades 1-3. However, the pre-service curricula in the studied countries focus on pre-reading
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skills and decoding of words in the lower grades while comprehension is emphasized in upper
primary (Akyeampong et al., 2011). This leads to the belief that these skills are not appropriate
for younger children. In Ghana, for example, by the end of grade 1, pupils are expected to be
able to read 4-5 short sentences of at least four words and by grade 3 read and understand short
text. Newly qualified teachers spent more time on easy to teach skills such as letter sounds,
syllable reading, pronunciation and punctuation. Higher-level skills, such as comprehension and
reading self-selected text, often took place in grade 4 or upper primary (Akyeampong et al.,
2011).
Despite this misalignment between the primary school curriculum and the teacher’s
initial training curriculum, there are several major assumptions schools and the government
make about newly qualified teachers in Ghana (Akyeampong et al., 2011). The first assumption
is that teachers possess pedagogical knowledge and skills to teach the broad range of reading
skills from pre-reading to comprehension. The second assumption is that they have been trained
to use both phonics and whole-word methods simultaneously. The third assumption is that they
are able to design and use appropriate teaching and learning materials (TLM) to address reading
difficulties. The fourth assumption is that teachers have been trained to deal with the challenging
realties of urban and remote schools, including large class sizes, multilingual classrooms, and
students without prior pre-school preparation. The teaching college courses do cover the primary
curriculum content, instructional methods, and materials; however, it does not provide adequate
practical opportunities to fully grasp the concepts and skills needed to effectively teach reading
(Akyeampong et al., 2011). Even though Ghana offers one of the longest practicums — a full
year at the end of the coursework, there is no formal system in place to ensure trainees are
supported by expert teachers in the practicum schools or scheduled opportunities for critical
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reflection with their college tutors. There is also a question of whether the training and mentoring
actually takes place, since tutors’ supervision of trainees can be sporadic and contingent on the
availability of college funds and transport. In some cases, it may not be incorporated into the
college’s plan or budget.
Professional Development of NALAP Teachers
In-service support. The most recent continuing professional development for in-service
teachers in Ghana is the National Literacy Acceleration Literacy Program (NALAP). Through a
cascade-training model, 70,000 teachers and head teachers from KG-3 grades were provided a
one-week orientation to the NALAP concepts and teacher’s guide (Hartwell, 2010). During the
training that took place in December 2009 and February 2010, teachers were introduced to
NALAP structure, materials and pedagogy; literacy standards and milestones; the key reading
components (print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension); and
instructional strategies for developing oral skills in the English language and reading skills in the
mother tongue. Teachers were provided with opportunities for preparation of lessons, practice
demonstration sessions, and critical reflection (Hartwell, 2010; Rosekrans et al., 2012).
Results of NALAP professional development. Several evaluations of NALAP
implementation have been conducted to assess the effectiveness of the professional development
program. The first implementation study (EQUALL; Hartwell, 2010) was in August 2010 to
assess the effectiveness of NALAP’s instructional strategies. It covered a purposeful sample of
60 schools in six regions, 13 districts and 240 teachers from KG-P3. In 2011, USAID carried out
a smaller formative evaluation of NALAP to assess whether teachers were making use of the
NALAP teaching and learning materials. The sample consisted of three regions, 11 schools and
12 teachers in grades P1-P3. Additionally, in 2011, the multi-country Teacher Preparation and
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Continuing Professional Development research project assessed 15 newly qualified teachers in
the teachers’ college who had been trained in NALAP methodology. Most recently in 2013, a
basic education study on the quality and inclusiveness of schools was conducted across Ghana’s
three northern regions. This study included observations of 30 literacy lessons across a sample of
86 schools. Each of these studies informs the results of the NALAP training on teachers’
instructional classroom practices.
Consistent across all studies was the finding that teachers loosely followed the teacher’s
guide. In 75% of classrooms observed, teachers did not observe timeframes or activities in the
teacher’s guide, which limited the use of learner textbooks and teaching aids and lowered the
effectiveness of NALAP on student outcomes (USAID, 2011; Hartwell, 2010). According to
classroom observations, teachers generally emphasized repetition and memorization, and there
was virtually no teaching of phonological awareness or phonics, or opportunities to practice
decoding (Hartwell, 2010; USAID, 2011; Casely-Hayford et al., 2013). As a result, children
could memorize large sections of their textbooks but “could not read a simple word taken out of
the context” (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013, p. 6).
Akyeampong et al.’s research in 2011 found that the teachers generally followed the
pattern prescribed by the program. Teachers began lessons with oral activities, introduced key
words both orally and in written form, and then facilitated reading words and text through
repeated chorus drills. However, classes were heavily teacher centered. Even when pupils were
arranged in groups, lessons were teacher led (Hartwell, 2010). Very few teachers used group and
pair reading as recommended in the NALAP teacher’s guide or independent silent reading and
comprehension exercises (Akyeampong et al., 2011).
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Teachers struggled with teaching in the Ghanaian language often shifting between
English and Ghanaian language, even during Ghanaian language lessons (Hartwell, 2010).
Akyeampong et al. (2011, p. 33) observed that, “some teachers could not read or write in the
target language they were expected to use for instruction.”
Only one-third of schools had reorganized the timetable to accommodate the 90-minute
Language and Literacy period (Hartwell, 2010). According to Akyeampong et al. (2011, p. 52),
“most teachers felt that 90 minutes was too long.”
Materials were incorrectly used or not used at all. For instance, conversation posters are
designed to support oral language development, but teachers wrote the words describing objects
in the posters on the blackboard for ‘look and say’ repetition and memorization activities, rather
than using the posters to support conversation and comprehension (Hartwell, 2010). Observers in
the 2010 study did not find any teachers using alphabet cards, which could indicate a lack of
procedural knowledge and insufficient training.
There was universal agreement among stakeholders that the training was too short for
teachers to master the new approaches and materials (Hartwell, 2010). Head teachers and
teachers recommended the following professional development, needed to improve
implementation: (1) training on how to prepare lesson notes using the new teacher’s guide,
particularly as this does not align well with the existing syllabi in English and Ghanaian
language; (2) support for teachers who are not fluent readers and writers in the Ghanaian
language they are assigned to teach, especially in the Northern and Upper West regions; and, (3)
ongoing professional support in using the new methodology, teacher’s guides and materials,
which emphasize much greater engagement and interaction with students.

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Organizational Barriers to Fidelity of Implementation
Factors Affecting Language Policy Implementation
Both formal research and informal classroom observations indicate that there is a lack of
fidelity to language policy implementation in Africa. For example, in Kenya, despite the national
bilingual language instruction policy promoting the mother tongue in grades 1-3, teachers used
English 70 to 80% of the time for classroom instruction (Piper, 2010). In Ghana, in 75% of
classrooms observed, teachers were not following the NALAP teacher’s guide as intended
(USAID, 2011). Research shows that there are generally five factors that affect fidelity to
implementation of language of instruction policies: (1) lack of instructional materials or
inappropriate materials that do not explicitly show teachers how to teach reading in the mother
tongue (Dubeck et al., 2012); (2) inadequate training to fully master bilingual and bi-literacy
skills and concepts (Akyeampong et al., 2011); (3) insufficient mentoring and coaching to
support teachers with changing classroom practices (Hartwell, 2010); (4) whether teachers buy-
into the teaching methodology and believe that it can produce positive results for their students
or whether it is a top-down approach that does not allow for autonomy and creativity (Datnow &
Castellano, 2000); and, (5) an emphasis on English-only instruction due to the belief that
students will perform better on national exams (Dubeck et al., 2012) if they learn English in the
early grades.
On the other hand, Landry et al. (2006) identified the following factors that support
fidelity of implementation and scale-up: (1) a research-based curriculum that explicitly shows
teachers how to teach reading skills; (2) providing literacy coordinators and mentors to support
teachers with making instructional changes in the classroom; (3) periodic and ongoing training
with the same set of teachers for building consensus on implementation strategies and a learning
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community within the school and district; (4) multiple classroom observations of teachers across
the year to systematically assess performance and strengthen areas through targeted coaching and
follow-up trainings; and, most importantly,(5) long-term implementation over several years to
allow for course correction and integration of lessons learned. Fisher, Frey, and Nelson (2012)
note that it takes several years of sustained professional development to achieve success with
education policy reform. The authors stress that, “sustained focus, with quality professional
development, clear expectations for implementation, and support for change are important for a
successful education reform” (Fisher et al., 2012, p. 562).
To achieve large-scale education reform, it is also important to allow for flexibility in
implementation while staying true to the core principles of the reform that largely impact results.
Datnow and Castellano (2000) found that all teachers made adaptations to the School for All
(SFA) program despite monitoring and accountability measures in place and strong support from
trainers, principals and facilitators. The adaptations made by teachers in SFA schools
demonstrate that education reforms are rarely implemented exactly as expected. Wylie’s (2008)
Tight But Loose Framework addresses this issue. Wylie states that for any intervention to be
both effective and scalable, there must be three conditions: (1) a clear idea of the program theory
of change; (2) a common understanding of the types of scaling, both small-scale and large-scale;
and, (3) consideration of the diverse contexts in which the intervention is being scaled. With
these three concepts in mind, education reformers are empowered to make good decisions about
what parts of the intervention can be adapted at the school-level and which components are
integral and critical to the theory of change. In other words, having “clarity on the theory of
action, allows for rigor without rigidity” (Wiley, 2008, p. 40).

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Factors Affecting NALAP Implementation in Ghana
Although 100% of 240 teachers interviewed at the beginning of NALAP felt positive
about teaching the new curriculum and over 99% found the teacher’s guide easy to use
(Hartwell, 2010), classroom observations from numerous studies (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013;
Hartwell, 2010; USAID, 2011) have consistently found that there is a lack of fidelity to the
sequence, timing, and activities in the teacher’s guide. In fact, only 15-20% of teachers are
properly using the teacher’s guide to carry out active learning activities (Hartwell, 2010).
Furthermore, only 2 of 15 newly trained teachers observed (Akyeampong et al., 2011), fully
adhered to the teacher’s guide, whilst the majority relied on their experience and pre-service
training to inform teaching methods.
Past assessments have identified five factors affecting fidelity of NALAP implementation
in Ghana: (1) insufficient training; (2) delayed, insufficient and inappropriate materials; (3) high
teacher turnover mostly due to teacher transfers; (4) inadequate mentoring and follow-up support
and, (5) difficulties with speaking, reading and teaching the local language and English.
Insufficient training. District supervisors, head teachers and teachers interviewed in the
2010 implementation study asserted insufficient training largely contributed to lack of adherence
to the teacher’s guide (Hartwell, 2010). District supervisors who had observed classes indicated
that teachers generally had difficulty covering the lessons according to sequence and within the
time allotted (Hartwell, 2010). District supervisors also observed that teachers were not
comfortable or conversant in using the big books and conversational posters. This is likely due to
insufficient training and limited follow-up support. Due to budget and time constraints, the
original 12-day NALAP training was reduced to a five-day orientation (Hartwell, 2010).
Program staff acknowledged that the orientation would not be sufficient to transfer the
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knowledge and skills required for teachers to effectively deliver the NALAP methodologies and
materials; however, the studies do not indicate whether there has been any follow-up training
since 2010. Informal interviews suggest there may have been pockets of training, but nothing on
a large-scale.
Delayed, insufficient, and inappropriate materials. The delayed delivery of materials
(five months after the training) further hampered teachers’ ability to immediately apply what
they had learned in the training (Hartwell, 2010). An assessment of P3 classrooms showed that
some schools received an insufficient number of teacher materials and pupil readers (Mulcahy-
Dunn et al., 2013). Other studies found that in many cases the English text was too advanced for
the level of learners (Casely-Hayford et al., 2013). The P2 guide begins with a full-page story
and did not include a review of the letter sounds and word reading strategies, which children
should have learned in P1 because NALAP assumes that students have mastered these skills
already. Therefore, teachers did not know how to provide remedial instruction for struggling
learners (Hartwell, 2010). Literacy assessment results show that explicit instruction in phonics
and word reading is still needed in P2 and P3 (USAID, 2011).
High turnover. Furthermore, due to teacher transfers and newly recruited teachers, many
teachers observed had not been trained in NALAP implementation (USAID, 2011). High
turnover of NALAP trained volunteer teachers coupled with a large number of untrained and
transient teachers has affected the continuity of NALAP (Hartwell, 2010).
Inadequate mentoring and follow up support. While NALAP originally had planned
further professional training and support during implementation to be provided by master trainers
and head teachers, Hartwell (2010) found that less than half (only 42%) of teachers reported that
they had received some kind of support. Most common types of support received were from head
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teachers (19%) followed by district trainers (14%) with very little support from Circuit
Supervisors or peer teachers (Hartwell, 2010).
Linguistic difficulties. Nearly 70% of observations revealed that the teachers were orally
proficient in the Ghanaian language, with enough mastery to provide explanations (USAID,
2011), however, the evaluators conclude that, “many teachers who are fluent in a language are
not well prepared for teaching the unique and specific area of reading in that language” (USAID,
2011, p. 9). The findings further showed that 60% of the teachers were not completely
comfortable teaching in English (USAID, 2011). In 20% of schools visited, evaluators found that
teachers had difficulties with the curriculum because a significant proportion of teachers or
students were not fluent in the language selected for instruction. Since NALAP materials were
only developed in 11 languages, district supervisors were at a loss as to how to deal with schools
that do not speak one of the NALAP languages. This could affect the fidelity to implementation
on the national level, since teachers and students may not find it useful to learn another language.
Finally, some district supervisors assert that there are grammatical and spelling errors in some of
the language guides, which could also affect language learning if teachers are not fluent in the
language.
Positive factors contributing to effective NALAP implementation. The five most
significant factors supporting NALAP implementation ranked in order of influence were (1)
teachers’ language competence in English, (2) teachers’ oral and written competence in the
Ghanaian language, (3) whether the teacher is properly using the teacher’s guide, (4) classroom
size (level of crowding), and (5) whether the teacher had been trained (Hartwell, 2010).
The most influential factor, fluency in English, is extremely important for fidelity to
implementation because the teacher’s guides are written in English. The second factor, command
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of language, was defined according to best practice as the teacher having command over oral and
written (English/Ghanaian) language and the ability to communicate effectively in it, correct
written English on the chalkboard and on teacher-prepared materials, and, teacher uses oral
English only in KG1, KG2, and P1 and does not attempt to teach children to read English in
those classes (Hartwell, 2010, p. 36).
The third factor, whether the teacher makes use of the teacher’s guide, was defined as the
teacher following the guide in terms of “arrangement of learners, use of teaching and learning
materials (TLMs), thinking skills and learner interaction” (Hartwell, 2010, p. 36). Consistent
with prior research (Porche et al., 2012; Snow et al., 1998; Landry et al., 2006), critical reflection
was also a key factor in how well teachers used the guide. According to the NALAP
implementation study (Hartwell, 2010, p. 36), where teachers were taking the time to reflect on
NALAP training and using teacher’s guides for lesson preparation, classrooms were transformed
along with teaching practices towards more learner-centered approaches and learner-focused
behavior. The fourth ranked factor, overcrowded classrooms, is also important in that it affects
whether the teacher can carry out the child-centered activities. Surprisingly, whether the teacher
was trained was the fifth factor affecting fidelity to implementation with results showing that
18% more trained teachers than those who were untrained were using the teacher’s guide
correctly (Hartwell, 2010).
Past NALAP Evaluation Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Despite the challenges of NALAP implementation, the majority of education officials
interviewed in past assessments at the district level, head teachers, and teachers were strongly in
favor of the program. The first NALAP implementation study by Hartwell in 2010 concludes
with recommendations for a second round of orientation and training for the trainers and teachers
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in KG-P3, particularly on issues related to teachers’ concepts of literacy and methods, the use of
teacher’s guides and help with L1 reading, and, addressing the issue of people and languages not
currently served by the 11 official languages.
The second NALAP implementation study by USAID in 2011 concludes with a
validation of the program stating that, in many ways, NALAP is a model for sub-Saharan
African countries with similar language-of-instruction policies. The evaluation (USAID, 2011)
provided recommendations for improving teacher performance, emphasizing close adherence to
the teacher’s guide, particularly with a focus on phonics and decoding in grades 1-3, and a
refresher course that trains all KG1–P3 teachers on NALAP methods. The evaluation further
suggested applying the Guskey Theory of Teacher Behavioral Change (Guskey, 2002), which
would bring teachers together for a shorter training period during which they would focus on
phonics skills. Initially, the teachers would observe model lessons and discuss classroom
instruction with other teachers, and then, they would return to their classrooms to put into
practice what they had learned, which would lastly be followed by support and reflection with
other teachers and instructional coaches (USAID, 2011). Following this would be a second round
of training where teachers would have a chance to reflect and refine their newly acquired skills
with the addition of new ideas and content.
The evaluators (USAID, 2011) stressed the importance of teachers receiving consistent
and frequent feedback, especially immediately following the training to increase motivation and
address challenges, and throughout the school year for continued monitoring. Ghana’s
supervisory support structure is more advanced than most sub-Saharan African countries with
circuit supervisors (who provide pedagogical and administrative support to Head Teachers and
teachers), District Teacher Support Teams, and Head Teachers in place (USAID, 2011).
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Providing specific training on how each could deliver support to teachers for NALAP was
recommended and entailed how to observe, model and give effective, specific, and targeted
feedback on instructional implementation (USAID, 2011). Increasing oversight and involvement
of district-level supervisors would require administrative reforms, such as a plan for delivering
travel and transportation funds based on the number of schools, number of visits, and distance of
travel (USAID, 2011).
The final recommendations centered on using existing data and assessment structures for
measuring literacy outcomes. Within the NALAP curriculum, there are pupil assessments given
on the fifth day of each unit. Teachers and head teachers could be trained in how to use the
information gained from these assessments to make decisions about refresher trainings or
classroom observations. In addition, Ghana could track reading achievement through the existing
school and district report card system. Finally, the evaluation proposes considering associating
advances in the teacher career ladder with NALAP implementation as a way to give teachers
non-monetary incentives for changing teaching practices over the long-term.
World Education’s Response to NALAP
Building on the well-established NALAP materials and methodology, and research on
best practices for reading instruction, World Education is planning to implement a pilot teacher-
training project in the Eastern Region of Ghana to support the government with improving
teaching and learning of reading in the mother tongue in early primary school. The goal of the
project is to provide kindergarten and first-grade teachers with the tools, skills, and support
needed to successfully implement the NALAP curriculum, and ultimately improve reading
proficiency rates in the early primary grades (World Education, 2014). If implemented
appropriately, KG and P1 classrooms using NALAP curriculum would demonstrate the
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following; sufficient allocation of time to reading (at least 40 minutes per language), the use of
instructional approaches suitable to the selected mother tongue language, explicit and systematic
instruction (transitioning from phonemic awareness to more complex skills such as
comprehension) and assessment (World Education, 2014). Prior to launching their program,
baseline research is needed to understand current knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps
of teachers in target schools so that appropriate strategies can be developed for effective
implementation.
World Education is a private voluntary organization. The mission of World Education is
to bring hope through education to children and adults around the world. World Education has
worked in more than 50 countries, and in Ghana for the past 30 years.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Gaps from the Literature Review
This section describes the assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational causes that
are barriers to 80% of teachers teaching reading in accordance with lessons in the NALAP
teacher’s guide. The causes were identified through background literature review and will be
measured for validation. The World Education (2014) concept paper for the teacher-training
program on mother tongue instruction in Ghana, past evaluations of teacher performance in
implementing the NALAP curriculum in Ghana, global studies, and general best practices of
effective reading instruction have informed the assumed causes identified in this section.
Knowledge and Skills Gaps
Research to date indicates that there is a gap in teachers’ factual, conceptual and
procedural knowledge of the five essential reading skills for beginning reading instruction
(Akyeampong et al., 2011). Past evaluations found that teachers do not possess factual and
conceptual understanding of phonics, and do not know how to appropriately apply instructional
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aids for teaching phonemic awareness and phonics — two of the most crucial skills for acquiring
reading fluency and automaticity (Edwards et al., 2005; NICHHD, 2000; Samuels, 2006;
Akyeampong et al., 2011, Hartwell, 2010). The review also indicated that teachers do not know
how to produce, manage and effectively utilize teaching aids as directed in the teacher’s guide
(Akyeampong et al., 2011, Hartwell, 2010). In prior classroom observations (Hartwell, 2010;
USAID, 2011), teachers demonstrated limited skills in effective reading instruction such as
child-centered instruction, using differentiated learning and flexible grouping strategies,
providing opportunities for guided, independent practice or interaction with text, and engaging
students in meaningful reading tasks that build comprehension skills. Researchers (Akyeampong
et al., 2011) also found that many trainers were not proficient in the local languages used for
instruction and lacked awareness about the crucial links of first and second language learning.
Finally, it is inferred from the research that teachers may not know how to effectively plan
lessons according to the milestones, assess student’s reading skills, and conduct critical reflection
in order to adjust their strategies to reach struggling learners. This demonstrates a lack of
procedural knowledge.
Motivational Issues
There were six motivational issues found in the literature. They relate to self-efficacy,
expectancy theory, or utility value. Past evaluations reported that teachers were not comfortable
or conversant in using the teacher’s guide, teaching aids or in teaching in the Ghanaian language
(Hartwell, 2010), demonstrating a lack of self-efficacy. Akyeampong et al. (2011) found that
teachers in Ghana were not always proficient in the Ghanaian language of instruction further
hampering their self-efficacy.
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Research shows that teachers have a tendency to overestimate their reading knowledge
(Cunningham, Perry, Stanovich, K. & Stanovich, P., 2004) indicating a high-sense of self-
efficacy. Newly qualified teachers, however, may have low self-efficacy due to ill-preparation in
the teachers’ college to deal with the challenges of local language instruction, large class sizes,
or lack of resources (Akyeampong et al., 2011).
The literature review suggests that teachers may not expect their students to read fluently
with comprehension until grade 4 or 5 (Akyeampong et al., 2011; Trudell, 2005). Additionally,
in up to 20% of schools, the language selected for the school is not the familiar language of the
teachers or students (Hartwell, 2010). Teachers, therefore, may not consider the NALAP
materials useful or relevant to their student population (low utility value). Scanning interviews
confirm that this is a problem in the Akuapem Twi speaking region.
Organizational Barriers
The literature revealed seven potential organizational barriers. Past NALAP evaluations
identified four issues. First, overcrowded classrooms affect teachers’ abilities to carry out
interactive and encouraging activities (Hartwell, 2010). Secondly, there is lack of ongoing
support and coaching with implementing the new methodologies in the classroom (Hartwell,
2010). Thirdly, teachers have had insufficient training to fully master NALAP bilingual and bi-
literacy skills and concepts (Hartwell, 2010; USAID, 2011; Akyeampong et al., 2011). Fourth,
teachers had challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable. Research suggests that teachers’
pre-service training in Ghana generally does not prepare them to teach reading comprehension
(Trudell et al., 2012) in the early grades of primary school and professional development
opportunities are limited (Akyeampong et al., 2011). A summary of the assumed knowledge
causes from the literature review is presented in table 4.
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Table 4.
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes from Literature Review

Knowledge Assumed Cause Lit. Review
K1 Teachers do not know the five key elements of effective reading instruction: phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (F)
X
K2 Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach phonics and decoding skills (P) X
K3 Teachers are not proficient in speaking and reading the Ghanaian language of instruction (F) X
K4 Teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills to teach reading fluency and
comprehension (P)
X
K5 Teachers do not know how to use teaching aids to foster learning of the five reading skills (P) X
K6 Teachers do not know how to produce TLMs (P) X
K7 Teachers do now know the crucial links of first and second language learning (C) X
K9 Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in the Ghanaian language aligned with NALAP
milestones (P)
X
K12 Teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies (e.g., guided-learning, small
group work) (P)
X
Motivation Assumed Cause Lit. Review
M3 Teachers do not expect all their students read with comprehension by the end of P3
(Expectancy theory)
X
M4 Teachers are not confident teaching in the Ghanaian language or English (Self-efficacy) X
M5 Teachers are not confident in using the teaching guide and teaching aids (self-efficacy) X
M8 Teachers not confident in their ability to teach reading (Self-efficacy) X
M9 Teachers are not confident in managing classrooms (supporting struggling learners, facilitating
small group work) (Self-efficacy)
X
M10 Teachers do not believe the NALAP material is relevant because the language selected for the
region differs from students’ mother tongue language (Utility value)
X
Organization Assumed Cause Lit. Review
O4 Insufficient training to master NALAP methodologies X
O5 Overcrowded classes prevent teachers from using child-centered strategies X
O6 Lack of ongoing support and coaching on NALAP implementation in the classroom X
O7 Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other teachers X
O8 Insufficient courses on reading instruction in teaching college X
O9 Limited opportunities for teaching reading during teaching practicum X
O10 Challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable X
Note. See Table 5 for complete list of assumed causes in numerical order.

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Summary and Conclusions
This chapter highlighted the importance of reading acquisition in the early grades and
mother tongue instruction, low reading achievement in developing countries, and challenges with
implementing local language policies in Ghana. It also provided an extensive overview of
Ghana’s attempt to increase reading performance through NALAP. Recent studies on the
challenges of implementing the NALAP program were discussed and existing gaps in teachers’
knowledge and skills were identified. The chapter concluded with the assumed knowledge,
motivation and organizational obstacles that prevent teachers from teaching reading in
accordance with the lesson plans in the NALAP teacher’s guide.
The results of past NALAP studies and research on effective reading instruction clearly
demonstrate that teachers require more training on explicit and integrated approaches to teaching
reading concepts, teaching the local language, using differentiated instruction strategies, child-
centered approaches, and use of assessment to inform instruction. Teachers also need assistance
with preparing lessons aligned with the teacher’s guide, milestones, and teaching aids. Once
trained, they need ongoing coaching in the classroom. Ongoing training and assessment of
teachers are important for identifying teachers’ individual strengths and weaknesses, and
addressing deficiencies in future training and coaching sessions. Finally, research shows that
building professional learning communities is an essential component for improving teaching
quality and ensuring fidelity to NALAP implementation.

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CHAPTER 3:
METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Case Study and Project Questions
The purpose of this case study was to conduct a gap analysis to determine the root causes
of 80% of early grade reading teachers in Ghana not adhering to the national literacy curriculum.
The gap analysis focused on identifying the underlying knowledge, motivation, and
organizational causes of the teacher performance gap. While a complete gap analysis would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes of this case study, the teacher was the unit of
analysis.
The questions that guided this case study are:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation and organizational barriers that inhibit 80% of
first grade teachers from adhering to the set standards in the NALAP teacher’s guide
by October 2016? Set standards were defined as following the reading methodologies,
the child-centered activities, the recommended use of teaching aids, the assessment
units, and the allocated timeframes for the Ghanaian language and English, as
prescribed in the NALAP teacher’s guide.
2. What are the recommended knowledge, motivational, and organizational solutions for
first grade teachers to effectively teach reading lessons in accordance with set
standards in the NALAP teacher’s guide?
Framework for the Study
The conceptual framework that guided the study is Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework. The framework provides a systematic analytical method to identify the gap between
the actual performance and preferred performance of a group or organization. As shown in
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Figure 1, the first steps in the application of the framework are identifying the goal, the current
achievement and the performance gap. As described in Chapter 1, the goal of the Akuapim North
district is for 100% of trained teachers to teach reading in accordance with NALAP. Past
evaluations show that fidelity to implementation occurs in 20% of classrooms. Thus, the
performance gap is 80%. The next phase of the framework is developing a list of knowledge,
motivational, and organizational assumed causes that contribute to the performance gap. The
assumed causes are then assessed through surveys, interviews, or other methods of data
collection. To identify the root causes of the performance gap, the assumed causes are
systematically juxtaposed against the findings and results to determine the extent of validation.
In this case study, the findings and results were validated through data content analysis,
triangulation, and a validation meeting (see Chapter 4). The final stage of the framework is
developing research-based solutions, an implementation plan, and an evaluation framework (see
Chapter 5). This chapter focuses on the second phase of the framework. Hence, the subsequent
sections of this chapter provide a description of the assumed causes, how they were derived, and
the methods for validation.

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Figure 1. Gap analysis process

Assumed Causes of the Performance Gap
Introduction
Why is it important to validate assumptions of a performance gap? According to
performance improvement specialists, Clark and Estes (2008), one of the main reasons
performance gaps are not addressed is because consultants often mistakenly assume that they
understand the key stakeholders’ needs and can identify the root causes of the performance gap
(Clark & Estes, 2008). In relying on expert opinion alone and not consulting the key stakeholders
responsible for the gap, experts inadvertently omit the true causes of the performance problem.
Presumed causes, erroneously identified and not validated, inevitably result in ineffective
solutions. This could explain why more than 60% of organizational change strategies undertaken
are quickly abandoned (Druckman & Bjork, 1991, 1994; Druckman, Singer, & Van Cott, 1997).
To avoid this predicament, a thorough investigation into the causes of performance gaps should
be conducted. The causes should be identified through at least three sources: (a) scanning
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(informal) interviews with stakeholders, (b) learning, motivation, and organization theory and (c)
literature review on the specific topic under question. The assumed causes identified through
scanning interviews and learning theories are presented in this chapter. Those found through the
literature review were discussed in Chapter 2. A summary of the sources for identification of
KMO assumed causes is located in Appendix A.
Scanning Interviews
Scanning interviews are observations formed from informal conversations and
observations in the organization of study. In early 2014, the researcher collected preliminary data
during a USAID final project evaluation, conducted in 10 regions and 10 schools in the northern
and southern regions of Ghana. Therefore, some of the assumed causes listed below were
identified through interviews and focus group discussions with teachers, principals and district
education officials during the 2014 evaluation. The researcher also interviewed staff currently
working on the World Education teacher-training pilot project in Ghana to identify current
challenges in the district of study. The assumed causes have been organized according to the
KMO framework under knowledge, motivation and organizational categories.
Knowledge and skills. Based on the 2014 evaluation, teachers, principals and district
education officials interviewed in Ghana indicated that teachers in the early grades of primary
school do not know how to teach essential reading skills, such as phonemic awareness and
decoding. There are two assumed factual knowledge gaps. One is that teachers are not aware of
the five key components of reading. The second is that teachers do not know the standards and
milestones for reading and bi-literacy in KG and P1. Another problem related to a procedural
knowledge gap is that, teachers do not know how to adequately assess their students reading
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progress. Using Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) cognitive process dimensions, teachers’
knowledge of the five reading skills and application of these principles will be assessed.
Motivation. There are several factors affecting teacher motivation related to opportunity
costs. First, frequent teacher absenteeism, including for the head teacher, was reported as a major
challenge to improving students’ reading skills. The presumed cause is that teachers do not place
a high value on the teaching profession due to the profession’s low economic and social status.
For example, due to the low salary, teachers may place a higher priority on other productive
tasks, such as attending to the farm or selling goods on market day. Another reason for teacher
absenteeism may be the high transportation costs for teachers living in towns who must commute
to remote schools. Therefore, the cost value of engaging in teaching is higher than performing
other intrinsically or extrinsically rewarding tasks closer to home.
Another motivational issue related to active choice is the language selected for NALAP
instruction. Scanning interviews revealed that the language selected for instruction in some areas
differs from students’ mother tongue. When this is the case, teachers can choose to not follow the
curriculum and may decide to use English, a local language, or to alternate between two
languages (code-switch) to facilitate learner comprehension.
Organization. Organizational barriers, such as inadequate processes and material
resources, can prevent the achievement of performance goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Teachers in
most districts interviewed, often reported a lack of appropriate and sufficient teaching and
learning materials as the greatest challenge they faced in improving reading performance. First,
teachers do not have essential teacher’s guides and student textbooks to teach language courses
effectively, and/or the materials they have are not linked to the NALAP curriculum. Secondly,
there is a lack of teaching aids, such as big story/picture books, audio/visual equipment,
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conversational posters, and alphabetic cards. Thirdly, with increased school enrollment in grade
1 due to community outreach efforts, the recent addition of pre-K to public schools, and
enrollment drives, teachers are burdened with large class sizes (e.g., 100 students in P1), which
may prevent teachers from using child-centered approaches.
Another school-wide performance problem related to the NALAP curriculum is an
inadequate assessment system to measure student reading progress. This problem stems from
two possible causes that have been identified by World Education (2014). The first is that the
content in the teacher’s guides does not match the desired methodology, standards and
milestones for reading, speaking, and listening at each grade level. Therefore, the schemes of
work and lesson plans may be out of alignment with the curriculum. Pedagogical approaches and
teacher’s guides need to match curriculum standards in order to adequately assess students and
improve student-learning outcomes (Akyeampong et al., 2011). The second assumption is that
teachers have had inadequate training to master the new reading methodologies, materials, and
assessment strategies. Some teachers may not have received any training on the NALAP
curriculum standards, while others who were trained, may not have been explicitly taught how to
meet the language benchmarks. When teachers’ knowledge is inadequate or misaligned with the
curriculum goals, it can result in chaos and inefficiency (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Finally, the language selected for instruction may not be the pupils’ first language. This
barrier would significantly contradict the aims of the program and impact results.
Learning and Motivation Theory
This section discusses the assumed causes that were generated based on principal
learning and motivation theories. Although they may not have been observed in the school
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setting, these factors need to be examined due to the critical role they play in performance
outcomes.
Knowledge and skills. Related to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) cognitive process
dimensions, teachers may not know how to “evaluate” students’ progress and “apply” suitable
strategies to reach struggling readers. Thus, the assumed cause of the performance gap is that
teachers do not have procedural knowledge to assess student’s learning and differentiate their
instruction accordingly.
Secondly, the literature review suggests that teachers may not recognize the importance
of learning to read in the mother tongue language for acquiring foundational phonemic
awareness skills, which can be transferred to second language learning. These concepts will be
assessed using Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Bloom’s taxonomy, specifically assessing
whether teachers “recognize” the importance of bilingual education.
Motivation. Clark and Estes (2008) have identified three facets of motivation that may
affect sustained activity towards a goal: active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Active choice is when the intention to pursue a goal is replaced by action,
persistence is when one continues in the face of obstacles, and, mental effort is when people
work smarter and develop novel solutions to sustain an effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). When the
three are achieved, the result is increased performance. Conversely, when there is lack of choice,
persistence or mental effort, the result is underachievement of the performance goal. According
to Pintrich’s (2003) design principles, the underlying causes of motivational performance
problems are due to self-efficacy, attribution, interest, and goal orientation. Both Pintrich’s
(2003) and Clark and Estes’ (2008) motivational theory frameworks have guided the
identification of the following motivational causes.
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Based on analysis of the frameworks and assumed causes, the possible underlying causes
of teachers’ underutilization of the bilingual NALAP curriculum are likely due to factors related
to utility value, self-efficacy, intrinsic value, and attribution theory. First, teachers may not see
the value of teaching reading in the mother tongue (utility value). Perhaps, they hold a higher
value of the English language. Secondly, teachers may not expect all their students to become
proficient in reading by the end of P3 (expectancy theory). Teachers interviewed in Africa
believed that students should not be expected to read fluently until grade 4 or grade 5
(Akyeampong et al., 2011; Trudell, 2005). Thirdly, teachers may not believe that they are
capable of teaching in the mother tongue language or English because they are not fluent or
confident (self-efficacy). Fourth, teachers may not gain any sense of intrinsic value in teaching
reading and hence do not enjoy it. Finally, they might believe their students’ acquisition of
reading proficiency is largely dependent on factors beyond the parameters of their control
(attribution theory). For instance, overcrowded classes may be one barrier that prevents teachers
from fully executing the teaching methods and reading activities in the teachers’ guide.
Organization. There are no organizational causes presumed based on the theories.
Summary
In summary, there are a total of 34 assumed causes, comprised of 12 knowledge causes,
10 motivational causes, and 12 organizational assumed causes. See Appendix A for a list of all
assumed causes generated from the literature review, scanning interviews, and learning theories.
Validation of the Causes of the Performance Gap
The following sections describe how the assumed causes were assessed to determine their
degree of validation.

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Validation of the Knowledge Causes of the Performance Gap
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) knowledge types and cognitive processes guided the
selection of instruments and questions for assessing the assumed knowledge causes.
Validation of factual knowledge assumed causes. The assumed teachers’ knowledge
gaps were assessed through a teacher survey and classroom observation. In the teacher survey,
the skills of “list” and “check” in Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) knowledge dimension were
assessed. To assess teachers’ knowledge of the five key reading skills, teachers were asked to
“list” the essential reading skills children need to learn to be able to read fluently. The reading
skills were also assessed during the classroom observation.
To measure language proficiency in the Ghanaian language, teachers were asked to rate
their speaking, reading and listening skills against levels of language competency (e.g., fluent,
native, proficient, limited, etc.).
To assess whether teachers know the NALAP milestones, during the classroom
observation, the researcher asked the teacher how the lesson relates to the milestones in the
NALAP teacher’s guide.
Validation of conceptual knowledge assumed causes. To determine whether teachers
know the crucial links of first and second language learning, the researcher assessed their ability
to “recognize” the concept (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) by asking teachers in the teacher
survey whether they agree with the following statements:
a) It is more important for children to learn to read in their mother tongue before
learning a second language (Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree)
b) It is better for children to learn English first when they enter school (Strongly
disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree).
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Validation of procedural knowledge assumed causes. Using Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) cognitive process dimension, whether teachers can apply reading principles
(e.g., explicitly teaching phonics and decoding skills), teaching aids, differentiated learning
methods, and child-centered pedagogies were assessed through a classroom observation. During
the classroom observation, the researcher recorded activities conducted, types of instructional
aids used for teaching, and the amount of time spent on meaningful tasks. The instructional
activities observed on a checklist included phonics and decoding skills, such as guiding students
in letter sound identification, syllable reading, familiar word reading, and blending or
segmenting words. Teaching methods were also recorded to determine whether teachers are
applying interactive instructional methods (e.g., guided practice of reading and comprehension,
small group, pair work) or whether they were using rote-learning strategies, such as repetition or
code switching. In the teacher interview and teacher survey, teachers were further asked to
provide specific examples of reading teaching methods they have applied.
To assess the presumed cause that teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills,
the researcher observed a reading class and recorded the skills taught on a classroom observation
checklist. The researcher reviewed the results to “determine” whether the teacher was able to
teach both lower-level and higher-level skills per Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) taxonomy.
To be effective, teachers must be able to monitor and adjust their teaching approaches
(Ambrose, Bridges, Lovettt, DiPietro, & Norman, 2010) to the student’s individual and
collective learning pace. During in-depth interviews, teachers were asked the following question
to measure teacher effectiveness: “What types of strategies do you use to support struggling
learners?” In the teacher survey, teachers were provided with a scenario of two different student
profiles (a fast reader and a slow reader) and asked how they would adapt their approach to meet
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each learner’s needs. The survey also included the following question, “How much time do you
spend critically reflecting on your reading lessons per day?”
To assess whether teachers know how to adequately assess their students’ reading
progress, they were asked the following interview question: “How do you typically keep track of
students’ reading progress?”
One of the assumed causes is that teachers do not know how to produce teaching and
learning materials (TLMs). To assess this assumed cause, teachers were asked during the
interview, “What types of TLMs do you currently use to teach reading? How did you obtain
these TLMs?” If teachers did not provide sufficient information, then a follow-up question was,
“Did you produce them or were they provided by the government?”
Whether teachers are able to carry out lesson planning in alignment with the teacher’s
guide and NALAP milestones was determined through document analysis. The researcher
collected the teacher’s lesson plan and teacher’s guide, and then reviewed the lesson objectives
to determine whether they directly correlated with the milestones. By comparing lesson
objectives in teachers’ lesson notes with reading and bi-literacy milestones for KG1, KG2, and
P1 in the teacher’s guide, the researcher determined whether the teacher fully understood
NALAP objectives and competencies. See Appendix B for a summary of the assumed
knowledge causes and validation methods.
Validation of the Motivational Causes of the Performance Gap
This section describes how each assumed motivational cause was assessed.
Validation of motivational assumed causes. The first assumed cause, teachers’ low
value of the teaching profession, was validated through a survey and interview. In the survey,
teachers were asked to rank the social status of teachers as high, average, low or poor (compared
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to similar professions). Secondly, teachers were asked if they agreed with the following
statements:
1. Survey item: The costs associated with teaching (e.g., travel time, out-of-pocket
expenses, etc.) reduce teachers’ motivation to attend school regularly (strongly agree,
agree, strongly disagree, disagree).
2. Survey item: I think teachers should come to school regularly no matter what
commute times or costs, are incurred by the teacher (strongly agree, agree, strongly
disagree, disagree).
This assumption was further verified through the following interview question:
1. Interview question: What barriers do teachers face, that prevent them from attending
school regularly?
The second assumed cause identified through learning theory is that teachers do not value
teaching in the mother tongue language. This cause was assessed through the following items:
1. Interview item: How important is it for students to learn how to read in their mother
tongue?
2. Survey item: (a) I believe it is important for children to learn how to read in their
mother tongue language; (b) I believe it is better for children to learn English as soon
as they enter school.
The assumed causes for why teachers do not use the bilingual NALAP curriculum and
materials were validated through the following survey and interview items:
• Possible cause 1: Teachers do not enjoy teaching reading (intrinsic value).
o Survey item: I enjoy teaching my students how to read books.
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• Possible cause 2: Teachers may not believe the NALAP methodology is effective
because the language selected for the region differs from the students’ mother tongue
language.
o Interview question: How many pupils speak the NALAP language as their
mother tongue? (the majority, half, less than half)
o Interview question: What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of the
NALAP methodology? Have you experienced any challenges with applying
the NALAP materials in the classroom?
• Possible cause 3: Teachers do not expect all their students to read with
comprehension by the end of P3 (expectancy theory).
o Survey item: I do not expect all students to be able to read with
comprehension in the local language by the end of P3.
o Survey item: Learning reading comprehension is more appropriate for upper
primary than the early grades.
• Possible cause 4: Teachers are not confident teaching in the Ghanaian language or in
English (self-efficacy).
o Survey item: I am confident in my ability to read and write the mother
tongue/English language well. (strongly agree, agree, strongly disagree,
disagree).
o Survey item: How confident do you feel about your ability to teach listening,
reading and writing skills in the Ghanaian language? (Very confident,
confident, not very confident, not at all confident)
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o Survey item: How confident do you feel in your ability to teach listening,
reading and writing skills in the English language? (very confident, confident,
not very confident, not at all confident).
• Possible cause 5: Teachers believe student acquisition of reading proficiency is
largely due to factors beyond their control (attribution theory)
o Survey item: Student proficiency in reading is largely dependent on my
teaching ability. Students’ reading proficiency is largely dependent on other
factors beyond the teachers’ control.
o Interview question: Does your classroom size have any effect on your ability
to fully teach the reading methods?
The assumed cause for why teachers do not use mental effort to consistently apply the
NALAP principles is that they are not confident in their ability to teach reading. Through a
Likert-scale survey, teachers were asked, “How confident do you feel about your ability to teach
reading?” (very, somewhat, enough, not very, not at all).
The last two assumed causes assess persistence. These were validated through the
following survey and interview items:
• Possible cause 1: Teachers are not conversant in using the teacher’s guide and
teaching aids to teach.
o Survey item: “How confident do you feel in your ability to use the teacher’s
guide and relevant teaching aids to teach reading?” (very confident, confident,
not very confident, not at all confident)
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o Interview question: “What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of
the NALAP methodology?” “Have you experienced any challenges with
applying the NALAP materials in the classroom?”
• Possible cause 2: Teachers are not confident in managing classrooms (supporting
struggling learners, facilitating small group work, etc.).
o Survey item: (a) “How confident do you feel in managing classrooms?” (very,
somewhat, enough, a little, not at all); (b) “How prepared are you to address
the needs of struggling learners?” (very, somewhat, enough, a little, not at all).
o Interview question: “What types of strategies do you use to support struggling
learners?”
See Appendix C for a summary of the assumed motivational causes and validation methods.
Validation of the Organizational Causes of the Performance Gap
This section describes how each assumed organizational cause was assessed.
Validation of organizational causes. The first assumed cause of poor teaching quality is
insufficient teacher’s guides and learner textbooks. This cause was validated through the
following close-ended survey questions:
• Survey item: “Do you have a teacher’s guide?” (yes, no). There should be one
teacher’s guide per teacher.
• Survey item: “What is the pupil textbook ratio? (one per student, one per two
students, one per three or more students).” The core textbook ratio should be 1:1.
To assess the lack of supplementary teaching aids and reading resources appropriate for
the NALAP curriculum, the assumed causes were validated during the post-classroom
observation teacher interview. The following questions guided teacher interviews:
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• Interview question: What kinds of teaching aids do you use to teach reading classes?
(Verify through asking to see examples of materials and where they are stored.)
• Interview question: Do you have supplementary reading books for students? (If yes,
verify through observation whether the books are accessed through a reading corner
in the classroom, library or purchased by parents.)
Additionally, the teacher’s guide was reviewed to determine whether the five key reading skills
and methodology, are explicitly described and easy to follow.
The alignment of the teaching materials with the milestones was assessed through a
document analysis. The researcher collected the lesson plan and teacher’s guide of the teacher
selected for the classroom observation. She reviewed the lesson objectives to determine whether
they explicitly state the milestones.
The following interview questions were asked to validate the presumed cause of
insufficient training to master the NALAP methodology and materials:
• Interview question: Have you participated in any training on the NALAP curriculum?
If yes, when? What did you learn?
• Interview question: Was the training sufficient to give you the skills and knowledge
you needed to apply the lessons in the classroom? Why or why not?
• Interview question: Is any additional support necessary, to help you successfully use
the NALAP teacher’s guide and TLMs? If yes, what types of support?
To measure whether teachers have received coaching or mentoring with implementing
NALAP methodologies in the classroom, the following interview question was asked:
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• Interview question: Have you received any coaching, mentoring or assistance with
implementing the reading methods and materials in the classroom? If yes, from whom
and how often?
To determine whether overcrowded classrooms presented a barrier, the researcher
collected data from the teacher regarding the number of students enrolled in the class and
additionally took note of observed constraints during the classroom observation.
The challenge of adhering to the 90-minute timetable was assessed during the classroom
observation. The researcher simply recorded the start and end times of the language class.
Whether teachers were able to participate in professional learning communities was
assessed through the following open-ended and multiple-choice survey and interview questions:
• Survey item: “Have you attended professional development meetings?
• Survey item: What do you generally do at the meetings? (share ideas, practice
lessons, reflect critically on teaching, develop schemes of work, other _____)
• Interview: “Is there time built into the day or week for critically reflecting on your
teaching lessons?”
Teacher level of preparation in reading methodology was assessed through the following
interview questions:
• Interview question: What courses related to reading instruction did you take at the
teacher college? Were any courses dedicated to reading instruction in early childhood
(KG-P1)? If yes, what did you learn?
• Interview question: Did you participate in a teaching practicum during your pre-
service teacher training? If yes, how many hours did you spend teaching reading or
language classes? What grades did you teach?
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The last assumed cause, inappropriate language of instruction, was validated during the
interview. Teachers were asked, “How many pupils speak the NALAP language of instruction as
their mother tongue?” (the majority, half, less than half, none).
Summary
A summary of the assumed organizational causes and validation methods is located in
Appendix D.
Participants
Five public schools selected for the World Education teacher-training project agreed to
participate in the case study. Within each school, one KG1 teacher, one KG2 teacher and one P1
teacher were selected for surveys, interviews and classroom observations. In total, all 15 teachers
(5 KG1, 5 KG2, and 5 P1) enlisted were successfully engaged in the case study.
Although the World Education project will focus specifically on training first grade
teachers, the rationale for including teachers in KG1 and KG2 were twofold. First, it helped to
expand the sample size from five teachers to 15, allowing the researcher to gain greater insights
into the range of reading methodologies applied and the challenges faced. Secondly,
understanding what students are taught in KG1 and KG2 would indicate how well-prepared
students are for Grade 1 and would help to inform the design of the training program. For
instance, students should be learning phonemic awareness and letter identification (e.g., the
alphabet). If these skills were not taught, World Education could integrate them into their reading
program.
As described in Chapter 1, World Education field staff selected the schools for the case
study based on pre-established criteria. The researcher selected the teachers for the study. In
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most cases, there were only two teachers per grade sharing the same classroom. Thus, the
researcher randomly selected one of the two teachers or observed the lead teacher.
It is also important to mention that teachers’ counterparts, one school principal, and
several district education administrators participated in the validation meeting. During the
meeting, the teacher participants completed a questionnaire asking them to confirm the key
findings. Therefore, while the sample size for the interviews, surveys and classroom observations
is 15, the sample size for the validation meeting questions is 20.
Procedures
To validate the knowledge, motivation and organizational assumed causes, a qualitative
case study was carried out. The data collection methods included in-depth interviews, teacher
surveys, classroom observations, and document review. Qualitative data were collected through
open-ended questions on the teacher interview, the teacher survey and classroom observation, as
well as through document analysis. Quantitative data were collected through Likert scale or
multiple choice questions on the teacher survey and a checklist of skills observed on the
classroom observation survey.
All instruments and protocols were specifically designed to assess the KMO assumed
causes. For guiding the teacher interviews, a semi-structured interview guide was developed to
assess the assumed knowledge, motivational and organizational causes. The interview guide
included 20 open-ended questions. A paper-based survey was constructed to assess the
knowledge and motivational assumed causes. The survey included 22 items, which consisted of a
mix of multiple choice, open-ended and Likert scale questions. For the document analysis, a
document analysis checklist containing the Ghanaian milestones for bi-literacy and bilingual
speaking and listening in KG and Grade 1, was developed. This tool was used as a reference
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when reviewing the NALAP materials (Ghanaian standards and milestones, teacher’s guide, and
lesson plan). A classroom observation instrument was designed to record teaching and learning
activities in accordance with the essential reading skills and milestones. It also assessed the
organizational barriers observed. Comparing the classroom observation tool’s questions and
structure, with a classroom observation tool that was developed and tested under the NALAP
final project evaluation, validated the classroom observation tool. All tools were reviewed for
accuracy by World Education staff familiar with NALAP and field-tested at a pilot school prior
to data collection.
Data Collection
Surveys
Teachers in KG1, KG2 and P1 completed the survey in Appendix E (See Section B). It
was administered outside of the classroom, and took approximately one hour to complete. As a
token of appreciation for teachers’ voluntary participation in the survey, respondents received a
small snack.
Interviews
All 15 teachers responded to the 20 questions in the interview guide (See Appendix E,
Section A). The interviews took place after the classroom observation. One hour was allocated
for each interview, which allowed time for introductions and follow-up questions.
Document Analysis
Using the document analysis checklist and protocol in Appendix E (Section C), the
following documents were analyzed:
• NALAP teacher’s guide and pupil textbook
• Ghanaian standards and milestones of bi-literacy
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• Ghanaian milestones for bilingual speaking and listening
• Kindergarten lesson plan for Ghanaian language and English
• First-grade lesson plan for Ghanaian language and English
The teacher’s guide was reviewed to determine whether the five reading skills, reading
methodology, and milestones were explicitly described and easy to follow. The lesson plan was
reviewed during classroom observations and analyzed, to assess whether the lesson objectives
aimed to achieve the reading skills and milestones. The researcher compared the lesson
objectives with the bi-lingual and bi-literacy milestones in the teachers’ guide to assess
alignment of lessons with curricular objectives.
Classroom Observations
In each school visited, a classroom observation was conducted in one KG1 classroom,
one KG2 classroom, and one P1 classroom. The classroom observation tool is located in Section
D of the data collection instrument and protocol guide (see Appendix E). The classroom
observation protocol included a checklist of the key reading skills and milestones to assess the
assumed knowledge causes. It also included open-ended questions for reflection during the
observation as a way to inform the organizational barriers. The observations were recorded
directly on the classroom observation checklist and questionnaire. The researcher observed the
class for 30-45 minutes. Prior to the observation, Section A (classroom demographic
information) was recorded. In Section B, observed activities were recorded. Section C was
completed post observation. It took approximately one hour to complete the entire classroom
observation form.

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Role of Investigator
The role of the investigator in this study is one of a consultant recruited to conduct a
problem-solving investigation of the schools, in order to identify possible solutions for
improving teachers’ performance and enhancing reading outcomes. To mitigate any
misconceptions about the purpose of the research, the researcher worked with World Education
to inform the school’s head teacher and teachers in advance, about the nature of the study. While
the information will be used by World Education to improve their project’s performance, it is
also hoped that the information will be shared with the Ministry of Education to inform
administrators of validated causes contributing to the gap in achieving bilingual literacy goals
across the nation. So that the information can be used to inform project or policy decision-
making, the responses were kept confidential. Each participant was assigned a code. Participants
were also informed of the voluntary nature of participation and their right not to participate.
However, given the small sample size of the schools selected, steps were taken to obtain
permission well in advance of the study to facilitate data collection. Additionally, to ensure
protection of the Ministry of Education, USAID, and World Education intellectual property, only
documents publicly available on the worldwide web or authorized by World Education were
used as research material. Results of the study were shared with all teachers interviewed during a
validation meeting to confirm accuracy of interpretation. Any discrepancies in the findings were
addressed and corrected prior to final data analysis and reporting of the results in Chapter 4.
Data Analysis
Data analysis consisted of several steps. First, descriptive analysis was applied for
surveys and interviews. The individual responses were aggregated by each question
corresponding with the KMO cause. Next, the interview data was crosschecked with the survey
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data to identify any inconsistencies. Any issues identified were raised at the validation meeting
(see Chapter 4) and corrected. The overall perception of NALAP’s strengths and weaknesses
were also identified and shared at the validation meeting. After the teachers confirmed the survey
and interview findings (see Chapter 4), all recorded data from the interviews, surveys, classroom
observations and document analysis were consolidated into an Excel spreadsheet to assist with
validating the assumed causes. Organized by the KMO framework, the assumed causes were
juxtaposed against the results and findings from multiple sources to determine validation. A
justification for each cause validated or not validated was recorded during data analysis, directly
into the spreadsheet. Finally, corresponding charts were developed for reporting of results. The
following strategies were applied for increasing the validity and trustworthiness of the results:
1. All data was validated through triangulation – interview and survey results were
crosschecked with information gleaned from the document analysis and classroom
observations to increase the validity of the study.
2. Only school names and grades were recorded in the database to increase anonymity
of teachers, and responses were aggregated through descriptive statistics.
3. The data was stored on a password-protected computer in a locked office.
4. Preliminary interpretations of the data collected were shared with the teachers
interviewed to ensure that emerging themes reflected both the majority viewpoint and
their individual response (see Chapter 4 for details).
Limitations and Delimitations
There are three delimitations of the case study. First, rather than random assignment,
World Education selected the schools based on project selection criteria. Second is the small
sample size - five schools in the Akuapim North district of Ghana. As a result of the purposeful
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sampling method and small sample size, the findings are context specific and cannot be
generalized. Third, the study is further delimited to examining one key stakeholder group’s
experience: teachers in grades KG-P1. While other stakeholders’ experiences are important to
the organization, an in-depth investigation lies outside the scope of the study.
There are also several limitations inherent in the design of this study. First, the study is
limited by the social desirability bias, resulting in participants providing answers they believe to
be socially desirable rather than a true representation of their experience. This is the case both in
interview and survey contexts. Secondly, the study is limited by the fact that it assumes that all
participants understood and interpreted the interview and survey items in the manner intended.
The results in Chapter 4 showed that due to language barriers, some questions were
misinterpreted and responses were contradictory. However, the contradictions were clarified
during the validation meeting through follow-up, one-on-one interviews with individual teachers
and through group discussions. Thirdly, the classroom observations may have influenced
teachers’ behavior in the classroom due to the Hawthorne Effect. Because of this external
variable, the findings may not reflect a typical class since teachers may have been prepared or
might have taught a previous lesson. Teachers were also in the middle of preparing for national
examinations, which could have caused them to focus on specific aspects of the lesson. Finally,
the statistical analysis is limited to producing correlational, not a causational relationship.
However, triangulation of data sources does help to strengthen the validity of the findings.

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CHAPTER 4:
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this section is to report the results and findings of data collection.
Multiple quantitative and qualitative data were collected through surveys, interviews, classroom
observations, and document analysis. The data were analyzed and triangulated to understand the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational challenges teachers encounter in implementing the
NALAP curriculum. The results were then compared with the assumed causes of the knowledge,
motivation and organizational gaps described in Chapter 3 to determine whether they were valid
and thus require solutions, or were invalid and should be eliminated as the root cause of the
underlying performance gap.
This chapter is organized according to the KMO framework and consists of the following
sections:
• Description of participating stakeholders and data collection methodology;
• Results and findings for knowledge causes;
• Results and findings for motivational causes; and,
• Results and findings for organizational causes.
Each section highlights the assumed causes that have been validated, those that have not
been validated, and any new causes identified during fieldwork. The chapter concludes with a
summary of the validated causes that informed the development of solutions in Chapter 5.
Participating Stakeholders
Five public schools selected for the World Education teacher-training project agreed to
participate in the case study. Within each school, one KG1 teacher, one KG2 teacher and one P1
teacher were selected for surveys, interviews and classroom observations. In total, all 15 teachers
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(5 KG1, 5 KG2, and 5 P1) selected were successfully engaged, indicating a 100% response rate.
Fourteen of the 15 teachers were qualified teachers, meaning they had at least a teaching diploma
or higher level of education. Participating teachers had an average of 13 years of experience in
the teaching profession, and had spent an average of five years teaching at their current school.
Data Collection Methodology
Table 5 shows the in-country data collection schedule. The dissertation fieldwork took
place from December 8 to December 18, 2014 in the Akropong town of the Akuapim North
District within the Eastern region of Ghana.

Table 5.
Data Collection Schedule

Date Activity
12/8 – 12/12 Data collection in five primary schools
12/13 – 12/17 Data entry, cleaning and analysis
Preparation of findings for validation meeting
12/18 Validation meeting

The researcher visited one school per day and spent a half-day at each school to complete
the data collection activities. Due to the overlap with the national exam, the sequence of
activities varied per school. Generally, the researcher observed the literacy class upon arrival to
the school and interviewed the teacher observed. She then met with each teacher individually
until each teacher in kindergarten 1 (KG1), kindergarten 2 (KG2), and first grade (P1) were
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interviewed. During the school lunch break, teachers were invited to complete the survey. The
researcher and a local assistant oversaw the survey administration ensuring questions were
understood and completed without influence from peers. Translation was provided as needed. At
the end of the day, teachers were appreciated with a small snack kindly donated by World
Education.
Data Analysis. Between December 13-17, 2014, data entry and analysis were conducted
in preparation for the validation meeting. This initial sweep of data consisted of several
activities. The researcher recorded raw notes from the classroom observations and interviews in a
Word document following the sequence of questions and KMO coding. An Excel data entry
template was developed for capturing and calculating frequency of survey and interview
responses. All data was entered and crosschecked for consistency. Missing responses were
highlighted. Initial KMO findings were recorded for sharing at the validation meeting.
The validation meeting took place at the Akropong District Education Office on
December 18, 2014. All teachers who participated in the survey, interviews, and observations
were invited, as well as their assistants or co-teachers. District Education Officers, including the
Kindergarten Coordinator and Literacy Focal Person, attended the debriefing session. During the
meeting, the researcher shared the initial KMO gaps identified, the strengths and weaknesses of
NALAP, and noted any contradictory findings. She then met individually with each teacher
interviewed and surveyed to review any missing or conflicting responses.
By the end of the field visit in Ghana, the researcher felt confident that she had a
complete set of data validated by participants and their peers. Upon returning to the U.S., the
researcher performed data entry of classroom observations and document analysis findings,
triangulation of results, comparison of findings with assumed causes to determine degree of
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validation, and organized the data into visual graphics for reporting results. The researcher
determined that a cause was validated if the findings were consistent across more than one
source, or if the majority of teachers confirmed the findings during the validation meeting. The
next section reports the output of the analysis per the KMO framework.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
There were 12 assumed knowledge causes. Table 6 shows that seven causes were
validated and five were not. There was one new knowledge cause identified.

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Table 6.
Knowledge Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes

Category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated
New
Causes
Factual Teachers do not know the five key elements of
effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness,
phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension
√
Factual Teachers do not know the standards and milestones for
reading and bi-literacy in KG and P1
√
Factual Teachers are not proficient in speaking and reading the
Ghanaian language
X
Procedural Teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills to
teach reading fluency and comprehension
√
Conceptual Teachers do not know the crucial links of first and
second language learning
X
Procedural Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach phonics
and decoding skills
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in the
Ghanaian language aligned with NALAP milestones
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use child-centered
pedagogies (e.g., guided-learning, small group work
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use teaching aids to
foster learning of the five reading skills
X
Procedural Teachers do not know how to produce TLMs X
Procedural Teachers do not know how to apply metacognitive
(critical reflection) skills and differentiated
instructional methods
X
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop lessons
according to the integrated approach
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to effectively assess their
students’ reading progress
√

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Following the KMO framework, the findings and results have been grouped into three
knowledge categories: factual, conceptual, and procedural.
Factual Knowledge Gaps
Validated factual knowledge causes. According to results in Table 7, two assumed
factual knowledge causes were validated.

Table 7.
Validated Assumed Factual Knowledge Gaps

Category Assumed Causes (Validated) Instrument Know
Don’t
Know
Factual Teachers do not know the five key
elements of effective reading instruction
(phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension)
Survey 0 100%
Factual Teachers do not know the standards and
milestones for reading and bi-literacy in
KG and P1
Document
Analysis
0 100%

The first assumed cause, that teachers do not know the five key elements of effective
reading instruction, was validated through the survey question: “What are the essential reading
skills children need to learn to be able to read fluently?” As illustrated in Figure 2, none of the
15 teachers identified all five skills correctly. Four teachers (3 P1 teachers and 1 KG2 teacher)
were familiar with phonics. One teacher was familiar with phonemic awareness. Eight teachers
provided an incorrect response not associated with reading skills and two left the question blank.
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In total, of the 15 responses, two-thirds of (10) teachers did not know any key elements of
effective reading instruction and none knew all five.

Figure 2. Survey results: What are the essential reading skills?

The second factual knowledge assumption is that teachers do not know the standards and
milestones for reading and bi-literacy in KG and P1. This assumption was verified through
document analysis. Teachers’ lesson plans were reviewed to determine whether the standards
and milestones were specifically stated. None of the lesson plans included standards or
milestones. Therefore, this assumption is valid.
Factual knowledge causes not validated. Past evaluations indicated that teachers might
not be fluent or proficient in the Ghanaian language. The survey findings did not validate this
assumption. On average, 82% of teachers rated themselves as proficient, fluent, or native in
speaking and reading the Ghanaian language. About 20% of teachers (18%) indicated limited
ability to write in Akuapem Twi (see Table 8). Therefore, this assumption is not validated since
the majority of teachers can read and speak the Ghanaian language well.
1
4
0
0
0
10
Phonological awareness
Phonics
Fluency
V ocabulary
Comprehension
Don't know/incorrect respnonse
What are the essential reading skills?
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Table 8.
Teacher Proficiency in Ghanaian Language of Instruction

Assumed Cause Survey item Response Frequency Percent
Teachers are not
proficient in speaking
and reading the Ghanaian
language (KF3)
Rate how well you speak,
read and write the NALAP
language selected for the
medium of instruction
Native
Fluent
Proficient
Limited
Not at all
6
25
6
8
0
13%
56%
13%
18%
0%

Conceptual Knowledge Gaps
The assumed conceptual knowledge gap that teachers do not know the crucial links of
first and second language learning was not validated. The finding was revealed through a Likert
scale survey question (See Table 9) in which teachers were asked if they agree that it is more
important for children to learn to read in their mother tongue prior to learning a second language
or whether they agree that it is better for children to learn English when they first enter school.
During the initial survey administration, nearly all teachers agreed with both statements since the
integrated approach encouraged mixing L1 and L2 in grades KG-P3. Once it was clarified in the
validation workshop that the two are mutually exclusive, and that statement a. represents
predominant instruction in mother tongue and statement b. indicates English-only instruction,
they revised their responses to emphasize the importance of mother tongue instruction before
introducing English.

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Table 9.
Teacher conceptual knowledge of bilingual education

Category Assumed Cause Survey item Agree Disagree
Conceptual Teachers do not
know the crucial
links of first and
second language
learning (KC7)
a. It is more important for children to
learn to read in their mother tongue
before learning a second language
(KC7)
93% 7%
b. It is better for children to learn
English when they enter school.
(KC7)
20% 80%

As shown in Figure 3, 14 of 15 teachers (93%) of teachers agree or strongly agree that it
is more important for children to learn to read in their mother tongue language prior to learning a
second language.

Figure 3. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is more important for children to learn to read
in L1 before L2.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
8
6
1
0
a. It is more important for children to learn to read in L1
before L2
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Figure 4 shows that 12 of 15 teachers (80%) of teachers disagree or strongly disagree that
it is better for children to learn English when they first enter school.

Figure 4. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is more important for children to learn to read
in English when they enter school.

These results indicate that over 90% of teachers agreed with the NALAP approach of
teaching in the mother tongue in KG through P3 with gradual transition to English, and that they
understood the importance of L1 to build a strong foundation for learning L2. Therefore, the
assumption that teachers do not understand the crucial links of first and second language learning
is not validated.
Procedural Knowledge Gaps
There were five assumed causes for the procedural knowledge gap and one newly
identified cause totaling six validated causes, as shown in Table 10.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
1
2
7
5
b. It is more important for children to learn English when
they enter school.
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Table 10.
Validated Procedural Knowledge Assumed Causes

Category Assumed Causes (Validated) Instrument Know
Don’t
Know
Procedural Teachers do not know how to explicitly
teach phonics and decoding skills
Survey 46% 53%
Classroom
Observation
29% 71%
Procedural Teachers do not know how to integrate
the five skills to teach reading fluency
and comprehension
Classroom
Observation
20% 80%
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop
lessons in the Ghanaian language
aligned with NALAP milestones
Document
Analysis
0 100%
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use
child-centered pedagogies (e.g.,
guided-learning, small group work)
Classroom
Observation
16% 84%
Procedural Teachers do not know how to
effectively assess their students’
reading progress
Interview 0 100%
Document
Analysis
0 100%
Procedural
(New cause)
Teachers do not know how to develop
lessons according to the integrated
approach
Survey 80%
agree
20%
disagree

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Validated procedural causes. The first assumed cause, teachers’ procedural knowledge
of phonics instruction, was measured through two instruments — a survey question and
classroom observation. On the survey questionnaire, teachers were asked, “What activities do
you use to teach students letter sound?” The survey results showed that 46% of teachers (7)
described decoding teaching strategies appropriately, providing such examples as using alphabet
cards, realia, or rhymes to teach letter sounds. The remaining 54% (8) provided an incorrect
response indicating they did not know how to teach phonics. The classroom observation further
revealed a lack of procedural knowledge of phonics instruction. An average of 29% of teachers
were observed teaching letter sounds, syllable reading, or blending and segmentation of words
(see Figure 5). Hence, the assumption is validated since the majority of teachers (71%) did not
demonstrate procedural knowledge of phonics or decoding skills.

Figure 5. Classroom observation findings: Percent of teachers teaching decoding and phonics
skills.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Teaching letter sounds
Reading syllables
Blending or segmenting words
Mean
Teaching letter sounds Reading syllables
Blending or segmenting
words
Mean
Series1 47% 27% 13% 29%
Classroom Observation of Decoding and
Phonics Skills
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The second assumption, that teachers do not have the procedural knowledge in order to
integrate the five key reading skills, was validated. The classroom observation data was analyzed
to determine what percentage of teachers taught both decoding and reading comprehension skills
in the lesson to build both lower and higher-level reading skills. Figure 6 indicates that 80% of
teachers, representing 12 of the 15 teachers observed, do not know how to integrate both
decoding skills and comprehension skills in order to assist students with acquiring reading
comprehension, and 20% do possess the skill. Hence, this assumption is validated for the
majority of teachers.

Figure 6. Classroom observation findings: Did the teacher teach both decoding and
comprehension skills?

The third assumed cause — teachers do not know how to develop lesson plans aligned
with the NALAP milestones — was validated through document analysis of teachers’ lesson
plans. The criteria used to assess the lessons were whether the lesson objectives aimed to teach a
bi-literacy or bilingual milestone. Teachers’ lessons were collected at the beginning of the lesson
and reviewed to determine whether the milestones listed in the annex of the teachers’ guide were
20%
80%
Yes No
Did the Teacher Teach Both Decoding and Comprehension
Skills?
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specifically stated under lesson objectives. The results indicated that none of the lesson plans
included NALAP standards or milestones, confirming a general lack of factual and procedural
knowledge with regards to developing lessons aligned with the NALAP milestones.
The fourth assumed cause, teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies,
was validated through classroom observations and interview questions. Through interviews, the
researcher investigated the allocation of time spent on teacher-led guided practice and child-led
activities. The classroom observation sought to identify examples of child-centered activities.
According to 15 teachers interviewed, the average class time was 83 minutes, seven
minutes short of the 90-minute timeframe allocated for NALAP. Teachers typically spent 64% of
class time, averaging 56 minutes, on guided practice of L1 and L2. The remaining class time,
averaging 27 minutes, was dedicated to writing exercises in either the KG literacy workbook or
P1 pupil textbook.
The teacher’s guide suggested a number of child-centered activities such as pair-sharing,
singing, reading rhymes, role-playing, or choral reading in a community circle so that students
may follow along the text in the big book as the teacher reads aloud. Figure 7 shows examples of
child-centered activities observed during the classroom observation. On average, 16% of
teachers used child-centered activities. Forty percent of teachers observed, primarily KG
teachers, used games, songs, and rhymes found in the teacher’s guide. Only 7% of teachers
facilitated the community circle for the Big Book story reading or small group work.

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Figure 7. Examples of child-centered activities

The assumption that teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies is valid
because although lessons were very interactive and engaging, students were rarely asked to lead
an activity, do pair shares, do small-group work, or follow along with the text as the teacher
reads aloud among other activities recommended in the teachers’ guide.
The fifth assumed cause that teachers do not have the skills to effectively assess their
students’ reading progress was validated through interviews and document analysis. None of the
15 teachers interviewed had an official record or grade book for recording students’ grades in
reading and language exercises. Seven out of 15 teachers relied on the end-of-term exam to
measure student achievement. Only one teacher conducted a midterm exam. Six of 15 teachers
conducted an informal reading assessment once per term mandated by the district, but they
themselves do not use the results to inform their teaching strategies. Several teachers have
recently received the new School-Based Assessment (SBA) Booklet provided by the District
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
Games, songs, rhymes
Choral reading
Role-playing
Community circle
Small group work
Mean
Games, songs,
rhymes
Choral reading Role-playing
Community
circle
Small group
work
Mean
40% 13% 13% 7% 7% 16%
Examples of Child-Centered Activities
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Education Office, but had not yet been trained in its usage. The SBA is a continuous assessment
form for tracking grades per term, but does not set benchmarks or require a reading assessment.
Therefore, this assumption is validated, as there was no record of children’s language or reading
skills in all 15 schools visited. Furthermore, teachers could not respond to the question, “How
many of your students can read?”

Figure 8. Interview findings: How teachers assess students’ reading skills

The sixth cause is a new procedural knowledge gap that emerged throughout the data
collection process and was verified during the validation workshop. The researcher learned from
school visits that teachers have shifted from teaching L1 and L2 separately to using an integrated
approach that now blends the two languages’ lessons as well as the activities in the textbooks and
literacy workbooks. This new approach has left teachers challenged with how to manage time
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
End of term exam
Informal assessment
No official reading records
End of week review session
Marks exercise books
Midterm exam
End of term
exam
Informal
assessment
No official
reading
records
End of week
review session
Marks exercise
books
Midterm exam
Frequency 7 6 15 2 3 1
How do you assess your students' reading skills? (interview)
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effectively and develop comprehensive lesson plans. Therefore, the fifth cause validated is
“teachers do not know how to develop lesson plans according to the new integrated approach.”
Figure 9 shows that 80% of teachers agree or strongly agree with this procedural knowledge gap.

Figure 9. Validation meeting survey results: Lesson planning is difficult

Procedural knowledge causes not validated. Table 11 shows the three procedural
knowledge causes that were not validated.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
2
14
4
0
Lesson Planning is Difficult
N=20
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Table 11.
Procedural Knowledge Assumed Causes Not Validated

Category Assumed Causes (Invalidated) Instrument Knows
Does not
Know
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use teaching
aids to foster learning of the five reading
skills
Classroom
Observation
14 1
Procedural Teachers do not know how to produce
TLMs
Interview 7 8
Procedural Teachers do not know how to apply
differentiated instructional methods
Interview
Survey
15 0

The results of surveys and interviews found that teachers actually do possess the above
procedural knowledge. For example, 14 of the 15 teachers observed, used the conversational
poster and big book to support learning of vocabulary, fluency and comprehension skills. Only a
few teachers had trouble holding the big book while reading simultaneously. All teachers
interviewed also stated that the materials supported rather than hindered teaching and learning.
With regards to the second assumption that teachers do not know how to produce
Teaching and Learning Materials (TLMs), although 7 out of 15 teachers develop their own
materials, this was not a significant challenge. Classroom displays, realia (e.g., shopping corner)
and sufficient quantities of pictures, posters, teacher guides and materials distributed from past
projects and the government, actually reduce the need to create materials from scratch.
Nonetheless, teachers do improvise materials on their own when they have their own classroom
and a place to store the materials.
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The third assumed cause is invalid because results of the survey and interviews indicate
that teachers know how to differentiate instruction for struggling and advanced learners. The
interview results found that all 15 teachers could provide examples of how to support struggling
learners, such as providing tutoring, remedial work, or mixed ability grouping. Nine of the 15
teachers provided examples on the survey for how they support struggling readers. Additionally,
14 of 15 teachers stated their main strategy for supporting advanced learners was to provide extra
reading passages or the next lesson.

Figure 10. Strategies to support struggling learners (interview and survey results)

4
8
4
1
Group by ability
Remedial work
Tutoring
Extra time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
How teachers support struggling learners (interview)
5
1
1
2
Phonics/syllabic method
Letter word cards
Rhymes, songs, stories
Add'l activities
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Reading strategies that support struggling learners (survey)
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Figure 11. Strategies to support advanced learners (interview and survey results

Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The results and findings from the various sources of data showed that seven of the 12
assumed causes were validated plus one new cause for a total of eight validated causes. The
validated causes are illustrated in Table 12.

6
9
Extra reading passages
No response
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
How teachers support quick learners (interview)
8

2

5

Extra
reading
passages

Extra
homework

No
response

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Strategies to support quick learners (survey)
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Table 12.
Summary of Validated Assumed Knowledge Causes

Knowledge
Category Assumed Cause Validated
New
Causes
Factual Teachers do not know the five key elements of effective reading
instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary,
and comprehension
√
Factual Teachers do not know the standards and milestones for reading
and bi-literacy in KG and P1
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills to teach
reading fluency and comprehension
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach phonics and
decoding skills
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in the Ghanaian
language aligned with NALAP milestones
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies
(e.g., pair share, small group work)
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop lessons according to the
integrated approach
√
Procedural Teachers do not know how to effectively assess their students’
reading progress
√

Triangulation of survey results, interview findings, classroom observations, and
document analysis revealed that, teachers lack factual knowledge of the five reading skills as
well as the standard and milestones for bi-literacy and reading in KG and P1. Teachers also
demonstrated a lack of conceptual knowledge in teaching decoding and comprehension skills
simultaneously. They tended to focus mostly on picture reading, and speaking and listening
comprehension tasks, and less on phonemic awareness, phonics, and reading comprehension.
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The results further indicate that teachers do not have adequate procedural knowledge in teaching
phonics, decoding skills, and using child-centered pedagogies. Additionally, the validation
meeting confirmed that teachers are not adept in developing lesson plans aligned with the
NALAP milestones and the new integrated approach. Finally, while teachers know how to
differentiate instruction for advanced and struggling learners, they lack the metacognitive and
procedural knowledge to effectively assess and track their students’ reading progress. On the
other hand, teachers demonstrated proficiency in the Ghanaian language, an understanding of the
crucial links between the mother tongue and second language learning, and expertise in
effectively using and developing teaching and learning materials.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
There were 10 assumed motivational causes. Three were validated and seven were found
to be invalid. There were no new causes identified. Table 13 shows a summary of motivational
assumed causes that are validated and those that are not validated.
The findings and results were grouped according to four motivational categories: value,
expectancy value, self-efficacy and attribution.

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Table 13.
Motivational Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes

Motivation
Category Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated
New
Causes
Cost Value Teachers do not place a high value on teaching
due to the profession’s low economic and social
status
X
Task Value Teachers do not see the value of teaching reading
in the mother tongue language (e.g., think
English is more important)
X
Utility value Teachers do not believe the NALAP material is
relevant because the language selected for the
region differs from students’ mother tongue
language
X
Intrinsic Value Teachers do not enjoy teaching reading X
Expectancy
Theory
Teachers do not expect all their students read
with comprehension by the end of P3
X
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident teaching in the
Ghanaian language or English
X
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident or conversant in using
the teaching guide and teaching aids
X
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in their ability to
teach reading
√
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in managing
classrooms (supporting struggling learners,
facilitating small group work)
√
Attribution
Theory
Teachers believe that students’ reading
proficiency is largely due to factors beyond their
control (e.g., classroom size)
√

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Value
The assumed value causes consisted of cost value, task value, utility value, and intrinsic
value (See Chapter 3 for a description of each value type).
Validated value causes. Table 14 shows that none of the assumed value causes were
validated.

Table 14.
Motivational Value Causes Not Validated

Value Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Cost Value Teachers do not place a high value on teaching
due to the profession’s low economic and social
status
Survey Teacher socio-
economic status is
perceived as average
Task Value Teachers do not see the value of teaching
reading in the mother tongue language; believe
English is more important)
Survey /
Interview
All teachers believe it
is important for
students to learn the
mother tongue
Utility Value Teachers do not believe the NALAP material is
relevant because the language selected for the
region differs from students’ mother tongue
language
Interview Majority of students
speak Akuapem Twi
prior to entering
kindergarten.
Intrinsic
Value
Teachers do not enjoy teaching reading Survey All teachers enjoy
teaching reading.

Value causes not validated. The first assumed value cause not validated is cost value.
The assumption was that teachers did not place a high value on teaching due to the low economic
and social status of teachers. To assess this assumption, teachers were asked to rate the social and
economic status of teachers compared to similar occupations requiring the same level of
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education. The mean score illustrated in Figure 12 shows that teachers’ socio-economic status
was perceived as average compared to other professions with similar qualifications. Hence, cost
value was not a validated assumption because teachers did not have low self-perceptions of
social and economic status affecting their regular attendance or performance.

Figure 12. Survey results: Perceived social status of teachers

Figure 13. Survey results: Perceived economic status of teachers

High Above
average
Average Below
average
Poor Mean
2
3
6
3
1
3
Perceived Social Status of Teachers
High Above
average
Average Below
average
Poor Mean
0
3
4 4 4
3
Perceived Economic Status of Teachers
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The second assumed cause is that teachers do not see the value of teaching reading in the
mother tongue language because they believe it is more important for children to learn English.
While this is true for the community at large in Ghana, the survey results and interview findings
indicated that this assumption is not valid. In fact, all 15 teachers interviewed, believe it is
important for students to read in their mother tongue. Eight indicated it was important and seven
stressed that it was very important.
On the survey questionnaire, teachers were asked how strongly they agree or disagree
with the following statements: (a) I believe it is important for children to learn how to read in L1,
(b) I believe it is better for children to learn how to read in English. Prior to the validation
workshop, teachers responded positively to both questions. The reason is because this reflects the
current integrated approach. Once the question was clarified, nearly all teachers, 14 out of 15,
strongly agreed (8) or agreed (7) that students should initially learn to read in their mother
tongue. They also recognized the importance of oral speaking and listening skills in English in
the early grades.

Figure 14. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is important for children to learn how to read
in L1

Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 8 6 1 0
N=15
a. I believe it is important for children to learn how to read in
L1.
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Figure 15. Survey results: Teachers who believe it is better for children to learn how to read in
English

The third type of value assumed cause is utility value. Past evaluations showed that in
20% of schools the language selected for NALAP instruction was incongruent with the students’
and teachers’ mother tongue. This could cause teachers to view NALAP as irrelevant, resulting
in low utility value. However, this assumption was not validated. Although the majority of
students speak a local dialect at home, teachers reported that 85% of students speak and
understand Akuapem Twi before coming to school. In most cases, they have no problem
understanding the language of instruction. The researcher observed that students do have limited
speaking capability in the local language, and sometimes use English words to respond to
questions in the local language, but the majority of teachers asserted that students often use
Akuapem Twi on the playground versus their mother tongue since it is the common language
and that teaching in the common local language should be maintained.
The fourth value type is intrinsic value. Contrary to the assumption that teachers do not
possess intrinsic motivation, all teachers surveyed agreed (8) or strongly agreed (7) with the
Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 1 2 7 5
N=15
b. I believe it is better for children to learn how to read
English.
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following statement, “I enjoy teaching my students how to read.” Thus, this assumption was not
validated.
Expectancy Value
Validated expectancy value causes. There were no assumed expectancy theory causes
validated.
Invalidated expectancy value causes. Table 15 shows that the assumption that teachers
do not expect all their students to read with comprehension by the end of P3 was not validated.
The survey results indicated that 80% of teachers expect their students to read with
comprehension by the end of P3. Twelve of 15 teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed with the
following statement, “I do not expect all students to be able to read with comprehension in the
local language by the end of P3.” Classroom observations confirmed that teachers stress listening
and reading comprehension exercises throughout reading and oral tasks.

Table 15.
Motivational Expectancy Theory Assumed Cause Not Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Expectancy
Value
Teachers do not expect all their
students read with comprehension
by the end of P3
Survey 80% of teachers expect their
students to read with
comprehension

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Self-Efficacy
Validated self-efficacy causes. There were two assumed self-efficacy causes that were
validated through surveys, as illustrated in Table 16.

Table 16.
Validated Self-Efficacy Causes

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in their
ability to teach reading
Survey 1/3 of teachers do not feel
confident teaching reading
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in managing
classrooms (facilitating small group
work, supporting struggling learners)
Survey 1/2 of teachers surveyed did
not feel confident managing
classrooms

The first self-efficacy cause, teachers are not confident in their ability to teach reading,
was validated based on the analysis of surveys and classroom observations. One-third of teachers
surveyed did not feel completely confident teaching reading skills. Ten teachers surveyed
reported that they felt very confident, two somewhat confident, and three only a little confident
in their ability to teach reading. Although 67% of teachers surveyed, self-reported that they felt
very confident in teaching reading skills, both classroom findings and knowledge results indicate
low comfort and competency levels. Responses to knowledge questions on the survey indicated
that few teachers were competent in effective reading instruction. Classroom observations also
revealed that few teachers knew how to teach phonics or decoding strategies, and hence lacked
procedural knowledge. Therefore, this assumption was validated through triangulation of other
sources.
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Figure 16. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach reading

The second validated cause for self-efficacy was that teachers are not confident in
managing classrooms, with regards to facilitating small group work or supporting struggling
readers. The results showed that 50% of teachers, on average, did not feel confident or very
confident in their ability to manage classrooms or meet the needs of struggling learners. As
shown in Figure 17, 47% of teachers (7 out of 15 surveyed) felt very confident in their ability to
manage classrooms effectively while 53% felt somewhat confident or a little confident.
Similarly, about half of teachers (53%; 8 teachers) felt very prepared to meet the needs of
struggling learners, while 47% felt somewhat prepared or only a little prepared. Therefore, the
assumption is validated because about half of teachers surveyed lacked confidence in managing
classrooms and meeting the needs of struggling learners, which could have a significant outcome
on student reading achievement.

Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Percent 67% 13% 20% 0%
N=15
How Confident Do You Feel in Your Ability to Teach
Reading?
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Figure 17. Survey results: Teacher confidence in managing classrooms and addressing the needs
of struggling learners

Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Percent 47% 33% 20% 0%
N=15
a. How Confident Do You Feel in Managing Classrooms?
Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Percent 53% 20% 27% 0%
N=15
b. How prepared are you to address the needs of struggling
learners?
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Self-efficacy causes not validated. There were two assumed self-efficacy causes that
were not validated (See Table 17).

Table 17.
Self-Efficacy Assumed Causes Not Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident
teaching in the Ghanaian language
or English
Survey All teachers are confident in their
language abilities and teaching in
the local language; 2/3 of teachers
are confident in teaching English
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident or
conversant in using the teaching
guide and teaching aids
Survey /
Interview
80% of teachers are very confident
in using the TG and relevant
teaching aids

The first assumed self-efficacy cause, confidence in teaching the Ghanaian language or
English, was assessed through survey questions. The survey results demonstrated that nearly all
teachers feel confident in their ability to read and write in both the mother tongue (15 of 15
teachers) and English (14 of 15 teachers). Only one teacher did not feel confident in their English
language abilities.
With specific regards to teaching reading in the local language, 13 of 15 teachers were
very confident teaching listening, reading and writing skills in the local language and two were
somewhat confident. In terms of teaching English, two-thirds of teachers were very confident,
one was somewhat confident, and four were a little confident. Because the majority of teachers
are confident in their language and teaching abilities, this assumption was not validated.
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Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that five of the 15 teachers, representing 1/3 of the sample, need to
improve their confidence levels in teaching the English language.

Figure 18. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to read and write the local language

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 10 5 0 0
N=15
a. I am confident in my ability to read and write the local
language well.
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Figure 19. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to read and write the English language

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 10 4 1 0
N= 15
b. I am confident in my ability to read and write English well.
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Figure 20. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach the local language

Figure 21. Survey results: Teacher confidence in ability to teach English

Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Frequency 13 2 0 0
N=15
c. How confident do you feel in your ability to teach the local
language?
Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Frequency 10 1 4 0
N=15
d. How confident do you feel in your ability to teach English?
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The second assumed self-efficacy cause, teachers were not confident or conversant in
using the teaching guide and teaching aids, was not validated according to several sources of
data. First, knowledge survey results showed that 14 of 15 teachers possess knowledge in using
the teaching aids effectively. Secondly, in response to the survey question, “How confident do
you feel using the teacher’s guide and teaching aids?” 80% of teachers stated they were very
confident: one was somewhat confident and, two were a little confident. It is conceivable that the
two who were not confident were those who were not trained. Thirdly, the majority of teachers in
the validation workshop noted that the greatest strengths of NALAP were the materials and
methodologies, 18 and 20, respectively. These results and findings are shown in Figures 22 and
23.

Figure 22. Survey results: Teacher confidence in using NALAP teaching materials

Very Somewhat A little Not at all
Frequency 12 1 2 0
N=15
How confident do you feel using teaching guide and teaching
aids?
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Figure 23. Validation meeting results: NALAP strengths and weaknesses

Attribution
Validated attribution causes. Table 18 shows that the assumed attribution theory cause
was validated.

Table 18.
Validated Attribution Cause

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Attribution Teachers believe that students’ reading
proficiency is largely due to factors
beyond their control
Survey 2/3 of teachers believe student
achievement is beyond their
control.

The assumed attribution cause that teachers believe that students’ reading proficiency is
largely due to factors beyond their control was validated through two survey questions, as shown
Methodology
Materials
18
20
NALAP Strengths and Weaknesses
N=20
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in Figure 24. Teachers were asked whether they believe student achievement is a) largely
dependent upon factors beyond their control or b) dependent upon their teaching ability. The
survey results indicated that while one third of teachers believed that reading proficiency is
largely dependent on their teaching ability, two-thirds of teachers (10 out of 15) believed that
student-reading achievement is largely dependent upon factors beyond the teachers’ control.
Because the majority of teachers attribute reading achievement to factors beyond their teaching
skills, this assumption is validated. The survey results are shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24. Survey results: Teacher perceived influence on student achievement

Strongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 2 3 6 4
N=15
a. Student reading achievement is largely dependent on
teaching ability.
Srongly
agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
Frequency 2 8 2 3
N=15
b. Student reading achievement is largely due to other factors
beyond teachers' control.
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Attribution causes not validated. There was only one attribution theory cause, which
was validated.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
The results and findings indicated that three of the 10 assumed motivational causes were
validated. The validated causes are illustrated in Table 19.

Table 19.
Summary of Validated Assumed Motivational Causes

Motivation
Category Assumed Cause Validated
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in their ability to teach reading √
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in managing classrooms (supporting
struggling learners, facilitating small group work)
√
Attribution Teachers believe that students’ reading proficiency is largely due to
factors beyond their control (e.g., classroom size)
√

Analysis of results from the surveys, interviews and classroom observations prove that
teachers’ motivation is affected by three factors: their confidence in their ability to teach reading,
their confidence in classroom management strategies, and the belief that students’ reading
proficiency is largely due to factors outside their control. Contrary to motivation research,
teachers’ motivation is not affected by the following factors: cost value, task value, utility value,
intrinsic value, or expectancy theory. In other words, teachers do value the teaching profession,
teaching the mother tongue language, and teaching reading through the NALAP approach. They
do expect their students to read with comprehension by P3, and are confident in their ability to
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teach in the Ghanaian language and English, and in using the TLMs appropriately. The areas
where teachers lack motivation overlap with the knowledge gaps and indicate a need for
increased knowledge and confidence of teaching beginning reading skills and using child-
centered pedagogies for improved classroom management. The more confident teachers feel in
teaching reading and influencing student reading outcomes, the more likely they will be to
attribute student success to effective reading instruction.
Results and Findings for Organizational Assumed Causes
There were 12 assumed organizational causes. Eight were validated and one was newly
identified resulting in a total of nine validated causes. Three assumed causes were found to be
invalid. These results are displayed in Table 20.
The assumed causes have been organized into four categories: materials and resources,
curriculum alignment, professional development, and support structures.

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Table 20.
Organizational Gaps Validated, Not Validated and New Causes

Organization Assumed Cause Validated
Not
Validated
New
Causes
Resources Insufficient student textbooks √
Resources Lack of supplementary teaching and learning
materials appropriate for the NALAP curriculum
X
Resources Overcrowded classes prevent teachers from using
child-centered strategies
X
Resources Inaccurate translation in Akuapem Twi Big Book √
Curriculum
Alignment
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not aligned
with NALAP milestones for bilingual speaking and
listening
√
Curriculum
Alignment
Reading methodology and five key skills are not
explicitly described in the teacher’s guide
√
Curriculum
Alignment
Language selected as medium of instruction is not
the pupils’ first language
X
Prof. Dev Insufficient courses on reading instruction in the
teacher college
√
Prof. Dev Limited opportunities for teaching reading during
teaching practicum
√
Prof. Dev Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies
√
Support
Structure
Lack of ongoing support and coaching on NALAP
implementation in the classroom
√
Support
Structure
Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other
teachers
√
Support
Structure
Challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable √

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Resource Gaps
Validated resource causes. Two resource gaps were validated, as shown in Table 21.

Table 21.
Organizational Gaps: Validated Resource Assumed Causes

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Resources Insufficient teacher guides (TGs)
and student textbooks
Survey / Interviews /
Validation Meeting
Sufficient TGs; Insufficient
Pupil materials
Resources
(New cause)
Inaccurate translation in Akuapem
Twi Big Book
Interviews /
Validation Meeting
15 teachers agree or
strongly agree

The first organizational assumed cause, insufficient teacher’s guides and student
textbooks, was partially validated through three sources: the survey, interviews, and the
validation meeting.
Figure 25 shows the number of schools with the teacher’s guide and textbooks.
According to the survey results, all 15 teachers had the new Integrated Approach to Literacy
Teacher’s Guide. This finding was confirmed through individual interviews and at the validation
meeting. In terms of the student textbooks, four of the five schools had the L1 and English
textbook for P1 classrooms. None of the KG classrooms had a pupil textbook, but some had a
literacy workbook for drawing or letter writing exercises. Four of the five schools had the KG2
literacy workbook. While most schools had access to the books, the pupil textbooks and
workbooks were shared amongst pupils (see textbook per pupil ratio in Figure 26). For that
reason, students could not write directly in the workbook. Instead, they had to trace patterns in
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their exercise books. Fourteen of 15 teachers interviewed stressed the need for more pupil
textbooks and literacy workbooks to achieve a one textbook per pupil ratio.

Figure 25. Survey results: Number of schools with TGs and textbooks

Figure 26. Survey results: Textbook per pupil ratio

0 1 2 3 4 5
Has teachers guide
English text for P1
L2 text for P1
KG2 literacy workbook
KG1 pupil books
Has teachers guide English text for P1 L2 text for P1
KG2 literacy
workbook
KG1 pupil books
Schools 5 4 4 3 0
Number of Schools with TGs and Textbooks
1:1 1:2 1:3 0:0
Classrooms 2 4 1 8
N=15
Textbook Per Pupil Raio
(1 textbook: 1 Pupil)
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This assumption therefore is validated because, although there were sufficient teachers’
guides, the majority of teachers believe that there were not enough pupil textbooks per child.
They further stressed that teachers and parents must purchase the Literacy Workbook, which
limits access for the most economically disadvantaged students.
The interview included one open-ended question about the strengths and weaknesses of
the NALAP program, which revealed a new cause. One of the weaknesses identified was the
inaccurate translation of the local language (Akuapem Twi) in the Big Book. Several teachers
cited that vocabulary words reflect “Asanti” Twi, not “Akuapem” Twi. This assumption was
confirmed at the teacher validation workshop. As shown in Figure 27, 15 teachers agreed (8) or
strongly agreed (7) with this assumed cause, and five disagreed. Hence, the assumption is
validated and requires follow-up from an Akuapem Twi native speaker.

Figure 27. Validation meeting results: Inaccurate translation

7
8
4
1
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
Inaccurate Translation in Big Book
N=20
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Resource causes not validated. Two assumed resource gaps, as shown in Table 22, were
not validated.

Table 22.
Organizational Gaps: Resource Assumed Causes Not Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Resources Lack of supplementary teaching and learning
materials (TLMs) appropriate for the NALAP
curriculum
Survey Majority of
teachers have
TLMs
Resources Overcrowded classes prevent teachers from
using child-centered strategies
Interview
Question
Average class size
is 27 students

The first assumed cause, lack of supplementary teaching and learning materials, was not
validated. The new integrated approach to literacy teacher’s guide indicates that teachers should
have received the following NALAP teaching and learning materials: alphabet cards,
conversational poster, readers and big books. Figure 28 shows that all teachers surveyed received
the conversational poster, the NALAP big book, and the Teacher’s Guide. While 50% of the
teachers at the time had the alphabet cards, 50% also produced their own materials, such as
flashcards, word lists, charts, displays, etc. Thus, there were sufficient materials and teaching
aids to teach the activities in the Teacher’s Guide. As indicated above, the only material lacking
was the pupil workbooks and readers.

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Figure 28. Survey results: Teaching aids used to teach reading classes

Curriculum Alignment
Validated curriculum alignment causes. Two assumed causes related to curriculum
alignment were validated through document analysis. The first assumed cause is that teacher’s
guides and lesson plans are not aligned with NALAP milestones. To validate this assumption,
teachers’ guides and lesson plans were reviewed for alignment with the milestones for language
and reading. The analysis revealed that the milestones were clearly listed by grade in the
Appendix of the Teacher’s Guide; however, the milestones were not linked to the aims and
objectives of the daily lessons. Teachers are expected to familiarize themselves with the
milestones and teach them, but there is no guidance provided. It is assumed that if they teach the
lessons accordingly, they will teach the milestones. However, teachers often skip steps such as
phonemic awareness in the teachers’ guides, and hence may not teach all reading skills or
milestones. Teachers’ lesson plans also do not list the milestones. The second assumed cause, not
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Conversational poster
NALAP Big Book
Alphabet cards
Pupil readers
Conversational poster NALAP Big Book Alphabet cards Pupil readers
Frequency 15 15 7 4
What Kinds of Teaching Aids Do You Use to Teach Reading
Classes?
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all five reading skills are introduced and explicitly described in the teacher’s guide, was
validated through document review of the teachers’ guide. The validated curriculum gaps are
illustrated in Table 23.

Table 23.
Organizational Gaps: Curriculum Alignment Assumed Causes Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Curriculum
Alignment
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not aligned with
NALAP milestones for bilingual speaking and
listening
Document
Analysis
Not aligned
Curriculum
Alignment
Reading methodology and five key skills are not
explicitly described in the teacher’s guide
Document
Analysis
Not explicitly
described

Curriculum alignment causes not validated. The assumption that the NALAP language
selected as the medium of instruction is not the pupils’ first language was an accurate
assumption; however, it was not found to be a barrier to policy implementation. Interview results
(as discussed in the knowledge domain) found that 85% of students speak the language of
instruction prior to coming to school. The two chief reasons are 1) because the mother tongue is
a dialect with no orthography and, 2) because students and parents must use a common local
language in the marketplace. Teachers claimed that all students can speak and understand the
NALAP language in both the classroom and playground — an indicator of the children’s comfort
level. The NALAP local language is also very similar to the mother tongue unlike English,
which is more difficult for them to comprehend and learn. Table 24 summarizes the results.

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Table 24.
Organizational Gaps: Curriculum Alignment Assumed Causes Not Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Curriculum
Alignment
Language selected as medium of instruction
is not the pupils’ first language
Interview 85% are familiar
with the language

Professional development
Validated PD causes. Table 25 shows that both pre-service and in-service training do not
adequately prepare teachers to teach reading or implement NALAP in the classroom.

Table 25.
Organizational Gaps: Professional Development Assumed Causes Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Prof. Dev Insufficient courses on reading instruction
in the teacher college
Interview 3 of 15 teachers
studied reading
Prof. Dev Limited opportunities for teaching reading
during teaching practicum
Interview 4 of 15 teachers
taught reading
Prof. Dev Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies
Interview /
Validation Meeting
Insufficient for over
half (8 of 15)

The first assumed cause was validated through interviews. Interview findings indicated
that among the 14 certified teachers, nine studied general language skills in their English
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coursework, one completed a language course in the Ghanaian language, and three participated
in reading-specific courses that were very general in nature and not focused on early literacy
skills development. Three teachers completed coursework in early childhood education; yet,
content did not pertain to early grade reading. These results suggest that teacher’s colleges are
failing to prepare newly qualified teachers with the essential skills for effective reading
instruction, and hence the assumption is validated.
Secondly, of 14 of the 15 teachers who participated in a teaching practicum during their
pre-service training, only four teachers (28%) taught in the early grades. For many teachers, the
NALAP training was their first introduction to bilingual instruction. Thus, the assumption that
the teaching practicum offers limited opportunities to teach reading in the early grades was
validated.
The third assumed cause that the NALAP training was insufficient to master NALAP
methodologies was validated by over half of teachers interviewed. Fifty-three percent of teachers
(8 of 15) thought that the training was inadequate. The remaining 50% (7) thought that the
NALAP training was sufficient because the teaching guide was easy to use. However, when
probed, many teachers could not recollect what they had learned during the training nor could
they recall in which year they were trained on NALAP.
The most recent training on the integrated approach took place in May 2014. This
training on the integrated approach to literacy was also insufficient. The validation meeting
results shown in Figure 29 indicate that all 20 teachers strongly agree (12) or agree (8) that the
training was inadequate. Similar to the NALAP training, trainers received a five-day training on
the full training manual and content while teachers received a half-day orientation to the new
approach due to budget constraints. The assumption of the trainers when designing the workshop
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was that, not much had changed since the original NALAP training, except for introduction of
English vocabulary during the L1 lesson and integration of other subject content into the
language course, and thus one day should have sufficed. However, classroom observations and
interviews revealed that teachers did not feel completely comfortable preparing lessons
according to the new approach or mixing L1 and L2 simultaneously. Some teachers continued
teaching L1 for 60 minutes and L2 for 30 minutes because they thought mixing the languages
confused students. Others translated every sentence into English and L1, but wrote the English
terms on the chalkboard. A few teachers switched back and forth between lessons, interjecting an
English rhyme in the middle of the Ghanaian lesson to stimulate students. The evidence shows
that the training on NALAP and the new integrated approach were both insufficient to achieve
consistent and systematic implementation across the district.

Figure 29. Validation meeting: Inadequate training on integrated approach to literacy

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
12
8
0
0
Inadequate Training on Integrated Approach to Literacy
N=20
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Professional development causes not validated. All of the professional development
assumed causes were validated.
Support Structures
Validated support structure causes. As shown in Table 26, three assumed support
structure causes were validated.

Table 26.
Organizational Gaps: Support Structure Causes Validated

Type Assumed Cause Instrument Results
Support
structure
Lack of ongoing support and coaching on
NALAP implementation in the classroom
Interview / Validation
Meeting
17 of 20 teachers
requested add’l
support
Support
structure
Limited opportunities to exchange ideas
with other teachers
Survey / Interview 2.5 PD meetings
per term
Support
structure
Challenges adhering to the 90-minute
timetable
Interview / Validation
Meeting
Exhaustive
Too many
activities

The first assumed cause, lack of ongoing support and coaching on NALAP
implementation in the classroom, was validated through interviews and the validation meeting.
The interview findings showed that two-thirds of teachers (10 out of 15) have received coaching
on implementing the NALAP methodologies in the classroom. In order of frequency, 31% of
teachers have received coaching from peers, 19% from District Education Officers (including the
KG Coordinator), 13% from Master Trainers or Head Teachers, and 6% from Circuit
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Supervisors. Teachers receive mentoring support on an average of once per team; though many
teachers requested additional support. The validation meeting results confirmed that 17 of 20
teachers agree or strongly agree that more coaching support on NALAP and the integrated
approach is needed. Hence, the assumption is validated.

Figure 30. Interview findings: Mentoring support received

Figure 31. Validation meeting results: Inadequate follow-up support

Head Teacher
Peer mentoring
Circuit Supervisor
Master Trainer
District Education Officers
KG Coordinator
13%
31%
6%
13%
19%
19%
Teachers Have Received Mentoring Support From:
N=10
Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
3
14
2 1
Inadequate Follow-Up Support
N=20
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The second assumed cause — limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other teachers
— was validated through surveys and interviews. The survey results showed that 11 out of 15
teachers have attended professional development meetings. On average, teachers attended 2.5
meetings per term. During meetings, 42% of teachers share ideas, about 30% practice lessons,
and less than 20% critically reflect on their teaching. The interviews found that teachers often
prepare lessons at home on their own time due to heavy teaching loads. In only one school, two
KG teachers attended weekly lesson planning sessions with the Head Teacher and peer teachers
to share challenges, troubleshoot, and develop joint lesson plans. Thus, the assumption is
validated because the majority of teachers rarely meet to reflect, practice teaching, and develop
lesson plans for NALAP classes.

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Figure 32. Survey results: Participation in professional development meetings

Yes No
Frequency 11 4
N=15
a. Have You Attended Professional Development Meetings?
Share ideas
Practice lessons
Reflect critically on teaching
Develop scheme of work
42%
29%
17%
13%
b. What Do You Generally Do at Professional Development
Meetings?
N=11
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The third assumed cause that teachers had challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable
was validated. The average class time is 83 minutes; yet, the majority of teachers stressed that
the activities are exhaustive for both the teachers and students. According to teachers
interviewed, students get bored and tired after 60 minutes. One of the key weaknesses of
NALAP as cited by teachers is that, there are too many steps, topics, and materials to integrate
into the lesson. When teachers attempt to follow the Teacher’s Guide and Workbook Guide, they
run out of time. As a result, they must push topics and steps into the next day or week.
Translating between the two languages also makes it difficult to complete tasks within the time
allocations. Figures 33 and 34 show the results of the validation meeting. As illustrated, all
teachers agreed that NALAP is exhaustive: 17 of 20 teachers indicated that there are too many
steps and activities in the teacher’s guide. Therefore, this assumption is validated.

Figure 33. Validation meeting results: NALAP is exhaustive

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly
disagree
6
14
0 0
NALAP is Exhaustive
N=20
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Figure 34. Validation meeting results: Teacher guide has too many activities

Support structure causes not validated. All of the support structure causes were
validated.
Synthesis of Organizational Results and Findings
There were nine organizational causes verified through the results, findings, and
validation meeting. These validated causes are illustrated in Table 27.

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
3
14
3
0
Teacher Guide Has Too Many Steps/Activities
N=20
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Table 27.
Organizational Gap Assumed Causes Validated

Organization Assumed Cause Validated
New
Causes
Resources Insufficient student textbooks √
Resources Inaccurate translation in Akuapem Twi Big Book √
Curriculum
Alignment
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not aligned with
NALAP milestones for bilingual speaking and listening
√
Curriculum
Alignment
Reading methodology and five key skills are not
explicitly described in the teacher’s guide
√
Prof. Dev. Insufficient courses on reading instruction in the teacher
college
√
Prof. Dev. Limited opportunities for teaching reading during
teaching practicum
√
Prof. Dev. Insufficient training to master NALAP methodologies √
Support Structure Lack of ongoing support and coaching on NALAP
implementation in the classroom
√
Support Structure Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other
teachers
√
Support Structure Challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable (90-
minute lessons are too exhaustive)
√

Firstly, in terms of resources, there are sufficient teacher’s guides and TLMs, but an
insufficient number of pupil textbooks and workbooks to meet the 1:1 textbook per pupil ratio.
The interviews revealed that the Big Books were inaccurately translated into Akuapem Twi and
thus some vocabulary words were incorrect. This could potentially affect how teachers use the
books and whether or not they point to the words as they read aloud. Secondly, document
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analysis revealed that the NALAP milestones and reading skills are not explicitly described in
the NALAP teacher guide or in teachers’ lesson plans. Thus, there is a misalignment between the
curriculum and the teaching materials. With regards to professional development, results verified
that pre-service and in-service trainings do not adequately prepare teachers to teach reading skills
in the early grades. Both the NALAP training in 2010 and the Integrated Approach to Literacy
introduced in 2014 insufficiently trained over half of teachers. As a result, teachers have not
mastered the reading methods, lesson planning, or time management skills and are unable to
effectively adhere to the 90-minute timetable. Teacher effectiveness is further hampered by a
lack of on-going support, coaching, and opportunities to exchange ideas with peers on effective
NALAP reading instruction. During the validation workshop, the District Education Officers
took note of these challenges and offered to provide an intensive workshop to revisit lesson
planning according to the new integrated approach.
Summary of Validated KMO Causes
The research confirmed knowledge and organizational barriers identified in the literature
review. Teachers lack factual and procedural knowledge, resources, professional development
and materials aligned with the curriculum. The motivational gaps, such as lack of confidence in
teaching reading and using child-centered approaches, reflect the knowledge gaps. Thus, tackling
the knowledge barriers will likely increase confidence and motivation. Considering that past
teacher-training programs have had minimal impact, a comprehensive, high-quality teacher
training program linked to reading skills, targeted instruction based on formative assessment, and
milestones could address the organizational and knowledge gaps. An in-depth literature review
will be conducted in Chapter 5, and research-based solutions will be developed for addressing
the root causes of the teacher performance gap.
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CHAPTER 5:
SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this chapter is to present evidence-based recommendations for addressing
the validated knowledge, motivation, and organization causes reported in Chapter 4 that prevent
teachers from effectively implementing NALAP reading lessons. In particular, Chapter 5
responds to the second research question, “What are the potential knowledge, motivation, and
organizational solutions for first grade teachers to adhere to the set standards in the NALAP
teacher guide?”
This chapter has been divided into four sections. The first section presents the validated
causes and the rationale for selecting the key causes. The second section provides solutions from
applied research theories, which demonstrate the relevance, applicability and effectiveness of the
solutions in closing the gap. The third section outlines an implementation plan, which describes
integrated solutions for addressing the KMO barriers. Finally, an evaluation plan is presented in
the fourth section, which provides guidance for implementing the proposed solutions and
assessing progress towards achieving the expected outcomes.
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale
In a full gap analysis, solutions would be provided for all validated causes identified
through the research. Thus, ideally, there would be 21 solutions to address the 21 causes
validated in Chapter 4. Since this is likely not cost-effective or feasible, a systematic process was
applied for narrowing down the number to the most significant causes affecting the teacher
performance gap. The causes were ranked according to criteria, and a mean score was calculated
to determine their overall ranking.
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Three heuristics were used for ranking the causes according to their significance: 1) the
gravity of the problem, measured by the percentage of teachers facing the challenge; 2) the most
feasible problems to solve determined by level of difficulty; 3) the problems that would have the
greatest impact on closing the KMO gaps. The criteria in Table 28 were used to rank each
validated cause from 1-4 in descending order of significance. For instance, if 80% of teachers
were affected by the issue, it was the least difficult to address, and most impactful on closing the
KMO gap, then the validated cause received a number one ranking for all three criteria.

Table 28.
Ranking Criteria

Criteria 1 Criteria 2 Criteria 3
Ranking
Percent of teachers
facing the challenge Most Feasible
Greatest impact on
closing the KMO gap
1 80-100% Least difficult Most impactful
2 70-79% Somewhat difficult Impactful
3 50-69% Difficult Neutral
4 30-49% Very difficult Not impactful

Table 29 shows how the mean scores were calculated for the three criteria. For instance,
the mean score for the first validated knowledge cause is 1.0. This score was calculated by
averaging the scores for each criterion. In this case, the score was 1.0 for Criteria 1, 1.0 for
Criteria 2, and 1.0 for Criteria 3 for a total of 3.0 points divided by three, which equals 1.0.
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Table 29.
Validated KMO Gaps Ranked According to Selection Criteria

Knowledge
Category Validated Cause
Criteria 1:
Percent of
teachers
facing the
challenge
Criteria
2:
Most
feasible
Criteria 3:
Greatest
impact on
closing
KMO gap
Mean
Score
Factual Teachers do not know the five key
elements of effective reading
instruction: phonemic awareness,
phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension (KF1)
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Factual Teachers do not know the standards
and milestones for reading and bi-
literacy in KG and P1 (KF8)
1
(100%)
1 2 1.3
Procedural Teachers do not know how to
integrate the five skills to teach
reading fluency and comprehension
(KP)
1
(80%)
2 1 1.3
Procedural Teachers do not know how to explicitly
teach phonics and decoding skills (KP2)
2
(71%)
2 1 1.6
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop
lessons in the Ghanaian language
aligned with NALAP milestones
(KP9)
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Procedural Teachers do not know how to use
child-centered pedagogies (e.g., pair
share, small group work) (KP12)
1
(84%)
1 1 1.0
Procedural Teachers do not know how to develop
lessons according to the new
integrated approach (new)
1
(80%)
3 1 1.6
Procedural Teachers do not know how to
effectively assess students’ reading
progress (KM10)
1
(100%)
2 1 1.3

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Table 29, continued
Motivation
Category Validated Cause
Criteria 1
Percent of
teachers
facing the
challenge
Criteria
2
Most
feasible
Criteria 3
Greatest
impact on
closing
KMO gap
Mean
Score
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in their
ability to teach reading (M8)
4
(33%)
1 1 2.0
Self-efficacy Teachers are not confident in
managing classrooms (supporting
struggling learners, facilitating small
group work) (M9)
3
(50%)
2 2 2.3
Attribution Teachers believe that students’
reading proficiency is largely due to
factors beyond their control (M7)
3
(66%)
3 3 3.0
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Table 29, continued
Organizational
Category Validated Cause
Criteria 1
Percent of
teachers
facing the
challenge
Criteria 2
Most
Feasible
Criteria 3
Greatest
impact on
closing
KMO gap
Mean
Score
Resources Insufficient student textbooks (O1) 1
(93%)
2 1 1.3
Resources Inaccurate translation in Akuapem Twi
Big Book (O13)
1
(100%)
3 3 2.3
Curriculum
Alignment
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not
aligned with NALAP milestones for
bilingual speaking and listening (O3)
1
(100%)
2 2 1.6
Curriculum
Alignment
Reading methodology and five key skills
are not explicitly described in the
teacher’s guide (O11)
1
(100%)
1 1 1.0
Prof. Dev Insufficient courses on reading
instruction in the teacher college (O8)
1
(80%)
2 1 1.3
Prof. Dev Limited opportunities for teaching
reading during teaching practicum (O9)
2
(73%)
2 1 1.6
Prof. Dev Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies and integrated approach
(O4)
3
(53%)
1 1 1.6
Support
Structure
Lack of ongoing support and coaching on
NALAP implementation in the classroom
(O6)
1
(85%)
1 1 1.0
Support
Structure
Limited opportunities to exchange ideas
with other teachers (O7)
1
(86%)
1 1 1.0
Support
Structure
Challenges adhering to the 90-minute
timetable (90-minute lessons are too
exhaustive) (O10)
1
(85%)
1 1 1.0

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Mean scores ranging between 1.0 and 2.0 were selected for the next phase of solutions
development. Those outside of this range were considered less significant or difficult to address.
The selection process revealed that 18 validated causes have the greatest impact on closing the
knowledge, motivation and organizational gaps, and three were considered insignificant or
difficult to address. The three validated causes that did not meet the threshold were: (1) teachers
are not confident in managing classrooms, (2) teachers believe that students’ reading proficiency
is largely due to factors beyond their control, and (3) inaccurate translation in the Akuapem Twi
Big Book. The first two causes are difficult to measure. Unlike reading skills, which can be
directly observed, confidence in managing classrooms is more difficult to measure since teachers
will choose to use activities they are comfortable with during classroom observations. Teachers’
beliefs are also difficult to assess. The third cause, correcting translations in published children’s
books, is difficult to address without the support and resources of the Ministry of Education, or a
donor. It would be easier to provide additional supplementary materials to address the gaps.
Solutions for the 18 causes will be developed in the following sections and organized by
KMO category.
Solutions for Knowledge and Skills Gaps
The solutions provided in this section will be based on three sources of research. First is
the Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) framework, which is a revision of the original Bloom’s
taxonomy. The framework classifies four types of knowledge and cognitive processes for
learning, teaching and assessing: factual, procedural, conceptual and metacognitive. The teachers
demonstrated lack of factual and procedural knowledge. Therefore, a solution to address these
cognitive dimensions will be provided. Secondly, knowledge and skill enhancements will be
recommended based on Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework. There are four possible
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solutions (information, job aids, training or education) depending on relevant past experience,
expertise, and knowledge from routine practice. Thirdly, an extensive literature review will
inform how the recommended solutions can be adapted to fit the context of reading instruction in
early primary school in Ghana.
Factual Knowledge Gaps and Solutions
The two factual knowledge gaps the teachers demonstrated were:
1. Teachers do not know the five key elements of effective reading instruction
(phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension)
2. Teachers do not know the standards and milestones for reading and bi-literacy in
kindergarten (KG1 and KG2) and first grade (P1)
To address these factual knowledge gaps, teachers will need concrete knowledge of the
reading terminology and specific details of the five key elements (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). They will also need to know the milestones for reading and bi-literacy for K-3, so that
they can then transfer this knowledge to lesson planning. Although teachers have a teacher’s
guide and job aids (conversational posters, big books, alphabet cards) to implement the lesson
plans, they lack sufficient knowledge of reading terminology, the importance of phonemic
awareness and phonics, and the milestones. When teachers have job aids, but require a higher
level of knowledge and skills to successfully apply the methodology, Clark and Estes (2008)
recommend “training” as a solution. The validated factual knowledge gaps and proposed
solutions are illustrated in Table 30.

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Table 30.
Factual Knowledge Gaps and Solutions

Factual Knowledge Gaps Proposed Solutions
Teachers do not know the five key elements of
effective reading instruction
Provide training on key reading skills
Teachers do not know the standards and milestones
for reading and bi-literacy in kindergarten (KG1
and KG2) and first grade (P1)
Provide training on the NALAP reading
and bi-literacy milestones for KG and P1

Solution 1: Provide training on reading skills and milestones. The recommended
solution is to provide training on the key reading skills and milestones to increase factual
knowledge and understanding. The training should include definitions on reading skills plus
guided practice on how to teach them, along with corrective feedback to help teachers master
teaching the key concepts (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Procedural Knowledge Gaps and Solutions
There were six procedural knowledge gaps that were validated:
1. Teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills to teach reading fluency and
comprehension
2. Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach phonics and decoding skills
3. Teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies (e.g., pair share, small
group work)
4. Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in the Ghanaian language aligned with
NALAP milestones
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5. Teachers do not know how to develop lessons according to the new integrated
approach
6. Teachers do not know how to effectively assess students’ reading progress
To address these procedural knowledge gaps, teachers need to know the criteria for
determining when to use appropriate procedures (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). For example,
they need to know when to teach each specific reading skill, how and when to explicitly teach
phonics or decoding, and when and how to use child-centered pedagogies. They also need to
know how to develop lessons in the Ghanaian language that are aligned with the NALAP
milestones and the integrated curriculum. Finally, teachers need to know how to assess students’
reading progress, and when the appropriate time to do so is. Solutions have been developed for
these knowledge gaps (See Table 31).

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Table 31.
Procedural Knowledge Gaps and Solutions

Procedural Knowledge Gaps Proposed Solutions
Teachers do not know how to integrate the five skills to teach
reading fluency and comprehension
Provide in-service training and
coaching on how to teach the
five key reading skills and child-
centered pedagogies
Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach phonics and
decoding skills
Teachers do not know how to use child-centered pedagogies
(e.g., pair share, small group work)
Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in the
Ghanaian language aligned with NALAP milestones
Provide in-service training and
coaching on lesson plan
development
Teachers do not know how to develop lessons according to
the new integrated approach
Teachers do not know how to effectively assess students’
reading progress
Develop continuous assessment
monitoring tool and train
teachers in its usage to track
pupil reading progress

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Solution 2: Provide reading teachers with in-service training and coaching on how
to teach the five key reading skills through child-centered pedagogies. Procedural knowledge
gaps in reading instruction and child-centered approaches indicate teachers need demonstration,
guided practice, and corrective feedback to perfect the new methodologies (Clark & Estes,
2008). The proposed solution is to provide in-service training that includes demonstration of the
key reading skills and child-centered methodologies, observation of practice and corrective
feedback, and continued coaching at the school level. It is important to move from training to
coaching to independent practice, giving teachers the flexibility and autonomy to innovate as
appropriate according to the needs and abilities of students (Brozo & Sturtevant, 2009).
In terms of the training content, teachers should be trained in the child-centered, balanced
reading approach so they know when to apply teacher-guided phonics instruction and child-
centered whole-language approaches. A child-centered approach immerses students in authentic
reading and writing experiences first, and then teaches essential skills within the context
(Johnson, 2015). According to Johnson (2015), teachers should use planned, systematic, direct
and explicit instruction for short periods of time (30 seconds to no more than five minutes) to
teach alphabetic principles, phonics and phonemic awareness, coupled with developmentally
appropriate activities to reinforce the letter-sound. Thus, reading skills should be taught in the
context of authentic reading and writing followed by brief amounts of explicit instruction and
developmentally appropriate activities, such as play, especially for children in pre-school and
kindergarten.
Additionally, it is important to train teachers in how to manage time effectively and
facilitate complex activities, such as pair share, small group activities, the community learning
circle, and other activities in the teacher’s guide that are unfamiliar and rarely applied. According
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to Brozo and Sturtevant (2009, p. 6), “teachers in successful schools are knowledgeable about
child-centered approaches, are able to use time effectively when managing child-centered
activities, and are expert at managing complex activities.”
Principals, trainers, literacy coaches and district education officers should all be trained in
the reading components, milestones and child-centered approaches as well so that they may be
equipped with the knowledge and expertise to support teachers. They should receive a one-day
additional training on how to use assessment tools and provide corrective feedback, modeling
and praise for teachers’ efforts (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003), so that they can fulfill their
roles as mentors.
Solution 3: Provide in-service training and coaching on lesson plan development.
Teachers also need support planning lessons that focus on reading skills and milestones, and that
integrate other subjects. Hence, teachers should be provided with opportunities to practice
developing lessons linked to the NALAP milestones and the integrated curriculum during the
training workshops. This should be followed with coaching at the school level. Lesson plans
should be reviewed during school visits and classroom observations, and corrective feedback
provided until lessons reflect the reading skills and milestones. Principals, trainers, literacy
coaches and district education officers should all be trained to review the lesson plans for proper
components and to provide corrective feedback and praise for teachers’ efforts (Clark & Estes,
2008; Pintrich, 2003).
Solution 4: Develop a continuous assessment monitoring tool and train teachers in
its usage to track pupil reading progress. The results also indicated that teachers did not have
any job aids for assessing students’ reading progress. Hence, a monitoring tool or continuous
assessment form is recommended for teachers to use to evaluate their students’ progress and to
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customize lessons to meet the needs of individual learners (Wren, 2003). Johnson (2015)
suggests teachers track the scope and sequence of skills or letters taught in a chart or notebook to
monitor teachers’ progress against the curriculum. Teachers can also keep a chart or checklist to
record when students demonstrate mastery of each sub-skill. Therefore, teachers should be
trained to track the sequence of reading skills taught and the proficiency of students in reading,
writing, and speaking the language according to the NALAP milestones and lesson objectives.
Solutions for Motivation Causes
Motivation Gap
The data revealed that teachers do not consistently apply the NALAP reading skills
because they do not feel confident in their ability to teach reading. According to Pintrich’s
research (2003), this is a manifestation of a lack of self-efficacy. The solution will need to
increase teachers’ self-efficacy, or the belief in oneself to teach reading effectively.
Solution 5: Assign specific, short-term achievement goals, provide corrective
feedback, and praise efforts to build teachers’ confidence. As people’s belief about whether
they have the skills required to succeed greatly affects their commitment to the task and the
amount of mental effort they invest in their work (Clark & Estes, 2008), the recommended
solution is to provide teachers with training on the specific reading skills, and then to develop
specific, short-term, but achievable goals for teachers to master the new methodologies. This can
be facilitated through setting clear objectives and agreeing on activities for teachers to teach
during demonstration lessons. Subsequently, trainers and coaches can provide constructive
feedback that encompasses praise for their efforts, clear and accurate feedback (Pintrich, 2003)
balancing comments about strengths and weaknesses (Bandura, 1997), and empathy and
encouragement acknowledging challenges teachers are facing in the classroom (Clark & Estes,
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2008). It is important to provide individual monitoring and private feedback for all teachers, as
this increases accountability (Clark & Estes, 2008; Bandura, 1997). Over time, as teachers begin
to gain confidence in teaching the reading skills, the trainers can gradually reduce the amount of
instructional support and set more concrete and challenging goals for teachers to pursue
independently (Bandura, 1997). The validated motivational gaps and solutions are summarized
in Table 32.

Table 32.
Motivational Gaps and Solutions

Motivational Gaps Proposed Solutions
Teachers do not consistently apply the NALAP
reading skills because they do not feel
confident in their ability to teach reading (lack
of self-efficacy)
Assign specific, short-term, yet achievable
goals, provide corrective feedback, and praise
efforts to build teachers’ confidence

Solutions for Organization Causes
Organizational structures, policies or resources that are not aligned with the goals of the
reform can impede teachers’ performance and achievement of the reform policy (Rueda, 2011).
The case study found three organizational gaps, namely resources, curriculum alignment, and
teacher professional development (both pre-service and in-service training). The solutions for
organizational causes have been organized into these three constructs reflecting the Ghana
NALAP program gaps.

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Resource Gaps
When a policy is not supported by effective resources, this creates an organizational gap
and barrier to achieving the performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). The research findings
revealed that there were insufficient student textbooks and literacy workbooks for a one-to-one
pupil to book ratio. In other words, students in KG do not have their own literacy workbook for
drawing pictures, letters or picture reading/storytelling. Students in P1 do not have their own
books for reading in the local language. As 14 of 15 teachers stressed, this resource gap hinders
the impact of the NALAP program on student reading achievement. Table 33 presents the
proposed solution to address the resource gap.

Table 33.
Resource Gaps and Solutions

Resource Gap Proposed Solution
Insufficient textbooks and literacy workbooks
for a one-to-one pupil to book ratio
Provide low-cost, linguistically appropriate
pupil-reading books for KG1 and P1
classrooms using local resources that can be
easily reproduced

Solution 6: Provide low-cost, linguistically appropriate reading books for KG1 and
P1 classrooms using local resources that can be easily reproduced. There are two possible
solutions. One is for World Education to work with the Ministry of Education to leverage public
or provide resources to purchase greater quantities of the pupil books and distribute them to the
schools lacking sufficient quantities. The other option is for World Education and the Ministry of
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Education to develop low-cost, linguistically appropriate reading books for KG and P1
classrooms using local resources that can be easily reproduced. This recommendation is based on
the principle that organizations (e.g., schools) require adequate resources and tangible supplies to
achieve their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Curriculum Alignment
The study found two organizational gaps related to curriculum alignment:
• Teacher’s guides and lesson plans are not aligned with NALAP milestones for
bilingual speaking and listening
• Reading methodology and five key skills are not explicitly described in the teacher’s
guide
As teachers lack knowledge of the five key reading skills and NALAP milestones, this
information should be explicitly spelled out in the teacher’s guide.
Solution 7: Provide teachers with a supplementary guide to the teachers’ guide that
explicitly describes the five key reading skills and the milestones with direct links to the
lessons. To ensure that all teachers understand the five key reading skills and milestones, and
their relationship to the lessons in the teachers’ guide, it is recommended to provide teachers
with a separate supplemental guide that describes the five key reading skills and the milestones,
and breaks down which skills or milestones are taught in each lesson. This recommendation is
guided by Dixon (1994), who suggested “aligning the structures and processes of the
organization with goals” (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 119). A supplementary guide is recommended
because it is less costly than revising and re-printing all teachers’ guides, which were recently
printed and distributed in 2014. A summary of the validated curriculum alignment gap and
proposed solution is illustrated in Table 34.
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Table 34.
Curriculum Alignment Gaps and Solutions

Curriculum Alignment Gap Curriculum Alignment Solution
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not aligned
with NALAP milestones for bilingual speaking
and listening
Provide teachers with a supplementary guide
to the teachers’ guide that explicitly describes
the five key reading skills and the milestones
with direct links to the lessons
Reading methodology and five key skills are not
explicitly described in the teachers’ guide

Professional Development (Pre-Service Training)
The case study revealed two gaps in preparing primary school teachers to teach reading
courses in the early grades:
• Insufficient courses on reading instruction in the teacher’s college
• Limited opportunities for teaching reading during teaching practicum
The majority of teachers reported that they had not completed any courses specifically
focused on early grade reading instruction or the NALAP principles while studying in the
teachers’ college. Although they spent an average of 8 weeks conducting a teaching practicum,
the grades and topics varied. Only four of 15 teachers specifically taught reading courses. For
many, the NALAP training was their first introduction to bilingual reading instruction. When
newly qualified teachers began working in the early primary grades, they were not well prepared
to teach reading and had to rely on other teachers, the teaching guide, and the short in-service
NALAP training, which was insufficient for them to master the new methods. These findings
indicate that teachers’ colleges are failing to produce newly qualified teachers with the essential
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skills for effective reading instruction. Table 35 displays the pre-service training gaps and
solutions.
Table 35.
Pre-Service Training Gaps and Solutions

Pre-Service Training Gaps Pre-Service Training Solutions
Insufficient courses on reading instruction in
the teacher college
Integrate the NALAP early grade reading
instructional methods and materials into pre-
service training to produce qualified reading
teachers.
Limited opportunities for teaching reading
during teaching practicum

Solution 8: Integrate the NALAP early grade reading instructional methods and
materials into pre-service training to produce qualified reading teachers. The National
Research council recommends providing “adequate knowledge, skills and motivational support
for everyone” involved in the reform effort (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 118). Teachers in pre-
service training should be equipped with scientifically based content knowledge and skills so that
they are well prepared to achieve policy goals. Thus, the proposed solution is to integrate the
NALAP early grade materials and methods into teacher training courses, so that teachers are
equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to effectively teach reading in accordance with
the NALAP milestones and scientifically based reading instruction.
Professional Development (In-Service Training)
As shown in Table 36, there were four gaps in in-service teacher training that were
validated:
• Insufficient training to master NALAP methodologies and integrated approach
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• Challenges adhering to the 90-minute timetable because teachers and students
become exhausted after 60 minutes
• Lack of ongoing support and coaching on NALAP implementation in the classroom
• Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other teachers
A comprehensive solution has been developed to address these challenges (See Table 36).

Table 36.
In-Service Training Gaps and Solutions

In-Service Training Gaps Proposed Solution
Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies and integrated approach
Comprehensive continuous professional
development program that includes:
• In-service training on core reading skills,
child-centered approaches and formative
reading assessment
• Coaching on how to explicitly teach reading
skills and provide guided child-centered
practice within the 90-minute class period
• Development of professional learning
communities that use student achievement
data as the basis for instructional planning
Challenges adhering to the 90-minute
timetable
Lack of ongoing support and coaching on
NALAP implementation in the classroom
Limited opportunities to exchange ideas
with other teachers

Solution 9: Provide comprehensive and continuous professional development that
includes in-service training, coaching, data use, and professional learning communities. To
address the in-service training gaps, the proposed solution is a comprehensive and continuous
professional development program that includes, in-service training on core reading skills, child-
centered approaches, and formative assessment; coaching on how to explicitly teach reading
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skills and provide guided child-centered practice within the 90-minute class period; and
development of professional learning communities that use student achievement data as the basis
for instructional planning. This integrated solution is based on the principle that comprehensive
professional development programs are more effective than training because they focus on
continuous career-long professional development and rely on active forms of learning (Villegas-
Reimers, 2003). This program is described in detail below with supporting evidence of its
effectiveness and applicability.
In-service training. It is widely cited in the capacity building research that teachers
“rarely change their practice in significant ways as a result of participating in occasional or one-
time expert-driven workshops” (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011, p. 4). A meta-analysis of 1,300 students
representing the entire spectrum of professional development programs (Yoon, Duncan, Lee,
Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007) found that one-shot workshops, which are less than 14 hours had no
effect on student achievement. On the other hand, nine different experimental research studies of
teacher professional development all found that extended duration programs, particularly those
with 80 hours of training or more, were positively associated with improvements in teacher
performance and student achievement (Corcoran, McVay, & Riordan, 2003; Wei, Darling-
Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). Building on this research, the proposed
recommendation is a continuous professional development program that includes annual district-
wide in-service training workshops of five days in length (40 hours) and ongoing school or
cluster-based training, at least once per term (12 hours per training). Teachers should not only be
trained in the core reading skills and phonics teaching methods, but also in assessment methods
and the use of student reading performance data to guide instructional planning.
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In terms of training design, the workshops should incorporate adult training principles,
such as building on teachers’ previous knowledge (Mezirow, 1991) and providing opportunities
for teachers to actively participate in learning the new knowledge and skills. Such activities
might include reviewing the lessons, watching videos of effective reading instruction, role-
playing, practice teaching sessions, and observing classes of exemplary teachers (Gulamhussein,
2013).
Numerous researchers have found that when experts demonstrate the new practice,
teachers are more open to accepting the new concept and applying it (Cohen & Hill, 2001;
Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman, 2002; Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman & Yoon,
2001; Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007; Saxe, Gearhart, & Nasir, 2001; Snow-
Renner & Lauer, 2005; Supovitz, Mauyer, & Kahle, 2000). Therefore, World Education could
recruit early grade reading experts to lead the training workshops and demonstrate effective
reading instruction.
Finally, building on lessons learned in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, competency-
based training is recommended. Teachers should be assessed against competencies to determine
their knowledge and skills gaps. Subsequently, teachers could be grouped according to their
knowledge and skill levels and provided with cluster-based training workshops. Individualized
competency-based training is a fairly innovative initiative that will be tested in Abu Dhabi (Dr. J.
Mohaidat, personal communication, April 22, 2015) and may be more cost-effective than general
training.
Coaching. Traditional professional development programs operate under a faulty
assumption that once teachers receive the knowledge, they will automatically change their
teaching practices (Gulamhussein, 2013). According to Gulamhussein (2013), when teachers
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receive no follow-up assistance with implementing a new technique after being trained, “they
tend to abandon the practice and revert to business as usual” (p. 12). This is known as the
“implementation dip” (Gulamhussein, 2013, p. 12). In fact, research shows that teachers must
practice a new skill 20 times to master it, or more than 20 times if it is exceptionally complex
(Gulamhussein, 2013). Coaching is an effective way of supporting teachers in consistently
practicing and mastering the new strategies. Studies have shown that coaching is effective not
only at changing teacher practice, but also at increasing student achievement (Coburn &
Woulfin, 2012; Showers, 1984; Stephens et al., 2007). For example, South Carolina’s Reading
Initiative provided instructions to teachers on research-based literacy practices along with
individual coaching; “classes with coached teachers made higher gains on standardized reading
exams than peers who were taught by non-coached teachers” (Gulamhussein, 2013, p. 21;
Stephens et al., 2007).
As the research suggests, the second step in the professional development program is
literacy coaching. Following the district-wide training, literacy coaches will provide follow-up
support in five schools at least once a week to assist teachers with lesson planning, teaching
literacy skills, facilitating child-centered activities, and assessing students’ progress. When
introducing new strategies, literacy coaches will provide demonstrations on how to explicitly
teach the reading skills, and provide guided child-centered practice within the 90-minute class
time. Once teachers have grasped the new concepts, teachers will practice applying the skills in
the classroom. The teacher and literacy coach will meet to discuss the planned strategy and the
teacher will develop the lesson plan. The literacy coach will then return to observe the class and
will hold a debriefing session to discuss how well the lesson was taught and how it could be
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improved (Gulamhussein, 2013). The literacy coach will also review the lesson plan and provide
clear and accurate feedback on progress achieved (Pintrich, 2003).
This model is based on the directive model of coaching, which has proven effective for
working with inexperienced teachers in developing countries “who can benefit from in-depth,
focused instruction and feedback from knowledgeable and experienced coaches” (Bean, 2014,
p. 10). In this model, teachers gain skills, knowledge and confidence from intensive interaction
with literacy experts, on key skills such as reading instruction, reading assessment, and evidence-
based practices. Using a gradual release approach, coaches initially model strategies and make
prescriptive recommendations. As teachers become comfortable with the new methodologies,
coaches use probing questions and engage teachers in problem solving. In the final stage,
coaches assume a collegial role in which they affirm decisions made by teachers, offer praise and
engage them in supporting other teachers (Collett, 2012). In other words, the role of the coach
transforms from consultative to increasingly collaborative, and, instructional decision-making
shifts from the coach to the teacher (Collett, 2012).
Because teachers are more likely to adopt a practice and change their underlying beliefs
about how to teach something, only after they have seen success with students (Guskey, 2002),
teachers should be provided with continual coaching, modeling and support until they begin to
see the methods having a positive effect on their students’ performance.
Professional learning communities that use student achievement data as the basis for
instructional planning. Major policy reforms such as NALAP, require sustained changes in
teacher practice at the school level. Long-term change occurs most frequently when new learning
is combined with structured follow-up practice and group reflection (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011).
Hence, teachers should be provided with continuous opportunities to meet with other teachers,
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discuss challenges, determine whether the teaching strategies are effective, and given the
autonomy to modify the strategies according to the needs and performance of students. This type
of professional learning community, which fosters communal learning, collegiality and
collection action, has been found to be exceptionally correlated with student learning outcomes
(Gulamhussein, 2013). In fact, when teachers use student achievement data as a basis for
instructional planning, the effectiveness of teaching instruction improves as well as the impact on
student achievement (Odden & Kelly, 2008). Based on this evidence, the proposed solution is to
develop professional learning communities that use student achievement data as the basis for
instructional planning.
The proposed recommendations can be implemented through Gulamhussein’s two-stage
professional learning community model. In this model, teachers are presented with artifacts (e.g.,
student achievement data), they discuss challenges, and then develop innovations to experiment
with in the classroom (Gulamhussein, 2013). For instance, literacy teachers in grades KG-P1
could be presented with results from the Early Grade Reading Assessment or Ghana National
Education Assessment. Teachers would engage actively in analyzing the student achievement
data, identifying how they can connect the results to instructional challenges that they are facing
in the classroom, and then identify ways to improve their teaching (Gulamhussein, 2013).
In the second stage of the model, teachers identify a chief area of concern and develop an
“innovation” or strategy that the teachers agree to experiment with in the classroom
(Gulamhussein, 2013). They then “reconvene to debrief how it went and how it could be
improved, using student data from the lesson (e.g., quiz data, writing samples) to inform their
decisions” (Gulamhussein, 2013, p. 23). Through this reflective process, teachers in essence
begin to take on the role of coaches, supporting each other throughout implementation through
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“feedback, observation and collective refining of strategies” (Gulamhussein, 2013, p. 24). Once
teachers have arrived at an acceptable solution to the problem identified, they continue to assess
other areas and identify new challenges. Effective professional development is ongoing, thus the
professional learning community should be initiated by the literacy coach and supported by the
school principal and MOESS district-level coordinators for literacy and kindergarten.
In conclusion, five principles that should inform the design of the professional
development program are (Gulamhussein, 2013, pp. 14-17):
1. The duration of professional development must be significant enough to allow time
for teachers to learn a new strategy and grapple with the implementation problem.
2. There must be support for a teacher during the implementation stage, which addresses
the specific challenges of changing classroom practice.
3. Teachers’ initial exposure to a concept should not be passive, but rather should
engage teachers through varied approaches so they can participate actively in making
sense of a new practice.
4. Modeling has been found to be highly effective in helping teachers to master a new
practice.
5. The content presented to teachers shouldn’t be generic, but instead specific to the
discipline (reading) or grade level (K-1).
A summary of the knowledge, motivation and organization gaps and their corresponding
solutions are illustrated in Table 37. The solutions have been grouped into four categories:
training, coaching, materials development, and continuous professional development. These will
be further integrated into one comprehensive program, which is described in the implementation
section of Chapter 5.
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Table 37.
Summary of KMO Gaps and Solutions

Gaps Solutions
Knowledge
Teachers do not know the five key elements of
effective reading instruction
Training:
Provide training on five key reading skills
Teachers do not know the standards and
milestones for reading and bi-literacy in
kindergarten and first grade
Training:
Provide training on the NALAP reading and bi-
literacy milestones for KG and P1
Teachers do not know how to integrate the
five skills to teach reading fluency and
comprehension
Training and coaching:
Provide in-service training and coaching on
how to teach the five key reading skills and
child-centered pedagogies
Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach
phonics and decoding skills
Teachers do not know how to use child-
centered pedagogies (e.g., pair share, small
group work)
Teachers do not know how to develop lessons
in the Ghanaian language aligned with
NALAP milestones
Training and coaching:
Provide in-service training and coaching on
lesson plan development
Teachers do not know how to develop lessons
according to the new integrated approach
Teachers do not know how to effectively
assess students’ reading progress
Materials development:
Develop continuous assessment monitoring tool
and train teachers in its usage to track pupil
reading progress
Motivation
Teachers do not consistently apply the
NALAP reading skills because they do not
feel confident in their ability to teach reading
(lack of self-efficacy)
Coaching:
Assign specific, short-term, yet achievable
goals, provide corrective feedback, and praise
efforts to build teachers’ confidence
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Table 37, continued
Gaps Solutions
Organization
Insufficient textbooks and literacy workbooks
for a one-to-one pupil to book ratio
Materials development:
Provide low-cost, linguistically appropriate
pupil-reading books for KG1 and P1
classrooms using local resources that can be
easily reproduced
Teacher guides and lesson plans are not
aligned with NALAP milestones for bilingual
speaking and listening
Materials development:
Provide teachers with a supplementary guide to
the teachers’ guide that explicitly describes the
five key reading skills and milestones with
direct links to the lessons
Reading methodology and five key skills are
not explicitly described in the teacher’s guide
Insufficient courses on reading instruction in
the teacher college
Comprehensive professional development
program:
Integrate the NALAP early grade reading
instructional methods and materials into pre-
service training to produce qualified reading
teachers
Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies and integrated approach
Comprehensive continuous professional
development program that includes:
• In-service training on core reading skills,
child-centered approaches and formative
reading assessment
• Coaching on how to explicitly teach
reading skills and provide guided child-
centered practice within the 90-minute
class period
• Development of professional learning
communities that use student achievement
data as the basis for instructional planning
Challenges adhering to the 90-minute
timetable (90-minute lessons are too
exhaustive)
Lack of ongoing support and coaching on
NALAP implementation in the classroom
Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with
other teachers

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Implementation Plan
The proposed solutions will be integrated and delivered through a five-year Continuous
Professional Development (CPD) program analogous to the one described in the last solution
(Solution #9). The objective of the program will be to equip in-service and pre-service teachers
in 100 schools and in the Akuapim North district training college, respectively, with the
knowledge, confidence, and support needed to effectively teach bilingual reading skills in the
early primary grades. The goal of the CPD program will be to improve teachers’ knowledge,
skills, and commitment to NALAP so that they are more effective in planning lessons, using a
variety of reading and child-centered teaching approaches, and monitoring student achievement
of reading skills in L1 (Brozo & Sturtevant, 2009).
The organization to assist with implementing this program is World Education. World
Education hosted the dissertation research in Ghana and is planning to implement a teacher-
training program to respond to the knowledge and organizational gaps in early grade reading
instruction. Thus, the proposed program is important for them both in the short-term and long-
term as they consider how to implement their current program and scale up efforts throughout
the Akuapim North district.
Expected Results
Specifically, the Continuous Professional Development Program will aim to achieve the
following results over the five-year project:
1. Improve teacher knowledge and expertise in teaching basic reading skills in
kindergarten through first grade for at least 80% of teachers.
2. Increase teacher confidence in managing child-centered activities and meeting the
needs of struggling readers observed in at least 80% of teachers.
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3. Increase use of reading assessments to monitor student performance for at least 60%
of teachers.
4. Recruit and train 20 literacy coaches to provide continuous professional development
and coaching for newly recruited teachers, and in-service teachers (1 coach per 5
schools; 20 coaches to support 100 schools).
5. Increase the professionalization of early primary school teachers by providing trained
teachers with certificates in early grade reading specialization (Target: 50% of teacher
to become certified by the end of the program).
6. Retain 90% of trained teachers in early primary grades for at least five years.
Activities
To achieve the expected results, the CPD program will implement the following
activities:
1. Develop CPD curriculum, training manuals, and supplementary materials.
2. Recruit literacy coaches and training facilitators.
3. Train teachers and literacy coaches.
4. Conduct coaching and facilitate development of professional learning communities.
5. Promote and facilitate integration of the literacy materials and methodologies into
pre-service training programs.
The solutions are integrated into each of the following recommended activities.
Develop CPD curriculum and materials. In the first year of the program, the CPD
training curriculum and materials will be developed. The new program will require the District
Education Office and World Education to design a continuous professional curriculum that
outlines the scope and sequence of literacy topics (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011) to address the
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knowledge and organizational gaps, and to set benchmarks for assessing progress towards
attaining the required competencies. World Education could work with a teacher-training
college, reading specialists, and/or a consultant to define the competencies and develop the
appropriate materials. To address the knowledge and organizational gaps validated in this case
study, the following illustrative activities could be integrated into the CPD curriculum and
materials development process:
• Provide a supplementary teachers’ guide that explicitly describes the five key reading
skills and milestones with direct links to the lessons in the teachers’ guide.
• Develop a continuous assessment-monitoring tool and train teachers in its usage to
track pupil reading progress.
• Provide low-cost, linguistically appropriate pupil-reading books, for KG1 and P1
classrooms using local resources that can be easily reproduced.
• Link pre-service training to the CPD curriculum (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011).
• Include guidance on reflective practice, action research, and development of
professional learning communities in the teacher-training guide and trainers’ training
manual (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011).
Recruit literacy coaches and training facilitators. As part of the program start-up
process, World Education and the District Education Office will need to identify and recruit
literacy coaches and training facilitators. World Education is currently liaising with the MOESS
Literacy Focal Person and Kindergarten Coordinator within the District Education Office. World
Education could leverage this relationship to connect with the College of Education, and have
qualified teacher trainers seconded to the project in exchange for payment of facilitation fees and
per diem. Using local resource persons within the district, may help to promote sustainability of
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the program and also assist with the integration of the CPD program into pre-service training
courses. The master trainers would be responsible for training and mentoring literacy coaches
and teachers.
Literacy coaches will support teachers in a cluster of five schools. Thus, the project will
need to recruit a total of 20 literacy coaches. In addition to identifying highly qualified trainers in
the teaching college, the project could ask schools to nominate a teacher, head teacher, or other
person, based on pre-set criteria such as, someone who is well respected, demonstrates
exemplary performance, or has an advanced degree related to early grade literacy or bilingual
instruction.
According to the USAID Power of Coaching: Improving Early Grade Reading
Instruction in Development Countries report (Bean, 2014), successful coaches typically possess
the following qualifications (p. 24):
1. Knowledge and understanding of the program they are supporting (e.g., literacy and
language development, child-centered instruction, and assessment in general).
2. Knowledge of the coaching process (e.g., how to observe, model, confer with
teachers).
3. Experience teaching at the level they are expected to coach.
4. Well-developed interpersonal, leadership, and communication skills.
5. Ability to develop a trusting relationship with teachers.
6. Passion for teaching and learning.
As the first two criteria (knowledge and understanding of the literacy program and
coaching process) can be developed through a well-structured preparation program, the other
experiences and dispositions that enable coaches to work effectively with teachers are most
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critical (Bean, 2014). Because effective coaching requires building trust and open
communication with teachers, it is also important to consider the relationship of the coach to the
teacher. School principals or district-level supervisors, whom are responsible for evaluating
teachers’ performance, may not be the best choice for recruitment. If they are the only option due
to limited human resources available, then they will need extensive coaching on how to play dual
roles. In Ghana, school principals and district supervisors typically provide coaching and
mentoring to teachers. The challenge observed during the case study, and in other evaluations is
that, teachers rarely challenge the coach with innovative ideas or ask critical questions; thus,
instructional decision-making rests with the person who has seniority. In order for teachers to
take ownership of the NALAP reform and innovate the reading methodology in the classroom
and in professional learning communities, the mentors need more capacity building in how to
build teachers’ confidence and leadership skills.
Train teachers and literacy coaches. Unlike past one-to-three day NALAP workshops
in Ghana, the CPD program will include district-wide, in-service training workshops and cluster-
based follow-up training. Using a cascade model, experts would introduce new information at
the central level to literacy coaches and teachers, and then literacy coaches would conduct
follow-up trainings at the cluster and school levels. Research recommends at least 80 hours of
training for the training to be sustained (Gulamhussein, 2013). Therefore, the project should
conduct one annual district-wide in-service training workshop for five days in length (40 hours).
Subsequently, cluster-based training sessions could take place once per term, with 12 hours per
training, to focus on specific areas needing strengthening, such as assessment or time
management. This could be followed up with school level reflection exercises once per week
facilitated by the school principal and/or literacy coach.
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The teacher training college would facilitate district-wide training. The Literacy
Coordinator and literacy coaches would conduct cluster-based training. School principals and
literacy coaches would support the school-level training.
Based on the solutions identified, the following topics are recommended for the training:
• Understanding and teaching the five key reading skills (phonemic awareness,
phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension)
• Understanding and teaching the NALAP reading and bi-literacy milestones for
KG/P1
• Using child-centered pedagogies in the classroom, including maximizing the use of
the pupil books
• Developing lesson plans in the Ghanaian language aligned with NALAP milestones
and integrated approach
• Using the continuous assessment monitoring tool to track pupil reading progress and
differentiate instruction according to ability of the learner
• Using student achievement data as the basis for instructional planning
Furthermore, best practice research recommends involving teachers in planning and
implementing training programs (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011). Thus, teachers could be consulted on
potential training topics.
Training of coaches. While there are exceptions, coaches in developing countries
generally have limited experience in coaching and in literacy instruction. Therefore, the CPD
program will provide coaches with a well-structured preparation program that will enable them
to take on their roles and responsibilities. To support coaches with developing a deep
understanding of the literacy content they are responsible for teaching, the program will conduct
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a formal workshop in which basic information about the literacy program and coaching is
presented (Bean, 2014). The initial training would be delivered through experiential learning,
based on best practices (Bean, 2014) such as, practice teaching, viewing videos of successful
coaches in various scenarios, and role-playing. Thereafter, coaches would be provided with
ongoing support and opportunities to share experiences, co-mentor, and network.
To assist coaches with understanding the expectations of the project, they will also be
provided with a clear job description that outlines their key roles and responsibilities, and the
qualifications of a successful coach (Bean, 2014). For instance, the coaches would be responsible
for four specific activities: (1) conducting classroom support visits to observe teachers and
providing feedback at least once a week, (2) providing school-based or cluster-based workshops
to focus on identified needs at least once per term; (3) scheduling formal professional learning
group meetings once a month to review student and teacher performance and identify areas for
improvement; and, (4) holding mini-demonstration sessions during coaching sessions (Bean,
2014).
Conduct coaching and facilitate development of professional learning communities.
Following the district-wide trainings of literacy coaches and teachers, literacy coaches will
provide follow-up support in five schools at least once a week, to assist teachers with lesson
planning, teaching literacy skills, facilitating child-centered activities, and assessing students’
progress. Addressing the validated gaps in teachers’ reading instruction, literacy coaches will
provide demonstrations on how to explicitly teach the reading skills and provide guided child-
centered practice using the NALAP resources within the 90-minute class time. Once teachers
have grasped the new concepts, teachers will practice applying the skills in the classroom while
coaches observe and provide corrective feedback during debriefing sessions. In order to build
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teachers’ confidence during coaching sessions, the literacy coach will assign specific, short-term
yet achievable goals and praise teachers’ efforts while highlighting the strengths and areas for
improvement.
The literacy coach will also be responsible for providing structured reflection sessions at
each school with the eventual goal of developing professional learning communities. The literacy
coach will provide training on how to interpret Early Grade Reading Assessments and other
standardized tests, and on how to use formative assessment as the basis for instructional
planning. Applying Gulamhussein’s (2013) two-stage model, teachers will first review the data
and then discuss challenges and develop innovations to experiment with in the classroom
(Gulamhussein, 2013). The Head Teacher will be involved in the sessions to promote
sustainability and engagement of all early primary grade teachers.
The project will initially focus on training and supporting new teachers, as attrition rates
of new teachers are high during the induction phase. New teachers will be mentored by literacy
coaches and paired with an experienced teacher for the first year of teaching, as this approach
has been shown to help retain new teachers and increase their effectiveness in the classroom
(Johnson & Kardos, 2008).
Implementation of coaching should consider the following research-based best practices:
• Coaches should provide intensive and frequent coaching (Bean, 2014). Research
shows teachers involved in 64 hours of one-on-one coaching showed significant
improvement in language and literacy practices, when compared with teachers who
received only training or no professional development (Neuman & Cunningham,
2009; Bean, 2014, p. 11).
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• Coaches should conduct various group and individual activities. Activities found to
be significant predictors of student learning were, conferencing with teachers,
administering and discussing assessments, modeling, observing classes, and co-
planning with teachers (Elish-Piper & L’Allier, 2007; Bean, 2014, p. 12).
• Coaching approaches should be differentiated based on goals of the initiative and
content of the literacy program, results of student assessment measures, and teacher
needs (Bean, 2014, p. 17).
• Coaches should use inquiry-based approaches to encourage reflective thinking, such
as giving teachers choices regarding which types of coaching activities they prefer.
By providing options, coaches show respect for teachers as adult learners and as
professional colleagues (Bean, 2014, p. 18).
Promote and facilitate integration of the literacy materials and methodologies into
pre-service training programs. The final phase of the implementation plan is to integrate the
NALAP early grade reading instructional methods and materials into pre-service training to
produce qualified reading teachers. From the inception of the program, teacher trainers from the
teacher’s college will be involved in the curriculum and materials development, in-service
training and coaching, so as to promote adoption of the program into pre-service education.
Additionally, the program will work with the MOESS to develop an Early Grade Reading
Certificate for teachers who complete the 80 hours of training, which could be completed in
approximately one year.
According to USAID’s ten key principles in developing effective in-service teacher
professional development programs (Leu & Ginsberg, 2011), in order for professional
development programs to be successful, teacher participation should be officially recognized by
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the Ministry of Education or local authority. Incentives are equally important for sustaining
commitment to the program. The seventh principle in Leu and Ginsberg’s (2011) steps to
implementing in-service teacher professional development program suggests, “supporting
improvement of teachers’ conditions” through (p. 21):
Engaging relevant policymakers in dialogue focused on educators’ compensation,
conditions of service, and career advancement to enhance incentives for teachers,
administrators, and supervisors to participate in in-service activities, to use what they
have learned to improve their professional practice, and to remain in the profession.
Based on these principles, the program should promote the design of a system that formally
recognizes teachers’ participation in the continuous professional development program, and links
participation to the improvement of teachers’ conditions of service and career advancement.
Project Personnel
To successfully implement the early grade reading Continuous Professional Development
program, it requires a carefully designed personnel structure comprised of project personnel and
MOESS counterparts. The key project personnel should consist of a Project Director, Early
Grade Reading Specialist, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) Specialist, and Finance Manager.
While the Project Director and Early Grade Reading Specialist will work full-time on the project,
the M&E Specialist and Finance Manager may be shared across multiple projects, to reduce cost
to the funding agency. The Teacher Trainers and Literacy Coaches, while an integral part of the
project implementation, would be recruited on a contractual basis for the duration of the training
and follow-up activities. Figure 35 shows the organizational structure for the proposed
Continuous Professional Development program.

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Figure 35. World Education CPD program organizational structure

Key Personnel Roles and Responsibilities
The roles and responsibilities of the project personnel are briefly described below.
Project Director. The Project Director will be responsible for overall program
management, technical guidance, and completion of deliverables per the work plan. The Project
Director will liaise with the MOESS, donors, and the teacher’s training college to develop and
execute the project implementation plan. S/he will support the institutionalization of the project
into MOESS structures through representation in national and district-level meetings.
Early Grade Reading Specialist. The Early Grade Reading Specialist will provide
technical oversight and guidance to support improved reading instruction during training and in
the classroom. S/he will work with trainers, MOESS counterparts, and Reading Specialists to
develop the CPD curriculum and training materials. The Specialist will work with District
Education Officers (see Figure 36) to organize training of trainers and teacher-training
Project Director
Early Grade
Reading
Specialist
Teacher Trainers
Literacy
Coaches
Monitoring and
Evaluation
Specialist
Finance
Manager
Finance Assts.

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workshops and to develop the coaching implementation plan. S/he will coordinate with schools
to ensure smooth and timely project implementation, support classroom observations and
monitoring visits, and manage the distribution of materials.
Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist. The Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)
Specialist will be responsible for overall data collection and management. S/he will develop the
M&E plan, indicators and data collection tools. The M&E Specialist will conduct field visits to
monitor project activities, manage data collected, and prepare reports, as needed. S/he will also
work in collaboration with consultants to conduct Early Grade Reading baseline and end line
assessments, as well as project performance assessments, as required by the donor agency.
Finance Manager. The Finance Manager will be responsible for day-to-day operations
and financial management. S/he will ensure project adherence to government procurement
regulations, and will develop a system of checks and balances with authority distributed amongst
the finance team, the Education Specialist and the Project Director. S/he will establish and
maintain office accounting and financial data management systems.
MOESS Counterparts
Within the MOESS, the project should engage the District Education Director, the
Literacy Focal person, the Kindergarten Coordinator, Circuit Supervisors, and Teacher’s
Training College Principals. At the school level, the project would work directly with School
Principals and teachers. In order to ensure consistent follow-up at the school level, World
Education should build the capacity of the MOESS to conduct direct implementation, monitoring
support and supervision. The MOESS technical and political actors, most critical for project
coordination and implementation are shown in Figure 36.

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Figure 36. MOESS coordination structure

MOESS Roles and Responsibilities
The roles and responsibilities of the MOESS counterparts are described in the following
sections.
District Education Director. The District Education Director would be involved in
signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), approving the work plan, and ensuring the
program is eventually embedded into the DEO operational budget. Therefore, s/he would
participate in periodic field visits, quarterly project review meetings, and district education
meetings to inform stakeholders of the benefits of the project and advocate for budget
commitments. While World Education or a donor would initially fund the project, the goal is that
the pilot project would eventually be subsumed by the district education budget. This requires a
strong relationship with the District Education Coordinator. Thus, the Project Director would be
responsible for establishing and maintaining this relationship throughout the project.
District
Education
Director
Literacy Focal
Person
Kindergarten
Coordinator
Circuit
Supervisors
School
Principals
Teachers
Teacher Trg.
College
Principal
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District Education Officials. Within the District Education Office, the Literacy Focal
Person and Kindergarten Coordinator would be the technical personnel involved in designing,
implementing, and evaluating the CPD Program. The Early Grade Reading Specialist would
work with them to adapt existing materials and develop guidelines and training materials. They
would also be involved in designing and coordinating training and coaching sessions,
formalizing the establishment of professional learning communities, and ensuring the full
integration of the program into the MOESS structures.
The District Coordinators and Circuit Supervisors, who are responsible for supervising
teachers and mentoring them, would be invited to the trainer-training and teacher-training
workshops. They will be trained in the literacy approaches, continuous assessment methods, as
well as in the overall CPD curriculum, so that they can monitor teachers’ performance against
the expected competencies. With technical support and tools provided by the M&E Specialist
and EGRA Specialist, the district officials would be responsible for monitoring implementation
of the training methodology and conducting assessments of teacher performance, which would
inform future teachers’ professional development and career advancement. Monitoring teacher
performance is already part of Circuit Supervisors and Coordinators’ roles within the Ministry of
Education; therefore, the project would essentially be building their capacity to monitor
improvements in literacy instruction.
Teacher Training College Principal. The Teacher’s Training College Principal, who
reports to the District Director of Education, would be responsible for designing and monitoring
the implementation of the CPD work plan, including the teacher-training and coaching schedule,
and ensuring full participation of the designated tutors, as teacher trainers and mentors of literacy
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coaches. They would also work in collaboration with the Project Director to integrate the
methodology into pre-service training.
School Principals. School Principals, often referred to as “Head Teachers” in Ghana,
play a key role in ensuring teachers’ participation in the project, its continued momentum, and
sustainability. The School Principals will attend the same training as government officials, to
learn about the CPD curriculum, the reading instructional methodologies, student and teacher
assessment strategies, and how to facilitate professional learning communities in their schools.
Evaluation Plan
Evaluation is an effective way to obtain valid and reliable information regarding the state
of the system we are trying to change, the progress of our interventions, and the bottom line
impact of the change on overall goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Evaluation can also help make mid-
course corrections in school performance improvement programs, to increase their impact and
sustain the investment of time and resources. Thus, the purpose of this section is to provide a
detailed evaluation plan to assist the project staff with monitoring the impact of the CPD
program and effectiveness of the proposed solutions.
To assess the impact of the project on expected results, a baseline, midterm and final
project evaluation will be conducted. In addition, an Early Grade Reading Assessment will be
carried out during the baseline and endline assessment to determine whether teachers’ change in
instruction has resulted in improved reading achievement.
Besides formative and summative evaluations, the project will also conduct ongoing
monitoring of the implementation plan and activities. A monitoring system will be developed to
track results and activities against specific indicators. The MOESS personnel will be involved in
monitoring performance of teachers against project indicators and will be provided with
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monitoring tools that may be incorporated into the MOESS monitoring system. The project will
support Head Teachers in setting school-level benchmarks for student reading performance and
monitoring teachers’ performance against a checklist.
The impact of the CPD program on teachers’ performance will be assessed through the
application of the New World Kirkpatrick Model, which is the most widely used model for
evaluation of training programs (Kirkpatrick Partners, 2014; Kirkpatrick, 2006). The framework
tracks four levels of change: (1) Reaction – which measures teachers satisfaction, engagement
and perception of the value of the program; (2) Learning – which assesses the extent to which
teachers acquired the skills, knowledge, attitudes, confidence and commitment; (3) Behavior –
which determines whether there is any change in behavior as a result of the training; and, (4)
Results – which assesses whether the training achieved the intended impact and thus closed the
performance gap.
If the proposed CPD program were successful, the following results would be observed.
Level 1 Reactions. By the end of the training, teachers would be satisfied with the quality
and content of the training. They would feel that the knowledge and skills received are relevant
and useful.
Level 2 Learning. Two weeks following the training, teachers’ lesson plans would reflect
milestones, reading skills, and child-centered activities that they learned about during the training
workshop or coaching sessions. Teachers would demonstrate understanding of the concepts
during follow-up coaching sessions, and practice demonstration sessions with the coach. The
literacy coach would continue to conduct classroom observations and coaching at least once a
month.
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Level 3 Behavior. Three to six months following training and coaching sessions,
classroom observations would indicate that teachers are following the lesson plans in the
teacher’s guide; explicitly teaching phonics and decoding skills; using teacher-guided reading
strategies and teaching materials to promote vocabulary, fluency and comprehension; facilitating
child-centered reading, speaking and writing activities using pupil text and supplementary
material; using the NALAP resources effectively; and, are differentiating instruction according to
a formative assessment of their students. Teachers would have lessons prepared for classroom
observations that incorporate feedback from coaches. Teachers would regularly participate in
professional learning group meetings. A midterm evaluation and final evaluation would be
conducted to assess teachers’ behavior change in Year 3 and Year 5 of the project.
Two years following the training (Year 4), final teacher performance evaluations would
show 80% of teachers with improved knowledge and expertise in teaching basic reading skills;
80% of teachers with increased confidence in managing child-centered activities and meeting the
needs of struggling learners; 60% of teachers using reading assessments to monitor pupil reading
performance; 80% of teachers closely following the teacher guide; 50% of teachers certified in
early grade reading instruction; and 90% of trained teachers retained in the schools since the
inception of the project.
Level 4 Results. Student Early Grade Reading Assessments in Years 3 and 5 would
demonstrate a progressively increasing gain score in Reading Comprehension compared to the
baseline reading assessment.
The next section describes how each result will be measured.

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Level 1 Reactions
The reactions level will be measured during the workshop through a post-training survey.
The post-training survey will ask participants to respond anonymously to the following open-
ended questions (Clark & Estes, 2008):
• Which sessions of the training did you find most relevant to your work?
• Which activities were particularly engaging for you?
• What did you like most about the training program?
• What did you dislike about the training, if anything?
• What recommendations would you give for how to improve future training?
The post-training survey will also measure knowledge, attitude, confidence and
commitment to applying the newly obtained skills and knowledge. The actual questions will be
tailored to the training program. Sample questions from a likert scale are provided for illustrative
purposes:
• Attitude. “I believe bilingual education is important.”
• Confidence. “I feel ready to apply new reading strategies in my classroom.”
• Commitment. “I have clear goals and a lesson prepared to teach my students.”
• Commitment. “I plan to continue practicing and mastering these methods when I
return to my school.”
Level 2 Learning
The learning of the new knowledge and skills will be measured through coaching
sessions during the first few weeks of implementation. Prior to implementation in the classroom,
teachers will be asked to develop a sample lesson and perform model teaching in which they will
practice and demonstrate the new approach. The expert trainer will evaluate the model lessons
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using a classroom observation checklist that reflects a performance rubric to measure the training
content and skills. The tool will include space for comments, where the trainer/coach can
indicate strengths, weaknesses, and suggestions for improvement. Clark and Estes (2008) note
that, “the combination of procedure-based checklists and an expert’s judgment” is an effective
form of evaluation for Level 2 and Level 3.
Level 3 Behavior
In Level 3, behavior will be measured through informal assessments conducted once per
term. For instance, coaches, project technical specialists, and MOESS staff would visit the
classroom and assess teacher transfer of training principles to the classroom, using a checklist
listing the competencies. Following classroom observations, the observer will hold a debriefing
session with the teacher to discuss strengths, weaknesses and develop a plan for follow-up
actions. The monitoring data will be shared with the project and incorporated into future training
and professional development activities.
In order to assess the extent of behavior change in teacher performance throughout the
project, a baseline, midterm and final project evaluation could be carried out to measure the
expected results and sustainability of the approaches. In-depth interviews would be conducted
with key informants involved in the training, such as teachers, principals, literacy coaches and
supervisors. Questions would focus on the following: number of trained teachers still teaching in
the school, ease of transfer of training to the classroom (e.g., activities attempted, challenges
encountered, and results), examples demonstrating use of the skills, and observed changes in
students or teachers’ behaviors and attitudes toward reading.
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The interviews will also assess whether coaching took place as intended – whether the
coach visited regularly, assisted teachers in the classroom, provided feedback, conducted in-
service training, and facilitated professional learning groups.
Finally, through open-ended questions, the interview questionnaire would aim to identify
challenges with implementing the activities, and how the challenges were addressed. The
evaluator would probe to learn whether these challenges were addressed through school-based
professional group meetings, cluster-based meetings, or through involving the principal and
district education office.
Furthermore, for purposes of obtaining verifiable data to confirm whether long-term
behavior change has occurred, a classroom observation of the teachers trained, will be conducted
using the same checklist from the training workshop. This will determine whether teachers have
improved or maintained their level of performance since the baseline assessment.
In addition, through review of project documents on key indicators, the evaluators would
assess the number of pre-service teachers and in-service teachers trained and certified, and the
number participating in all program activities. This would feed into the overall program results.
The results of all data collected would be analyzed, triangulated, and compared to the targets, to
determine overall project impact and sustainability.
Level 4 Results
At the end of the project, the organization would assess the impact of the training on the
school performance goal, which is to improve reading achievement of students. This level
therefore measures the degree to which targeted outcomes occurred as a result of the training
events and reinforcement activities. The theory of change is that if the project has achieved the
stakeholder goal and 100% of first grade teachers are effectively implementing the NALAP
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curriculum in teaching reading in the mother tongue language and pupils are fully engaged in
reading activities (level 3), then it would result in improvement in overall student achievement,
particularly in meeting milestones for oral, listening, and reading skills in the local language.
To measure this outcome, the national Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA)
developed by USAID will be administered to randomly selected students in KG and 1
st
grade in
the first, third and fifth year of the project. Students would be assessed using relevant EGRA
subtasks, such as letter identification, phonemic awareness, fluency and comprehension. For
instance, to assess letter sound and identification, pupils could be provided with a table of letters
and asked to name the letter and produce the sound. To assess fluency, they could also be
provided a random table of simple words, and could be asked to read as many as they can within
one minute. Finally, to assess fluency and comprehension, students would be provided with a
simple text from a grade-appropriate textbook and asked to read the passage out loud. The
number of letters and words read within the time allotted (e.g., one minute) would be recorded.
The total number divided by the total possible would produce a score. Then the score would be
compared to the benchmark set for reading fluency in Ghana. The evaluation design described
above could be repeated annually by the Ministry of Education to assess student performance in
reading in the mother tongue and English.
The evaluation instruments and framework are illustrated in Table 38.

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Table 38.
Evaluation Instruments and Framework

Kirkpatrick Four
Levels of Change
Assessing Knowledge and Skills Assessing Learning Outcomes
Assessing
Motivation
Post-Training
Survey Interview
Classroom
Observation
Checklist
Document
analysis
Student
Assessment
Post-training
survey
Close-
ended
Likert
Scale
Open-
ended
Semi-
structured
interviews
Performance
rubric, comments
on strengths,
weaknesses,
recommendations
Number of
teachers
trained and
participating
in CPD
activities
Early Grade
Reading
Assessment
Self-report
change of
attitudes/
beliefs using
Likert-scale
Training results

Level 1
(Reaction)
X X X
Level 2
(Knowledge)
X
Application results

Level 3
(Transfer)
X X X
Level 4
(Impact)
X
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Future Research
One unexpected serendipitous finding that warrants additional research is the new
integrated approach and how it differs from the transitional bilingual language approach as well
as its potential impact on language acquisition. NALAP was founded in 2009 as a transitional
approach in which the local language would take precedence in the first three grades and English
would initially be taught orally and then, reading and writing skills would be introduced once the
foundational skills in the local language were developed.
During the fieldwork, it was learned that the Akuapim North district is diverting from a
transitional bilingual education approach towards a dual language program that emphasizes an
integrated approach to literacy. For reasons unclear, teachers and administrators are reverting to
English mixed with the Ghanaian language throughout the 90-minute class in kindergarten
through third grade. Thus, rather than transitioning from 90/10 in kindergarten to 50/50 in third
grade, teachers are jumping to a 50/50 dual immersion approach and attempting to integrate
other subjects (e.g., Math, Science, Environment, etc.) into the curriculum. Some teachers
explained that it was changed because it was difficult to switch to English after speaking in the
local language for 80 minutes. As a result of the new integrated approach, the focus has shifted
from teaching basic oral, reading and written language skills in the local language to teaching
English and covering a range of topics through two languages of instruction. Teachers state that
while it is easier for students to comprehend the lesson, it has become exhausting to teach and
difficult to develop lesson plans. Additional research is necessary to fully understand the
implications of this approach. It is still in the pilot phase and has only been implemented in one
or two districts. Hence, the research could help to inform the rollout of this new strategy.

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Conclusion
In 2013, a national Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) found that 65% of pupils
in the Akuapim North district could not read at all (Kochetkova & Brombacher, 2014). Given the
high percentage of illiteracy in this district, the Akuapim North district’s goal is to have at least
5% of second grade children achieving reading fluency and comprehension in the Ghanaian
language and English by June 2018 (USAID/Ghana, 2014). In order to achieve the fluency and
comprehension benchmark, P2 students must be reading at least 40 correct words per minute and
achieving 80% correct on the reading comprehension test. In the 2013 EGRA, 2.5% met the
fluency benchmark and 0.9% met the comprehension benchmark. On average, less than 1% of
second grade students met the proficiency benchmarks signaling a 4% achievement gap.
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders is necessary to achieve the fluency and
comprehension benchmarks within three years, teachers have been selected as the key
stakeholders. Teachers are expected to teach in the mother tongue language in the first three
years of primary school with gradual transition to English in accordance with the NALAP
curriculum and the teacher’s guide. While teachers have been trained in the bilingual
methodology and provided with materials in the locally selected language and English, past
evaluations report that only 20% of teachers are fully adhering to the child-centered, systematic
reading approach. In 80% of classrooms observed, teachers only taught part of the lessons,
generally emphasizing rote memorization, rather than interactive activities that lead to greater
phonological awareness, decoding skills, and comprehension (USAID, 2011).
In order to identify the root causes of this lack of fidelity to implementation, a gap
analysis framework was applied, which aimed to unveil the knowledge, motivation and
organizational rationale behind the performance gap. The key project question was, “What are
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191
the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that inhibit 80% of first grade teachers
from adhering to the set standards in the NALAP teacher’s guide?” Set standards were defined as
following the reading methods, the child-centered activities, the recommended use of teaching
aids, the assessment units, and the allocated timeframes for the Ghanaian language and English.
Through an extensive literature review of global, regional and local practices, scanning
interviews with World Education, and a review of the general learning theories that affect
knowledge acquisition, 12 assumed knowledge causes, 11 assumed motivational causes, and 12
assumed organizational causes were identified. In total, there were 34 assumed causes.
Of the 34 assumed causes, 21 were validated, and 18 were selected as the most critical for
closing the performance gap. Data was collected in Ghana over the course of two weeks through
interviews, paper-based surveys, classroom observations, and document analysis in five schools
within the Akropong town. The findings were analyzed, triangulated, and validated through a
validation meeting with all teachers who were interviewed.
The final results showed that 12 factual and procedural knowledge gaps were validated.
Teachers lack knowledge and skills in terms of teaching the five key reading skills, the
milestones, and child-centered approaches, in developing lesson plans, and in conducting
formative reading assessments. There was one main motivational gap that was validated –
teachers lack self-efficacy to teach reading. With regards to organizational gaps, the findings
showed that NALAP has failed to become institutionalized and systematized due to insufficient
in-service and pre-service training, inadequate follow-up support, challenges adhering to the
timetable, and limited opportunities to exchange ideas with other teachers. A comprehensive
solution and implementation plan for addressing these challenges was presented in Chapter 5.
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To address the teacher knowledge, motivational and organizational gaps, the proposed
solution is to provide teachers with a comprehensive continuous professional development
program that includes a combination of theoretical and practical training, demonstration lessons,
coaching and reflection sessions. Unlike past one-to-three day workshops with little to no follow-
up coaching in the classroom or reinforcement at the school level, the training will include
district-level and cluster-based workshops that will be followed up with reinforcement one-on-
one coaching in the classroom, led by a trained literacy coach. Reflection sessions will be held
with peer teachers during meetings with the literacy coach and through continuing professional
development meetings.
To increase the sustainability and full integration of the program into the MOESS, from
the inception of the program, teacher trainers from the teacher’s college will be involved in the
curriculum and materials development, in-service training and coaching, so as to promote
adoption of the program into pre-service education. Additionally, the program will work with the
MOESS to fully implement and monitor the program, as well as, to develop an Early Grade
Reading specialization program for teachers who complete the 80 hours of training, which could
be completed in approximately one year.
As part of the proposed evaluation plan, Early Grade Reading Assessments will be
conducted in Years 1, 3 and 5 to determine whether teachers’ change in instruction has resulted
in improved reading achievement. Applying the New World Kirkpatrick’s evaluation framework,
the impact of the continuous professional development program on teachers’ performance will be
assessed. Besides formative and summative evaluations, the project will also conduct ongoing
monitoring of the implementation plan and activities, and make course corrections as needed.
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While delimitations in the design of the case study preclude the results from being
generalizable, the issues and solutions identified have implications for the broader educational
development community in Ghana, Africa, and other parts of the developing world. The
literature review found numerous countries in Africa that encounter challenges with language
policy implementation, fidelity to program design, and sustainability of training efforts. The case
study confirmed that one-off training workshops with little follow-up coaching in the classroom
and few opportunities to reflect on practice with teachers, result in minimal impact on student
achievement. However, the research shows that continuous training of up to 80 hours coupled
with consistent coaching and professional learning communities, which use student achievement
data as the basis for instructional planning can have a significant impact on student achievement.
Furthermore, the selection and training of coaches is critical to the success of the
professional development program. The most important selection criteria are having the
experience and disposition to effectively build a trusting relationship with teachers, through
interpersonal, leadership and communication skills. In countries where programs must rely on
principals or MOE supervisors to serve in dual positions, capacity building is necessary for them
to perform mentoring roles. In order for teachers to assume ownership of the NALAP reform in
Ghana, such as experimenting with the reading methodology in the classroom and innovating
through professional learning communities, the coaches will need more capacity building in how
to build teachers’ confidence and instructional leadership skills.
Considering the dearth of research in developing countries on early grade reading
initiatives and the extensive literature review undertaken in this case study, the proposed
implementation strategies are widely applicable to government programs and policies aiming to
improve early grade reading outcomes.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Sources for Identification of Assumed KMO Causes
Table A1
Sources for Identification of Assumed Knowledge, Motivational, and Organizational Causes
Knowledge Assumed Cause
Lit.
Review
Scanning
Interviews
Learning
Theory
K1 Teachers do not know the five key elements of
effective reading instruction: phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension
X X
K2 Teachers do not know how to explicitly teach
phonics and decoding skills
X
K3 Teachers are not proficient in speaking and
reading the Ghanaian language
X
K4 Teachers do not know how to integrate the five
skills to teach reading fluency and
comprehension
X
K5 Teachers do not know how to use teaching aids
to foster learning of the five reading skills
X
K6 Teachers do not know how to produce TLMs X
K7 Teachers do now know the crucial links of first
and second language learning; believe that
English is more important to learn
X
K8 Teachers do not know the standards and
milestones for reading and bi-literacy in KG and
P1
X
K9 Teachers do not know how to develop lessons in
the Ghanaian language aligned with NALAP
milestones
X
K10 Teachers do not know how to effectively assess
their students’ reading progress
X
K11 Teachers do not know how to apply
metacognitive (critical reflection) skills and
differentiated instructional methods
X
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K12 Teachers do not know how to use child-centered
pedagogies (guided learning, small group work)
X

Table A1, continued
Motivation Assumed Cause
Lit.
Review
Scanning
Interviews
Learning
Theory
M1 Teachers do not place a high value on teaching
due to the profession’s low economic and social
status (Task value)
X
M2 Teachers do not see the value of teaching
reading in the mother tongue language (e.g.,
think English is more important) (Task value)
X
M3 Teachers do not expect all their students read
with comprehension by the end of P3
(Expectancy theory)
X X
M4 Teachers are not confident teaching in the
Ghanaian language or English (Self-efficacy)
X X
M5 Teachers are not confident in using the teaching
guide and teaching aids (Self-efficacy)
X
M6 Teachers do not enjoy teaching reading
(Intrinsic value)
X
M7 Teachers believe that students’ reading
proficiency is largely due to factors beyond
their control (e.g., classroom size) (Attribution
theory)
X
M8 Teachers are not confident in their ability to
teach reading (Self-efficacy)
X
M9 Teachers are not confident in managing
classrooms (supporting struggling learners,
facilitating small group work) (Self-efficacy)
X
M10 Teachers do not believe the NALAP material is
relevant because the language selected for the
region differs from students’ mother tongue
language (Utility value)
X X

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Table A1, continued
Organization Assumed Cause
Lit.
Review
Scanning
Interviews
Learning
Theory
O1 Insufficient teacher’s guides and student
textbooks
X
O2 Lack of supplementary teaching and learning
materials appropriate for the NALAP
curriculum
X
O3 Teacher’s guides, schemes of work and lesson
plans are not aligned with NALAP milestones
for bilingual speaking and listening
X
O4 Insufficient training to master NALAP
methodologies
X X
O5 Overcrowded classes prevent teachers from
using child-centered strategies
X X
O6 Lack of ongoing support and coaching on
NALAP implementation in the classroom
X
O7 Limited opportunities to exchange ideas with
other teachers (no learning communities or
unable to participate)
X
O8 Insufficient courses on reading instruction in
the teacher college
X
O9 Limited opportunities for teaching reading
during teaching practicum
X
O10 Challenges adhering to the 90-minute
timetable
X
O11 Reading methodology and five key skills are
not explicitly described in the teacher’s guide
X
O12 Language selected as medium of instruction is
not the pupil’s first language
X

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Appendix B:
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods
Table B1
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Causes and Validation Methods
How will it be validated?
Assumed cause Instrument Question
Teachers do not know the five key
elements of effective reading
instruction: phonemic awareness,
phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension
Survey item
(open-ended)
What are the essential reading skills children need to
learn to be able to read fluently?
Classroom
observation
Observe a reading class and record activities
conducted (phonemic awareness, decoding/phonics,
reading comprehension, developing vocabulary)
Teachers do not know how to
explicitly teach phonics and decoding
skills
Survey item
(open-ended)
What activities do you use to teach students letter
sound correspondence (e.g., the sound of the letters of
the alphabet or of words)?
Classroom
observation
Observe a reading class and record word decoding
activities conducted (teaching letter sounds, syllables,
blending and segmenting)
Teachers are not proficient in speaking
and reading the Ghanaian language of
instruction
Survey item (5
pt. Likert
scale)
Rate how well you speak, read and write the NALAP
language selected for the medium of instruction
(Native, Fluent, Proficient, Limited, or not at all)
Teachers do not know how to integrate
the five skills, such as decoding and
comprehension, to teach reading
fluency and comprehension
Classroom
observation
Observe a reading class and record activities
conducted (phonemic awareness, decoding/phonics,
reading comprehension, developing vocabulary)
Teachers do not know how to use
teaching aids to foster learning of the
five skills
Classroom
observations
Observe class and record whether teachers used
materials and how they were used.
Interview (follow-up question to below) – How do the TLMs
hinder or support learning?
Teachers do not know how to produce
TLMs
Interview What types of TLMs do you currently use to teach
reading? How did you obtain these TLMs? (Did you
produce them or did the government provide them?)
Teachers do now know the crucial
links of first and second language
learning; believe that English is more
important to learn
Survey item (4
pt. Likert
scale)
a. It is more important for children to learn to read in
their mother tongue before learning a second language
(Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree)
b. It is better for children to learn English first when
they enter school (strongly disagree, disagree, agree,
strongly agree).
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Table B1, continued
How will it be validated?
Assumed cause Instrument Question
Teachers do not know the standards
and milestones for reading and bi-
literacy in KG and P1
Classroom
observation
Ask teachers about the lesson objectives and how they
relate to the standards and milestones.
Teachers do not know how to develop
lessons in the Ghanaian language
aligned with NALAP milestones
Document
analysis
Collect teachers’ lessons notes, schemes of work and
teacher’s guide; review lesson objectives to determine
whether they list the milestones
Teachers do not know how to
effectively assess their students’
reading progress
Interview
question
How do you typically keep track of students’ reading
progress?
Document
analysis
Request to see teacher’s grade book or record of
students’ reading progress.
Teachers do not know how to apply
critical reflection skills and
differentiated instructional methods
Classroom
observation
What types of activities do teachers use to promote
reading in the classroom? Check all that apply:
repetition, choral reading, code-switching, explicit and
systematic instruction of phonics and decoding,
guided practice of reading and comprehension, small-
group work, pair work, assessment of learners,
individual instruction for struggling learners
Interview What types of strategies do you use to support
struggling learners?
Survey item
(a. close-
ended; b.
multiple
choice; c.
open-ended)
a. How much time do you spend critically reflecting
on your reading lessons? Per day ___; per week___
b. How do you typically reflect on lessons
(individually, using a reflection journal, using an
assessment rubric, with a coach, with the HT, with
other teachers, other)?
c. Provide teachers with a scenario of two different
student profiles (a fast reader and a slow reader). Ask
how they would adapt their approach to meet each
learners’ needs?

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Table B1, continued
How will it be validated?
Assumed cause Instrument Question
Teachers do not know how to use
child-centered pedagogies (e.g.,
guided-learning, small group work)
Classroom
observation
Record the amount of time spent on:
a. Guided practice
b. Small group work, silent reading or child-centered
activities
c. Any difficulties with classroom management
Interview
questions
a. How much time do you devote to guided practice
(reading aloud) on average in a typical class?
b. How much time do you devote to small-group
work, silent reading or interactive child-centered
activities?
c. Is it difficult to manage child-centered activities, as
suggested in the NALAP guide?

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Appendix C:
Summary of Assumed Motivational Causes and Validation Methods
Table C1
Summary of Assumed Motivation Causes and Validation
How will it be validated?
Motivational
Problem
Type of
Indicator Possible Causes Instrument Item
Frequent teacher
absenteeism
Active
choice
Teachers do not place a high
value on teaching due to low
economic and social status.
(Cost value)
Survey Please rank the social status
of teachers as compared to
other professions (high,
average, low or poor).
Interview What barriers do teachers
face that prevent them from
attending school regularly?
Teachers do not
use the NALAP
teaching and
learning
materials as
intended
Active
Choice
Teachers do not see the value
of teaching reading in the
mother tongue (think English is
more important) (Task value)
Interview How important is it for
students to learn how to read
in their mother tongue?
Survey (4-pt.
Likert scale)
a. I believe it is important for
children to learn how to read
in their mother tongue.
b. I believe it is better for
children to learn English as
soon as they enter school.
Teachers do not enjoy teaching
reading (intrinsic value) (M6)
Survey I enjoy teaching my students
how to read books.
Teachers may not believe the
NALAP methodology is
relevant because the language
selected for the region differs
from students’ mother tongue
language.
Interview How many pupils speak the
NALAP language as their
mother tongue? (the majority,
half, less than half)

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Table C1, continued
How will it be validated?
Motivational
Problem
Type of
Indicator Possible Causes Instrument Item
Teachers do not
consistently
apply the
NALAP
principles in
teaching reading
(e.g., adhere to
40 minute
reading time,
apply silent-
reading, and
child-centered
strategies)
Mental
effort
Teachers do not expect all
their students to read with
comprehension by the end of
P3 (expectancy theory)
Survey a. I do not expect all students to be
able to read with comprehension in
the local language by the end of P3.
b. Learning reading comprehension
is more appropriate for upper
primary than the early grades.
Mental
effort
Teachers are not confident
teaching in the Ghanaian
language or English (Self-
efficacy)
Survey a. I am confident in my ability to
read and write the mother
tongue/English language well.
(Strongly disagree, disagree, agree,
strongly agree)
b. How confident do you feel about
your ability to teach listening,
reading and writing skills in the
English language?” (very
confident…)
c. How confident do you feel in
your ability to teach listening,
reading and writing skills in the
Ghanaian language?” (very
confident…)
Teachers believe student
acquisition of reading
proficiency is largely due to
factors beyond their control
(attribution theory)
Survey a. Student proficiency in reading is
largely dependent on my teaching
ability.
b. Students’ reading achievement is
largely dependent on other factors
beyond the teachers’ control.
Interview a. Does your classroom size have
any effect on your ability to fully
teach the reading methods and
activities in the teacher’s guide?

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Table C1, continued
How will it be validated?
Motivational
Problem
Type of
Indicator Possible Causes Instrument Item
Teachers do not
consistently
apply the
NALAP
principles in
teaching reading
Mental
Effort
Teachers are not confident in
their ability to teach reading
(self-efficacy)
Survey How confident do you feel in
your ability to teach reading?
(very, somewhat, enough, a
little, not at all)
Teachers have
stopped using
the NALAP
teacher’s guide
and materials
Persistence Teachers are not confident in
using the teacher’s guide or
teaching aids. (Self-efficacy)
Interview a. What do you think are the
strengths and weaknesses of the
NALAP methodology?
b. Have you experienced any
challenges with using the
teacher’s guide or teaching
aids?
Survey How confident do you feel in
your ability to use the teacher’s
guide and relevant teaching aids
to teach reading? (Very;
somewhat, enough, a little, not
at all)
Teachers have
stopped using
the NALAP
teacher’s guide
and materials
Persistence Teachers are not confident in
managing classrooms
(supporting struggling
learners, facilitating small
group work) (self-efficacy)
Survey a. How confident do you feel in
managing classrooms? (Very;
somewhat, Not very, not at all)
b. How prepared are you to
address the needs of struggling
learners? (Very; somewhat,
enough, a little, not at all)
Interview What types of strategies do you
use to support struggling
learners?

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Appendix D:
Summary of Assumed Organizational Causes and Validation Methods
Table D1
Summary of Assumed Organizational Causes and Validation
How Will it be Validated?
Organizational
Problem
Possible Organizational
Causes Instrument Item
Low reading levels
due to poor teaching
quality (teachers do
not adhere to the
teacher’s guide or
use the teaching and
learning materials
appropriately)
Insufficient teacher’s
guides and student
textbooks
Survey Do you have a teacher’s guide?
What is the pupil to textbook ratio?
(one per student, one per two
students, one per three or more
students)
Lack of supplementary
teaching aids and reading
resources appropriate for
the NALAP curriculum
Post-
classroom
observation
interview
a. What kinds of teaching aids do
you use to teach reading classes?
b. Do you have supplementary
reading books for students? If yes,
verify whether reading corner in
classroom, library or purchased by
parents.
Teacher’s guides,
schemes of work and
lesson plans are not
aligned with NALAP
milestones for bilingual
speaking and listening
Document
analysis
Collect teachers’ lessons notes,
schemes of work and teacher’s
guide; review lesson objectives to
determine whether they list the
milestones
Inadequate training to
master the NALAP
teaching methodologies
and materials
Interview a. Have you participated in any
training on the NALAP
curriculum? If yes, when? What
did you learn?
b. Was the training sufficient to give
you the skills and knowledge you
needed to apply the lessons in the
classroom? Why or why not?
c. Is there any additional support
needed to help you successfully
use the NALAP teacher’s guide
and TLMs? If yes, what types of
support?

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Table D1, continued
How Will it be Validated?
Organizational
Problem
Possible Organizational
Causes Instrument Item
Low reading levels
due to poor teaching
quality (teachers do
not adhere to the
teacher’s guide or
use the teaching and
learning materials
appropriately)
Lack of ongoing support
and coaching on
implementing the
NALAP methodologies
in the classroom
Interview
question
Have you received any coaching,
mentoring or assistance with
implementing the reading methods
and materials in the classroom? If
yes, from whom and how often?
Overcrowded classes
prevent teachers from
using child-centered
strategies
Document
analysis
Review student register and school
profile to identify the number of
students enrolled in Grades KG1,
KG2 and P1. (Verify number of
students attending during classroom
observation)
Low reading levels
due to poor teaching
quality (teachers do
not adhere to the
teacher’s guide or
use the teaching and
learning materials
appropriately)
Classroom
observation
Record the amount of time spent on:
a. guided practice
b. small group work, silent reading
or child-centered activities
c. any difficulties with classroom
management

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Table D1, continued
How Will it be Validated?
Organizational
Problem
Possible Organizational
Causes Instrument Item
Low reading levels
due to poor
teaching quality
(teachers do not
adhere to the
teacher’s guide or
use the teaching
and learning
materials
appropriately)
Limited opportunities to
exchange ideas with
other teachers or for
critical reflection of
lessons (no learning
communities or unable to
participate)
Survey - open
and multiple
choice question
Have you attended professional
development meetings?
What do you generally do at the meetings?
(share ideas, practice lessons, reflect
critically on teaching, develop schemes of
work)
Is there time built into the day or week for
critically reflecting on your teaching
lessons?
Interview Is there time built into the day or week for
critically reflecting on your teaching
lessons?
Insufficient courses on
reading instruction in the
teacher college
Interview a. What courses related to reading
instruction did you take at the teacher
college?
b. Were any courses dedicated to reading
instruction in early childhood (KG-P1)? If
yes, what did you learn?
Limited opportunities to
teach reading during
teaching practicum
Interview a. Did you participate in a teaching
practicum during your pre-service teacher
training?
b. If yes, how many hours did you spend
teaching reading or language classes?
c. Which grades did you teach?
Challenges adhering to
the 90-minute timetable
Classroom
observation
Class start and end times will be recorded.
Reading methodology
and five key skills are not
explicitly described in
the teacher’s guide
Document
analysis
Review teacher’s guide to see whether five
key skills and methodology are explicitly
described and easy to follow.
Language selected as
medium of instruction is
not the pupil’s first
language
Interview How many pupils speak the NALAP
language of instruction as their mother
tongue? (the majority, half, less than half)

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Appendix E:
Data Collection Instruments
Section A: Semi-Structured Teacher Interview Protocol
Instructions: Interview all primary teachers in grades KG1, KG2, and P1 from each class.
1. How long have you been a teacher?
a. Total number of years ____
b. Number of years in this school? ____

2. Did you attend the teaching college? If yes:
a. What courses related to reading instruction did you take at the teacher college?
b. Were any courses dedicated to reading instruction in early childhood (KG-P1)? If
yes, what did you learn?

3. Did you participate in a teaching practicum during your pre-service teacher training? If
yes:
a. How many hours did you spend teaching reading or language classes? ______
b. Which grades did you teach? __________

4. Have you attended any conferences or professional development workshops on reading
instruction? If yes, when and where?

5. Have you participated in any training on the NALAP (National Literacy Acceleration
Program) curriculum?
a. If yes, when? _________
b. What did you learn? Can you explain what NALAP is trying to achieve and what
methods it suggests to achieve this goal?

6. Was the NALAP training sufficient to give you the skills and knowledge you needed to
apply the reading lessons in the classroom? Why or why not?

7. If yes, which methods have you applied that you learned during the training? Were they
effective? Why or why not?

8. What types of TLMs do you currently use to teach reading?
a. How did you obtain these TLMs? Did you produce them or did the government
provide them? Are they related to NALAP?
b. Do the use of TLMs hinder or support learning?

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9. Have you experienced any challenges with using the NALAP teaching guide or teaching
aids (TLMs) in the classroom? If yes, what challenges specifically?
a. Is the time allotted to reading sufficient to teach the daily NALAP lesson plans?
b. Is it difficult to transition to English during the period?
c. Do your students struggle with learning English or the local language?
d. Are there any other challenges?

10. How important is it for students to learn how to read in their mother tongue?

11. How many pupils speak the NALAP language as their mother tongue?
a. The majority (80-90%)
b. Half (50-60%)
c. Less than half (30-40%)

12. Have you received any coaching, mentoring or assistance with implementing the reading
methods and materials in the classroom? If yes, from whom and how often?
a. Assistance from the Student teacher
b. Assistance from Head Teacher
c. Coaching or team-teaching with Head Teacher
d. Coaching/training from Circuit Supervisor
e. Coaching/training from Master Trainer
f. Other type of assistance ______________________

13. Is there any additional support needed to help you successfully use the NALAP teacher’s
guide and TLMs? If yes, what kinds?

14. Does your classroom size have any effect on your ability to fully teach the reading
methods and activities in the teacher’s guide?

15. (If large class sizes) Are there any classroom management strategies you have tried to
overcome the burden of overcrowded classes? If yes, what?

16. Is teacher absenteeism a problem at this school (or cite examples, if known)? If yes,
what barriers do teachers face that prevent them from attending school regularly?

17. How do you assess whether students are able to read? How do you typically keep track
of students’ reading progress?

18. Do you adapt your teaching methods to suit different learners? If yes, how? What types
of strategies do you use to support struggling learners?
a. How much time do you devote to guided practice (reading aloud) on average in a
typical class? ______
b. How much time do you devote to small-group work, silent reading, or interactive
child-centered activities? _____
c. Is it difficult to manage child-centered activities as suggested in NALAP guide?

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19. What is your schedule? How much do you spend in the classroom?
a. Apart from teaching, what other activities do you participate in?
b. Is there time built into the day/week for critically reflecting on your lessons?

20. What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of the NALAP methodology?

Section B: Teacher Survey
1. What is your highest level of education?
a. High School Diploma
b. Post-secondary teaching diploma
c. BA/BS ______
d. Master’s _______
e. Professional training certificate __________
f. Other _____________________

2. Do you have a NALAP teacher’s guide for the English and local language classes?
o o Yes for local language
o o Yes for English
o o No for ________
o o No for both

3. What is the pupil to textbook ratio? (O1)
o 1 book per pupil (all pupils have books)
o 1 book per 2 pupils (1/2 class has books)
o 1 book per 3 pupils (1/3 class has books)
o Less than one-third class has books

4. What kinds of teaching and learning materials do you use to teach reading classes?
r Teacher’s guide for NALAP instruction
r Pupil textbook (English)
r Pupil textbook (Local language)
r Big books
r Audio/video tapes
r Conversational posters
r Alphabetic letters/alphabet cards
r Pupil reader (English)
r Pupil reader (local language)
r Other _____________________
r None
5. How many pupils have readers apart from the pupil book?
o 1 book per pupil (all pupils have books)
o 1 book per 2 pupils (1/2 class has books)
o 1 book per 3 pupils (1/3 class has books)
o Less than one-third class has books
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6. Where are the books located?
r Reading corner in classroom
r Library
r Each child brings his/her own (parent’s purchase)
r Each child brings his/her own (provided by school)
r Books are stored in a locked cabinet in the classroom or school
r Other: ______________________________________

7. How many pupils have exercise books and pens/pencils?
a. All pupils
b. More than half
c. Half
d. Less than half
e. None

8. What are the essential skills children need to learn to be able to read fluently?

9. What activities do you use to teach students letter sound correspondence (e.g., the sound
of the letters of the alphabet)?

10. Have you ever used any of the following skills in the classroom?
a. Pupil-centered teaching
b. Classroom management
c. Managing reading resources in the classroom
d. Phonemic awareness
e. Phonics
f. Language experience approach (LEA)
g. Decoding words
h. Guided reading
i. Using prior knowledge
j. Meaning making/reading comprehension
k. Differentiated learning strategies
l. Pupil assessments of reading
m. Pupil assessments of writing skills
n. Other, please describe: _________________________________

11. Do pupils’ reading levels vary in your class? If yes, are you able to meet the varying
needs of learners in your class? Why or why not?

12. Could you give me an example of how you adapt your teaching style? Imagine, for
example, you had a student who began reading with her older brother or sister prior to
coming to school and is already able to read sentences and short paragraphs. How would
you adapt your teaching style to meet the needs of this advanced learner?

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13. Imagine you have a struggling learner who never attended KG, does not receive any help
from their parents, and has trouble learning the correct sounds of the letters? How would
you help this struggling learner?

14. How much time do you spend critically reflecting on your reading lessons?
a. Per day ________________
b. Per week_______________

15. How do you typically reflect on your lessons?
a. Individually on own time
b. During school time using a reflection journal
c. During school time using an assessment rubric
d. After an observation and feedback from a coach
e. After an observation and feedback from the Head Teacher
f. With other teachers during school time
g. Other, please explain _____________________________________________

16. Have you attended learning circles or professional development meetings?
a. Yes; If yes, how often per term: _____________________________
b. No

17. What do you generally do at the meetings?
a. Share ideas
b. Practice lessons
c. Reflect critically on teaching
d. Develop schemes of work
e. Other, please explain: _________________________________

18. Which of the NALAP languages are taught in your school? Check all that apply:
a. English
b. Akuapem
c. Asante
d. Fante
e. Nzema
f. Dangme
g. Ewe
h. Ga
i. Twi
j. Gonja
k. Kasem
l. Dagbani
m. Dagaare
n. Gurunne

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19. Please rate how well you speak, read, and write the NALAP languages selected for the
medium of instruction. See key below table for definitions of levels. Place a tick ( ✔)
under the correct level of fluency.

Language Skill Native Fluent Proficient Limited Not at all
Akuapem Speak
Read
Write
English Speak
Read
Write
Asante Speak
Read
Write
Fante Speak
Read
Write
Nzema Speak
Read
Write
Dangme Speak
Read
Write
Ewe Speak
Read
Write
Ga Speak
Read
Write
Other Speak
Read
Write

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Key
• Native. Able to speak like a highly articulate well-educated native speaker. Reading proficiency is
equivalent to that of a well-educated native reader.
• Fluent. Able to speak fluently and accurately at all levels. Nearly native ability to read and
understand extremely difficult text.
• Proficient. Able to speak, read, and write with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to
effectively communicate in formal and informal conversations.
• Limited. Able to understand familiar language. Sufficient comprehension to read simple, authentic
written material on familiar subjects.

20. Please rate the social status of teachers’ as compared to other professions (e.g., civil
servants, engineers, architects, health care professionals, other occupations requiring
university degree/diploma). Tick the box that reflects teacher’s position in society
compared to others in similar professions.
r High
r Above average
r Average
r Below Average
r Poor

21. Please rate the economic status of teachers as compared to other professions (e.g., civil
servants, engineers, architects, health care professionals, other occupations requiring
university degree/diploma). Tick the box that reflects teachers’ salary as compared to
others in similar professions.
r High
r Above average
r Average
r Below Average
r Poor

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22. Please rate how strongly you agree with the following statements: Place a tick ( ✔) under
your response.

Question
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree
Strongly
Agree
1a. I believe it is important for children to learn
how to read in their mother tongue language
before learning a second language.

1b. I believe it is better for children to learn
English as soon as they enter school.

3. I enjoy teaching my students how to read books.
4a. I am confident in my ability to read and write
in the local language well

4b. I am confident in my ability to read and write
the English language well

5a. I do not expect all my students to be able to
read with comprehension in the local language by
the end of P3.

5b. Learning comprehension is more appropriate
for upper primary than the early grades.

6a. Student proficiency in reading is largely
dependent upon my teaching ability.

6b. Students’ reading achievement is largely
dependent on other factors beyond the teachers’
control.

7a. The costs associated with teaching (e.g.,
transportation fees, travel time, out-of-pocket
expenses for materials/supplies, etc.) reduce
teachers’ motivation to attend school regularly.

7b. I think teachers should come to school
regularly regardless of the costs incurred by the
teacher.

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23. Please rate how confident you feel with regards to the following questions (very
confident, somewhat confident, a little confident, not at all confident): Place a tick ( ✔)
under your response.

Question Very Somewhat A little Not at all
1. How confident do you feel in your ability to
teach reading?

2. How confident do you feel in your ability to
use the teacher’s guide and relevant teaching aids
to teach reading?

3. How confident do you feel about your ability to
teach listening, reading and writing skills in the
English language?

4. How confident do you feel in your ability to
teach listening, reading and writing skills in the
Ghanaian language?

5. How confident do you feel in managing
classrooms (multilingual, small group work,
etc.)?

6. How prepared are you to address the needs of
struggling learners?

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24. Please rate how strongly you agree with the following questions: (World Education-
specific questions) Place a tick ( ✔) under your response.

Question
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree
Strongly
Agree
NALAP training introduced me to general pedagogies
for teaching literacy in the early grades.

NALAP training is adequate for my needs in the
classroom.

The NALAP Teacher’s Guide is easy to use.
NALAP materials are available for me to use in the
classroom.

NALAP materials are useful and assist me in teaching.
Children will find learning to read easier if they are
taught in their mother tongue.

English is necessary to obtain a good job.
I feel that students should not speak their mother
tongue outside of the Language and Literacy class
when they are at school.

English should be the only language taught at school.
I am motivated to implement NALAP.
NALAP is difficult for me to implement.
The community surrounding the school understandings
the purpose and importance of NALAP.

The community supports the use of the mother tongue
language in early primary.

The community believes English should be the only
language taught in school from KG/P1.

NALAP should continue to be implemented nationally.

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25. Please rank the following NALAP goals in order of importance from 1 to 10, with one
being the most important and 10 the least important:
r Enable students to read text in English
r Enable students to read text in mother tongue
r Improve literacy rates in English
r Improve literacy rates in mother tongue
r Introduce student-centered instruction
r Improve social status of Ghanaian languages
r Prepare students for secondary school
r Provide students with skills that will aid them in future employment
r Improve Ghana’s ability to participate in global economy/trade
r Develop fluent English speakers

26. Do you have any comments you would like to add in relation to the above questions?
Section C: Document Analysis Checklist
Teacher’s Guide
Instructions: Review teacher’s guide to see whether the following five key reading skills and
methodology are explicitly described and easy to follow:
r Phonological Awareness
r Phonics/Decoding
r Vocabulary
r Fluency
r Comprehension

Review the teachers’ guide to determine whether it lists and describes the milestones.

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Lesson Alignment with Milestones
Instructions: Collect the teacher’s scheme of work and lesson plan. Compare the lesson
objectives with the bi-literacy and bilingual milestones. Determine whether lesson objectives aim
to achieve the reading skills and milestones.

Present in lesson
objectives
Ghanaian milestones of bi-literacy:
Kindergarten (KG1-KG2) and lower primary (P1-P3)
Yes No
Print Concepts
1.1 Knows that print and written symbols convey meaning and represent spoken
language.

1.2 Knows that print is read from left to right and top to bottom, and recognizes
familiar print in the environment (e.g. labels, traffic signs, logos, such as those for
vehicles and TV stations, etc.).

1.3 Knows that books have titles, authors, and often illustrators.
1.4 Knows the proper way to handle books (i.e. holds the book upright; turns pages
from front to back, one at a time).

Phonological Awareness
2.1 Knows about the sounds words have, apart from their meaning – for example,
knows about syllables (e.g. “kitchen” has two syllables); knows about rhymes (e.g.
“bed” and “bread”); recognizes similar starting sounds (e.g. “cat” and “king”).

Decoding and Word Analysis
3.1 Recognizes and produces letters, and differentiates them from numbers and
shapes.

3.2 Knows the letters of the alphabet in order.
Vocabulary
4.1 Knows some sight words, such as own name.
Comprehension
5.1 Uses pictures and prior knowledge to aid comprehension and predict story
events and outcomes

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Present in lesson
objectives
Ghanaian milestones for bilingual speaking and listening
Kindergarten (KG1-KG2) and early primary (P1)
Yes No
Sound Production and Discrimination
1.1 Begins to produce and discriminate distinctive sounds.
1.2 Begins to understand speech containing pauses, errors and corrections.
Vocabulary
2.1 Recognizes and uses meaningful chunks of language of different lengths (e.g.
Can I have ___; I don’t know)

2.2 Recognizes and uses frequently occurring content words (e.g. house, young,
sing).

Comprehension and Communication
3.1 Participates in communication in simple and often ungrammatical language.
3.2 Uses background knowledge to understand and convey meaning.
3.3 Initiates talking and responds to talking during conversation.
3.4 Uses private speech as a learning strategy.
3.5 Understands and expresses a number of basic communicative meanings (e.g.,
greetings, asking and answering questions)

3.6 Recognizes and uses appropriate facial expressions, gestures and body
movement that convey meaning.

3.7 Recognizes and uses stress, rhythm and intonation that convey meaning.
3.8 Recognizes and uses basic word order patterns that convey meaning.
3.9 Addresses communicative problems by clarifying or seeking clarification (e.g.
through rewordings and repetitions).

IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA

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Student Enrollment/Class Size
Instructions: Visit the Head Teacher’s office. Request to see the student registrar and/or the
school profile. Record total number of students enrolled in KG1, KG2, and P1.

Standard/Class Total number of students
KG1
KG2
P1

Grading of Reading Progress
Instructions: Request to see teacher’s grade book, continuing assessment form, or record of
students’ reading progress.

Section D: Classroom Observation Tool
Instructions: Randomly select a P1 class for observation. Ensure that it is a language class.
Observe the class for 30-45 minutes. Complete Section A prior to class, sections B and C during
the classroom observation, and section D post-observation. Allow one hour to complete this
instrument.

A. Classroom Demographic Information

Teacher Identification Information (complete this before the lesson begins with
information from the head teacher and/or teacher)
1
Grade level and class to be observed:
a. o P1A b. o P1B c. o P1C
2
Subject of class to be observed:
a. o Reading (literacy 1) b. o writing (literacy 2) c. o English d.o Local Language
3
# of learners in class (O5)
Students Enrolled Present
Boys
Girls
Total

4
Local language school uses for instruction in P1-P3:
a. o Akuapem Twi b. o English c. o Other___________ (specify)
5 Class start time: _______

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B. Classroom Observation
Instructions: Place a tick ( ✔) for each activity observed. The activity may last for less than 10
minutes. Note in which interval of the class the activity took place to track sequencing of tasks.

Ghanaian milestones of bi-literacy observed 10 20 30 40
Print Concepts: Reviewing features of books (i.e. holds the book upright; turns pages
from front to back, one at a time)

Phonological awareness: Practicing correct letter sounds
Phonological awareness: Reading syllables (seeing words made up as syllables e.g.,
kit-ten) (“beat the word” – clap, beat/tap/stamp the syllables of the word)

Letter analysis: Learning the alphabet, reading letters
Decoding and letter analysis: Blending letter sounds to make words, breaking apart
whole words

Vocabulary: Reading key familiar/sight words
Comprehension: Uses pictures and prior knowledge to aid comprehension and predict
story events and outcomes; guided practice of reading and comprehension

Ghanaian milestones for bilingual speaking and listening observed 10 20 30 40
Practice sound production and discrimination
Vocabulary within context
Practice oral speaking in English
Practice oral speaking in Ghanaian language
Teacher uses background knowledge to convey meaning
Teacher uses stress, rhythm and intonation to convey meaning
Teacher uses basic word patterns to convey meaning.
Teacher uses repetition or re-wording to correct communicative problems
Reading activities observed 10 20 30 40
Repetition/memorizing
Choral reading
Code-switching (alternating between English and Ghanaian words)
Teacher had students read aloud
Teacher asked the class to read silently
Teacher asked the whole class to read aloud together
Teacher asked pupils comprehension questions based on what they read
Small group/pair work
Writing exercise
Games/songs
Other:
Class end time: ____________ Length of the class: __________
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241
C. Additional Observation Questions
A. Which lesson is the teacher teaching (corresponding to the teachers’ guide)?
B. Which of the five key reading skills did you observe the teacher teaching:
r Phonemic awareness
r Decoding/phonics
r Reading comprehension
r Fluency – reading aloud
r Vocabulary
C. Did the teacher explicitly teach word analysis and decoding skills?
1. Teaching letter sounds
2. Reading syllables
3. Blending or segmenting words
D. What types of activities do teachers use to promote reading in the classroom? Check all
that apply:
r Repetition
r Choral reading
r Code-switching
r Explicit and systematic instruction of phonics and decoding
r Guided practice of reading and comprehension
r Small-group work
r Pair work
r Assessment of learners
r Individual instruction for struggling learners
E. How much time was spent on reading? _______
a. In the local language? _______
b. In English? ________
F. Record the amount of time spent on:
o Guided practice
o Small group work, silent reading or child-centered activities
o Any difficulties with classroom management?
G. Does the teacher have his/her own teachers’ guide for P1?
a. o Yes
b. o No

H. How many learners have a textbook?
a. o 1 per student
b. o 1 per 2 students
c. o 1 per 3 students
d. o Less than one-third
IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA

242
e. o None
I. Does the lesson include aspects of appropriate reading methodology according to the
teacher’s guide?
a. o Yes
b. o No
J. Does the lesson relate to the milestones?
a. o Yes
b. o No
K. What kinds of materials did the teacher use? How were they used?
Section D: Post-classroom observation interview
L. What kinds of teaching aids do you use to teach reading classes (verify)?
M. Do you have supplementary reading books for students? If yes, verify whether reading
corner in classroom, library or purchased by parents.
1. Reading corner
2. Library
3. Purchased by parents
N. Does it appear that the teacher keeps regular marks to track learner performance in
reading/writing? (Ask to see continuous assessment guide or teachers’ grade book)
(KP10)
a. o Yes
b. o No
O. Are there any observed constraints affecting teaching and learning of reading? (large
class size, lack of reading materials, etc.)

P. Any other comments or observations.

IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA

243
Appendix F:
Ghanaian Standards and Milestones of Bi-Literacy
Reading Standard One: A reader uses knowledge, skills and techniques (e.g., skimming,
scanning) to read.

Milestones – Kindergarten (KG1–2) and Primary school (P1–P3)
1. Print Concepts
1.1 Knows that print and written symbols convey meaning and represent spoken
language.
1.2 Knows that print is read from left to right and top to bottom, and recognizes familiar
print in the environment (e.g. labels, traffic signs, logos, such as those for vehicles
and TV stations, etc.).
1.3 Knows that books have titles, authors, and often illustrators.
1.4 Knows the proper way to handle books (i.e. holds the book upright; turns pages from
front to back, one at a time).

2. Phonological Awareness
2.1 Knows about the sounds words have, apart from their meaning – for example, knows
about syllables (e.g. “kitchen” has two syllables); knows about rhymes (e.g. “bed”
and “bread”); recognizes similar starting sounds (e.g. “cat” and “king”).

3. Decoding and Word Analysis
3.1 Recognizes and produces letters, and differentiates them from numbers and shapes.
3.2 Knows the letters of the alphabet in order.

4. Vocabulary
4.1 Knows some sight words, such as own name.

5. Comprehension
5.1 Uses pictures and prior knowledge to aid comprehension and predict story events and
outcomes.

IMPROVING EARLY GRADE READING INSTRUCTION IN GHANA

244
Appendix G:
Ghanaian Standards and Milestones of Bilingual Speaking and Listening
Standard One: Speakers and listeners use knowledge of language and the world together with
communicative skills to converse in everyday settings (e.g. using language to communicate in
context and dealing with communicative difficulties).

Milestones – Kindergarten (KG1–2) and early Primary school (P1)
1. Sound Production and Discrimination
1.1 Begins to produce and discriminate distinctive sounds.
1.2 Begins to understand speech containing pauses, errors and corrections.

2. Vocabulary
2.1 Recognizes and uses meaningful chunks of language of different
lengths (e.g. Can I have ___; I don’t know)
2.2 Recognizes and uses frequently occurring content words (e.g. house,
young, sing).

3. Comprehension and Communication
3.1 Participates in communication in simple and often ungrammatical language.
3.2 Uses background knowledge to understand and convey meaning.
3.3 Initiates talking and responds to talking during conversation.
3.4 Uses private speech as a learning strategy.
3.5 Understands and expresses a number of basic communicative
meanings (e.g. greetings; expressing likes and dislikes; and asking and
answering questions).
3.6 Recognizes and uses appropriate facial expressions, gestures and body movement that
convey meaning.
3.7 Recognizes and uses stress, rhythm and intonation that convey
meaning.
3.8 Recognizes and uses basic word order patterns that convey meaning.
3.9 Addresses communicative problems by clarifying or seeking clarification (e.g.
through rewordings and repetitions)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Recent Early Grade Reading Assessments in Ghana have shown extremely low reading proficiency rates in the early grades of primary school and poor teaching quality misaligned with the national literacy curriculum. Applying a gap analysis framework, this case study examined 15 teachers’ reading instruction in five primary schools in the Akuapim North district of Ghana. The primary purpose of the case study was to identify the knowledge, motivational, and organizational barriers that are preventing teachers from effectively implementing the national literacy curriculum and to develop context-relevant solutions to address the gaps. Data was collected through surveys, interviews, document analysis, and classroom observations of teachers in kindergarten and first grade. Findings showed that teachers lack factual knowledge and self-efficacy to teach reading skills. Teachers also lack procedural knowledge for implementing child-centered pedagogies and formative assessments. The study confirmed a number of assumed organizational barriers, such as insufficient teacher training, inadequate coaching in the classroom, and limited opportunities for professional engagement with peers. An extensive literature review of proposed solutions indicated that continuous training of up to 80 hours and consistent coaching in the classroom coupled with professional learning communities that use student achievement data as the basis for instructional planning can have a significant impact on student reading outcomes. Furthermore, the selection and training of coaches is critical to the success of the professional development program. The proposed solutions in Chapter 5 provide concrete strategies for addressing the teacher performance gap. The paper concludes with a detailed implementation plan and an evaluation framework for monitoring the effectiveness of the proposed continuous professional development program.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sinclair, Brenda T. (author)

Core Title Improving early grade reading instruction in Ghana: a discrepancy gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 09/01/2015

Defense Date 08/11/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Africa,early childhood education,early grade reading,EGRA,fidelity to implementation,international development,international education,Literacy,OAI-PMH Harvest,primary education,professional development,reading instruction,reading research,teacher motivation,teacher self-efficacy,Teacher Training,USAID

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair)

Creator Email brensinc@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-638502

Unique identifier UC11305781

Identifier etd-SinclairBr-3837.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-638502 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SinclairBr-3837.pdf

Dmrecord 638502

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Sinclair, Brenda T.

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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