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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Underwater farming colonies: A new space for human habitation
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Underwater farming colonies: A new space for human habitation
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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NOTE TO USERS Page(s) not included in the original manuscript are unavailable from the author or university. The manuscript was microfilmed as received. 345 This reproduction is the best copy available. UMf Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNDERWATER FARMING COLONIES: A NEW SPACE FOR HUMAN HABITATION. by Felipe A. Hernandez A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillm ent o f the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE August 2002 Copyright 2002 Felipe A. Hernandez Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1411788 Copyright 2002 by Hernandez, Felipe Alberto All rights reserved. ___ ______ (f t UMI UMI Microform 1411788 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA The Graduate School University Park LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089-1695 This thesis, w ritte n b y Tt sM pe At . _____________ U nder th e d irec tio n o f h i.} .. Thesi s C om m ittee, an d approved b y a ll its members, has been p resen ted to an d accepted by The G raduate School , in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f requirem ents fo r th e degree o f D ean o f G raduate S tudies D ated ffo f / ° f ;on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements I would like to thanks God for keeping my faith, to all my family especially my parents Adela and Raimundo, for their support and positive energy. I would like to acknowledge the Fulbright Commission from Chile and the United States for giving me the opportunity to study the subjects that I like the most, the Oceans and Architecture. To all my Committee Members: Professor Pierre Koenig (Thesis Chair - Designing with Natural Forces) Professor Marc Schiler (Environmental Control Systems) Professor Goetz Schierle (Advanced Structures) Professor Dimitry Vergun (Oceanic Engineering) Professor Madhu Thangaveiu (Extreme Environments Architecture) To all of them, thank you very much for your technical, scholar and friendly advice and enthusiasm. F O r keeping me focused and always busy with my research and design process. To the School of Architecture at the University of Southern California, especially to the Master of Building Science program for letting me develop a non-common topic, Underwater Habitation. Also to the School o f Aerospace and Engineering, especially to Professor Ron Blackwelder for his proper advice and for letting me use the water channel facility to run my tests. Last but not least I would like to say thanks to all my M B S classmates for staying with me all the time. Thank you very much to all. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................... v ABSTRACT ........................................................................................ xviii 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................. 1 1.1. Introduction & Problem Statem ent .................... 1 1.2. Hypothesis ................................................. 1 1.3. Corollary ..................................................... 1 1.4. Saturation Diving ........................................................ 2 1.5. Argument ................................................. 2 2. BACKGROUND RESEARCH ........................................................... 11 2.1. Aquaculture ......... 11 2.1.1. Definition .............................................................................. 11 2.1.2. Techniques ............................................................................ 13 2.1.3. Species .................................................................................13 2.2. Saturation Diving ...... 25 2.2.1. Definition ............................................................................... 25 2.2.2. Descriptions ........................................................................... 25 2.2.3. Techniques ............................................................................ 27 2.3. Under W ater Habitats (UW H) Time Line ft. Description ....... 33 2.3.1 Submergible Bell /Alexander the Great................................ 40 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.2 Bathysphere / C.W. Beebe..................................................... 43 2.3.2 Bathyscaph / A. Piccard.......................................................46 2.3.3 Consheif II / J. Cousteau .....................................................48 2.3.4 Sea Lab I-II-III / U S Navy....................................................53 2.3.5 Tektite I-II/NO AA-N ASA ...............................................61 2.3.6 Hydrolab / NOAA / N U R P .......................................................64 2.3.7 Chalupa-Jules Underwater Lodge / K LU P ............................ 67 2.3.8 Marine Research Underwater Lab / KLUP .............................. 70 2.3.9 Aquarius / UNC W -NOAA...................................................... 72 2.3.10 Divescope / Vincent Lovichi ............................................... 78 2.4. Testing Site ........................................... 86 3. METHOD ............................................................. 94 3.1 Design ................................................. 94 3.1.1 Habitat Systems Requirements ..............................................94 3.1.2 Habitat Architectural Program............................................. 105 3.1.3 Layout Proposals / Alternatives............................................. 107 3.2 Testing Methods....................................................................... 199 3.2.1 Physical Models.................................................. 205 4. — Data Collection & Analysis ........................... 212 4.1 Data Collection & Analysis .................................... 212 4 .2 Retest ........ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ....................3 2 3 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3 R esults ......... ...3 48 5. - Conclusions ..................... 354 5.1 Conclusion ....... 354 6. - Further Research:............................. 356 6.1 Further Research ......... 356 7. - References................ 357 LIST OF FIGURES Rg. 2-1: Aquaculture cages in Chiloe.........................................................16 Rg. 2-2: From the single cage to the modular growth............................... 17 Rg. 2-3: From the single cage to the modular growth............................... 18 Rg. 2-4: From the single cage to the modular growth............................... 19 Rg. 2-5: From the single cage to the modular growth............................... 20 Rg. 2-6: Different layouts and entry channels into the main floating structure....................................................................................................21 Rg. 2-7: Aquaculture floating cages in plan and section.............................22 Rg. 2-8: Sphere underwater habitat in position under the cages................23 Rg. 2-9: Sphere underwater habitat in position ...................................... 24 Rg. 2-10: Underwater Habitation Time Line...............................................33 Rg. 2-11: Early underwater breathing devices........................................... 34 Rg. 2-12: Scuba Divers............................................................................. 35 Rg. 2-14: Scuba Diving Systems & Aqualung.............................................36 Rg. 2-15: Scuba Divers............................................................................. 37 V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2-16: Early Hard Suits .................................................................... 38 Rg. 2-17: Hard Suits 8i diving bell ..........................................................39 Rg. 2-18: Submersible Bell........................................................................ 40 Rg. 2-19: Alexander the Great being lifted............................................... 41 Rg. 2-20: Alexander the Great ............................................................... 42 Rg. 2-21: Bathysphere being raised...........................................................43 Rg. 2-22: Bathysphere Scheme................................................................. 44 Rg. 2-23: Bathysphere Emerging...............................................................45 Rg. 2-24: Aguste Piccard - Bathyscaph ................................................... 46 Rg. 2-25: Bathyscaph versions.................................................................. 47 Rg. 2-26: Sir Jacques Cousteau............................................................... 48 Rg. 2-27: Calypso ................................................................................... 48 Rg. 2-28: Conshelf Underwater Habitat.................................................... 49 Rg. 2-29: Underwater Colonies................................................................. 50 Rg. 2-30: Conshelf Underwater Habitat..................................................... 51 Rg. 2-31: Calypso ................................................................................... 51 Rg. 2-32: Conshelf Underwater Habitat.................................................... 52 Rg. 2-33: Aquanauts inside o f Conshelf ...................................................52 Rg. 2-34: Sea Lab I ................................................................................ 53 Rg. 2-35: Sea Lab I .................................................................................54 Rg. 2-36: Sea Lab U................................................................................ 55 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-37: Aquanaut-Astronaut Scott Carpenter .....................................56 Rg. 2-38: Sea Lab II..................................................................................57 Rg. 2-39: Sea Lab i n................................................................................ 58 Rg. 2-40: Sea Lab III................................................................................ 59 Rg. 2-41: Sea Lab i n - surface support.....................................................60 Rg. 2-42: Tektite Model.............................................................................61 Rg. 2-43: Tektite - Artist View...................................................................62 Rg. 2-44: Aquanauts diving near Tektite....................................................63 Rg. 2-45:Tektite's Female Aquanauts Team .............................................63 Rg. 2-46: Hydrolab - Artist View ............................................................64 Rg. 2-47: Aquanauts inside Hydrolab Underwater Habitat.........................65 Rg. 2-48: Hydrolab Underwater Habitat ...................................................65 Rg. 2-49: Aquanauts performing underwater activities outside Hydrolab....66 Rg. 2-50: La Chalupa moored ................................................................. 67 Rg. 2-51: Interior - La Chalupa ...............................................................68 Rg.2-52: Interior Distribution - La Chalupa................................................69 Rg. 2-53: Marine Research Underwater Laboratory - M.R.U.L ................. 70 Rg. 2-54: Acrylic observation sphere — M.U.R.L......................................... 71 Rg. 2-55: Aquarius - Underwater Habitat Location and Interiors................ 72 Rg. 2-56: Aquarius Location...................................................................... 73 Rg. 2-57: Aquarius.................................................................................... 74 V ll Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-58: Aquanaut outside Aquarius.....................................................75 Rg. 2-59: Aquarius Interior Distribution..................................................... 76 Rg. 2-60: Interiors of Aquarius Habitat..................................................... 77 Rg. 2-61: Eng. Vincent Lovichi and Divescope........................................... 78 Rg. 2-62: Divescope Underwater............................................................... 79 Rg. 2-63: Divescope..................................................................................80 Rg. 2-64: Divescope entrance................................................................... 82 Rg. 2-65: Aquastation............................................................................... 83 Rg. 2-66: Aquastation Underwater Habitat................................................84 Rg. 2-67: Aquastation Underwater Habitat................................................85 Rg. 2-68: Geographical Approach.............................................................. 87 Rg. 2-69: Geographical Approach.............................................................88 Rg. 2-70: Geographical Approach..............................................................89 Rg. 2-71: Open Ocean (above), inner sea (below).................................... 90 Rg. 2-72: Site; location and characteristics................................................91 Rg. 2-73: EStero Bonito, Caucahue Island and channel currents diagram...92 Rg. 2-74: Weather Charts......................................................................... 93 Rg. 3-l:Prim ary Geometrical Bodies proposed, sphere, vertical and horizontal cylinders...................................................................................................107 Rg. 3-2: Underwater structures - Preliminary studies................................108 Rg. 3-3: Underwater Habitats, preliminary studies....................................109 Rg. 3-4 Ergonomic Graphic Standards...................................................I l l v iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-5: The Human body as measurement unit................................... 112 Rg. 3-6: Geometrical Evolution o f the cross section based on Leonardo's proportions.............................................................................................. 113 Rg. 3-7: Leonardo's geometrical proportions and H4 cross section.........114 Rg. 3-8: Leonardo's geometrical proportions and HC4 and HC5 cross section.....................................................................................................115 Rg. 3-9: Leonardo's geometrical proportions and HC6 and Sea Urchin cross section.....................................................................................................116 Rg. 3-10: Leonardo's geometrical proportions and HC3A and Sea Urchin cross section.............................................................................................117 Rg. 3-11: Leonardo's geometrical proportions and HC2 cross section 118 Rg. 3-12: Image of a Jellyfish and cross section of HC6 and Sea U rchin...ll9 Rg. 3-13: Preliminary studies of cross section evolution........................... 120 Rg. 3-14: Evolution from Leonardo's geometry to the Sea Urchin cross section.....................................................................................................121 Rg. 3-15: Sphere floor plans and section.................................................124 Rg. 3-16: Sphere section and geometry diagram ...................................125 Rg. 3-17:Sphere section.......................................................................... 126 Rg. 3-18: Sphere, Wet porch - access section, floor plan 8i geometry ....131 Rg. 3-19: Sphere, Wet porch - access floor plan......................................132 Rg. 3-20: Sphere, main lock - common area floor plan and geometry ...136 Rg. 3-21:Sphere, Main Lock- Common Area Section and floor plan.......... 137 Rg. 3-22:Sphere, Private Zone floor plan and geometry........................... 149 Rg. 3-23: Sphere, Private Zone, floor plan and section............................. 140 ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-24: Sphere, top view plan and geometry..................................... 141 Rg. 3-25: Sphere, computer models........................................................142 Rg. 3-26:Sphere, computer models.........................................................143 Rg. 3-27:Vertical Cylinder, Section and geometry....................................146 Rg. 3-28: Vertical Cylinder, Section.........................................................147 Rg. 3-29:Vertical Cylinder, top and side view, computer model............... 148 Rg. 3-30: Vertical Cylinder, top and side view, computer model.............. 149 Rg. 3-31: Horizontal Cylinder 1, floor plans and sections.........................152 Rg. 3-31: Horizontal Cylinder, cross-section............................................153 Rg. 3-32: Horizontal Cylinder 2, floor plans and sections......................... 155 Rg. 3-33: Horizontal Cylinder 2, cross-section.......................................... 156 Rg. 3-34: Horizontal Cylinder, Horizontal Cylinder 3-A, floor plan and sections................................................................................................... 159 Rg. 3-35: Horizontal Cylinder HC 3- A, cross-section................................ 160 Rg. 3-36: Horizontal Cylinder HC 3- B, floor plan and sections..................162 Rg. 3-37: Horizontal Cylinder HC 3-B, cross-section................................. 163 Rg. 3-38: Horizontal Cylinder 4, floor plan and sections ........................ 165 Rg. 3-39: Horizontal Cylinder 4, cross-section...........................................166 Rg. 3-40: Horizontal Cylinder 4, computer model..................................... 167 Rg. 3-41: Horizontal Cylinder 5, floor plan and sections........................... 169 Rg. 3-42: Horizontal Cylinder 5, cross-section.......................................... 170 Rg. 3-43: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, preliminary study................................ 171 X Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-44: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, preliminary study........................ 172 Rg. 3-45: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, floor plan and sections ............... 173 Rg. 3-46: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, cross section .................................174 Rg. 3-47: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, cross section...............................175 Rg. 3-48: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, computer model.................................176 Rg. 3-49: Horizontal Cylinder 6-B, preliminary study..............................177 Rg. 3-50: Horizontal Cylinder 6-B, floor plan and sections.......................178 Rg. 3 -51: Horizontal Cylinder 6-B, cross section..................................... 179 Rg. 3-52: Horizontal Cylinder 6-B, cross section..................................... 180 Rg. 3-53: Horizontal Cylinder-Delta 1, floor plan and section geometry...,182 Rg. 3-54: Horizontal Cylinder Delta-1, towable structure 8i concepts 183 Rg. 3-55: Horizontal Cylinder Delta-2, concepts..................................... 184 Rg. 3-56: Horizontal Cylinder Delta - 2, concepts...................................185 Rg. 3-57: Horizontal Cylinder Delta - 2, concepts................................... 186 Rg. 3-58: Horizontal Cylinder Delta - 3, concepts .................................188 Rg. 3-59: Sea Urchin -1 , floor plan and sections..................................... 190 Rg. 3-60:Sea Urchin -1 , cross section..................................................... 191 Rg. 3-61: Sea Urchin -1 , cross section and geometry..............................192 Rg. 3-62:Sea Urchin-2 , preliminary study............................................... 193 Rg. 3-63: Sea Urchin - 2, floor plan and sections................................... 194 Rg. 3-64: Sea Urchin - 2, floor plan and sections................................... 195 xi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-65: S e a Urchin Delta, floor plan and sections................................197 Rg. 3-66: Sea Urchin Delta, cross section................................................. 198 Rg. 3-67: Water Channel diagram............................................................ 200 Rg. 3-68: Water Channel facility, Aerospace 8i Eng. (USC)....................... 201 Rg. 3-69: Wooden models in different building phases............................. 205 Rg. 3-70: Wooden models in different building phases.............................206 Rg. 3-71: Wooden models in different building phases. Sealed and painted....................................................................................................207 Rg. 3-72: Wooden models in different building phases. Sealed and painted....................................................................................................208 Rg. 3-73: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A during construction.............................. 209 Rg. 3-74: Model and grid in the water channel........................................ 210 Rg. 3-75: Vertical Cylinder hanging inside the water channel...................211 Rg. 4-1: T l: Sphere; 20 cent/sec; top view.............................................215 Rg. 4-2: TISphere; 20 cent/sec; top view............................................... 216 Rg.4-3: T2 Sphere; 30 cent/sec; top view................................................217 Rg.4-4: T2 Sphere; 30 cent/sec; top view................................................218 Rg. 4-5: T3; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; top view............................................. 219 Rg. 4-6: T3; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; top view............................................. 220 Rg. 4-7: T4; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; side view............................................ 221 Rg.4-8: T4; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; side view.............................................222 Rg.4-9: T5; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; side view............................................. 224 xii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-10: T5; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; side view........................................ 225 Rg. 4-11: T6; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; side view..........................................227 Rg.4-12: T l; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1..... 229 Rg. 4-13: T l; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1..... 230 Rg.4-14: T2; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section.. 2..... 231 Rg.4-15: T2; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section 2........ 232 Rg.4-16: T3; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section 3........ 233 Rg.4-17: T3; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye section 3....... 234 Rg.4-18: T4; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 3........ 235 Rg. ^-19: T4; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 3...... 236 Rg.4-20: T5; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 2....... 237 Rg.4-21: T5; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 2....... 238 Rg.4-22: T6; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1....... 240 Rg.4-23: T6; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1....... 241 Rg.4-24: T7; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1....... 242 Rg.4-25: T7; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1....... 243 Rg.4-26: T8; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2...... 244 Rg.4-27: T8; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2...... 245 Rg.4-28: T9; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 1...... 246 Rg.4-29:T9; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 1....... 247 Rg.4-30: T10; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2.... 249 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-31: T il; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2.....251 Fig.4-32: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side view................... 254 Rg.4-33: T l; Horizontal Cylinderl; 20 cent/sec; side view....................255 Rg.4-34: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side view.................... 256 Rg.4-35: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1;20 cent/sec;.... side view....................257 Fig.4-36: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side view..................... 258 Rg.4-37: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side view..................... 259 Rg.4-38: T l; Horizontal Cylinderl; 20 cent/sec; side view..................... 260 Rg.4-39: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side view..................... 261 Rg.4-40: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 264 Rg.4-41: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 265 Rg.4-42: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 266 Rg.4-43: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 267 Rg.4-44: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; side view...................... 269 Rg.4-45: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; side view...................... 270 Rg.4-46: T3; Horizontal Cylinderl; 40 cent/sec; side view........................271 Rg.4-47: T3; Horizontal Cylinderl; 40 cent/sec; side view....................... 272 Rg.4-48: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; side view...................... 273 Rg.4-49: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; side view...................... 274 Rg.4-50: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; side view...................... 275 Rg.4-51: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; top view....................... 276 xiv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-52: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; top view......................277 Rg.4-53: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view....................... 278 Fig.4-53: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view....................... 279 Rg.4-54: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view.......................280 Rg.4-55: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view....................... 281 Rg.4-56: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; top view.......................283 Rg.4-57: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; top view....................... 284 Rg.4-58: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; top view....................... 285 Rg.4-59: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; top view....................... 286 Rg.4-60: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; top view....................... 287 Rg.4-61: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; top view....................... 288 Rg.4-62: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view......................289 Rg.4-63: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view...................... 290 Rg.4-64: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view......................291 Rg.4-65: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view......................292 Rg.4-66: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view...................... 293 Rg.4-67: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view......................294 Rg.4-68: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 295 Rg.4-69: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view......................296 Rg.4-70: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view......................297 Rg.4-71: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view...................... 298 XV Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-72: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view................... 300 Rg.4-73: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view.....................301 Rg.4-74: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view.....................302 Rg.4-75: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view..................... 303 Rg.4-76: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view ................ 305 Rg.4-77: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view................... 306 Rg.4-78: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view................... 307 Rg.4-79: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; side view................... 308 Rg.4-80: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; side view................... 309 Rg.4-81: T2; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; side view................... 310 Rg.4-82: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; side view................... 311 Rg.4-83: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; side view................... 312 Rg.4-84: T3; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; side view................... 313 Rg.4-85: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view.................... 314 Rg.4-86: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view.................... 315 Rg.4-87: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view.................... 316 Rg.4-88: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; top view.................... 317 Rg.4-89: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; top view.................... 318 Rg.4-90: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; top view.................... 319 Rg.4-91: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view.................... 320 Rg.4-92: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view.................... 321 xvi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-93: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view...................322 Rg.4-94: T l; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; side view.......................................... 325 Fig.4-95: T l; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; side view.......................................... 326 Rg.4-96: T2; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; side view.......................................... 328 Rg.4-97: T l; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; side view.......................................... 329 Rg.4-98: T l; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; side view.......................................... 330 Rg.4-99 : T4; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; top view............................................ 331 Rg.4-100: T4; Sphere; 20 cent/sec; top view........................................ 332 Rg.4-101: T5; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; top view......................................... 333 Rg.4-102: T5; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; top view......................................... 334 Rg.4-103: T6; Sphere; 40 cent/sec; top view......................................... 335 Rg .4-104: T5; Sphere; 30...cent/sec; top view......................................... 336 Rg.4-105: TIB; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; side view......................... 338 Rg.4-106: TIB ; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; side view......................... 339 Rg.4-107: TIB; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; side view......................... 340 Rg.4-108: T2B; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; side view.......................... 342 Rg.4-109: T2B; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; side view......................... 343 Rg.4-110: T2B; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; side view.........................344 Rg.4-111: T3B; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view.........................346 Rg.4-112: T3B; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view......................... 347 xvii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT Having sufficient food for the world's population is one o f the most important issues for governments and international institutions. Cities are growing and they are lacing population explosive growth, making farming land scarcer and farmers have to deal with changes in global weather conditions as well. The thesis proposes to use the Ocean's nutritional sources in order to improve food productivity. The best way to develop aquaculture and mariculture techniques is through saturation diving, which allows the farmer-divers to stay for long periods of time underwater improving their productivity in a healthy way, avoiding the bends and long periods of decompression. This study propose several configurations for underwater habitats, which were tested in a water channel in order to verify their hydrodynamic performance and analyzed from the architectural point o f view in terms of human comfort. Keywords: Underwater Habitation, Aquaculture, Mariculture, Saturation Diving, Extreme Environments Habitats, Underwater Colonies, Oceanic Architecture, and Floating Cities. xviii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction & Problem Statement; "Having sufficient food is the most basic of human needs. Yet, as developed societies have transformed from agrarian to industrial to service economies, getting food for the table has become more complicated. In addition to coping with whims o f nature, farmers today have to contend with government policy, prices on the world market, a shortage o f labor, urban growth encroaching on farmland, and environmental forces. While the number of people in the developing world who do not have enough to eat declined by 40 millions in the early 1990's, there are still 824 millions undernourished people in the w orld"1 1.2. Hypothesis "UNDERWATER HABITATS PROVIDE THE OPTIMUM A C C E S S F O R MARICULTURE TECHNIQUES AND F O R O C E A N FARMING" 1.3. Corollary "THE OPTIMUM TECHNIQUE F O R SUSTAINED HUM AN P R E S E N C E U ND ER W A TER IS SATURATION DIVING 1 Institute of I nternati onal Educ a t i on; West Coast Ful bri ght Seminar An no u n ce m e n t—Feb. 24-27,2000; " Agr i cul t ur e: Fati ng the Ch a ll e nge s of the Wo r td Market*. Mont er ey, Cal i forni a, Nov. 1999. - I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1.4. Saturation Diving "Saturation refers to the state of dissolved inert gases in the tissues of the diver. Under a saturated condition, the tissues have absorbed all the nitrogen (or other inert gas) possible at that pressure (depth). Once this has occurred, the decompression time required at the end of the dive of a given depth does not increase with additional time spent at that depth." - NO AA Dive Manual, January 1975, pg. 12-1" 2 1.5. Argument for the Corollary: The Scientific Argument "Scuba divers joke that there are two ways to avoid decompression sickness, the rare but dreaded "bends"; don't go down or don't come up. In a sense an underwater habitat is a way of making the latter option possible, at least for a few weeks."3 It is known that when a scuba diver breathes compressed air under high-pressure conditions, his blood and body tissues absorb inert gases like Nitrogen in excess and it depends on the amount of time and depth of the diving performance. So, in order to avoid decompression sickness (DCS) and the "bends" a proper decompression period is needed, to counter the pressure that decreases during ascent to surface. 2 http:ZAwAy.uncwil.edu/nurc/bio485/lec7-htm 3 How an Underwater Habitat Benefits Marine Science-Steven M iller. http://www.uncwfl.edu/nurc/aquarius/sciaiTiatt_htin 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Usually, because o f the chemical combination of the gases used, scuba diving deeper than 20 meters is restricted to approximately one hour a day at that depth, being this is one of the greatest limitations of scuba diving. As a way to avoid these limitations, manned submersibles and underwater robots are often used. However there still remain many working tasks that require human presence underwater for long periods of time. Eyes can see, hands can touch and feel and the human brain can make decisions in many cases where robotic arms and cameras cannot. "The only technique that allows this kind of sustained human presence is saturation diving. Saturation diving allows marine researchers to live and work under pressure for days, weeks or even months at a time. The technique is based on the fact that after 24 hours at any working depth, a diver's body becomes saturated with dissolved gases. Once the body is saturated, decompression or the period required to bring the diver back to surface pressure without inflicting the bends is the same regardless o f how much time has been spent underwater. The main risk to divers is accidental, rapid ascension or surfacing, which could cause a life threatening case o f the bends if the surfaced driver is not quickly returned to pressure."4 4 How an Underwater Habitat Benefits Marine Science-Steven M iller. http://www.uncwn.edu/nurc/aquarius/scianiart.htm 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In the early 60's many devices, vessels and underwater habitats were developed in order to keep divers under saturated conditions in-between dives or to transport them from one working site to another. These sites were located either on the seabed as "habitats" or on board an assistant ship known as "deck decompression chambers" or "diving bells"; most o f them were used for commercial or scientific investigation purposes. Underwater habitats became more popular because the "inside pressure" was matched with the "outside" or "working pressure" so divers were able to go in and out whenever they wanted, this being one of the main advantages. On the other hand some o f these programs were shut down because of fatalities based on inefficient operations, in other cases for insufficient funds. Currently an underwater habitat called Aquari us is used by scientists to do research about coral reef habitats in Key Largo, Florida, which was started in 1993. In this laboratory and underwater habitat scientists spend 6- 9 hours a day diving and also carry out night expeditions. Many studies, tests and demonstrations have been held in Aquarius about the fragile coral reef ecosystem thanks to long duration missions of saturation diving conditions. When aquanauts finish their missions under the sea, they somehow feel that they belong to the oceans and its fragile ecosystem, so this is an indirect benefit because later on these very people can go and teach, write and help governments make important environmental decisions. 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "In comparison to other scientific outposts, Aquarius's operating costs of about $ 1.2 million a year are relatively modest. The laboratory is less expensive on a daily basis than an oceanographic cruise; the cost of a single space shuttle mission would cover the habitat's expenses for the next 500 years"5 The Cost o f Aquarius "The cost o f operating Aquari us is between $1.2 and $1.5 million a year. This translates to an operating cost estimated at about $10,000 per day (total cost of program divided by the number of saturation days), which is a higher day rate than surface-based diving programs. However, a 10-day Aquari us mission would take more than 60 days if conducted using surface- based technology, and few scientists have the time to spend months in the field, when a 10-day Aquari us mission can be used to accomplish the same goals. This assumes that the work could even be conducted from the surface, which many times are not the case because Aquari us provides unique laboratory capabilities (not available using boats). 5 How an Underwater Habitat Benefits Marine Science-Steven M iller. http://www.uncwil.edu/nurc/aquarius/sciarnart.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Significantly, the conversion data from Aquari us to surface-based diving assumes an unreasonably rigorous (and risky) dive schedule and no weather delays. If expenses are compared on a per project basis, a 10-day Aquari us mission costs about $40,000 more than a 60-day surface-based program - assuming the work could even be conducted from the surface, which in many cases is not possible. Additionally, Aquari us provides significant media access and public outreach capabilities that are not possible in conventional dive operations, and while the program's science mission is paramount these other activities are valuable too. Additional information about the cost of operating Aquari us is presented in: The Aquari us 2000 Program: Science. Education, and Public Outreach." 6 The Economic Argument a Petroleum prospecting, exploitation and production have become one o f the main industries that require underwater workers and saturation diving devices. ■ Depending on the underwater work and / or task, a comparison between surface-based diving vs. saturation diving considering weather, time and safety factor and cost analysis is required. 6 http ://w w w . unc w i 1 .edu/ nurc/aa uarius/abo uLhtm#cost 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ As we mentioned before there exist other options, like ROV's (Remote Operated Vehicles), atmospheric diving suits and manned submersibles that can be taken into consideration. But this will always depend on the task that has to be done. ■ With regard to underwater habitats, diving bells and deck compression chambers, one o f the most important things that work in their favor is the "Time Factor". Usually keeping the aquanauts for 15- 30 days under saturated conditions the need for long time consuming decompressions and risks between dives are eliminated. As we have said before, R O V are often taken in consideration, but these vehicles cannot "feel" like a diver can, especially when the complexity o f the task requires improvisation and judgment, and a choice o f the appropriate option. "The first commercial saturation dive was conducted by Marine Contractors, Inc. o f Southport, Connecticut in the summer of 1965. Since that time the practical maximum depth at which the diver couid work dropped from 300 feet to well over 1,000 feet, so saturation diving was an important development indeed, and one which helps shape today's marketplace." 7 In shallow waters the option is "surface-based diving" which uses compressed air. Working tasks for this mode are diving from the sea level to 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 fsw (feet of sea water). If a breathing mixture of oxygen and other gases is used, the diving depth extends to over 300 fsw. No matter what the depth is between 140 to 1,200 fsw, saturation diving performances, manning and equipment requirements remain relatively constant. "Both saturation and surface based diving methods have advantages and disadvantages. Saturation diving has a relatively high cost o f mobilization and demobilization and the per day costs o f man power and machinery are much higher. Offsetting these factors however, is that material and personnel requirements change very little for extremely deep dives. But the main advantage attributed to saturation diving is the increased number of hours of bottom time, or effective working time that can be obtained in a 24 hour day." 8 "Jack Reedy is vice president of safety and personnel for Cal Dive International, a firm that is currently the leading supplier of saturation diving services in the Gulf of Mexico. Reedy says diver continuity provides other less obvious advantages. "Imagine a home construction project where you completely switch out the crew every hour. The guy has to find his hammer and nails, adjust his tool belt so it is comfortable, get oriented and find where he is supposed to nail the joists, then coordinate with the guy who is supposed to be handing him the lumber." Reedy adds that, "by the time he 7 http://www.diveweb.com/uw/archives/arch/uw-sp9.32.htm 8 Underwater magazine-“Saturation Diving and its Alternatives” http://www.diveweb.com/uw/archtves/arch/iiw-sp94_12.htm 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. actually gets around to getting a meaningful amount of work done, several minutes may have gone by." This inefficiency is eliminated when you have a continuous team that can work together for several hours at a time. Because Cat Dive performs both surface-based and saturation dives, they apply a 10% inefficiency factor against surface diving bottom times in order to realistically compare the amount o f work that will be performed. "Reedy says productivity in saturation mode is also enhanced by the feet that it takes more extreme weather to interrupt a saturation dive than a surface-based one. Because saturation dives provide more hours of bottom time in a 24-hour day than a surface-based one, a project th at might take 13 days in surface mode could take as little as 7 days in saturation mode. This is significant because the contractor is much more likely to have 7 consecutive days of saturation diving weather than he is 13 consecutive days of surface-based diving weather. Each stand-by day can add tens of thousands of dollars to the cost o f the project." In conclusion, safety and economic issues play a very important role in the choice between surface based and saturation diving modes. In the wealthy business of the petroleum industry, saturation diving is becoming increasingly popular. It allows more time on the seabed, larger crews, and more redundancy in the equipment and many safe-surfecing operations. 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Almost 2/3 of the maintenance construction, salvage and repair tasks in the offshore rigs and pipelines in the Gulf of Mexico are done by companies that offers saturation diving operations. This is because the petroleum industry requires skilled human workers underwater for long periods o f time to accomplish very complex and specific tasks. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2. BACKGROUND RESEARCH 2.1. Aquaculture: (Definition/Techniques/Species) 2.1.1. Definition: Aquaculture: Aquaculture refers to the processes for rearing desirable aquatic organisms for economic or social benefit, in other words, underwater agriculture, using a water environment to cultivate useful animals (such as fish and shellfish) and plants (such as seaweed and algae). The term "aquaculture" refers to the use o f either fresh or salt (sea) water; the term "mariculture" means, more specifically, using seawater (see mariculture). Mariculture: "Mariculture" means marine (ocean) aquaculture, farming the sea for plant and animal crops that are valuable as food or for industrial processes. The fertility o f ocean water depends on many factors such as temperature, salinity (salt concentration), and sunlight, but it depends most of all on adequate nutrients, especially nitrogen compounds. Most ocean water, even near the warmth and sunlight o f the surface, is rather sparse of life. In some areas such as the oceans near Antarctica, it is the shortage of iron that limits the proliferation of plankton and o f the higher organisms that feed on plankton. But throughout most of the oceans o f the Earth, the limiting factor is nitrogen. Deep ocean waters tend to be quite rich in nitrogen and other organic nutrients because surface creatures, when they die, sink into the cold, inhospitable depths taking their nitrogen-containing 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. proteins with them. There are a few places in the world's oceans where there is a natural upwelling o f these nutrient-rich waters to the surface. Although these natural upwelling zones amount to only about 0.1% of the surface of the oceans, the are very fertile-they produce 44% of ail the fish humans use for food. An O TE C facility brings large volumes of cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface. The OTEC extracts energy from the warm-cold temperature differential. Then these large volumes o f nutrient- rich waters are discharged near the surface, producing an artificial upwelling zone and an invitation to the explosive proliferation of phytoplankton and then of the myriad species that feed on phytoplankton (and on one another, up the food chain). The F M F at Aquarius Rising and other O TE C sites will farm these nutrient-rich waters in a series of mariculture ponds to produce various seaweeds, shellfish, and flnfish for human food and for industrial processes.9 In the following pages we will review the possible Aquaculture and Mariculture techniques that apply to the project, basically based on floating cages and structures that w ill sustain the underwater farm and the habitat it self, since this one is not going to be place on the sea bed. 9 http://www.millermial.org/~fwnis/GIG/A/Aquaculture.html 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.1.2. Techniques: It is possible to find three main Aquaculture Techniques, based on the species, sunlight, depth and nutrients. These three main elements are consistently connected and with further research they can be arranged in order to respond to a "food chain". Is important to remember that the Habitat it is going to be located at the depth o f 30 meters {100 ft} The main four species and sub species can be classified according to the following pattern: a) Rsh b) Kelp & Algae c) Shellfish d) Crabs 2.1.3. Species: a) Rsh: This group is located from the surface (Sea Level - SL) to a depth o f 25 meters {82 ft.} This group we are going to designate it as the Surface Level #1 (SL1). This SL1 is the connection with the surface and people work here at the SL walking on floating devices called pontoons for feeding purposes and diving underwater for maintenance purposes must of ail. 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Probably the fishes a t the beginning eat plankton, algae and themselves; but now the feeding techniques and biogenetic sciences had determined other ways to feed in the fishery industry. The most common way o f feeding currently responds basically to a "pellet" based diet. This kind o f food comes with its own benefits and problems. The most commons fish species cultivated are: Redsoc, Salmon, Flounder, Snapper, Amberjack, Orret. b) Kelo & Aloae: This group is located from the surface (Sea Level - SL) until the depth o f 30 meters {100 ft.} This group we are going to designate as the Surface Level #2 (SL2). This SL1 is the connection with the surface and people work here at the SL walking on floating devices called pontoons fo r feeding purposes and diving underwater for maintenance purposes must o f all. The most common species cultivated are: Huiro, Sargaso (Macrocysti s pyrifera) Pelillo, Carmico (G lacilaria pyrifera) Lamilla - Sea Lettuce (Utva lactuca) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c) Shellfish: The most common shellfish species cultivated are: Clam, Oyster, Scallop, Mussel. d) Crabs: The most common crabs specie cultivated is: Lobster All these species can be cultivated in floating or submerged cages. The next drawings will describe the design process for the aquaculture farm proposed in this case study, with the three levels included, surface, middle depth and deep cultivation. The idea is to locate the underwater habitat in the middle of the farm, so the diver-farmers are equidistant from the center to the perimeter o f the farm. This farm is composed by hexagonal shaped floating cages inscribed in circumferences with a radius of 30 feet, from which the rest of the crops are going to "hang". The idea of having "hanging" crops includes the habitat, which is going to use ballasts in order to have negative buoyancy and literally "hang" from the farm. The farm can be composed by a number o f 25 to 30 cages. Also the idea or hexagonal cages will help to develop the modularity of the project Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i j i r i k t i - j ' 3 k . r ■ - ? l - m r f l Fig. 2-1: Aqu acu lture c a g e s i n C hiloe . (Ca rds A q u a / F r o y a R i n g e n / PolarGrkel) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-2: F r o m the sin gle cage to the modular growth. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2-3: F r o m the single cage to the mod ular growth. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-4: F r o m the single cage to the mo du lar growth. 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-5: F r o m the single cage to the modular growth. 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-6: Different lay o ut s creating entry chann els into the m a in floating structure 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-7: A qu acu ltu re floating cages in pl an and se ction . 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2-8: Sphere underwater habitat in p o s it io n under the c a g e s 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FACILITY FISH SHELLFISH CRABS Rg. 2-9: S ph ere underwater habitat in po sition. SHELLFISH CRABS 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.2. Saturation Diving 2.2.1. Definition: The medical Doctor George Bond from the U.S navy developed saturation Diving theory and technique in 1957. After several experiments with animals and human subjects in pressurized chambers he discovered that saturation diving allows divers to remain in high-pressure conditions for long periods of time, like weeks or months. Researchers have discovered that when a diver is in this high-pressure condition for long periods of time he becomes "saturated" so the time needed for decompression reaches its maximum at a stable point and it doesn't accumulate additional gas in his body tissues such as nitrogen or helium. Basically the decompression time for a diver who has been underwater for 24 hours maybe the same as for a diver who has been down of a month. When a diver becomes saturated (living in high pressure for more than 24 hours) he achieves the conventional name of "aquanaut". 2.2.2. Descriptions: Pressurized facilities or dwellings such as diving bells or underwater habitats are the "home" for divers who live and work under saturation mode. Typically they live in this under water habitat for a week or more, and these habitats are maintained at the same pressure at which the diver will be working. 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. During deep diving, divers usually breathe a mixture of gases (compressed air, or a combination of Helium and Oxygen, or Helium, Oxygen and Nitrogen). The pressure of this mixture is higher than the pressure at sea level. While the diver is breathing, a certain amount of Nitrogen is dissolved in the lungs, and from there it goes to the body tissues. This is the most dangerous issue in saturation diving, thus the most important thing after finishing the dive is to release the Nitrogen from the body. This process is known as "decompression" and is done in order to avoid the effects of dissolved Nitrogen in the blood and body tissues after scuba diving. The main effect is Decompression Sickness (DCS) and a manifestation of this sickness is pain in the joints, popularly known as "the bends". These syndromes may be avoided if the diver is slowly and safely brought back to 1 atmosphere pressure, consequently all the Nitrogen can be released as they exhale deeply. "The weight of the earth's atmosphere is always pushing down on us with its weight. We define this weight pushing in on us as atmospheric pressure. Pressure is defined as force acting on a unit area. Scientists have calculated that the earth's atmosphere exerts a force on our bodies equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). Another way to think of it is that a one-inch column o f air as tall as the atmosphere would weigh 14.7 pounds. This measurement atmospheric pressure at sea level, is known as 1 Atmosphere of Pressure, or 1 ATM"1 0 M ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26 http://www.uncwtI.edu/nurc/aqtiarius/lessons/Dressure.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Now, we know water definitely has weight, and weighs much more than air and thus exerts a greater pressure. A one inch column of water 33 feet tall weighs 14.7 pounds. This pressure, resulting from the weight of water is called hydrostatic pressure. So at a depth of 33 feet, a diver experiences atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure equal to twice the amount of atmospheric pressure. We call this 2 ATA, one from the atmosphere and one from the water. This is called absolute pressure. That means our diver is under a pressure of 29.4 pounds per square inch (psi). At 66 feet down a diver is at 3 ATA and experiences a pressure of 44.1 pounds per square inch, and so on."1 1 2.2.3. Techniques: Generally speaking, the longer and deeper the diving time, the longer the decompression time needed. There are several ways to decompress. 1. The first method is to surface slowly making several stops at a certain depth for a determined amount of time. Following the well-known "Decompression Tables". This procedure takes time and oxygen supplies. The diver while being assisted by other divers can carry out this procedure, but the time, energy and breathing mixture required is so high that it is not recommended. 1 1 http://www.uncwiI.edu/nurc/aquarius/lessons/Dressure.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2. Another way to decompress is to surface without stopping, but although this procedure requires a slow return and continuous exhaling, it also requires a decompression or recompression chamber facility "on surface" to bring back the diver into the pressure at which he was working underwater, and decompress him slowly inside this facility. This kind of equipment is very expensive and the process of surfacing is dangerous. 3. Another way of surfacing is to decompress the diver "inside" the habitat. Because the decompression for a saturated diver is a long process, about 17-22 hours, doing it inside the habitat itself is one of the safest procedures. This inside habitat decompression can be done in two ways. a. Decompressing while the habitat remains in the original depth. This method requires sealing the habitat. b. Bring the habitat (with the aquanauts inside) to the surface. In the first case the aquanauts stop all work activities that require an intense physical effort and they remain quiet and in comfortable positions while breathing normally. During decompression, the pressure inside the habitat is reduced slowly until it reaches 1 atmosphere pressure, then the aquanauts go to the wet porch and get ready to surface. 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The wet porch is sealed from the inside, so they get isolated from the rest of the habitat and also from the outside pressure so there is no water coming inside. They remain at 1 atmosphere pressure for an hour, during which time they put on their dry suits, masks and the rest of the scuba diving equipment, just to be ready to surface. This one-hour period at one atmosphere gives them a short "surface interval" before going back under pressure upon their exit from the habitat, for their return to the surface. After the "surface interval" at the entry wet porch the aquanauts are quickly recompressed to ambient water pressure (4 atmospheres). This is when they exit the habitat and other divers escort them to the surface. This process takes about 2 minutes using scuba. The ascending velocity is the velocity of air bubbles coming up, the idea being not to exceed that velocity and the most important thing during this procedure is that they release all the air from their lungs and never hold their breath. " If a diver held their breath while ascending from depth, their lungs would expand just like the balloon and eventually burst causing serious injury or death! However if a diver continues to breathe normally as they ascend expanding air will simply escape with each breath."1 2 In fact this is a process used by the underwater habitat called Aquarius, which is the only operating habitat in the world today. 1 2 http://www.uncwil.edu/nurc/aaaiiarius/lessons/pressure4.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The second type of decompression procedure could be the one that brings the aquanauts back to the surface while they decompress inside the habitat. This kind of procedure requires a movable vessel that would be able to go up and down like a submarine. This can be done in several ways. 1. By filling empty ballast cavities or tanks inside the habitat, so if it needs to go down the tanks can be filled with water or if it needs to go up, air can be pumped inside the tanks exhausting the water out so the buoyancy will be positive and the habitat will rise. 2. By using a surface based hoist, crane or a winch capable to pull up the habitat, rolling a steel cable. The lifting capability of the hoist does not have to be extraordinary because the weight o f the habitat while it is submerged in the water is much less than if it was out o f the water. 3. The third option (the one that has been considered for this project) is the one that combines both methods. Ballast tanks plus a surface based hoist, crane or winch. So the tanks don't need to be huge and the lifting capabilities of the hoist need not be exaggerated either. We choose this second type o f decompression procedure for the following reasons. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. First of all for reasons of safety of the divers. These divers can remain inside the habitat while they decompress and will not have to be exposed to reaching the surface by scuba diving. a. Because this specific habitat is going to be designed to be able to maintain its neutral buoyancy through ballast tanks. b. Because this specific habitat is going to be designed with a surface facility that will provide all the life support systems, connected to the habitat by an umbilical cable. With further research the decompression method can be very well synchronized with the decompression process, maintenance and can also be used as a recompression chamber in emergencies. There are a few cases where this double purpose vessel has been utilized. The one utilized by E d Link during the "Man-in-the-Sea" program, in the early 60's, "where he devised a chamber which could be used as very cramped living quarters at depth and it could be sealed for retrieval to a ship, with subsequent decompression of the diver on board/'1 3 1 3 Saturation Diving (Historical Diving Times No. 20) pg 10, 3 j http://www.thehds.coni/hdt/saturate.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The other case is the one done by Davis between 1920 and 1930, where they developed TUP (Transfer Under pressure) system. "This allowed the diver to be transported to and from the shipboard chamber to a worksite under water and allowed him to be brought to the surface either while beginning decompression or decompressing after the transfer to the shipboard"1 4 The last but not least case is the underwater habitat from the 70's called "La Chalupa" well known nowadays as "Jules Verne Lodge" as an underwater hotel. This habitat located in Florida has the capability to sink or float as required. 1 4 Saturation Diving (Historical Diving Times No. 20) pg 10, http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3. Under W ater Habitats (UW H). Description & Time Line ■ Underwater Habitat Definition: An Underwater Habitat is a submarine dwelling th at allows human beings to live submerged underwater for long periods of tim e. Over 60 habitat structures have been constructed worldwide and their depth of operation have ranged from 3 to 200 meters and more. In the following pages we are going to review some of the most important milestones of the Underwater Habitation; especially the one considered the "Golden Age" for the Saturation Diving, which concept was already described in this report. ;.s U N D E R W A T E R H A B IT A T S T IM E L IN E : 1 9 " 0 \ 9 - » 1 9 9 " * 0 0 I K ’ 1030 1 9 4 " 1963 1964 1 9 "0 ’ 0 00 F tq . 2-10: Underwater Habi tation Time L in e__________________________________ 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Time Line o f Scuba: A Chronology o f the Recreational Diving Industry By Mark Dorfman - Arlington, Virginia. "We humans have been trying to find a way to swim freely under water ever since our specie's expulsion from the Garden o f Eden. The earliest evidence o f scuba diving is an Assyrian frieze dating from about 900 B.C. It shows armed men using a small breathing device while swimming underwater."1 Rg. 2-11: E a rt y underwater brea thin g de vices. (NOOA) 1 http:ZAyvw.southwestdiver.com/historvscubaJitml 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "The word "SCUBA" has somewhat more recent origins. An acronym for "Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus/' it started as military jargon coined by the U. S. Navy underwater demolition team (UDT). As used today, the term "scuba" distinguishes self- contained devices from surface- fed "habitat" and "hard hat" types o f diving equipment, and from submersible vessels."2 F ig. 2-12: S c u b a Di ve rs (S c u b a S o u rc e ) ( N O A A /N U R C /U N C W ) 2 http://www.southwestdiver.eom/tristorvsc:iiba-html 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Early diving systems proved dangerous and difficult to use, and required lengthy training. Modem scuba equipment, first introduced in 1943, comes close to realizing the ancient dream o f allowing humans free access to the underwater world. Here are some o f the milestones on the path to fulfilling that fantasy."3 Hg. 2-14: S c u b a D iv in g S y s te m s & . A q u al u n g . (Musee de la Marine) 3 http://www.southwestdiver.coni/historvscuba.ht ml 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig . 2-15: S c u b a Dive rs . (Musee de la Marine) (S c u b a S o u rc e ) 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2-16: E ar ly H ar d Suits. (NOAA ) (Marine B io lo g y ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fig* 2-17: H a rd S u i t s & d iv in g bell. (Musee de la Ma ri n e) (N O O A/ NU R P ) (Underwater V e h ic le s Inc.f _____________________ 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.1 Submergible Bell /Alexander the Great 332 B C : "The Greek philosopher Aristotle's Problemata describes a diving bell used by Alexander the Great at the siege o f Tyre (a Phoenician town on the Mediterranean coast of what is now Lebanon)" 4 Fig. 2-18: S u b m e r s ib le B e l l (Wood) * http://www.southwestdiver.com/historvscuba.html 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig. 2-19: A lexa nd er the Great b e in g lifted. (Dorfman) (N O A A /O A R /N U R P ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Alexander being lowered underwater in a glass barrel to explore the wonders o f the deep. From The Ol d French Pr ose Al exander Romance manuscript, Rouen, 1445."5 a - m a ta m ra tfm w jy n n T & ’ tiT n tyrawmicuimu:mu & ftiy itMmfcf&tf . y tt6 Rg.2-20: Alexander the Great. (Hackney, et al.) 5 http^'/www.hacknevs.cotn/alex web/alexfram.htm 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.2 Bathysphere / C.W. Beebe "The bathysphere - bathys is Greek for "deep” -- was developed in the early 1930s by William Beebe and Otis Barton, two explorers from the New York Zoological Society. It was a 4,500-pound hollow steel ball about five feet in diameter, which was raised and lowered from a ship by a cable. Electrical connections powered its oxygen system and searchlight."6 Rq. 2-21: B a th y s p h e r e b e i n g raised. (UscherXNational G e o g r a p h ic SO c.)( B rit an n ic a) 6 http://www.Dbs.org/wgbh/nova/abvss/frontfer/deepsea.html 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Air came from oxygen tanks fitted to the interior, with trays of powdered chemicals to absorb moisture and carbon dioxide. The oxygen was kept circulating by hand-held woven palm-frond fans. In 1934, Beebe and Barton dropped 3,028 feet down into the ocean o ff the coast of Bermuda, relaying news of their finds by telephone cable to a ship on the surface. They recorded every animal that passed before their portholes, including fish and invertebrates never before seen. Because of the attached steel cable and winch, the bathysphere wasn't very maneuverable; it could only go straight down and straight back up again."7 . < i ' . ‘ h .i \Vftv ' J c f a f h * * m t iW \ f.tAKirrKi K n r tr . r . Jy » A m , Afftntti Jttr a fa w fftM < f lijh V . ifo tlri{ fn r t* I W 4* J *»» rr Ntl1 S m t.ltivx. J i i KrtVi d a u f T t U f J * r n c Rg. 2-22: B a th y s p h e r e S c h e m e . (Hines)(Natidnal G e o g r a p h ic S oc.) 7 http://www.Dbs.org/wgbh/nova/abvss/frontier/deepsea.htmt 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. On June 11, 1930, it reached a depth of 400 m, or about 1,300 feet, and in 1934, Beebe and Barton reached 900 m, or about 3,000 feet. Fig. 2-23: B a th y s p h e r e E m e r g in g (Ocean Planet) 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.2 Bathyscaph / A. Piccard “The bathyscaph, designed by Belgian scientist Auguste Piccard (1884-1962), was not suspended from a surface vessel but rather attached to a free-floating tank. (The tank was filled with petroleum liquid, which is lighter than water and hence buoyant.) Piccard's first bathyscaph, the FNRS-2, was referred to as the "submarine balloon" because its heavy- metal ballast, attached by electromagnets, allowed it to sink to a desired depth when engaged and rise to the surface when released. It had greater maneuverability than the bathysphere, though it did not fare well in tests. Piccard and his son Jacques later designed and built a new bathyscaph, the Trieste."8 Rg. 2-24: A g u s te P i c c a r d - B a t h y s c a p h (Yao)(Encarta) 8 http://www.Dbs.org/wgbh/nova/abvss/frontier/deepsea_htTnl 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "In 1953, they descended in it to a depth of 10,330 feet in the Mediterranean. The Piccards sold the Trieste to the U.S. Navy in 1958. On January 23, 1960, the Trieste set a new world record of 35,800 feet when it touched bottom in the Marianas Trench near Guam. When the American submarine Thresher sank o ff the coast of New England in 1963, the Trieste was used to find and photograph the remains at the bottom of the sea."9 / ____ Photo# NH 95258 Outboard profile drawing of Trieste, ca. 1963 o U iO l nrjr\ » « * Lt A*.t r •\* r ( t A t t A r .r tub H | L I A M V A t . S f r V » M '% ti CiAVJLPIt VALV* C'lMW V*ATlOS VAlVf ’-OC k A » < M H ( A A V l»IP | •,H O T » « _ iE N tlA iC Ai L L 1 Zoo MANIUVERINC * k * G A S O LIN E U Q C TAN K A C C tS % T U B E t ' v - A n n C O R R O S IO N A N O D E S t G U IO C * * O E » t I A E T W A T E R J — - ItALLAST T ANK M A T C H A N T E C H A M t t E R U N O E R W A T E R _ re L E R M O N E A N T I C O K H O S IO S A N O D E S C L E V I S K O N C A M E R A f A T h O V E T E R I T J K C 5 af r Shot tub -GASOLINE BALLAST TANAS SO N AR H O U S IN G D O O R W H APA KOUNO RLE KlCLAS WINDOW P R E S S U R E S P M E R E *U V O W A TE R H A L L A S T F ig . 2-25: B a t h y s c a p h v e r s io n s (U.S. N a v y ) 9 http^/www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/abvss/frontfer/deepsea.htmI 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.3 Conshelf I I / 3. Cousteau Fig. 2-26: Sir Jacques Cousteau (LefcowitzXInfoplease) "French naval officer and ocean explorer, known for his extensive under seas investigations. Cousteau became a capi tai ne de corvette in the French navy in 1948 and president of the French Oceanographic Campaigns and commander o f the ship Cal ypso in 1950. He became director o f the Oceanographic Museum o f Monaco in 1957."1 0 I0httDy/www.britannica.coin/eb/aiticle?eu=27066&tocid=Q 4 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Cousteau was the founder o f the Undersea Research Group at Toulon and o f the French Office of Undersea Research at Marseille, Fr. (renamed the Centre o f Advanced Marine Studies in 1968). The inventor of the Aqua-Lung diving apparatus and a process for using television underwater, he became head in 1957 of the Conshelf Saturation Dive Program, conducting experiments in which men live and work for extended periods of time at considerable depths along the continental shelves. Rg. 2-28: G o n s h e l f Underwater Habitat (Peas, J e a n & Walt) His many books include Par 18 m etres de fond (1946; "Through 18 Metres of Water"), The S ilent W orl d (1953), The Li ving Sea (1963), Three Adventures: Gal apagos, Ti ti caca, the Bl ue Hol es (1973), Dol phi ns (1975), and Jacques Coust eau: The Ocean W orl d (1985). He also wrote and 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. produced films concerning the oceans, which attracted immense audiences both in motion-picture theatres and on television."1 1 "Cousteau was convinced that our survival is dependent on the oceans of the world and he strove to raise people's awareness of our fragile ecosystem. He believed that we could meet the world's growing energy needs by channeling the force of the tides and temperature changes of the seas. He also believed that we can feed the world with underwater farming."1 2 Fig. 2-29: Underwater C o l o n ie s (Lefcowitz) 1 1 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=27066&tocid=0 1 2 http://www.motivationaIaaotes.com/People/cousteau.shtml 50 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-30: C o n s h e lf Underwater Habitat (National G e o g r a p h ic )_____________________ Yellow paint gleaming against the cobalt hues of the Red Sea, a sci-fi dome squats 33 feet (10 meters) below the surface. It served as a "garage" fo r the diving saucer that ferried Cousteau and his team between their research ship, Cal ypso, and an underwater research station.1 3 Rg. 2-31: C a l y p s o (C o u st ea u So ci et y) 1 3 http://tectonic.nalionaIgeograDhic.coin/2000/exDloratioii/cousteau/index.cfin 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-32: C o n s h e lf Underwater Habitat. (Peas, J e a n & Walt)______________________ "Wine and ideas flowing, Captain Cousteau meets with colleagues in Starfish House, a metal lodge on the floor of the R e d Sea. Rve "oceanauts" lived and worked there in the summer of 1963. Gazing out the window is Mme Simone Cousteau, whom crews fondly called La Bergere (the shepherdess). She died in 1990."1 4 Rg. 2-33: A q u a n a u t s in s id e of C on sh el f (National G e o g r a p h ic ) 1 4 htmr//tectonic.nationalgeograDhic-com/2000/exDloration/cousteau/index.cfm 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.4 Sea Lab I - I I - I I I / US Navy SEALABI "The first U S Navy habitat operation, S E A LA B I, began shortly afterwards, in July 1964. This was a scheduled three-week stay for four divers, Barth, Manning, Anderson and Thompson, at a depth of 193 feet. The habitat reflected the level o f funding for the project, as it was constructed of two salvaged harbour security net floats and ballasted with railroad car axles. It was located about 26 miles off Bermuda near Argus Island, a man- made tower from which the operation was supported. Hg. 2-34: S e a Labi(NOOA) 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "In contrast to the earlier experiments this was planned as a full scale investigation of human physiology underwater. Unfortunately, it had to be terminated after 11 days because of an approaching tropical storm. Decompression was to have been done by raising the habitat with the divers in it. At a depth of 81 feet they had to leave the habitat because the increasing sea state made it impossible to continue to handle the habitat safely. They swam out to the SDC, which was raised to the deck of the tower and completed the remaining 56 hours o f decompression in the extremely tight and uncomfortable quarters provided by that equipment. One can only imagine the state of hygiene of the divers and the S D C when the hatch was finally opened!"1 5 Rg. 2-35: S e a L a b I (N O O A) 1 5 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SEALAB I I "This was a much more ambitious programme than any up to this point, involving even more physiological testing and a busy underwater programme testing new methods of salvage, new tools, an electrically heated dry suit, porpoise training and work, and behavioral studies. A completely new habitat was built with all modem conveniences and an adequate support ship was provided. Beginning on August 28, 1965, three teams o f divers spent 10 -16 days each at a depth o f 205 feet in the La Jolla canyon off Scripps Institute of Oceanography in California. One of the aquanauts, Scott Carpenter, ex-astronaut, stayed on the bottom through two team sh ifts.1 6 Rg. 2-36: S e a L a b II (N OO A) 1 6 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 'Three unusual events occurred during his stay. A conversation was held between Carpenter and astronaut Gordon Cooper who was circling the globe at the time in the Gemini space capsule. Later aquanauts Griggs and Sheats spoke to oceanauts Cousteau and Lebon in Conshelf II. As part o f the public relations effort, it had been arranged that Scott would speak to President Johnson. Dr Bond was speaking to a White House operator setting up the call and explained to her that Scott was in a chamber filled with helium gas, and therefore, his voice would sound very funny. The operator said that the President did not speak to persons in gas chambers and immediately hung up! Needless to say the connection was finally made, but it was obvious that the President had no idea what Scott was saying in helium speech. However, the P R people were happy!"1 7 Rg. 2-37: A qu an aut -A str on aut Scott Car penter ( N A S A / J S C ) _____________________ 1 7 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htin 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "1965: U. S. Navy Sealab n team leader Scott Carpenter, living and working in the habitat at a depth o f 205 feet, speaks with astronaut Gordon Cooper in a Gemini spacecraft orbiting 200 miles above the surface. No longer will humanity be able to view space, sea, and land as separate entities. Instead, we are learning to view Spaceship Earth as a single system. This is the real dawning of the Age of Aquarius."1 8 Rg. 2-38: S e a L a b I I (N O O A ) 1 8 http://www.soathwestdiver.com/historvscuba.html 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SEALAB I I I 'This was the most ambitious of the habitat programmes, with work up dives and biomedical studies, beginning in 1966. These dives were done at the U S Navy Experimental Diving Unit in the Washington DC Navy Yard and ranged in depth from 250 to 1025 feet. Most dives included studies of the divers' medical status. F O r example, there were respiratory studies using high density gases at pressure to simulate heliox at much higher pressures, exercise studies, behavioural studies and work on overcoming the problem of helium speech. Even the studiers were studied"1 9 Fi g. 2-39: S e a L a b in (N OO A) 1 9 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 58 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "The habitat used in this experiment was that of S E A LA B II, which was refurbished. The support craft was the U S S Elk River which carried the new double Mk2 saturation diving system and which had been reconfigured to include a moon pool. This was an opening through the centre of the ship allowing the P T C to enter the water in a protected area and thus cut down on the problems of handling a large pendulum in rough seas. Two vans on the deck were completely outfitted as medical and command vans. The medical van was in fact an up-to-date medical laboratory in which we did almost every test that a major hospital could do and then some, plus all the atmosphere monitoring for the chambers, P T C s and habitat. Diving sets were semi-closed mixed-gas rigs. Rve teams of eight divers were to spend 12 days each on the bottom at a depth of 610 feet doing all sorts of tasks including testing new salvage techniques, oceanographic studies, fishery studies, and so o n ."2 0 Rg. 2-40: S e a L a b m (N OO A) 2 0 http:ZAyww.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "The habitat began to flood through what was later found to be an improperly installed electrical hull penetrator, and on a dive to attempt to get into the habitat to solve the problem one o f the aquanauts, Barry Cannon, died o f carbon dioxide poisoning. The grand experiment came to a halt. The habitat was salvaged with the help of lots of air from a submarine's high pressure air banks only to be later scrapped. The Navy never again attempted further experiments of this kind, although Navy saturation diving continued until recently. Unfortunately the U S Navy, the pioneer in saturation diving, no longer has this capability in the fleet."2 1 Rg. 2-41: S e a L a b in - su rfa ce support (N O O A ) 2 1 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.5 Tektite I - I I / NOAA - NASA TEKTITE "This was a joint effort between NASA, the Department of Interior and the U S Navy. Basic studies were designed to study small crew behavior during isolation over an extended period o f time, and the use o f nitrogen- oxygen for long exposures. The habitat consisted o f two cylinders joined together and placed on end. These were ballasted to be 10 tons heavy. It began operation on 15 February 1969 in Greater Lameshur Bay at St John, Virgin Islands."2 2 Fig. 2-42: Tektite M o d e l (N O O A ) ( N A S A ) 2 2 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 6 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Decompression was completed on 15 April 1969. Four divers from the Department o f the Interior spent this time at 43 feet doing biological studies on the reef life and being spied upon by the behavioural scientists. After the failure of S E A LA B III some of the S E A LA B crew were sent to provide support and I ended up being a watch officer for several weeks. Living conditions were primitive and there was little to do because o f the isolation of the site. About the only fun was to call an emergency drill in the wee hours o f the morning and get the camp commander excited."2 3 Rg. 2-43: Tektite - Artist View (N OO A) ( N A S A ) 2 3 http://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-44: A q u a n a u t s d iv in g near Tektite ( N O O A )______________________________ "1970: The macho image of underwater exploration has its chest hairs tweaked when marine biologist Dr. Sylvia Earle leads a highly publicized mission in the Tektite habitat. Earle's all-female team of aquanauts successfully completes a two-week saturation stay at 42 feet, providing researchers with much valuable data."2 4 Rg. 2-45:Tektite's F em al e A q u a n a u t s Team (N O O A ) 2 4 http://www.southwestdiver.com/historvscuba.html 63 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.6 Hydrolab / NOAA / NURP "Underwater research, requiring extended diving times is often carried out from stationary underwater habitats. A study to test a collapsible fish trap was conducted in 1981 from the Hydrolab habitat, located in the Salt River Canyon (47' water depth), St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. The purpose of the experiment was to develop a fish trap in which fish could be tagged and released underwater. This would prevent the over expansion of their gas bladder and damage to their internal organs when they are rapidly raised to the surface." 2 5 F ig. 2-46: H y d r o la b - Artist View ( N O A A / N U R P ) 2 5 http://gaIveston.ssp.nmfs.gov/galv/research/oroiects/hvclrolab.htm 64 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-47: A qu an au ts in s id e H yd ro la b Underwater Habitat (N O A A /N U R P ) "Dr. Earle also participated in the first dual use o f an underwater habitat and diver lockout submersible. In 1975, a Johnson-Sea Link submersible took Earle and others from their Hydro-Lab habitat in the Bahamas to a point 76 meters down. There, Earle exited the sub and dived on the edge of a blue abyss. Hydro-Lab was one of the longest running and most successful undersea laboratory projects."2 6 Rg. 2-48: H yd ro l ab Underwater Habitat. ( N O A A /N U R P ) 2 6 http://tserver.saddlebaclicc.ca.us/factUty/ivaIencic/ocean/lectures/prologue/habitats/habitats.htmt 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 2-49: A q u a n a u t s performing underwater activities outside Hydro lab . ( N O A A /N U R P ) 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.7 Chalupa-Jules Underwater Lodge / KLUP "One habitat that survives is La Chaiupa. This was built in 1972 and used for undersea research until 1974. It now is part o f the Marine Resources Development Foundation and is known as the Jules Verne Lodge. It is fitted out as an underwater hotel room where one can spend 23 hours at about 30 feet whether an aquanaut or n o t."2 7 Rg. 2-50: L a C h a i u p a mo o re d . (Jules) ( N O A A ) 2 7 http ://www.thehds.com/hdt/saturate.htm 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Background: Jutes' Undersea Lodge was originally built as La Chaiupa mobile undersea laboratory, the largest and most technically advanced in the world. The Lodge has been completely remodeled to provide guests with approximately 600 square feet of luxury living space for up to six people."2 8 Fig. 2-51: Interior - L a C h ai u p a (Ju tes) 2 8 http://www.iuI.com/new/mediainfo.html 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 2 ” W IN D O W o B R -I a B R -2 E N T R Y W E T R O O M c r X o M M O N R O O M M IC R O W A V E R E F R IG E R A T O R T V -V C R -S T E R E O Rg.2-52: Interior D is tri b u ti o n - L a C h a i u p a (Ju le s) "Layout: The interior has two living chambers, each 20 feet long and 8 feet in diameter. One chamber is divided into two 8 x 10 foot bedrooms; the other is an 8 X 20 foot common room with dining and entertainment facilities. Between the two chambers is a 10 X 20 foot "wet room" entrance area with a moon pool entrance (similar to a small swimming pool), a shower and bathroom facilities."2 9 2 9 http^/www.iul.com/new/medfainfo.html 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.8 M arine Research U nderw ater Lab / KLUP The "Marine Research Underwater Laboratory" and "Jules, the Underwater Lodge" belongs to KLUP, Key Largo Underwater Project. Both the Hotel and the Lab are within a lagoon in Key Largo at 30 ft. below the surface. c y c* \\ Rg. 2-53: Marine R e s e a r c h Underwater La boratory. (M.R.U.L) 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ______ Rg. 2-54: A c r y li c o b s e r v a ti o n sphere. (M.U.R.L)(NOAA)___________________ 'Marine Lab Undersea Laboratory, 1980, original name: M E D U S A (Midshipmen Engineered and Designed Underwater Studies Apparatus). The structure is composed of a surplus steel water tank, 16 feet long and 8 feet in diameter. There is a 3 foot diameter observation port at one end o f the cylinder, and a 66-inch diameter acrylic observation sphere mounted beneath the cylinder. This acrylic sphere was the test hull for the U S Navy Submersible NEMO, which was developed by the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, and was designed for submerged operations to 100 feet. Access to the sphere is from inside the laboratory, making it a dry observation area. Location: Key Largo Undersea P ark/3 0 3 0 http://winnfe.fit.edu/~swood/Historv pe5.html 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.9 Aquarius / UNCW -N O A A "Aquarius is an underwater laboratory and home to scientists for missions up to 10 days long, but to call Aquarius a home is like calling the space shuttle Discovery a mode of transportation. Aquarius is made to withstand the pressure of ocean depths to 120 feet deep. Presently, Aquarius is located in a sand patch adjacent to deep coral reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, at depth of 63 fe e t."3 1 Rg. 2-55: A q u a r i u s - Underwater Habitat L o c a t io n and Interiors ( N O A A /N U R C /U N C W ) 3 1 http://www2.iincwil.edii/nurc/Aauarius/where.htm 72 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. M o tt: V titfc a l Axfc mat to ta fm F i g » 2-56: A q u a r i u s L o c a t io n (N O A A /N U R C / U N C W ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "The laboratory is attached to a base plate that positions the underwater habitat (underwater laboratories are also called habitats) about 13 feet o ff the bottom. This means that the working depth o f those inside the laboratory is about 50 feet deep. Located inside the 81-ton, 43 x 20 x 16.5 - foot underwater laboratory are all the comforts o f home: six bunks, a shower and toilet, instant hot water, a microwave, trash compactor, and a refrigerator even air conditioning and computers linked back to the shore base, located in Key Largo, by wireless telem etry!"3 2 Partner Institutions Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution. inc. Harris Corporation University o f North Carolina at WUmmgton National Oceanic ants Atmospheric Agency Rg. 2-57: A q u a r i u s (N O A A /N U R C /U N C W ) 3 2 http://www2.tmcwil.edu/niirc/Aauarius/where.htm 74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Although funding limitations have dosed most undersea habitats worldwide, in the Florida Keys, one U.S. habitat still withstands budget pressures. The Aquarius underwater laboratory is situated at 20 meters, and hosts saturation diving programs for teams of 5 scientists. Aquarius is a vital base for studying the effects of today's environmental pressures on coral reefs. Ironically this habitat was scheduled to reside at the USC Marine Center a t Catalina Island until East coast senators pulled some strings to have it moved to Florida.3 3 Rg. 2-58: A qu an aut outside A q u a ri u s ( N O A A /N U R C /U N C W ) 3 3 http://iserver.saddleback.cc.ca.us/facuItv/ivalencic/ocean/lectures/Drologue/habitats/habitats.html 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The interior design for the underwater habitat Aquarius was done by the Space Architect John Spencer in 1984, he is also a former student from the School of Architecture of the University of Southern California and the Southern California Institute o f Architecture. vie v port counter Floorplan viewport ' --------- \ counter Q \ J main lock bunk 1 M » 1 table - ~ j □ 1 counter entry lock science area. wet porch c n entry exit hatch view port Port Elevation Port Elevation bunks storage g Starboard Elevation to p entry h at ch s t i e l v i i w wet area 5 ? e sc ap e h a tc h Floorplan Starboard Elevation bunks Starboard Elevation video cam era^ ^ d ° P entry hatch cn a escape hatch mechanical m i l Port Elevation Floorplan Rg. 2-59: A q u a r i u s Interior Distribution (N Q A A /N U R C /U N C W ) umbilical to surface 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "AQUARIUS "Pappa Topside." (Before re-fabrication), AQUARIUS 1986, AQUARIUS 1998, The Aquarius, a more flexible and technologically advanced habitat system, has replaced the Hydrolab as NOAA's principal seafloor research laboratory. Aquarius is situated in the Florida Keys, and is available for use by research scientists. Teams of scientist enter the habitat for 10 day periods, and the entire program has been a critically acclaimed success."3 4 Fig. 2-60: Interiors of A q u a r i u s Habitat ( N O A A /N U R C /U N C W ) 3 4 htm://wtnnie.fit.edu/~swood/Historv pgSlitml 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.3.10 Divescope / V incent Lovichi "Vincent Lovichi, a young French engineer, has already developed a prototype he called "Divescope". A S S A R (Association Subaquatique de Recherches), the association created to realize the incredible challenge, has the support of the European Union, of the IRD (Institute Recherche et Developpement - R & D Institute), the French Navy, as well as the Minister o f Defense. Since 1974, no serious project had been proposed and it took the French engineer six years to perfect his project"3 5 Rg. 2-61: E n g . Vincent L o v i c h i an d D iv e s c o p e . (Oceanaute) 3 5 Association Subaquatique de Recherches / GAMMA, Press images; www.gamma.fr 7 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fi g . 2-62: D iv e s c o p e Underwater (Qceanaute) "The Divescope will serve a double purpose. It will offer air- conditioned rooms for people willing to discover underwater wonders in the world's most beautiful lagoons, in New Caledonia. Everything was designed to offer optimum safety conditions. The Plexiglas used for the prototype is the strongest to date as it benefited from a special polymeratiation process. It offers the same refraction level as seawater. This newly perfected process used in several fields (space, defense, research...) has the advantage o f not distorting scenery."3 6 3 6 Association Subaquatique de Recherches / GAMMA, Press Images; www.gamma.fr 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Divescope is an underwater station settled between ten and thirty feet. It is mostly used as a small training center or resting place. The teacher can talk with his clients and explain the environment, sea life and ocenaology, with adapted documents. Everyone leaves equipment at the entrance and can therefore experience pressurized underwater first habitat opened to everyone thanks to a unique world certification."3 7 Fig. 2-63: D iv e s c o p e (Oceanaute) 3 7 http://www.oceanaute.com/ 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Technical inform ation ab out DIVESCOPE: • Diameter: 2,7 m (9 feet) • Weight: 1,1 tons • Vertical force 3,3 tons • Internal volume: 11 m3 • Diameter: 1,2 m (4 feet) • Mooring cables: King Rope sole • Mooring: weighted baskets • Gas feeding: 1 MDAT (14cubic meters at 200 bars) • Capacity: 7 adults • Average duration with reserve: 60 equivalent occupancy hours • C02 extraction: - standard cartridge. (20 hours each). • + Manual security sweeping by compressed air block: 5 minutes each, 4 hours capacity • Bulb: - polymetacrilate 20 mm • Hull: - stainless steel (superaustenitic) • Design, Engineering: Vincent LOVICHI, Certification: VERITAS Office (3/3) • Source: http://www.oceanaute.com/ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 'The entry point w ill be at five meters (16.5 feet). The module (which looks like a space capsule) will be moored to weights. The cabin itself (about 2.7 meters or about 9 feet in diameter) is similar to a pressurized submarine, only stationary and permanently moored to weights.3 8 "The purely scientific aspect of the project will truly begin in 2001 with the installation of a observation base. The 'Aquastation' will be used to test new alloys in tropical conditions. This new high tech project will allow to work on the inventorying o f reef resources, to carry ethological research, to study fish behavior and of course that of human living under the sea."3 9 Rg. 2-64: D i v e s c o p e entrance (Oceanaute) 3 8 http://www.sidsnet.org/archives/tourism-newswire/2QQ0/0Q29.html 3 9 Association Subaquatique de Recherches / GAMMA, Press Images; www.gamma.fr 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 2-65: A q u a s ta tio n (Oceanaute)________________________________________ "Aquastation is our first certified research station. It has been mostly used in the past three years to test new materials, welds, computerized breathing systems, clime, gas exhausts captors, new melted stainless steels... in order to prepare our future underwater hotels. From now on Aquastation w ill be opened to university biological research programs and also to allow tourism pros who want to test our underwater leisure program. (Guadeloupe, French Ant'llas)"4 0 4 0 http://www.oceanaute.com/ 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “A three-year program has been necessary to adapt this underwater professional station to audit certification. This station is the results o f high tech French undersea innovations used in defense and strategic components. Civil use is now allowed and brought immediate benefits out of these innovations." 4 1 Rg. 2-66: A q u a s ta tio n Underwater Habitat (Oceanaute) 4 1 http://www.oceanaute.com/ 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Aquastation is now the first sea room module of 18 cubic meters dedicated to all divers. It is settled by 12 meters in Guadeloupe island (French Antillas) depth on a sandy bottom between corals and two wrecks (>20 and - 40m). Aquastation is entirely computerized and backed-up. Full tests undertaken by VERITAS Company lead to administrative agreement for leisure use."4 2 Rg. 2-67: A q u a s ta ti o n Underwater Habitat (Oceanaute) 4 2 http://www.oceanaute.com/ 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.4. Testing Site (Geography / W eather Conditions /Oceanography) As an interdisciplinary activity, "Underwater Habitation Design" is a process, which is totally related to the site where the project is going to be located. From the architectural and engineering point of view, designing an underwater habitat has to consider many variables and basic facts in order to understand the extreme environment where the habitat is going to be located. This study proposes the idea o f an underwater habitat that can be placed anywhere in the world, in order to develop an aquaculture industry wherever is needed. Even though the idea of multi-site project (the ability of being able to locate the habitat in different places), this particular project is going to consider one existing place with the purpose of making it more real. In this way we will be able to give real constraints and limitations to the project. These limitations, facts and constraints will determine several issues and design solutions. The Site: • Global Position: South Hemisphere, Pacific Rim, Pacific Ocean, South America, Country: Chile, Parallel 42 degrees South, Archipelago of Chiloe • Local Position: Interior sea, "Caucahue" Channel, Port o f "Quemchi", "Estero Bonito" Bay. • Local Currents: Maximum Speed: 20 centimeters per second. 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. • Local Tide Difference: 8 meters. The real site is located in the interior sea in the Archipelago of Chiloe, in the south of Chile, South America. Chiloe is a group of islands dominated by a major one called "Isla Grande de Chiloe". o c E a n o a t l A n t i c o O C E A N O ATLAN TIC O C h ile M e e t Fig. 2-68: G e o g r a p h ic a l A p p r o a c h (A ccuW eather) (Chilhue Compu tation ) 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ______ Rg. 2-69: G e o g r a p h ic a l A p p r o a c h (TurisTel)____________________________ The fact that this site is located in this interior sea is one of its most important characteristics. The interior sea is filled up and emptied by larger tides through very narrow channels at both extremes, North and South of the Isla Grande. This causes very large currents and tides difference in the entire interior sea area. 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. u»» m n m n ^ P U E a j p * w « f , .texf r v * ' • .-34 ... . V, * 2 " acnx PUERTOS EM L A IS L A CHILOE V I t A I I I K k u c j t t u ^ lo a c H i rtA li'W i < T ^ > - 4 - c : Rg. 2-70: G e o g r a p h ic a l A p p r o a c h ( T u r is T e Q (S H O A ) 89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Another important difference between the open Ocean and the interior sea is the action o f the waves. These waves out in the open are strong and big, while in the inside there is almost no wave action, except when Northern storms cause disturbances in the area. Rg. 2-71: O p e n O c e a n (above), inner sea (below) (Chilhue C o m p u ta c io n ) 90 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In this area the altitude difference of the tides can be 8 meters or more; this fact causes fast underwater currents, which can reach speeds of 20 centimeter per second. Fi g. 2-72: Site; lo c a tio n and ch ara ct eris tics . (Ge rma n P o o ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The real is site is located close to the port of "Quemchi", in the "Caucahue Channel", and the zone is called "Estero Bonito" and protected by the "Caucahue Island" P t. K RTO q L ’EM C H I M l 'A W \ Rg. 2-73: E s te r o B o n ito , C a u c a h u e Island an d c h a n n e l cu rr ent s diagram. (S H O A )________ 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The local climate can be defined by a very humid and rainy weather. South America Forecast Map CNN Forecast map | Salat lrt> image T H U R S D A Y M O I W N G Puerto Montt, Chile S atalltta im age* * T r a v e l * A lm a n a c * asiafltt. Fig.2-74 Weather Charts (CNN) 93 Tem perature* P r t d a H i t l o f t O m e n t conditions (18:1)0 (iM I) Wed forecast 56 F 45 F 13 C 7 C [liu ( ii Sdl Sun Maps Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. METHOD 3.1 Design 3.1.1 Habitat Systems Requirements List of Systems Requirements a) Construction Techniques & Methods Underwater construction techniques fall into three general categories. ■ Surface Operations executed such that the presence of man is not required underwater. ■ Surface-supported underwater operations are those in which the bulk of operations are done from the surface but there is a requirement for man to go on the underwater scene to complete the job. ■ Self-sustaining underwater operations are those in which the bulk of the operations are controlled and performed by man underwater. The human diver is best suited to perform tasks requiring skill and intelligence when the environment permits. Beyond this, man will have to be provided with a protective shell that permits further descent for effective operation. The dry submersible with utilitarian manipulators is a valid solution. All underwater tools have certain common requirements. These include mass and buoyancy (any tool should be neutrally buoyant so it remains at hand when released), usability (a relationship between the tool and environment) and portability (a lack o f excess bulk). 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Test stations such as floating platforms or barges can be constructed near the center of the test site as a base of operations. This would be useful for making in-site studies of wave forces, currents, weather, moorings, and biological and chemical factors. There is a need for simple compact rugged motion sensors for surface and subsurface platforms. Constructors would require a sensor to warn them when platform motion reaches dangerous levels, which could break heavily loaded lines or pipes. Methods to determine ground topography could include the further development o f the laser, but these may not actually function so well in seawater. The bearing capacity o f the sediment is one of the main properties in the study of underwater construction. This is calculated from constants, which have been proven empirically for terrestrial conditions but may not work the same way under the water. The few shear strength measurements that have been made in-site probably do not represent true values because of possible disturbances during sampling and handling. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. b) Materials-Specification & Certification Material data of surface and underwater vessels and data is severely restricted for the following reasons. ■ Lack o f information o f exposure o f materials at greater depth-most vehicles and structures in the ocean have been limited to shallow waters. ■ The range of materials has been restricted. Some exceptions are research vessels but these have not had enough exposure to gauge the advantages and disadvantages of their properties. ■ The creation of new unknown environments in the ocean due to high speed underwater vehicles and the corrosive toxic exhaust released by various operations. Material problems of Organic Plastics that require study for may be some that have not been encountered before, namely ■ Increase in volume and a gain in apparent weight ■ Loss in tensile strength and surface hardness ■ Decrease o f optical transparency ■ General degradation o f dielectric properties ■ Nutrition for underwater organisms Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. However the positive aspects of this material outnumber the negative. These are: ■ As nonconductors of electricity they protect against electrolytic corrosion o f metal structures. ■ They may be used to penetrate semi porous inorganic concrete structures and render the structure more durable for deep sea submergence. ■ They could aid in the utilization of basic chemicals obtained in seawater as ion exchangers. ■ Protect against moisture penetration. Other limitations encountered in choosing materials would be economy and availability of materials. A very important issue is chemical corrosion of metallic materials under the effects o f high pressure, temperature variation and concentration of minerals. Biological attack by all kinds of fauna has become a very strong field o f concern and research. Studies are required of marine organisms, their occurrence, reaction time for specific material or chemical substances, mutation capabilities, etc. On the other hand, encapsulation and development of protective techniques has become a profitable alternative to the problems o f finding materials and working with limited budgets. 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c) Positioning-Emplacement. Leveling Methods & Equipment The positioning of large vessels or floating platforms over specified areas works in limited applications. For example a ship can be precisely positioned over a particular spot in shallower depths by using a standard multipoint moor utilizing wire lines to various moors. However in deeper waters the increased tension on the moors becomes a problem. Therefore Multi propeller dynamic positioning systems have been perfected. The placement of any object at the bottom is a very delicate operation. This could be done by the use of a combination of service vehicles and positioning lines aided by a topside platform or vehicle with the use o f a large buoyant balloon1 . Leveling methods would also depend on site selection. Thus selection of a proper site could eliminate the need for leveling. d) Foundation & Anchoring Methods & Equipment In the late sixties it was predicted that "20 years hence all reasonable demands imposed on oceanic anchoring installations for structures or vessels at the surface, submerged or bottom fixed, w ill be met with the state o f the art capabilities o f that time."2 This would mean knowledge of related disciplines such as Navigation accuracies effects o f environment on 1 Pg. 16 Oceanic engineering V o l 3 2 Pg 16 Oceanic engineering V o l 3 9 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. materials, soil investigation, understanding of mass movement phenomenon etc. The problems of underwater foundations and anchors point to the need to develop the following items of equipment or methods: ■ Underwater dredges (bucket, suction, and water jet) ■ Underwater pile drivers ■ Metal Anchors, augers, and placing machines ■ Underwater concrete mixtures ■ Underwater concrete placement methods.3 e) Lifting Methods and Equipment Two methods applicable ■ Digital manipulator that is very close to the human hand ■ A specialized power tool designed for a specific function A practical maritime application would lie in between these two. Submersible vessels could behave like individual construction workers-these could be manned or unmanned and probably cable connected to a parent or command vehicle. The cable connection would provide the power and control. Or they could be self-contained and receive control signals through acoustic or other pulsed energy systems. 3 Pg 6 Oceanic Engineering V o l 3 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. f) Material Handling Equipment Onsite Material handling equipment is a necessity to aid the skill of workers on site in a hostile environment. This could be a cable connected vehicle operating from a portable station on a site on the bed o f the ocean. Heavy cables to the bottom station would provide communication and power and short light cables to the vehicles would allow on site mobility. The handling o f materials being referred to here is limited to underwater processing and manufacturing operations. Development in this area has been limited to suction hoses used in ocean fishing and gas pipelines from offshore gas and oil fields. There are a lot of problems due to the rapid change during transfer from one environment to another, and the transfer o f a wide variety of materials. The ocean environment makes important considerations of buoyancy and drag of the materials in the design of equipment handling materials. Also the problem of human mobility under water necessitates greater automation and a minimum amount of maintenance and equipment repair. Selection of construction materials and power units is a special consideration. g) Self-propelled & Self-contained Work Platforms Our knowledge of work platforms has been mostly restricted to surface floating barges ships and stationary platforms above the surface but resting on the bottom o f the ocean, wherein the platform is just an extension 100 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o f conventional land or naval practice. Also as has been pointed out by offshore oil operators, it is not practical to consider bottom resting, above surface work platforms in depths more than a few hundred feet. Three main types of work platforms: ■ Fixed undersea platforms-limitations lie in getting correct life support requirements for their use. ■ Surface work platforms are good because they w ill reduce cost and complications of life support systems in undersea operations. ■ A third type is the mobile support vehicle for free divers. Here the challenges are flexibility, capability to perform many tasks, sufficient power and maneuverability. Any of the platforms used, propulsion is always needed in the daily work, but in this third type it becomes a basic requirement. Basically power and propulsion is generally achieved using electric motors powered by batteries. This technique offers flexibility in control and operation, but limitations on battery capacity make this an unadvisable option, h) Air Su d dIv . Distribution. Exhaust. Conditioning. Revitalization This becomes important for the creation of a habitable environment. A lot o f the work in the field o f aerospace life support systems is valid for ocean environments too. There have been advances in the field of biomedical research associated with the provision of habitable atmospheres 101 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in the form of breathing mixtures, carbon dioxide extraction and oxygen regeneration. Development work in improving submarine habitability would include studies on oxygen generation equipment, carbon dioxide scrubbers and emergency revitalization materials. Many of the problems encountered during the development of scrubbers and oxygen generating equipment were caused by the design of the equipment itself. Though most of these satisfied the requirements, they created other problems o f degradation of the environment that had previously been unforeseen.4 i) Water S uddI v. Desalinization. Distribution. Discharge. Storage The 3 basic processes o f salt-water conversion are: ■ Distillation ■ Freezing ■ Electro dialysis Distilling plants are not a recent phenomenon. Thousands have been installed on land areas close to the sea. Capacities of these plants may range up to 3.5 million gallons per day. 4 Pg 85 Oceanic Engineering V o l 3 102 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Freezing operations have yet to be used on a large plant scale, though a lot of work has been done on the laboratory scale. Electro dialysis units are more recent and used to produce fresh water from brackish water having a range of 1000-5000 ppm (Particles per Millimeter) o f dissolved solids. Other processes include hydration, solvent extraction, humidification and solar stills. The biggest problem is to find a method that w ill provide reliable desalination processes at reasonable costs, j) Power - Energy S uddI v & Distribution Energy is a primary concern among the system requirements. Pneumatics would be useful for power sources on the surface. For underwater sources the environmental conditions would favor hydrostatics for force multiplication devices, hydraulics (closed or open circuit) for continuous rotation devices, and cartridge propellants for hand tools. Another alternative would be the development of complete undersea fuel storage systems and repair facilities for various depths and purposes. The use o f radio scopes or nuclear reactors as energy sources would increase the life o f sonar transponders and similar devices on the ocean floor. k) Sanitation & Waste Disposal A conventional water carriage system could be used to collect liquid wastes and sewage. According to Richard D. Terry, reasonable quantities of 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. this sewage (sanitary and nontoxic) could be let out onto the ocean directly without treatment. The quantities released would depend upon ocean currents, structure temperature, marine life and depths, and would be disposed of by the ocean by processes like dilution and aerobic decomposition. When quantities become large, some preliminary treatment may be required. Both biological and chemical processes could be used. Problem areas in waste disposal are the disposal of toxic substances. I) Logistic Support (Telecommunications) In the support o f operational equipment and support system consumables, fuels have to be replaced and tools have to be repaired. Other elements of logistic support include acquisition, transport, storage, delivery and installation Food and its acquisition would be another concern. The elements o f logistic planning must be an integral part of any project and must include: ■ Design studies o f equipment being used and the effect o f the environment on it. ■ Studies of maintenance problems, m) Sciences Support Depending on the kind o f experiments to be carried, the equipment required, n) Forecasting. Weather Conditions & External Environment Basic radio connection to local weather forecasting. 104 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.1.2 Habitat Architectural Program List of Architectural Requirements Three mains areas: A.- Wet Porch & Access B. - Common Main Lock C . - Private Zone A. - Wet Porch & Access: a)-Entrance from underneath. b)-Shower area; hot & cold water supply. Fan and air exhaust. c)-Interior Scuba Equipment Storage (mask, dry suit, fins, etc) (Dry locker w/hanging systems and good ventilation. d)-Exterior Scuba Equipment Storage (tanks, leads, tools, etc) e)-Dresser with retractile seating devices - Natural & Artificial Light f)-Toilet (private room, 1 unit) g)-Sink (double)-Storage-Life Support Back Ups (Air/water/energy-dry cells-) h)-Emergency Systems (Rre suppression, evacuation systems or vehicles) i)-Engine Room (ballast systems) j) Power generation, storage and distribution 105 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. B. - Common Main Lock a)-Kitchen / Pantry (Storage / sink / electrical stove / microwave). b)-Eating / Dining / Storage. c)-Work Stations / Computer Terminals / Cabinets. d)-Science Stations / Data Collection. e)-Control Desk (Logistic Support) / Communication Systems - Power (Radio - Telephone - Sonar- Wireless Telemetry- Microwaves - Satellites) / Monitoring (all instruments reading) / Forecasting - Weather Reports). f)-Library / Manuals / User Guides. g)-Lounge / TV Screen / Video / Stereo. h)-Medicine Chest (Near but separated from the Infirm ary - Emergency Room). i)-Infirm ary - Emergency Room / Quarantine / Medical Care / Surgery C. - Private Zone a)-Sleeping Dorms / 6 Individual Rooms-Personal Storage / Closet-Book stack / Table / Communication Systems-View Port Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.1.3 Layout Proposals / Alternatives According with the background research done three (3) main habitat design alternatives are proposed: Sphere, Vertical Cylinder, Horizontal Cylinder. During the design process many other configurations and variations of the primary basic shapes were studied and proposed, always looking into the best hydrodynamic configuration and best spatial distribution in terms of habitability and human comfort. Furthermore, while experimenting with new forms and shapes, natural shapes and the underwater world came into consideration and discussions in forms, shapes and configurations that are going to be described in the following pages. Fig. 3-l:Primary Ge o me tr ica l B o d i e s p ro po se d, sphere, vertical and h o r iz o n ta l cyli n de rs . 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. -Ot^fc^ MW. * J C o * ! " * * ■ - '-J*.rt?“ r } •*M L IW oW -v * i »in<» < 8 } P f t - 0 « . c - r > * a < ? > « n« -. t f c r t o ~o*. ■ 20* ■ 3 0 t-Qvy T ID E . Rg. 3-2: Underwater s tru ct ure s - P relimina ry st u d ie s 108 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 2 0 o o ° -so \/totqicAL 'iHfrDe. - cAAe 0n«ff ri oe. g -IO ft -Sb totiajMpku c v c -iM o e R . Rg. 3-3: Underwater Habitats, prelim inary st u d ie s. 109 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Finally the last list of models proposed in this study is the following: 1. Sphere (S I) 2. Vertical Cylinder (VC1) 3. Horizontal Cylinder 1 (HC1) 4. Horizontal Cylinder 2 (HC2) 5. Horizontal Cylinder 3-A (HC3-A) 6. Horizontal Cylinder 3-B (HC3-B) 7. Horizontal Cylinder 4 (HC4) 8. Horizontal Cylinder 5 (HC5) 9. Horizontal Cylinder 6-A (HC6-A) 10. Horizontal Cylinder 6-B (HC6-B) 11. Delta 1 (D l) 12. Delta 2 (D2) 13. Delta 3 (D3) 14. Sea Urchin 1 (SU1) 15. Sea Urchin 2 (SU2) 16. Sea Urchin Delta (SUD) Next is a graphic description of the different proposals is presented for a better understanding o f the geometrical, spatial and volumetric configuration o f them. Using ergonomic studies, the human body becomes the "unit of measurement" for the interior spatial design. 110 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Here is where we explore Leonardo da Vinci's studies of human proportions and geometrical partitions. This process will lead us into a metamorphosis of the cross sections of all the different volumes. With this geometrical exploration, the study turns to natural underwater shapes and geometries based on creatures like the jellyfish and the sea urchin, as one of the best underwater natural structures that contains, preserves and nurtures life within. Rg. 3-4 E r g o n o m i c G r a p h ic S ta n d a r d s (R am sey )_______________ 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. -2 UJ T s j: s ■ : "S's T T T — ■ " ‘ IT - 4 »= j:s jul ^ o £ e f t t u Rg. 3-5: The H u m a n b o d y as measurement unit (R am sey ) (E xp lo ri ng L e o n a r d o ) 112 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vammxwi'XXizmKKst m w B * m &i.!BsiSiA wm B £ 3 S ^'!S !S w s k s k iliIi M wmw&x BSBSgigsnsissigBSas g a a a fis a ig B B s a M 14NX1 Rg. 3-6: Geo m et ric al E vo lu tio n of the c r o s s se ct ion b a s e d o n Le on ar d o' s proportions. 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-7: L e o n a rd o 's geometrical pro po rtion s an d H4 c r o s s se ction ._________ 114 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. \ 8 S & 1 & r \ \ i - S is » > 5 t l> F ig . 3-8: L e o n a r d o s geometrical p ro po rti on s and H C 4 an d H C 5 c r o s s s e c t i o n 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. \ l - \ ^ 4 - > V i - ' V - I V - LM Z J_ M Z _L ^LZ'_L= ^ k _ _ tr'\k _L \ t / _L ZZ \ ; # r Rg. 3-9: L e o n a r d o 's geometrical p ro po rti on s an d H C 6 and S e a U r c h in c r o s s section. 116 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-10: L e o n a rd o 's geometrical p ro p o rti on s and H C 3 A and S ea U rc h in c r o s s se ctio n. 117 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-11: L eo n a rd o 's ge ometrical p ro por ti ons an d H C 2 c r o s s section. 118 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-12: Image of a Je lly fi sh a n d c r o s s s e c t io n of H C 6 an d S e a U rc h in . Both systems requirements and architectural programmatic requirements are taken into consideration at the time of the interior design, especially regarding human comfort levels. Regarding the shape of the underwater habitat or submerged body, basics of hydrodynamic stability theory are the major drivers to determine the most compatible geometrical configuration with the lowest drag factor. 119 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-14: E v o lu t io n from L e o n a rd o 's geometry to the S e a U r c h in c r o s s s e c t io n _______ (The E c h i n o i d Directory)_______________________________ 121 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. After testing the hydrodynamics and looking into the best interior spatial distribution and functional design, the idea is to find the best combination of systems and architectural requirements, hydrodynamic stability and functional interior design. Another major driver is the interior zoning o f the habitat; this zoning basically should respond to the differences between public and private areas, logical mechanical service distribution and proper acoustic insulation. Noise reduction and insulation is a major factor. It is known that sounds propagate well in a liquid medium. Hence, it makes sense to locate the resting and / or the sleeping areas as far as possible from where the noise areas are (Machines room, pumps, equipment, etc). Other important factors to consider are building systems and materials, because this will directly affect the configuration, shape and zoning distribution of the habitat. Of course this issue has to do with structural concerns in terms of pressure resistance as well as systems, durability, maintenance, transportation, and environmentally friendly construction. Even though not all the different shapes, geometrical configurations and volumes are the same, the sphere is going to be the most developed shape, in terms o f the written description o f each space in this report. The rest o f the configurations are going to follow similar patterns of usage, distribution, zoning and surface area. Also please refer to the figures and architectural drawings in order to have a better understanding 122 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sphere: ( S ll Basically the sphere is more similar to a natural shape and configuration in terms of a basic geometrical shape, which has a better response to pressure action, because it acts equally all over the submerged body. It is important to keep in mind that a sphere would be perfect for EQUAL water pressure - but water pressure varies with depth, therefore the structure must be completely studied. Also structurally it is a very stable form in terms of uniform compression, strength, uniform pressure resistance, building systems and procedures. Hence its hydrodynamic performance should be studied in order to have the complete picture o f the volume. Following the requirements, the sphere is a three (3) story dwelling (about 9' - 10" high each floor) with a diameter of 29' - 6.25". It is important to note that aquanauts prefer a 1 story high dwelling in order to avoid aggravating the pain in the joints because of the "bends". Is important to remember that accumulating additional gas in body tissues and joints such as nitrogen or helium can cause pain or discomfort at the time of flexing arms or legs, for example on the knees for stepping up through a ladder or stairwell. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. R O O R P L A N P R I N C I P A L S E C T I O N 1 s t P L O O P 2 n d F L O O R P L A N Rg. 3-15: S ph ere floor p la n s an d section. 124 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 M r Rg. 3-16: S p h e re se ct ion and geometry diagram 125 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. -2 9 ' - 6 ^ - o CD O c p > Fig. 3-17:Sphere se ction ______________ ____ _______________________ 126 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The sphere will be described from the bottom to the top as follows: I) Wet Porch & Access flower floors In this level, the "w et porch" is located in the middle o f the room the "main entrance" that can be reached from any place around it. This entrance is a circular open space that can be sealed when needed, literally an opening with sides in the floor surface where the aquanauts are able to go in and out of the habitat. The water does not enter the habitat because the inside pressure it is equal to the outside pressure. This factor must be considered in all the different models or habitat configurations. The outside door is classified as a "water lock", which can be sealed in case of an emergency. Since this is the level of the habitat where walls merge with the floor (curved shape - similar to the third level where the walls merge with the roof). Between the standing/seating surfaces and the outside envelope there are some cavities. These cavities can have several functions in order to give them a proper use and to fu lfill some o f the system requirements. These cavities or "empty" spaces functions as: ■ Ballast cavities or tanks. ■ Air supply and exhaust ducts. ■ Tool storage compartments. 127 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ Fresh water and fuel tanks. ■ Waste disposal treatment tanks. ■ Machine rooms and pumps. ■ Mechanical and Electrical Systems. ■ Batteries storage. • Back up air tanks. ■ Scuba equipment storage Since this is the entry level, aquanauts can use the steps as seating areas or working surfaces when they return from expeditions and they proceed to unload the scuba equipment and wetsuit. This concept of "filling" the remaining spaces also should be applied to all the models or different configurations, as a general pattern. Following this idea, an important concept point out, is thermal insulation. This factor is one of the most important issues to consider in terms of human comfort, as well as air conditioning, heating, and relative environment humidity. It is important not to forget that air it self is a good insulator if used "in between" walls, skins or cavities. The showers and restrooms are located with all the necessary artifacts to satisfy the hygiene necessities o f the crew. For example, taking a hot shower after diving not only is a great pleasure, but also the way that the salty residues are taken o ff the aquanauts body skin. I t is known that this excess 128 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of salinity can provoke discomfort and injuries to aquanauts. Also a hot shower with fresh water can help to bring up the body temperature of the aquanaut and activate blood circulation. It is important to recommend that all the used water can be recycled and reused for other purposes like washing and flushing the toilet, which also goes into a recycling plant, that can be located on the floating facility. Some minimum waste storage and pumping system is needed inside the habitat. Environmental control systems should be properly used in terms of air conditioning, natural and artificial lighting, humidity control, heating and condensation. It should have good air rotation, injection and exhaust, in order to keep the space as dry as possible. According to aquanautis descriptions, humidity control, heat control and fresh air circulation are very important subjects to be considered; in addition plenty of view ports should be located allowing natural light penetration. Also to keep the privacy under control, personal dressers or locker rooms can be considered, since living in very constrained spaces becomes a psychologically delicate issue for the aquanaut and the life in community. Located in the same entrance level, emergency systems (Fire suppressing, extinguishers, sprinklers, evacuation systems or vehicles) should be placed as safety devices. 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It is highly recommended that this level hold all the noisy equipment, like pumps, compressors and others, as if it were an engine room. For putting the noise equipment far away from the living spaces, even more important, from the sleeping spaces, noise disturbance is reduced regarding the comfort and good rest for the crew in between dives. The use of an electrical power source is recommended in order to reduce the noise, oxygen use and air pollution. Nevertheless this habitat is going to be connected to the surface by an umbilical cord, which will supply all the energy and air needed. Regardless of this surface connection, extra air and energy storage is needed in order to supply the habitat with the minimum energy required in case of emergencies or disconnections with surface based facilities. For example the habitat should be able to run by its own resources for at least a period in between 36 to 48 hours; therefore if an emergency happens, aquanauts will be able to surface and decompress inside the habitat (about 17 - 20 hrs) safely. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. \ 1 C I t X Fig. 3-18: Sph ere, wet p o r c h - a c c e s s section, floor pl an & geometry 131 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F fg. 3-19: Sphere, Wet p o r c h - a c c e s s floor plan. 132 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. II) Common Main Lock Connected vertically through a ladder surrounding the pipe that holds the umbilical cord (air and power supply), the circular treads of the ladder allows aquanauts to go up and down at own desire. It is important to note here that maybe tube systems to go down faster can be provided, like fireman's pole in fire stations. Coming up from the "W et Porch", aquanauts reach the "Common or Main Lock". This area, located in the middle of the sphere, it is the maximum radius; consequently all the living and community spaces are located here. Also, this middle level space acts as an air gap between the noise area (L I) and the sleeping zone (L3) improving the noise reduction, this device improves the habitability in the sleeping or private zone. This pattern should be followed through all the defined configurations or underwater models. Following the requirements, the Main Lock space can be defined as follows: In a circular configuration, all the spaces are arranged in a radial way, in order to have a better use o f the space. Surrounding the vertical connector a round circulation path is provided, connecting all the spaces in that area. Also the spaces are located in a way that corresponds to the functions they hold (zoning). 133 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The bigger space is the one composed of the kitchen and the dining area, both connected and conforming to the space where probably most of the community time is going to be spent. Sliding doors allow this space to be closed. Different devices are located in the kitchen, such as an electric stove, microwave, sink, refrigerator and a good counter close to the view port. The dining table is located close to a view port holds 6 persons comfortably. This room can also be used as a meeting room where all the crew can be present. This big room can also be connected to a third one, which is the Living or launch. Here we find sofas, a TV where videos can be reviewed and the relaxing time is spent, trying to be just "like at home". This living room is provided with a view port and a totally open relation with the vertical connector and circulation path. A good insulated and light panel divides the living room from the Library and Work Stations area in which computer terminals connected to World Wide Web, book stacks and reading spaces are provided. Here, all the procedures and maintenance manuals are kept. As a working space it can be used as a science Lab, for data collection and transfer, a sliding door can provide the necessary silence inside this area. As a reading and working space, this zone is provided with a view port, with plenty of natural light penetration. 134 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Following this space, and close to it is possible to find the Main Control Room, where all the communications systems, environmental control systems and life support systems controls are located. Some of the devices are (Radio - Telephone - Power monitoring- - Sonar- Wireless Telemetry- Microwaves - Satellites) / Monitoring (all instruments reading) / Forecasting - Weather Reports). As a working space, a view port is provided to have better natural lighting. Computer terminals are provided and connected to the internal and external communication network. Also enough cabinets should be provided in order to hold all the necessary electronic devices that form the main control system. It is important to point out that all the aquanauts should be able to read and run these devices. Between the infirmary and the main control room is the medical chest, which stores all the medicine and surgical equipment and supplies necessary to keep the crew healthy. Plenty of cabinets and drawers should be provided. Hygiene is the major driver here; also the humidity and temperature control. This storage space is near the infirmary but not inside o f it for safety reasons. Imagine that we have an aquanaut in quarantine in the infirmary and we have to give another crewmember some medicine, we have to be able to do it with out compromising the health of the rest of the crew. 135 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Also the Infirmary should work as an emergency room where the principal medical doctor should be able to do surgery, so the hygiene and the life support systems should be carefully considered. In this room a stretcher / bed is provided in order to take care of one patient at the time. Near the bed a longitudinal counter cabinet is provided, which holds a sink at a minimum. Light as always is a very important issue, so this room is provided with a view p o rt Last but not least, a sliding door provides the necessary privacy and virus control to this room. — H h - i 9 ' - l 0 ' Fig. 3-2Q:S phe re, main lo ck - c o m m o n area floor p la n and geometry. 136 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. — 1 r - \ ykloL~. 4 = CD Q -9'-icr- Hg. 3-21:Sphere, M a in L o c k - C o m m o n A rea S ec tio n and floor plan. 137 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill) Private Zone On the third floor, the private zone refers to the space where the sleeping rooms are placed, giving each aquanaut a room. This is taken from the astronauts and aquanauts experience, in terms of privacy. Having their own private spaces, the life in the community can be easier, avoiding internal crew conflicts that are to be expected with living inside very constrained spaces. Each room is provided with a view port, a bed, closet, book stacks and communications systems, the private telephone is a very important issue that helps the aquanauts to stay connected to their families all the time privately. For example in the space program, astronauts have at least one hour of private communication with their families in private every day, without passing through ground main control monitoring. These being the issues, privacy and less ambient noise the major drivers for the design of this area, the Private Sleeping Zone is located in upper level of the sphere. With this complete description of each o f the spaces that conform to the sphere shape habitat, it is recommended to study the Architectural drawings of each of the habitats to have a better understanding of all the cases. The following models or shapes are going to be described generally in terms o f the interior design and we are going to be more focused in the 138 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. geometrical shape and configuration in order to study good hydrodynamic shape and spatial configurations. In any case, different features are going to be described in order to recognize what and how to make a difference between them. The architectural and systems requirements remain approximately the same, and if there are any changes, they are going to be described. Fig. 3-22:Sphere, Private Zone floor plan and geometry. 139 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-23: Sphere, Private Zone, floor plan an d section. 140 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-24: Sphere, top vfew pl an and geometry 141 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-25: Sph ere, co mputer m o d e ls 142 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-26:Sphere, co mp ut er m o d e l s _________________________________________ 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. b) Vertical Cylinder: (VC1) The vertical cylinder is a proposal that has been used before in Underwater Exploration History; Tektite was one of the most successful underwater programs described in previous chapters, as background research. In that case the habitat was a combination of two (2) vertical cylinders attached to the seabed of the ocean, in our case, we have one (1) single vertical cylinder suspended with cables from the floating devices that support the cages and all the aquaculture system. The VC1 is a 44'- 3.5" tall and 29' -6.25" in diameter cylinder, in fact it is the shape of the sphere extruded, as a five (5) stories high underwater dwelling must consider a sort of mechanical elevator or vertical connector. Especially in terms of human comfort and the bends explained before in the sphere. In this particular case, ju st the geometry and basic configuration were considered. The volume has three stories in the center with 8'- 10 1 A " each, remaining at the end of the body two round shaped stories, as cupolas or domes. These spaces on the vertical extremes o f the habitat are the same eight 8' - 10 1 A ", but round, so the same criteria as the sphere should be considered, in terms of the use o f the interior space. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Also as the surface area increases, more crewmembers can be added. For example, a crew o f scientists doing experiments about marine biology or reproduction improvements and microbiology. Also the rest of the facilities of the habitat should be bigger in order to accommodate all activities and members related to them. Because if the volume increases all the life support systems should be bigger too, including machinery, storage and ballast. All these numbers can be calculated, but this study is going to be more focused on the hydrodynamic performance of the habitat, but not forgetting all the human comfort and habitability necessities. So at least it should be able to hold the minimum requirements in its interior. If possible the same amount or same ratio of view ports are going to be provided in order to have enough natural light inside the habitat. It is important to point out the fact that the pressure through out the structure is set by the pressure at the open hatch. Only one level can have a regular access. On the other hand in order to have several emergency exits, intermediate airlocks between floors must be provided. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. -IS. r G J r u n - \ / \ ^ \ k y i \ \ \ k iz L Rg. 3-27:Vertical Cylinder, S e c ti o n and geometry \ j / _ J vj 146 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o do C D I U ) r ui - * CD 00 00 CD Rg. 3-28: Vertical Cylin der, S e c ti o n 147 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-29:Ve rtical Cylinder, top an d sid e view, comp uter m o d e l a n d geometry 148 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-30: Vertical Cylin der, top a n d side view, co mputer mo d el . 149 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c) Horizontal Cylinder 1; (H C 1) Many horizontal cylinders were studied. All of them started from the basic cylinder shape, which in our case is the model Horizontal Cylinder 4 (HC4), described in the following pages. It is important to mention that the most common shape in the history of underwater human habitation is the horizontal cylinder, in terms of building systems and construction procedures, good performance in holding the pressure and structurally. This kind of shape was often used in past times. H C 1 is a variation of the H C 5 in terms of a larger cross section and higher interior, giving the shape of a tuna fish, like a vertical ellipse. This volume is 78' - 9" long, 19' - 8 V*" maximum height, two (2) stories high and 15' - 9" maximum wide. This geometry is the result of superimposition o f two circumferences, one of T - 10 V 2" in plan and a 9' - 10" circumference in section. The extremes o f the volume are always rounded in order to have good hydrodynamic performance; also they are considered as transparent cupolas or domes with plenty of natural lighting penetration. Same as the vertical cylinder, the surface area has increased thus there is more space available in order to hold larger crews and equipment. Even though structurally maintains a good hydrodynamic shape and also works good in terms o f a pressurized structure. 150 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It is important to point out that the fact of being a non-perfect circular shape will increase the cost o f the habitat, in response to a difficult construction process and building systems. (Please see: Rg. 3-31) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-31: Horizontal Cylinder 1, floor pl an s and s e c t io n s 152 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o O ' o Rg. 3-31: Horizontal Cylinder, cr o s s -s e c tio n . 153 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c n Horizontal Cylinder 2; (HC2) The Horizontal Cylinder 2 (HC2) is another variation of the HC4 (basic cylinder), with a length of 70' - 10 Vi", its maximum width is 11' - 9 It is a very narrow but long shape that holds two stories inside the dwelling. The basic geometry is based on a 5' - 10 3 A " circumference in plan and a 9' - 10" circumference in section. Created thinking of the shape of a tuna fish, this cross-section and shape offers a good hydrodynamic configuration; the shape of a vertical oriented ellipse is shown. The habitation performance is not so good and recalls the shape of a submarine. Also because of this vertically thin body can have some stability problems so the ballast systems should be studied carefully in order to avoid lateral displacement or tilting. Again the ends of the volume are round shaped for a good hydrodynamic performance and as skylights, reinforcing light penetration given by the view ports. (Please see Fig. 3-32) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - « i Rg. 3-32: Horizontal Cylinder 2, floor p la ns an d s e c t io n s . 155 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c o Rg. 3-33: Horizontal Cylinder 2, cr os s- se ct io n. 156 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. e) Horizontal Cylinder 3-A; (HC3-A) These groups of cylinders (HC3-A & HC3-B) are very interesting in terms of the geometrical shape and configuration, both based on a cylindrical shape but more flat in the vertical section and more expanded in the horizontal section, achieves the shape of a whale, a shark or a tuna fish rotated, that means instead of a vertical oriented ellipse now we got a horizontally oriented ellipse that in some points can hold two stories high and plenty of storage space. The basic geometry is based on a 9' - 10" radius circumference, with a total length of 78' - 9", a maximum height of 19' - 8 1 A" (divided into two stories high interior design of 9' - 10" each) and a maximum width of 29' - 6 V4" not including the lateral stabilizers or fins. Some new features are added to this model, starting with a non straight longitudinal line but a curved shape. Following this longitudinal curve, two horizontal fins or lateral stabilizers are added, giving the body the shape of a whale. These stabilizers were added in order to achieve a better hydrodynamic stability. Also, since it is wider, plenty of space for the living and sleeping spaces are presented, including more space for ducts or ballast tanks. This wider section can be appreciated in the following figures. 157 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition, a new device is studied, a longitudinal skylight in order to give natural light inside the circulation area, since the rooms have their own. This device is designed in a way that it doesn't interfere with the hydrodynamics of the model and trying g to minimize the drag and increasing the habitability of the underwater dwelling. (Please see Fig. 3-34) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. »n->- ■ ---------- ------------------------ .f*-.s e - Rg. 3-34: Horizontal Cylinder, Horizontal Cylinder 3-A, floor p la n an d s e c t io n s . 159 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. — — ‘I^F 00 ^ o> cr* — cu fig- 3-35: Horizontal Cylin der H C 3- A, cr os s- sec tio n. 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. f) Horizontal Cylinder 3-B: ( HC3-B) The HC3-B is a transformation of the HC3-A, following the same pattern but changing the length. The way to make it longer and more stylized is by adding one more circumference with a radius of 9' - 10" in plan view. The basic dimensions are 98' - 5" in length, and 29' - 6 ’A " in maximum width not counting the lateral fins or stabilizers. The idea is to achieve a more stylized shape in order to improve the hydrodynamics of the volume, but keeping the lateral fins and curve line in floor plan view. It is basically the same shape but longer. (Please Fig. 3-36) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i . • $ > -I* Rg. 3-36: Horizontal Cylinder H C 3- B , floor plan and section s.______________________ 162 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CA 0 0 'dO Rg. 3-37: Horiz on tal Cylinder H C 3-B, cross-section. 163 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a) Horizontal Cylinder 4; (HC 4) HC4 is the primary cylinder that starts from Leonardo da Vinci's geometry. Minimal and basic geometry developed based on ergonomic studies and functional movements. This initial cross section is going to be the one that leads the rest of the Horizontal Cylinders basic cross sections and configurations. Following this geometry the most important mutation or transformation happens, taking us into natural shapes like the jellyfish and the sea urchin. This process is a fundamental study with clear relationships, which results in forms overlapping with nature. From now we are going to describe HC4 from its geometrical point of view and habitability. Represented as the most basic horizontal cylinder it is composed of a volume 51' - 11' in length and a circular cross section of 10' - 4 1 / 2 " in diameter. The habitability of this model is very constrained and narrow, 6 crewmembers sleep in bunks one in top of the other. The rest of the living spaces are extremely small. Probably they must be improved, maybe adding one circumference of 5' - 2 1 A " in radius on floor plan, increasing just the length of the cylinder. Hydro dynamically, the enlarged shape won't change its performance drastically. But understanding how this basic shape behaves under currents or fluid action we will be able to understand its basic hydrodynamic performance, capabilities and failures. 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ 10' - r u i n v D D c u 3-38: Horizo nta l Cylinder 4 > floor p lan an d s e c t io n s 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. tt-,l& H C U " s t* 1 14-8 6 ¥ -'I'sF O J I f Rg. 3-39:Horizontal Cylin der 4, c ro ss -s ec tio n 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-40: H o r iz o n ta l C ylin der 4, computer m o d e l 167 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. h) Horizontal Cylinder 5: (HC 5) HC5 continues the mutation process based in the same geometry. Basically what happens here is that the center of the cross section now is higher, which means that the man walking through the longitudinal corridor now is lower than the sleeping area, so now the cross section is not a regular circle, it has become a semi circle on top and an arch on the bottom. Now the ends or noses of the cylinder are an incomplete or semi dome or cupola, a double curved shape appears, making also the construction process more expensive, but improving the hydrodynamic performance and a better use of residual spaces. In addition, it is important to point out that here is where the longitudinal skylight appears and starts being taken into consideration; it is impressive how similar to a submarine the shape becomes. The volume is configured by a geometrical body of 58' - 8 3 A " in length, 14' - 8 1 A" in width and an internal maximum height of 11' - 6 Vi". With 6 individual bedrooms, the idea of more privacy becomes especially important, even though the beds are higher so the aquanaut just could be seated inside. Each member has his/her own private room improving the habitably conditions inside the habitat. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8* f : t? i\t ^ 4 R9- 3-41: Horizontal Cylinder 5, floor plan an d sec tions. 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 4 ' f 8 j f - 7 ' - 4 " — ^ O = 1 - A Rg. 3-42: Hor izontal Cylinder 5, c r o s s - s e c ti o n 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. n Horizontal Cylinder 6-A i ( HC6-A1 Without leaving Leonardo's geometry, the evolution continues both in both terms of the cross section and in shape volumetrically. Now the combination of 4 semicircles brings the idea of double skin walls, in order to provide the ballast tanks and life support ducts. In addition the skylight becomes more stylized and a "keel" shaped entrance appears underneath the wet porch. This idea is proposed in order to give a way in which the habitat gets oriented against the currents, acting like a wind flag, if the model was hanging from one single point. Now the whole body enlarges and there is more room for the common places and also each aquanaut keeps their own private room. This results in a geometrical model, based on a semi cylinder of 88' - 7" long and 19' - 8 1 A" in width and two transparent domes at each end of the volume. In terms of the evolution of the cylinder, the shape is adopting different and flatter curves in order to achieve good human comfort and a good hydrodynamic performance. F ig . 3-43: Hor izo ntal Cylin der 6-A, p relim inar y st ud y. 171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ! J- 1 f *L* . r Rg. 3-44: Hor izo nta l Cy linde r 6-A, p relim inar y stu dy. 172 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. *L -.\ .It-.* — ---- —*0l-.6---------------«Qt-.€r— --------------> f8-.6t -*0t-.6----- - - Rg. 3-45: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, floor p la n and s e c t io n s . 173 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o o Fi g. 3-46: Horizontal Cylinder 6-A, c r o s s section. 174 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "IC X J LO 4 ' - 7 C « J - h | ^ 0 0 > IC U cu ooixr oo i cu Rg. 3-47: H or izo nta l Cy linde r 6-A, c r o s s se ct io n 175 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. mmm Rg. 3-48: H oriz onta l Cy lin de r 6-A, computer m o de l. 176 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. i) Horizontal Cylinder 6-B; f HC6-B) In this model, HC6-B, the most important variation (from HC6-A to HC6-B), if not the only, happens in the "nose" of the geometrical model. According to the "evolution geometry" - from Leonardo's to the sea urchin - the idea of a jellyfish is applied to the longitudinal section making the curve (dome) flatten. The length and the width of the model remains the same. This new curve provides an improvement of the hydrodynamic performance and stability of the model. This idea will be confirmed with the analysis of the testing results. The testing is applied to the HC6-A model only. r Rg. 3-49: H o r tz o n t a l C yl in de r 6-B, prelim inary stu d y. 177 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-50: Horizontal Cylin der 6-B, floor pl an and s ec ti o n s. 178 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o CD in Fig. 3-51: Horizontal Cylin der 6-B, c r o s s se ction . 179 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HlCU m i QJ ‘4 ' - 7 -«i^r oo i Fig. 3-52: Horizontal Cylinder 6-B, c r o s s s ec ti o n 1 9 ' coi^r cn i cu 180 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 3 Horizontal Cylinders - Delta -1; ( P - l) HCD-1 is a conjunction of three (3) basic Horizontal Cylinders, displayed in a triangular (Delta) geometry in order to hold more activities in the colony. These new activities are considered for several reasons, such as bringing down the cost of the project and in terms of a multifunctional habitat that is capable of supporting different activities like: Aquaculture habitat, science habitat and tourism habitat. These other two new activities, science and tourism have been confirmed already in the background research as human underwater activities that can support a program of underwater exploration and development. Aquarius underwater habitat in Florida studying the coral reef is an example, and also in Florida, Jules's Underwater Lodge is a successful project that attracts the interest of hundreds of tourists every year. The basic shape is a triangle of about 100' on each side that overlaps the cylinders in each vertex, in this overlapping vertex is where the common areas are going to be situated, with transparent cupola or domes. Leaving the center of the cylinder for the dorms and other activities. The center of triangle is left empty in order to create an "aqua piazza" that holds outside underwater activities, like submersibles docking. This concept is going to be studied in more detail in the following models in terms of hydrodynamic, habitability and human comfort performance. 181 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F fg . 3-53: Horizontal Cylinder-Deita 1, floor plan an d sec ti on geometry. 182 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T M i/'A < 5 > y — \ t=A $U U £C \© M < - ^ £ C \© M O f= /3 x r > 'N Rg. 3-54: H or izo nta l Cylinder Delta-1, towable structure & . c o n c e p ts 183 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. \) 3 Horizontal Cylinders - P eita-2: (D -D In this case the triangular shape remains, but the length of the hypotenuse is shorter than the D -l, instead of 100' no we have about 80'. So the whole body shrinks and becomes more compact leaving as the interior uncovered piazza as a very small place to configure a usable space. This is done in order to keep the cylinder shaped sides of the triangle. Fig. 3-55: Ho ri zo nt a l Cylinder Delta-2, c o n c e p ts 184 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 3-56: H o r iz o n ta l Cylinder Delta - 2, c o n c e p ts . 185 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-57: H o ri z o n ta l Cy lin de r Delta - 2, c o n c e p t s . 186 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m) D elta-3: (P -3 ) Now the triangle is completely covered and becomes one single geometrical body, the Delta. The length of the sides remains the same, about 80' but the concept of the interior piazza is recovered, so now it is really an interior piazza, which holds the main entry lock. Community activities are proposed to occur in this now big space that has a transparent roof. In terms of habitability and human comfort of the underwater habitat, this is improved because of the feeling o f open space. Also, in underwater tourism it can be used as an interior swimming pool. On the other hand because of the triangular shape of the habitat, it is probably going to be a configuration that offers more resistance to the underwater currents having a great drag factor that has to be considered when moorings and floating systems are designed. However, this is less than the version with the exterior piazza.(Please see Rg. 3-66) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fi g. 3-58: H oriz on ta l Cy linde r Delta - 3 , c o n c e p t s . 188 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. n) Sea Urchin - 1; fSU-11 As a final result of Leonardo's Geometry, the evolution in the cross section o f the habitat has become three-dimensional. That means it is like if we were rotating the curved section on its vertical axis, right in the center of the semicircle. This solid in revolution, if studied from the sectional point of view, happened during the design process while comparing this new geometry with natural underwater species like the jellyfish and the sea urchin. Based on real pictures of sea urchins taken from the Museum of Natural History of London, department of Paleontology1 ; and comparing and superimposing them with sketches and CAD Drawings of the proposed habitats and its cross sections, it was found that there was an extreme similarity in between both. The cross section geometry proposed in this study - based on Leonardo's Man - and the one proposed by nature. This discovery is the result o f a long mutation and transforming process in the geometry proposed. Following Leonardo da Vinci and inspired by natural shapes allocated visually in the human memory this prototype is proposed. 1 http://www.nhm.ac.uk/Dalaeontologv/echinoids/ 189 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The sea urchin SU-1 is one single habitat, round in shape with a circular floor plan of 34' - 5.5" in diameter and pentagonal pattern on it, and the cross section o f the sea urchin, which is 12' - 3.75" high. When thinking about this creature, the first thought that appears is that the sea urchin is already an underwater habitat itself, an crab lives inside the shell, with good hydrodynamic performance and structurally safe for the inhabitant. Fig. 3-59: S e a U rc h in -1 , floor plan an d s ec ti o n s.________________________________ 1 9 0 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ^r n H Fig. 3-60:Sea U r c h i n — 1, c r o s s s e c t io n 191 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. X \ i X \ , X X \ \ \ i X \ \ \ |Fig. 3-61: S e a U r c h in -1 , c r o s s sec tion and geometry. 192 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o) Ssa-Vrsbin .: 2s (SU-2) Because one single habitat would not be enough space for the crew and their spaces, studying the possibilities of modularity becomes a major driver in this design. That is why SU-2 proposes to connect two (2) sea urchin habitats, using for this one side of the pentagon inside the circle. Connectivity is important because o f the possibilities o f growth o f the colony if new tasks or activities are proposed. When the farming grows, the number of habitats can grow too. What is also good about this modularity is that it is possible to have better zoning in the habitats, keeping the common and the private areas. The main body consist in the connection o f two (2) of the basic sea urchins, creating a geometrical body 68' - 10 % " long and 34' - 5 W wide, that means two (2) circles inside a diapason rectangle, the harmonic double square in floor plan. (Please see Fig. 3-71) F ig. 3-62:Sea Urchin-2, preliminary study. 193 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. •3 4 * - 9 ' Rg. 3-63: S e a U rc h in — 2, floor plan and s e c t io n s . 194 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. r o ^ r c u i n in cn 0 0 ' P cn in in cn cu i 14'— 94*------------ I Rg. 3-64: S e a U r c h in - 2, floor plan and s e c t io n s . 195 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. p) pgifr; (ggp) Sea Urchin Delta (SUD) is the prototype that brings together two major ideas, modularity and multipurpose habitat, like in the case of the other Delta design explained before. So now there are three (3) sea urchins that connected by one of the sides, forms the same concept of interior piazza than before receiving the main entrance or air lock. Also the idea of holding different activities such as farmers living quarters, sciences, and tourism is appropriate for this case, since the volume increases so more uses can be given. As we mention before for the other sea urchin cases, habitability has a good performance, but hydrodynamic performance should be studied. (Please see Fig.3-73) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. —C j m ^ 1 Ai Rg. 3-65: S e a U rc h in Delta, floor plan and se ct io n s. 197 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. / in 3 ' - l < y — f t r tn c p i ^ c y c u C O m Rg. 3-66: S ea U r c h in Delta, c r o s s se ct io n 198 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 .2 Testing Methods At the beginning of this study two major testing methods were proposed, testing physical models in a water channel and trough computer models. The last one was not developed in this study because the objective was animations to visualize the performance through computer based software and graphics. In order to visualize the model some numerical modeling is needed, which are highly complex and specialized. Regardless of these technical difficulties, this kind of modeling can be done in further research. Therefore in order to accomplish the tasks o f knowing and finding which o f the proposals has better hydrodynamic performance in terms of stability and lower drag factor or resistance to the fluid, a regular water channel was used. This task was done in a well-prepared water channel provided by the School o f Aerospace and Engineering. The main goal o f this testing was to find and recognize the geometrical body or volume that is most compatible with the requirements and given conditions. To find the most stable and hydrodynamic habitat configuration with a low drag factor, which will allow developing that configuration in order to improve the performance. 199 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The testing facility is a steel frame that holds the transparent water channel, which has a testing length of 24 feet and 3 feet wide. The facility is able to reach a maximum speed of 70 centimeter per second (cent/sec). Date of construction: 1983. A large settling chamber followed by four fine mesh stainless steel screens and a 10 to 1 contraction section reduces the turbulence in the flow. Electronic devices, like speedometer, check the speed of the water in which a color dye is realized through a hypodermic tube. The dye follows the direction of the fluid and reaches the underwater model, showing the path of the dye, turbulences, vortices and boundary lines or layers. These terms will be described with the test results. Rq. 3-67: Water C h a n n e l diagram. fFSWT)____________________________________ 200 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 3-68: Water C h a n n e l facility, A e ro s p a c e & . E ng . (Vargo / U S C ) 201 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Description of a test setup and procedure: The model is located in place underwater and centered with the axis o f the water channel in order to avoid turbulences, also in the vertical axis the model should be from the middle depth bellow, as close to the bottom of the water channel as possible. Leveling is a tedious and slow process, which as to be has accurate as possible in order to avoid disturbances in the results, because o f the wrong path of the color dye. Testing steps: 1. Pumps are started to make the water flow. The velocity should be increased slowly in order to avoid problems on the equipment; three main switches make the machine to run. 2. To measure the water speed, the speedometer is located close to the model (about 2"). This device has a small propeller, which is connected to an electronic device that measures the speed in Hz frequency. Each value has its on terms o f speed, measured in centimeters per seconds. The testing in this case considers three main velocities, 20 c/s; 30 c/s and 40 c/s as maximum. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. Once the speed is fixed, it is time to start recording, using a Mini Digital Video camera in two positions, one from a top view and the other from a side view of the model, each test was done twice because of the availability of just one camera, otherwise with two cameras the testing could have been done just once. Regarding video taping, two halogen lamps o f 500 watts each were located also one on top and the other on one side, this is done to avoid shadows in the model and for having a better visualization of the experiment. 4. Model in place, water running, speed fixed, lights on, camera filming, now it is die time to release the color dye. The fluid flows because o f gravity and it goes down through a hypodermic tube, which has the shape of a foil or wing in order to avoid vibration in the release of the dye, which would distort the results. Since the color dye pollutes the water very fast, this should be diluted with water in a proportion of 1 part of dye to 7 parts o f water, the appropriate solution to release. 5. Once the behavior o f the model at a certain speed is captured, the velocity is increased to the next level, also trying to capture what happens in between two different velocities, this will become a very important finding in the results of the testing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. process. This procedure is done several times in order to do all the testing required, at least six (6) per model - three main velocities, two different views. Then, is time for the next model and here it is important to say that setting up the facility and the model takes at least double the time that the test it self requires. 6. When the test is done, the facility must be shot down carefully following the procedures in order to avoid equipment damage, also all the instruments should be cleaned and stored in a dry place in order to avoid corrosion and wrong readings in future tests. 7. As a last part of the process, videos are analyzed very carefully and several times, trying not to miss any phenomena and also taking notes and filling the testing matrix for each of the models. To have a better documentation of the testing, voice recording was also done. Note: a video with more than 3 hours o f all the procedures is available. 204 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.2.1 Physical Models Because of the time lim it five (5) models of the fifthteen (15) proposed were built and tested, these configurations were the most representative group of geometrical shapes and volumes proposed. Basically the models are made of redwood and they start from a basic cubical shape. They were modeled with the appropriate machinery and tools at the woodshop of the School o f Architecture. Many weeks were spent during this building process in order to give them the most real looking and structure. The architectural scale of the models is 1:96 / r Fig. 3-69: W o o d e n m o d e l s in different b u il d in g p h a s e s . 205 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Once the basic shape is achieved, a hole in the longitudinal center o f the model is drilled, this cavity is going to be filled with very small lead bails acting as ballast, which is going to make the model sink, or at least cause negative buoyancy. Some of them achieve almost neutral buoyancy, which make them lighter underwater; this fact is going to have an important role in terms of the hydrodynamic stability of the model and it is going to be described in depth in the analysis chapter. Fig. 3-70: W o o d e n m o d e ls in different b u il d in g p h a s e s .___________________________ 206 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. When negative buoyancy is achieved, the models are sealed and painted with thick layers of plastic painting for swimming pools. It took several weeks to totally dry up the models. This plastic and water proof painting drastically affects the buoyancy o f the models, giving them positive buoyancy sometimes, which was not found, until the process of testing in the water channel started. Rg. 3-71: W o o d e n m o d e ls f n different b ui ld in g p h a s e s . S ea le d an d painted. 207 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig. 3-72: W o o d e n m o d e ls f n different buiMng p h a s e s . S ea le d and painted. 208 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig . 3-73: H o ri zo nt a l Cylin der 6-A d ur in g c o n s tr u c tio n .___________________________ 209 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Once they are totally dry, some reference lines are drawn in order to have a better visualization in the water channel. These lines represent the most important lines that configure the basic geometry of the model, like axis, radius centers, modules, etc. The idea is to make them comparable to one- another, using a background grid o f 1" x 1" in top and side view. Those grids were located at the bottom and side of the water channel. Fig. 3-74: M o d e l an d grid in the water c h a n n e l 210 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Another important aspect of the models are the hanging systems, made with small "screw eyes" located at specific points and a very thin fishing lines as real cables. Thin wire was avoided in order to prevent corrosion and because of its stiffness. These are the most important facts regarding the testing models, more findings and modifications were done during the testing it self. Fig . 3-75: Vertical C ylin der h a ng in g inside the water c h an n el . 211 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. DATA COLLECTION &. ANALYSIS 4.1 Testing, Data Collection & Analysis In this part of the report, all the five (5) tests done to the most representative models are described and analyzed. The orders in which they are presented not necessarily represent the order in which the tests were done. It is just an order in terms of its geometrical evolution. The tests are reviewed in the order that follows: a) - Sphere (S I) b) - Vertical Cylinder 1 (VC1) c) - Horizontal Cylinder 1 (HC1) d) - Horizontal Cylinder 4 (HC4) e) - Horizontal Cylinder 6-A (HC6-A) As mentioned before, the data was collected in a Mini Digital Video Camera capturing about 3 to 7 minutes of recording for each experiment, here is important to remember that each model has about six (6) tests or experiments. These individual experiments were named with letters and numbers like T l, T2, T3...etc, in order to identify them. Each of these experiments represents a new speed, configuration, modification or view, all of them for one single model. 212 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. While the test was done, the same camera served as a voice recorder, in order to capture on site analysis, descriptions, comparisons and thoughts of the researchers. Then the videos plus the voice recording were analyzed in order to write down the notes that are presented here. Some of the analysis notes and thoughts are in the border of the results and conclusions statements, which are explained generally and in detail in the final chapter. It is important to keep in mind that this report is trying to be as precise and concise as possible. Model: Sphere (S I) Tests: from T l-A to T6-A Date: 06/26/2001 Notes: a new lead load of 8 oz. was added to the model in order to achieve a negative buoyancy, this load is hanging from one single cable and separated from the sphere. Is possible that this distance between the model and the new load creates some hydrodynamic phenomena. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T l: (SI) ■ Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 17:55 > 21:30; View: Top Hanging from a single cable, located in the center of the sphere the volume remains stable and showing about 1 mm of lateral oscillation in the same direction of the flow. The same figures drawn by the dye can be seen in the model (VC1), since both have the same diameter from the top view they look the same. Boundary lines are shown clearly and the dye follows the shape of the volume slow and smoothly. These boundary lines represents the "remaining" o f the dye in the model, occasioned by the change in the skin curves or lines of the model. It happens that these lines appears in significant geometrical lines or limits, like in the center of the circumference, tangents and others. Hydro dynamically, the model shows an open angle of attack and a gross wide tail in the back; which starts from the middle of the model (maximum radius) to the back of it, showing vortices and turbulence behind this point. The tail does not narrow as it expands in longitude, also a big area of low pressure can be seen in the back o f the model. When increasing the speed abruptly, lateral oscillation and swing increases, reaching sometimes 5mm o f displacement. This phenomenon was observed in most of the models and represents an important issue, because in a natural environment, the speed o f underwater currents changes constantly. 214 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig. 4-1: T l: Sphere; 20 cent/sec; top view. 215 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig . 4-2: TlSphere; 20 cent/sec; top view. 216 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (SI) ■ Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 21:30 > 24:01; View: Top As soon the speed of the flow is increased the lateral displacement and oscillation starts, reaching about 5 mm. With this movement vortices become larger, but also they pass and disappear much faster. Also because of the speed, the boundary lines or layers disappear from time to time. Since the model is not stable anymore, the period of oscillation sometimes increases and sometimes decreases, almost back to normal, the proportion between stability and displacement is about 1:3. That means it is oscillating more than it is stable. This phenomenon also can be caused by the fact that the model is hanging from one (1) single cable on its center. Regardless of the hanging system, it is important to clarify that the sphere it self has stability problems when suspended in a flow, no matter which is the mass or speed, it w ill probably oscillate in some magnitude. Fi g.4-3: T2 Sph ere; 30 cent/sec; top view_____________________________________ 217 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-4:72 S ph er e; 30 cent/sec; top view 218 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (SI) ■ Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 24:01 > 27:43; View: Top At the time o f increasing the speed of the flow, the movements changed drastically and oscillation becomes larger, reaching almost 1 to 2 centimeters, the worse case scenario is when the displacement reaches 1 inch or more. Totally related to this lateral movement, multiples vortices and turbulences can be seen, making that the tail starts "snaking" behind the model. Also because of the speed, the dye pass very fast and the vortices and tail become fuzzy. Absolutely no boundary lines or layers can be seen. This model is the worse case in terms of lateral displacement, not only in the same direction of the flow back and forth, but also reaching a great swing perpendicular to the flow and sometimes in diagonal. This large oscillations mark this model as the more instable of all the tested. At the moment o f decreasing the speed abruptly, the oscillation turns into some rotation in the vertical axis. Rg. 4-5: T3; Sp here; 40 cent/sec; to p view 219 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (SI) ■ Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 27:43 > 30:36; View: Side The model appears stable with no major oscillations this causes that boundary lines or layers are shown clearly in the model, with some vortices at the beginning of the tail, close to the model. Is very impressive how the dye remains attached to the model after passing those boundary lines, it is like it was part of it. No turbulence is observed between the load and the sphere; just a minimum drag behind the load appears in the form of diffuse turbulence, which is going to increase while the speed is being increased. Rg. 4-7: T4; S p h e re ; 20 cent/sec; side view_________________________________ 221 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T5: (SI) ■ Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 30:36 > 33:15; View: Side At this point, the faster speed creates some lateral movement, which also generates turbulences that are clearly shown behind the load, that definitely is a sign of an augmentation in the drag. To verify this phenomenon, the hypodermic tube that releases the color dye is exactly placed in between the lead load and the sphere. This is done in order to have a better understanding of how vortices and turbulence behind the load happen; these activities are now clearly shown in the experiment. Oscillating back and forth, the sphere swings confirming lateral displacement. Many reasons can be deduced from this testing, maybe because the model is still too "light" in terms of buoyancy, since at the beginning was almost neutral buoyant; an other reason can be the fact that the sphere is hanging from one single cable instead of four (4), which was the case of the Vertical Cylinder 1 (VC1). Later on when the VC 1 test was analyzed, this theory was confirmed; also because the V C1 model has not just 4 cables, also because it has a heavier lead load underneath. Another important issue can be the fact that the lead load is hanging with a cable from the sphere's bottom, later on is going to be established, that the lead load should be as close to the model as possible in order to avoid the "pivot effect", which turns into oscillation, 223 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. swing and lateral displacement. The closer the load to the center of gravity of the model, the smaller pivot effect. Further more, this experiment must be repeated in order to confirm this hypothesis. Fig.4-9: T5; Sp h ere ; 30 cent/sec; s id e view 224 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-10: T5; Sp h ere ; 30 cent/sec; side view 225 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (SI) ■ Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 33:15 > 35:17; View: Side At this point the cable that hold the sphere model is totally tilted respect the vertical axis. The inclination is between three to five (3-5) degrees. It is definitely clear now that the hanging systems should be improved if keeping the spherical shape. Otherwise the shape can be modified, but if this is done, it will not be a pure sphere any more. Lateral oscillation becomes very clear now; a variety of movements can be observed, from back and forth on the longitudinal axis to diagonal and left to right movements in the perpendicular to the flow axis. This model is definitely unstable with this configuration, to improve it hydrodynamic stability many things can be done, some of them can be: using four (4) hanging cables instead of one, each o f them pointing 45 degrees of inclinab'on with respect to the direction o f the flow, this method was used in the Vertical Cylinder 1 (VC1) successfully as is going to be explained later. In addition a heavier lead load can be used in order to increase the ballast mass making the model more hydro dynamically stable. On the other hand it is important to point out that no matter how heavy the model can be; the spherical shape it self has oscillation problems when facing a flow. 226 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 227 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Model; Vertical Cylinder 1 (VC1) Tests: from T l-A to T6-A Date; 06/15/2001 Note: a new lead load of 1 # was added to the model in order to achieve a negative buoyancy, this load is hanging from one single cable and separated from the vertical cylinder. It is possible that this distance between the model and the new load creates some hydrodynamic phenomena. It is important to note here that this model will be tested at three (3) different points for each velocity; this is regarding the height of the model. In order to achieve an accurate testing, the bottom (1), the middle section (2) and the top (3) of the model are tested separately, releasing the dye exactly at those critical points. There are two main facts that have to be described before starting the analysis of the test; first of all the hanging lead load is reaching the bottom of the water channel, this can acts as a sort of anchoring. Second, because o f this touching point, and in order to have the model hanging, two cables were attached to it, both on the front side of the model. Somehow, the model does not require the other two cables in order to remain in vertical position. This issue was going to be analyzed during the test. 228 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T l: (VC1) ■ Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 17:55 > 21:30;View: Top; Dye Section: 1 At this speed and pointing the hypodermic tube at the bottom of the model (Dye Section 1), the dye is released smoothly describing minor turbulences in the back of the model, no oscillation, vibration or lateral displacing can be observed, the model remains stable and static. Part of the dye pass underneath the model without changing its path. No boundary lines or layers can be observed. Rg.4-12: T l; Vertical Cylin der; 20 cent/sec; top view; d ye se ct io n 1 229 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hg. 4-13: T l; Ve rtical C yl in d er ; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 1 230 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (VC1) ■ Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 21:30 > 08:1; View: Top Dye Section: 2 Pointing the dye to the middle section (2) o f the model, major turbulences and the low-pressure area behind the model can be seen. Sometimes the dye goes up or down o f the model, indicating that the angle o f attack o f this shape in not appropriate, because of the width of the cylinder (diameter). The tail behind the vortices, which starts right in the center of the cylinder (diameter)(boundary lines), is a very wide tail, almost more wide than the model it self. The model remains stable and static, no lateral oscillation observed, just the path of the dye. F ig .4-14: T2; Vertical C y li n d e r ; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 2 231 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-15: T2; Vertical C y lin d e r ; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 2 232 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (VC1) ■ Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 08:12 > 11:08; View: Top Dye Section: 3 Minor turbulences can be observed behind the model; following the same path that was shown in the lower section bottom (1), this is clearly defined by the symmetry o f the model. In a very slow motion the dye involves about 50 to 70 % o f the top surface o f the model. The model remains stable and static, no major disturbances can be observed. As a common pattern, sometimes the fluid takes either the left or tight side of the model; this change in its path and direction can be because the wide angle of attack, this phenomenon can end in a higher drag factor. Ftg.4-16: T3; Vertical C ylin der ; 2 0 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 3 __________________ 2 3 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg. 4-17: T3; Vertical Cy lin de r; 20 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 3 234 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (VC1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 11:08 > 14:40; View: Top Dye Section: 3 With this new velocity the lateral oscillation begins in the same direction of the fluid, back and forth like in a smooth swing. Because o f this movement the amount of turbulences increases. In some periods of the testing, even though the velocity is constant the swinging stops suddenly, going back to stable and in equilibrium. This can happen, as usual because the change in the velocity from 20 to 30 cent/ sec. Because of the velocity the dye covers the top surface o f the model, but in less proportion than in the past test (20 cent/sec), no the coverage is about 50% o f he surface instead of 70%. Again the fluid take different path choosing in between the left or right side, this issue was already analyzed. With a constant velocity of the flow the model remains stable and with minimum oscillation or lateral displacement that can be observed. F ig .4-18: T4; Vertical C ylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 3__________________ 235 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig. 4-19: T4; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 3 236 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T5: (VC1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 14:40 > 16:22; View: Top D ye Section: 2 The same minor oscillations observed before remains, with same turbulences, but large vortices and a big lower pressure area, which is clearly defined. This area determines the beginning o f the tail, which is extended wider to the back o f the model. This area starts from the half of the model (diameter) to its back. Fig.4-20: T5; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 2 237 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-21: T5; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 2 238 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (VC1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 16:23 > 17:55; View: Top Dye Section: 1 The lateral oscillation remains the same, non-major changes in the lateral displacement, but now the low-pressure boundary gets diffused and some dye passes underneath the model but not as a straight line, it is difficult to determine the boundary of the tail and the low-pressure area. In this case the vortices are not very clear and the tail angles becomes lower, and narrower than the model. Regarding the difference in intensity of the oscillation between (T4) and (T6), it can be assumed that it is provoked by the fast and abrupt change in the speed, between 20 cent/sec and 30 cent/sec. It can be observed that once the 30 cent/sec remains constant and stable, the oscillation decreases 80%, the movement remains but at a very small scale. Hence this lateral movement is not recommendable in terms of human comfort of the crew; it should be reduced to avoid dizziness. Although this movement is not recommendable, as on ships and boats, once familiar with the vertical movement, the body (using the equilibrium sense o f the middle ear) gets used to it and it is no longer a pain. On the other hand it is important to consider that the crew is going to be inside the habitat for about 12 hours a day, maybe less. 239 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-22: T6; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; tap view; dye section 1 240 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-23: T6; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye s e c t io n 1 241 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T7: (VC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: 25:40 > 28:37; View: Top Dye Section: all Note: this additional experiment was done in order to understand the behavior o f the model against a higher speed. Lateral oscillation and movement increases, with a fast period from one side to the other, the model is subject to a maximum displacement of at least W , which ends in larger turbulences. In addition the model is bobbing and making the dye to take different paths and deforming the tail. Vortices become less clear and the tail undefined and fuzzy. Lateral movement from left to right describe a lifted figure at the lower part of the model, that looks higher now. A loss o f tension in the cable that hangs the lead load can be observed. Some times the movements becomes abrupt and strong with a fast vibration, bobbing back and forth, like if is been lifted and then falling. Fig.4-24: T7; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1____________________ 242 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-25: T7; Vertical Cylinder; 30 cent/sec; top view; dye section 1 243 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T8: (VCl) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: 28:43 > 29:59; View: Side D ye Section: 2 The volume becomes unstable with larger displacements in all directions. This is caused by the speed of the flow, which also creates an up lift force in the model. This abrupt displacement happens as usual, at the time of changing velocity. When the flow speed is constant, the model goes back to a stable position; now the movement is at least 60% to 80% less. Even though the model is more stable, several times the model is lifted up and then falls down, with a vertical displacement of approximately 1 A". Fig.4-26: T8; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2 244 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-27: T8; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 2 245 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T9: (VC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: 00:00 > 02:08; View: Side; Dye Section: 1 Some oscillation can be observed in a range about 3 to 5 mm, at the same time the dye is passing underneath the model and showing great vortices and turbulences that goes up and backwards, giving the shape of the tail. No boundary lines or layers are shown and the tail diffuses while it gets far from the model. There are times were the oscillation increases until it reaches V z " o f displacement. No turbulence between the model and the lead load. Rg.4-28: T9; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye section 1____________________ 246 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-29:T9; Vertical Cylinder; 40 cent/see; sid e view; d ye sec ti on 1 247 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T10: (VC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: new 02:10> 03:35; View: Side; Dye Section: 2 Now the dye surrounds the model but without showing any boundary lines or layer. Bobbing remains the same with a displacement about 3 to 5 mm, while this bobbing is happening; some rotation based on the vertical axis of the model can be seen. The period of vibration remains fast and periodically constant, in addition to this lateral movement, a vertical inclination in the vertical axis is observed, with an angle of 2 to 3 degrees. Originated by this displacement, several times the color dye take different paths or sides, like left or right of the model. This phenomenon was already analyzed in previous tests, concluding that it refers to the angle of attack and the diameter of the cylinder. The turbulences and vortices behind the model go very fast and the tail becomes fuzzy and long, without any dear boundary. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg-4-30: TIP; Vertical C ylin der ; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye s e c t io n 2 249 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T i l : (VC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: new 03:37 > 8:47; View: Side; Dye Section: 3 Large turbulences can be observed in the back of the model, the tail is long and undefined; the dye is passing very fast without encountering less resistance. Bobbing and lateral displacement remains the same, minimum but moving. Maybe this movement is created by the pivot effect that the lead load generates. Even though the movement remains, now the lateral oscillation is 60% to 80% less than the previous testing, because the lead load is hardly touching the bed of the water channel. When the velocity decreases the model comes down and forward until the lead load is totally touching the bottom horizontally, there is no lift-up anymore. NQ . t e: . this model is going to be retested adding the two cables that should be in the back of the model and bringing the lead load as close as possible to the model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-31: T il; Vertical C ylin der ; 40 cent/sec; side view; dye s ec ti o n 2 251 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Model: Horizontal Cylinder 1 (HC1) Tests: from T1 to T6 Date: 06/20/2001 Notes: the model is sinking by its own load or ballast, no more additional load was added, in conclusion is almost neutral buoyant. This fact makes it extremely light and this will affect the hydrodynamic stability of the model. Also is important to note that the internal ballast in not appropriate distributed in the length of the model with consequences, like an even more light tail, producing a possible bobbing phenomena. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T l: (HC1) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t2 - t l; Video Time: new 00:19 > 05:27; View: Side As soon the experiment starts, some minimum oscillation in the back or tail can be observed, the model is not 100% stable. On the other hand the nose or bow shows a good angle of attack, the dye pass evenly distributed, creating very clear boundary lines or layers. After these lines, some dye remains attached to the model and small vortices can be seen. These signals or physical manifestations are typical of a laminar flow distribution with a very low magnitude of oscillation. Even though the dye is released in the geometrical center of the model, after the first V a of the length of the volume, the dye goes through the lower part of the model. The upper side remains partially covered by the color fluid. After the first 1/3 of the model, some turbulences and vortices can be observed in from the middle to the bottom of the model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-32: T l; Ho ri z o nt a l Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; s id e view. 254 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-33: T l; Ho ri z o nt a l Cylinder!; 20 cent/sec; side v ie w . 255 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hg.4-34: T l; Ho ri zo nt a l Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; si d e view. 256 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-35: T l; Horgontal Cylin der 1;20 cent/sec; si d e view . 257 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-36: T l; H or izo nta l Cy linde r 1; 20 cent/sec; side vi ew . 258 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-37: T l; Horizontal C y lin d e r 1; 20 cent/sec; side view, 259 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ffg.4-38: T l; Horizo nta l Cylinder!; 20 cent/sec; side v ie w . 260 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-39: T l; H or izo nta l Cylinder 1; 20 cent/sec; side v ie w . 261 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (H C 1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t2 - t l; Video Time: 05:28 > till the end of tape t2, continues in t l from 51:23 > 53:35; View: Side Once the velocity becomes faster the movement starts, bobbing and vertical oscillation can be observed. This vertical displacement is larger in the back or tail of the model (more light) reaching a magnitude of 1" of the vertical grid. Regarding the bobbing the tail starts snaking, this phenomenon is caused because the model is very closer to neutral buoyancy, and it is so light that reacts immediately at the change of the speed. Extreme oscillation is observed; maybe this movement is provoked because of the elasticity of the hanging cables (fishing lines). This displacement ends in a snaking tail, even if it is tested at the slow velocity of 20 cent/sec. In order to have a complete view of this phenomenon, a quick view from the top of the models tell us that there is also some constant lateral movement from left o right. Some ideas can be deducted from this analysis, "the more mass in the submerged body, the more stable becomes the model". It is important that the additional ballast should be located as close as possible to the center of gravity of the model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As a way to try to avoid this movement, three (3) possible solutions are proposed: 1. Add some sort of lateral or longitudinal fins or stabilizers at the sides of the model, the possible location of these fins can be either all the way down from the bow to the stern, as it was proposed in the non tested models HC3-A and HC3-B. Also individual fins can be attached to the half of the model, the discussion will be, if those fins should be in the front or backside of the model? 2. Add some load underneath the model, like a keel with a bulb attached to it. Please see the solution presented in the model HC6-A, which was tested. 3. The third solution proposed could be a combination of the two previous solutions, that means combining lateral fins or stabilizers and an additional ballast load underneath. Continuing with the analysis it is important to point that the boundary lines or layers are roughly shown because of the speed of the fluid. The oscillation movement is larger in the stern than in the bow, which acts like a pivot point. This tail oscillation becomes a snaking dye tail, with larger vortices and turbulences. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-40: Tl; H o ri zo n ta l Cy linde r 1; 30 cent/sec; side view. 264 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-41:72; H or izo nta l Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; side view. 265 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-42: T2; H oriz on ta l Cyl in de r 1; 30 cent/sec; s id e view. 266 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-43: T2; H oriz on ta l C yl in de r 1; 30 cent/sec; side v ie w , 267 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (HC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t l; Video Time: 53:35 > till the end; View: Side At a first glance is possible to note a sort of pattern in several tests done to different models: ■ Description of the phenomena: At 20 cent/sec the model remains stable with a minimum bobbing. At 30 cent/sec the model starts bobbing in a larger magnitude (also the neutral buoyancy affects). Neutral buoyancy affects in terms of transforming the submerged body in a very "light weight" structure, which is more sensible to the change in the velocity of the flow. The oscillation is larger in the tail or stern than in the bow or nose, which acts like a pivot point. Most of the time, this pivot point is coincident with the tether point of attachment. At 40 cent/sec (double of the initial and maximum supposed speed) the model becomes stable and almost static again, as it was at 20 cent/sec. This phenomenon should be discussed with the hydrodynamic experts. As a final note it is important to note that there is a lift-up of the model at the moment of increasing the velocity (it goes higher). Not just the bobbing can be seen, also some longitudinal tilt or inclination about 1 or 2 degrees, the nose is higher. The oscillation is continuous while describing a straight tail with not so many turbulences. 268 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-44: T3; Ho ri zo nt a l Cy lin de r 1; 40 cent/sec; side vie w . 269 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ftg.4-45: T3; Ho ri zo nt a l Cylin der 1; 40 cent/sec; side view. 270 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-46: T3; Horizontal Cylinder!; 40 cent/sec; side vi ew . 271 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-47: T3; H oriz ont al Cylinder!; 40 cent/sec; si d e vie w . Ill Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-48: T3; Hor izo nt al Cy linder 1; 40 cent/sec; sid e v ie w . 273 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-49: T3; Ho ri zo nt a l Cylinder 1; 40 cent/sec; si d e view. 274 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hg.4-50: T3; Hor izontal Cylin der 1; 40 cent/sec; side vie w . 275 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (HC1) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 00:00 > 01:47; View: Top From this point of view and at this slow velocity, some small bobbing and lateral movement can be seen with almost no vibration. The top views reveals that the angle of attack can be more hydrodynamic in terms of having a narrower nose or bow; in any case the tail remains straight. Hg.4-51: T4; H oriz on ta l Cyl in de r 1; 20 cent/sec; top view. 276 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-52: T4; H o ri zo n ta l Cy linde r 1; 20 cent/sec; top view. 277 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IS : (HC1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 01:48 > 02:40 > 04:13; View: Top The vertical bobbing periodically describes some lateral inclination; it looks like it was bouncing from some elastic cables. Because of this lateral movement the dye goes from one side to the other, from left to right, exactly on the nose, like if it was looking for the best path to go through. This oscillation creates a snaking tail in the vertical and horizontal axis. Also major turbulences and vortices in the tail and after the boundary zone appears visible. The vertical oscillation is 4 or 5 time larger than the horizontal oscillation. And the proportion of the cylinder is 1:4. That means that its length is 4 times longer than its width. A relationship between the geometrical proportions and de oscillation proportion can be studied. Rg.4-53: T5; Ho ri z o nt a l Cylin der 1; 30 cent/sec; top view. 278 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig .4-54: T5; Horiz on tal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view. 279 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (HC1) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 04:13 > 07:30; View: Top At this higher speed, even though the model becomes more stable, during the transition of velocity the oscillation and movement o f the body remarkable increases. Regardless this movement, less bobbing and some lateral and vertical displacement can be observed. On the other hand the tail remains straight after the turbulence close to the stern. All these forces acts in terms of adding more tension to the front cables producing the lift-up effect. From the top point of view that effect can hardly be seen, also is difficult to appreciate a large oscillation since this goes from 1 to 2 degrees. When the velocity is abruptly slow down, it is possible to observe that the movement is minimum. It increases when it goes from 20 to 40 cent/sec and it decreases when it goes from 40 to 20 cent/sec. Flg.4-55: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 1; 30 cent/sec; top view. 280 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-56: T5; H or iz o nt a l C ylin der 1; 30 cent/sec; top view. 281 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Model: Horizontal Cylinder 4 (HC4) Tests: from T1 to T6 D ate; 06/20/2001 Notes: the model is sinking by its own load or ballast, no more additional load was added, in conclusion it is almost neutral buoyant. This fact makes it extremely light and this will affect the hydrodynamic stability of the model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T l: (HC4) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 07:32 > 10:17; View: Top At this slow velocity the model remains stable and no oscillation can be observed, no movement at all. Minor turbulences behind the tail and a good hydrodynamic shape ad performance are shown. Since the model is very thin the tail goes straight and not so much dye remains attached to the model, casting some boundary lines or layers. Ffg.4-57: T l; H o ri zo nt a l Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; top view. 283 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-58: T l; Horiz onta l Cyl in de r 4; 20 cent/sec; top view. 284 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (HC4) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 10:18 > 14:08; View: Top During the process of increasing the speed from 20 to 30 cent/sec the model is lifted up by a high pressure force underneath the geometrical body, this can be a result of a larger tension in the tension of the frontal hanging cables. Now the tail is about 3" longer and it remains thin, no major turbulences in the angle of attack can be detected nor at the tail. The model remains stable and no lateral oscillation or bobbing can be seen. Some long vortices at the end of the tail are observed. No major turbulence. Ftg.4-59: T2; Horizontal Cyl in de r 4; 30 cent/sec; top view. 285 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-60: T2; Horiz on tal Cy linde r 4; 30 cent/sec; top view. 286 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (HC4) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t3;Video Time: 14:08 > 16:19; View: Top At this speed the nose is lifted up and some lateral oscillation is shown at the tail. This lift-up phenomenon is provably provoked because all the tension goes to the front hanging cables, while the back tail cables are almost totally loose. The dye is passing faster and the tail remains straight and fuzzier with large vortices and turbulences at the end. Rg.4-61: T3; Hor izo nta l Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; top view. 287 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ftg.4-62: T3; Ho ri zo nt a l Cy linde r 4; 40 cent/sec; top view. 288 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (HC4) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 00:00 > 03:20;View: Side In this view and at this velocity we can see how the dye is covering the model evenly, except a small portion of the upper tail, about 1 A in length. Turbulences can be seen behind the front hanging device (screw eye) as usual at the back of it. Slow motion vortices appear at the tail, behind the stern, even though the model remains stable and no oscillation or vibration is observed. Rg.4-63: T4; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view. 289 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-64: T4; Hor izo ntal Cylinder 4; 20 cent/sec; side view. 290 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-65: T4; H o r iz o n ta l Cy linder 4; 20 cent/sec; sid e v ie w . 291 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-66: T4; Ho ri z o nt a l C yl in de r 4; 20 cent/sec; si d e v ie w , 292 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig .4-67: T4; H o ri z o n ta l Cyl in de r 4; 20 cent/sec; side v ie w . 293 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T5: (HC4) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 03:20 > 09:35; View: Side During the transition from 20 to 30 cent/sec the nose or bow of the model is lifted up, possibly because of the larger tension in the front hanging cables. This lift up phenomenon is smooth and not abrupt, also bobbing or oscillation can be observed. The angle of inclination respect to the horizontal axis is about 5 to 10 degrees. Because of this angle of attack, major turbulences and vortices are observed, and the tail literally starts at the bow and it goes all the way down the model passing through the stern. At some point a small bobbing and vertical oscillation can be seen, about 5 mm or less. Since the front cables are assuming all the tension, they start vibrating. Rg.4-68: T5; H or izo nta l C yl in de r 4; 30 cent/sec; side view_________________________ 294 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ffg.4-69: T5; H or izo nta l Cylin der 4; 30 cent/sec; side view Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-70: T5; Horizo nta l Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view 296 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig-4-71: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; s id e view 297 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-72: T5; H oriz ont al Cylinder 4; 30 cent/sec; side view 298 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (HC4) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t3; Video Time: 09:40>15:51>17:46 View: S ide When the speed increases the whole body is lifted up, keeping almost 20 degrees of inclination with respect the horizontal axis, going even higher sometimes, till it reaches about 30 degrees of inclination. This phenomena is a major lift-up and the model starts bobbing; it is possible to observe that the cables in the back are totally loose while the ones in the front assume all the forces, literally like a kite flying. Another fact that can cause the lift-up is that the model is almost neutral buoyant, it is very light. This can be partially avoided adding additional load as ballast, same solution applied to other models that were modified. During this test, the hanging cables of the back of the model were tensed intentionally in order to achieve an horizontal position, now the model goes close to the surface of the water. Then it was tested at 40 cent/sec. When the horizontal position is reached, some bobbing can be observed, the bow is higher than the stern. Hydro dynamically the model remains fairly stable; some fuzzy turbulence surrounds the model and also creates a long tail. The bobbing remains less than 5 degrees. If the front cables are released, the nose goes down and the front cables still assume all the tensions. On the other hand the hanging 299 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cables of the back are totally loose, the idea of a flying kite remains, but now with a higher stern. Ftg.4-73: T6; Ho ri z o nt a l Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view 300 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ffg.4-74: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cant/sec; side view 301 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. > Rg.4-75: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view 302 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-76: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 4; 40 cent/sec; side view 303 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Model: Vertical Cylinder 1 (HC6-A) Tests: from T1 to T6 Date: 06/25/2001 Notes: a new lead load of 8 oz. was added to the model in order to achieve a better hydrodynamic stability. The model and its own interior ballast have negative buoyancy, but now the load that is hanging directly from the model is proposed to achieve stability. The load is directly connected to the model no cables separates the load from the model. Is possible that the less distance in between the model and the new load creates some hydrodynamic phenomena. It is important to note here that this model is tested releasing the dye exactly at the same critical points. There are two main facts that have to be described before starting the analysis of the test; first, the hanging lead load does not reach the bottom of the water channel, and second, there is no device that acts as a sort of anchor. In fact the lead load is closely attached to the model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tls (HC6-A) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: total - from the beginning to 09:18; View: Side From the side point of view it can be seen that the angle o f attack can be improved, making it more shallow and hydrodynamic. The lead load that has the hydrodynamic shape o f a bulb works perfectly. Just a small upper curve is observed in between the lead load and the bottom of the model. Also no problems can be seen at the stem and the tail goes straight and smooth. The model has a good hydrodynamic performance, remaining stable, static and with no vibration al all. The most remarkable turbulences appear right behind the hanging systems, screw eye. Fig.4-77: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view_________________________ 305 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-78: T l; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view 306 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-79: T l; Horiz onta l Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; side view 307 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (HC6-A) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4 Video Time: total - from the beginning to 09:18; View: Side While the dye is released at the center of the model, no oscillation, displacement or vibration can be seen. Again the angle o f attack can be improved, making it more hydrodynamic. The curve of the front copula should be more fla t on top in order to offer less resistance to the flow. Again, the model remains stable, with almost no turbulence between the two bodies, the model and the lead load bulb. F ? g .4 - 8 0 : T2; H o ri z o n ta l Cylin der 6-A; 30 cent/sec; si d e view 308 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-81: T2; H o ri zo n ta l Cy linde r 6-A; 30 cent/sec; side vi ew 309 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-82: T2; Ho ri z o nt a l Cylin der 6-A; 30 cent/sec; side view 310 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (HC6-A) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: total - from the beginning to 09:18; View: Side Some vibration and bobbing can be observed as the velocity changes, as usual. But when the bobbing reaches certain period (Delta T), this increases, maybe created by the elastic hanging cables. As soon as the velocity becomes constant the bobbing ends and the model is stable again. Fig.4-83: T3; Horiz on tal Cy lin de r 6-A; 40 cent/sec; side view 311 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-84: T3; Hor izontal C yl in d er 6-A; 40 cent/sec; s fd e view 312 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-85: T3; H or izo nta l Cylin der 6-A; 40 cent/sec; side view 313 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (HC6-A) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 09:20 > 17:53 total; View: Top From this top point of view and at this velocity the model remains stable with a nice straight tail. An important issue is the angle of attack that can be improved in terms of hydrodynamics, closer to a nose of a tuna fish, shark or torpedo. Even though these three have different nose configuration (some vertical, some horizontal, some conical) the main idea is to perform a sharper, pointed and narrowed nose that penetrates the water more easily. No lateral displacement is observed and the model remains stable. Rg.4-86: T4; Hor izo nt al Cylinder 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view 314 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig .4-87: T4; H oriz on ta l Cyl in de r 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view 315 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-88: T4; Ho ri zo nt a l Cylin der 6-A; 20 cent/sec; top view 316 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T5: (HC6-A) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 09:20 17:53 total; View: Top The entire model including the tail remains stable and with a good hydrodynamic performance, but again, the angle of attack can be improved as mentioned before. No bobbing, oscillation or lateral displacement can be observed. Rg.4-89: T5; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 30 cent/sec; top view 317 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-90: T5; H or iz o nt a l C ylin der 6-A; 30 cent/sec; top view 318 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 319 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (HC6-A) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 09:20 17:53 total; View: Top When the velocity is increased, it is possible to observe some lateral displacement or minimum oscillation, back and forth - about 1 degree. Also some minimum turbulence can be seen at the tail. Again when the speed is changed abruptly, the major movement appears. This geometrical configuration has become the most stable and hydrodynamic model conceived; we can truly say that this model has about 95% positive hydrodynamic performance. It has become the Top Model. Fig.4-92: T6; Horizontal Cylinder 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view______________________ 320 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-93: T6; Ho ri z o nt a l Cy linde r 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view 321 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-94: T6; H ori zo nta l Cylin der 6-A; 40 cent/sec; top view 322 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.2 Retest, Data Collection & Analysis Model: Sphere (S I) Tests: from T l-B to T6-B Date: 06/26/2001 Notes: a new lead load of 1 pound was added to the model in order to achieve negative buoyancy. Now the lead load is directly connected to the sphere through a screw eye. It is possible that this distance in between the model and the new load creates some hydrodynamic phenomena. The idea is to try to eliminate lateral movement or displacement. Also since it is closer to the center of gravity of the model this fact can improve the hydrodynamic stability. It is important to point that the model is now hanging directly from the cross cable, there is no vertical cable like in previous test. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tls (SI) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 35:18 > 36:22; View: Side At the time that the velocity is stable some turbulences can be seen behind the lead load, which means that the shape of the load is very important not only the weight. As matter o f facts, the shape of the lead load should be as hydrodynamic as possible. Because o f the squared shape of the lead load, the drag becomes visible, determining also the shape of the tail, which is no longer evenly distributed from the bottom to the top of the model. Now the tail starts from underneath the load until the top of the model, which means that now its cross section is bigger adopting a triangular shape, based on the model until its fuzzy end. This phenomenon can be understood as a larger drag factor, but a better hydrodynamic stability o f the model. Since the model is stable and in equilibrium, and because the velocity of the dye is very slow, many boundary lines or layers are shown clearly. No considerable oscillation swinging or displacement is observed the object is stable. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 2 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 326 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2: (SI) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 36:24 > 38:40; View: Side During the process of increasing the velocity of the flow, some oscillation becomes visible; the model is displaced backwards and higher. This is like a diagonal lift because of the higher speed. Also some lateral swing from left to right can be observed, with a minimum displacement of about 3mm. Boundary lines are still visible, but now less dye remains attached to the model, this also is caused because of the higher speed. It is important to point out that when the speed becomes constant and stable, the oscillation decreases. Is possible to state that when the velocity changes there is an enlargement in the oscillation, and when the velocity becomes constant, the oscillation decreases, even if there is some lateral displacement remaining. The tail remains with a triangular shape but less clear, now a large number of turbulences can be observed. Those vortices go fast to the back of the tail, defining a straight path until they disappear. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig .4-97: T2; Sphere; 30 cent/sec; side view__________________________________ | 328 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T3: (SI) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 38:45 > 40:42; View: Side Again when the velocity is increased, there is movement observed in the form of lateral oscillation and a fast swing. At high speed, no boundary lines or layers are shown. The dye is passing rapidly and it turns into a fuzzy tail. The turbulences behind the load are less because o f the high speed, but are clearly seen as inclination in the model taking as a reference point its vertical axis. Even though there is 3 to 5 % tilt, the model remains stable, with some bobbing, lateral and longitudinal. From this experience we can deduce some conclusions: If the tension in the hanging cable increases, the lateral displacement reduces. This can be achieved increasing the mass of the model, so the vertical axis will remain almost straight and stable. Ftg.4-98: T l; S ph er e; 40 cent/sec; si d e view 329 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 330 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T4: (SI) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 40:45 > 42:13; View: Top Now from the top view at this lower speed is possible to observe the vortices and a clear tail. The magnitude o f the turbulences on the back of the model increases. Some boundary lines can be seen, but not as clear and in the same amount as in the same case but from the side view. Also, minimum oscillation is observed, which of course increases at the time of changing the speed. Rg.4-100: T4; S ph er e; 20 cent/sec; top view 331 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ftg.4-101: T4; S ph er e; 20 cent/sec; top view 332 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T5: (SI) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 42:30 > 44:45; View: Top The magnitude of the turbulence increases, drawing a clear tail and vortices, but at the same time no boundary lines or layers can be seen. On the other hand no major oscillation can be observed and the model can be considered stable in terms of hydrodynamics. Rg.4-102: T5; S p h e re ; 30 cent/sec; top view 333 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-103: T5; S ph er e; 30 cent/sec; top view 334 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T6: (SI) • Speed: 40 cent/sec; Tape: t4; Video Time: 44:47 > 46:36; View: Top As seen before in other experiments the oscillation and lateral movement increases at the time of speed change, this is already a common phenomenon. But once the velocity becomes constant some bobbing can be observed. This oscillation becomes fester in the period, but the angle of displacement remains then same. Because this oscillation the tail starts "snaking" and is not clear defined. Rg.4-104: T6; S ph er e; 40 cent/sec; top view 335 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-105: T5; Sp h ere ; 30 cent/sec; top view 336 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Model: Vertical Cylinder 1 (VC1) Tests: from T l-B to T3-B Date: 06/20/2001 Notes: the lead load of 1 # was added to the model in order to achieve a negative buoyancy, but now this load is hanging directly from the model, no single cable separates the load from the vertical cylinder. Is possible that the less distance in between the model and the new load creates some hydrodynamic phenomena. It is important to note here that this model is going to be tested in three (3) different points for each velocity; this is regarding the height o f the model. In order to achieve an accurate testing, the bottom (1), the middle section (2) and the top (3) of the model are going to be tested separately releasing the dye exactly at those critical points. There are two main facts that have to be described before starting the analysis o f the test; first of all the hanging lead load is not reaching the bottom of the water channel, there is no device that can acts as a sort of anchoring. Second, because there is no touching point, and in order to have the model hanging, two additional cables were added attached to it, both in the back side o f the model. Some how, the model does require the other two cables in order to remain in vertical position. This issue is going to be analyzed during the test. 337 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T IB : (VC1) • Speed: 20 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: new 00:00 > 00:30; View: Side; Dye Section: 2 At this minimum velocity there is almost no oscillation, about 2 mm. Also the path of the dye can be seen in slow motion causing very clear boundary lines or layers. These lines mark the beginning of the vortices and turbulences, which go with the flow to the back of the model and then form the tail. Small turbulences and vortices can be seen between the bottom of the model and the lead load, even though a fuzzy triangular tail is formed. The model remains fairly stable. Rg.4-106: TIB; Vertical C yl in d er ; 20 cent/sec; si d e view 338 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ftg.4-107: TIB; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; side view 339 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-108: TIB; Vertical Cylinder; 20 cent/sec; side view 340 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T2B: (VC1) • Speed: 30 cent/sec; Tape: t2; Video Time: new 00:30 > 05:44; View: Side; Dye Section: all As soon as the velocity increases, the model starts moving back and forth, in a magnitude closer to Vz", also the model bounces a few millimeters, as if the cables were elastic. The dye passes very fast and some boundary lines are observed while the model keeps bobbing regularly with a fast and short period, even if the velocity remains constant. During this experiment, the model reacts with lateral and longitudinal movement and oscillation; also it bounces up and down once in a while with no reason. Vortices and turbulences on the back o f the model can be observed, maintaining the triangular shape o f the tail. The model becomes unstable with 5 degrees o f oscillation. When the dye is released in the lower section of the body, turbulences and vortices can be seen behind the model and behind the load. With this, the tail is undefined and less clear. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig .4-109: T2B; Vertical C ylin der ; 30 cent/sec; side view 342 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-110: T2B; Vertical C ylin der ; 30 cent/sec; side view 343 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rg.4-111: T2B; Ve rt ical Cy lin de r; 30 cent/sec; side view 344 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NOTE TO USERS Page(s) not included in the original manuscript are unavailable from the author or university. The manuscript was microfilmed as received. 345 This reproduction is the best copy available. UMf Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F ig .4-112: T3B; Vertical C yl in d er ; 40 cent/sec; side view 346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig.4-113: T3B; Vertical C yl in d er ; 40 cent/sec; side view 347 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4.3 Results ■ Some of the analysis notes and thoughts are in the results and conclusions statements, which are going to be explained generally and in detail in the final chapter. It is important to keep in mind that this report is trying to be as precise and concise as possible. ■ Adding extra load to the models make improvements in the hydrodynamic performance o f the models in terms of equilibrium, stability and buoyancy control. It can be implied that the more mass o f the body, the more stable it becomes. When the submerged body is almost neutral buoyant, it becomes too light, so it reacts immediately to any variation o f the flow making it unstable. • The additional load should be as close as possible to the model in order to keep it closer to the center o f gravity o f the submerged body. This concentration of the mass, gives a better hydrodynamic stability. Hence the habitability is improved, achieving a better human comfort for the crew. ■ The additional load should have a hydrodynamic shape, like a bulb, in order to reduce the drag factor of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. complete system (Habitat and ballast). Also this ballast can be part o f a keel, which also would improve the stability of the model. This kind of configuration can be seen in most o f the ships or vessels that are related to underwater currents also can be seen in natural shapes, like fishes and others or as internal ballast tanks or air bladders. ■ Regarding the hydrodynamic stability of the volume and the use of keels, fins or stabilizers it was understood that these horizontal and vertical elements would improve the hydrodynamic performance and it reduces the lateral or vertical displacements. It is important to mention that the use o f these elements would help to keep the model stable at the time o f an abrupt change in the velocity of the flow, which happens regularly in the case of underwater currents. This has been proved by nature and by the design o f ships, vessels or submarines, hence further research is suggested. ■ In attention of the speed change, it is important to remember that in many cases the models had different behaviors at different speeds, so the best shape would 349 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. be the one that has a regular stable behavior under many different velocities. ■ Regarding the drag factor and the resistance of the submerged body to the flow, the shapes that are more similar to a foil section, are the ones that have a best hydrodynamic configuration and the lowest drag factor. Again, the shapes found in nature are the ones that have a better hydrodynamic performance. ■ In order to reduce the drag factor the angle of attack is a main issue that has to be studied, in terms of the penetration o f the submerged body into the flow, offering as little resistance to the flow as possible. ■ Following with the configuration o f the geometrical volume and its resistant to the flow, it is important to point out that a more narrow volume has a better performance that the one that has a very wide angle of attack and body. Also regarding this issue it is now clear that the tail should be as thin as possible, in order to have a smooth release o f the fluid, avoiding vortices, turbulences and low pressure areas increasing the drag 350 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. factor. Basically the best configuration or volume is the shape o f a foil or the shape of a teardrop. ■ Regarding the geometrical composition of the body, even though the foil shaped body is the one that has the best hydrodynamic performance, it was found that a good proportion or ratio in between the length and the beam of the volume should be at least from 1:3 to 1:4. That means obviously, longer than wider. ■ In addition to the geometrical composition of the volume, boundary lines or layers should be avoided in order to reduce the drag factor, these lines are zones where the dye "remains" attached to the body provoking drag. Generally these lines can be seen where there is an abrupt or non-smooth change in the geometry o f the body, for example changing from a curve to straight line, this effect was usually seen when the curve reaches its tangential point. In conclusion these boundary lines can be avoided using curved lines and if possible making them a continuous line. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ In order to keep the submerged body suspended, several different hanging systems were tested, from one single cable attached to one single point, two frontal cables attached to two different laterally parallel points placed in strategic geometrical points at the front, four cables attached to two longitudinally parallel points at the front and tail, four cables attached to four different points o f the models. Generally it was found that the more points o f support are considered, the more stable becomes the model. Also the more cables used the more stable. ■ In addition to the hanging systems two kinds of cables were used, plastic fishing lines and metallic wires. As a result can be stated that the metallic wires work better in terms o f the vertical movement or displacement, they have an appropriate absorption o f the tension forces and because of their stiffness there is a minimum of bouncing. On the other hand, plastic fishing lines are too elastic, resulting in large vertical displacements; bobbing and bouncing were observed during the tests while using these fishing lines. 352 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ Further tests in this area must be done in order to understand how compression members and tension cables works under different conditions and forces. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. - Conclusions 5.1 Conclusions: According to the background research some conclusions can be stated. It was demonstrated that saturation diving is the best option to improve aquaculture productivity in terms o f a better performance of the aquanauts, an efficient use of their working time, without the risk of suffering multiple diseases and avoiding long periods of decompression. According to the test analysis and the results, it is appropriate to imply that from all the models tested, the model that had best hydrodynamic performance was HC6-A, in terms of a better stability during all the speeds i at which it was tested. Almost 100 % stable during all the different velocities the HC6-A proposal, which was improved during the testing (additional load); demonstrated that with a good hydrodynamic shape would provide a stable environment and a good use o f the interior space can be the best solution for human underwater habitation. Many other models were not tested but deductions can be obtained from the analysis. The next step from HC6-A is its brother HC6-B that has an even better hydrodynamic shape, which can solve minor stability problems. Then we have an almost perfect underwater shape for a habitat that faces a high velocity underwater current or flow. 354 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It is very important to finally point out that all the models were tested pointing and facing the flow; the maximum lengths were always parallel to the flow. No angled flows were tested and this matter should be addressed in further research, with rotation as a new probably issue. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6. — Further Research: 6.1 Further Research With further research all the proposals can be improved, in terms of adding more ballast to have a better hydrodynamic stability. Placing fins and keels where they are needed and improving the angle o f attack with more hydrodynamic shapes. In addition and using the same cross section of the HC6-B model, the Sea Urchin is a good candidate for an underwater habitat and must be studied in order to understand its behavior under different conditions, like dynamic v/s stationary. Further research is recommended, in terms of Architectural Design, human comfort, human performance, habitability, life sciences, underwater structures & engineering, construction methods and materials, waste management, alternative energy sources, policy and law, and last but not least, hydrodynamic performance. These are some of the topics that must be studied in depth, in order to realize the dream of an "Underwater Farming Village: a new space for human habitation" being built in the near future and floating on the World's Oceans. In this way underwater habitation can reach the level where the Oceans and the Underwater World can be a place to live. 356 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7. - References: "ABCNEWS Internet Ventures". Search for Underwater Exploration. Home page. Last updated: 2002. < httD://search.abcnews.Qo.com/ouerv.html?ro=Q&col=abcnews&col=abcarc h&oD=&Qt=underwater+exDloration&as=&ws=0&Qm=0&st=l&nh=10&lk=l &.rf=Q&oa=&ra=Q> "About Aouarius". Aquarius Underwater Habitat Homepage. Ed. Tom Potts. Last update: Aug. 29 2001 < httD://www.uncwil.edu/nurc/aauarius/about.htm#cost> "AccuWeather. Inc.'r The World's Weather Authority". Home page. Last updated: 2002. <httD ://www.accuweather.com/wx/comoanv/index.htm> "Aerospace and Ocean Engineering". Virginia Tech University. Home page. (Accessed May 2002). <http://www.aoe.vt.edu/> Altonn, Helen. "Scientists develop oceanic software". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Last updated 1997. <httD://starbulletin.com/97/05/05/news/storv3.html> "American Museum o f Natural History". Expeditions Black Smokers. Home page. Last update: Sept. 1997. < httD://www.amnh.orQ/nationalcenter/expeditions/blacksmokers/> "Aquaculture Definition". Living Universe Foundation. Home page. Ed. Jamal Wills. Last update: 24 Mar, 2000. < http: //www. luf.ora/bin/view/GIG/AauacultureTerm > "Aauarius-The World's Only Underwater Laboratory". NOAA. N U R C . University of North Carolina Wilmington. Ed. Tomas Potts. Home Page. Last Update: June 12, 20Q2.<http://www2.uncwil.edu/nurc/AQuarius/where.htm> "Association Subaauatiaue de Recherches / GAMMA". Press Images; Home Page <www.aamma.ff> Updated 2000 "Atlantis Adventures". Atlantis Submarines International, Inc. Official Home Page. <http://www.aoatiantis.com/defBult.htm>. Last Updated 2002. "Bathysphere". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. (WWW Document). Last update: 2002. <http://www.britannica.eom/seo/b/bathvsphere/> 357 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Bathysphere". Encyclopedia Encarta Online. (WWW Document) Last update: 2002. <httD://encarta.msn.com/encarta/Contents.asp?DQ=28iti=76155163Q> Buchanan, John. "BYMS 2026-Calvpso. A Legend". (WWW Document) <httD ://www.westerhuis.mvweb.nl/Historv of the/CALYPSQx.html> Last Updated 6 July 2001. "Cable News Network: CN N \ Weather". South America Forecast Map Home page. Last Updated: 2002. <httD ://www.cnn.com/WEATHER/SAmerica/forecast map.html> Canadian Association of Diving Contractors. " Ontario (Canada^ Ministry of Labour Diving Regulations". This Regulation comes in to force on December 19,1994. (WWW Document) < http: //www.deeptech.com/cadc/molrea94.htm > "Cards Aqua: Quality and Innovation". Home Page. Ed. Nick Constantineau, Last Updated: Thursday February 14, 2002. <http://www.cardsaQua.com/> "Castro Maoico: La Paoina Turistica de Chiloe". Pro Tour. Home page. Ed: Chilhue Computacion. Last Accessed: May 2002. <http://www.proturchiloe.co.cl/index.htm> "Chile Lindo: Imaaenes de Chile". Home page. Ed. German Poo. Last Updated: November 12,1998. <http://www.ubiobio.cl/~Qpoo/chilelindo.html> Cohen, Andrea. "Sea Grant sub explores marine habitats". MIT News Office at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 11/8/95 (WWW Document) <http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1995/novQ8/41154.html > Comite Oceanografico Nacional; Resul t acf os Crucero Ci mar - Fi ordo 2 : Resumenes Amp/ i ados* Santiago-Chile; Comite Oceanografico Nacional: 1999. "Cousteau. Jacaues-Yves". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. (WWW Document) (Accessed May 2002) <http://www.britannica.com/eb/artide?eu=27066> Deas, Jean 8i W alt "The Red Sea: The Sudan. Land o f Sunshine". 1999 (WWW Document) The Scuba Source. Last updated: 2000. <http://www.scubahistorv.com/landofsunshine/sunshine.html> 358 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Denis Bore et al; "Chi l e: Sus Recursos Pesauems": Reporte para la Corporacion de Fomento de la Produccion; por el IFOP-Chile, Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaiso-Chile; M T M Diseno y Publicidad; 1986. Denis Bore et al; "Cat al oao de Recursos Pesauems: C hile": Reporte para la Corporacion de FOmento de la Produccion; por el IFOP-Chile, Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaiso-Chile; 1986. "Department o f Aerospace and Ocean Engineering" . Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Home page. 1996-2002 < http://www.aoe.vt.edu/> "Diving Heritage". Home Page. (WWW Document) Last updated:June 14t h 2002. c htto: //www.divinaheritaae.com/index. htm > Dr. N. C. Flemming - Kendall McDonald - Ley Kenyon. "The Sea-our Other World". Brooke Bond Tea Cards 50 Stories of. 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(Accessed May 2002) <http://fis.com /> 359 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "Free Surface Water Tunnel: (FSWTV'. Hydrodynamics Laboratory- California Institute of Technology. (WWW Document) Last Accessed: May 2002. < http://www.oalcit.caltech.edu/~Dxs/fswt.html> "Frova Rinoen AS: Ocean Going Rsh Cages". Home Page. (Last Accessed: May 2002). <http://www.havbruk.no/frovarinoen/index.html> Gitschlag, G.R. "A Collapsible Trap for Underwater Fish Tagging". Bulletin of Marine Science. 1986. National Marine Fisheries Service Galveston Laboratory. (WWW Document) Last updated: March 28, 2002. <httD://oalveston.ssp.nmfs.oov/oalv/research/profects/hvdrolab.htm> Hackney, Eifealdt and Jeremy Tilsen. "Alexander the Great". Home page. 1997. (Accessed May 2002) < http://www.hacknevs.com/alex web/Daoes/alxphoto.htm#alexander> "Hatfield Marine Science Center". Oregon State University. Home Page. 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Hernandez, Felipe Alberto
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Underwater farming colonies: A new space for human habitation
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Master of Building Science / Master in Biomedical Sciences
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Building Science
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University of Southern California
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Agriculture, Fisheries and Aquaculture,Architecture,Engineering, Agricultural,OAI-PMH Harvest
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Hernandez, Felipe Alberto
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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Engineering, Agricultural