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Intergenerational social support and the psychological well-being of older parents in China
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Intergenerational social support and the psychological well-being of older parents in China
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INTERGENERATIONAL SOCIAL SUPPORT AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELL-BEING OF OLDER PARENTS IN CHINA
by
Xuan Chen
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY
May 1998
Copyright 1998 Xuan Chen
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY
University Park
Los Angeles, CA 90089
This thesis, written by
XUAN CHEN
under the director of h rr Thesis Committee and approved by all its
members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of the Leonard
Davis School of Gerontology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of:___________________________________________________________
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY
fl r /•■
J i J r j i
*1 M m *
Date f
Dean
THESIS COMMITTEE
Chairman
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my special gratitude to my thesis committee— Dr.
Merril Silverstein and Dr. Eileen Crimmins— for their helpful guidance and
valuable comments throughout; To my colleagues from the Beijing Geriatric
Clinic and Research Center who collected the data for this thesis; To my
husband for being patient with me as I completed my thesis; Finally, to my
parents for their value of education and sacrificial giving to their children.
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE............................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... I
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................... 3
Intergenerational Relationship in China...........................................................3
Intergenerational Social Support and Well-being...........................................8
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY............................................................................ 15
Data...................................................................................................................... 15
Measures............................................................................................................ 16
Analysis........................ t .....................................................................................19
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS.............................................................................................21
Descriptive Results........................................................................................... 21
Regression Results............................................................................................ 23
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION......................................................................................26
REFERENCE.................................................................................................................. 31
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURE
Table 1: Factor loadings of modified morale scale...................................................17
Table 2: Characteristics of analytical variables for Beijing elderly........................ 22
Table 3: Unstandardized multiple regression coefficients
predicting morale score....................................................................... 24
Figure I: Theoretical model of intergenerational
social support and m orale................................................................. 14
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ABSTRACT
This study explores the relationship between intergenerational social support and
the psychological well-being of older Chinese parents. Effects of structural, functional,
and appraisal support on Chinese parents’ well-being have been tested by analyzing a
random sample of 3039 persons aged 5 5 -* - in China. The data are derived from the 1992
baseline survey of the Beijing Multidimensional Longitudinal Study on Aging. Multiple
regression is used to determine the extent to which intergenerational social support
influences older parents’ morale. Findings reveal that providing instrumental support to
children and satisfaction with children are the most significant predictors of parents'
well-being. Culturally traditional parents benefit more than the less traditional from
providing instrumental support to their children. The results suggest that the
development of elder-care policy in China should consider the psychological benefit of
intergenerational social support exchange to older parents.
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
Intergenerational social support and its impact on older parents’ physical,
economic and psychological well-being have been widely studied in Western society
(e.g., Felton & Berry, 1992; Lin, Woelfel. & Light. 1985; Silverstein & Bengtson, 1994;
Silverstein, Chen, & Heller, 1996; Umberson. 1992). In China, where filial responsibility
of elder-care is taken for granted and the majority of the older parents are supported by
their adult children, study of intergenerational support poses special importance.
However, while most studies have focused on the pattern of social support (e.g., Shi.
1993) and influence of social support on physical and economic well-being of the
Chinese elderly (e.g., Liu, Liang, & Gu. 1995; Yang, 1996), few studies have discussed
the effect of social support on older Chinese parents’ psychological well-being.
This study investigates the influence of intergenerational social support on older
parents’ psychological well-being in China, by examining how social support between
adult children and older parents affects older parents' morale. A set of models will be
proposed to test how the availability of children, proximity to children, social support
exchange with children, and satisfaction with children influence older parents' morale.
The data used in the study are from a probability survey of Chinese older adults aged 55
and over conducted in Beijing, China in 1992.
In the following chapters, I will first review the changing intergenerational
relationship in current China and propose a theoretical model about effects of
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intergenerational social support on well-being o f older parents according to Western
literature in Chapter II, then introduce the methodology of this study in Chapter III and
present the findings in Chapter IV, and finally discuss the findings and conclude with
some suggestions about future analysis in Chapter V.
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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
Intergenerational Relationship in China
Study of the impact of intergenerational social support on the psychological well
being of Chinese elderly is important given that the family in China still serves as the
primary source of old-age support (Yuan. 1987). The family has played a predominant
role in elder-care, especially in rural China. More than two thirds of the rural elderly and
less than one third of the urban elderly depend on their children for financial support (Xu
& Yuan, 1997). Almost all frail elders rely on their children or other relatives for
instrumental assistance (Ikels. 1997; Wu. 1991), as family responsibility for elder-care is
both a norm and a right protected by the Laws o f The People's Republic of China (Davis-
Friedmann, 1991). However, family relationships and family structure are undergoing
rapid changes with socioeconomic development in current Chinese society.
Changing Traditional Parent-child Relationship
While children are still reported as the primary source of old-age support to their
parents (Gu, Chen, & Liang, 1995), the dynamic underlying parent-child relationships has
undergone a dramatic transition in China. In traditional Chinese society, parents have an
obligation to provide their children with such items as property, housing, and even
marriage partners. In return, the parents would expect to receive support from their adult
children, sons in particular, when their physical ability deteriorated with age. The
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Chinese proverb “Having sons makes one's old age secure*’ well describes the
expectation of Chinese parents toward their male offspring.
This reciprocal support system is reinforced by norm of filial piety— one of the
fundamental beliefs of Confucianism. The philosophy of Confucius greatly influenced
the nature of age relations in Chinese culture since it emphasized respect for the elderly
and the knowledge of elder sages (Ganschow. 1978). However, after the establishment of
the People's Republic o f China in 1949. many aspects of Confusion were criticized as
“feudal ideology.” Instead. Communist philosophy, viewing youth as the vanguard of
social change, replaced Confucianism as the dominant ideology in Chinese society. This
shift was especially prominent during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), at which time
youthful revolutionary leadership was promoted and traditional values criticized
(Ganschow. 1978).
As a result of such social political change, the traditional parent-children
relationship has shown signs of transformation. Before 1949, parents controlled the
principle assets of the family and maintained substantial power over family members,
while children were obligated to obey and serve their parents. The new ideology
promulgated by the Communist Party alters the Confiician contract between the young
and the old in Chinese families. In addition, since private property was reduced to a
minimum, most parents have little inheritance to leave to their children eroding parental
power. Therefore, parents in China society today have weakened authority over children
and intergenerational relations are becoming more egalitarian (Yuan, 1987). For
instance, while children are still expected to take care of their older parents, they do not
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necessarily “obey” them. Sometimes, adult children are even more likely than older
parents to be the family decision-maker because of improved education and economic
status among younger generations (Pan & Lin, 1987. cited by Lai, 1995). There is
speculation that the changing balance of power within intergenerational relationship in
Chinese families might cause stress for the elderly who have retained more traditional
values toward the family (Ganschow, 1978: Treas & Wang, 1993)
Changing Family Structure
Social-historical change has also altered the structure of Chinese families.
Declines in fertility, urbanization, housing constraints, and changing gender roles have
simplified family living arrangements in contemporary China. Currently, family,
structure tends to simplify and family size tends to shrink in China. Extended family
living arrangement (several generations with all married male siblings living under the
same roof) was a typical family structure in traditional Chinese society (Yuan, 1987), and
formed the basis for the traditional family support system. It’s simplified form--stem
families (the older parents living with a married son, his wife, and their children)
continues to be the most common living arrangement pattern in China (Wu, 1991).
Meanwhile, the number of older people living in non-traditional household structures, for
instance empty-nest households, skip-generation households (grandparents living with
grandchildren), network households (children and older parents living separately but
closely), and “by turns” households (rotating among son’s residences, typically in rural
areas) has increased (Gui, et al., 1987; Goldstein, Ku, & Ikels, 1990; Hareven, 1987;
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Tsui. 1989). Consequently, the average household size has decreased from 4.49 in 1982
(Yuan. 1987) to 3.97 in 1990 (Zeng, 1996).
Socioeconomic development and family planning policy have lead to a sharp
fertility decline, with the total fertility rate going from 5.43 in 1971 to 1.7 in 1992 (Lin &
Liu. 1997). Decreasing fertility has resulted in fewer siblings being available to share
parental support and an added burden on individual offspring. One direct consequence of
decreasing fertility on current Older cohorts is that the relationship between adult children
and their parents becomes less important relative to the one between adult children and
their children— the " ‘one-child” generation. An emerging social problem in mainland
China is the over indulgence of the only-child by parents. Consequently, the middle
generation provides less support to their older parents than they provide to their children.
The process of societal modernization may also disadvantage the elderly
(Cowgill, 1974). Economic reforms in China since the late 1970s expanded job
opportunities in urban areas. People in the labor force move from city to city or from
rural to urban areas to pursue better job opportunities. Those movements have led adult
children to move away from their older parents, resulting in a dramatic increase in nuclear
family households (Xia, 1997). As a consequence, older parents, (and sometimes young
children), are left behind in their home towns. Since community services are
underdeveloped in most parts of China, these elderly parents without nearby children may
be under-served and over burdened, especially when they have to parent their
grandchildren.
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Housing constraints may also influence family household structure of the elderly
since housing shortages prevent adult children from living apart from a parent’s home.
This was the case for most metropolitan residents in China during the 1970s. Conversely,
a sufficient housing supply causes an increase in nuclear family households. For
instance, the improvement in housing supply since the 1980s reduced household size by
increasing nuclear family living (Zeng, 1996). Indeed, a new type of living arrangement-
-network family— is emerging in urban China where married adult children tend to live
near rather than co-reside with their older parents. This type of living arrangement retains
close contact among intergenerational family members while reducing the potential for
intergenerational conflict.
Improved education and employment opportunities for women also lead to
changes in household structure. According to traditional Chinese culture, married
daughters are obligated to be the primary caregiver for their parents-in-law. As a
consequence, daughters-in-law typically lived with their in-laws but held little power in
the traditional family, while mothers-in-law controlled most family matters. After the
Communist revolution, the status of daughters improved as a result of government policy
that ensured equal education and employment opportunities for women and men. Thus,
the balance of power between mothers and daughters-in-law has shifted now that
daughters-in-law generally have better education and higher earning ability than their
mothers-in-law. Thus, disputes between mothers and daughters-in-law have encouraged
the division of large families into smaller semi-autonomous nuclear units (Kamo, 1988).
These changes in family relationships and household structure have important
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implications for older parents who relv on children as their primary support-providers.
How such changes have influenced the psychological well-being of older Chinese parents
will be discussed in the following section.
Intergenerational Social Support and Well-being
Social support is a multidimensional construct with variety determinants and
outcomes (Antonucci. 1990). While social support has been operationalized in many
ways, its basic underlying dimensions are typically conceptualized as the structure,
function, and appraisal of supportive relationships (Antonucci. 1990; Oxman & Hull.
1997). The structure of social support includes the presence, size, and geographic
distance of the individual’s social network. The structural component of support
describes the availability of people who may (but do not necessarily) help the individual.
The functional aspect of social support refers to the specific type of help provided such as
instrumental, emotional, and financial, and the amount of such help. Where structural
and functional dimensions o f support are objective descriptors of a social support
network, appraisal of support represents the subjective evaluation of the adequacy of
support, or the degree of satisfaction with support.
Structure
An important consideration in the study of social support in the aging family is
the nature of its influence on the psychological well-being of the elderly. Empirical
evidence indicates that structural features of intergenerational support predict
psychological well-being of the elderly (e.g., Kaplan, Roberts, Camacho, & Coyne, 1987;
Silverstein & Bengtson, 1994; Silverstein, Chen, & Heller, 1996). In particular, the size
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of social networks has been found to affect the opportunity for social contact and the
availability of social support (Eggebeen. 1992: Hovert. 1991; Seeman & Berkman,
1988). Therefore, it is expected that older parents with more children, particularly with
more sons, have a better chance of receiving support from at least one child and
consequently have a lower risk of depression: as the popular Chinese proverb says. ‘‘More
children brings greater happiness.*’
Older parents having adult sons or daughters may experience different patterns of
social support and. therefore, experience different psychological outcomes. Caregiver
literature of Western society indicates that daughters are a more common source of
parental caregiving than are sons (Chappell. 1990). In China, the presence of sons is
particularly important for older parents since traditionally, sons are expected to be the
primary caregivers for them. In contrast, daughters, once married, are expected not to
return to parents in their family of orientation. At marriage, they typically entered their
husband’s family and take on responsibility for that family only. However, recent studies
in China have shown that traditional women's role in the family has changed as a
consequence of delayed entry into first marriages and new employment opportunities for
women (Davis-Friedmann, 1991). A manifestation of this change is that biological
daughters are now reported as one of the most important sources of family support for
older parents (Gu, Chen, & Liang, 1995). Daughters are more likely to assist with the
personal care needs o f their parents, while sons are still more likely to provide financial
support to parents (Yang, 1996). However, trends suggest that daughters may become
more important relative to sons. With the development of universal social security
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system and improvement of economic status of the older people in China, elderly Chinese
will increasingly be able to support themselves financially. Since children will rem ain
important sources of instrumental assistance and emotional support, daughters are
expected to become more salient resource for their parents, especially in urban areas
where economic security of the elderly is greatest (Davis-Friedmann. 1991).
In addition to the number and gender composition of children, proximity to
children is an important correlate of intergenerational support that may predict older
parents' psychological well-being. Geographic proximity between parents and children
better enables the exchange of support, especially instrumental support, but also implies
greater levels of interaction and intimacy across the generations. Greater distance
between the homes of parents and children has been associated with reduced interaction
between them (Crimmins & Ingegneri, 1990). A closer living arrangement between older
parents and adult children might also result from the need o f older parents for help from
children (Silverstein, 1995) or the need of children for aid from parents (Crimmins &
Ingegneri. 1990), both scenarios reflecting the fulfillment of intergenerational obligations.
Finally, greater proximity to children increase feelings of security among older parents,
improving their sense of well-being even in the absence of active support.
Function
While structural factors make social support exchange possible, functional factors
refer to the support patterns themselves. Instrumental, emotional, and financial support
all are found to be related to parents’ psychological well-being with each buffering
specific stressor (Krause, 1986). Emotional support insofar has been found to be the
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most important predictor of psychological outcomes for older parents relative to
instrumental and financial support (Kessler & Mcleod. 1985). Empirical studies in China
found the similar results. A series of study of Wuhan elderly found emotional support
but not financial support had a positive impact on psychological well-being of the older
parents (Krause & Liang, 1993). Receiving emotional support and providing
instrumental support but not receiving instrumental support improved elders’ health
status (Liu, Liang, & Gu. 1995). However, those studies investigated support exchange
from all sources not only from adult children.
In discussing support patterns, it is also necessary to include both receiving
support and providing support, because 1) older parents are not only care-receivers but
also care-providers. 2) each direction of support has different psychological outcome.
Studies in the United States (e.g., Silverstein. Chen. & Heller. 1996) and China (e.g..'
Barusch, et al., 1991; Liu, 1991) show that older parents are involved in providing
support to their adult children and grandchildren. Receiving social support affects older
people’s psychological well-being through buffering the impact of stressful life events on
individual (Krause, 1986; Lieberman. 1982; Silverstein & Bengtson, 1994; Thompson &
Heller, 1990). Providing support to adult children is associated with a greater sense o f
well-being (Beckman, 1981). Assisting others improves the psychological well-being
through experiencing the greater sense of purpose as a result of the adoption of a
productive social role and the development o f intimacy and trust with others (Kessler,
Mcleod. & Wethington, 1985; Krause, Herzog, & Baker, 1992; Shumaker & Brownell,
1984).
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Subjective Appraisal
Evidence suggests that the structure and function of support may be less
predictive of later well-being than is the perception or interpretation o f support (Heller,
Swindle, & Dusenbury. 1986; Wethington & Kessler. 1986), because the subjective
evaluation of the reality by the elderly themselves is more important than the objective
reality (Markides, Liang, & Jackson, 1990). Previous research indicates that the effects
of objective variable affect well-being indirectly by their influence on subjective
perceptions (Geroge. 1990; Kahana. et al.. 1995). While subjective assessment of social
support may be based on the structure and function of support, but they are not
necessarily correlated with those dimensions of support (George. 1987). Equity theory
(Walster, Berscheid, & Walster. 1973) provides an explanation for the weak relationship
between objective conditions and subjective evaluation among older people. The theory
proposes that the subjective perceptions of the elderly are based on perceived equity. For
instance. Carp and Carp (1982) found that older people were satisfied with life when they
perceived their life conditions as fair and just. In another words, older parents may
receive less support but report a greater sense of well-being because they believe what
they get is what they should receive.
Norms
The impact of intergenerational social support on older parents’ psychological
well-being may also determined by older parents’ endorsement of cultural norms and
values. Filial norms and values shape expectations regarding the appropriate content of
interaction with family (Robert & Bengtson, 1990). The fulfillment o f filial expectations
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is crucial for understanding older parents' psychological well-being (Seelbach & Sauer.
1977; Silverstein. Chen, & Heller. 1996). In China, traditional values have been assumed
to be an important factor influencing the psychological well-being o f older parents (e.g..
Davis-Friedmann. 1991; Sher. 1984); however, little empirical research has been done to
examine this assumption.
Figure 1 summaries a theoretical model of the causal pathways by which
intergenerational social support improves the morale o f older parents. Based on previous
studies, which suggest that older parents' psychological well-being is determined by
multiple dimensions of social support as well as their normative expectation, the
following hypotheses are postulated;
1. Among structural factors, the proximity to children rather than the number and
gender of children will elevate older parents’ morale.
2. Among functional factors, receiving emotional support and providing any
kind of support will elevate older parents' morale.
3. While dimensions of intergenerational social support will influence the
psychological well-being of older Chinese parents, their effects will mostly be
mediated through subjective appraisal of support.
4. The influence of intergenerational social support on parents’ psychological
well-being will depend on parents’ adherence to traditional family norms.
Those with stronger traditional beliefs will benefit more from support
exchange with children than those with less traditional beliefs.
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Morale
Norm
Appraisal
Structure of
support
Function of
Support
Figure 1. Theoretical model of intergenerational social support and morale
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
Data
The data used for this study were gathered in the 1992 baseline survey of the
Beijing Multidimensional Longitudinal Study on Aging (BMLSOA). Sponsored by the
United Nation Population Fund (UNPF). the BMLSOA is a three-year lon gitu d in al study
conducted by the Beijing Geriatric Clinic and Research Center (BGCRC). Questionnaires
for the 1992 survey covered 15 domains, including demographic characteristics, family
and social networks, attitudes towards aging, occupation and retirement, psychological
well-being, locus of control, financial status, resident environment and housing, self
perceived health, chronic conditions, dietary habits, health behavior, activities of daily
living, health services and aids, and interviewer's observations.
The sample was randomly selected, stratified by region, age and gender. First,
three geographically representative areas of the Beijing metropolitan were randomly
chosen: Huairou County (mountain rural area), Daxing County (plain rural area), and
Xuanwu District (urban area). Secondly, the streets and townships among those areas
were chosen to be representative of older people's education and age; then the
neighborhood committees and natural villages from those streets and townships were
selected according the sample size requirement. Finally, the individuals stratified by age
and gender were chosen from the sample frame according to the equal distance sampling
method. The sampling method equally represents six age groups (55-59, 60-64, 65-69,
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70-74, 75-79. 80+) by gender. .So that each of the 1 2 age -by-gender groups has about 250
subjects. This method ensures sufficient number of older men and the oldest-old in the
sample.
The first wave of the survey interviewed in person 3343 noninstitutionalized
individuals aged 55 and over. The response rate was approximately 99.5%. A free
medical examination offered after the interview helped to achieve such a high response
rate. About two thirds of interviewees took advantage of the free medical examination
which included bio-medical tests, and functional and cognitive assessments. The sample
in this analysis excluded elders having no surviving children and whose questionnaires
were answered by proxies. Thus, the eligible sample includes 3197 individuals who had
at least one living child and answered all questions by themselves.
Measures
Dependent Variable
Many measurements have been used to assess psychological well-being, such as
life satisfaction, morale, happiness, and depression. These indicators of psychological
well-being share important similarities and tend to be highly intercorrelated (George,
1990). In this study, a modified version of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale
Scale (Lawton, 1975) translated into Chinese is used to measure psychological well
being. The Chinese version of this scale includes 9 items including whether the
respondent had felt (1) having is much energy as before, (2) less useful, (3) a lot o f fun in
life, (4) depressed, (5) happy, (6 ) having nothing to do, (7) willing to contact with others,
(8 ) liked to be alone, and (9) becoming narrow minded and getting angry easily during
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the past week. Each item is coded from 1 (no such a feeling) to 3 (always having such a
feeling). Negative items are reverse coded. The summed score o f morale scale ranges
from 9 (least positive) to 27 (most positive). A higher score indicates greater sense of
well-being. For cases with missing values, the scale score is imputed from valid data
when no more than 5 items are missing. Reliability coefficient for this scale is .74. The
factor loading of this scale is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Factor loadings of modified morale scale
Variables Factor loading
A lot of fun in life .6 8
Having nothing to do .64
Depressed .62
Narrow minded and get angry easily .55
Less useful .54
Like to be alone .52
Feel happy .52
Willing to contact with others .51
Having as much energy as before .48
Aipha=.74
Independent Variables
Structural variables: Total number of children includes both surviving biological
and non-biological children. The presence of children is measured by a set of dummy
variables, including having at least one surviving son and at least one surviving daughter,
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having a surviving son(s) only, and having a surviving daughter(s) only (reference
group). Proximity to children is measured as geographic distance between parents and
the closest child. A variable is coded from I to 3 representing whether the closest child
lived farther than half-hour walking distance ( 1). lived within half-hour walking distance
(2), or lived with the parent (3).
Functional variables: Both receipt and provision o f intergenerational social
support are analyzed. Three types of help receipt are assessed: (1) financial support, (2 )'
emotional support, and (3) instrumental support. Financial support include both material
and monetary help. Emotional support is measured by a dummy variable of having at
least one child as confidant. Instrumental help refers to assistance with tasks of Katz’s et
al. (1963) Activities of Daily Living Scale (ADL) and Lawton and Brody’s (1969)
Instrumental Activities o f Daily Living Scale (IADL). ADL tasks cover the following 6
items: eating, grooming, dressing, getting on and off a bed, bathing, and inside-house
moving around. IADL tasks refer to the following 6 items: cooking meals, managing
money, taking bus, shopping, walking 300 meters, and walking up and down stairs to the
second floor. Receiving help with at least one ADL or IADL task is credited as receiving
instrumental help. Providing support to children is assessed with two items: (1)
instrumental assistance (providing either housework or baby-sitting is counted as
providing such help), and (2 ) financial support (including both material and monetary
help). Each variable of the five support are dummy coded 1 for receiving or providing
the type of support and other coded as 0 .
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Subjective variables: Appraisal of intergenerational support is measured by
asking the degree of general satisfaction with all children. The variable is coded from 1
(not very satisfied) to 5 (very satisfied). Traditional norms are measured by asking if
respondents agree with the statement: "Having a son makes one's old age secure.”
Agreement with the statement is coded as I and disagreement is coded as 0.
Control variables: Control variables include age. gender, marital status,
education, urban residence, self-rated health, need for financial support, and tradition
norms. Gender is coded I as female and 0 as male. Marital status is coded I as married
and 0 as unmarried. Education level is coded 1 as 'illiterate or semiliterate', 2 as 'primary
school', 3 as 'Junior high school’. 4 as 'junior vocational or senior high school’, and 5 as
'senior vocational or college or university plus'. Urban residence is coded as 1 for living
in urban areas and 0 for living in rural areas. A dummy variable asking the interviewee
whether they need financial help is included to control economic adequacy. Self-rated
health status is included to control for physical condition, and is coded from 1 (not very
healthy) to 5 (very healthy).
Analysis
Multiple regression is used to test the study hypotheses. In accordance with the
theoretical model presented in Figure 1, each domain of intergenerational social support
is hierarchically added until all variables are entered into the model. First, the effects of
the structural factors on older parents’ psychological well-being will be tested by
including only structural support variables with control variables. Second, the effects of
the functional factors will be tested by adding social support exchange variables to the?
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model. Third, the effect o f appraisal will be investigated by adding the variable of
satisfaction with children to the model. Finally, interactions between adherence to
traditional norms and all social support indicators will be tested by adding cross-product
terms to the multivariate model. Such a hierarchical modeling is able to trace the causal
sequence by which intergenerational social support influences older parents'
psychological well-being.
20
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CHAPTER IV RESULTS
Descriptive Results
The description of sample characteristics and analytic variables are displayed in
Table 2. Excluded the cases with missing value for analytic variables, the operational
sample reduced to 3039. The average age of the sample is 69 years old. More than half
of the respondents are female. 69% married. 67% urban residents. Education level is
averaged about 2 of a possible 5 points. About half (49.8%) of Chinese elderly are
illiterate or semiliterate, and about two-fifths report needing financial support. The
average score of self-rated health is 3.32 of a total possible 5 points. More than two-
thirds of the elderly agreed with the traditional belief that "Having a son makes old-age
secure”.
On average, older Chinese parents have 3.72 surviving children. The majority
have at least one son and one daughter (76%). About 15% have only a surviving son(s)
and 9% only a surviving daughter(s). The average score of proximity to children is 2.31
out of 3. Nearly two-thirds of the older parents in the sample live with at least one child,
13% had at least one child living within half-hour, and 27% had at least one child living
farther than half-hour away. Most of the older parents experienced social support
exchange with their adult children. About one-third of them received instrumental and
emotional support. More than half of them received financial support. In terms of
providing support to children, two-fifths helped with housework or child-care; less than
2 1
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Table 2. Characteristics of analytical variables for Beijing elderly (n=3039): 1992
Variable Mean SD Coding scheme
Social/demographic variables
Age 69.19 8.65 No. of year, ranged from 55-97
Gender .51 .50 l=female, 0 =mule
Marital status .69 .46 1 =married, 0 -others
Education 2 .0 2 1.29 1-illiterate/semiliterate, 5=colleget-
Urban residence .67 .47 l=yes, 0 =no
Need financial support .39 .49 1 =yes, 0 =no
Self-rated health status 3.32 .89 l=not very good, 5=very good
Belief of traditional norm .64 .48 l=agree, 0 =does not agree
Structural support
Number of children 3.72 1.67 No., ranged from 1-11
Having a son(s) only .15 .36 1 =yes, 0 =no
1 laving a daughter(s) only .09 .28 1 =yes, ()=no
Having a son(s) and a daughter(s) .76 .43 l=yes, 0 =no
Proximity to children 2.31 .92 l=farther than half-hour walking, 3=coresidence
Functional support
Receiving instrumental help .33 .47 1 =yes, 0 =no
Receiving emotional help .26 .44 l=yes, 0 =no
Receiving financial help .54 .50 1 =yes, 0 =no
Providing instrumental help .42 .49 l=yes, 0 =no
Providing financial help .08 .27 1 =yes, 0 =no
Appraisal
Satisfaction with children 3.90 .61 l=not very satisfied, 5=very satisfied
Dependent variable
Morale 22.15 3.67 9-item scale, ranged from 9-27
22
one out of ten parents provided monetary support to their adult children. The average
degree of satisfaction with children is 3.90 out o f a possible 5. The morale scale score of
this sample averages 22.15 points on a scare ranging from 9 to 27.
Regression Results
Parameter estimates for the multiple regression equations predicting morale score
are listed in Table 3. Equation A shows the effects of structural variables. Although the
number of children and presence of daughters or sons have no significant impact on
parents' morale, proximity to children is positively associated with morale. The closer
the distance between parents and children, the higher the parent’s morale. Older parents
also tend to have higher morale when they are younger, married, better-educated, urban
residents, financially secure, healthier, and more culturally traditional compared to their
counterparts. Gender of parent has no significant impact on morale.
Equation B displays the results when social support exchange variables are added
to the model. In this equation, the variable representing proximity to children is no
longer significant. Thus, the effect of proximity on parents’ well-being is explained by
the greater intergenerational social support exchanged with more proximate children.
Receiving emotional and financial support from children, and providing instrumental
support to children positively related to older parents’ morale. The effects of receiving
instrumental support and providing financial support are not significant. The gender
effect emerges as significant in this equation, apparently suppressed by intergenerational
social support exchange variables. It indicates mothers have lower morale than fathers
when the benefits of their being more involved in social support exchange are controlled.
23
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Table 3. Unstandardized multiple regression coefficients predicting morale score
Independent variable Equation A Equation B Equation C
Social/demographic var.
Age -.05*** -.05***
-05***
Gender -.13 -.28* -.36*
Marital status .35*
62***
.42*
Education
2 0 *** 2 2 *** 16**
Urban residence
5 9 ***
6 7 ***
.62***
Need financial support -.51** -.60*** -.45**
Self-rated health status 1.53*** 1.50*** 1.39***
Belief of traditional norm .37* .31* .15
Structural support
Number of children .04 .0 2 .01
Having a son(s) only -.17 -.08 .04
Having a son(s) and a daughter(s) -.07 -.03 .05
Proximity to children .15* .06 .0 2
Functional support
Receiving instrumental help .2 0 .07
Receiving emotional help .39** .23
Receiving financial help .28* .09
Providing instrumental help
4 9 *** 46***
Providing financial help - .0 2 .03
Appraisal
Satisfaction with children 1.25***
Interaction
Norm x providing instrumental help
Intercept 19.14*** 18.62*** 14.81***
R1
2 0 ***
2 j***
.25***
* p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Equation D
-.05***
-.36**
.43**
.16**
.64**
. 4 7 **
I 27***
-.17
.01
.04
.06
.03
.05
.23
. 1 1
-.06
.04
1.25***
.79**
14 91***
.25***
24
Equation C shows that the variable indicating satisfaction with children is
significant when added to the model. The effects of receiving emotional and financial
support and adherence to norms - significant in the previous equation - are no longer
significant in predicting older parents' moral, each explained by the greater degree of
satisfaction associated with those variables. While providing instrumental support to
children remains a significant predictor of parents' morale, the degree of satisfaction with
children becomes the most important factor among the social support measurements
influencing parents' morale.
The only significant interaction effect between traditional norms and social
support is displayed in equation D. The interaction term reviews that more culturally
traditional parents derive greater benefit than the less traditional when they provide
instrumental support to their children. This final model suggests that greater satisfaction
with children and providing instrumental support to children when family norms are more
traditional are the most important social support predictors o f older Chinese parents’
psychological well-being.
25
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CHAPTER V DISCUSSION
This analysis examined the impact of intergenerational social support on Chinese
older parents' psychological well-being. Four hierarchical regression models were
estimated by progressively adding structural, functional, and appraisal variables to
equations predicting older parents' morale. Satisfaction with children has been found as
the most significant predictor of morale and normative expectation plays an important
contextual role when assessing the impact of providing social support to children.
With respect to structural aspects of social support, the results were consistent
with my hypothesis that older parents' morale will be significantly influenced by the
distance to children but not the number of children or the gender of children. Although
older Chinese parents traditionally believe that "more children brings greater happiness
and that having a son makes one's old age secure", the results indicated that regardless of
the number of gender composition of their off-spring, Chinese parents tended to have
greater morale if their children lived closer to them. The results further indicated that
older Chinese parents, having children living nearby indirectly led to elevated morale by
increasing the likelihood of exchanging intergenerational support with their children.
The hypothesis regarding functional social support was partially confirmed.
Older parents benefited from receiving both emotional and financial support from
children and benefited only from providing instrumental support to children. Since China
is without a fully developed old-age insurance system, financial security among older
26
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Chinese still derives primarily from adult children. Therefore, it is not surprising that
receiving but not providing financial support improves the outlook of elderly Chinese
parents.
Instrumental social support exchange affects morale in a pattern opposite to that
of financial social support. Providing, but not receiving instrumental support improves
the well-being of older parents, even when controlling for a culture belief that in fact
focuses on receiving support ("Having a son makes one's old age secure.'’) Receiving
instrumental support may not benefit psychological well-being if it erodes the self-
efficacy and autonomy of the older parents (Seeman. Bruce, & McAvay, 1996).
Providing support to children may enhance parents' power in the family and strengthen
their ability to reciprocate in exchanges with children, factors shown to be important for
psychological health in later life (Lee. 1988: Stoller. 1985).
The results confirmed the hypothesis that the effects of structural and functional
social support variables on morale are mediated by the appraisal of support. Structural
and functional variables influence morale by improving satisfaction with children, but
have no effect independent of satisfaction. This result implies that the perceived quality
of intergenerational relationships is the most proximate cause of variation in older
Chinese parents’ psychological well-being.
The hypothesis that there would be an interaction between social support and
traditional family norms was partially confirmed. Culturally traditional parents benefit
more than the less traditional from assisting their children with housework and baby
sitting their grandchildren. This result provides evidence that older Chinese parents
27-
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holding traditional family norms tend to value productivity in later life. Social mores in
China-reinforced by official ideology— encourage older people to occupy productive
roles and avoid dependency. 'To contribute remaining energy” is a fashionable slogan
among older people in China. Helping children or grandchildren with some home chores
is a way to fulfill the expectation to live an active life in old age.
There are several advantages to this analysis. First, using a random probability
sample to test the hypotheses improves the generalizabilitv of the findings. Many studies
on aging issues in China have relied on non-random sampling methods (Krause & Liang,
1993). thus, making it difficult to infer to a known population. Further, the data used in
this study were collected in Beijing, the capital city of the People’s Republic o f China
and a city with one of the oldest population in China. The percentage of people aged 60
years old and over is 10.11 in Beijing, compared to 8.48% nationwide (Chinese Statistic
Summary, 1991). Thus, the study of the older family in Beijing will have great
significance for guiding aging policy in all of China.
Second, the data used in this analysis clearly differentiates the sources and targets
in a way that enables the study o f intergenerational social support exchange specifically
between the parent and his/her children. Finally, this analysis directly investigated the
impact of traditional values on older Chinese parents’ well-being. Previous research has
tested traditional norms by proxy, using education or urban/rural residence instead of
variables directly measuring values. These approaches have severe implications as well-'
educated or urban residents may also endorse traditional vaiues.
28
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The limitations of this study deserve discussion and point to ways of improving
future research in this area. Because this study relied on cross-sectional data, it is unable
to model the dynamic correlation between social support and well-being. The causal
relationship between social support and morale in this analysis was assumed to be uni
directional. However, it is not possible to distinguish from these data whether morale has
been bolstered by subjective satisfaction with children or whether subjective satisfaction
with children has been bolstered morale. Longitudinal data would enable us to make this
causal relationship more clear.
Other limitations related to the measures used in this study. The questions in the
survey regarding support did not differentiate between children and children in-law. This
distinction is potentially important given the important of daughters-in-law in the support
systems of older Chinese parents. Another limitation is that the survey failed to measure
the amount o f social support provided and received. Nevertheless, this analysis is an
important guide for future dynamic analyses using longitudinal data.
In addition, the findings have great implications for elder-care policy in China.
Family supporting the elderly is rooted in Chinese tradition and also promoted by the
government. However, the demographic and social changes are affecting both the
capacity and willingness of family to provide care for the elderly. Awareness o f this
challenge, there are increasing advocacy for governmental responsibility of elder-care.
This study indicates when discussing elder-care policy, we could not ignore the fact that
the elderly benefit psychologically from exchanging social support with children.
Although it is impossible to continually assume the task of support elderly solely on the
29
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family, totally shift the responsibility from family to government also would induce
emotional loss of the elderly. Thus, while establishing new governmental programs for
the elderly in China, it is also necessary to develop effective policy to facilitate, support,
and maximize family care for the elderly.
30
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Chen, Xuan
(author)
Core Title
Intergenerational social support and the psychological well-being of older parents in China
School
Leonard Davis School of Gerontology
Degree
Master of Science
Degree Program
Gerontology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Gerontology,OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,sociology, individual and family studies
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Silverstein, Merril (
committee chair
), Crimmins, Eileen M. (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-20855
Unique identifier
UC11336769
Identifier
1391077.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-20855 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
1391077.pdf
Dmrecord
20855
Document Type
Thesis
Rights
Chen, Xuan
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
sociology, individual and family studies