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Explicit and implicit alcohol expectancies predict aggression

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Explicit and implicit alcohol expectancies predict aggression

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Content EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT ALCOHOL EXPECTANCIES PREDICT
AGGRESSION
By
Sara Vanessa Smucker Barnwell
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNVIERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
PSYCHOLOGY
May 2005
Copyright 2005 Sara Vanessa Smucker Barnwell
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UMI Number: 1427938
Copyright 2005 by
Smucker Barnwell, Sara Vanessa
All rights reserved.
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ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables iii
Abstract iv
Introduction 1-9
Methods 9-18
Results 18-26
Discussion 26-33
Bibliography 34-45
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Correlations among Alcohol-related Aggressive
Acts, Drinking, Explicit Expectancies and Implicit
Expectancies
Table 2: Predicting Alcohol-related Aggressive Acts
from Expectancies
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ABSTRACT
Alcohol-aggression expectancies accurately predict
self-reported drinking behaviors, affective state (Jajodia,
& Earleywine, 2003; Weirs et al., 2002) and alcohol-related
aggression (Gustafson, 1994). Few studies examine both the
implicit and explicit processes underlying alcohol
expectancies and related behavioral outcomes. The present
investigation examined alcohol expectancies' ability to
predict self-reported aggression among 191 participants.
Findings suggest that explicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies predict alcohol-related aggression among
participants and especially among men. Furthermore, low
implicit alcohol-aggression expectancies predict alcohol-
related aggression among male participants. Further
research may reveal the extent to which these findings
reflect genuine gender differences or males' higher rates of
target behaviors (e.g. drinking and aggressive behaviors).
Type II error due to heteroscedasticity or participant error
may have impacted the findings.
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1
INTRODUCTION
Bolles (1972) identified expectancies as environmental
stimulus-outcome contingencies that directly affect
behavior. Alcohol expectancies represent a learned
connection between alcohol-related behaviors and outcomes,
directing future behaviors via past results. Today,
researchers examine the cognitive components of alcohol
expectancies that accompany the behavioral outcomes.
Alcohol expectancies provide cognitive templates based on
past drinking experiences, and predict drinking behaviors
with a great degree of accuracy (Christiansen, Smith,
Roehling, & Goldman, 1989; Dunn, & Goldman, 1996; Goldman,
Del Boca, & Darkes, 199 9; Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, &
Christiansen, 1995). Numerous studies find that alcohol
expectancies motivate drinking and predict alcohol abuse and
dependence symptoms (Leigh, & Stacy, 1993; Goldman, Del
Boca, & Darkes, 1999). Indeed alcohol expectancies may
provide a model for the interaction of alcohol consumption
and a wide array of other drinking behaviors - such as
jovial behaviors, depressive behaviors or even aggressive
behaviors (Goldman, Del Boca, & Darkes, 1999) .
While the links between alcohol expectancies and
behavioral outcomes appear well-established, the
conceptualizations of the cognitive mechanisms underlying
expectancies vary. Researchers develop expectancy
frameworks to demonstrate the interaction of alcohol
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2
expectancies, cognitive constructs and resulting behavior
(e.g. Stacy, 1997). Throughout the varied literature,
memory association emerges as a building block for
expectancies. Memories of past drinking experiences provide
the content for alcohol expectancies' cognitive templates,
and inform future behaviors (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling,
& Goldman, 1989; Dunn, & Goldman, 1996; Goldman, Del Boca, &
Darkes, 1999; Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, & Christiansen,
1995). Stacy (1997) found that alcohol-related memory
associations correlated with outcome expectancies, and
predicted drinking behaviors.
Goldman et al (1999) further developed the key role of
memory associations, outlining a cognitive model of
expectancies in terms of neurological events linked to
memory - information templates stored in the nervous system
(Goldman, Del Boca, & Darkes, 1999 in Jajodia, & Earleywine,
2003). Features of the memory associations, such as
strength of association, positive/negative
content, and accessibility, affect the degree to which
expectancies direct future behavior (Earleywine, 1995;
Stacy, 1995).
Subscribing to this network memory model of
associations, Jajodia and Earleywine (2003) explain that
these cognitive templates rely on "learned relationships
among alcohol cues, drinking behavior and the outcome of
drinking'' (p. 126). The cues that activate alcohol
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expectancies may be explicit or known associations that
occupy attentional resources (Goldman et al., 1999; Stacy,
1997). In contrast, cues may be implicit or automatic
associations of past memories with specific outcomes. In
some cases, implicit or automatic associations vary greatly
from stated, explicit associations (Bosson, Swan, &
Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald, & Farnham, 2000) .
Alcohol researchers have long used the explicit
indicators of alcohol expectancies in the creation of
measures to predict alcohol-induced behaviors (e.g. Brown,
Christiansen, & Goldman, 1987). Explicit alcohol
expectancies maintain a consistent relationship with alcohol
consumption, abuse and behavior while drinking (Brown,
Christiansen, & Goldman, 1987). The majority of alcohol
expectancy research relies on survey of explicit
expectancies (e.g. Brown et al., 1987).
Several studies (Roehrich and Goldman, 1995; Stein,
Goldman and Del Boca, 2000; Wiers et al., 2002) address both
the explicit and implicit processes behind alcohol
expectancies, and find that the underlying implicit
processes also serve as key predictors to drinking
behaviors. Implicit Cognition Theory dictates that implicit
associations, strengthened by repetitive experiences with
alcohol or drugs, serve as a strong motivation to drink and
behave in potentially undesirable ways (Stacy, 1997) . This
theory differs from other models of drug use as it
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emphasizes neurobiological memory association patterns over
explicit, rational decisions based on beliefs (Stacy,
Newcomb, & Ames, 2000). The pattern of activation of
concepts stored in memories of past experiences directly
influences one's alcohol consumption (Ames, 2003). To
examine these associations, the alcohol research at
University of Southern California employs a myriad of
associative memory tasks to examine the memory processes
connected to drug use (Stacy, 1997).
In a study of alcohol expectancies and their implicit
memory associations, Jajodia and Earleywine (2003) use an
adapted word association task to tap into respondents1
implicit cognitive processes unavailable to explicit
measures of introspection. By measuring individuals'
associations of alcohol concepts to positive, neutral or
negative words, the study employs a metric that assesses the
strength of the associations between alcohol consumption and
positive or negative outcomes. Jajodia and Earleywine
(2003) find that the Implicit Association Tasks capture the
construct of implicit alcohol expectancies in a reliable
fashion, and predict self-reported drinking behaviors with
considerable accuracy. These findings align with other
studies that find implicit measures of alcohol expectancies
and the IAT to predict affective state and drinking
behaviors effectively (Weirs et al., 2002).
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Clearly the implicit and explicit processes underlying
alcohol expectancies play vital roles in the prediction of
alcohol consumption and its behavioral outcomes. Some
studies find that alcohol expectancies and alcohol-induced
behaviors are predicted more effectively through implicit
measures (Weirs et al., 2002). Others use explicit
indicators of alcohol expectancies with greater success when
predicting alcohol-induced behaviors (Brown, Christiansen, &
Goldman, 1985). Yet far fewer studies seek to combine the
implicit and the explicit in the prediction of alcohol
expectancies and resulting behaviors. Some researchers find
that implicit associations may differ from explicitly stated
beliefs (e.g. racial prejudices; Greenwald, McGhee, &
Schwartz, 1998) . Others encounter implicit memory
associations as valid predictors of both behaviors and
beliefs (Stacy, 1997). Implicit and explicit measures of
alcohol expectancies may yield similar results when testing
associations of alcohol and negative behaviors, or may offer
divergent pictures. Issues of self-presentation could cloud
the coherency of the two measures.
Consider alcohol expectancies and aggressive behaviors.
When one studies alcohol expectancies, consumption and
outcomes under the lens of alcohol-induced aggression, the
cognitive processes behind alcohol expectancies and
behaviors become very poignant. Anecdotally and in the
empirical literature, alcohol consumption is linked to
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instrumental and affective aggression (Crichtlow, 1986;
Room, & Collins, 1983) . While a myriad of reasons may cause
concurrent alcohol use and aggressive behavior (e.g.
personality factors, medical causes), some studies link
alcohol expectancies for aggression with alcohol-induced
aggressive behaviors (Gustafson, 1994). Given the
undesirable nature of alcohol- induced aggressive behaviors,
it seems likely that self-presentational issues could cloud
the self-report of explicit associations between alcohol and
aggression.
Other studies suggest that positive expectancies are
more readily recalled within a network of memory
associations (Earleywine, 1995). Negative expectancies,
such as expectancies for alcohol-induced aggression, may be
more difficult to recall. Compared to explicit expectancy
measures, implicit measures of alcohol expectancies are far
more resistant to issues of self-presentation and subjective
factors (Jajodia, & Earleywine, 2003). Thus the inclusion
of implicit processes in the study of alcohol- induced
aggression offers utility.
Implicit and explicit processes each act as valid
predictors of alcohol expectancies and alcohol expectancies
act as valid predictors of behavioral outcomes. Combining
these measures to predict aggressive behaviors may allow
researchers to observe the different contributing processes
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in alcohol-induced aggression. Implicit and explicit
expectancies may predict aggressive behavior, with implicit
expectancies accounting for unique variance over and above
explicit expectancies.
Given the potential role of alcohol expectancies in
predicting alcohol-induced aggression, inclusion of implicit
and explicit indicators of alcohol expectancies offers
tremendous utility to their study. Using instruments that
gauge implicit and explicit indicators of alcohol
expectancies, the proposed research seeks to predict the
subjects' self-reported associations of alcohol and
aggression. Furthermore, the proposed research will
compare the relative strength of explicit associations and
implicit associations in self-reported displays of
aggression. The addition of an implicit measure offers a
more comprehensive prediction of alcohol expectancies for
aggression and a better basis for the prediction of
aggressive behaviors. While some subjects may not report
explicit associations of alcohol and aggression, they may
demonstrate implicit associations and, when triggered,
actual aggressive behaviors.
In addition, the present study seeks to address
methodological problems in related studies. The majority
of research on alcohol-related aggression has focused
exclusively on men (see Bushman, & Cooper, 1990). Although
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men do exhibit higher levels of aggression, women still
constitute around 2 0% of all arrests for violence-related
crimes (US Department of Justice, 2004). Moreover, a
recent meta-analysis showed that women are slightly more
likely to use physical aggression in heterosexual
relationships than are men (Archer, 2000). Previous studies
suggest that men and women do not differ in terms of the
link between explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies and
aggressive behavior (Giancola, & Zeichner, 1995b). Studies
on implicit expectancies have suggested a greater
expectancy link between alcohol and aggression among men
(Wiers, et al., 2002). More studies are needed that
include both male and female participants. The present
study proposed to include equal numbers of female subjects
to make findings that are generalizable to larger
populations.
In addition, past studies are also limited by
relatively narrow measurement of alcohol-related violence.
Some researchers assess dependent variables that are
situationally relevant but narrow in larger contexts (e.g.
physical fight in a bar; Quigley et al., 2002). Whereas
studies women do generally report lower levels of physical
aggression, an aggression measure inclusive of other types
(e.g. verbal) may capture a more complete picture of
alcohol-related aggression. A more detailed measure of
alcohol-related aggression would ideally include a range of
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specific behaviors, from hitting, pushing, and throwing
things to verbal threats and hurtful comments. By
employing an aggression measure that addresses types of
violence outside of strictly physical incidents, the
present study hopes to employ a more comprehensive measure
applicable to both genders.
The proposed study hypothesizes that implicit
associations will account for unique variance beyond that
accounted for by explicit measures of alcohol expectancies
for aggression. By examining the role of
implicit associations in the display of alcohol-induced
aggression, we link the behavior and cognition of the
process.
METHOD
Participants were recruited via the USC subject pool,
fliers in the USC campus and surrounding community, and
advertisements in local newspapers. Advertisements
solicited volunteers for a psychological study on attitudes
toward social activities. The first 166 subjects
participated in the research via the USC subject pool.
Participants were given the option of receiving subject pool
credit or a $10 cash payment. After the conclusion of the
subject pool, an additional 80 subjects were collected.
Each of these subjects received a $10 cash payment. Each
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participant completed a consent form and debrief procedure
that met criteria for USC Internal Review Board approval.
The study included a total of 246 participants. The
research team opted to collect data beyond the initially
proposed 180 subjects to ensure a greater number of males
and individuals who drank alcohol. To avoid priming effects
on the study's implicit measures, the research team could
not explicitly request male subjects or subjects who drank
alcohol. The present research focused on those participants
who consumed at least one alcoholic beverage per month and
whose error rates on implicit measure of alcohol
expectancies were within acceptable ranges (N=191).
The sample consisted of approximately 75% females; 25%
were male. Respondents ranged in age from 17 to 37. The
mean age was 2 0.6 years old {SD=2.9). The group varied
somewhat in ethnicity. Approximately one-half of
respondents were Caucasian (50%). About one quarter were
Asian or Asian-American (23%). About ten percent were
Latino or Hispanic. Another 9% were African-American. Two
percent were middle-eastern, and a final 1 percent self
identified as mixed ethnicity. The most prevalent religious
affiliations were Christian (24%) and Catholic (19%). About
ten percent of respondents were Jewish. Approximately
sixteen percent were atheist, and three percent were
agnostic. An additional six percent reported other
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religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and
Zoroastrianism.
Participants completed a standard index of drinking
quantity and frequency. After reading an operational
definition of one standard drink size (12 oz beer; 6 oz
wine; 2-3 oz liquor), subjects report average quantity and
frequency of alcohol consumption in the past six months, as
well as the maximum quantity consumed on one occasion
within the past six months.
Respondents completed two distinct measures of explicit
alcohol expectancies, the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire-
Adolescent Version (AEQ-A; Christiansen, Goldman, & Inn,
1982) and the Alcohol Expectancies Regarding Sex, Aggression
and Sexual Vulnerability inventory (AESASVQ; Abbey,
MacAusland, Ross, & Zawacki, 1999). To minimize priming
effects, respondents first completed the AEQ and then
completed the AESASVQ.
The AEQ-A is a widely used 90 item self-report
questionnaire for measuring alcohol expectancies in
adolescents and adults. The scale demonstrates predictive
and concurrent validity and is the commonly used measure for
alcohol expectancies. The measure possesses several
advantages over the adult version of the scale (AEQ; Brown,
Christiansen, & Goldman, 1987) for the present study.
First, while the AEQ asks questions specifically about the
individual's past drinking experiences, the AEQ-A asks
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questions about alcohol's effects on any given person.
Whereas respondents may be under the legal drinking age,
some may not have consumed alcohol or may be reluctant to
admit to underage drinking. Thus the AEQ-A taps explicit
alcohol expectancies without directly inquiring about
individual behavior.
The AEQ-A consists of six subscales: global positive
changes, social enhancement/impediment, cognitive and motor
enhancement, sexual enhancement, cognitive and behavioral
impediment and arousal. The present study employs both the
overall AEQ score (§=.95) and the arousal (§=.77) subscale.
Respondents completed the Alcohol Expectancies
-Regarding Sex, Aggression and Sexual Vulnerability (AESASVQ;
Abbey, MacAusland, Ross, & Zawacki, 1999). This index
addresses alcohol expectancies regarding specific cognitions
and actions, including alcohol-induced aggression. The
measure gauges participants' beliefs about a moderate amount
of alcohol's effects themselves, an average female drinker
and an average male drinker across four domains: aggression,
sexual affect, sexual drive and vulnerability to sexual
coercion. The present study examines participants'
responses to the effects of alcohol on their own aggression
levels (§=.93). The aggression subscale includes 7 items
such as ""When drinking, I become hostile,'' and utilizes a
Likert-type response scale of 1 (Very Much Unlike Me)
through 4 (Very Much Like Me).
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Subjects completed a measure of explicit aggression
cataloguing their own experiences with aggressive behavior
generally and after drinking alcohol. This Explicit
Aggression Scale questionnaire contains 25 questions on
aggressive scenarios and alcohol-related aggressive
behaviors. Drawing on violence measures from previous
research on barroom violence (Leonard, Collins, & Quigley,
2003; Quigley, Corbett, & Tedeschi, 2002), the Explicit
Aggression Scale asked respondents to indicate the number of
times they had been involved in a bar fight and the number
of times they had been in a bar fight after drinking. In
addition, the Explicit Aggression Scale referenced items
from the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; Strauss, 1979) to
assess specific aggressive acts (e.g. push another person).
After each item about an aggressive act, the measure then
inquired if the respondent had committed this act after
alcohol (e.g. push another person after drinking alcohol).
The measure used the CTS scale of increasing increments
(e.g. 0; 1; 2; 3-5; 6-10; 11-19; 20+) to gauge the incidence
of the behaviors. For the purpose of analyses, the study
employed the median number of responses from each interval
to indicate the subjects' actual number of experiences with
violence.
A variety of tools offer insight into implicit
associations (e.g. The Drinking Expectancy Profile; Young, &
Oei, 1996). However, the Implicit Association Test (IAT;
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Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) stands apart as a
measure of implicit memory association particularly well
suited for alcohol research. The Implicit Association Test
offers insight into memory association by gauging the
association of two target concepts by testing response time
to similar or disparate concepts (e.g. concepts related to
alcohol and concepts related to aggression). It is notable
that participants will complete the IAT prior to any other
measures of alcohol expectancies to ensure minimal priming
for alcohol concepts.
The Implicit Association (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, &
Schwartz, 1998) test offers a metric for differential
measurement of the association of two target concepts with
an attribute. The target concept word is paired with
attribute words in a series of trials on a computer screen.
In some of the trials, subjects must respond to highly
associated words with the same computer response key
(alcohol name and aggressive behavior with the right key;
non-alcoholic beverage and non-aggressive behaviors with the
left key). In other trials, the respondent must respond to
less associated concepts with the same key (e.g. alcohol and
neutral with the left key; non-alcoholic beverage and
aggressive behavior with the right key). Previous studies
demonstrate that subjects will respond more quickly when
highly associated categories share the same response key.
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Thus the subject's response time will demonstrate the degree
to which s/he associates the categories.
When subjects respond to associated categories with one
key, they respond rapidly due to shared positive valence of
the two categories. This effect is called compatible
responding. However, when the task requires subjects to
respond to two unassociated categories (alcohol and neutral
word) with the same key, response time increases due to the
opposite effect, incompatible responding. Further, when
subjects respond to associated words with one key and
unassociated words with the other, the associations of the
related categories interfere with rapid responding.
Subjects' contrasting performances on these tasks create the
IAT effect. Thus the test provides a measure of
differential associations with an attribute.
The IAT offers a valid measure for implicit cognitions,
is relatively resistant to self-representational factors and
may reveal beliefs that are divergent from explicit
indicators (Bosson, Swan, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald, &
Farnham, 2000) . The present investigation employed the IAT
to measure the differential associations of alcohol-related
words with aggressive vs. neutral adjectives. Previous
studies (Jajodia, & Earleywine, 2003) demonstrate that the
stronger the association of these concepts, the greater the
IAT effect.
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The Alcohol and Aggression IAT consists of seven blocks
of 48 items each. First, the computer presents participants
with instructions for the categorization of items. As the
items drop onto the screen, subjects must quickly categorize
to respond to the group of items by pressing the appropriate
key. In the first block, subjects demonstrate subject
discrimination as they categorize 24 randomly displayed
words (12 alcoholic beverages; 12 neutral/mammal) as alcohol
or mammal. In the second block, respondents demonstrated
attribute discrimination, as they sort words related to the
effects of alcohol (12 aggressive words; 12 neutral/nature).
These two exercises are combined in the third task, as
participants must respond to pairs of concept and attribute
words (alcohol and aggression with one key; mammal and
nature word with the other).
In this task, the concepts (12 alcoholic beverages; 12
mammal names used before) and the attributes (12 aggressive
words and 12 nature words) will drop alternately. The
fourth block repeats this procedure and collects the data.
The fifth block consists of the reverse attribute
discrimination task; subjects again view a series of
aggressive and neutral words. Now, however, the key
assignment has reversed, and subjects must respond with the
opposite key (e.g. aggressive words on the right side are
sorted with the left key). The sixth block reverses the
combined task by using the same stimuli from the third block
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while reversing key assignments (alcohol and nature words
with one key and mammal and aggressive words with the
other). The final block is identical to the sixth, and acts
as the data collection block.
To control for factors of varying levels of prior
exposure to stimuli words and word lengths, Jajodia and
Earleywine (2003) use words of comparable frequency and
lengths for both discrimination categories. The study used
a compiled list of alcoholic beverage names from the British
National Corpus (BNC, 1998), as well as a computer program
computing the frequencies of these words in the English
language. Words with multiple meanings were eliminated.
Similarly, words belonging to neutral categories (e.g.
mammals, animals, birds, dogs, fish, fruit and plants were
compiled; the frequencies of these words were generated.
These words were matched with the list of alcohols according
to frequency and length. Whereas the list of mammals
produced the greatest number of matches, mammal names were
used. The current study will also employ this method of
word selection. The BNC (1998) will also provide a full
catalogue of aggression related words. Once more, words
with dual meanings were not included. Words were be sorted
according to frequency and length, and matched with their
neutral counterpart words.
In the present study, the Implicit Association tasks
were administered on a computer located in the laboratory.
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The computer presents the target concept (e.g. alcohol) and
the attribute words (aggressive behaviors and neutral words)
through a series of discrimination tasks. The subject was
left alone in the testing room to complete the task.
Because incorrect responses receive a loud sound from the
computer, the research assistant monitored the number of
incorrect responses that each participant made. If the
subject seemed not to attend to the computer task
whatsoever, the research assistant notified the principle
investigator. In the one instance when this occurred, this
subject's data was removed without review. The subject
completed the entire study, and was paid for participation.
Given the inclusion of the implicit expectancies
measure, priming was a key concern for the research team.
In order to obtain accurate response times on the IAT,
subjects possessed no previous knowledge of the content of
the research. To minimize priming effects once in the
laboratory, the laboratory sequences administered measures
in the following order: consent form, implicit measures of
alcohol expectancies, demographics, alcohol consumption
self-report, explicit measures of alcohol expectancies,
explicit aggression scale and debriefing procedures.
RESULTS
The following findings address alcohol consumption.
Respondents consumed alcohol an average of 1.6 days per
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19
week {SD=1.3) with 3.9 standard drinks per occasion
{SD=2.4). Taken together, the respondents typically drank
7.3 {SD=8 .6 ) drinks per week. On average, respondents
reported 8.6 (SD=5.0) drinks as the largest number of
drinks that they would consume on a given occasion.
Subjects reported drinking their maximum number of drinks
1.2 (SD=1.5) times a year. Number of drinks per week
correlated significantly with largest number of drinks on a
given occasion (r=.78, pc.001) and the number of times per
month that an individual drinks her maximum amount (r=.39,
pc.001). See Table 1 for a complete account of
correlations.
TABLE 1: CORRELATIONS AMONG ALCOHOL-RELATED AGGRESSIVE
ACTS, DRINKING AND EXPECTANCIES
Measure
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Gender
2 . Drinks/Wk .24** —
3. Drinks .35**
7 9**
—
4. Max Drink
_ 4 7 **
.56** . 71** —
5. Month Max . 06 .39** . 35** . 14 —
6. Explicit . 27** .32** .39** .40** . 07 —
7. Implicit . 04 - . 08 - . 08 - . 03 -.03 -.02 —
8 . Aggress
4 9 * *
.36** .37**
_ 44 * *
.24**.44** -.02
Note: * p< 05 . ** p< . 0 1 .
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20
Men drank significantly more drinks per week (M=ll.l,
SD=12.4) than did women (M=6.3, SD=6 .8 ), t(199)=3.2,
p<.001. Men reported higher average number of drinks per
occasion of drinking (M=5.3, SD=3.1) than women (M=3.4,
SD=1.8), t(189)=4.8, p<.01. In addition, men reported
higher maximum numbers of drinks consumed on one occasion
(M=12.8 , SD=6.0) than did women (M=7.4, SD=3.8),
t (189)=7.3, p<.0 0 1 .
While male participants reported drinking
significantly more than their female counterparts, these
reports are approximately consistent with usual ratios of
drinking differences among men and women (NIAAA, 2 0 04) .
However, the frequency with which men consumed their
maximum number of drinks (M=1.3, SD=1.6) was not
significantly greater than women (M=l.l, SD=1.4),
t (2 0 1 )=0 .7, p>.05.
The following findings address participant experiences
with violence. Respondents reported an average of 11
(SD=16.5) aggressive acts after drinking alcohol. Almost
two-thirds (65%) of the sample engaged in one aggressive
act after drinking. Men reported committing significantly
more aggressive acts after drinking (M=16.5, SD=20)
compared to women (M=9.1, SD=14.9), t(187)=2.7, p<.05.
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These findings are consistent with previous research
suggesting that men are more likely to behave aggressively
(Eagly, & Steffen, 1996), behave aggressively under the
influence of alcohol and engage in barroom violence
(Quigley et al., 2003).
Men were no more likely than women to say mean things,
say hurtful things or pull someone's hair after drinking.
In all other cases, however, men were significantly more
likely to commit the aggressive act after drinking than
were women. For several items, men's responses
demonstrated somewhat greater ranges. However, the overall
ranges of aggressive acts were approximately the same for
both men and women. Still, men's ratios of alcohol to
aggression were significantly higher than women's
(t (158)=2.1, p<.05), suggesting that findings were not
solely a product of higher incidence of target behaviors
(e.g. drinking or aggression).
The following findings address participants explicit
alcohol-aggression expectancies. Respondents overall
scores on the AEQ-A (M=2.5, SD=1.1) suggest moderate
expectancies that alcohol causes arousal. On the AESASVQ,
respondents endorsed only moderate expectancies that
alcohol caused aggressive behaviors (M=12.3, SD=5.2). The
AEQ-A arousal subscale and AESASVQ correlated significantly
(r=.21, p<.01).
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22
Number of drinks per week correlated significantly
with both the AESASVQ (r=.32, pc.001) and the AEQ-A arousal
subscale (r=.15, p<.05). Also, both the AESASVQ (r=.41,
p<.001) and the AEQ-A arousal scale (r=.16, p<.05)
significantly correlated with the largest number of drinks
on one occasion. The AESASVQ demonstrated a strong
correlation with aggressive acts committed after alcohol
(r=.44, pc.001). The AEQ-A arousal subscale demonstrated a
significant, though smaller, correlation with aggression
after alcohol (r=.19, pc.Ol).
The following findings address participants' implicit
alcohol-aggression expectancies. Data are drawn from the
IAT task response blocks 4 and 7. Mean response times were
computed for associated and unassociated word pairs.
Plotting the data revealed outliers. By trimming ten
percent of the outliers from each end of the reaction time
distribution, the research team created a more robust
measure of reaction time central tendency. No significant
differences appeared between men (M=173, SD=99.0) and
women's (M=165.4, 577=95.9) mean response times, t (189) = .487,
p>.05. Heteroscedastic means comparisons similarly revealed
no differences.
It is notable that those cases removed tended to
possess extremely high error rates on the Implicit task
(e.g. 95%-100%). Whereas the average for the remaining
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23
sample was approximately 6% error, it seems likely that
those cases removed did not comprehend the task and were not
valid values. For this reason, the researcher does not
calculate new standard error rates for the sample. However,
the author recognizes the problematic nature of attempting
to identify invalid cases vs. individuals with exceptionally
poor reaction times.
The following findings summarize the intersection
between respondents' experiences with violence and alcohol-
aggression expectancies. Respondents' reports of
aggressive acts under alcohol correlated significantly with
the number of drinks consumed per week (r=.46, pc.001), the
largest numbers of drinks on one occasion (r=.44, pc.001)
and the number of times per month consuming their maximum
number of drinks (r=.23, pc.01). A complete account of all
correlations among variables may be found on Table 1.
To investigate the extent to which drinking patterns
and explicit and implicit alcohol-aggression expectancies
contributed to alcohol-related aggressive behavior, the
present study employed least squares multiple regression
analyses with total alcohol-related aggressive acts as the
dependent variable. Gender served as a factor throughout
analyses. A plot of the dependent variables revealed
outliers. Lognormal transformations improved the skew
(Tabachnick, & Fidell, 2000). The skewness and kurtosis
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24
statistics of the measure of fighting after alcohol were
2.3 and 5.8, respectively, before lognormal transformations
and .26 and -1.2 afterwards.
In each regression equation, the main effects for
gender and explicit and implicit alcohol expectancies for
aggression were entered. Two-way interactions between
gender and explicit and implicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies were computed by standardizing the variables
to correct for non-essential multicollinearity and
multiplying (Aiken, & West, 1991), and were entered into
the same equation.
We addressed the impact of gender, explicit alcohol-
aggression expectancies (AESASVQ) and implicit alcohol-
aggression expectancies (mean IAT response time) on the
prediction of aggressive acts after drinking alcohol.
Explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies accounted for
unique variance in aggressive acts after drinking alcohol
(£R2= .18, pc.001). Explicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies interacted with gender to account for unique
variance .03, pc.05). In addition, gender interacted
significantly with implicit expectancies (§R2= .02, pc.05)
to predict alcohol-related aggression. Explicit
expectancies appear to act as a better predictor of
explicit expectancies among men. Implicit expectancies
appeared to predict number of aggressive acts only among
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25
men. Robust regression analyses revealed approximately
similar findings. A smoothing of the regression line
suggested an approximately linear relationship in both
interactions (See Table 2).
TABLE 2: PREDICTING ALCOHOL-RELATED AGGRESSIVE ACTS FROM
EXPECTANCIES
Variable______________ R2
Gender .011 -.108 -1.64
Explicit .180 .442 6.75**
Implicit .011 -.119 -1.63
GenderXExplicit .025 .159 2.49*
GenderXImplicit .018 .155 2.12*
ExplicitXImplicit .005 -.068 0.29
Note: X= interaction of previous two predictors indicated.
* p<.05. ** p<.01
To understand better the findings, the researcher
examined interaction plots for all significant
interactions. A plot of the interaction between gender and
explicit expectancies suggests that the slopes of the two
regression lines are not significantly different. Men and
women possess approximately parallel relationships between
explicit expectancies and aggression.
A plot of the interaction between gender and implicit
expectancies, however, suggests a more pronounced
relationship between gender and implicit expectancies'
ability to predict alcohol-related aggression. Among men,
IAT response rates drop significantly among those reporting
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26
greater alcohol-related aggression. Men who appear to
associate alcohol and aggression less on the IAT report
higher levels of aggression after alcohol.
Tests for heteroscedasticity suggest that the data
possesses unequal variances. Whereas least squares
regression is sensitive to heteroscedasticity, these
findings must be interpreted with caution.
DISCUSSION
This study addressed the moderating links that
alcohol-aggression expectancies possess on self-reported
alcohol-related aggression. Results suggest that explicit
indicators of alcohol expectancies for aggression account
for significant variance in the prediction of aggressive
behavior after drinking. Explicit alcohol expectancies for
aggression also interacted with gender to predict
aggressive behavior after drinking more accurately among
men than women. However, an examination of this
interaction suggests that the slopes are approximately
similar, perhaps owing to greater numbers of target
behaviors (e.g. drinking and aggression) among men. While
implicit alcohol-aggression expectancies did not predict
aggressive acts in the entire sample, implicit expectancy
scores interacted with gender to account for significant
variance. Yet the interaction suggests that low scores on
the IAT predict alcohol-related aggression, a finding that
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27
stands in contrast to the body of literature related to the
Implicit Association Task and implicit expectancies.
First, the present report will address findings
related to explicit expectancies. The study's finding that
explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies contribute to
alcohol-related aggression aligns with numerous other
studies (see Brown, Christiansen, & Goldman, 1987). These
data contribute to the already robust evidence that
alcohol-aggression expectancies directly contribute to
aggressive behavior among drinkers. Given the high
correlations between explicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies, drinking quantity and aggressive acts after
drinking, these results could offer substantial
implications for the treatment and prevention of alcohol-
related violence. Specifically, psychologists should
expand on previous intervention attempts to decrease
alcohol-aggression expectancies (e.g. Corbin, McNair, &
Carter, 2001; Wiers, Wood, Corbin, Darkes, Jones, & Sher,
2003). Practitioners seeking to reduce problematic
drinking behaviors or burgeoning aggressive behavior may
wish to employ these interventions.
Numerous explanations may account for gender's
potential moderating role in the link between explicit
alcohol-aggression expectancies and behavior.
Heteroscedasticity may have affected the test of
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28
significant interaction. Men may simply demonstrate
greater levels of target behaviors (e.g. drinking and
aggression). However, men and women may possess different
explicitly held beliefs regarding alcohol and aggressive
behavior. Studies have found that women are more likely to
possess explicit alcohol expectancies for loss of control
that will mitigate aggressive behavior (Johnson, &
Glassman, 1999). It is possible that women possess
different explicit expectancies, and that these
expectancies do not predict behavior with the same accuracy
as in men.
Still, some studies find no differences between
explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies for men and women
(e.g. Giancola, & Zeichner, 1995). One study of women with
high levels of alcohol-assertiveness expectancies found
that women are more likely than men to drink past the point
of behavioral control (Wall, Hinson, & McKee, 1998) . Thus
past research has demonstrated a link between women's
alcohol expectancies and alcohol expectancies for
aggression or assertive behavior. In this context, these
findings merit a careful consideration of possible
confounding limitations.
Men consumed significantly more alcohol than women and
were significantly more likely to be involved in most
aggressive behaviors after drinking. With only a few
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29
exceptions, men were more likely to commit most aggressive
acts on the Explicit Aggression Scale after drinking
alcohol. Men's ratios of alcohol to aggression after
drinking were significantly higher than women's ratios.
These findings are consistent with previous findings that
men are more likely to behave aggressively after drinking
(e.g. Giancola, & Zeichner, 1995). Given the preponderance
of women in the sample, however, it is difficult to draw
major conclusions from a relatively small group of male
subjects who drank more and behaved aggressively. Further
research on men and women with comparable levels of
drinking and aggressive behavior could address whether this
finding is the product of the prevalence of target
behaviors (e.g. drinking and aggression) or an actual
gender difference in the cognitive mechanisms underlying
expectancies.
Another factor possibly contributing to gender
differences on explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies may
have been the gender of the object of the aggression
behaviors. Previous studies suggest that while women
display equal levels of alcohol-related aggression toward
both genders, men tend to display greater aggression toward
other men (Giancola, & Zeichner, 1995). Abbey et al
(1999) find that alcohol-aggression expectancies often
conform to gender stereotypes, predicting more aggressive
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30
behavior among men than women. The present study employed
the AESASVQ subscale oriented toward self, and did not
examine the gender of the object of aggressive behaviors.
Perhaps explicit alcohol expectancies may vary according to
the imagined gender of an opponent. Thus inclusion of the
entire AESASVQ and a more specific measure of explicit
aggression might offer more insight into these findings.
Next, the present report addresses the complicated
findings regarding implicit expectancies. While the study
findings align with the hypothesis that explicit
expectancies predict aggressive behavior, they fail to meet
study predictions that implicit expectancies predict
alcohol-related violence for both men and women. Instead,
the data suggest that gender plays a significant role in
moderating the link between implicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies and behavioral outcomes. However, the data
suggests that low association between aggression and
alcohol predicts violent outcomes. This finding stands in
contrast to the intended function of the IAT and the
majority of literature on the topic (e.g. Wiers et al.,
2002). The finding that individuals with little
association between alcohol and aggression behave violently
after drinking is difficult to interpret clearly.
It is possible that the test captures a unique gender
difference in the storing and recalling of implicit
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31
associations between alcohol and aggression. Further
research may reveal neurobiological differences underlying
gender differences. Indeed other studies find gender
difference in implicit associations. However, past
research on the implicit alcohol-aggression expectancies
suggests that men may be more likely to associate alcohol
with arousal (Wiers et al., 2002) and
behave aggressively. Thus these findings stand in
opposition to the majority of work done in this area of
study.
The researcher contends that these findings may better
be attributed to one of several causes. First,
heteroscedasticity within the data may impact the findings.
A tests for heteroscedasticity confirmed unequal variances
in the sample. Standard deviations within the sample of
implicit scores were extremely high (M=167.4; 3D=96.4).
Second, while the task was thoroughly explained to
participants and monitored by research assistants for high
incidence of incorrect responses, it is possible that some
participants did not comprehend the task.
Third, it is possible that subjects were eager to
receive the credit or payment in exchange for their
participation, and did not properly attend to the implicit
tasks. While the subjects' error rates were computed and
outliers were removed, it is possible that the discrepancy
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32
between the two tasks from which the data derived was
diminished by inattention.
Fourth, although data collection was anonymous, self-
presentational issues may have caused students to be overly
attentive to the implicit tasks, slowing their reaction
times. While valid, these limitations are common to many
studies on these topics (see Jajodia, & Earleywine, 2003),
and have not nullified findings in these past studies.
Finally, whereas overall errors rates for the sample
were relatively low after trimming invalid cases (M=5.5%),
it is plausible that the task simply failed for other,
unknown reasons. Anecdotally, the IAT is a difficult task
to administer. Perhaps the test failed due to a cause that
the researcher cannot identify.
A more general limitation of the study may have been
the relative homogeneity of the sample. Despite efforts to
recruit subjects outside of the college community, the
majority of participants were USC students. Furthermore,
the mean age of the group was under the legal drinking age.
Perhaps younger, more affluent college students possess
protective factors that obscure the study of alcohol-
related aggression. Indeed, compared to previous research,
the prevalence of alcohol-related fighting was extremely
low (Quigley, Corbett, & Tedeschi, 2003; Chermack, &
Walton, 1999) . Still, with over sixty percent of
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33
respondents reporting some type of aggressive behavior
after drinking, the incidence of other types of alcohol-
related aggression seems relatively high. Moreover, many
studies faced similar challenges, utilized young, college-
based samples, and still found links between implicit
alcohol expectancies and behavioral outcomes (e.g. Jajodia,
& Earleywine, 2003; Roehrich, & Goldman, 1995; Stacy,
1997). Thus the youth and status of the respondents are
not unique to this study, and do not pose major limitations
to interpreting the data.
The present study examined implicit and explicit
alcohol-aggression expectancies and their ability to
predict alcohol-related aggression. Explicit alcohol-
aggression expectancies significantly predict aggressive
behavior after drinking for the entire sample and
especially men. Perhaps men's explicit expectancies are a
better predictor of aggression than women's explicit
expectancies. Men's implicit alcohol-aggression
expectancies significantly predicted aggressive behavior
after drinking, while women's implicit expectancies did
not. Yet the direction of the associations contradicts the
expected directions between implicit association of alcohol
and aggression and alcohol-related violence. Given the
presence of heteroscedasticity with the data, it is
plausible that unequal variances affected these findings.
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34
Thus these findings must be interpreted with extreme
caution, and may be the result of Type I error. Further
research could explore the relationships between implicit
and explicit alcohol-aggression expectancies and alcohol-
related aggression, particularly among women who drink
alcohol and behave aggressively.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35
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Asset Metadata

Creator Smucker Barnwell, Sara Vanessa (author)

Core Title Explicit and implicit alcohol expectancies predict aggression

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School Graduate School

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,psychology, cognitive

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-322875

Unique identifier UC11336843

Identifier 1427938.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-322875 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 1427938.pdf

Dmrecord 322875

Document Type Thesis

Rights Smucker Barnwell, Sara Vanessa

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA