University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Latino cognitive apprenticeship: creating a meaningful learning environment for Latino students through authentic teacher care

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Latino cognitive apprenticeship: creating a meaningful learning environment for Latino students through authentic teacher care

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Content Running head: LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 1

Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship: Creating A Meaningful Learning Environment for
Latino Students Through Authentic Teacher Care

By Veronica Valadez-Nieto

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2016
LATINO
COGNITIVE
APPRENTICESHIP

2

“The secret in education lies in respecting the student.”

-Ralph Waldo Emerson

Running head: LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 3

Acknowledgements

This dissertation could not be possible without the unending emotional and
academic support of my family, friends, colleagues, dissertation chair and committee. My
experience at the University of Southern California has offered a positive and
enlightening transformation rich with knowledge. I thank the institutional agents who
helped transform me. This dissertation is dedicated to my father who passed away 10
years ago. He instilled in me a hard work ethic, respect for others, value of friendships,
and the pursuit of happiness.
To my mother: Thank you from the bottom of my heart for your unconditional love and
words of encouragement. For the countless times I relied on you to care for my boys and
your willingness to help without any hesitation. For helping to mold the woman and
mother I am today, I thank you for. Gracias Mama!
To my husband, Tony: Words cannot express the gratitude that I have for your
unwavering love and support. You have been my greatest supporter from the onset of this
journey. Thank you for believing that I could pursue my dreams of becoming a Trojan,
like you. For being a great father to our boys and holding down the fort when I was either
at school or behind the computer at home, thank you. I love you dearly!
To my three children, Noah, Dylan and Aidan: Thank you for your patience,
understanding and support. Thank you for allowing me the time to do my readings and
writing; for forgiving me when I missed dinners, baseball games; and for allowing daddy
to help you with homework when I couldn’t. I hope that I have inspired you to pursue
your dreams as you have inspired me to be the best mom I can be. I love each of you with
all my heart and remember to never stop learning!
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To my sister, Vanessa: Thank you for the times you came to my rescue and served as
babysitter and for picking the boys up from school and taking them to baseball
practices/games. I am forever grateful to you for being a great auntie to my boys.
To my friends: I am so fortunate to have you all in my life and for your constant support
and words of encouragement. You all believed in me and your support offered me
motivation and perseverance.
To my classmates Karla Callejas-Centeno and Michelle Merchain: Thank you for your
continuous support and for the times we co-constructed knowledge. I will always cherish
our conversations, texts, dinners and laughs. I hope that we will continue to support each
other in this journey called life. We started this program together and completed it as
Doctors! Si se puede!
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Julie Slayton: This dissertation was not possible without
your guidance and academic support. You created a space where I engaged in meaningful
learning because you set high expectations, empowered me, offered critical feedback and
engaged in dialogue with me. You allowed me to offer my lens throughout this arduous
process. For the teacher care you enacted, I thank you!
To Dr. Artineh Samkian: Thank you for your positive energy, wisdom and guidance
throughout this process. You have shared your knowledge of research and data with me
and I now have a new found love and respect for research.
To Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores: Thank you for serving on my dissertation committee. I will
forever recall the question you asked, “What drives you?” You reminded me that as an
educator, we should be engaging in continuous reflection.
Running head: LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 5

Table of Contents
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Background of the problem 10
Statement of the problem 11
Purpose of the study 12
Significance of the study 13
Chapter Two: Literature Review 15
Teacher Care 16
The Theory of Teacher Care 17
Empirical Studies Related to Teacher Care 24
Summary 34
Sociocultural Theory 34
Moving Through the Zone of Proximal Development 37
The Means of Assisted Performance: How Teachers Enact ZPD 39
Empirical Studies Related to Sociocultural Theory 43
Summary 50
Constructivist Theory 51
Constructivist Pedagogy 53
Empirical Studies Related to Constructivist Theory 55
Summary 61
Conceptual Framework 62
Teachers Who Enact Authentic Care Towards Latino Students 64
Establish Mutual Confianza and Respeto 64
Value Students’ Culture, Language, and Community 65
Set High Expectations and Offer Academic Support 65
Teachers Who Create Meaningful Learning for Latino Students 66
Pedagogical Strategies 67
Instructional Tasks 67
Latino Students Who Construct Meaningful Learning 68
Learning Strategies 68
Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship 68
Chapter Three: Methodology 70
Research Design 70
Sample and Population 71
Institution 71
Teachers 72
Data Collection and Instrumentation 73
Interviews 74
Observations 76
Documents and Artifacts 77
Data Analysis 77
Limitations and Delimitations 79
Limitations 79
Delimitations 79
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Credibility and Trustworthiness 80
Ethics 81
Chapter Four: Findings 83
Case Study #1: Julia Perez 84
Mutual Confianza and Respeto 88
Dialogue and Positive Language 90
Clear Expectations and Contingency Management 95
Inclusive Learning Community 101
Value Culture, Language, and Community 107
High Expectations and Academic Support 111
Assisted Performance 116
Modeling, Questioning, and Feedback 116
Active Learning Tasks 120
Authentic Assignments 121
Knowledge Co-Construction 122
Making Connections 124
Metacognition 125
Summary 126
Case Study #2: Brenda Jones 127
Mutual Confianza and Respeto 131
Dialogue and Positive Language 131
Clear Expectations and Contingency Management 134
Value Culture, Language and Community 138
High Expectations and Academic Support 141
Assisted Performance 142
Modeling, Questioning, and Feedback 143
Active Learning Tasks 147
Authentic Assignments 148
Knowledge Co-Construction 149
Making Connections 151
Metacognition 152
Summary 153
Cross Case Analysis 154
Mutual Confianza and Respeto 155
High Expectations and Academic Support 158
Assisted Performance 159
Active Learning Tasks 160
Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications and Recommendations 163
Summary of Findings 164
Implications and Recommendations 165
Practice 166
Policy 168
Research 169
References 172
Appendix A: Teacher Interview Protocol 176
Appendix B: Classroom Observation Protocol 185
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 7

Abstract

Research indicates that Latinos demonstrate low achievement and while there are
many factors that contribute to this, other research suggests that a caring teacher-student
relationship can improve the student’s academic achievement. There is extensive research
on the theory of teacher care. However, most of the existing research examines how
teacher care translates at the middle school and high school contexts. This qualitative
study provides insight into how early elementary (K-3) teachers foster a meaningful
learning environment for Latino students through authentic care. Drawing from the
literature on authentic teacher care, facets of sociocultural theory, and constructivist
theory, I examine how two early elementary teachers foster a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students at the K-3 level. I conducted a multi-case qualitative
study gathering data from two interviews of each teacher utilizing semi-structured
interview protocols, conducted 6 hours of classroom observations in each classroom, and
collected documents and artifacts. Teacher beliefs and practices examining the teacher-
student relationship and the instructional decisions they made to foster meaningful
learning were examined.
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
I am the daughter of two Mexican immigrant parents. Having only a sixth grade
education, my father relied on his own resources and self-determination to build his auto
upholstery business. A self-taught man who proudly boasted about having learned
English from watching American television shows, drove his restored American cars, and
called everyone “Babe.” After becoming an American Citizen, he sent his children to a
private Catholic school, perhaps a decision that validated he and his family were living
the “American dream.” My mother, a high school graduate, was a homemaker who spoke
broken English and struggled to help her children with homework secondary to the
language barrier. My father’s long hours at work and my mother’s inability to assist me
with homework compromised the reinforcement that I needed with homework. Despite
this and the fact that English was my second language, I performed well in school.
I have had many effective teachers throughout my schooling, each for varying
reasons. However, of all the teachers I have crossed paths with, Mr. Moran was the first
teacher who enacted authentic teacher care towards this Latina student. I was in Mr.
Moran’s third grade class learning math. Mr. Moran took a personal interest in me,
offered additional academic support within the classroom, listened to what I had to say,
believed in my abilities, set high expectations, reached out to my parents, and valued who
I was as an individual and learner. This was evident by the positive teacher-student
relationship he maintained and the positive dialogue that occurred between us. Mr. Moran
fostered a meaningful learning environment through the respect and trust he cultivated
within the classroom. As a third grader, I can recall thinking “Mr. Moran cares about
me.” At that time, I was not cognizant of what an effective teacher was, but in retrospect,
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 9

Mr. Moran personified what effective teachers do—they care about their students as
individuals who bring with them cultural and social capital.
My early experiences as a Latina student inspired me to pursue a career as an
elementary school teacher. My goal was to teach Latino students and be a change agent
for marginalized students, just as Mr. Moran was for me. After graduating from college, I
began teaching first grade in a low-socioeconomic city just outside of Los Angeles, in an
elementary school where the student population was primarily Latino. I was very
fortunate to work at a school where the Latino culture was valued and embraced by most.
However, I recall a time during my first year at this school that a veteran kindergarten
teacher, Latina herself, told me, “Good luck with Julio, he’s really low.” Not only was I
shocked that she said this to me, but saddened and angered by her obvious deficit mindset
and low expectations of this 6-year-old student. That was enough fuel to trigger my
motivation and my goal of proving this teacher wrong. Certainly, Julio was going to live
up to my expectations. It was clear that Julio had already experienced a negative
perception towards school, since his kindergarten teacher had subtracted his resources. I
was determined to act as Mr. Moran did with me and was going to offer Julio academic
support, set high expectations, and believe in his abilities. Julio did not end the year at the
top of his class, but that was not my intention for Julio. For Julio, it was creating a
meaningful learning experience where he felt respected, valued and transformed into an
active learner, and he believed it.
As a result of my positive experience with Mr. Moran and my subsequent
experiences as an elementary school teacher, I am very interested in gaining insight into
this area of teacher care and meaningful learning. Therefore, this dissertation study
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 10

focuses on these themes. In the remainder of this chapter I present a background to a
problem that exists in the Latino student population, the statement of the problem, the
purpose of this dissertation study and the specific research questions that I am seeking to
answer. Lastly, I will identify the significance for conducting this dissertation study.
Background of the Problem
The United States Census Bureau predicts that by 2021, one of four U.S. students
will be Latino (Gandara, 2010). However, Latinos demonstrate low achievement and fall
far behind non-Hispanic students (Gandara, 2008). According to National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP), 19% of Latino students, 43% of White students and 61%
of Asian students scored at or above proficient for math and 21% Latino, 44% of White,
and 54% of Asian students scored at or above proficient in 2015 in reading. According to
the California Department of Education (CDE) the 2014-2015 CAHSEE pass rates for
math include 65% Latinos and 90% White and for English Language Arts, 75% Latinos
and 90% White. The research for college completion is also significantly discrepant
between Latino and White students. Only 11% of Latino students had a BA or higher, as
opposed to 34% of White students in 2005 (Gandara, 2008). The aforementioned data is
evidence that the achievement gap between Latino and White students exists.
Barton and Coley (2009) identified several factors correlated with Latino student
achievement. They indicated that curriculum rigor, the role of the teacher, class size,
resources, parent participation, and environmental issues such as poverty, nutrition, and
school safety affect Latino student achievement. Flores (2007) also identified factors
affecting Latino achievement, including poor teacher quality, lack of rigor, lack of high
expectations and support. According to Dubner (2008), teacher effectiveness and rigor
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are essential for academic achievement. In addition, many Latino students are being
taught by teachers who perceive them in a negative manner (Madrid, 2011). More
specifically, teachers attributed poor academic achievement of Latino students to a poor
work ethic, laziness and a lack of discipline (Madrid, 2011). This deficit mindset of
Latino students hinders the learning that occurs in the classroom and affects the quality
and authenticity of the teacher-student relationship. On the other hand, Garza (2009)
found that teachers who established and maintained meaningful and respectful
relationships with students created a sense of belonging, which affected student
motivation. In turn, students were more likely to become active participants within the
learning environment. It is important to explore how teacher-student relationships are
enacted at the early elementary level because it can affect student motivation at an early
age (Garza, 2009). The purpose of this study, then, is to examine how early elementary
school teachers demonstrate authentic care towards Latino students through the
relationships they form. The degree of a caring relationship between a teacher and student
can hinder or improve the academic achievement of a student (Nieto, 2004). In light of
the evidence pointing to poor Latino academic achievement, this dissertation study will
also examine the nature of early elementary classroom environments that support
meaningful learning for Latino students.
Statement of the Problem
Caring teachers take a genuine interest in getting to know their students, set high
expectations, empower their students, and use pedagogical strategies and scaffolds to
facilitate school success (Delpit, 2012; Gay, 2000; Nieto, 2004; Noddings, 2005).
Teachers who enact authentic care also encourage positive interactions between students
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 12

during classroom interactions in order to foster a positive learning climate (Noddings,
1988). Teachers who demonstrate authentic care towards Latino students specifically, are
those who establish a relationship of mutual respect and trust where the students’ cultural
background, language, prior knowledge and experiences are valued (Delpit, 2012;
Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004; Valenzuela, 1999). Teachers who enact authentic
teacher care towards Latino students support their academic growth by engaging students
in the learning process, evaluating student work, providing encouragement and
establishing high academic expectations (Delpit, 2012; Valenzuela, 1999). There are
many empirical studies on the theory of teacher care. These studies affirm that teachers
who enact teacher care engage students in the learning process through meaningful
interpersonal relationships, which are then characterized by a kind disposition, a genuine
interest in the student, high expectations, academic support, scaffolding to help students
understand concepts and providing feedback (Alder, 2002; Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus,
2006; Garza, 2009). However, most of the existing research takes place within the
context of middle school and high school (c.f. Alder, 2002; Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus,
2006; Garza, 2009). Thus, there is a gap in the literature that explores how teacher care is
enacted towards Latino students in the early elementary grades (K-3).
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine how early elementary school teachers
create meaningful learning environments for Latino students through tenets of teacher
care, sociocultural theory and constructivist theory. Initially, I proposed two research
questions, which included examining how early elementary school teachers demonstrate
care towards Latino students. However, in the data analysis process, I realized that the
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first research question informed the second one and as a result, the following research
question was addressed :
1. What is the nature of early elementary (K-3) classroom environments that
support meaningful learning for Latino students?
Significance of the Study
This dissertation study is significant, as it adds to the literature that exists
regarding teacher care towards Latino students at the early elementary level. Currently,
the literature on teacher care does not address how care is perceived or enacted at the
early elementary grades (K-3). This study is important to me as a Latina student, parent,
educator, and member of the K-12 community. Examining how teacher care is enacted in
grades K-3 is important as it marks the beginning of a student’s schooling experience.
These grades set the foundation for how Latino students respond to school, which affects
how they participate in and learn in future grades. In this study, I first explored what
teacher care looks like at the early elementary level when it is enacted towards Latino
students. I then merged tenets of teacher care, sociocultural theory and constructivist
theory to explain how early elementary teachers could create a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students. The practice of creating a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students is important for educators working with Latino students.
This study provides teachers with the knowledge that enables them to create meaningful
learning experiences by valuing the student as a person and a learner, setting high
expectations, and creating a space where Latino students construct meaningful learning in
a social context.
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In the next chapter, I provide the literature review centered around teacher care,
sociocultural theory and constructivist theory. In chapter three, I present the methods
utilized for this qualitative study. Chapter four offers the findings and analysis of this
study utilizing the conceptual framework, Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship. Finally,
chapter five will include a discussion of the study’s findings implications and set of
recommendations for practice, policy, and research.
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 15

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Many studies have documented that Latino students are at risk of educational
failure (Gandara & Contreras, 2009). Some researchers attribute the low academic
achievement among Latinos to segregation and neglect by teachers and administrators
(Anyon, 1997; Conchas, 2001; Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Orfield, 1998; Valenzuela,
1999). Others indicate that low-income minority students frequently encounter unpleasant
and poor learning environments, inadequate instructional materials and ineffective
teachers (Barton & Coley, 2009; Dubner, 2008; Flores, 2007). Gandara and Contreras
(2009) also affirm that many studies point to teachers’ low expectations and lack of
cultural awareness, curricula that are not reflective of minority life experiences and a lack
of teacher support as other factors contributing to low academic performance. Despite the
low academic achievement of many Latino students, many other Latino students succeed
in school (Conchas, 2001). This may be due to teacher effectiveness and rigor, which are
essential for academic achievement (Dubner, 2008). In order to gain deeper insight into
what is occurring in classrooms where Latino students experience academic success, this
study focused on what the teacher did to facilitate Latino student success. Specifically,
this study looked at how early elementary school teachers facilitated Latino student
academic achievement through the caring relationships they constructed within the
classroom. More specifically, I answered the following question: What is the nature of
early elementary (K-3) classroom environments that support meaningful learning for
Latino students? I drew on three bodies of literature to answer these questions: teacher
care, sociocultural theory and constructivist theory. I looked to teacher care because it
helped me understand how teachers form authentic relationships with their students in
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 16

order to establish a positive learning environment. I drew on sociocultural learning theory
because it emphasizes the social nature of learning and the contexts in which interactions
between the students and the students and the teacher take place. Sociocultural theory
also explained how teachers scaffold learning for students. I drew on constructivist theory
as it helped explain that meaningful learning is an intellectually active and evolving
process. Finally, constructivist theory outlined the cognitive strategies that students
utilize to construct meaning. I will first present the literature on teacher care then turn to
sociocultural theory and finally I will present the literature on constructivist theory. The
chapter will conclude with my conceptual framework, which guided my approach to
answering my research question and evolved as a result of my data collection and
analysis.
Teacher Care
Delpit (1995) claims that effective teaching begins with the development of
relationships between the teacher and his/her students. She argues that teachers who are
invested in teaching inevitably demonstrate care towards their students (Delpit, 1995).
Many theorists have argued that an authentic caring relationship between the teacher and
students is critical to a positive learning environment, which in turn, supports student
participation (cf., Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004; Gay, 2000; Noddings, 2005;
Valencia, 1999).
Consequently, Latinos who form caring relationships with an adult in
school supports students’ academic success (cf., Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004;
Gay, 2000; Noddings, 2005; Valencia, 1999). While there are many voices within the
research on teacher care, I chose to focus on McKamey, Delpit, Noddings, Valenzuela,
and Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar. I focused on McKamey’s (2004) idea of teacher
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care because he points out that the idea of care does not hold the same meaning across
contexts. This was important for my study as I was seeking to understand how teachers
enacted teacher care towards Latino students. Delpit and Noddings do not specifically
discuss teacher care in the context of Latino students, but their research on teacher care
can be applied to historically marginalized students. I focus on Valenzuela and Franquiz
and del Carmen Salazar because they explore the concept of teacher care specific to
Latinos. Embedded in the section on teacher care, I first present McKamey’s (2004)
general understanding of teacher care. I then discuss Delpit’s (2012) interpretation of
authentic teacher care. I turn my attention to teacher care as defined by Nodding, (1988),
Valenzuela (1999), and Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004). After discussing
theoretical work on teacher care, I present empirical studies related to the theory of
teacher care.
The Theory of Teacher Care
McKamey (2004) helps us understand that there are social, cultural and political
aspects of teacher care. Delpit (2012) and Noddings (1988) discuss the difference
between teachers practicing ethical care and authentic care. Valenzuela (1999) and
Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004) also distinguish teacher care from authentic care
and help us understand how teachers enact it with Latino students.
McKamey (2004) argues that in the education literature, caring does not hold the
same meaning across texts, articles, or essays. McKamey (2004) further explains that
“caring is a symbolic concept charged with multiple political, social, and cultural
meanings” (McKamey, 2004, p. 5). He (2004) suggests that there are three theories of
caring, each of which is characterized by a set of key assumptions.
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The first theory of caring is the teacher caring theory. This theory assumes that
there is a causal relationship between student achievement and caring behavior on the
part of the teacher. McKamey (2004) offers the caring community theory as the second
theory of teacher caring. According to this theory, schools and communities have an
obligation to provide caring environments for students by establishing interpersonal
interactions that attend to a student’s needs at a specific time. The final theory McKamey
(2004) offers, the difference theory, recognizes several definitions of caring among
social, ethnic, class and gender groups. This theory argues that schools that recognize and
include these differences in their approaches to meeting the needs of their students are
more inclusive settings. Researchers who operate from a difference theory, challenge
assumptions of color and power with White feminist conceptions of caring (McKamey,
2004). McKamey (2004) goes on to name these researchers “difference scholars” and
state that they argue that communities of color understand caring within their
sociocultural, gendered, and economic contexts and believe that caring has existed within
deprived communities. McKamey further introduces a new theoretical term called
“process theory” of caring that explains how teachers form caring relationships with
students. In process theory, there needs to be constant conditions for the outcome to be
reached. More specifically, a teacher needs to be consistent about how he/she forms
caring relationships with students in order for the relationship to be authentic.
Delpit (2012) defines authentic teacher care as the social supports created and
provided by the teacher in the classroom so that students feel comfortable engaging and
sharing in the learning process. Delpit (2012) asserts that teachers who demonstrate
authentic teacher care about historically marginalized students become familiar with the
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students’ cultural backgrounds, knowledges, and real-life experiences and use that
knowledge in their instructional and curricular decisions. Delpit (2012) further explains
that teacher care is expressed through high expectations and care and concern. This
concern is expressed through the teacher’s ability to check for understanding of concepts
being taught. She goes on to state that when students believe that the teacher cares for
them, they will often rise to the expectations set. When students believe that teachers care
and believe in their ability, and go the extra mile to help them understand difficult
concepts, students are more likely to engage in the learning process. Teachers who care
advocate for their students inside and outside of the classroom. Delpit (2012) indicates
that teachers who care adopt many of the attributes of parents, consider the whole child,
and are concerned with the kind of people they are helping to shape.
Noddings (1988) describes two different types of care, ethical care and natural
care. She states that ethical care is a duty that forces an individual to simulate the act of
caring for another individual. Natural care, on the other hand, is based on a person’s
authentic concern for another person that is specific to the individual being cared for
(Noddings, 1988). Noddings indicates that teacher care is founded on natural care, or an
individual’s desire to want to care about another person. At the center of teacher care are
the decisions a teacher makes with regard to content, teaching methods, and instruction
and how these decisions influence the development of a teacher’s relationship with
his/her students. Teachers who model caring are concerned with their students’ moral and
academic achievement. Furthermore, Noddings (1988) states that teachers who teach
from a perspective of teacher care ask the following two questions: a) What effects will
this have on the person I teach? And b) What effect will it have on the caring community
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we are trying to build? She identifies the following four areas of teacher care: modeling,
practice, dialogue and confirmation.
The first area of care, modeling, is grounded in Noddings’ (1988) belief that
teaching is relational and that teaching is full of caring situations. Teachers who model
care for their students treat students with respect and encourage them to treat others
similarly (Noddings, 1988). Noddings (1988) describes these caring situations as
“teaching moments” because these moments are examples of modeling care.
Teachers who model care encourage students to practice the act of caring in
classroom interactions (Noddings, 1988). In a classroom that exemplifies care, the
teacher encourages students to support each other. A caring teacher provides students
with the opportunity for peer interaction and attends to the quality of those interactions.
Noddings (1998) suggests that opportunities for peer interactions can be accomplished
through small group work. When teachers practice care, the quality of interactions
between students and teacher and his/her students is valued much in the same way as
academic outcomes (Noddings, 1988).
Noddings (1988) asserts that teachers who demonstrate care engage in open
dialogue with their students. Teachers must engage in reciprocal dialogue with students
without developing any initial assumptions at the start of this dialogue. Through open
dialogue, teachers and students share personal reflections with each other. Open dialogue
requires time. Noddings (1998) suggests that trust can develop between a teacher and
student as they get to know each other well as a result of open dialogue.
The last component of teacher care is confirmation. The teacher must encourage
what the child wants to be and not influence the student according to teacher’s beliefs
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 21

(Noddings, 1998). Therefore, a caring teacher encourages the child to what he/she wants
to be and not what the teacher wants for the child. Often, teachers talk about having high
student expectations without really understanding their students, and thus, expect them to
do well on academic assignments. A caring teacher works to create a partnership with the
student to foster academic growth across all content areas (Noddings, 1998).
Valenzuela (1999) discusses the concept of teacher care, specifically focusing on
how Latino students respond to it and how teachers should enact it. She asserts that
Latino students prefer an educational system that corresponds to the principles of the
Mexican concept of education (educación). The concept of educacion implies that
education is grounded in respectful and caring relationships. More specifically,
Valenzuela (1999) explains that immigrant and U.S.-born Latino youth prefer authentic
caring. Authentic caring, as Valenzuela (1999) describes, is based on relatedness and
created through reciprocity between students and teachers. Aesthetic care, on the other
hand, is a form of caring in which teachers place more weight on how well students do in
school and gives no relevance to what they have to bring to the educational system.
Valenzuela (1999) asserts that teachers who do not demonstrate an authentic teacher care
are perpetuators of a system that structurally neglects Latino youth. She suggests that
teachers who do not practice authentic care, underestimate their own ability to have an
influence in their own classrooms. On the other hand, teachers who practice authentic
care are those teachers who have moral authority in the classroom. The absence of a
teacher who enacts moral authority in the classroom contributes to a student’s lack of
mental engagement. Valenzuela (1999) describes teachers who situate themselves in a
classroom with moral authority and who display authentic teacher care as having the
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 22

following characteristics: they pay close attention to students’ work with the option to
complete assignments again for a higher grade; give specific and detailed evaluation of
student work; demonstrate a willingness to reach out to students; consistently advise
students; help students make the connections between life and school; provide
encouragement and gentle nudging; and demonstrate respect for all students regardless of
their linguistic abilities.
Valenzuela (1999) claims that aesthetic care is a more superficial form of care.
She further indicates that teachers of Latino students who only demonstrate aesthetic care
demand that students care about school without developing personal relationships with
the students. She asserts that without developing personal relationships with students,
teachers ignore students’ cultural, linguistic, and community knowledge. When teachers
enact aesthetic care instead of authentic care, teachers create an instructional environment
in which these knowledge resources are subtracted (Valenzuela, 1999). Furthermore,
when teachers enact aesthetic care, students engage in subtractive logic. In subtractive
logic, students are required to value a curriculum that minimizes the students’ culture,
language and community. Valenzuela (1999) claims that aesthetic care forces students to
accept a set of ideas that is equivalent to “cultural genocide” (p. 63). Teachers also
misunderstand their students because they fail to really know them in authentic ways and
therefore misinterpret their behavior as uncaring. Latino students who are perceived as
uncaring as a result of their behavior and attitudes resist their teachers and school.
Valenzuela (1999) asserts that teachers are unable to respond to students as whole
children when the school and/or classroom context lack a culture of authentic care.
Subsequently, teachers make general assumptions or enact a deficit view of students from
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ethnically diverse backgrounds as “too impoverished to value education” (Valenzuela,
1999, p. 76). She asserts that an uncaring school environment prevents any opportunity of
creating the collective contexts that allow for the transmission of knowledge, skills and
resources. Consequently, students resist schooling and teacher expectations when they
feel a lack of power (Valenzuela, 1999).
Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004) describe teacher care as “humanizing
pedagogy” in order to foster authentic care of Chicano/Mexicano students. They identify
four key elements of teacher care: consejos (verbal teachings), confianza (mutual trust),
buen ejemplos (exemplary models), and respeto (respect).
In the model for Chicano/Mexicano students’ academic success, consejos are
considered the verbal teachings that are intended to influence behaviors and attitudes.
Consejos are the nurturing pieces of advice passed on to others. The teaching through
consejos reflects the types of values and interactions in Mexican households (Franquiz &
del Carmen Salazar, 2004). Confianza or mutual trust is developed between the student
and the teacher within the classroom. Confianza develops when interactions in the
classroom make students feel comfortable, valued and trustworthy. Additionally,
confianza is created where teachers take the time from academic work to build trust and
caring.
Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004) define buen ejemplo as a persistent role
model. A teacher who is a buen ejemplo develops interpersonal skills by being
cooperative, independent, and understanding social rules. Additionally, buen ejemplos
care about a student’s social and academic lives. Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004)
identify respeto (respect) as the most important Chicano/Mexicano tenet of teacher care.
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Students’ social and academic success is dependent on respeto received from and
reciprocated to teachers. When teachers practice a humanizing pedagogy, they are
demonstrating teacher care and thus support the academic success of Chicano/Mexicano
students.
In sum, teachers who demonstrate authentic care towards Latino students are
those who establish a student-teacher relationship of mutual respect and trust where the
student’s cultural background, language, prior knowledge and experiences are taken into
account (Delpit, 2012; Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar, 2004; Valenzuela, 1999).
Teachers who enact authentic care also encourage positive interactions between students
during classroom interactions in small and whole group discourse (Noddings, 1988).
Authentic teacher care is also where teachers support the academic success of Latino
students by engaging students in the learning process, reaching out to students, evaluating
student work, providing encouragement and setting high academic expectations (Delpit,
2012; Valenzuela, 1999).
Empirical Studies Related to Teacher Care
There are many empirical studies on teacher care. However, most of the existing
research takes place within the context of middle school and high school (c.f. Alder,
2002; Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006; Garza, 2009). Since there is a lack of
empirical work in the elementary context, these studies help identify how students could
potentially perceive teacher care in the early elementary years. I offer several studies that
reflect the overall themes found in the teacher care literature. As it was important to
understand if there are differences in the ways in which Latino students perceive teacher
care when compared to other historically marginalized groups, I chose three studies that
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helped me do this. One of the studies explored how Latino students perceived teacher
care specifically while the other two studies included White and other historically
marginalized students.
Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) studied teacher care in the context of two
Puerto Rican/Latino community-based small high schools, The Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos
High School (PACHS) and El Puente Academy for Peace and Justice (El Puente) in
Illinois and New York respectively. PACHS was an alternative school founded as a
response to the Eurocentric-based curriculum and high dropout rates that Puerto Rican
students had been experiencing in Chicago’s public high schools (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006). PACHS had a student body of about 80 students and enrolled Mexican,
other Latino ethnicities, and African-American students from grades 9 to 12. El Puente
was also founded to create a learning environment that affirmed the language, culture and
identities of Latino students. El Puente was a small school serving 150 students in grades
9 to 12, with the majority of student population being Latino and the remainder African-
American.
The researchers chose PACHS and El Puente because both schools created
conditions that were reflective of the interests and values of local Latino residents and
created educational caring for their Latino students (Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006).
The researchers presented their research proposals to students and staff from both schools
to participate in the project’s research. This study was an ethnographic study in which the
researchers conducted semi-structured one-on-one interviews, focus-group interviews and
participant observations with students, teachers and community members. Researchers
participated in school and community activities including tutoring, advising students,
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janitorial duties, serving breakfast and lunch to students, chaperoning field trips, and
working in other events, such as music festivals. Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006)
sought to discover the ways in which Latino funds of knowledge might have informed
curricular practices and pedagogy. The researchers also sought to prove that schools like
PACHS and El Puente acknowledged student contexts through curricular and
pedagogical practices, which in turn sought to affirm the identities, social and cultural
resources of Latino students.
Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) found that El Puente’s curriculum was
critical and caring because it helped students understand their identities. Students at El
Puente indicated that the school’s curriculum was relevant to their own lives as it
provided them with important historical information and thus, helped them understand
their identities. Latino students also described authentic caring relationships with their
teachers and contrasted that with non-caring relationships they experienced with previous
teachers at other schools. Through interviews, students described authentic caring
relationships where teachers consistently encouraged their active engagement as
members of a learning community. Students described a non-caring relationship as one
where students had experienced teacher apathy and low expectations, which they
believed contributed to their poor academic progress and their exit from traditional high
schools. Reoccurring themes such as respect, friendship, and family emerged from the
student interview data (Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006). Students described their
relationships with teachers as like a friend, like a family or like a parent (Antrop-
Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006). Students also felt that El Puente school was a caring school
because of the sense of family and community that the teachers created. Students further
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 27

explained that caring teachers offered them guidance and friendship inside and outside
the classroom and acted as active co-learners and facilitators rather than authoritarian
teachers.
From their observations, Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) found that the
PACHS and El Puente staff created social conditions and relationships that were more
aligned with students’ culture and family life. Students considered teachers to be caring
because of their willingness to be learners with their students and because a power
division between student and teacher did not exist. Observations also revealed that the
teachers facilitated student learning rather than banking methods (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006).
Aside from engaging Latino students in learning through high-quality
interpersonal relationships, caring relationships were characterized by high academic
expectations and support. Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) called this hard caring.
One manner hard caring manifested was through teachers’ willingness to make their time
available to provide academic support. Teachers were accessible, listened to students and
insisted on high-quality work. In addition to the high academic expectations, students
also felt a high level of personal trust or confianza as a critical aspect of the student-
teacher relationship (Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006).
In addition to establishing high-quality caring relationships and having high
academic expectations for students, teachers created safe learning environments. These
safe learning places increased students’ overall engagement (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006). Students described how clear expectations and respectful approaches to
conflict resolution established safe learning environments. Teachers and staff additionally
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communicated to students that their priority was ensuring student safety. Teachers
supervised students after school to ensure that all students had secured a safe ride home.
The trust and respect demonstrated by teachers gave students confianza and helped
establish a feeling of safety rather than feelings of control and punishment. Teachers and
counselors also called or visited student homes if they were absent. Students, therefore,
did not view this as punitive, but rather supportive (Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006).
Garza (2009) sought to examine similarities and differences between Latino and
White high school students’ perceptions of teachers’ behaviors associated with care. The
study’s sample included 49 Latino and 44 White students, ages 14 to 18, from a large
suburban high school in Central Texas. Students represented low to middle income
socioeconomic status and completed a questionnaire to self-disclose their academic
ranking. The students had to complete a consent form signed by themselves and parent.
The participants in this study also included two teachers, a Spanish teacher who self-
identified as being a Mexican American, and an English teacher, who self-identified as
White. The purpose of the study was to explore Latino and White high school students’
perceptions of teachers’ behaviors associated with caring in addition to identifying
similarities between the two ethnic groups.
Data collection included interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Students
completed a prompt on a questionnaire to self-disclose their academic ranking. Interviews
of each teacher included responding to questions on their disposition towards students,
perspectives on caring for students and their relationship with students. The interview
questions further inquired about the teachers’ philosophy about caring for students and
their thoughts on a caring classroom environment. Observations were conducted on
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teacher-student interactions during different times of the day on several occasions.
Observations were conducted during class (formal) and before or after class (informal)
times. During these observations, Garza (2009) looked at body language and actual
dialogue occurring during in-class moments. An open-ended student questionnaire was
the third instrument utilized in this study. A sample prompt included, “I feel that my
teacher cares about me because….” (p. 307). Major findings of students’ perceptions of
teacher care resulted in five dominant themes. Students indicated that caring teachers (a)
provided scaffolding during a teaching lesson, (b) presented a kind disposition through
actions, (c) were always available to the student, (d) demonstrated a personal interest in
the students’ well-being inside and outside the classroom, (e) and provided academic
support in the classroom environment.
Garza (2009) identified five themes describing teacher care and presented them in
the order of priority according to the frequency of both Latino and White student
comments. Latino students identified scaffolding as the theme mentioned more often and
was identified as the instructional help provided to students in the classroom. This theme
emphasized the pedagogical behaviors in the classroom. The teachers’ instructional
behaviors facilitated success and encouraged self-esteem. From the data analysis derived
from student interviews, Garza (2009) found that caring teachers helped students to
understand without embarrassing students. Observations also revealed that teachers’
pedagogy assisted the student and allowed the student to be successful before continuing
with the lesson. Garza (2009) indicated that teachers’ instructional behaviors
demonstrated a willingness to ensure student success and thus, were perceived as
“caring.” Teachers thoroughly explained instructional tasks, provided examples of what
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was expected, focused on helping students succeed, and reminded them of upcoming
assignments. Both Latino and White students saw these behaviors as signs of caring.
The second theme identified by Garza (2009) was the idea that actions reflected a
kind disposition. Interviews conducted with the Latino teacher indicated that she “wanted
them to know something and that she cared about them individually” (Garza, 2009, p.
312). Latino student interviews revealed that teachers taught students as if the teachers
were their friends. Garza’s (2009) observations of the teachers’ interaction with both
Latino and White students reflected a caring demeanor that supported the students’
perspectives. Some students perceived humor as characteristic of a caring behavior. For
example, teachers used humor in an effort to redirect off-task behavior (Garza, 2009).
Garza (2009) indicated that “a teacher can use humor to redirect students back to
instruction without using a negative and demanding tone.”
The third theme of teacher care identified by Garza (2009) was the idea that
teachers were always available to the student. Students asserted that teachers were always
there for them when they needed help with something. Garza’s (2009) analysis was that
teachers who expressed openness to students rather than only being available during class
time, were perceived as caring teachers. Furthermore, he indicated that caring was
reflected through the teachers’ physical availability and commitment to help a student
succeed.
The fourth theme identified by Garza (2009) was when teachers showed a
personal interest in the students’ well-being inside and outside the classroom. Personal
interest referred to the teacher’s genuine interest in getting to know her students in
addition to her interactions with students on a personal level. Teacher interviews
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indicated that the teachers attempted to learn something about their students’ interests
through writing assignments. In addition, student interviews revealed that teachers asked
them how they were generally doing, asked questions about them personally, or guided
them when dealing with personal problems. Latino and White students perceived teachers
as caring when they showed a personal interest in them and taught them with a genuine
interest.
The fifth behavior associated with teacher care identified by both Latino and
White students was the idea that teachers provided affective academic support in the
classroom setting (Garza, 2009). Garza (2009) affirmed in his findings that teacher care
was personified through the teacher’s responsibility to address students’ authentic needs.
Latino and White students viewed providing academic support in the classroom as a way
to demonstrate care for the individual. This academic support was provided by ensuring
students learned the material and giving extra work to help students with their grades. In
addition to providing academic support for students, teachers were also flexible.
Contrary to other studies, findings from Garza’s (2009) study indicated that
Latino students placed a greater value on academic support over relationships as a way of
measuring teacher care. White high school students emphasized actions that reflected
teacher disposition as key to a caring relationship. In sum, findings suggest that there are
similarities in how Latino students and White students value teacher care, but the
differences lie in the priority attributed to each specific behavior.
Alder (2002) conducted a qualitative study to examine how caring relationships
were created and maintained between middle school students and their teachers. Alder
(2002) aimed to answer two questions: What does care mean to urban middle school
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students and their teachers? How are caring relationships created by urban middle school
students and their teachers? Two schools, both predominately African American, were
studied in the Southeastern United States. Participants in the study included two teachers
and 12 students. At each of the two sites, the principals were asked to identify a teacher
who he/she believed was caring. Methods included interviews, focus group sessions, and
classroom observations. Students met twice as focus groups and were interviewed twice
individually. Each teacher was interviewed formally and informally throughout the study.
All interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. To ensure validity in reporting,
member-checking was conducted. Team members, counselors, administrators and others
who had firsthand knowledge of the classes were also interviewed. Observations were
conducted in classrooms, personal planning time, parent-teacher conferences, team
meetings and staff development sessions. Alder (2002) found that students perceived
teacher care through a teacher’s work ethic, involving parents, talk and time, and facets
of good teaching.
The first finding in Alder’s (2002) study, care as the work ethic, suggested that
students perceived teachers as caring through a strong work ethic. Interviews with
students revealed that teachers who pressured students to complete assignments and study
were seen as caring. Student interviews also revealed that students felt that caring
teachers pushed them to work hard and helped them with their work. Students perceived
teachers as caring when they were made aware of their mistakes and were “hard” on their
students. Students also viewed teacher care as teachers being “strict.” Teacher interviews
confirmed the idea of students perceiving teachers as caring through classroom work.
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The second finding identified by Alder (2002) was teacher care through the act of
involving parents. Both students and teachers in the study felt that involving parents was
a sign of care. Teachers contacted parents when students received failing grades. Teacher
interviews conducted by Alder (2002) indicated that teachers felt that knowing parents
was an essential facet of their classroom management and felt relationships with parents
added to their ability to reach students (Alder, 2002).
The third finding in Alder’s (2002) study was teacher care through talk and time.
Student interviews revealed that students perceived teachers as caring when they took the
time with them and interacted with them in valuable ways. Students indicated that
teachers would stay after school with them to discuss student problems. Students also
described moments when teachers interacted with them outside the classroom (i.e.,
playground). Student interviews also described caring talk as encouragement and high
expectations. For example, “She has confidence in me. Like, when I say I can’t do
something, like she say, ‘You can do this’ and that other stuff. That’s why she’s my
favorite teacher” (Alder, 2002, p. 254). Discussions during focus groups revealed that
students felt that teachers did not demonstrate care if they engaged in negative,
humiliating or yelling behaviors.
The fourth finding identified by Alder (2002) was demonstrating teacher care
through facets of good teaching. Observations conducted by Alder indicated that both
teachers frequently monitored, focused students on their tasks, and cautioned
misbehavior. Students were seen working individually and in cooperative groups. They
were also observed listening to teacher instruction. Student interviews revealed that
teachers were perceived as caring when they helped students understand concepts and
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provided feedback on student work. For example, student responses included “If they
help us with our work, help us understand, they care” (Alder, 2002, p. 257).
Summary
The studies conducted by Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006), Garza (2009)
and Alder (2002) examined how Latino and other historically marginalized students
perceived teacher care. These studies helped me understand that authentic forms of care
are exercised when students are engaged in the learning process through quality
interpersonal relationships with teachers, which are then characterized by a kind
disposition, a personal interest in the student, high expectations, academic support, being
available to students, connecting with parents, monitoring student work, scaffolding to
help students understand concepts and providing feedback. Although these studies were
conducted in secondary school contexts, they helped me understand what teacher care
could potentially look like in the early elementary years because of the lack of literature
at the early elementary level. I turn next to sociocultural theory as it helped to explain
how academic support is provided as scaffolding, which is a central concept in
sociocultural learning theory and an essential part of care.
Sociocultural Theory
Student learning is based on student-teacher relationships that are created out of
teachers’ caring (Monzo & Rueda, 2001). Thus, I will now discuss sociocultural theory as
it emphasizes the social nature of learning and the contexts in which student-student and
teacher-student interactions take place in order to create meaningful learning experiences.
I also present sociocultural theory as it helped provide more detail to what good
scaffolding looked like as it is clearly important and an essential part of teacher care.
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Sociocultural theory is based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
educator, and philosopher. The main tenets of sociocultural theory are that learning
precedes development, language is the main tool of thought, mediation is central to
learning and learning is social (Vygotsky, 1978). I will explain sociocultural theory
through the work of Vygotsky (1978) and then focus on Tharp and Gallimore’s (1988)
perspective of assisted performance to help understand the nature of meaningful
classroom environments.
Vygotsky (1978) proposes that learning occurs long before children enter formal
institutions or what he calls “formalization.” He suggests that children are taught the
basic cognitive and social structures that constitute cultural socialization through their
families and communities (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) indicates that learning is
useful if it is ahead of development. In other words, if learners are challenged to think in
advance of their actual level of development, then learning is useful.
Vygotsky (1978) also indicates that language is the main tool of thought. In other
words, he claims that thought and language develop separately but that when language
develops, thinking and speech merge. Vygotsky (1978) suggests that language begins as
social speech or dialogue. He further explains that the internalization of social speech is
mediated by private speech, which is what a child uses to facilitate a difficult task. By
using social speech, the child attempts to control the task at hand.
The next tenet of sociocultural theory is that mediation is central to learning.
Mediation is the use of a tool to accomplish some action (Vygotsky 1978). Many tools
are culturally produced and made available to the child in social interaction. Vygotsky
(1978) claims that language is the most powerful mediation tool. He claims that pointing
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 36

is accompanied or replaced by language and thus, experiences and the environment can
be described. Children can then share their thoughts using language in social situations.
The last tenet of sociocultural theory is the idea that learning is socially mediated.
Learning is a process of apprenticeship in which knowledge and skills are transformed
from the social into the cognitive plane (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky (1978) indicates that
learning occurs as individuals engage in culturally-meaningful productive activity with
the guidance of a more capable other. As a result, the learner achieves competence and
the ability to complete more demanding tasks. Vygotsky (1978) discusses the concept of
assisted performance, which defines what a student can do with help, with the support of
the other and of the self. Vygotsky (1978) contends that the distance between the
student’s individual capacity and the capacity to perform with assistance is the Zone of
Proximal Development or ZPD. He (1978) further explains that there is no single zone
for each individual and that a ZPD can be created for any skill. There are social and
individual zones due to the cultural differences and skills that a child must attain within a
specific society. Regardless of the skill, the assistance is provided by the adult or expert
in the ZPD. Assistance can be provided by peers as well. The difference between the
proximal zone and the developmental zone is the assisted versus unassisted performance.
The developmental zone is the level at which the child is able to perform independently.
The proximal zone, on the other hand, is the level at which the child requires assistance
and is thus, the zone where teaching occurs. Vygotsky (1978) states that teaching occurs
when it “awakens and rouses to life those functions which are in a stage of maturing,
which lie in the zone of proximal development” (p. 278).

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Moving Through the Zone of Proximal Development
Tharp and Gallimore (1988) expand on Vygotsky’s explanation of sociocultural
learning theory. More specifically, they elaborate on the zone of proximal development.
They further state that the move from assisted performance to unassisted performance is
gradual. As the individual moves through the ZPD and beyond, the individual
experiences a change between self-regulation and social regulation. Tharp and Gallimore
(1988) present the ZPD in a model of four stages that focuses on the relationship between
self-control and social control. The first stage is where a child’s performance is assisted
by a more capable other in order to act as an independent agent. The amount and type of
outside regulation a child requires depends on the nature of the task and the child’s age.
At the beginning of the ZPD, the teacher or more capable peer provides directions or
modeling. The child begins to understand the meaning of the performance through
language and is assisted by questions and feedback (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). This
assistance is expressed as scaffolding and is used to describe the ideal role of the teacher.
During the first stage, the child and teacher interact in order to achieve a goal. As
interaction occurs, the teacher develops goals in response to ongoing assessment of the
child’s performance. Goals may change secondary to the teacher’s assistance and their
relationship. Tharp and Gallimore (1988) contend that the teacher requires extensive
knowledge of subject matter in order to assist performance. During the first stage, there is
a decline in adult responsibility for task performance and an increase in the learner’s
responsibility. The developmental task of the first stage is to shift from other-regulation
to self-regulation. The learner also begins to use language in order to seek assistance. The
task of the first stage is complete when the responsibility for creating the assistance and
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performing the task has been successfully transferred over to the learner (Tharp &
Gallimore, 1988).
The second stage of the ZPD model is where performance is assisted by the self.
At this stage, the child assumes the rules and responsibilities of both participants. These
responsibilities were initially divided between the adult and child, but the child
completely assumes these responsibilities in the problem solving process (Tharp &
Gallimore, 1988). In the second stage, the child carries out a task without assistance from
others. The relationships between language, thought, and action are transferred from the
adult to the child. The transfer from external to internal control is conducted through the
transfer of speech from others to the self. This is also referred to as self-directed speech.
A critical stage has been reached in the transition of a skill when the child directs his/her
behavior with self-directed speech. A major function of self-directed speech is self-
guidance. Children also use self-directed speech to assist performance when tasks
become increasingly difficult. Stage three of the ZPD is where performance is developed
and automatized. When self-regulation is no longer needed, the child has moved from the
ZPD into the developmental stage for that task. Assistance is no longer needed and the
task has been “automatized.” Stage four is where de-automatization of performance leads
back through the ZPD. Tharp and Gallimore (1988) assert that lifelong learning by any
individual consists of the same process that moves from other-assistance to self-
assistance leading to automatization. When individuals require improvement and
maintenance of performance, the cycle of self-assistance to other-assistance reoccurs. De-
automatization occurs so frequently that it is a normal developmental process of stage
four. Engaging in self-speech is effective in re-establishing competence. Tharp and
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 39

Gallimore (1988) state that effective teachers review lessons as a way of maintaining
skills.
Tharp and Gallimore (1988) assert that language is the primary means in the
development of higher mental processes. The signs and symbols of speech are primary
tools that humans utilize. Tharp and Gallimore (1988) further indicate that the potential
for full human cognitive development can only occur when language tools are combined
with the tools of action.
The Means of Assisted Performance: How Teachers Enact ZPD
Tharp and Gallimore (1989) elaborate on the ways in which a more capable other
assists performance: modeling, contingency managing, feedback, instructing,
questioning, and cognitive structuring. Modeling is the process of displaying behavior
that is intended for imitation (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). Imitation is the primary method
in which new behaviors are learned. Children are socialized into cultures through their
imitation of mature members’ acts. Tharp and Gallimore (1989) explain that children
imitate modeled behavior through a process called guided participation. Whether or not
children will imitate modeled behavior depends largely on the ages and sexes of modeler
and imitator, the use of reinforcement for the behavior, if the model is live, and
relationship dynamics. Furthermore, imitation can be strengthened or weakened by
reinforcement. Research has shown that watching others engage in behaviors increases
learning and retention of skills because the person begins to visualize how to complete
the specific task through a process called central processing. Peer models are critical
sources of assisted performance in the classroom environment. However, the teacher is
the main source of assisted performance through modeling in the educational setting.
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Effective modeling occurs within the relevant context. For example, a teacher models her
own problem solving strategies during a lesson. Thus, the children witness the teacher
engaged in the modeled behavior, which in turn, becomes an interpersonal process and
the means of internalization of the strategy (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989).
Contingency management is the means of assisting performance by incorporating
rewards and punishments following desired or undesired behavior (Tharp & Gallimore,
1989). These rewards take the form of social reinforcements of praise and
encouragement, material reinforcements, privileges, tokens and other reward systems. In
the educational setting, punishments include the loss of a privilege or a verbal reprimand.
Tharp and Gallimore (1989) assert that classrooms that employ contingency management
as a means of assistance are productive and positive classrooms that produce outcomes. It
is important to note, that contingency management is not used to develop new behaviors.
New behaviors are fostered through modeling, instructing, cognitive structuring and
questioning. Thus, contingency management increases children’s engagement in the task
by utilizing rewards, praises and verbal encouragement (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989).
Feedback is the third means of assisted performance discussed by Tharp and
Gallimore (1989). Teachers frequently use feedback in the classroom and to improve a
student’s performance. However, providing performance information is inadequate unless
the feedback provided is compared to a standard. Standards can be established through
the teacher’s instructions. In addition, students can obtain the standard through peers’
observable examples. In education, feedback provided to students regarding their
performance can be accomplished via test data, worksheets, grades, and teacher verbal
responses to students’ conversations (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989).
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The next three means of assisting performance are primarily linguistic:
instructing, questioning and cognitive structuring. All three elicit different responses.
Instructing requires a student to act. Questioning requires that a student respond verbally.
Cognitive structuring does not require a specific response, but instead, provides a
structure for organizing elements (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). In the classroom setting,
instructions are provided in classroom behavior management and assigning tasks.
Teachers provide instructions when they take on the responsibility for teaching the
students as opposed to students learning on their own. Teachers must be careful not to
sound authoritarian when providing directions to students, as this would hurt the
cooperative teacher-student relationship (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989).
Questioning has been the most common means of assistance in the educational
setting (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). In teaching, there are differences between questions
and instructions in that questions require a reply in language whereas instructions require
an action. Furthermore, questions require both a linguistic and cognitive response
because students must use language to formulate their thinking. They discuss two types
of questions: those that assess and those that assist. The assessment question seeks to
identify the level of the student’s ability to perform without assistance. Assessment
questions assess the student’s knowledge and thus, the teacher is able to identify the
instructional level in order to guide the student through his or her ZPD (Tharp &
Gallimore, 1989). The assistance question, on the other hand, provides a prompt in the
form of a question in order for the student to problem solve. Teachers utilize questions in
order to increase a student’s comprehension.
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The last means of assisting performance is cognitive structuring. Cognitive
structuring is the basis for thinking and acting within a discipline or culture. It is the
cognitive process that evaluates, groups, and sequences perception, memory and action.
For example, they can be as complicated as philosophies, ethical systems, theories, and
religious ideals. They can also be as simple as naming an object. Some cognitive
structures are universal such as conditions created by social interactions such as social
rules (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). Cognitive structures can be automatic where a student
operates without attending to task. This process of automaticity occurs during what
Vygotsky calls fossilization (Tharp & Gallimore, 1989). Tharp and Gallimore (1989)
discuss two types of cognitive structures: structures of explanation and structures for
cognitive activity. In the education setting, students can be provided with cognitive
structures for memorization, recall or for rules. Cognitive structuring is the normal
cognitive development that occurs during a collaborative process involving the student
and the environment. Students continuously create cognitive structures during learning,
but it is the responsibility of the teacher to assist students by providing accurate structures
in order for students to learn. In sum, students develop cognitive structures through the
interaction between the teacher and the student and the types of questions and verbal
encouragement the teacher provides. Tharp and Gallimore (1989) refer to all of these
means of assistance as teaching.
In sum, sociocultural theory is the concept that students learn and develop when
social interactions occur within the classroom. Sociocultural theory is also the belief that
individuals bring with them their own cultural experiences to the context in which
learning takes place. Thus, sociocultural theory is the idea that learning is socially and
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culturally mediated. To further explain sociocultural theory, Vygotsky (1978) developed
the theoretical framework of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which he
defined as the distance between a student’s actual developmental level and the level of
potential as determined through a more capable other. In addition, Tharp and Gallimore
(1989) assert that language is the primary means in the student’s development on both the
individual and social level. The teacher utilizes this language through the affective
interplay of the teacher-student relationship and interaction. The language is used through
the process of assisting performance to assure a positive learning environment and is
reinforced through contingency management (rewards, verbal praise, affirmation).
Empirical Studies Related to Sociocultural Theory
While there are many studies that are based on the sociocultural theoretical
perspective, I focused on studies that explore sociocultural factors that foster Latino
students’ learning through social interactions, language and the scaffolding. I narrowed to
this type of study because they were the most aligned with the research question I was
seeking to answer and therefore, will provided me with the most directly relevant
insights.
Monzo and Rueda (2001) conducted a 2-year qualitative study that explored the
effect of sociocultural factors on the relationships and interactions between Latino
students and 32 Latino teachers and paraeducators. The researchers sought to understand
how educators used their sociocultural experiences and knowledge in interacting with
students and if they were able to use their knowledge of the community to scaffold
instruction. Monzo and Rueda (2001) also sought to determine the differences in practice,
expectations, values, and beliefs of teachers and paraeducators. Monzo and Rueda (2001)
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conducted classroom observations, interviews and informal conversations. An
observational instrument called The Activity Setting Observation System was utilized to
document teaching practices. Data analysis was derived from field notes of classroom
observations, informal conversations and interview transcripts.
The 2-year study took place in two large public elementary schools in an inner
city in Southern California. Both schools were located in a low-income and
predominantly Spanish-speaking Latino community. In addition, most students at both
schools qualified for the free or reduced lunch program offered by the government. Both
schools had a Latino student enrollment of 97.8 percent and 93.1 percent and were either
immigrants or children of immigrants from Mexico (Monzo & Rueda, 2001). Most
students were classified as English Language Learners (ELL). The credentialed staff of
the two schools was 50.5 % and 28.7 % Latino. The rest of the credentialed staff at both
schools was White and did not speak Spanish. In addition, each school staffed bilingual,
Latino paraeducators to support the instruction of ELLs. Participants in the study
included 24 Latino paraeducators and eight new Latino teachers.
In their research, Monzo and Rueda (2001) analyzed the data through open coding
of what the researchers called “sociocultural scaffolding.” They also compared this with
the data from interview questions related to educators’ beliefs about teaching and
learning and their interactions and relationships with students. Monzo and Rueda (2001)
found that educators’ knowledge of students’ culture and communities and their primary
language helped meet Latino students’ academic needs. Based on interviews, 21
paraeducators discussed confianza as an important factor that allowed students to ask for
academic help. Paraeducators believed they were able to create confianza through their
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shared language and culture. Paraeducators also worked with students on an individual
basis or in small groups consisting of six or fewer students. Students were then able to
work in cooperative learning groups, which created a more relaxed learning atmosphere
(Monzo & Rueda, 2001). Monzo and Rueda (2001) indicated that within these contexts,
paraeducators were able to correct misbehavior and academic mistakes in a more private
manner and with cariño.
The second major finding was that paraeducators connected with Latino students
in meaningful ways as a result of having knowledge of students’ culture and primary
language. Interviews revealed that paraeducators believed that speaking the children’s
primary language was critical for instructional reasons and for connecting with students.
Observations revealed that paraeducators used Spanish during the daily English as a
Second Language (ESL) lessons and during regular class time for comprehension and
scaffolding purposes. These scaffolding opportunities were provided by offering primary
language support to provide translations of English vocabulary, directions for completing
tasks, and expressing cariño during class. In addition, paraeducators used Spanish to
create a cultural bond as opposed to supporting higher-level thinking (Monzo & Rueda,
2001). Monzo and Rueda (2001) noted, however, that this may have been due to the fact
that the study was conducted post-Proposition 227 (a voter-passed state initiative
mandating that Spanish was to be used as little as possible during instruction.
Furthermore, words of endearment such as using mijo and mijita were used by
paraeducators to create a familial context. Interviews with paraeducators also revealed
that they participated in informal talks with their students about shared cultural practices
such as the latest novelas shows on TV or special celebrations. During these interviews,
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paraeducators also indicated that they were well aware of the struggles their students
experienced having been raised in similar communities. These struggles include their
own experiences as ELLs, constraints associated with poverty and adjusting to a different
culture. However, Monzo and Rueda (2001) pointed out that these sociocultural
experiences could have been utilized to develop meaningful curriculum that built on their
prior knowledge. Furthermore, Monzo and Rueda (2001) indicated that only one
paraeducator discussed using her knowledge of students to select reading materials. In
addition, paraeducators had few opportunities to provide input to teachers on curriculum
and instruction.
The final finding was that school roles shaped interactions and suggested that
teachers and paraeducators focused on different aspects of children’s development
(Monzo & Rueda, 2001). Interviews revealed that paraeducators felt it was important to
listen and talk to their students in order to make them feel comfortable and build trust.
Paraeducators believed that in doing this, their students would ask for assistance with
instructional tasks and increase overall participation. By building trust with their students,
paraeducators indicated that they would offer consejos. Of the eight teachers, four
teachers discussed the importance of creating trusting relationships with their students so
that they would feel comfortable asking questions. Two teachers revealed that they saw
themselves as a parent, mother or sister. Two other teachers discussed their relationship
with their students as a friend or confidant. The other five teachers described their teacher
role as a nurse, counselor and disciplinarian. Observations revealed that paraeducators
devoted all of their attention to the small group of students they worked with, whereas
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teachers had to share their attention with the whole class in addition to managing the
noise level.
Additionally, Monzo and Rueda (2001) looked at the interactional features that
were used during the teachers’ literacy instruction. These features included increased wait
time, informal interactional style (relaxed style, playfulness, peer interaction, informal
talk while working), less concern with finishing the agenda, cariño, and personal
disclosure (Monzo & Rueda, 2001). Monzo and Rueda (2001) called these interactional
scaffolding features. Paraeducators and teachers were observed to determine the
frequency at which they demonstrated these interactional scaffolding features. Thus, each
participant was rated as high, medium, or low user of interactional scaffolding. Results
indicate that paraeducators were over three times more likely than teachers to be high
users of interactional scaffolding (Monzo & Rueda, 2001).
Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998) explored sociocultural and linguistic
differences between teachers and students in early elementary grades. Franquiz and De
La Luz Reyes (1998) sought to understand the ways in which teachers and students
constructed inclusive learning communities in diverse classrooms. Franquiz and De La
Luz Reyes (1998) positioned themselves within three theoretical orientations: 1) language
is an essential part of the sociocultural context of the community, 2) students’
experiences are important resources for academic success, and 3) native and non-native
languages are critical resources in students’ opportunities to learn.
Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998) outlined three examples in which students
actively participated in literacy learning activities in classrooms where teachers were
guided by how children utilized language. For the purposes of this study, I will only
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discuss the non-bilingual first grade classroom example, as my study will include only
non-bilingual classrooms. Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998) observed a first grade
classroom with a heterogeneous group of students with Spanish, English, and bilingual
proficiency. The lesson being observed was conducted in English and focused on the five
senses. The researchers described Margarita’s experience and participation in the science
lesson. Margarita was a student enrolled in a first grade bilingual homeroom and was
grouped in the English science lesson with a monolingual English teacher. She was asked
to guess what was in the “mystery bag” containing objects by listening to it as another
student shook it. The teacher then encouraged Margarita to say the answer in Spanish and
she replied, canicas (marbles). The teacher then repeated what Margarita indicated and
added, “I have learned a new word in Spanish, canicas” (Franquiz & De La Luz Reyes,
1998, p. 213). The teacher then asked the class to repeat the new word, canicas. Franquiz
and De La Luz Reyes (1998) indicated that Margarita’s teacher invited her to use her
linguistic abilities for active participation in the literacy activity. The first grade teacher
used Margarita’s native language as a way of affirming her own cultural assets. Rather
than requiring English language skills as prerequisites for her own learning, the teacher
utilizes Margarita’s sociocultural assets. The authors argued that:
The teacher’s explicit invitation for Margarita to use her own linguistic resources
not only legitimized Spanish as an appropriate vehicle for learning, but provided
an opportunity for a linguistically diverse learner to be a competent member and
more expert other within an English lesson. By being accepted as the more
knowledgeable other, Margarita is also more likely to participate in subsequent
lessons. Such acts of inclusion can have a very powerful and cumulative effect on
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learning, if they become part of an on-going pattern of classroom life. (Franquiz
& De La Luz Reyes, 1998, p. 214)
Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998) affirmed that teachers could create meaningful
learning communities for linguistically and culturally diverse learners where teachers
assume the role of a more expert other and help scaffold the students’ learning.
Pentimonti and Justice (2009) explored preschool teachers’ use of specific
scaffolding strategies as a means of students acquiring language and literacy concepts.
Two research questions were posed by the Pentimonti and Justice (2009): 1) To what
extent do preschool teachers use high and low support scaffolds during whole group read
aloud sessions? And 2) To what extent does preschool teachers’ perceived frequency of
use of specific scaffolds correspond to their actual use of scaffolds? The researchers
videotaped observations of five preschool teachers conducting whole group read alouds
and the frequency of use of scaffolding strategies was coded using systematic observation
procedures (Pentimonti & Justice, 2009). The study included five Caucasian female Head
Start teachers in a rural region of a Midwestern state. Four of the teachers held an
Associate’s degree while one teacher held a Bachelor’s degree. This was a year long
study and included a 1-day workshop in which teachers were provided with an
explanation of the study procedures, guidance of ways to foster learning during read
aloud and suggestions for using scaffolding strategies. The six scaffolding strategies
assessed in the classroom included high support scaffolding strategies such as eliciting
strategy, the reducing choices strategy, and the co-participating strategy. The low support
strategies included the generalizing strategy, the reasoning strategy, and the predicting
strategy.
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Results indicated that the majority of strategies used by teachers were low support
scaffolding strategies. Teachers made an average of 27 low support scaffold strategies. Of
the 27 low support scaffold strategies, 45% were generalizing scaffolds, 43% were
reasoning scaffolds and 12% involved predicting scaffolds. In addition, teachers only
utilized 4% of high support scaffolding strategies. This suggested that teachers only used
one high support scaffolding strategy per read aloud activity.
This study sheds light on the lack of awareness that teachers have when it comes
to providing scaffolding opportunities for students. It is important to note that this study
did not prove how scaffolding facilitated student language and literacy learning.
However, this study was important to my dissertation as it showed that many teachers’
perceptions of what occurred in the classroom might not translate into actual practice.
Thus, it was important to observe teachers enacting scaffolding strategies in the
classroom as opposed to just relying on interviews of teachers’ perceptions.
Summary
These studies helped us understand that teachers must utilize their students’ social
and cultural assets in order to enhance student learning. These studies also helped affirm
that meaningful learning communities could exist when the students’ linguistic and
cultural resources were validated. Furthermore, when students’ social and cultural assets
were affirmed, they were more willing to participate in the learning process. Lastly, these
studies explored the importance of scaffolding strategies as a means of facilitating
learning. Sociocultural theory helped us understand that learning is social, cultural,
cognitive and developmental. I will now turn to constructivist theory as it explains how
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students construct meaningful learning for themselves and how the teacher sets up the
environment to foster meaningful learning.
Constructivist Theory
In addition to learning being a socially and culturally mediated process, it is also
an active process of knowledge construction (Anthony, 1996). I will now discuss
constructivist theory as it helped me understand how students construct meaningful
learning within the classroom. Constructivist theory incorporates three important
assumptions about learning: Learning is an active process of knowledge construction and
not of absorption; learning uses current knowledge to construct new knowledge; and the
learner is aware of the processes of cognition, or metacognition (Anthony, 1996). The
basic principle of constructivist theory is that learning is not a passive process but an
intellectually active learning process in which students construct their own learning. The
learner actively interprets meaning through his/her lens and prior knowledge.
Furthermore, students learn through active participation, rather than through passive
reception and repetition of knowledge. Intellectually active learning is described as the
process in which students are given autonomy and control of their learning. Students are
involved in a learning experience based on insight and inquiry. Active learning also
includes the concepts of mental effort or intentional learning, meaningful learning and
metacognition. Examples of active learning activities include problem solving, small
group work, collaborative learning and experiential learning. Anthony (1996) points out
that learning strategies are an important tool in the active learning process. Learning
strategies are the behaviors in which the learner acquires and integrates knowledge
(Anthony, 1996). Learners who use various learning strategies can influence the quality
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of the new knowledge they construct by being able to solve problems and apply prior
knowledge to new knowledge (Anthony, 1996).
Mayer (2002) asserts that when students seek to make sense of the knowledge,
they are not only constructing knowledge, but also engaging in meaningful learning.
Mayer describes three different learning outcomes: no learning, rote learning, and
meaningful learning. No learning occurs when students do not possess or are able to use
relevant knowledge. This occurs when the learner has not attended to or encoded the
material during learning. Rote learning is when a student memorizes key facts, however,
is not able to solve or diagnose problems using the knowledge learned. In addition, the
student who learns in a rote manner, cannot transfer learned material to a new situation.
Meaningful learning is when a student is able to recall material and relevant facts in
addition to using that information to solve problems and transfer that new knowledge to
new learning conditions (Mayer, 2002). Mayer (2002) further indicates that meaningful
learning occurs when students construct the knowledge and cognitive processes required
for successful problem solving. In constructivist learning, Mayer (2002) points out that
students engage in active cognitive processing, in which they attend to relevant
information, mentally organize that information and integrate it with prior knowledge.
Mayer (2002) asserts that meaningful learning is an important educational goal and that
teaching should require more of students than recalling or recognizing factual knowledge.
In sum, constructivist theory suggests that meaningful learning is an active
process of knowledge co-construction between two individuals (Anthony, 1996; Mayer,
2002). Students who engage in meaningful learning have control over their learning in an
intellectually active learning process (Anthony, 1996). In constructivism, students engage
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in meaningful learning when they are allowed to rely on prior knowledge and personal
connections and connect those to new knowledge (Mayer, 2002).
Constructivist Pedagogy
In order to understand constructivist theory, it was equally important to
understand what it was not and how that translated to the classroom in terms of pedagogy
and instruction because it helped me understand how teachers created a meaningful
learning environment. I will first briefly discuss the behaviorist approach then outline
Lee’s (2003) perspective on how students construct learning and how teachers can foster
an environment based on the constructivist theory.
Contrary to the constructivist theory is the behaviorist approach, which is
explained by Paulo Freire’s idea of the “banking” approach to education (Lee, 2003). The
“banking” approach to education involves the idea that students are required to absorb
what teachers think they need to learn (Lee, 2003). Lee (2003) asserts that a banking
approach embodies a deficit view of learning and supports a pedagogy in which
knowledge is separate from the learner’s prior knowledge and life experiences. This type
of pedagogy is indicative of a behaviorist approach, which dismisses the students’ ability
to construct their own learning (Lee, 2003). Lee (2003) suggests that a behaviorist
approach to pedagogy includes activities such as giving directions, making assignments,
recitation, and monitoring seatwork. Thus, students are not required to construct or
extend their thinking and thus, a behaviorist approach by the teacher leads the students to
engage in weak knowledge construction. Lee (2003) states that students are required to
complete workbook and textbook assignments that foster minimal intellectual
engagement, creative thinking, or problem solving. This type of learning leads to
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decreased conceptual understanding and ability to connect new knowledge with personal
connections (Lee, 2003). Lee (2003) indicates that a curriculum that fails to connect to
the experiences that all students bring to school is not only unmotivating, but suggests
that minority students are not capable of constructing knowledge.
In turn, Lee (2003) recommends that, “teachers should see standards in relation to
principles of constructivist learning that connect new learning with their current
understandings” (p. 450). Constructivist standards can help cultivate a culture of high
expectations when they include students’ prior knowledge and experiences (Lee, 2003).
A culture created on high expectations requires that students be regarded as intelligent
individuals who have the capacity of doing rigorous work. Lee (2003) suggests that
students should be participating in demanding and intellectual classroom climates that
support an effort-based view of ability. An effort-based view implies that greater effort
creates more ability regardless of ethnic background. This concept of learning
necessitates a learner-centered and knowledge-based constructivist approach. Lee (2003)
indicates that a constructivist approach to learning involves authentic projects that allow
time for multiple drafts and in which skills are taught. Authentic projects require students
to make individual choices and may also include conducting interviews, research skills,
consultative skills, preparing illustrations, and presenting. Lee (2003) stresses that
teachers continue to provide the objectives for the assignment, but students are able to
use personal interests, strengths and style to complete their authentic learning activity.
Assignments that are based on the constructivist approach “value personal decision-
making, a community of learners, and the democratic values of freedom and
responsibility” (Lee, 2003, p. 453).
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Teachers who teach through the lens of constructivism, engage learners in
meaningful learning activities such as authentic projects supporting students’ personal
interests. Meaningful learning also occurs when teachers set high expectations for all
students and include a rigorous curriculum (Lee, 2003).
Empirical Studies Related to Constructivist Theory
I now review several empirical studies that were based on a constructivist
framework that explored how students constructed knowledge at the early elementary and
high school years. These studies further helped me understand conditions that supported
meaningful teaching and learning, how knowledge was positioned within the classroom,
and identify the learning behaviors that constituted intellectually active learning. These
studies also helped me understand how classrooms supported students’ meaning-making.
Anthony (1996) conducted a qualitative case study exploring active learning in a
constructivist framework. Strategic learning behaviors were explored to determine
successful learning outcomes in mathematics. As a result, she looked at two 12
th
grade
mathematics students, one of whom engaged in intellectually active learning and the
other engaged in intellectually passive learning. Anthony (1996) examined their use and
awareness of learning strategies. The 1-year study took place in a city in a secondary
school in a city in New Zealand. The study was primarily conducted within the classroom
where lessons were observed. Data collected by Anthony (1996) consisted of non-
participant observations, interviews, student diaries, student work and questionnaires.
Anthony (1996) sought to provide a detailed description of how learning strategies were
used in the classroom and to examine the appropriateness and effectiveness of each of the
students’ strategic learning behaviors. Anthony (1996) video recorded the teacher’s
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lessons and students were asked to recall learning behaviors. The videoed lessons
covered units on calculus, statistics, and algebra.
Anthony (1996) triangulated findings between video and audio recordings,
observations and interviews. Data analysis included coding students’ learning behaviors
as either cognitive, metacognitive, affective or resource management. Analysis centered
on the appropriateness and effectiveness of each of the four strategic learning processes
in learning situations such as homework, class discussion and seatwork. Anthony (1996)
also examined factors in the students’ learning environment that influenced the use of
learning strategies.
Results of the study were that Gareth (the passive learner) and Adam (the active
learner) both reported that they believed they were actively learning mathematics
(Anthony, 1996). Anthony (1996) found that both students’ learning processes were
strongly influenced by their metacognitive knowledge. Gareth sought help from the
teacher in order to complete tasks as opposed to seeking to understand tasks. Thus,
Gareth relied on the teacher for cognitively demanding tasks rather than relying on his
own cognitive processes. Interviews and observations revealed that Gareth did not utilize
metacognitive strategies such as planning, previewing, reflection, and selective attention.
In addition, Gareth did not seek help from peers or teacher, or access resources to
increase his knowledge construction (Anthony, 1996). When completing class work, the
researcher found that Gareth often guessed answers in class, avoided more challenging
homework problems and did not seek assistance from others at home.
Adam, on the other hand, engaged in self-directed, self-regulated, and
metacognitive learning that enabled him to construct new knowledge. Anthony (1996)
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also found that Adam’s ability to monitor his own level of understanding facilitated his
ability to predict future instruction. Adam also selectively attended to more complex
processes to better facilitate his own learning. After conducting observations, Anthony
(1996) found that Adam presented as an active learner as he incorporated self-explanation
and questioning during lessons. In an interview conducted with Adam, the researcher
found that Adam completed homework by planning ahead, integrating prior knowledge to
solve more complex problems, and seeking assistance from family members.
Ancess (2004) conducted a case study that explored the ways urban teachers
taught to create meaning-making in three urban high schools classrooms. Ancess (2004)
conducted student surveys, interviews with students, teachers, district leaders and parents.
She additionally conducted classroom observations and observations of performance
assessments, school life, teacher team meetings, faculty meetings, and professional
development. Lastly, data collection also included review of school and district
documents, teacher curriculum and student work. One of the high schools in the study
served recent immigrants and English language learners identified as being at risk. The
second high school in the study served diverse students who had struggled academically
at other high schools. The third high school was a technical-vocational high school that
served students who sought an untraditional education.
Ancess (2004) found that the three high schools provided conditions that
supported teaching and learning for meaning-making. In order to create an educational
atmosphere that supported meaningful teaching and learning, four key things had to
occur: teacher ethos, trust in teacher judgment, organization of curriculum into focused
units, and infrastructure to support meaning making (Ancess, 2004). Teachers believed in
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the importance of meaning-making in the educational process. Interviews with teachers
revealed that teachers reflected about the purpose of school, what students should learn,
and the relationship between their pedagogy and those specific goals (Ancess, 2004).
Ancess (2004) also found that teachers in these schools were trusted by their supervisors
to make critical decisions regarding curriculum design and the selection of instructional
materials. All three high schools also organized the curriculum in a meaningful way
(Ancess, 2004). For example, they organized the curriculum into college-like courses or
thematic classes. Lastly, all three high schools created infrastructure to support meaning-
making to address student resistance towards the demand for meaning-making. Ancess
(2004) discussed three specific ways the high schools supported students’ meaning-
making. First, teachers explicitly taught students skills for meaning-making such as how
to use the library, how to take notes, and read complex texts (Ancess, 2004). Secondly,
teachers made themselves available to students for tutoring or clarifying discussions
(Ancess, 2004). Lastly, schools maintained a small student-teacher ratio in order for
teachers to meet individual educational needs (Ancess, 2004).
Crawford (2008) indicated that a constructivist epistemology could explain the
nature of knowledge and how people learn. This then, became the background for her
ethnographic study where she sought to identify the ways in which authority was a shared
construct among participants of a fourth and fifth grade classroom and how that affected
opportunities for learning. The study was conducted in a combination fourth/fifth grade
classroom located in a public elementary school on the coast of Southern California. The
students in the classroom consisted of 13 fourth graders and 19 fifth graders. The class
consisted of 50% Hispanic and 47% White students. The teacher was described as a
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White female with 30 years of teaching experience at both the high school and
elementary levels. However, this was the teacher’s first experience teaching a
combination grade level class. This study was part of a larger 2-year study, but the
participants presented here were from the second year. Crawford (2008) collected data
from multiple sources including field notes, videotaped records (whole class, small
groups, and individuals), student and teacher artifacts (notebooks, handouts, homework),
and interviews with students, parents and teachers.
Crawford (2008) described three examples in which the teacher created a
classroom culture where authority over content (claiming knowledge) and process
(exercising control) was shared between the students and the teacher. In the first example,
she analyzed the teacher’s monologue by identifying the teacher’s message, identifying
who enacted authority, and identified the opportunity for learning. Results indicated that
the teacher provided many opportunities for teaching the students that they had authority
or the power to exercise control over their own learning (Crawford, 2008). The teacher’s
discourse informed the students that they had authority over themselves to remain on
task, be self-governing and work at their full potential. For example, the teacher used
language such as “You need to be in charge of yourself. I don’t want to be in charge of
you” (Crawford, 2008, p. 1716). The teacher additionally removed herself from the
teacher role and positioned herself as a learner by affirming “I know what it’s like to be a
student. I am still one” (Crawford, 2008, p. 1717). The teacher reminded the students that
they were in control by exclaiming, “You have to make that decision now if you haven’t
already made it” (Crawford, 2008, p. 1717). She (2008) demonstrated that the teacher’s
goal was to share authority and not give it up.
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The second example Crawford (2008) described in her study depicted the
teacher’s repositioning of authority through a reading lesson. The teacher allowed the
students to exercise control over what they studied by having them choose any reading
material. The students were then able to construct knowledge from what they read. Thus,
the self-selected reading material was positioned as the authority of knowledge because
the students were given the power to choose. Observations also revealed that the students
were positioned as authorities of knowledge when they finished their reading because
they shared their knowledge with the class. The teacher utilized language such as “Can
you tell us what you learned in just that few minutes?” (Crawford, 2008, p. 1719).
Crawford (2008) showed that the teacher created an opportunity in which students shared
their knowledge. She also indicated that the teacher stressed the importance of students
acknowledging one other as authorities of knowledge. Crawford (2008) gave the
following example:
You know I’m not your major teacher in the class. You guys are. There are 32 of
you and one of me. So, don’t tune each other out. You all are teachers and just
think, if you learn three new things a day how much you’ll know by the end of the
year. (Crawford, 2008, p. 1722)
Crawford (2008) claimed that the teacher’s statement exemplified a message of shared
authority in her classroom. The teacher reinforced the idea of students seeing each other
as authorities of knowledge because they learned much more than being exposed to only
her knowledge (Crawford, 2008).
The third example that Crawford (2008) presented in her study occurred during
“Learning Time.” A parent came into the classroom and offered the classroom a
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milkweed plant covered with caterpillars. Crawford (2008) asserted that the teacher
continued to share authority in several ways during this lesson. The teacher positioned the
parent as the authority of knowledge as the parent shared her knowledge of the plant. She
also turned to her students as authorities, seeking their knowledge of how to care for the
plant and for the caterpillars. The teacher also sought others outside of school (another
parent, a scientist and principal) to serve as authorities of knowledge to seek further
information. The teacher thus, modeled that several sources of knowledge existed and it
was the students’ responsibility to seek those sources (Crawford, 2008).
Observations and interviews revealed that the teacher and her students gained
knowledge from several sources such as teachers, peers, family, and community
professionals. In addition, the teacher and her students obtained this knowledge through
different means such as inviting other to the classroom, through telephone calls, through
books, newspapers, magazines and the internet (Crawford, 2008). The study conducted
by Crawford (2008) showed that the teacher created a classroom culture where students
had the power to control their own knowledge and construct meaning for themselves.
Summary
The studies reviewed affirm that students engage in meaningful learning when
they use metacognitive strategies such as planning, reflection and selective attention
(Ancess, 2004; Anthony, 1996). When teachers believe in the process of meaning-
making, they are more apt to provide conditions that support meaningful teaching and
learning by explicitly teaching skills for meaning-making and helping students
understand (Ancess, 2004). Additionally, teachers create a classroom culture of
interaction that fosters learning in which knowledge is co-constructed and distributed
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among several authorities of knowledge (Crawford, 2008). A limitation to this process,
however, will be the student’s own developmental and cognitive level. A teacher’s
responsibility, then, is to be able to scaffold and differentiate the instruction based on the
student’s cognitive and developmental levels.
Conceptual Framework
In this section, I outline the components that consist of my study’s conceptual
framework. Maxwell (2005) defines it as “the system of concepts, assumptions,
expectations, beliefs and theories that supports and informs your research” (Maxwell,
2005, p. 33). The conceptual framework then, is the lens through which I view the world.
Furthermore, my conceptual framework guided the research process in terms of the
identification of relevant constructs, selection of a research design, choice of a sample
and sampling procedures, data collection strategies, and data analysis (Merriam, 2009),
which will be discussed in chapter 3.
My conceptual framework consisted of facets of teacher care, sociocultural and
constructivist learning theories as a means for creating a meaningful learning
environment for early elementary Latino students. Drawing from the literature outlined
above, I explain why I have included facets of these three components in my conceptual
framework (See Figure 1).
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Figure
1.
Latino
Cognitive
Apprenticeship/Meaningful
Learning
Environment

Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship is creating a meaningful learning environment
through the intersections of authentic care, pedagogical strategies and instructional tasks
derived from the sociocultural and constructivist learning theories. At the very center of
Latino students’ learning is authentic teacher care. Teachers must enact authentic care as
a means of establishing a classroom environment that supports meaningful learning.
Authentic care permeates the interactions between the teacher and students to facilitate a
meaningful learning environment. Meaningful learning then occurs as the result of the
pedagogical strategies and instructional tasks enacted by the teacher combined with the
students’ cognitive strategies utilized to construct meaning from the material presented
by the teacher. Meaningful learning emerges from the teacher-student and student-student
relationships within the learning environment where knowledge is shared between
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teachers and students and where mutual respect for each other’s cultural and prior
experiences are valued. I will first outline each component separately before explaining
the interaction of the components noted above.
Teachers Who Enact Authentic Care Towards Latino Students
I discuss and describe Latino teacher care as authentic care pulling elements from
Valenzuela’s (1999), Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar’s (2004), Noddings’s (1988), and
Delpit’s (2012) concepts of teacher care. Authentic care corresponds to the principles of
the Mexican concept of educación, which is grounded in mutual respectful and caring
relationships. I define Latino authentic care as teachers who meet the following
characteristics: establish respeto and confianza; value students’ culture, language, and
community; set high expectations and offer academic support (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006; Delpit, 2012; Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004; Valenzuela, 1999). I
will now explain each component of authentic care as supported by the literature
reviewed in chapter 2.
Establish Mutual Confianza and Respeto
Drawing on Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004), Antrop Gonzalez, and De
Jesus (2006), and Noddings (1988), I argue that teachers who enact authentic care
towards Latino students are those who have confianza (mutual trust) with students. These
teachers make students feel comfortable, safe, valued as an individual and trustworthy.
Teachers create safe learning environments by maintaining clear expectations for all,
listening to students and respecting students rather than exercising control over them.
These teachers spend time dialoging with students about social issues and personal
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reflections (Noddings, 1988). Teachers model this care by encouraging others to show
respeto towards one another through classroom interactions (Noddings, 1988).
Value Students’ Culture, Language and Community
I assert that teachers who enact authentic care towards Latino students by valuing
their culture, language and community. Drawing from Valenzuela (1999), Delpit (2012),
I contend that teachers who value students’ cultural, linguistic, and community
knowledge support students’ participation in the learning process. Latino students who
are valued for their cultural background, linguistic abilities and the knowledge they bring
to school, will be empowered members of the learning community. Franquiz and del
Carmen Salazar (2004) indicate that teachers who value each student’s culture and life
experiences enact what they refer to as humanizing pedagogy. When teachers practice a
humanizing pedagogy, they are demonstrating teacher care and support the academic
success of Latino students (Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004). Latino students will
be better positioned to engage in learning when their teacher creates social conditions and
relationships that are aligned with the students’ culture.
Set High Expectations and Offer Academic Support
I assert that caring teachers create partnerships with students to foster academic
growth by establishing high academic expectations and support. Antrop-Gonzalez and De
Jesus (2006) referred to this as hard caring. Teachers who practice hard caring make time
to provide academic support by being accessible, listening to students and insisting on
high-quality work (Antrop-Gonzalez & De Jesus, 2006). When students believe that
teachers care and believe in their abilities, students are more apt to try their best and
consequently rise to the teacher’s expectations. In addition, teachers who enact authentic
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care towards Latino students will help them understand difficult concepts. Garza (2009)
found that teachers who practiced care thoroughly explained instructional tasks, helped
students to understand lessons, and provided instructional assistance through scaffolding.
Latino students perceive teachers as demonstrating care for their students as those who
provide feedback on student work to ensure understanding (Alder, 2002).
Teachers Who Create Meaningful Learning for Latino Students
Teachers who enact authentic care towards Latino students do so by setting high
expectations and offering academic support. This is evident in the teacher-student
relationships, which in turn assists in creating a meaningful learning environment for
Latino students. As a result of authentic care, teachers create meaningful learning through
pedagogical strategies and instructional tasks. These pedagogical strategies and
instructional tasks are filtered through principles of sociocultural and constructivist
principles. The sociocultural learning theory indicates that learning is a social and
developmental process that is based on the student’s cultural and language tools. The
teacher who fosters meaningful learning for Latino students utilizes this perspective as a
lens for teaching by assisting performance and presenting learning activities that are
socially mediated and ultimately enacted through authentic care. The constructivist
learning theory indicates that learning is an active process by which the learner utilizes
prior knowledge to construct new knowledge (Anthony, 1996). In constructivism, the
learner is aware of the cognitive processes and learning strategies they utilize to construct
meaning. I contend that a teacher explicitly utilizes the students’ prior knowledge and
elicits a learners’ thinking during instruction through pedagogical questions and learning
activities necessary to stimulate meaningful learning.
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Pedagogical Strategies
I contend that teachers who enact authentic care, effectively teach Latino students
by utilizing the means of assisting performance. The means of assisting performance
includes modeling, contingency managing, feedback, instructing, questioning, and
cognitive structuring (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). The last three means of assisting are
primarily linguistic and therefore, the teacher who enacts authentic care towards Latino
students values the students’ language and scaffolds accordingly. As demonstrated by
Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998), this can be accomplished despite the teacher’s
inability to speak the students’ native language by modeling, clarifying and providing
feedback. The means of assisting or scaffolding can be implemented across subjects and
in any learning context.
Instructional Tasks
The main principle of constructivist theory assumes that learning is an
intellectually active process (Anthony, 1996). It also assumes that the learner uses his or
her prior knowledge to construct new knowledge (Anthony, 1996). I contend that a
teacher who enacts authentic care towards Latino students will engage learners in
intellectually active learning tasks. Examples of intellectually active learning tasks
include problem solving, small group work and collaborative learning. Other active
learning activities can include authentic projects such as conducting interviews, research
skills and presenting, where students make individual choices (Lee, 2003).

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Latino Students Who Construct Meaningful Learning
Learning Strategies
Constructivist theory also assumes that the learner practices metacognition, and
utilizes learning strategies to facilitate the active learning process (Anthony, 1996). As
such, learning strategies are the behaviors in which the learner acquires and integrates
new knowledge (Anthony, 1996). Learners who use various learning strategies can
influence the quality of new knowledge thereby creating meaningful learning
opportunities. Students engage in active cognitive processing when they attend to
relevant information and integrate it with prior knowledge (Mayer, 2002).
Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship
My conceptual framework builds on the literature of authentic teacher care and
meaningful learning as illustrated through the sociocultural and constructivist learning
perspectives. Teachers who foster a climate of meaningful learning for Latino students do
so when they enact authentic care towards them. Authentic care occurs when teachers
foster mutual confianza and respeto; value the students’ culture, language, and
community; set high expectations and offer academic support. I contend that meaningful
learning opportunities are created out of the authentic relationships formed by teachers
with Latino students through authentic care. Teachers who affirm students’ cultural
backgrounds and use students’ knowledge, languages, and skills as sociocultural assets to
connect to academic knowledge can create academic learning experiences that are
meaningful for Latino students. I also contend that a teacher who enacts authentic care
towards Latino students will engage learners in active learning activities while
scaffolding their learning. Teachers who enact authentic care towards Latino students
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establish an apprenticeship whereby the teacher scaffolds their learning. It is during this
apprenticeship that the teacher engages the Latino student in socially, culturally, and
active learning tasks that foster meaningful learning. During this apprenticeship, teachers
enact authentic care by encouraging learners to use various metacognitive strategies that
influence the quality of new knowledge. It is through this apprenticeship that Latino
students learn without compromising the integrity of who they are as individuals and
learners, thereby creating meaningful learning opportunities. This is the conceptual
framework that informed my approach to answering my research questions.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the qualitative nature of this study, including the
instrumentation, data collection and data analysis procedures conducted in this study. The
purpose of this study was to examine early elementary classroom environments that
support meaningful learning. This qualitative study was a multi-case study that was
guided by the following research question: What is the nature of early elementary (K-3)
classroom environments that support meaningful learning for Latino students?
Research Design
As mentioned previously, this study utilized a qualitative case approach. Merriam
(2009) defines qualitative research as “the notion of inquiring into, or investigating
something in a systematic manner” (p. 3). Merriam (2009) further explains that
qualitative researchers “are interested in understanding how people interpret their
experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their
experiences” (p. 5). For this study, I was interested in how the teacher constructed a
meaningful learning environment within the early elementary classroom. In qualitative
research, the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis
(Merriam, 2009). The unit of analysis for this study was an early elementary school
teacher and her students. Thus, I conducted two case studies. By examining two teachers
at the early elementary level, I was able to examine how two different teachers attempted
to enact teacher care towards Latino students and how they attempted to foster a
classroom environment that supported meaningful learning.

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Sample and Population
Unlike quantitative studies, qualitative studies often include small samples
(Maxwell, 2013). I used purposeful sampling to select teachers who best helped me
understand the research problem and the research questions. Purposeful sampling
includes people who know the most about the topic (Merriam, 2009). For this dissertation
study, I purposefully selected teachers who gave me insight into how early elementary
teachers should enact teacher care towards Latino students and how those early
elementary classroom environments should support meaningful learning for Latino
students. Utilizing purposeful sampling, I first determined what selection criteria were
essential in choosing the teachers studied (Merriam, 2009). This is also called “criterion-
based selection.” In criterion-based selection, a list of the attributes necessary to the study
is created and then a match is conducted (Merriam, 2009). The criteria for this particular
study directly reflected the purpose of the study. For this study, I sampled at the school
and teacher level.
Institution
The case studies for this dissertation took place at two separate elementary
schools since the focus of my study was to explore authentic teacher care and meaningful
learning environments at the early elementary level. The first criterion in selecting the
institution was that the school was a public elementary school because the research
indicating that Latinos are under-performing was derived from the public sector. The
second criterion was that the elementary school was comprised of at least 50% Latino
students in order to examine how teachers created a safe learning environment where
mutual respect and trust permeated among teachers and Latino students. Furthermore, my
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research study sought to understand how teachers fostered a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students. Therefore, selecting a public elementary school that
comprised of a high Latino student enrollment facilitated access to classrooms with
Latinos. The third criterion for the institution was inclusion of English Language
Learners (ELLs). The purpose of including ELLs in my study was to further examine the
idea of authentic care, where teachers value the student’s language.
The process of selecting the institution(s) began with searching a predominantly
Latino populated school district in a suburb of Los Angeles. After sending out an email to
both local schools, the principals responded agreeing to participate in the study.
Teachers
For this study, I selected two early elementary teachers who taught Latino
students. The teachers I selected met specific criteria for my research study. First, the
teachers taught early elementary (grades K-3) because this was the nature of my research
question. The second criterion was that the teachers had to have at least 3 years of
experience in teaching grades K-3, so that the teachers being observed had a good
understanding of teaching early elementary students. The third criterion was that the
classrooms I selected to observe had a high Latino student enrollment so that I was able
to explore how teachers enacted authentic care towards Latino students. The fourth
criterion was that the teachers had to have a multiple subjects teaching credential or
equivalent thereof. The reason for this criterion was to avoid observing a student teacher
who did not have the experience of teaching Latino students. The fourth criterion was
that the teachers held a reputation by direct supervisors or school mentors, for developing
strong teacher-student relationships with Latino students and who valued students as
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individuals. Lastly, the teachers chosen for this study demonstrated high expectations for
their students and were known to foster classrooms that were considered active learning
environments by these same direct supervisors.
The process of seeking teachers for this study began with an interview with a
principal asking about teachers who enacted care based on my conceptual framework. I
then asked the principal for names of teachers that met the above criterion through a
checklist. After obtaining the names of the teachers, I then engaged in the process of
snowball sampling, where I asked the principal to direct me to other teachers, grade level
chairs, or literacy coaches who were able to direct me to teachers who enacted authentic
teacher care. Snowball sampling involves locating participants who meet the criteria and
then refer me to other participants (Merriam, 2009). After obtaining the names of three
teachers, I sent an email asking the potential teachers if they would be interested in
participating in this study. In that email, an information sheet was sent to these teachers
explaining the purpose of study. I used my conceptual framework as a guide to screen the
teachers by conducting 45-minute observations to select the final two teachers that I
believed met the criterion for this study.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The purpose of this study was to explore the nature of early elementary classroom
environments that supported meaningful learning for Latino students. As the researcher, I
was the primary instrument for data collection and analysis (Merriam, 2009). Consistent
with Merriam’s (2009) assertion that being the primary instrument in this research is an
advantage, I was able to increase my understanding of the data through verbal and
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nonverbal communication, clarify and summarize material, check with respondents for
accuracy of interpretation, and explore unclear responses.
As the researcher in this study, I conducted six observations in two different
classrooms each (at two different school sites) and two interviews (pre and post-
observation) with those same two teachers. Each pre-observation interview lasted
approximately one hour and the post-observations lasted about 30 minutes each.
Observations and informal interviews are usually referred to as “fieldwork” (Merriam,
2009). I also collected and examined documents as part of this dissertation study, which
included student work samples, projects, assignments, and teacher handouts. These
documents reflected the sociocultural and constructivist principles of learning.
Interviews
The most common form of data collection in qualitative studies is interviews
(Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) adds that in some studies, interviews are the only
source of data. The data collected from interviews is rich description in the form of
quotations (Merriam, 2009). Conducting interviews is important in qualitative research
because the researcher and the participant engage in a conversation that will provide
insight into the research questions. For this case study, I conducted a pre-observation and
a post-observation interview with two teachers. I interviewed two teachers in order to
obtain their perspectives, feelings, and thoughts about how they demonstrated care
towards their Latino students. I further asked these two teachers questions that gave
insight as to how they supported meaningful learning for Latino students. The format of
the interview was semi-structured (see Appendix A) in which a set of questions was
asked to elicit specific information, but the questions were open-ended (Merriam, 2009).
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I utilized my conceptual framework as a guide to the types of questions that were used in
the semi-structured interviews. I asked questions that allowed me to discover how early
elementary teachers interacted with their students to demonstrate care, how they showed
respect, how they valued each student’s culture and language, and how teachers
established high expectations for Latino students. Secondly, I asked questions that gave
insight on the nature of these classroom environments supporting meaningful learning for
Latino students. Specifically, I asked questions that determined what types of scaffolds
and instructional tasks teachers used to foster a meaningful learning environment.
Although I was interested in examining how Latino students constructed meaningful
learning, I did not interview early elementary Latino students. Rather, I explored how
early elementary teachers encouraged Latino students to engage in metacognitive
strategies and promote students’ prior knowledge to construct new knowledge through
pedagogical strategies and instructional tasks. The interviews began with establishing
rapport with the teachers by explaining the purpose of the interview and assuring
confidentiality. One of the teachers gave permission to be audiotaped during the
interview. This ensured the ability to capture everything the interviewee had to say.
However, the second participant did not give consent and as a result, notes were taken
during the interview. During both interviews, probing questions were asked to clarify any
responses. The post-observation brief interviews (Appendix B) were conducted to clarify
any questions I had regarding either the initial interviews or to obtain a better
understanding of the teachers’ actions during instruction.

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Observations
Aside from conducting interviews, I also collected data through observations.
Qualitative observations take place in the setting where the phenomenon of interest
naturally occurs and is a firsthand encounter (Merriam, 2009). Observations are
important to understand the context in which the phenomenon occurs (Merriam, 2009).
For this particular study, I conducted six observations each in two different classrooms
that examined the participants, instructional tasks, interactions, and conversations that
occurred within that physical setting (Merriam, 2009). Each observation lasted about 1 to
1.5 hours across varying subjects including math, language arts, and science. The total
number of hours observed in each classroom was 6. For this particular study, I was not
specifically studying how teachers teach a particular subject. Rather, I sought to examine
the quality of interaction between the teacher and Latino students and how the teacher
demonstrated authentic care and created a meaningful learning environment.
Furthermore, I gathered field notes by conducting observations as a non-participant
observer, which indicates that I observed without participating in the classroom lessons
(Creswell, 2014). Utilized as a guide, a semi-structured observation protocol was used as
a means of reminding myself of my research questions (see Appendix C). Utilizing my
conceptual framework, I sought to find elements of authentic teacher care and elements
of sociocultural and constructivist theory. More specifically, I observed teachers’
interactions, actions, and dialogue with Latino students. In addition, I observed the
teachers’ pedagogical strategies and the instructional tasks that facilitated meaningful
learning for Latino students. In conducting these observations, I wrote many “observer’s
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comments.” The idea was to engage in critical thinking about what I was observing
(Merriam, 2009). A total of 12 observations took place over the course of 2 months.
Documents and Artifacts
As the primary researcher, I collected student work samples and assignments that
proved to be evidence of authentic projects. I also collected artifacts that represented the
culture or affect of the classroom such as bulletin boards and posters. Artifacts are objects
in the environment differentiated from documents that represent some form of
communication (Merriam, 2009). Thus, I documented the physical arrangement and
design of the classroom, including posters and posted student work. The documents and
artifacts provided evidence of the clear expectations, contingency management, and
meaningful student work that connected to individual student interests.
Data Analysis
The data for this qualitative case study consisted of transcripts from teacher
interviews, classroom observation field notes, documents and artifacts in the form of
posters, student work, student resources, handouts, and home communication letters. I
used rich and detailed descriptions to convey the setting in which observations took place
in order to give an element of shared experiences (Creswell, 2014). I then reviewed all
the data, made sense of it, and organized it into themes that were seen across all of the
data sources (Creswell, 2014). The process of analyzing the data originated as soon as I
began data collection in the field. I formed a hypothesis about what I thought was
occurring during the data collection. Following the interviews, I transcribed the recorded
interview and began the process of open coding. Corbin and Strauss (2008) indicate that
analysis involves “taking the raw data and raising it to the conceptual level” (Corbin &
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Strauss, 2008, p. 66). The types of analytic tools used in this study included the use of
questioning, making comparisons, drawing upon personal experience and looking at
language to help me understand the data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). I looked for empirical
codes connected to my conceptual framework (i.e., mutual trust, mutual respect, clear
expectations, scaffolding), which are words or phrases that emerged from the data
(Merriam, 2009). I also looked for concepts from my conceptual framework to code the
data using analytic tools to stimulate the inductive process and listen to what teachers
were saying (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). These concepts included teacher-student
relationships, academic support, classroom management system, instructional tasks, and
learning activities. I then synthesized the codes identified into pattern codes (Merriam,
2009). These pattern codes were related to my conceptual framework and became the
themes of the study. Next, I repeated the same process for observations.
I analyzed and coded the data for each teacher separately in order to understand
each teacher holistically. I also analyzed documents and artifacts from each teacher. The
documents and artifacts provided evidence of the climate each teacher cultivated in her
classroom and the extent to which assignments were meaningful to the child and/or topics
being learned. After conducting a single case analysis, I conducted a cross-case analysis,
which allowed me to compare and contrast the data. Lastly, I wrote a qualitative narrative
that presented my findings in response to my research questions and relating it to my
conceptual framework.

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Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
A limitation to this dissertation study was the participants’ truthfulness. The data
collected through the interviews relies on the truthfulness of the teachers interviewed,
which cannot be controlled. This study also relied on the credibility of the principal
interviewed who directed me to the teachers for this study, which was based primarily on
her opinion. In turn, one of the teacher participants recommended by the principal came
closer to my conceptual framework. Additionally, the principal’s understanding of what I
was looking for and my screening observations did not give me enough insight to realize
that one of the teachers did not match what I was looking for. Another limitation is that
one of the teacher participants declined to be audio-recorded and thus, I may have not
been able to capture all that occurred during that interview.
Delimitations
Merriam (2009) states that in qualitative research, the researcher is the primary
instrument of data collection and analysis. I constructed the interview and observation
protocols. In addition, my biases may have influenced the way I collected and analyzed
the data. Also, as a novice researcher, my ability to probe or write questions to obtain the
data I was looking for may have been impacted by that very fact. As the sole qualitative
researcher in this study, I was also not able to capture all the data during classroom
observations as there were many interactions and conversations that occurred than I was
able to document.

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Credibility and Trustworthiness
The credibility and trustworthiness of this dissertation study began from the onset
of this study and before any data was collected. As the primary instrument in this
research, I had to identify any biases and monitor them as they may have impacted the
collection and interpretation of the data (Merriam, 2009). One way to identify my biases
was through the process of reflexivity, which is the process of reflecting critically on
myself as the researcher (Merriam, 2009). As a Latina and former elementary teacher, I
had some preconceptions and biases about teaching Latino students. Thus, I wrote
reflective memos that helped me account for my own personal thoughts and feelings
about the data so that it did not affect the way I collect data. In those reflective memos, I
determined that my identity shaped my lens and this was especially true when analyzing
the data. There was some cognitive dissonance when I realized that the teachers that were
recommended by the principal may have not been as “good” as they said they were.
Having been an elementary teacher, I recognized the complexity of teaching, and wanted
to view these teachers through an asset-minded framework. Having done this, however,
may have hindered recognizing the deficits in their teaching. Perhaps I should have
viewed teachers as I once viewed my students, and that is, recognizing that teachers,
much like students, have deficits as well and that our responsibility as educators is to help
those within their own zone of proximal development to better learners.
I also spent adequate time collecting data to increase the credibility or
trustworthiness of my study (Merriam, 2009). As the researcher, I collected rich,
descriptive data, spent adequate time in the field until I reached saturation and used more
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than one data type (observations, interviews, documents, and artifacts) to increase the
credibility of my study.
Ethics
This dissertation study entailed collecting data from people and therefore, it was
important to conduct this study in an ethical manner. As a researcher, it was crucial to
protect the teachers, develop a trust with them and promote the integrity of the research
(Creswell, 2014). Prior to beginning my study, I applied to the institutional review board
(IRB). The IRB committee required me to assess the potential for risk to participants in
the study (Creswell, 2014). I then obtained permission from the two school sites I studied
assuring that the school I selected was one without a vested interest in the outcome of the
study (Creswell, 2014). It was important to obtain informed consent from the teachers
agreeing to their participation in the study. This was obtained via an information sheet
explaining the purpose of the study and provided to the teachers. Prior to conducting any
interviews or classroom observations, I explained to the teachers participating in this
study the purpose of the inquiry, methods used, assured confidentiality and ultimately
obtained informed consent (Merriam, 2009). As I collected my data, I made sure that I
respected the school by being as minimally disruptive as possible. It was also important
to not deceive teachers, respect power imbalances and avoid exploitation of teachers
during the interview and observation process (Creswell, 2014). In analyzing the data, I
avoided disclosing only positive results and respect the privacy of the teachers and school
by using aliases. With regard to reporting, I maintained the integrity of the study by being
truthful, using unbiased language, and sharing the data with others. Lastly, the data will
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be kept for 5-10 years (as recommended by the American Psychological Association)
before discarding it in order to protect its confidentiality (Creswell, 2014).
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this dissertation was to explore how K-3 grade teachers created a
meaningful learning environment for Latino students through the tenets of teacher care,
sociocultural theory and constructivist theory. The first chapter of this dissertation
discussed the background of the problem, which indicated that Latinos demonstrate low
achievement and fall far behind non-Hispanic students in the elementary, high school and
college levels (Gandara, 2008; Madrid, 2011). The background of the problem also
indicated the degree of a caring relationship between a teacher and student can hinder or
improve the academic achievement of a student (Nieto, 2004). The second chapter of this
dissertation outlined a review of the literature on authentic teacher care, sociocultural
theory, and constructivist theory. The methods for data collected for this study, which
was discussed in chapter three, answered the following research question:
1. What is the nature of early elementary (K-3) classroom environments that
support meaningful learning for Latino students?
This study was informed by a conceptual framework that I have termed, Latino
Cognitive Apprenticeship: Creating a Meaningful Learning Environment for Latino
Students Through Authentic Teacher Care. Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship is the
intersection of authentic teacher care, sociocultural theory and constructivist theory that
help construct a meaningful learning environment for Latino students. A meaningful
learning environment is cultivated through authentic teacher care when teachers form
authentic relationships with Latino students and engage learners in active learning
activities while scaffolding their learning.
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For this dissertation study, I conducted a qualitative study utilizing two case
studies of two early elementary school teachers at two separate public elementary
schools, one teaching third grade and the other second grade. For each case study, I
conducted two interviews, six classroom observations, and a review of documents and
artifacts. In order to understand the context in which this dissertation took place, I will
first describe the schools. I will follow with presenting the findings and analysis of each
case study. Lastly, I will conduct a cross case analysis study. To ensure confidentiality,
the names of teachers, students and schools have been replaced with pseudonyms.
Case Study #1: Julia Perez
Julia Perez was a third grade teacher at Shore Elementary School, which was a
public school located in a suburban neighborhood just outside of Los Angeles. Shore
Elementary School served students in grades transitional kindergarten to fifth grade and
the total enrollment was 487 students (CDE, 2016). The ethnicities of the student body
population consisted of 93% identified as Latino, 3% White, 2% African American, 1%
Asian, and 1% other (CDE, 2016). At Shore Elementary, there were 21 classroom
teachers, 3 combination classes including K-1, 3-4, and 4-5, and 3 special day classes.
The school’s significant groups were comprised of 67% socioeconomically
disadvantaged students, 85% English Learners, and 19% students with disabilities (CDE,
2016). According to CDE (2013), the weighted 3-year average API was 853
1
. Shore
Elementary was also recently named 2016 Gold Ribbon School. The school’s mission
statement stressed that the school community strived to create an environment that

1
Academic Performance Index (API) is a measurement of academic performance and
progress of schools in California. It is one of the main components of the Public Schools
Accountability Act passed by the California Legislature in 1999. The highest API score is
1000.
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 85

fostered and developed academic and social achievement for all. As such, Shore
Elementary School had established a partnership with the local community including
businesses, the city library, police department and the fire department. Shore Elementary
School was located in the middle of a neighborhood surrounded by single-family homes
and across the street from a local community park. The 2010 United States Census
reported that the city had a population of 16,223 with a median household income of
$54,081.
Mrs. Perez was a fully credentialed and experienced teacher, holding a Masters in
Education and having taught 28 years in grades kindergarten through fourth. She had
been a third grade teacher for about 11 of those years. During the 28 years, Mrs. Perez
had also served as a literacy coach/reading recovery teacher and asserted that reading was
her specialization. However, she also claimed that she missed being in the classroom and
thus, returned to teaching after serving as a literacy coach. Mrs. Perez had served her
entire career in the same school district, at Shore Elementary School. Mrs. Perez was
Latina herself and grew up in the Los Angeles area. Shore Elementary School was nicely
manicured with surrounding brick buildings and red rose bushes. Mrs. Perez’s classroom
was located two buildings down from the main office. It was a spacious classroom that
could be entered through one of two doors. Before entering the classroom, however, the
students’ backpacks were stored along the outside wall, each on its own hook. The
classroom was decorated with student work, teacher-created charts and commercially
produced charts. The classroom was also equipped with an Alpha Smart Board, ELMO,
and Chrome Book cart. The students’ desks were organized in four groups facing away
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from the windows. Mrs. Perez’s classroom consisted of 25 students and the make up of
the class included 21 Latino students and 4 White students.
In answering my research question, What is the nature of early elementary (K-3)
classroom environments that support meaningful learning for Latino students?, the data
revealed how Mrs. Perez attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment through
the authentic relationships she maintained with her Latino students and the classroom
environment she cultivated derived from authentic teacher care. As described above in
my conceptual framework, authentic care is a complex theme that is comprised of 1)
mutual confianza and respeto (enacted through dialogue, positive language, clear
expectations and contingency management), 2) valuing students’ culture, language and
community, and 3) high expectations and academic support (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006; Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004; Noddings, 1988; Tharp &
Gallimore,1989). However, Mrs. Perez failed to enact authentic through all the
components outlined in my conceptual framework. Observations revealed that Mrs. Perez
enacted authentic care through mutual confianza and respeto, high expectations, and
academic support she offered her Latino students. Despite her efforts, she failed to enact
authentic care through the students’ culture, language and community.
Mrs. Perez attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment for Latino
students through the pedagogical strategies and learning activities she enacted combined
with the students’ cognitive strategies utilized to construct meaning from the material
presented by Mrs. Perez. Some meaningful learning emerged from the teacher-student
and student-student relationships within the classroom where knowledge was shared
between Mrs. Perez and Latino students. More specifically, Mrs. Perez attempted to
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foster meaningful learning by 1) consistently assisting student performance through
modeling academic skills, questioning students’ understanding of concepts and offering
feedback regarding their performance, 2) engaging students in active learning by
engaging students in co-construction of knowledge and connecting assignments to
students’ interest; and 3) engaging students in metacognition through written or verbal
evidence of comprehension of concepts.
In this section, I will discuss Mrs. Perez’s beliefs then outline examples of each
component of authentic care through the relationships she fostered with Latino students
and the classroom climate she helped cultivate. I begin with discussing how Mrs. Perez
enacted authentic care through a relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto
through dialogue, positive language, clear expectations and a contingency management
system. I then explain how Mrs. Perez further enacted authentic care by creating an
inclusive learning community. Mrs. Perez’s interview revealed her beliefs were aligned
to the concept of value for culture, language and community. However, the data obtained
from observations failed to show a value for students’ culture, language, and community
in Mrs. Perez’s practice. Data revealed that Mrs. Perez enacted authentic care through the
high expectations she held of her Latino students and the academic support she offered
them. Lastly, I discuss how Mrs. Perez assisted Latino students’ performance and
engaged them in active learning tasks in an attempt to foster a meaningful learning
environment.
From the data derived from interviews, observations and an examination of
documents and artifacts, emerged two overarching themes: Authentic Teacher Care and
Meaningful Learning.
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Authentic Care:
• Mutual Confianza and Respeto
• Inclusive Learning Community
• Value for Culture, Language, and Community
• High Expectations and Academic Support
Meaningful Learning:
• Assisted Performance
• Active Learning Tasks
Authentic Care
Mutual Confianza and Respeto
Mrs. Perez demonstrated through her words that establishing mutual confianza
and respeto was vital in the teacher-student relationship. For example, she believed that
an “ideal” relationship with her students was based on respect. Her explanation aligned
with the concept of mutual confianza as described by Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus
(2006) and Franquiz and Del Carmen Salazar (2004). In an interview, Mrs. Perez stated
that she aimed to provide an environment in which students felt safe to engage in both
social and academic dialogue. Mrs. Perez believed it was important to demonstrate
mutual confianza through the interactions she maintained and the dialogue she engaged in
with Latino students. She said,
They have trust and they believe in themselves so I want to be able to um, they
know they’re coming in safe. Whether it’s safe from the environment outside and
safe in answering whatever questions also. So if I ask them something that they
are safe to answer whichever way they are answering, whether it’s right or wrong.
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Also, having that trust between us. So, if something is going on at home or here,
they feel like they could come to me.
Here, Mrs. Perez identified trust and safety, where students felt free to answer questions
without the fear of being rejected. She also suggested that a trusting and safe relationship
translated into her students being able to come to her to share personal information
outside of school or inside of school experiences with her. Her explanation aligned with
the concept of mutual confianza as described by Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006)
and Franquiz and Del Carmen Salazar (2004) because in confianza, students feel safe to
express themselves in the classroom.
Mrs. Perez also discussed that she expected her students to show mutual respeto
towards her and other students. She indicated that if someone was responding negatively
to her, she would intervene and say, “Is that the way you speak to your mom?” Much like
the study conducted by Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006), where students described
their relationships with teachers like a family or parent, Mrs. Perez’s question served as a
reminder to her students that she expected the same respeto that Latino children show
their mothers. Thus, Mrs. Perez situated herself in a classroom with moral authority,
which is indicative of authentic teacher care and adopting many of the attributes of
parents according to the concept of mutual respeto as outlined by Antrop-Gonzalez and
De Jesus (2006). Mrs. Perez continued by saying, “I want them to know that I’m going to
respect them as they are going to respect me. I think they need to be respectful and that’s
one thing I do push.” Here, Mrs. Perez’s statement implied that she believed in fostering
a relationship with her students based on mutual respeto.
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Mrs. Perez believed that as a teacher, she actively helped establish mutual respect
between everyone in her classroom through the interactions that took place within the
classroom. She expressed that she enforced the “Golden Rule,” “treat others how you
want to be treated.” This was an example of what Franquiz and Del Carmen Salazar
(2004) called consejos (verbal teachings). In turn, the “Golden Rule” was used as a
consejo to remind students that relationships and interactions between students should be
based on mutual respeto.
Dialogue and Positive Language. The mutual respeto that Mrs. Perez referenced
throughout her interviews was consistently evident in the interactions that took place
through what Noddings (1988) described as open dialogue and positive language. Mrs.
Perez consistently acted in ways that demonstrated mutual respeto when she took the
time to listen and respond during dialogue with her students. In one example, Mrs. Perez
engaged in dialogue during a language arts lesson where she utilized the ELMO and the
lights were subsequently turned off.
T: I’m going to call you and you’re going to put your test on the back table.
Sarah: (Gets up from her desk)
T: I haven’t called your number yet.
Sarah: I’m going to turn on the lights.
T: Oh, you’re going to turn on the lights. Thanks Babe!
Although Mrs. Perez was questioning Sarah on why she was getting out of her desk, she
allowed Sarah to respond, giving her an opportunity to be heard rather than exercising
control over her and interrupting her. Mrs. Perez took the time to listen to Sarah and
offered her an opportunity to engage in dialogue with her. Finally, Mrs. Perez used
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positive language when she said, “Thanks Babe!” All of these things combine to
demonstrate mutual respeto as a means of enacting authentic teacher care.
Observations revealed that students were comfortable engaging in open dialogue
with Mrs. Perez, where students felt confianza sharing their thoughts with her. One
example of this was when a student corrected Mrs. Perez:
Matthew: Mrs. Perez, you spelled sloth wrong. You spelled it s-l-a-g-h.
T: Oh, I haven’t finished my coffee yet.
Class: (Laughed)
T: What’s the idiom of the day that describes me today?
Andrew: I’m all over the map.
T: Yes.
This back and forth dialogue is an example of a relationship that was based on confianza.
Matthew and Andrew demonstrated confianza in their relationship with Mrs. Perez,
where they spoke openly. Mrs. Perez’s question towards her students, “What’s the idiom
of the day that describes me today?” clearly demonstrated the she removed herself from
the teacher role and positioned herself as the learner who also made mistakes, which in
turn, contributed to a safe learning environment whereby students did not feel Mrs. Perez
exercised control over them.
Another example of dialogue that was characteristic of confianza between Mrs.
Perez and her students was the following:
T: Fact and Opinion. A fact is something that can be proven. An
opinion is something that we think or believe. Give me an example
of a fact.
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Briana: Mrs. Perez wears glasses.
T: Yes, but this is a changing fact because I don’t always wear my
glasses. Someone give me another example.
Liana: I think you’re pretty.
Matthew: That’s your opinion!
Class: [Laughter]
T: Matthew, you don’t think that’s a fact?
Class: [Laughed]
T: I’m kidding. You’re right, Matthew. That’s an opinion Liana, but
thank you!
In this example, we see that Briana was given the opportunity to volunteer an example
and Mrs. Perez added to the dialogue by responding to her answer. Mrs. Perez validated
her answer, and added that her answer was sometimes true and sometimes false
depending on whether Mrs. Perez wore her glasses or not. In this case, Mrs. Perez could
have corrected Briana’s answer by saying, “Mrs. Perez sometimes wears glasses.” Liana
also contributed to the dialogue by saying, “I think you’re pretty.” Matthew felt enough
confianza in his relationship with Mrs. Perez that he was able to interject his personal
thoughts and feelings by saying, “That’s your opinion!” Mrs. Perez further explained to
Liana that her comment was an opinion and Mrs. Perez nonetheless thanked her effort
after actively listening and responding to her. The mutual confianza that developed
between Mrs. Perez and her Latino students was evident in their ability to engage in an
open dialogue where students contributed to the lesson and shared their personal thoughts
and feelings, and where Mrs. Perez took the time to listen and respond. Furthermore, the
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 93

mutual confianza that existed between Mrs. Perez and Matthew was played out in the
interactions where Matthew was made to feel comfortable and trustworthy.
Observations revealed frequent opportunities where students engaged in open
dialogue during “pair and share” activities where students were able to share personal
reflections as Noddings (1988) asserted. Mrs. Perez fostered a caring classroom
environment when she encouraged students to engage in open dialogue. Mrs. Perez
repeatedly gave the direction of “Share with a partner and then make suggestions as to
what you could have changed” or “turn to your partner and tell them what you think” as a
means of having students engage in open dialogue to share personal reflections. Mrs.
Perez believed it was important to have students engage in discussions, whether it was
about what they were learning in class or personal life experiences. Mrs. Perez affirmed
this in an interview, “I mean we have discussions about everything, in math we have
discussions whether it’s whole class or whether it’s in pairs. It just depends on what the
lesson is.” One discussion, in particular, was a dialogue about ensuring the safety of
students and in response to a recent lock down secondary to a near-by shooting incident.
Mrs. Perez explained:
Actually we had, there was a shooting a couple of weeks ago and we talked
about safety because I had one parent who texted me and said that their daughter
was concerned about coming to school. We had just had a lock down and so I told
them (students) that my priority is for them (students) to be safe and so we had
that discussion just so they knew that they needed to come to school. They needed
to be here to learn and the objective is I’m going to make sure they’re safe
regardless of where they’re at and then we got to talk about it. Ok, so if it happens
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again and you hear the pop or whatever, then we know we need to hit the floor
even if we are in the classroom or out on the playground. So it (the discussions)
could be something that is planned or something that the kids brought in that
needs to be addressed at the time.
This is an example of how Mrs. Perez believed she engaged in open dialogue with her
students as a means of demonstrating mutual confianza and respeto. She wanted her
students to know that they were going to be safe and as a result, fostered a trusting and
respectful relationship and environment enacted through authentic teacher care. However,
most of Mrs. Perez’s opportunities for open dialogue failed to relate to her students’
cultural context and this ultimately hindered her ability to create a meaningful learning
environment.
Mrs. Perez also enacted mutual respeto through the use of positive language.
Examples of positive language to show mutual respeto include Mrs. Perez providing
positive feedback to students with words like “awesome!” and “I like the way you tore
apart the pages so you see it better!” In these examples, Mrs. Perez utilized positive
language in order to acknowledge and praise students for their actions. Acknowledging
students for their actions provided an environment where students felt respeto.
Students also utilized positive language with each other during their interactions
and dialogue. Two examples of this was when students maneuvered throughout the
classroom and politely said, “excuse me” to one another and when students passed out
papers, others responded by saying “thank you.” This was an example of how positive
language was used in a classroom atmosphere built on mutual respeto. When students
respectfully acknowledged each other using positive language such as “excuse me” and
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“thank you,” it reflected a positive classroom culture where students showed mutual
respeto.
Mrs. Perez also demonstrated mutual confianza when she used positive language
to encourage her Latino students, “You know we messed up today, but tomorrow is a
new day and just learn from what you’ve done.” The aforementioned example shows that
Mrs. Perez interacted positively with her Latino students as Noddings (1988)
emphasized, and made her students feel safe to make mistakes, thereby creating mutual
confianza (and by extension care).
Mrs. Perez fostered a caring relationship with her Latino students based on mutual
confianza and respeto as evidenced by her attempts to engage students in open dialogue
and use positive language. Mrs. Perez also cultivated a classroom climate whereby
students demonstrated mutual respeto towards each other through dialogue and positive
language. Much like Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) explained, when students
experience a relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto, they feel safe to engage
and participate in the learning process.
Clear Expectations and Contingency Management. Another manner in which
Mrs. Perez fostered mutual confianza and respeto was through clear expectations and
contingency management. Clear expectations were provided to students in Mrs. Perez’s
classroom to foster a safe learning environment, or confianza. Mrs. Perez then used
contingency management as a way of increasing compliance for positive behaviors.
Contingency management is the means of assisting performance by which rewards and
punishments are implemented following wanted or unwanted behavior (Tharp &
Gallimore, 1989). Mrs. Perez indicated that she began establishing the teacher-student
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relationship on the first day of school by establishing classroom rules. She indicated that
it was important to “develop the relationships from the get-go” and one way she did this
was by establishing rules with her students. Mrs. Perez’s belief to collaborate with her
students demonstrated mutual respeto because it empowered students by including them
in this process as opposed to exercising control over them by developing classroom rules
herself. Mrs. Perez’s goal of creating an environment based on mutual confianza and
respeto was fostered the moment she established what Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus
(2006) defined as clear expectations for students. In an interview with Mrs. Perez she
indicated:
I don’t have the rules already set and they sign them. It’s like no, we go together
and talk about the rules and they establish the rules and then they sign it so
there’s buy-in and the parents sign them too. They develop the goals. We do it
together. There are some rules that I truly think need to be on there. If they don’t
get there, I will kind of try to sway them there, but they usually get there. And
they are very general rules. You know respect for each other. A sheet goes home
and the parents sign. I post the rules.
Including Latino students in establishing classroom rules was an example of how Mrs.
Perez fostered what Valenzuela (1999) described as humanizing pedagogy, where Latino
students were given the power to contribute to the collective voice. She additionally and
purposefully talked about “respect for each other” when creating classroom rules and this
in turn, was a vital component to the type of classroom culture she intended to cultivate.
Mrs. Perez also included the family in this process, which subsequently demonstrated a
value for family and culture, thus demonstrating authentic care. Mrs. Perez’s decision to
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include the family in this process aligned with Valenzuela’s (1999) idea of authentic care
where family is held in high regard. Through a review of artifacts, the following were
class rules students helped co-construct:
• Be Respectful
• Be Responsible
• Be Safe
• Have Fun!
Latino students in Mrs. Perez’s classroom gave input to develop the classroom rules, so it
was evident they were aware of the expectations. Mrs. Perez fostered a teacher-student
relationship where clear expectations were provided throughout the day. These rules also
supported a classroom environment based on mutual respeto (Be respectful) that Mrs.
Perez sought to cultivate. The following are examples of language used to enforce the
classroom rules and provide clear expectations, which also contributed to mutual
confianza and respeto:
• “If you hear me clap once. If you hear me clap twice….”
• “We need to listen.”
• “Pencils down, eyes on me.”
• “Remember, I’m the movie and you’re watching me.”
It was common for Mrs. Perez to enact mutual respeto towards her Latino students by
reminding them of the expectations in a private manner. On one occasion, Mrs. Perez
leaned over to a student and whispered, “We need to listen.” Garza (2009) would
describe this is as an example of how caring teachers assist students without
embarrassing them. Mrs. Perez also gave nonverbal cues and indirect verbal cues to
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students whereby students understood what was expected of them, thereby creating an
environment based on mutual confianza and respeto. One example of this was when Mrs.
Perez initiated the “peace” sign signifying that she expected the class to be silent. In
another example, Mrs. Perez called out, “Oh, who is ready to go?” and this prompted
students to immediately raise their hands to make the “peace” sign. Students making the
“peace” sign was evidence that suggested students understood the clear expectations set
forth by Mrs. Perez, which tied back to the “Be respectful” rule because students were
expected to be quiet and listen to each other as a way of demonstrating respeto. It was
clear that Mrs. Perez had established a caring learning environment where mutual
confianza and respeto permeated as a result of having clear expectations and in the
manner in which these expectations were delivered to students.
Mrs. Perez expressed that her all of her students were “expected to come and
learn.” Mrs. Perez described several ways in which she kept track of her students’
behaviors and how she utilized these systems to provide rewards and consequences, and
ultimately assist students with being ready to learn. The following were part of the
classroom management system that Mrs. Perez utilized in her classroom:
• Happy/Sad Face Clip System
• Table Points
• Individual Behavior Chart
• Whole Class Points using “monkeys”
Mrs. Perez believed in rewarding her students for their good behavior. Students in her
class had the opportunity to earn class rewards, team rewards and individual rewards.
Class rewards consisted of 30-minute class parties (e.g., movie parties) when the entire
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 99

class accumulated “15 monkeys.” Mrs. Perez reported that students could earn a monkey
if the entire class completed their homework, if someone walked in and said, “Wow,
they’re all engaged!” or if they were paid a compliment for walking on campus in a
straight line. Team rewards were given “to the table with the most points every couple of
weeks.” Team rewards consisted of homework passes that excused students from that
table from all homework for one day and lunch with the teacher in the classroom.
Individual rewards, however, were earned through raffles every two to three weeks and
when each student filled up their individual behavior chart. When a student filled up his
or her individual behavior chart, Mrs. Perez treated the students to an off-campus lunch
date. Consequences were given to students who were not showing readiness to learn,
however. In an interview with Mrs. Perez she explained the following:
I have the Happy/Sad face (system). And I have a magnet person who switches it
to the happy/sad face. Today they were actually behaving really well cause they
were all engaged. And I first warn them and then if I have to change their seat I
do. Usually they have trouble on the carpet because there are so many of them and
then I’ll change their seat and that’s their second warning. The third warning is
the sad face and then they lose their recess. And if it’s after recess, then they’ll
lose half of their lunch recess. And they can always move back. So they can
always start off bad and move back and the next day is always a new day.
It was evident that Mrs. Perez maintained clear expectations for her Latino students and
students subsequently had opportunities to be rewarded for following classroom
expectations. These rewards took the form of praise and encouragement, material
reinforcements, and privileges as Tharp and Gallimore (1989) outlined. An example of
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verbal encouragement included Mrs. Perez beginning the day with “We’re going to have
a good day, right?” Tharp and Gallimore (1989) declared that classrooms that assume
contingency management are positive and productive classrooms. Mrs. Perez’s clear
expectations and contingency management system provided a classroom that produced
positive outcomes. However, Tharp and Gallimore (1989) asserted that contingency
management is not used to produce new behaviors, rather new behaviors are fostered
through modeling. In an interview with Mrs. Perez, she confirmed that she modeled the
process of conflict resolution with her students:
There is a protocol you know. You (the student) try to handle it yourself first. If
not and they (the student) don’t listen to you, then you (the student) go to an adult,
then it becomes my issue. I can take care of it. Well, that’s what I was trying to do
on the way back from recess. It’s like they always have to come back and tattle.
So it’s like what did you (the student) do? Usually I just listen so that they think
I’m doing something about it, but usually they could handle it themselves. Did
you (the student) tell them? No, then that’s where you (the student) need to go.
Mrs. Perez reported that she walked her students through the conflict resolution process.
This was confirmed when she acted as a facilitator in a conflict resolution session
between two of her students as they walked back to class after recess. The argument was
over not sharing a ball and Mrs. Perez took the time to listen to both students and then
reminded both students to use their words and listen to each other as a way of resolving
their conflict. Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) reminded us that clear expectations
and respectful approaches to conflict resolution establish safe learning environments.
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In sum, Mrs. Perez demonstrated authentic teacher care through the teacher-
student relationships and classroom climate she cultivated, which was based on mutual
confianza and respeto. Specifically, the mutual confianza and respeto Mrs. Perez fostered
was evident through the open dialogue and positive language used in verbal exchanges,
and clear expectations and contingency management system she employed in her
classroom. This helped facilitate a learning environment based on mutual confianza and
respeto where Latino students felt comfortable sharing their personal reflections (social
or academic), where students knew what was expected of them, and where they were
recognized for their good work and/or behavior. The care that Mrs. Perez enacted also
helped foster an inclusive learning environment for not only the Latino students in her
class, but for all students as presented in the next section.

Inclusive Learning Community

Mrs. Perez fostered a classroom climate based on authentic teacher care, where
Latino students were members of a learning community and where Latino students felt
pride and ownership of their classroom. Not only did Mrs. Perez create a safe learning
environment as discussed previously, but she actively included everyone in the learning
process, which demonstrated authentic teacher care for all.

As discussed previously,
Mrs. Perez created a learning environment where all
students were able to earn rewards and incentives. However, Latino students were also

included on a rotating basis, to hold classroom jobs and all students took pride in holding
these positions. This was demonstrated above in the example where Sarah got up from
her chair to turn on the lights because she knew it was her duty to do so. Mrs. Perez
validated this in an interview:
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We also have classroom jobs and they’re good. They know if I’m out and I
come back, everything is clean. They sharpen the pencils and the trash is thrown
out. The custodian comes in and he says, “Your classroom is always the cleanest”
and I say, “Yeah, cause they have pride.” They know if there are papers on the
floor, they better get down there and pick them up. They throw out the trash. They
clean their desks. I mean they’re self-sufficient if I’m not here. Somebody puts
the magnets away. Somebody reads objectives so they know what we are doing
for the day. They read the lunch. And if somebody is not doing their job, they let
them know.
Mrs. Perez claimed that her Latino students had pride in keeping their classroom clean
and in executing their jobs. However, her statement of “they better get down there and
pick them (papers) up” seemed to be more of an expectation than students taking
initiative for themselves. Even if it was an expectation, Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus
(2006) would consider Mrs. Perez’s clear expectations as establishing a safe learning
environment. Mrs. Perez held her students to a high standard and her students met those
high expectations by taking the initiative, thus displaying evidence of having pride in
their classroom jobs. Examples included Sarah getting up to turn on the lights, Estrella
passing out papers, and Ryan tallying table points. Students had specific jobs and Mrs.
Perez made sure to rotate the students, thereby creating an inclusive learning
environment. Mrs. Perez also consistently and consciously made efforts to include and
support Latino students with learning challenges.
Mrs. Perez discussed having two Latino students identified as having exceptional
needs in her classroom. One of those students, Isaiah, had a one to one instructional aide
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 103

assigned to him. However, the aide sat at a different table in the back of the classroom
and appeared to only intervene by giving additional verbal cues to help Isaiah remain on
task. Most of the time, it appeared as though Mrs. Perez gave Isaiah verbal cues and
prompts to keep him engaged. The instructional aide was observed to provide at least one
verbal prompt per observation. The instructional aide’s actions were seen as her ability to
correct misbehavior in a private manner as Monzo and Rueda (2001) describe with cariño
as she walked over to him and quietly reminded him to pay attention or keep working.
There were moments where it appeared that Mrs. Perez’s patience was tested
given the tone in her voice when she talked about Isaiah during our interview. When
asked about how Mrs. Perez planned lessons given the learning needs of her Latino
students, she explained:
Like for language arts time, I may have, like I know Isaiah is good at
computers so anytime, if we’re doing writing, he could do it on the computer
because I know that’s where he’s going to throw his tantrum or whatever, so
we have him on the computer so that’s a need he has.
Mrs. Perez’s tone and affect when discussing Isaiah’s “tantrum or whatever” seemed to
be one where her patience was tested. However, Mrs. Perez’s actions and demeanor
towards Isaiah during classroom interactions stood in contrast to the tone in her
interview. This was evident anytime Mrs. Perez verbally encouraged Isaiah to participate,
verbally praised him for his work or made attempts to include him in the lessons. Once
such example of this was the following:
T: Everyone come sit on the rug.
Isaiah: [Ignored Mrs. Perez’ command and remained in his desk]
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T: Come on you can do it Isaiah, just like everyone else babe.
Isaiah: [Got up and went over to sit on the rug]
Mrs. Perez’s comment of “Come on you can do it Isaiah, just like everyone else” was not
only an example of a clear expectation, but positive language used to show that Isaiah
was no different than anyone else, demonstrating the same level of respeto as everyone
else. When engaging in an open dialogue with Isaiah, Mrs. Perez used the same language
as she did with others and referred to him as “babe” demonstrating that she treated him
similarly to others. Despite Isaiah being identified as a student with exceptional needs, he
was expected to follow the same procedures and complete the same assignments as
everyone else, thereby creating an inclusive learning community that Franquiz and De La
Luz Reyes (1998) described. As Garza (2009) encouraged, Mrs. Perez’s actions are
evidence of her ability to redirect Isaiah back to instruction without using a negative and
demanding tone.
In another situation, Isaiah had refused to go to RSP (Resource Specialist
Program) and Mrs. Perez did not force him to go. Rather, she offered him a choice to
remain in her class for math. Here is an example of how Isaiah was included in a math
lesson:
T: We know the perimeter is 12cm. What is it that we need to do first?
Sam: n+n+n+n=12cm.
T: Yes, but that’s called repeated addition. Now what are we going to do?
What would make sense here?
Andrew:3+3+3+3=12cm.

T: Let’s see, is it 12cm?
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Class: Yes.
T: How else can we check our work? 12cm divided by 3=n. How can I put
this into multiplication?
Isaiah: 3x4=12.
T: Correct Isaiah. 3x4=12
After 20 minutes of guided math instruction, Mrs. Perez asked the class to do
independent work, but encouraged them to ask their neighbors for help if they had any
questions.
T: If you have a question, ask your neighbor.
T: Isaiah, you want to try it? You know what you’re doing.
Isaiah: No [mumbled and turned his head away]
Mrs. Perez then gave the class the following direction, “If you’re done, you can get your
Chrome Book or work on Flat Stanley.” This prompted the following response:
Isaiah: I want to use the Chrome Book!
T: Well then, you need to do your work.
Isaiah: Ok…
Isaiah was then observed to complete his work within minutes in order to get the Chrome
Book. This was another example of how Mrs. Perez made a conscious effort to include
Isaiah in instruction and engaged in the work through the use of clear expectations and
contingency management. Tharp and Gallimore (1989) confirmed that contingency
management restores students’ engagement in the task by utilizing tangible rewards and
verbal encouragement.
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An interview with Mrs. Perez revealed that her Latino students also demonstrated
behaviors that added to fostering an inclusive learning environment. In an interview with
Mrs. Perez where she was asked how she wanted her students to treat each other, she
responded:
Mutual Respect. Like Annabelle, my little one. They (students) knew she couldn’t
do it and she would always throw tantrums on the floor. This year, she has really
grown up cause she hasn’t thrown any, but they (students) would really caudle her
and they (students) would bring her along and someone would always work with
her to make sure she understood.
This was an example of a classroom that exemplified respect and care and where students
supported each other as Noddings (1988) clarified and created what Franquiz and De La
Luz Reyes (1998) described, a situation where students themselves fostered an inclusive
learning environment.
The inclusive learning community that Mrs. Perez helped foster was also
supported by school supports such as the RSP (Resource Specialist Program) teacher who
came in to check on another student, Aly. Mrs. Perez indicated the following:
You notice I had the RSP person walk in and she was standing over there. That’s
because I have two RSP students in class. She comes in for a half hour to make
sure she’s on task and doing what she needs. Then she’ll come see her right
before lunch again to make sure.
Here, Mrs. Perez spoke about the support the RSP teacher provided to her
students in order for them be successfully included into the general education classroom.
It was evident that Mrs. Perez helped cultivate a culture of inclusiveness by engaging all
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her students, including her Latino students, in the day-to-day management of the class
and in the learning process. She made a conscious effort to include students with
exceptional needs, thereby demonstrating authentic teacher care.
Value Culture, Language and Community

Drawing from Valenzuela (1999) and Delpit’s (2012) idea of valuing students’
cultural, linguistic, and community, Mrs. Perez spoke of her beliefs that aligned with the
concept of a value for culture, language, and community, but it was not observed in her
practice. This section will outline Mrs. Perez’s belief of value for culture and community
by reaching out to families and the community. I will then explain how Mrs. Perez acted
in ways that showed she respected students irrespective of their linguistic skills, but failed
to create instructional tasks that reflected a value for culture, language, and community.
In an interview with Mrs. Perez, she believed in reaching out to families by being
accessible to them, making them aware of the behavioral management system and
including them in classroom learning activities. A review of documents revealed that
Mrs. Perez informed her parents that she could be reached by school phone, school email
and by personal cell phone number. Families were also made aware of the behavioral
system that Mrs. Perez maintained within the classroom whereby consequences included
a “message or call to parents.” Mrs. Perez spoke of reaching out and including families in
what was occurring at school, which in turn, showed a value for the students’ culture and
respeto towards families. Valenzuela’s Mexican concept of educación is grounded in
respectful and caring relationships where teachers create an instructional environment
where a student’s culture is valued. Not only was open dialogue practiced between Mrs.
Perez and her students as Noddings (1988) recommended, but she described the ways in
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which she engaged in care towards her students by being accessible to families to engage
in open dialogue with them.
Families were also included in take-home projects where family members were
involved in the students’ learning process. In an interview with Mrs. Perez, she stated the
following:
We do a reading fair and they’re going to read a chapter book and then they’re
going to put it on a board and their parents are going to help them. We’ve taught
them how to do the writing. We’ve taught them what the character traits are.
We’ve taught them what the settings are. So we’ve taught them all the things in
class so now it’s their turn to show it at home with help from their parents.
Here, Mrs. Perez demonstrated that, Much like Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004)
suggested, by showing families mutual respeto by way of reaching out to them and
including them in the educational process, showed that she cared for her Latino students.
Having families create a board that was authentic to their individual style not only shared
the students’ culture, but valued it. Mrs. Perez spoke about how she included and/or
reached out to her Latino students’ families, which demonstrated that she valued their
input and perspectives, but her practice did demonstrate this. In addition, Mrs. Perez’s
teaching practices did not reflect the students’ cultural, linguistic, and community
knowledge.
Mrs. Perez reported that Shore Elementary was a school that established a
partnership with the surrounding community, so the culture of the school intentionally
fostered an atmosphere where the students’ community was valued and Mrs. Perez
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embraced this. Mrs. Perez shared how her classroom connected with the community, thus
showing value for community.
We actually have “Share a Story” week. Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday we
have people from the community that come in and read. So right now I have 40
people signed up, but that’s not including the fire department. So we could have
family members cause I sent home a flyer to all the family members so it could be
grandmas, it could be the mailman that comes and reads too. I mean we would
have the city police department that signs up. We have the library because we
have good outreach program that come in and reads to our kids, our third and
fourth graders. It’s called our Early Literacy Program, where they come in and
read to us every week, once a week for an hour.
Mrs. Perez’s acceptance of the school’s ethos translated to her ability to solicit 40 people
from the surrounding community. Her eagerness in reaching out to the community
demonstrated authentic care for Latino students because it was a way of supporting the
students’ participation in the learning process. By embracing the community, it allowed
herself to become knowledgeable of her students’ community, thereby creating personal
relationships with her students as Valenzuela (1999) encouraged. However, Mrs. Perez
failed to tie class work to her students’ cultural, language and community knowledge.
Valenzuela (1999) asserted that teachers who demonstrate authentic care are those
that demonstrate respect for all students irrespective of their linguistic skills. Mrs. Perez
demonstrated this when she provided a safe learning environment where students were
able to ask questions clarifying vocabulary. The following dialogue is an example of this:
Maria: What’s a lawn chair?
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T: You know the chairs you use when you go to a
baseball game?
Andy: Or like when you go to the beach or the pool.
T: Do you know what it is now?
Maria: Yes.
It was clear that not everyone in Mrs. Perez’s classroom came in with the same language
abilities. Mrs. Perez fostered an environment where it was acceptable to ask questions
and where she supported students’ participation in the learning process. As Valenzuela
(1999) advocated, this was an example of how teachers valued the students’ linguistic
abilities and the knowledge they brought to school. Mrs. Perez valued her students
irrespective of the language they knew. She did not perceive Maria’s limited lexicon as a
deficit, but rather showed respeto for the resources she brought with her to school. Maria
also added to the learning environment and Mrs. Perez used this as an opportunity to have
other students share their knowledge. This learning opportunity not only assisted Maria’s
experience, but subsequently may have informed others with the same knowledge.
Valenzuela (1999) further suggested that teachers who enact authentic care for students
demonstrate respect for all students regardless of their linguistic abilities. Additionally,
Franquiz and De La Luz Reyes (1998) argued that teachers foster meaningful learning
communities for linguistically diverse learners when teachers assume the role of a more
expert other and help scaffold the students’ learning. Although Mrs. Perez showed a
value for students’ language, she failed to use explicit linguistic instruction.

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High Expectations and Academic Support

Mrs. Perez not only established clear behavioral expectations, but she also set
high academic expectations through district-adopted goals, along with providing the
academic support her Latino students required. As discussed earlier, Mrs. Perez reported
in an interview that students were “expected to come to school and learn.” In addition,
she explained that from Kindergarten, students were taught how to show evidence of their
learning through closed reading strategies such as “UNRAAVEL.” UNRAAVEL was a
district-wide closed reading strategy to help students organize and identify information in
a reading passage. After reviewing artifacts, the UNRAAVEL process asked students to
complete eight steps:
• Underline the title.
• Now predict the passage.
• Run through and number the paragraph or make logical segments.
• Are you reading the questions?
• Are the important words circled?
• Venture (read) through the passage.
• Eliminate wrong answers on multiple choice and evidence-cite it in essays!
• Let the questions be answered.
This strategy was taught to students to offer academic support, but it also demonstrated
that the school, including Mrs. Perez had high expectations of students as they were
expected to use it to show evidence of their learning. Mrs. Perez’s strong beliefs about
the UNRAAVEL process and willingness to include this into her practice demonstrated
that she bought into the district’s initiatives.
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We do have to use the UNRAAVEL as a district, and closed reading is district-
wide so those posters over there are UNRAAVEL. They’re learning from
kindergarten. The UNRAAVEL is where they have to show their work on their
paper. You know how they write in the margins. In kinder, they are starting that
but we just push it up a notch every year. So by the time they’re out of here in
fifth grade, they should be doing that without any support at all.
Teaching the UNRAAVEL strategy required what Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006)
asserted, Mrs. Perez’s time to provide academic support, be accessible, and listen to
students. In addition, Mrs. Perez’s accessibility to work with her Latino students to foster
academic growth by encouraging high-quality work was an example of what Antrop-
Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) called hard caring. As demonstrated here, Mrs. Perez
asked her students for evidence of their learning.
Briana: I’m done.
T: Where’s your evidence?
Briana: Oh! Let me go back.
Sam: What could be the answer?
T: What are some of the key words in the question?
Sam: Oh, there’s football.
T: Yes, it’s almost like baseball so there’s your answer.
Here, Mrs. Perez did not simply accept that Briana was done. Instead, Mrs. Perez had
high expectations of Briana and had her return to her seat to show evidence of her work,
again showing evidence of hard caring. Mrs. Perez also demonstrated hard caring when
Sam did not have the answer and provided Sam assistance through scaffolding.
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In an interview with Mrs. Perez, she discussed the scaffolding that occurred
within her classroom. She explained that she offered her students academic support
through the scaffolding, modeling and guided learning; and assured she began every
lesson with a lot of “hand-holding,” but then encouraged her students to complete tasks
independently. She said,
Mondays there is a lot of whole group because Monday is the day that’s when a
new standard or new objective is being learned for the rest of the week or the two
weeks depending on how long we’re going to learn that. So Mondays is usually a
lot of hand-holding, a lot of me doing the lesson but they’re still participating. I
mean even reading, if you see me reading aloud, it takes us forever to get through
the chapter because there is so much discussion going on and there’s where they
learn truthfully.
Mrs. Perez demonstrated hard caring for Latino students through a willingness to make
her time available to provide academic support by pointing out that a lesson could last
one or two weeks depending on how long it took for students to learn something. Mrs.
Perez further explained that she held high expectations of her students and spoke of her
goal to develop independent learners.
You know, there’s a lot of connections being made so Mondays are a lot of
hand-holding, but by the end, they’re doing it on their own. And they know
it, Mrs. P is going to be there from the get-go showing you exactly how to do it
and eventually, I start letting you go and it’s that scaffolding and then
eventually you’re doing it on your own. So they know that. And they know that
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when they’re on the carpet, they’re mine. So Mondays are a lot of scaffolding, so
eventually by the end of the week, they’re doing projects on their own.
Mrs. Perez’s tone and comment of “when they’re on the carpet, they’re mine” was
perceived as having ownership, accountability and responsibility for her students’
learning. She believed and acted in ways caring teachers do with their students. Delpit
(2012) compared this to teachers who act as if these students were their own children.
Mrs. Perez demonstrated caring behaviors when she made herself available to her Latino
students by walking through the classroom assisting her students or encouraging students
to come to her as a way of offering academic support.
Another way Mrs. Perez offered academic support was through class
accommodations. She said,
I also have a lot of sentence frames for those kids that need them. And again my
whole thing is I’m hoping that this is just the first part of their learning to write it
and then eventually they’ll be able to write it in their own way so they’re not
using it. I mean they know how to already use it, they can put it in their own
words. And I still have those that use it verbatim and that’s fine cause they’ll still
be able to be at grade level. But if they want to get a 4 instead of a 3 on the rubric,
they need to be able to voice it in their own words.
Here, Mrs. Perez discussed that she offered academic support to the Latino students who
needed it in the form of “sentence frames.” Mrs. Perez’s goal for her students was to offer
academic support with the expectation that her students would later internalize the
cognitive process and become independent learners. This academic support was provided
by ensuring students learned the material and by being flexible as Garza (2009)
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contended. Accommodations provided to students were also in the form of visual charts
and resources.
I have a lot of visuals. My room is full of visuals. Those are all resources. And
you know when we go to testing, everything has to come down. But you could see
them using it as a resource during class work because they remember what’s on
the poster.
Here Mrs. Perez discussed the visual charts she used as resources for students who
required academic support. Observations revealed that Latino students in Mrs. Perez’s
classroom consistently used these visual charts as academic support. One example of this
was during the Daily Oral Language assignment How do you make puppy a plural?
Esther recalled, “Oh, I remember. You take off the Y and add IES and it’s right there on
our poster.” These visuals or resource charts reinforced what Mrs. Perez had taught her
students. Mrs. Perez, indicated,
It’s all taught before I put it up and a lot of it is their writing, you can tell it’s their
writing. You can tell my writing. We do a lot of “sharing the pen” because during
that time, we do a lot of the vocabulary or a lot of the teaching of capitalization
and things like that so I’m able to do some good teaching points during their
writing.
A review of documents and artifacts showed that the visuals students had created along
with Mrs. Perez were posted along the walls of the classroom and utilized as resources
for academic support. The direct teaching, modeling and scaffolding Mrs. Perez provided
her Latino students can be seen as the facets of good teaching that Alder (2002) discussed
as being one authentic form of teacher care.
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Meaningful Learning
To further explore the academic support Mrs. Perez offered her Latino students
and to examine how Mrs. Perez attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment
for Latino students, the ways in which she offered academic support through the means
of assisted performance will be outlined in this next section. I will also discuss how Mrs.
Perez fostered a meaningful learning environment for Latino students through the
instructional tasks that promoted co-construction of knowledge and encouraged Latino
students to make connections, and engage in the process of metacognition.
Assisted Performance

Mrs. Perez’s authentic care for Latino students was evident when she provided
academic support in the form of assisted performance, or scaffolding as described by
Alder (2002). Mrs. Perez also provided an environment as Vygotsky (1978) encouraged,
where learning was socially mediated through the interactions she encouraged between
her students. Much like Vygotsky (1978) described, Mrs. Perez created an environment
where knowledge and skills were adopted in a social environment, thereby producing a
meaningful learning environment. Mrs. Perez believed her students attended school to
learn and she helped them attain this objective through the scaffolding she provided.
Observations revealed that Mrs. Perez provided scaffolding, which defines what a student
can do with the support of another person through the means of assistance that Tharp and
Gallimore (1989) called modeling, questioning and feedback.
Modeling, Questioning and Feedback. Mrs. Perez assisted her students’
performance through modeling with the intent that her students would imitate her
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behavior during math lessons. Mrs. Perez called her class to the rug where most large
group lessons occurred.
T: Okay, we’re only looking at the outside—the perimeter. Not what’s on the
inside but the outside. So up to today you’ve been adding the perimeter
whether it’s equal sides or whatever polygon shape, a closed shape. So
today we’re going to find the perimeter numbers without any numbers at
all.
Eva: How do we do that?
T: Yes, how can we do that? Well, we’re going to do it this way. These are
the steps. Turn your body this way so you can see.
Mrs. Perez read the five steps for finding four unknown sides to her class and then
modeled how to do a problem by questioning and giving feedback as a means of assisting
their performance.
T: How many sides do I have?
Students: 4.
T: We did repeated addition for what?
Students: Multiplication.
T: Yes, so this is 4. So if I have 4+4+4+4=16. But if I know 4 and 4 is
8 and 4 and 4 is 8, then 8 + 8 is?
Students: 16.
T: Now, I’m going to use multiplication to solve this. 4x4=16 and if I
turn this into a related division fact, what is it going to be?
Maya: It’s 16 divided by 4 equals 4.
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T: Yes! See how multiplication and division is helpful to solve
problems?
Mrs. Perez modeled how to do a math problem in order to guide her students’
participation and she asked questions to assess student knowledge as Tharp and
Gallimore (1989) discussed. She additionally provided feedback in the form of verbal
expression to affirm their responses and give validation to their performance. Although
Mrs. Perez provided modeling, questioning and feedback during whole class instruction,
this specific activity limited her ability to assess all of her students’ learning. As a result,
she continued to model one more math problem on the rug area before instructing the
students to complete the first two steps on their own and at their desks while she walked
around the room scaffolding their learning. After about 2 minutes of circulating the
classroom, Mrs. Perez returned to the ELMO to model the math problem with her class.
T: Ok, what are we going to do first?
Students: g+g+g+g=20, so 5+5+5+5=20 cm.
T: How are we going to write a related division fact?
Ralph: 20 divided by 5 equals 4.
T: How are we going to turn that into a related multiplication fact?
Using the numbers we used, what can we do?
Ida: 5x4=20.
T: Yes! Does anyone have a question? (Class remained silent).
T: Now go ahead and work on the independent work.
Mrs. Perez checked on students’ work by walking around and giving feedback where
students needed it, thereby reaching more students than when the class was on the rug
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area. She again used questioning as a means of assisting performance in two manners: to
assess and assist. Mrs. Perez then instructed her students, without sounding authoritarian,
as Tharp and Gallimore (1989) affirmed, to work on the last two problems independently.
She encouraged students to ask their neighbor if they had questions as she also assumed
responsibility and walked around the classroom to assist her students’ performance.
During this time, Jacob approached Mrs. Perez asking for additional assistance and she
provided it by actively listening to him and providing feedback.
During a read aloud activity, Mrs. Perez was also observed to scaffold her
students’ learning by asking questions that assessed their knowledge. Mrs. Perez
instructed students to sit on the rug area for read aloud of the book “Grace for President.”
She asked questions and verbally encouraged students to participate.
T: What do you predict this book is going to be about?
Student: I think it’s going to be about a girl being president because of the
picture and the people behind her are cheering.
Mrs. Perez’s prediction question was an example of what Pentimonti and Justice (2009)
referred to, as a low support strategy used in literacy concepts because it offered minimal
levels of adult assistance and ultimately did not promote a deeper level of learning.
According to Pentimonti and Justice (2009), it is also a commonly used scaffolding
strategy by teachers during read aloud activities. However, Mrs. Perez provided what
Pentimonti and Justice (2009) called, a high support scaffolding strategy during a
different literacy activity.
T: We are going to look for opinions and facts in the story.
Student: I think that George Lucas is a genius.
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T: What is telling you in that sentence that it is an opinion?
Student: I think.
T: Good. Who can share a fact?
Student: George Lucas is the creator of Star Wars.
T: Yes, that’s a fact because we can prove it. At the end of the movie,
they show credits and his name is shown in the credits saying he
was the creator.
When Mrs. Perez asked “What is telling you in that sentence that is an opinion?” it was a
question that not only assessed the student’s knowledge, but was also seen as what
Pentimonti and Justice (2009) referred to, as an elicit strategy because it elicited the
student’s thoughts and promoted further academic discussion. The above task was also an
example of an authentic learning task because it connected to the majority of students’
interests as evidenced by their enthusiasm, subsequently making learning an active
process of knowledge construction as Anthony (1996) and Lee (2003) discussed.
Active Learning Tasks

In an attempt to create a meaningful learning environment, Mrs. Perez fostered an
environment where Latino students felt respected, safe, inclusive, and valued, but also
where students participated in what Anthony (1996) called an active learning process.
Consistent with Anthony’s (1996), Lee’s (2003) and Mayer’s (2002) explanations of
active learning tasks, Mrs. Perez created opportunities for knowledge construction and
co-construction where students applied prior knowledge to new knowledge, made
connections, and engaged in metacognitive strategies through active learning tasks.
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Authentic Assignments. Mrs. Perez created lesson plans that were authentic and
connected to students’ personal interests, much like Lee (2003) recommended. One
example of this was a Facts and Opinions lesson using a Star Wars article. As Mrs. Perez
read the article, students corrected her pronunciation of the words suggesting that
students were familiar with the text and favored the story. When students corrected Mrs.
Perez, she stated “I’m not really a Star Wars fanatic, so I wouldn’t know how to
pronounce some of these words. You guys are the fanatics!” Mrs. Perez’s constructivist
approach to learning involved an authentic article that Lee (2003) called learner-
centered. Aligned to Crawford’s (2008) ideas, Mrs. Perez additionally positioned herself
as a learner when she admitted that the students were authorities of knowledge who knew
how to pronounce these terms as opposed to her.
Another example of an authentic learning assignment was a Flat Stanley project
based on the Flat Stanley book. Students created a Flat Stanley that traveled with them
and where students wrote about their personal experiences with Flat Stanley in their
journals. This assignment served as an authentic learning assignment because students
were able to make individual choices and engage in creative thinking.
A review of documents and artifacts revealed that Mrs. Perez had students
complete authentic projects during “Writer’s Workshop” where students were allowed
the freedom to choose topics of interest and time was provided to complete multiple
drafts in which skills were taught as Lee (2003) advised. Mrs. Perez provided objectives
for assignments, such as having students answer prompts (i.e., Are dogs or cats better
pets?), but students were allowed the freedom to voice their opinions. Much like Lee
(2003) recommended, this assignment demonstrated how Mrs. Perez utilized a
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constructivist approach where assignments valued personal decision-making and the
democratic value of freedom.
Another example of an authentic learning activity through a constructivist
approach was when students engaged in other opinion writing assignments where
students were able to make individual choices and conduct research skills in order to cite
evidence to support their stance. As Anthony (1996) outlined, these assignments were all
opportunities where students engaged in meaningful learning because they demonstrated
control over their learning in an intellectually active learning process.
Knowledge co-construction. Constructivist theory suggests that meaningful
learning is an active process of knowledge co-construction between two individuals
(Anthony, 1996; Mayer, 2002). Aligned with this theory, Mrs. Perez incorporated active
learning tasks through small group work (i.e., “pair and share”) and collaborative
learning. There were many instances where Mrs. Perez asked the entire class a question
and students volunteered to share their knowledge. This allowed students the opportunity
to share their knowledge with others as Crawford (2008) and Mayer (2002)
recommended. Every time Mrs. Perez began a lesson about an article or story, she
allowed time for students to share their predictions about the text. Not only did this allow
students the opportunity to listen to each other and engage in dialogue thereby showing
mutual respeto, but students were able to engage in knowledge construction and co-
construction. Using the ELMO and engaged in a whole-class lesson, Mrs. Perez began
her lesson:
T: What do you notice about Sharing the Work?
Eva: It’s bolded.
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T: Yes it is.
Ralph: So is Signing the Constitution.
T: That’s right. Turn to your neighbor and tell them why you think it’s
bolded.
Mrs. Perez circulated around the class to listen to students’ responses. She then returned
to the front of the class, “I heard students say that it’s bolded because it’s a title. That’s
correct.” Students shared their knowledge during whole class discussion, but Mrs. Perez
also created safe learning opportunities where students shared in small group work. Other
examples of where students shared their knowledge and engaged in co-construction was
during a compare and contrast lesson. Mrs. Perez read a paragraph from The Sloth and
the Tiger. She then put a Venn diagram up on the ELMO with comparing The Sloth and
the Tiger and The Tortoise and the Hare.
T: What are the similarities and differences of both stories?
Eva: They both were in a race.
T: But we’re talking about setting. You’re right, but we’ll get there babe.
Sam: Jungle and Forrest.
T: What about character traits?
Ralph: Sloth and Tortoise.
Maya: Prideful.
T: What does that mean?
Maya: Friendly.
Sam: The hare is a bragger.
T: What about theme?
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Andy: Slow and steady wins the race.
Ida: Hard work pays off.
Ralph: Never brag and be prideful.
This was an example of meaningful learning because students were able to recall material
and relevant facts and make connections. Here, students also shared their knowledge and
certainly Mrs. Perez could have expected more from her students, but she accepted their
answers as self-constructed knowledge.
Making connections. Aligned to Mayer’s (2002) definition of making
connections, students in Mrs. Perez’s classroom engaged in active cognitive processes in
which they attended to relevant information, mentally organized that information and
integrated it with prior knowledge. In an interview with Mrs. Perez, she indicated,
It was perfect cause everything that was in that article that we did today was
exactly what we have in our worlds. I always try to relate it back to the real world
so it’s always that spiral back so they don’t forget it.
I observed many times during directed lessons where Mrs. Perez connected new
knowledge with prior knowledge. She was also observed to connect what was being
learned to the real world so learning was more meaningful to her students. Mrs. Perez
modeled this cognitive process with her students. During a history lesson, the class read
How Teamwork Built America. A sentence in the article read, He set rules for good
behavior. Mrs. Perez then referred it back to the classroom rules. She indicated, “Isn’t
that one of our rules too boys and girls?” She continued to read through the article.
T: What does document mean?
Ralph: It’s an important paper.
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Andrew: It’s like your birth certificate or drivers license.
Andrew’s ability to connect prior knowledge to new knowledge was evidence of
engaging in meaningful learning as opposed to what Anthony (1996) described as passive
reception or rote learning because of the connections being made. A review of documents
indicated that after spending 3 weeks learning about the branches of government,
students completed an opinion piece where they selected one of the branches they wanted
to work for and then had to provide two reasons for it and cite two resources. Students
had previously learned how to write an opinion piece and now were being asked to
complete an assignment where they had to integrate prior knowledge with new
knowledge. This authentic assignment was an opportunity for students to acquire and
integrate knowledge.
Metacognition. Another way in which active learning occurred within the
classroom was when students demonstrated awareness of their cognitive processes, or
metacognition. During the How Teamwork Built America lesson, Mrs. Perez read the
introduction.
T: In the summer of 1787…when was that?
Mike: About 200 years ago.
T: How do you know?
Mike: Because 1900 was about 100 years ago, so 1787 was 100 years
earlier, so 200 years ago.
T: Oh, you’re using mental math. How else can we figure it out?
Ida: Subtract.
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Mike’s ability to articulate his cognitive process in order to problem solve was a
demonstration of his learning. Ida’s answer of “subtract” was also evidence of
metacognition, but Mike’s cognitive processing was much more sophisticated because of
the multi-step cognitive process that Anthony (1996) described, and his ability to
articulate this validated his self-awareness.
Mrs. Perez often required students to cite evidence of their learning and to
articulate their cognitive processes by asking “How do you know?” Mrs. Perez further
explained,
Students must show evidence of obtaining answers by drawing a number line.
They must show their work and even the higher students that can come up the
answer and don’t need to do a number line, need to draw a number line because
they need to show the strategy being taught. Sometimes the test will ask for that
strategy and if they don’t practice it, they won’t know it.
Mrs. Perez wanted students to be aware of their cognitive processes and to demonstrate
that via spoken words, written words or pictures. She required students to write the
strategy down as part of their scaffolding to demonstrate their metacognition.
Summary
The relationship Mrs. Perez developed with Latino students was an example of
the authentic care Valenzuela (1999) described. Valenzuela (1999) asserted that Latino
students prefer an educational system that corresponds to the principles of educación,
which are rooted in a relationship based on respect and care. Mrs. Perez enacted authentic
care towards Latino students as Franquiz and del Carmen (2004) and Valenzuela (1999)
recommended, which was through a relationship built on mutual confianza and respeto.
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Evidence of mutual confianza and respeto was evident in the dialogue, positive language,
clear expectations and contingency management Mrs. Perez exercised with her students.
Mrs. Perez additionally enacted authentic care when she held high expectations and
offered academic support to Latino students. However, Mrs. Perez failed to enact
authentic care by demonstrating value for students’ culture, language, and community in
her teaching practice. While Mrs. Perez spoke about reaching out to parents and the
community and including them in class assignments, her practice did not reflect a
culturally responsive one. What was evident in Mrs. Perez’s classroom and building on
Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar’s (2004) idea of mutual confianza and respeto, was the
concept of creating an inclusive learning environment for all learners, including students
with learning challenges. Mrs. Perez assisted students’ performance and engaged Latino
students in active learning. Her classroom provided many learning opportunities, but
because all of the elements of a Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship were not present, Mrs.
Perez failed to provide a meaningful learning environment.
Case Study #2: Brenda Jones
Brenda Jones was a second grade teacher at Baker Elementary School, located in
a suburb in the Los Angeles County, in the same school district as Shore Elementary
School. Baker Elementary School was a Title 1 school serving 471 students in grades
transitional kindergarten to fifth grade (CDE, 2016). School enrollment by ethnicity
consisted of 92% identified as Latino, 3% White, 2% and 5% Other ethnicity (CDE,
2016). At Baker Elementary School, significant subgroups comprised of 67% socio
economically disadvantaged students, 23% English Language Learners, and 13%
Students with Disabilities (CDE, 2016). According to CDE (2013), the weighted 3-year
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average API was 850. Baker Elementary’s mission statement was “to provide students
with a challenging educational program in a student-centered environment.” The school
was also awarded 2016 Gold Ribbon School. Baker Elementary School was located on a
major cross street surrounded by single-family homes and commercial businesses.
Mrs. Jones was a credentialed and experienced teacher having taught 10 years in
the same district as Mrs. Perez. Mrs. Jones reported that her teaching career was limited
to working with Latino students and grew up in a near by city where the population was
mostly Latino and Asian. Her experience teaching was situated in grades kindergarten,
first, third and fourth. This was her first year teaching second grade and she had
previously taught a 3-4 combination class for 5 years. Mrs. Jones held a Masters in
Education and was recognized by her immediate supervisor as a teacher who held high
expectations of all her students. Mrs. Jones’s classroom was located directly across the
main office. It was a large second grade classroom that was accessible by two doors that
were often left open. Like Mrs. Perez’s classroom, it also displayed student work and
many resource charts throughout the classroom. The classroom was equipped with a wall
of brown wooden closet doors where the students stored their backpacks and personal
belongings. The students’ cubbies were located at the back of the classroom, each
identified with their names. The students’ desks faced away from the wall of windows
where natural light shined through. Mrs. Jones’s classroom was comprised of 17 Latino
students, 4 White students, and 2 African American students.
In the case of Mrs. Brenda Jones, the data showed that she failed to foster a
meaningful learning environment through all the elements of authentic teacher care and
her students’ experiences were not as rich because she failed to enact all of the elements.
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Because she failed to enact authentic care with her Latino students, it compromised the
meaningful learning environment. Mrs. Jones had good intentions and we see traces of
authentic care, sociocultural theory and constructivist theory in her practice, but not all
elements of a Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship were present. Observations revealed that
Mrs. Jones attempted to enact authentic care by the way she established clear
expectations and contingency management, but infrequently engaged in open dialogue
and positive language with Latino students and as a result, weakened the teacher-student
relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto. While her behavioral and academic
expectations were well established, her tone when giving instructions seemed to be an
authoritarian one as described by Tharp and Gallimore (1989). There were also times
when Mrs. Jones reprimanded students in public, which also hindered the teacher-student
relationship, also something Tharp and Gallimore (1989) urged to avoid.
Much like Valenzuela (1999) and Delpit (2912) encouraged, Mrs. Jones failed to
foster a meaningful learning environment for Latino students when she failed to connect
students’ culture, language and community through class assignments and discussions.
Mrs. Jones attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment as Antrop-Gonzalez
and De Jesus (year) and Lee (2003) recommended, by setting high expectations for her
students when she assured students understood concepts and produced their own work.
Observations also revealed that Mrs. Jones offered academic support in the form of
assisted performance as described by Tharp and Gallimore (1989), by walking around the
classroom or working in small groups with Latino students. Mrs. Jones’s classroom
environment provided active learning through authentic learning assignments.
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In this section, I will first discuss how Mrs. Jones lacked a strong and consistent
ability to enact authentic care towards Latino students through mutual confianza and
respeto through open dialogue and positive language, clear expectations and contingency
management. I will then outline how Mrs. Jones attempted to demonstrate a value for
culture, language and community as a means of demonstrating authentic care towards
Latino students. I go on to discuss how Mrs. Jones enacted authentic care when she set
high expectations and offered academic support through her words and actions. Finally, I
explain how Mrs. Jones attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment through
assisted performance and the learning tasks she employed in her classroom.
From the data derived from interviews and observations and in search of
examining the nature of classroom environments that foster a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students, two overarching themes emerged: Authentic Care and
Meaningful Learning.
Authentic Care:
• Mutual Confianza and Respeto
• Value Culture, Language and Community
• High Expectations and Academic Support
Meaningful Learning:
• Assisted Performance
• Active Learning Tasks

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Authentic Care
Mutual Confianza and Respeto

Mrs. Jones believed it was important to relate to her children and to establish a
relationship with her students based on the ideals of mutual confianza. She believed she
related to her students based on the fact that the “Asian and Latino cultures were very
similar.” She further believed that it benefitted her to connect with her students and felt
she did have a connection with her students because her parents “were immigrants, just
like some of her students’ families.” However, observations revealed that it was not a
common occurrence for Mrs. Jones to enact authentic care through dialogue and positive
language as she discussed. Aligned with Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) and
Tharp and Gallimore’s (1989) ideals, Mrs. Jones’s enacted authentic care by setting clear
expectations and a contingency management system. Much like Tharp and Gallimore
(1989) advised against, however, there were times, where Mrs. Jones took on an
authoritarian role with her students, thereby hindering their relationship and contradictory
to a relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto.
Dialogue and positive language. Data derived from interviews revealed that Mrs.
Jones believed in establishing a relationship with her students based on the ideals of
mutual respeto. However, during an interview where Mrs. Jones indicated, “I can tell you
about how I don’t want to be treated,” implied that mutual respeto was not always
enacted by her students. Mrs. Jones spoke about a time when one of her students asked
her, “How can you see through your small eyes?” Mrs. Jones described what happened.
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We were just learning about Martin Luther King Jr. All other students defended
me and said, “How can you say that? Don’t say that. Do you remember what
Martin Luther King Jr. said?” Students then quoted his speech.
This was an example of how one student’s dialogue did not reflect the mutual respeto
Mrs. Jones spoke about because it was negative as evident by Mrs. Jones saying, “I can
tell you about how I don’t want to be treated.” However, Mrs. Jones reported that other
students intervened on her behalf. This open dialogue between students was a critical
learning opportunity for all and although it did not reflect mutual respeto on behalf of one
student, it prompted classroom dialogue that promoted mutual respeto.
Mrs. Jones spoke of situations where students engaged in dialogue as a means of
showing mutual confianza. She indicated that students took an interest in her culture and
where her family came from.
They asked me to ask my parents for more stories to share with them. They want
to learn about my culture. The students also ask me about my daughter and ask if
she is well after they know she has been sick. They’ll ask about my teacher
training and ask what I learned. They love hearing personal stories all the time. I
like to show them pictures of my travels and they get really excited about that.
Here, students fostered mutual confianza by engaging in open dialogue with Mrs. Jones
where they sought to hear personal reflections to get to know her. Mrs. Jones also
indicated that when she was not feeling well, her students would ask her if she was
feeling better, thus demonstrating that students had a genuine concern about her well-
being through dialogue, and as a result demonstrated the mutual respeto they had for her.
Mrs. Jones further explained, “After a weekend, students will ask me how my weekend
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went. I feel like they truly care and have a genuine love for me. They are invested in me,
as much as I am invested in them.” Mrs. Jones described a situation where mutual
confianza was established because of the time students spent engaging in open dialogue
with her.
Mrs. Jones expressed enjoying this process of sharing who she was, and also
shared that she spent time getting to know her students. She explained, “I always ask on
Monday what they did on the weekend and on Friday I ask what they are going to do.
And I make everyone answer. I have them write about it in their journals.” These are
examples where mutual confianza developed between students and Mrs. Jones as they
spent time getting to know each other personally as a result of open dialogue.
Mrs. Jones enacted authentic care by demonstrating mutual confianza and respeto
through dialogue she believed she engaged students in, however, this was very seldom
observed. The following is an example of a time in which a student engaged in open
dialogue with Mrs. Jones during a lesson:
Marc: At my grandpa’s house, he found some termites eating up his wood.
T: Oh, they did. Did he have to call the exterminator?
Marc: Yes.
This was evidence of open dialogue because although Marc was not called upon, Marc
freely shared a personal experience whereby Mrs. Jones listened and asked further
questions. The teacher-student interaction between Mrs. Jones and Marc demonstrated
mutual confianza because Marc felt safe to share information about himself. This in turn,
showed that Mrs. Jones enacted authentic care when she took the time to engage in
dialogue where Marc’s prior knowledge and experiences were taken into account as
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Delpit (2012), Franquiz and del Carmen Salazar (2004), and Valenzuela (1999)
discussed.
Mrs. Jones was observed to employ positive language with her students in an
attempt to demonstrate mutual respeto towards students.
• “Wow!”
• “Superior!”
• “That’s good class!”
• “That’s great (student’s name)!”
• “I’m very impressed with (student’s name)!”
• “Oh (student’s name) shot for the stars!”
Mrs. Jones used phrases that demonstrated mutual respeto by validating students’ actions,
making them feel like members of a learning community.
Clear Expectations and Contingency Management. Another manner in which
Mrs. Jones attempted to demonstrate mutual confianza and respeto was via the
establishment of clear expectations and contingency management as Antrop-Gonzalez
and De Jesus (2006) and Tharp and Gallimore (1989) summarized. Mrs. Jones
maintained clear expectations for all through a contingency management system where
rewards and removal of privileges were utilized.
Mrs. Jones spoke about her behavioral expectations and what she did as a teacher
to help them reach those expectations. She believed that students needed “to be respectful
and well-behaved,” which meant “no talking when someone else is talking, hands to
yourself, using appropriate manners and words, and staying on task.” Mrs. Jones
expected her students to enact mutual respeto by not talking over others and listening,
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keeping their hands to themselves and using kind words. She wanted her students to
“treat others the way you want to be treated,” which demonstrated her desire for students
to engage in mutual respeto. However, her desire for students to “use kind words” was
non-existent as evidenced in the example above where a student commented about the
size of her eyes, and perhaps modeled after her own lack of respeto towards them. Mrs.
Jones further described her behavioral management system in which she used the
behavior clip system to track their behavior.
Behavior chart goes home every Friday and they color and they mark the behavior
that causes them to be on a certain color. The parents sign it. I sometimes write in
it as well. If it’s really bad, I will email or call during class and hand them the
phone so that they can speak to their parent.
Mrs. Jones’s behavior chart was a way of making students accountable for their actions
by pointing out which undesirable behavior they engaged in. She further made it clear
that the students’ parents were going to be notified of their behavior by having them sign
the chart. If there was any confusion, Mrs. Jones wrote on the behavior chart, making it
more clear to students and parents of the expectations. While Mrs. Jones’s decision of
calling her students’ parents during class was an attempt to communicate with families, it
may have hindered the teacher-student relationship because having the student speak to
them during class may have embarrassed them. Furthermore, and very similar to what
Tharp and Gallimore (1989) illustrated, Mrs. Jones’s actions were an example of how she
sounded authoritarian and where she exercised control over her students. As a result, she
engaged in behaviors that harmed the learning environment.
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There were other instances in which Mrs. Jones exercised control over her
students when she reprimanded her students during class time in a very public manner or
in an authoritarian manner. After Mrs. Jones conducted her lesson on the rug area, she
asked the class to return to their desks to get their math books. Mrs. Jones then began
reading a prompt, but another student chimed in at this time and Mrs. Jones responded,
“Maggie, can I do my job please? Thank you.” Mrs. Jones’s comment was a verbal
reprimand that exercised the power that Mrs. Jones had over Maggie by reminding her
that she was the teacher and Maggie was the student, rather than sending a message of
mutual respeto. Mutual respeto could have been enacted here if Mrs. Jones had asked
Maggie if she wanted to read thereby respecting the fact Maggie’s desire to participate.
However, data derived from observations revealed interactions between Mrs.
Jones and her students were not always negative or authoritarian when making students
aware of the expectations. There were repeated instances in which Mrs. Jones enacted
authentic care through clear expectations and contingency management. One such
example was during a directed lesson.
Jacob: I can’t find my pencil.
T: Where did you put it?
Jacob: I don’t know.
T: Go ahead and just borrow one from your neighbor. Remember class, you
need to be responsible students. You need to remember where you put
things.
Mrs. Jones offered Jacob a solution to the problem instead of negatively reprimanding
him. Instead, Mrs. Jones used a verbal reminder of what she expected as part of the
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contingency management system and in this instance also served as a reminder to all of
her students of the expectation of being responsible.
On a different occurrence, Mrs. Jones gave verbal reprimands that offered
students an opportunity to think about their actions and behaviors. While students were
engaging in group work, Mrs. Jones circulated the room and went directly over to a
student and indicated, “Carlos, are you making bad choices?” This was a verbal
reprimand as part of the contingency management system employed by Mrs. Jones and
empowered the student by asking if he was making bad choices. This approach aligned
with Valenzuela’s (1999) recommendation as a means of demonstrating authentic care.
Shortly thereafter and with a different student, Mrs. Jones utilized the following verbal
reprimand, “Edgar, are you making the right choices right now?” Although this was
worded differently, it delivered the same message, forcing the student to think more
deeply about his actions and placing the student in control of his actions rather than
exercising control over them. However, students in Mrs. Jones’s class never reached
being in control of themselves despite her several verbal reminders and redirection.
Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006) and Crawford (2008) also advised against teachers
being in a position where they exude control over their students and indicated that this
goes against enacting authentic care.
Mrs. Jones was inconsistent in her approach and tone with Latino students. She
frequently used a negative tone and/or approach when speaking to her students. Other
times, she gave students verbal reminders to remain on task or pay attention as part of the
contingency management system and did this in a way that aligned to mutual respeto.
Data taken from observations revealed that Mrs. Jones repeatedly walked over to
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students’ desks and whispered something to them to redirect their behavior. This was an
example of mutual respeto because it was not executed in an authoritarian manner.
During another observation, one student was off-task and Mrs. Jones asked to
speak to the student outside. Both Mrs. Jones and the student stepped outside returning
after a couple of minutes. In a post-observation interview, Mrs. Jones indicated that she
had to have a private conversation with the student for distracting others during work
time. Mrs. Jones’s decision to accompany the student outside to privately correct their
behavior was an example of how she enacted mutual respeto (and by extension authentic
care) because she abstained from verbally reprimanding the student in public.
Data conducted through observations also revealed that students held each other
accountable for maintaining a productive and positive classroom environment as part of
the contingency management. During group work, Mrs. Jones circulated the classroom to
offer students academic support, and one group member at a table reminded her group to
remain on task by saying, “We really need to work.”
On the other hand, it was also a common occurrence where Mrs. Jones used
extrinsic rewards (“dollars”) if they answered questions accurately or if they were on
task, which demonstrated that students were being recognized for their behavior, rather
than their knowledge construction.
Value Culture, Language and Community
Mrs. Jones attempted to enact authentic care with her Latino students, but failed
to do so in a way that was similar to what Valenzuela (1999) illustrated. Mrs. Jones
attempted to show value for Latino students’ culture and cultural knowledge through her
actions and her practice failed to portray a value for language or community entirely.
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There were attempts in her practice, which showed facets of a humanizing pedagogy
where she incorporated students’ cultural knowledge into classroom discussions as
previously mentioned and through authentic assignments. Mrs. Jones also spoke about
connecting with families through direct communication and including families in
classroom projects, which demonstrated some value for culture, but her ability to
integrate students’ culture, language and community into classroom assignments was
lacking in her practice.
Mrs. Jones said that she believed in developing personal relationships with
families by communicating with them to inform them of their child’s behavior. She also
demonstrated authentic teacher care for Latino students by asking about their home life in
order to relate to her students. She explained, “I always ask on Monday what they did on
the weekend and on Friday I ask what they are going to do.” By asking questions, Mrs.
Jones wanted to know more about Latino students and their cultural knowledge as a way
of relating and connecting with them in authentic ways. She also believed in
understanding Latino families through surveys, “I do parent surveys with the kids and
parents to get to know them.” These surveys went out to families at the beginning of the
year and a review of documents indicated the survey read:
Dear Parents and Caregivers, Please take the time to complete this confidential
form to help me better meet the individual needs of your child this year.
The survey asked several questions about the students’ personal lives, including the
students’ cultural or religious beliefs, languages spoken in the home and any factors
concerning the students’ home life. By asking relevant questions, Mrs. Jones
demonstrated an interest in her students, which helped develop a personal relationship
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with them built on authentic care as Valenzuela (1999) advocated. Rather than seeing
what students brought to the school environment through a deficit lens, Mrs. Perez
enacted authentic care by asking about students’ passions and talents outside of school
and asking about students’ strengths. Mrs. Jones additionally practiced authentic care by
asking about parents’ strengths and interests as a means of inviting parents into the
classroom to share their knowledge. However, other than having students write these
experiences in their journals, observations of Mrs. Jones’s teaching suggested that it was
not culturally sensitive.
Data collected through interviews also revealed that Mrs. Jones additionally
attempted to understand her students in authentic ways through a family tree and time
line activity. Mrs. Jones discussed that she asked her students to write a time line about
significant events in their family beginning at birth. By having students complete a time
line, it once again gave Mrs. Jones an opportunity to become familiar with her students’
cultural backgrounds and real-life experiences; and as a result, attempted to develop a
relationship with her students based on authentic care. Mrs. Jones believed in forming
caring relationships with her students as Delpit (2012) advised, when she spoke of using
students’ cultural backgrounds and real-life experiences in her instructional and curricular
decisions during social studies class discussions. Mrs. Jones incorporated a language arts
lesson that used pop culture tied to student interests. She also demonstrated a value for
her Latino students when she asked students to write about their home life in their
journals. Mrs. Jones’s personal interest in her Latino students demonstrated that she
valued their culture and wanted to connect with them, but she failed to connect to her
students in meaningful ways.
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High Expectations and Academic Support

Aligned with how Delpit (2012) and Valenzuela (1999) expressed how teachers
should enact authentic care, Mrs. Jones was better equipped at enacting authentic care
towards Latino students by setting high expectations and offering academic support
through the messages she conveyed to her students and the actions she engaged in. Data
obtained from observations revealed that it was a common occurrence that Mrs. Jones
called students to her desk one at a time to check for understanding, subsequently
demonstrating a willingness to reach out to students and offer academic support. Mrs.
Jones showed she authentically cared for her students when she gave students the
direction, “no, try again,” demonstrating that she evaluated student work and held high
expectations because she believed that they were capable of better work. Mrs. Jones
enacted authentic care when she insisted on high-quality work explaining to students the
concept of plagiarism. She explained that students needed to use their own words and if
they used someone else’s words, “it’s stealing” and they need to give credit to the author.
She repeatedly reinforced this when she reminded students, “Remember don’t copy, use
your own words.” Mrs. Jones’s advising students to produce authentic work was an
example of hard caring because she believed, like Antrop-Gonzalez and De Jesus (2006),
students were capable of producing high-quality work.
Observations also unveiled Mrs. Jones’s high expectations of Latino students
when she demanded more detail in student work, “What else can we say about that? You
definitely need to add as many details as possible.” This was evidence of her authentic
care towards Latino students because she believed her students were capable of better
quality writing samples.
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When Mrs. Jones was not working at her desk with individual students, she
circulated the classroom to offer academic support or worked in small groups with
students on the rug area. Mrs. Jones’s caring manifested through her willingness to make
herself accessible to students to assure they were producing high-quality and authentic
work, “I called students up to check their work and to make sure they spelled everything
ok and didn’t copy from the textbook.” Mrs. Jones also encouraged students to “use your
resources” for academic support. These included textbooks, visual charts, and a language
arts folder that included reference notes for synonyms, transition words, editing marks,
and rules for using quotation marks. Observations revealed that students did frequently
use their textbooks and language arts folder for reference.
Meaningful Learning
Meaningful learning is a process whereby students seek to make sense of the
knowledge they construct (Mayer, 2002). To further explore the academic support Mrs.
Jones offered her Latino students to assist them in meaningful learning, this section will
outline the pedagogical decisions Mrs. Jones made and the instructional tasks utilized
within her classroom environment.
Assisted Performance

Data derived from observations revealed that Mrs. Jones attempted to engage
Latino students in meaningful learning through the academic support she offered them,
specifically engaging in the act of assisted performance, or scaffolding. Much like Tharp
and Gallimore (1989) outlined, Mrs. Jones modeled how to complete tasks, questioned
students to assess and assist them, and gave feedback regarding their performance.
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Modeling, questioning and feedback. Data originated from observations
revealed that Mrs. Jones often modeled how to complete tasks as a means of assisting
students’ performance for meaningful learning. One such example of this was during
language arts when the class was engaged in a lesson on the subject of quotations. The
objective of the assignment was for students to create a paragraph using quotations.
Students worked in small groups at their desks and Mrs. Jones circulated the room to
assist them. She checked on a group in the back of the room and asked the group to read
their paragraph.
T: What did BB8 say?
Alex: Kai Loren is coming.
What followed was Mrs. Jones asking the group to read their part while she took on the
role of the narrator. As the group read the paragraph, Mrs. Jones stopped the group and
said, “You need to read your part as if you’re singing, like this…..” Mrs. Jones modeled
how to read the phrases within quotation marks so students could imitate how to read a
story with expression. Mrs. Jones’s decision to model a skill was the means to assist
students’ performance in an attempt to create a meaningful learning experience for Latino
students.
Another example of Mrs. Jones modeling for student learning was during a
writing lesson.
Okay, I’m going to look up here and choose one and write it as a reason. I’m
going to choose annoying noises from the T chart. In my opinion, I believe that
insects are really creepy. First reason: Some insects make annoying noises.
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Mrs. Jones modeled how to write an opinion sentence using choice words. Her decision
to model this skill assisted students in understanding the task so they could in turn,
replicate the same skill. Mrs. Jones also used words such as “Okay, so that was my
example” during her instruction to be explicit about the act of modeling a skill.
Observations also revealed that Mrs. Jones frequently assisted Latino students’
performance by asking them questions to stimulate their thinking and to assess students’
knowledge as Tharp and Gallimore (1989) proposed. The following was a language arts
lesson on quotations where Mrs. Jones had the class read a paragraph and she assisted
students’ learning through the means of questioning.
T: Do we need a quotation here?
Mrs. Jones then stopped her lesson because a couple of students were talking, “Stop, stop,
wait.”
Ben: You need a quotation there and a period because it’s the end of the
sentence.
T: What else do we need here? What do we need to add?
Juan: Yelled!
T: But is she yelling?
Mary: No, whispered.
By asking, “Do we need a quotation here?” Mrs. Jones provided a prompt in the form of
a question so students could problem solve and assist their learning. She then asked,
“What else do we need here?” as a way of soliciting a cognitive response as Tharp and
Gallimore (1989) advised. Mrs. Jones then asked Juan, “But is she yelling?” in order to
clarify his response and to construct further knowledge rather than telling Juan he was
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wrong, which wouldn’t have offered meaningful learning. Through the use of
questioning, Mrs. Jones scaffolded Latino students’ learning.
One such instance of how Mrs. Jones consistently utilized questioning as the
means of assistance in her classroom was when the class was positioned on the rug area
and the lesson involved telling time to the hour and half hour.
T: Why is it 10:30?
Jen: Because the big hand is on the 10 and the small hand is on the 6.
T: What time is it here?
Nelly: 4:30.
T: How do you know?
Nelly: Because the 4 is almost to the five and the big hand is to the 6.
Here, Mrs. Jones used questioning to assess Jen’s knowledge and check for
understanding.
Mrs. Jones also used questioning to clarify students’ responses and to engage
students in metacognition. An example of what consistently occurred in Mrs. Jones’s
classroom involved a writing lesson:
Alex: Some insects light up like fireflies.
T: Ok, is that an example or a reason?
Alex: Oh, an example.
T: Ok, how can we fix it?
In this example, Mrs. Jones responded to Alex with a question as a means of checking his
own work through reflection. Rather than telling Alex that he was wrong, she asked,
“How can we fix it?” to encourage self-correction. This was also an example of
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meaningful learning because instead of Mrs. Jones giving Alex the correct answer, Alex
was encouraged to engage in meaningful learning by engaging in a cognitive task in what
Anthony (1996) described as intentional learning.
It was also common for Mrs. Jones to ask questions so students elaborated on
vocabulary or a concept, which forced students to engage in active cognitive processing
for meaningful learning. The following were examples of questions posed by Mrs. Jones:
• What does pollinate mean?
• What does camouflage mean?
• Can we say something else?
In addition to modeling and questioning, Mrs. Jones frequently assisted her
students’ performance by offering feedback, which in turn provided meaningful learning
because it was designed to improve students’ performance. The following was one
example of how Mrs. Jones accomplished this.
T: Take away is not a real math word. What can we say instead?
Class: Subtract.

T: Yes.

Mrs. Jones corrected students in the form of verbal feedback so students improved
their performance by learning appropriate mathematical terms, and this subsequently was
an attempt to create meaningful learning.
During a math lesson, Mrs. Jones gave students feedback to advise them of
another mistake they were making. As Mrs. Jones walked around the room, she stated,
T: I noticed that everyone seems to be making the same mistake. Everyone is
starting with the minute hand first and you need to start with the hour
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hand. Here are two ways you can remember it. What comes first in the
alphabet, H or M?
Class: H comes before M.
T: Yes, another way is if you go to dinner, who are they going to serve first,
the small kids or the adults?
Class: The kids.
T: Yes, so you’re going to start with the smallest hand (the hour hand).
In this example, Mrs. Jones offered her students feedback as a means of improving their
performance and specifically provided a strategy to improve their performance to
promote meaningful learning.
During a science lesson, Mrs. Jones offered specific students feedback as a means
of improving other students’ performance. An example of this was when Mrs. Jones
offered Maria feedback:
T: I like the way Maria is using a transition word. She used the word first.
What is the second word we could use?
Class: Next.
T: That’s right.
Mrs. Jones offered Maria feedback so that other students could hear how they too could
improve their performance. Mrs. Jones then followed it with a question to further offer
assistance to the entire class as a means of improving their performance.
Active Learning Tasks

Mrs. Jones fostered some meaningful opportunities for Latino students through
instructional tasks that promoted active learning as Anthony (1996), Lee (2003), and
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Mayer (2002) recommended, which was via an active learning process of knowledge
construction and co-construction, connecting prior knowledge to new knowledge and
where students engage in metacognition. Mrs. Jones accomplished this through authentic
and collaborative learning tasks where students engaged in meaningful assignments and
where students were afforded the opportunity to co-construct knowledge. In this next
section, I will outline how Mrs. Jones’s classroom environment attempted to provide
meaningful learning for Latino students through instructional tasks such as small group
work, collaborative learning and authentic assignments that promoted active learning.
Authentic assignments. Mrs. Jones engaged students in intellectually active
learning tasks via authentic assignments such as the previously discussed language arts
assignment on the use of quotation marks. Students worked in small groups and
collaborated on their stories using character cards Mrs. Jones assigned to each group. The
character cards were created on popular children’s movies (i.e., Star Wars, Frozen,
Cinderella, Avengers, Inside Out), which connected to student interests (as evidenced by
their apparent enthusiasm) and helped foster meaningful learning. This was also an
example of an authentic assignment that fostered meaningful learning because it allowed
students the opportunity to formulate individual choices (choosing their characters within
the small group) and where students actively acted out their corresponding story.
Other examples of authentic projects included what Mrs. Jones described as
“Dinosaur reports where they have to draw a cover letter, answer questions and include a
bibliography.” These reports were considered authentic projects because students enacted
research skills and then presented their findings, thereby engaging students in
intellectually active learning tasks.
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Mrs. Jones described the types of instructional tasks/learning activities that
occurred within her classroom.
I incorporate a lot of technology. Animation is good because it really sticks in
their head. In all subjects, like social studies, you can show videos, YouTube,
PowerPoints to help them understand the material more. They can remember the
songs and the chants.
Here, Mrs. Jones described authentic learning tasks where students engaged in active
learning because they are able to recall material and relevant facts through the use of
technology. It was a common occurrence for Mrs. Jones to refer to songs or chants the
class had learned as a means of assisting students to recall information. Observations
revealed two such instances where Mrs. Jones referenced the “Getting sugar from your
neighbor” analogy so students recalled the regrouping strategy or “More on top? No need
to stop!” for subtraction problems. These chants provided students with meaningful
learning because it allowed students to have control over their learning during times
when they reverted to using this learned strategy.
Knowledge co-construction. Aligned to Anthony’s (1996) and Mayer’s (2002)
articulation of constructivist theory, indicating that meaningful learning is an active
process of knowledge co-construction between two individuals, Mrs. Jones incorporated
active learning tasks via small group work as in the quotation activity where Latino
students worked collaboratively in small groups to create a script.
Students in Mrs. Jones’s classroom also engaged in knowledge co-construction
during whole class tasks such as during the persuasive writing activity where students
shared knowledge with each other or with the teacher and vice versa.
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T: We talked the other day about an opinion piece about insects. Class,
what does pollinate mean?
Oscar: Like the bees take some seeds and plant them somewhere else.
T: Yes, they help the environment. Good. What does camouflage mean?
Ana: Some animals turn different colors.
T: Yes, they do this to protect themselves.
Oscar: Some animals look like sticks.
T: Yes, they camouflage with their environment so the predators don’t attack
them.
In this example, Mrs. Jones engaged in an active process of knowledge of co-construction
with Oscar and Ana where they were able to recall previously learned material and share
their knowledge with the whole class. However, Mrs. Jones did not require her students
to elaborate on their thinking and thus, did not engage students in meaningful learning.
Nevertheless, Oscar was able to share his knowledge by saying, “some animals look like
sticks,” which contributed to Ana’s knowledge on the concept of camouflage. Also, Mrs.
Jones shared her knowledge of “they help the environment” and “they do this to protect
themselves”, adding to the concept of camouflage and contributing to the meaningful
learning environment. Students shared their knowledge and engaged in knowledge co-
construction during class discussions.
Mrs. Jones believed in pairing students in heterogeneous grouping where “one
student who is higher pairs with another student who is struggling and they work
together.” This was one way in which Mrs. Jones assisted students in the process of
knowledge co-construction.
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Making connections. Much like Anthony (1996) depicted meaningful learning to
be, which is where students integrate prior knowledge to new knowledge, Latino students
in Mrs. Jones’s classroom demonstrated the ability to recall previously learned
knowledge and then integrate that knowledge with new knowledge. During a science
lesson on the life cycle of animals, Mrs. Jones began the lesson with “what have we been
learning in science?” The class responded with “the life cycle of animals.” Mrs. Jones
then asked to give examples of animals that have life cycles. Students followed with
responses, “fish, turtle, penguin, kangaroo, butterfly, frog.” Next, Mrs. Jones asked the
class to review the life cycle of some animals they previously learned about. Mrs. Jones
then asked students to compare and contrast the life cycle of a frog to the life cycle of a
butterfly and ladybug. In this meaningful learning activity, Mrs. Jones required students
to recall relevant facts and then make connections, thereby engaging in active cognitive
processing.
During this same activity, Mrs. Jones also pointed out that one of her students,
Mary was connecting prior knowledge and applying it to a new task. “Mary is using the
information from the video. She’s applying what she learned from the film. The frog ate
the yolk from the egg. Remember that?” This was evidence of meaningful learning as
Mary transferred prior knowledge to new learning conditions as Mayer (2002) discussed.
Mrs. Jones described the type of class discussions that occurred during
instructional time. “Obviously, social topics can lead to social conversations. Social
Studies, you see the students relate more and they talk more about their personal
connections or experiences. While this was not directly observed, the social
conversations that Mrs. Jones claimed occurred within the classroom may have afforded
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students with meaningful learning because it would have provided students with the
opportunity to integrate prior knowledge (personal experiences) with new knowledge
(Social Studies material).
When asked what type of learner Mrs. Jones wanted to see her students develop
into, she responded with, “Independent workers and independent thinkers. You want
them to apply the skills in class and use the resources I give them in class and connect
their learning to real life and home.” Based on Mrs. Jones’s response, she believed it was
vital for her students to engage in meaningful learning as evidenced by her desire for
students to connect prior knowledge and personal connections with new knowledge.
However, her beliefs did not align with her practice and students did not demonstrate this
during observations.
Metacognition. Aligned with Anthony’s (1996) definition of metacognition,
observations revealed that Mrs. Jones consistently encouraged Latino students in her
classroom to articulate their thinking. During a math lesson, the following occurred in
Mrs. Jones’s classroom.
T: What time is it?
Gigi: 10:30.
T: Why is it 10:30?
Gigi: Because the small hand is on the 10 and the big hand is on the 6.
T: What time is it here?
Rob: 4:30.
T: How do you know?
Rob: Because the 4 is almost to the five and the big hand is to the 6.
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T: Who can tell me what time it is now?
Mari: 10:15.
T: Why?
Mari: Because it’s at 10 and you count to 15.
Here, having students justify their answers forced the learner to become aware of the
processes of cognition. Rather than just accepting her students’ answers, she instead,
encouraged students to engage in the process of metacognition through verbal expression.
Another example of how Mrs. Jones consistently encouraged her Latino students
to engage in a process of metacognition, was during the lesson on quotations where Mrs.
Jones asked Mary, “How do you know?” and Mary responded by saying, “Because he
leaned over to her ear.” Mrs. Jones asked Mary, “How do you know?” as a way of
assessing the source of Mary’s knowledge and subsequently positioned Mary in a place
where she identified evidence of her learning.
Mrs. Jones asked her Latino students several questions as a means of engaging
them in metacognition. These questions included, “Why?” and “How do you know?”
During a lesson on time, Mrs. Jones prompted her students with these questions so they
could extend beyond articulating factual knowledge and articulate their reasoning. Mrs.
Jones asked her students “Why?” and “How do you know?” a total of six times during the
time lesson.
Summary
Mrs. Jones attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment, but overall
failed to develop a strong and consistent relationship with her Latino students based on
authentic teacher care. Mrs. Jones’s inability to enact authentic care through mutual
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confianza and respeto hindered the learning environment when she utilized an
authoritarian voice and exercised control over students. Mrs. Jones made attempts at
connecting with her Latino students by getting to know them, but her attempts were more
superficial and she did not consistently engage her students in open dialogue. She used
positive language with her students as a way of acknowledging their efforts. Mrs. Jones
provided an environment that outlined clear behavioral and high academic expectations;
and she helped her students reach those expectations through academic support.
However, her teaching practice lacked a connection to students’ culture, language and
community. Mrs. Jones consistently assisted her students’ performance through
modeling, questioning and feedback. In her attempt to foster a meaningful learning
environment, Mrs. Jones incorporated some authentic assignments that connected to
student interests. Opportunities for her students to co-construct knowledge in small group
work was seldom observed. However, her students were provided with many
opportunities where they shared their knowledge during whole class instruction. Contrary
to Anthony’s (1996) beliefs about how students engage in metacognition, students in
Mrs. Jones’s classroom were observed to engage in more rote learning as opposed to
meaningful learning.
Cross-Case Analysis

This section discusses the intersections of authentic teacher care, sociocultural
theory and constructivist theory as enacted through each case study. This study outlined
how early elementary teachers fostered a meaningful learning environment for Latino
students through authentic teacher care. Teachers who demonstrate mutual confianza and
respeto, value their cultural knowledge, have high expectations, offer academic support
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through the process of assisted performance, incorporate active learning tasks, and
promote metacognition, foster a meaningful learning environment for Latino students.
In a cross-case analysis, the following were the most prominent themes attempted
by Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones in enacting authentic teacher care towards Latino students
in order to foster a meaningful learning environment for Latino students:
• Mutual Confianza and Respeto
• High Expectations and Academic Support
• Assisted Performance
• Active Learning Tasks
Mutual Confianza and Respeto
The data derived from interviews and observations of Mrs. Perez demonstrated
she established a relationship with her Latino students based on aspects of Antrop-
Gonzalez and De Jesus’s (2006) and Franquiz and Del Carmen Salazar’s (2004) idea of
mutual confianza and respeto. Mrs. Perez enacted authentic care through mutual
confianza and respeto as practiced through the open dialogue and positive language
Noddings (1988) discussed. She also believed and her practice showed that having clear
expectations and a contingency management system added to her belief in establishing a
relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto (and by extension authentic care).
Mrs. Jones believed in establishing a relationship with her Latino students based on the
principles of mutual respeto, but her practice demonstrated otherwise. She believed in
establishing an environment of mutual respeto and demanded it through the expectations
and contingency management system she employed in her classroom.
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Mrs. Perez fostered an environment based on mutual confianza in which Latino
students felt safe to engage in both social and academic dialogue and where Mrs. Perez
took the time to listen and respond to Latino students without any judgment. Latino
students in Mrs. Perez’s classroom spoke freely and confidently with her because of the
mutual confianza they had with her. She also fostered a classroom environment in which
students engaged in open dialogue with each other through “pair and share” activities.
Mrs. Perez discussed that she expected her students to show mutual respeto towards her
and other students and claimed that she often reminded students to show her the same
level of respect they gave their mothers, which was also aligned to Antrop-Gonzalez and
De Jesus’s (2006) idea of mutual respeto. Most importantly, Mrs. Perez also positioned
herself as a learner alongside her students as evidenced by accepting the mistakes her
students pointed out, which aligned with her belief in establishing a relationship based on
mutual respeto. This proved to be an example of the classroom environment Mrs. Perez
cultivated, whereby she existed to co-construct knowledge with her Latino students. Mrs.
Perez also fostered a climate of mutual confianza and respeto through the clear
expectations she held of her students and the contingency management system she
facilitated. Latino students in Mrs. Perez’s classroom felt safe because they knew what
was expected of them and felt respected because they were positively reinforced with a
contingency management system that used rewards. Inviting her Latino students to
develop the classroom expectations at the beginning of the school year was another
example of how Mrs. Perez positioned herself in a situation whereby she was co-
constructing knowledge with her students as opposed to exercising control over them.
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Much like Mrs. Perez, Mrs. Jones believed in establishing a relationship with her
Latino students based on the ideals of mutual confianza and respeto, but unfortunately
was inconsistent in her practice. In an interview with Mrs. Jones, she believed in getting
to know her students on a personal level as a way of relating to them and establishing
mutual confianza. She also spoke about how her students reciprocated that same level of
interest in her. Very similar to Mrs. Perez, Mrs. Jones spoke about wanting her students
to have mutual respect for each other and this was observed when students took the time
to listen to each other during collaborative group work. However, this was not always
consistent in Mrs. Jones’s own practice. Noddings (1988) discussed that teachers who
model care for their students treat students with respect and consideration. Mrs. Jones
maintained clear expectations and a solid contingency management system. She believed
that students needed “to be respectful and well-behaved.” Part of her contingency
management system was to have students speak with their parents during class time. Mrs.
Jones also verbally reprimanded students in public, which hindered the teacher-student
relationship and compromised the learning environment. Consequently, similar to what
Tharp and Gallimore (1989) indicated, Mrs. Jones’s actions were an example of how she
positioned herself as an authoritarian, where she exercised control over her students. In
addition, Mrs. Jones also made it very clear to her students that she was the teacher,
which unfortunately, demonstrated control over them rather than positioning herself as a
facilitator of knowledge. On the other hand, Mrs. Jones did not always exercise control
over her students. She sometimes corrected students’ behaviors in a more private manner
or more effectively, placed the control back on them by encouraging them to think about
their behavior/actions. This approach aligned with Valenzuela’s (1999) concept of
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authentic care. Mrs. Jones was good intentioned, but ultimately failed to establish a
climate built on mutual confianza and respeto, which compromised the presence of a
meaningful learning environment.
High Expectations and Academic Support
The data from interviews and observations of both Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones
revealed they both enacted authentic care towards Latino students by setting high
expectations through the messages they conveyed to students and supported these
expectations with the academic support they offered. Both, aligned with Delpit’s (2012)
and Valenzuela’s (1999) ideas of how teachers should enact authentic care.
Mrs. Perez discussed her firm belief that students were “expected to come to
school and learn.” Mrs. Perez also explained that students were required to show
evidence of their learning. Observations revealed that Mrs. Perez’s beliefs aligned with
her actions when she asked her students to keep trying and show their evidence. She often
prompted her students with “Where’s your evidence?” when they did not show their
work. Mrs. Perez specifically taught her students how to use the reading strategy
UNRAAVEL as a means of showing evidence of their learning. Mrs. Perez showed her
students how to utilize visual charts as resources for academic support. Another manner
in which Mrs. Perez provided academic support was through accommodations such as
sentence frames. Overall, Mrs. Perez offered her Latino students academic support by
circulating around the room to check for understanding. She also encouraged students to
approach her when they sought assistance. Mrs. Perez’s time to teach reading strategies,
be accessible, and listen to students, provided her Latino students with academic support.
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Much like Mrs. Perez, it was a common occurrence in which Mrs. Jones called
students up one at a time or circulated the classroom to check for understanding,
subsequently demonstrating a willingness to reach out to students and offer academic
support in the form of scaffolding. Mrs. Jones showed she authentically cared for her
students when she asked her students to “try again” or “add more detail,” demonstrating
that she evaluated student work and held high expectations. Despite Mrs. Jones’s efforts,
students were not able to meet her expectations.
Assisted Performance
The data derived from observations revealed that both Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones
consistently offered academic support in the form of assisted performance, or scaffolding.
More specifically, both teachers scaffolded utilizing what Tharp and Gallimore (1989)
referred to as modeling, questioning, and feedback. The direct teaching, modeling and
scaffolding Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones provided their Latino students are considered the
facets of good teaching that Alder (2002) discussed as being one authentic form of
teacher care.
Mrs. Perez made herself accessible and fostered a meaningful learning
environment for Latino students by providing scaffolding through modeling, questioning,
and feedback. During whole group instruction, Mrs. Perez modeled how to perform math
operations so students could imitate her behavior. She additionally asked questions to
guide their participation. Mrs. Perez used questioning to further elicit her students’
thoughts. She provided feedback in the form of verbal expression to affirm her students’
responses and offer validation. Mrs. Perez also provided feedback as she circulated the
classroom.
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Like Mrs. Perez, Mrs. Jones attempted to assist her Latino students’ performance.
She modeled how to complete tasks in both whole group and small group instruction.
Mrs. Jones used questioning during direct instruction in order to assist and assess her
students. Tharp and Gallimore (1989) clarified, questioning is used to assess a students’
knowledge in order to identify their instructional level and to guide them through their
zone of proximal development. Mrs. Jones also used questioning as a means of clarifying
a students’ response. Mrs. Jones questioned students to solicit a cognitive response.
Lastly, Mrs. Jones assisted her Latino students’ performance by offering feedback. The
feedback Mrs. Jones gave attempted to improve her students’ performance, such as
advising them of their mistakes or validating their cognitive responses. She was only
minimally successful as her ability to engage in such practice was inconsistent.
Active Learning Tasks
The data obtained from interviews and observations revealed that Mrs. Perez and
Mrs. Jones attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment through the
instructional tasks and activities that promoted active learning. Mrs. Perez created
opportunities for knowledge construction and co-construction through authentic learning
assignments, small group work, and whole class discussions. While Mrs. Jones had good
intentions, her practice was not as consistent or solidified as Mrs. Perez’s.
Mrs. Perez taught lessons incorporating authentic assignments that connected to
students’ personal interests such as the facts and opinion lesson using a Star Wars article,
the Flat Stanley book, Writer’s Workshop, and opinion writing assignments. These
authentic learning assignments fostered individual choices and creative thinking.
Anthony (1996) suggested that these types of assignments were all meaningful
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opportunities where students could demonstrate control over their learning. Mrs. Perez
also encouraged her students to co-construct knowledge in small group work or share
their knowledge in whole class discussions. Anthony (1996) and Mayer (2002) both
agreed that meaningful learning is an active process of knowledge co-construction
between two individuals. The assignments that Mrs. Perez engaged her students in were
opportunities where students were able to connect prior knowledge to new knowledge.
Mrs. Perez often encouraged students to articulate their thinking as a way of engaging
students in metacognition.
Similar to Mrs. Perez’s beliefs and actions, Mrs. Jones also incorporated
instructional tasks that promoted active learning. Mrs. Jones engaged students in
authentic assignments that connected to student interest and fostered meaningful learning.
She also incorporated the use of technology through videos and movies, which helped
increase student interest and learning. Mrs. Jones required students to complete small
group work where Latino students worked actively and collaboratively to create a written
an authentic project. Like the environment that Mrs. Perez fostered for her students, Mrs.
Jones also promoted opportunities in which students transferred prior knowledge to new
learning conditions. Aligned with Mrs. Perez’s actions, Mrs. Jones also consistently
encouraged her Latino students to engage in the process of metacognition by prompting
students with questions that encouraged them to articulate their reasoning. Mayer (2002)
indicated that meaningful learning is an important educational goal and that teaching
should require more of students than recalling factual knowledge. Mrs. Perez fostered an
environment that promoted meaningful learning by having students engage in
instructional tasks that fostered creativity, individual choice, knowledge construction,
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knowledge co-construction, and metacognition.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This dissertation study examined the ways in which K-3 elementary teachers
fostered a meaningful learning environment for Latino students through the intersections
of authentic care, facets of sociocultural theory and constructivist theory. A qualitative
multi-case study was used to address the research question:
• What is the nature of early elementary (K-3) classroom environments that
support meaningful learning for Latino students?
The data collected to answer the aforementioned question included two interviews
with each elementary school teacher lasting approximately one hour each, five to six
direct classroom observations of each teacher totaling 12.5 hours, two brief post-
observation interviews with each teacher, and a review of documents and artifacts
including work samples, handouts, notes, and parent letters. Data collected through
interviews and observations provided insight into two teachers of Latino students’ beliefs
regarding the relationship they established with their students, interactions with their
students, pedagogical strategies they implemented in their instruction, and types of
instructional tasks they assigned to their students. The two teachers selected for this study
were both deemed, by a principal and a literacy coach, to work effectively with Latino
students, who cared for Latino students and held high expectations of Latino students.
However, one teacher’s beliefs and practices were more aligned with the ideas in the
conceptual framework than the other and provided a richer meaningful learning
environment.

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Summary of Findings
Findings from this study indicated that both Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones were well-
intentioned teachers, but Mrs. Perez was more successful than Mrs. Jones in enacting
authentic care towards Latino students through mutual confianza and respeto, high
expectations and academic support; and ultimately came closer to fostering a meaningful
learning environment through assisted performance and active learning tasks. Although
Mrs. Jones attempted to connect to her students, there were times where she exercised
control over her students when she reprimanded them during class time in an
authoritarian manner. As a result, her attempts to foster a meaningful learning
environment based on authentic care was compromised. Mrs. Perez consistently enacted
authentic care through her persistent inclusive teaching practice, thereby creating an
inclusive learning community. Mrs. Perez believed and spoke about developing a
partnership with the surrounding community, but contrary to what the literature
recommended, the value of culture, language, and community was not observed in her
practice. Both teachers failed to consistently integrate meaningful learning assignments
or classroom discussions based on the students’ culture, language and community.
Developing instructional tasks such as authentic assignments or classroom discussions
that connected to Latino students’ culture, language, and community would have
provided a meaningful learning experience. Both Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones held high
expectations of their Latino students by having them show evidence of their work, and
give more detail in an attempt to extend their cognitive processes. In addition to having
high expectations, Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones both offered academic support by
circulating the classroom and calling students up one at a time to check for
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understanding. Mrs. Perez also taught her students how to rely on academic resources
within the classroom (i.e., visual charts, handouts, textbooks) for academic support.
Mrs. Perez and Mrs. Jones attempted to foster a meaningful learning environment
for their Latino students through the means of assisted performance, or scaffolding. The
scaffolding that both teachers provided was further enforced by what Tharp and
Gallimore (1989) referred to as modeling, questioning, and feedback. Mrs. Perez
provided some meaningful learning opportunities where students demonstrated control
over their learning through authentic assignments that connected to student interests.
Both teachers encouraged their students to co-construct knowledge in small group work
or share their knowledge in whole class discussions providing some meaningful learning
opportunities. Mrs. Perez also asked Latino students to explain their thinking or give
evidence of their learning as a way of engaging them in the process of metacognition.
Mrs. Jones attempted to engage students in metacognition, but students were observed to
engage more in basic recall activities, which was not indicative of meaningful learning.
Implications and Recommendations
This dissertation study’s findings have implications for how teachers relate to
their students, how they establish and maintain positive relationships based on authentic
care and how teachers foster a meaningful learning environment through the relationships
they maintain with their Latino students and the instructional decisions they undertake. I
will now discuss implications for teacher practice, educational policy, and educational
research given the results of this study.

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Practice
Teachers of Latino students are charged with the duty of being highly effective
teachers given that Latinos demonstrate low achievement and fall academically behind
non-Latino students (Gandara, 2008). Dubner (2008) asserts that teacher effectiveness
and rigor are essential for academic achievement. Garza (2009), however, determined
that teachers who maintained respectful and meaningful relationships with students
created a sense of belonging and effected student motivation. While this study did not set
out to prove that a meaningful learning environment increases academic achievement, it
did look at how K-3 teachers foster a meaningful learning environment through authentic
care. Authentic teacher care helps us understand how teachers form authentic
relationships with their students in order to foster a meaningful learning environment.
This study also examined how facets of sociocultural theory and constructivist theory
help inform teachers with the tools necessary to foster a meaningful learning
environment.
Given these findings, teachers of Latino students must reflect upon their teaching
practices and how their actions and instructional choices help foster or impact the
absence of a meaningful learning environment. Delpit (1995) affirms that effective
teaching begins with the development of relationships between the teacher and his/her
students. As a result, teachers must reflect upon how they establish and maintain a
relationship based on mutual confianza and respeto. Mutual confianza is developed when
interactions in the classroom make Latino students feel comfortable and valued (Franquiz
& del Carmen Salazar, 2004). Thus, teachers of Latino students must consistently interact
with their students in a positive and respectful manner and they can accomplish this by
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being methodical in their words, tone, and actions. We saw this played out differently in
the different classrooms as Mrs. Perez enacted mutual respeto with her students, whereas
Mrs. Jones did not show strong evidence of this. Teachers must spend time getting to
know their students through open dialogue in attempts to make students feel comfortable
sharing their personal and academic thoughts. Teachers of Latino students must also
consciously use positive language in their interactions so students can feel valued for who
they are and the effort they exude. Teachers who value Latino students’ culture and life
experiences practice a humanizing pedagogy (Franquiz & del Carmen Salazar, 2004) and
subsequently demonstrate authentic teacher care. In turn, teachers who value students’
cultural, linguistic, and community knowledge support the academic success of Latino
students (Delpit, 2012; Valenzuela, 1999). Teachers can accomplish this through their
lesson planning, assuring that they create assignments that are authentic and are
responsive to students’ culture, language and community. Teachers of Latino students
must also engage in continuous reflection to assure they are establishing high academic
expectations of their students. Teachers who practice hard caring insist on high-quality
work and subsequently make time to provide academic support (Antrop-Gonzalez & De
Jesus, 2006). Teachers in the field should also be thinking about how they offer academic
support so that Latino students are learning in a meaningful manner. Teachers should be
knowledgeable about how to accurately and effectively scaffold students’ learning. These
pedagogical strategies need to be taught in explicit ways during teacher education
programs before teachers go out into the field. Once teachers are in the field, keeping up
with effective pedagogical strategies throughout the years is just as vital to teacher
effectiveness and can be achieved through professional development. Lastly, teachers of
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 168

Latino students need to actively incorporate instructional tasks that promote intellectually
active learning in order to foster a meaningful learning environment. Professional
development that focuses on teaching practitioners how to design and incorporate
authentic assignments that promote active learning, knowledge construction, knowledge
co-construction and metacognitive practices would be crucial to fostering meaningful
learning environments.
Policy
This study informs policy makers at the district and state level of how K-3
teachers foster an authentic relationship with their Latino students and gives insight into
the pedagogical strategies used to foster a meaningful learning environment.
At the pre-service level, it would be crucial for teacher education programs to
teach a framework that offer concrete examples of what Latino students view as essential
to fostering an authentic relationship, which would increase the teachers’ pedagogical
knowledge and skills in working with Latino students. In addition, pre-service teachers
need to be taught the importance and specifics of responsive teaching, which include
teaching to understanding, providing academic support, offering specific feedback,
integrating cooperative learning tasks and other meaningful learning tasks (Alder, 2002).
As an extension of responsive teaching, pre-service teachers would be taught the
specifics of assisted performance and how to scaffold students’ learning. Scaffolding is
an individualized process that takes time to learn and to implement. Therefore, pre-
service teachers would have opportunities to practice these skill sets in a fieldwork
environment. It would also be vital for pre-service teachers to reflect upon their daily
actions during classroom and fieldwork time.
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 169

Maintaining this pedagogical knowledge and skill set are vital to in-service
teachers as well and can be accomplished at the district level, through continuous
professional development, professional learning communities, mentoring, and peer-coach
partnerships. Teachers need to have solid content knowledge to be able to provide
students with effective scaffolding techniques and thus, professional development should
focus specifically on how to scaffold students’ learning in a particular subject and/or
skill. Aligning to my conceptual framework, Latino Cognitive Apprenticeship, teachers
need to show students how to engage in metacognition and how to be self-regulated
learners by becoming cognitively aware of their own learning processes and accessing
learning resources available to them. Teachers can also accomplish this through
continuous reflection and peer-coach observations. Enacting authentic care, scaffolding
students’ learning, and teaching students how to make meaning all takes valuable time.
Therefore, the state needs to implement a reasonable teacher-student ratio at the
elementary level so teachers can get to know their students in authentic ways and meet
their individual academic needs. Perhaps this is the starting point to also addressing the
overrepresentation of Latino students in special education (Artiles, A.J., Klingner, J.K.,
Tate, W.G., 2006).
Research
This dissertation study examined the beliefs and practices of two elementary
teachers of Latino students and how they fostered a meaningful learning environment
through authentic care. Although this study utilized methods to ensure that the data and
the findings of both case studies were as accurate as possible, the study was not without
any limitations. The time used to gather observational data placed limitations on the
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 170

amount of data collected. In this particular study, some of the teachers’ practices did not
align with their stated beliefs. Increasing the number of classroom observations of both
teachers would have provided more data that may have provided a better understanding
of their teacher practice. In addition, obtaining data from student interviews would have
provided their perspectives regarding their relationships with their teachers and their
teachers’ ability to enact authentic care. Although this study did not set out to prove that
Latino academic achievement increases as a result of authentic care or meaningful
learning environments, future research could examine the impact authentic care and
meaningful learning environments have on individual student achievement through a
longitudinal study approach. Studying the interactions between Latino students and non-
Latino students in an environment that fosters authentic teacher care would also be
valuable.
There is extensive research on what authentic teacher care looks like at the middle
and high school levels, but limited empirical studies at the elementary level. Including
elementary students’ perceptions would also be vital to a more conclusive understanding
of authentic teacher care at the elementary level. As Laura Colker (2008) states, “young
children are shrewd judges of character and they know whether a teacher is authentic”
(Colker, 2008, p. 5). Further research is needed to examine how authentic teacher care is
enacted towards Latino and other marginalized students at the elementary level. Further
research is also needed to understand how Latino students and non-Latino students
demonstrate care towards each other and as a result of teacher authentic care.
While it is difficult to ascertain a definitive understanding of what an “effective”
teacher is because of it’s subjectivity, Colker (2008) interviewed 43 early childhood
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 171

teachers to obtain their perceptions about the individual characteristics of effective
teachers. What emerged from this qualitative analysis of the responses provided by
mentor teachers, supervisors, trainers and teachers were 12 themes and among them was
authenticity and respect. As an extension of the existing research on individual teacher
dispositions, it would also be important to study how elementary teacher characteristics
impact the effectiveness of enacting authentic teacher care, especially since teaching is
referred to as a “caring” profession.
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 172

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Latino community-based schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in
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Artiles, A.J., Klingner, J.K., Tate, W.G. (2006). Representation of minority students in
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LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 176

Appendix A: Teacher Interview Protocol

Teacher Interview Protocol

Teacher: _______________________________ Date: __________________

School: ________________________________ Grade: _________________

INTRODUCTION:
Hi, My name is Veronica Valadez-Nieto. Thank you for taking the time to talk to me. All
of the information shared during this interview is confidential and your name will be kept
confidential. I would also like to, with your permission, audio record this conversation to
accurately represent your perspective. Is that OK?

PURPOSE OF STUDY:
I am trying to understand how early elementary school teachers demonstrate teacher
care towards Latino students and to determine the nature of early elementary classroom
environments that support meaningful learning for Latino students.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
RQ 1: How do early elementary school teachers (K-3) demonstrate care towards Latino
students?
RQ 2: What is the nature of early elementary (K-3) classroom environments that support
meaningful learning for Latino students?

________________________________________________________________________
I’d like to ask you some questions about you, your classroom environment and
instructional practices.

1. Tell me about your background?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 177

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

2. What do you think is the “ideal” relationship you can have with your students?
Describe what that looks like.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3. Think about a recent experience or situation where your students were treating you
the way you want to be treated? Tell me about it.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

4. What do you see in your students’ behavior that tells you that they are experiencing
their relationship with you the way you want them to? Tell me about one day where
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 178

you thought that was especially visible to you.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5. How do you want your students to treat each other? Think of a recent experience
where you think they were treating each other the way you want. Please tell me about
it.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
6. What do you do as a teacher to help you and your students establish the type of
relationship you want between everyone in your classroom. Describe one example to
me.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 179

7. When do you start establishing the teacher-student relationship during the school
year? Walk me through this process.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
8. What types of class discussions occur during instructional time between you and the
students?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9. Describe a recent class discussion that you thought reflected your “ideal”?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 180

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10. Describe the types of projects you assign your students. Do the projects ever include
family and/or community?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
11. Describe the types of instructional tasks/learning activities that occur within your
classroom?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 181

12. How do you plan lessons given the learning needs of your students? Describe a
lesson plan to me.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
13. Think of a student who may be struggling with a content area. What do you do
during a lesson or after instruction for that student?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
14. What are your behavioral expectations for all your students? What do you do as a
teacher to help them reach those expectations?
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 182

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
15. What type of learner do you want to see your students develop into? What do you do
as a teacher to help them reach those expectations?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
16. What interpersonal skills do you want all your students to learn over the course of the
year? How do you see yourself teaching these skills?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 183

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
17. Is there anything I haven’t asked you about that you think I should know that will
help me understand more about the teacher-student relationship you form with your
students?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Thank you for your time and participation!

LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 184

Post-Observation Interview Protocol

Teacher: __________________________________________ Date: _______________

School:____________________________________________ Grade: ______________

These questions will be revised in relation to the observations that I will be conducting.
These are draft questions.

1. As I was watching the lesson, I noticed the following interaction between you and
several of your students. Would you tell me a bit about what you were thinking
about during that interaction?

2. What did you expect the students to learn from the lesson?

3. How do you know your students learned the skill/objective?

4. As you were teaching this part of the lesson, I noticed you were X. Would you tell
me a little bit about that decision?

5. Is there anything you would do differently next time?
LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 185

Appendix B: Classroom Observation Protocol

Classroom Observation Protocol

Teacher __________________________ Date _____________

School ___________________________ Grade ____________

1. Description of the classroom:
Describe how the seating is arranged:

Describe what is on the walls, bulletin board displays:

2. Teaching aids/materials:
Chalkboard? Overhead projector? Teacher-made handouts, textbooks?

LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 186

3. Teacher-student Interactions:
Evidence of respect, valuing culture, language, high expectations, academic support?

4. Pedogogical Strategies:
Uses student’s prior knowledge? Scaffolding?Models? Clarifies? Provides Feedback?
Teachers seek evidence of understanding?

LATINO COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP 187

5. Instructional Activities/Tasks:
Small groups? Whole group? Cooperative learning? Projects?

6. Student Behaviors:
Interaction with other students? Active participation? Reflect on others’ ideas, own prior
knowledge/experiences? Seek clarification to gain understanding? Shows evidence to
support learning?Respect for other students?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Research indicates that Latinos demonstrate low achievement and while there are many factors that contribute to this, other research suggests that a caring teacher-student relationship can improve the student's academic achievement. There is extensive research on the theory of teacher care. However, most of the existing research examines how teacher care translates within the middle school and high school contexts. This qualitative study provides insight into how early elementary (K-3) teachers foster meaningful learning environment for Latino students through authentic care. Drawing from the literature on authentic teacher care, facets of sociocultural theory, and constructivist theory, I examined how two early elementary teachers fostered a meaningful learning environment for Latino students at the K-3 level. I conducted a multi-case qualitative study gathering data from two interviews of each teacher utilizing semi-structured interview protocols, conducted 6 hours of classroom observations in each classroom, and collected documents and artifacts. Teacher beliefs and practices examining the teacher-student relationship and the instructional decisions they made to foster meaningful learning were examined.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nieto, Veronica Valadez (author)

Core Title Latino cognitive apprenticeship: creating a meaningful learning environment for Latino students through authentic teacher care

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/11/2016

Defense Date 09/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic support,active learning,authentic teacher care,caring relationships,classroom environment,Community,culture,dialogue and positive language,early elementary school teachers,feedback,high expectations,Latino students,meaningful learning environment,Modeling,mutual confianza,OAI-PMH Harvest,respeto

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Slayton, Julie (committee chair)

Creator Email tvnieto5@gmail.com,veronicn@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-673755

Unique identifier UC11336635

Identifier etd-NietoVeron-4912.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-673755 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-NietoVeron-4912-0.pdf

Dmrecord 673755

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nieto, Veronica Valadez

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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