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Barriers to implementing distance education: A case study in the community colleges

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Barriers to implementing distance education: A case study in the community colleges

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Content BARRIERS TO IMPLEMENTING DISTANCE EDUCATION:
A CASE STUDY IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGES
by
Glen Robert Kuck
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2005
Copyright 2005 Glen Robert Kuck
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UMI Number: 3196833
Copyright 2005 by
Kuck, Glen Robert
All rights reserved.
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, Glenda, who has been an
eternal well of love and constant encouragement. It is only through her life
sacrifices that this achievement is even possible.
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iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Above all I wish to express my sincerest love and appreciation to my
wife, Clarisse. She has been a constant pillar of support and encouragement
when I needed it most.
Our children, Stephanie and Matthew, have been my true source of
inspiration. The intense desire to accomplish this capstone of my academic
journey has been motivated first and foremost by the want to completely
enjoy their hugs and laughter.
I give great thanks to my brother, Kenneth, and sister, Nena.
Together we have journeyed through many trials and hardships, only to
emerge closer and stronger. Without them, I would not be where I am now.
I wish to thank the members of my committee, Edward Kazlauskas,
Maurice Hitchcock, and Larry Picus who have been so easy to work with.
Their constant support and words of encouragement have helped keep my
spirits up and the challenges of this task surmountable.
Dr. Kazlauskas, my committee chair, and my colleague, friend, and
mentor, Diane Dusick, worked tirelessly with me to explore topics and
approaches to writing my dissertation. I especially thank them for their
willingness to critique my work and guide me through this process.
Finally, I give thanks to Robert Wilkins, the man who gave me my first
big break in life. It was that first door he opened for me that led to so many
down the road. I thank you for taking a chance on me.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication....................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................... iii
List of Tables.................................................................................................ix
List of Figures................................................................................................ x
Abstract..........................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY......................................1
Problem Statement....................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study.................................................................................... 3
Significance of the Study..............................................................................4
Exploratory Questions...................................................................................4
Methodology..................................................................................................5
Assumptions..................................................................................................5
Delimitations..................................................................................................7
Limitations......................................................................................................7
Definition of Terms........................................................................................8
Organization of the Study...........................................................................12
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................14
History and Milestones of Distance Education..........................................15
Distance Education Delivery Modalities: Types, Advantages, Disadvantages,
and Fiscal Considerations.......................................................................... 30
Correspondence Courses....................................................................31
Printed Text Courses........................................................................... 32
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Email Courses.......................................................................................33
Videotape Courses...............................................................................34
Compact Disc Courses.........................................................................36
Instructional Radio Courses................................................................ 38
Television Courses...............................................................................38
Online Courses..................................................................................... 41
Compressed Video Courses................................................................45
One-Way Video/One-Way Audio Courses......................................... 45
One-Way Video/Two-Way Audio Courses......................................... 46
Two-Way Video/Two-Way Audio Courses......................................... 46
Andragogical Considerations of Distance Education...............................48
Legislative, Accrediting, and District Expectations and Requirements... 51
Federal Requirements......................................................................... 51
State Requirements..............................................................................53
Expectations of Accrediting Agencies................................................58
Local Requirements............................................................................ 61
The Barriers to Implementing Distance Education...................................62
Technical Expertise and Support........................................................ 63
Administrative Structure...................................................................... 65
Evaluation and Effectiveness............................................................. 67
Organizational Change........................................................................ 68
Student Services................................................................................. 69
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Threatened By Technology................................................................. 71
Access....................................................................................................72
Social Interaction and Quality..............................................................73
Faculty Compensation and Time.........................................................74
Legal and Accreditation Issues............................................................75
Fiscal Challenges................................................................................. 76
Summary..................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY......................................... 80
Exploratory Questions.................................................................................81
Design.......................................................................................................... 81
Procedures..................................................................................................82
Data Collection..................................................................................... 82
Data Analysis....................................................................................... 83
Participants..................................................................................................85
CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS...................................... 87
District Organizational Structure and Demographics...............................88
College “A” Organizational Structure and Demographics.........................94
College “B” Findings Organizational Structure and Demographics 98
Subject Background..................................................................................102
History and Role of Distance Education.................................................. 106
Vision for Distance Education..................................................................113
Governance...............................................................................................118
Technical Expertise..................................................................................122
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Training and Support................................................................................ 122
Evaluation and Effectiveness................................................................... 123
Student Services and Access.................................................................. 124
Perceptions of Distance Education and Technology..............................125
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS.......................................... 128
Technical Expertise.................................................................................. 128
Administrative Structure............................................................................133
Evaluation and Effectiveness................................................................... 135
Organizational Change.............................................................................136
Social Interaction and Quality.................................................................. 137
Student Support Services.........................................................................138
Feeling Threatened by Technology.........................................................139
Access....................................................................................................... 140
Faculty Compensation and Tim e.............................................................142
Legal Issues...............................................................................................143
Exploratory Questions...............................................................................144
Summary...................................................................................................150
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............151
Conclusions...............................................................................................151
Significance of Study................................................................................154
Recommendations....................................................................................154
References................................................................................................157
Appendices............................................................................................... 165
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VIII
A. Interview Questions........................................................................165
B. Online College Proposal............................................................... 168
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Study Participants by Job Classification.......................................83
Table 2. Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for District......................92
Table 3. Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for District................................92
Table 4. Student Enrollment by Age for District.......................................... 92
Table 5. Student Enrollment by Gender for District..................................... 93
Table 6. Employee Classification by Site..................................................... 93
Table 7. Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for College “A” ................ 95
Table 8. Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for College “A”...........................97
Table 9. Student Enrollment by Age for College “A” ..................................97
Table 10. Student Enrollment by Gender for College “A” ..........................97
Table 11. Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for College “B” ............. 99
Table 12. Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for College “B” ........................101
Table 13. Student Enrollment by Age for College “B”................................. 101
Table 14. Student Enrollment by Gender for College “B”............................ 101
Table 15. Respondent Background and Self-Perceptions of
Involvement in Distance Education.............................................103
Table 16. College “A” Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) Reported
to State by Term............................................................................111
Table 17. College “B” Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) Reported
to State by Term ...........................................................................112
Table 18. Summary of Findings.................................................. 1 1 5 - 117
Table 19. Significance of Barriers to Study S ite........................ 130-132
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. District Organizational Structure....................................................90
Figure 2. College “A” Organizational Structure............................................ 96
Figure 3. College “B” Organizational Structure...........................................100
Figure 4. College “A” Distance Education Enrollment Trends................... 111
Figure 5. College “B” Distance Education Enrollment Trends....................111
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to identify and explore the barriers that
impede the implementation of a distance education program in the
community college setting. Nineteen administrators, faculty and staff were
interviewed from a two-college community college district in Southern
California. Participants were identified due to their position, involvement,
and/or direction of distance education. The barriers identified in the study
were consistent with the findings in the literature. These barriers were: 1)
technical expertise, 2) administrative structure, 3) evaluation and
effectiveness, 4) organizational change, 5) social interaction and quality, 6)
student support services, 7) feeling threatened by technology, 8) access, 9)
faculty compensation and time, 10) legal issues, and 11) fiscal challenges.
The most significant barriers encountered in this study were:
administrative structure, evaluation and effectiveness, organizational change
and student support services. Perceptions of distance education’s role in the
development of social skill development was a marked point of difference
between the two colleges. Access issues have the potential to be points of
discussion with further study. Technical expertise, faculty feeling threatened
by technology, faculty compensation and time, and legal issues were not
found to be major barriers faced by the District.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
The dramatic changes in the distance education paradigm coupled
with the plethora of new software, equipment, program demands, audiences,
and community needs and expectations have presented great challenges to
distance education offering institutions (Kabutu, 2002; Levine & Sun, 2002;
Perreault, Waldman, Alexander, & Zhao, 2002; Sherron & Boettcher, 1997).
These institutions are challenged to evaluate who to serve, the soundness of
their programs, and what modes of distance education will be serve their
stakeholders best. Further, these institutions face additional accreditation
requirements, training and quality control issues, and fiscal constraints.
Changing institutional culture, establish short and long-term goals, and
forecasting future trends in distance education, also present significant
challenges (Levine & Sun, 2002; Moloney & Tello, 2003).
As the number of distance education offering institutions continue to
grow, an awareness of how to implement both distance education courses
and programs courses coupled with a knowledge of the prevalent issues that
tend to arise and solutions to deal with the issues, will have a marked impact
on their chances for success (Notar, Wilson, Restauri, & Friery, 2002;
Oblinger, 2002; Perreault et al, 2002). The absence of institutional planning
for the implementation of distance education programs at educational
institutions has corresponded with major obstacles to implementation and
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achievement (Peterman, 2000). The challenge is the lack of an
authenticated process for the planning of the implementation of distance
education programs.
Problem Statement
Public two-year postsecondary institutions play a significant role in
education in the United States. As of 1999, public two-year postsecondary
institutions represented 24.6% of the nation’s two and four year institutions
nationwide and catered to 37% of all two and four year institution
enrollments. Over 62%, or 760, of these public two-year postsecondary
institutions offered distance education courses and an additional 20%, or
250, projected offering distance education courses by 2002. Public two-year
postsecondary institutions accounted for 45% of distance education offering
two and four year institutions and catered to 41% of all students enrolled in
distance educations courses (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000).
The absence of institutional planning for the implementation of
distance education programs at educational institutions has corresponded
with major obstacles to implementation and achievement. As the demand for
distance education continues to grow amongst post-secondary institutions,
there is a need for these institutions to re-evaluate their ability to provide
quality distance education courses and programs.
The findings of this study will identify the barriers to successfully
implementing a distance education program in the community college setting.
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Insight into the barriers a community college will likely face when
attempting to implement a distance education program will enable the college
to re-evaluate and effectively utilize its resources, approaches, and
infrastructure; ensure compliance with federal, state, and local legislation; re
evaluate institutional policies governing distance education delivery and
offerings; and align the distance education program with the college’s vision,
mission, and goals.
Purpose of the Study
The California Community College District chosen for this study has
had a long history in the delivery of distance education. They possess
numerous resources, interested faculty and staff, and have witnessed
several faculty and staff led efforts to progress in distance education. Yet,
despite the history, resources, and desire, minimal if any progress has been
made towards the successful implementation of any meaningful programs or
services to distance education consumers.
The primary purpose of this study is to identify and explore the
barriers that impede the implementation of a distance education program in
the community college setting. This study will examine the history of
distance education and the types of distance education employed; the
collective vision for the direction of distance education; the resources
available for distance education; and federal, state, and local legislative
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requirements as well as the district’s institutional policies governing
the delivery of distance education.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will have value to many audiences. The
Board of Trustees and the Chancellor can use the findings as part of the
Master Educational Plan for the District. College Presidents can use the
findings to address distance education in their college mission statements.
The entire district can use the findings to identify and mitigate barriers they
will likely encounter when they implement of a distance education program.
Vice-Presidents of Instruction, Directors, Academic Senates, and faculty can
use the findings to help anticipate obstacles and consider alternative
approaches. All audiences will be able to see the challenges that are most
prominent in dealing with distance education implementation and anticipate
strategies for how to get past these challenges. Researchers in the field will
be able to further research the challenges that were identified and the
solutions that were recommended to address the challenges.
Exploratory Questions
1. What is the history of distance education and what major
milestones have impacted the California Community Colleges?
2. What is the vision for the direction of distance education in the
California Community Colleges?
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3. What resources do the California Community Colleges
have for distance education?
4. What are the federal, state, and local legislative requirements;
expectations of accrediting agencies; and the Community
College District’s institutional policies governing the delivery
and offering of distance education courses and programs?
5. What are the barriers to the implementation of successful
implementation of distance education programs?
Methodology
This study is qualitative design and will use a Pattern-Matching data
analysis model. Data will be collected from a combination of literature
reviews; the collection and review of budgets, contracts, institutional policies,
and federal, state, and local legislation; accreditation requirements; and
interviews. The Community College District chosen for this study was
selected based on convenience and having two colleges within the District,
each with very different approaches to distance education. The study will
produce a detail description of the barriers identified in implementing a
distance education program in the community college setting.
Assumptions
1) Distance education is and will continue to be part of the future of
post-secondary education.
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2) Distance education is an important means of serving
populations unable to attend traditional classes due to family
obligations, work hour restrictions, and/or the lack of a local
institution.
3) The quality of distance education courses and programs are
important to students, faculty, and administration.
4) Distance education programs should provide the same level quality
and rigor as traditional courses.
5) Distance education students should receive the same registration,
counseling, contact, and services as traditional students.
6) Federal, state, and local legislation and institutional policies will
change and may impact the rules governing and the fiscal
resources available for distance education.
7) All California Community Colleges must be accredited by the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and are
subject to the same state legislation and policies with regard to
distance education requirements.
8) Technologies utilized in distance education will continue to be
invented, developed and refined and may radically impact costs,
concerns, and the overall feasibility of distance education.
9) There will be great variation in the types of distance education
technologies community colleges have.
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10) There will be great variation in the number and types of
distance education employed from one community college district
to anther.
11) There will be great variation in the importance community colleges
place on distance education.
12) There will be great variation in the resources community colleges
commit to distance education.
13) There will be variation in the perception community colleges have
of distance education.
Delimitations
This study will confine itself to a single California Community College
District with two colleges. The focus of this study will not include non-
technological distance learning modalities such as correspondence
education.
Limitations
1) State Budget Cuts - The recent and ongoing state budget cuts
may affect the district’s ability to deal with issues of distance
education implementation.
2) Subject Bias - Being employed at, having a vested interested in, or
exposure to distance education and personnel involved in distance
education within the study location may introduce personal bias to
the study.
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3) Researcher Bias - Having had significant exposure to
distance education and being the Director of Distance Education
and Technology Services for the community college district in
which the study is being conducted, the researcher of this study
may, unknowingly, introduce personal bias to the study.
Definition of Terms
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) - Enacted July 26,1990, the
ADA prohibits discrimination and ensures equal opportunity for persons with
disabilities in employment, state and local government services, public
accommodations, commercial facilities, and transportation. It also mandates
the establishment of TDD/telephone relay services. The Department of
Justice enforces the ADA’s requirements in three areas: (1) Title I
Employment practices by units of state and local government; (2) Title II
Programs, services, and activities of state and local government; and (3) Title
III Public accommodations and commercial facilities (Mora, Boatright, &
Woodyard, 2004).
Asynchronous - Communication in which interaction between parties
does not take place simultaneously (Mora et al., 2004).
Broadcasting - To transmit the same information to multiple receivers
simultaneously over a satellite system, radio/TV station, data
communications network or e-mail system (Mora et al., 2004).
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Caption - A text transcript of the audio portion of a video file
that synchronizes the text to the action contained in the video (Mora et al.,
2004).
Compressed Video - When video signals are downsized to allow travel
along a smaller carrier (Mora et al., 2004).
Correspondence Courses - a course offered by mail by a
correspondence school (American Heritage Dictionary, 2002).
Course Management System - software that has capabilities in three
areas: 1) design interface and content assembly; 2) the facilitation of
communication and collaboration; and 3) course management support.
(Educause, Effective Practices and Solutions -
http://www.educause.edu/ep/ep_subjects.asp)
Distance Education - Instruction in which the instructor and student are
separated by distance and interact through the assistance of communication
technology (Mora et al., 2004).
Distance Education Course - The delivery of instruction and
separation of the student and instructor that utilizes one or a combination of
technologies 51 percent or more of the time is considered a Distance
Education course/section/session (Mora et al., 2004).
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) - The U.S. federal
regulatory agency responsible for the regulation of interstate and
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international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and
cable (Mora et al., 2004).
Fifty-one (51%) Rule - A course/section or session is defined as DE if
technology is used 51 percent or more of the time required to deliver
instruction during the course term and where the student and instructor are
separated by distance (Mora et al., 2004).
Fully Interactive - A variety of distance education in which the
technology employed provides an immediate opportunity for exchange
between participants (Mora et al., 2004).
Hybrid Course - A course utilizing more than one mode of instructional
delivery. Instruction may be delivered by such modes as, for example, the
internet, email, video, and the classroom (Mora et al., 2004).
Independent Study - A broad category of courses for which state
reimbursement is based upon number of units of credit rather than amount of
student attendance. For apportionment purposes, distance education is one
variety of independent study (Mora et al., 2004).
Infrastructure - The basic facilities, services, installations, and
technology needed for an academic institution to be able to support teaching
and learning, increase student access, improve student support services,
and achieve better efficiencies and effectiveness in administrative support
(Morrow, 2001; American Heritage Dictionary, 2002).
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Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) - Microwave-
based, high-frequency television used in educational program delivery (Mora
et al., 2004).
Online Courses - “An online course is one which is primarily internet
based (or intranet based, within an organization)” (Carr-Chellman and
Duchastel, 2000)
Origination Site - The location from which a teleconference originates
(Mora et al., 2004).
Streaming Video - Streaming video is a sequence of “moving images”
that are sent in compressed form over the Internet and displayed by the
viewer as they arrive. Streaming media is streaming video with sound. With
streaming video or streaming media, a Web user does not have to wait to
download a large file before seeing the video or hearing the sound. Instead,
the media is sent in a continuous stream and is played as it arrives. The user
needs a player, a special program that uncompresses and sends video data
to the display and audio data to speakers. A player can be either an integral
part of a browser or downloaded from the software maker’s Web site (Mora
et al., 2004).
Synchronous - Communication in which interaction between
participants is simultaneous (Mora et al., 2004).
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Teleconferencing - Two-way electronic communication
between two or more groups in separate locations via audio, video, and/or
computer systems (Mora et al., 2004).
Telecourse - A video-based course which uses a fully integrated
package of video instruction combined with instructional support materials
(for example, a textbook, a student study guide, and a faculty resource
guide). Telecourses are delivered in a variety of ways, including television
broadcast (Mora et al., 2004).
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study has presented the introduction, the statement
of the problem, the background of the study, the purpose of the study, the
significance of the study, the questions to be answered, the theoretical
framework, and the definitions of terms.
Chapter 2 is a review of relevant literature. It addresses the following
topics: (1) history and milestones of distance education; (2) distance
education delivery modalities: types, advantages, disadvantages, and fiscal
considerations; (3) legislative, accrediting, and district expectations and
requirements; and (4) the barriers to implementing distance education.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the
researcher’s reasons for interest in the study and relevant background; the
participants in the study; the research design; and the procedures used.
Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study.
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Chapter 5 presents analysis, discussion, the significance of
the study, implications for practice, as well as conclusions and
recommendations.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Academic institutions of higher education and businesses alike are
increasingly turning to distance education to address their institutional
missions and goals. Some of these institutions are faced with lack of space,
others a need to appeal to an increasingly mobile population of adult
students that have family and work obligations, and still others hoping to find
effective mediums to generate additional revenue or provide ongoing training
for their personnel while containing costs (Collins, 2000; Denton, 2001;
Easterday, 1997; Nania, 1999; Neal, 1999). Whatever their reasons, these
institutions and businesses are viewing distance education as an increasingly
viable means of addressing these concerns.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the literature on
many of the issues that impact the implementation and delivery of distance
education courses. It is divided into four major sections: (1) History and
Milestones of Distance Education with an emphasis on post-secondary
institutions, particularly the community college; (2) distance education
delivery modalities: types, advantages, disadvantages, and fiscal
considerations; (3) legislative, accrediting, and district expectations and
requirements; and (4) the barriers to implementing distance education.
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History and Milestones of Distance Education
There is a degree of uncertainty in the literature as to when and where
the first distance education courses were first offered (Sumner, 2000). Some
researchers believe the first courses were offered in Europe while others
believe the first courses were offered in the United States. Further, some of
the literature suggests that distance education started in the 1700s (Nania,
1999), while others cite the first courses being offered in the 1800s (Denton,
2001; Easterday, 1997; Nasseh, 1997). Though no one knows for sure when
distance education first came about, all studies agree that the first form of
distance education courses were correspondence courses.
The first documented examples of correspondence courses came in
the 1800s. Correspondence courses were conducted via the mail by schools
and other qualified institutions, both in the United States and Europe
(Denton, 2001). Printed materials sent through the mail were the main
vehicle of communication, teaching, and learning (Denton, 2001; Nasseh,
1997). The popularity and efficiency of correspondence courses in the
United States was greatly enhanced by the United States Postal Service
when they introduced a universal free delivery service that included delivery
to rural areas. Even though the elitist mentality of universities made this
short-lived, the impact on the popularity of correspondence education had
been made (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html; Prewitt, 1998).
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One of the first instructors to teach via correspondence was
an English phonographer by the name of Isaac Pitman. Isaac Pitman began
teaching correspondence courses by shorthand in 1837. His system was
subsequently introduced to the United States in 1852 by Benn Pittman,
Isaac’s brother, who founded the Phonographic Institute in Cincinnati, Ohio
(Clark, 1999; http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html;
http://www.deqreeinfo.com/timeline/).
Correspondence courses grew dramatically in popularity. Students
were finding correspondence courses a viable means of learning regardless
of public stature (Nasseh, 1997). Correspondence courses cost significantly
less than traditional education, accommodated working individuals, and were
effective in overcoming some of the societal barriers of race and gender.
One such example is the “mother of American correspondence study,” as
she came to be known. Anna Ticknor established the “Society to Encourage
Studies at Home” in Boston, Massachusetts in 1873. Her mission was to
provide educational opportunities for all women. Over a 24-year period,
Ticknor successfully recruited over 10,000 members to participate in
correspondence learning (Nasseh, 1997;
http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). Despite the increasing
popularity of correspondence study, however, it would not be until 1883 that
the first college for a correspondence based curriculum would be established
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(Nasseh, 1997; http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html;
http://www.deqreeinfo.com/timeline/).
The first college to successfully establish a correspondence based
curriculum that was authorized to grant degrees was the Chautauqua
College of Liberal Arts (Nasseh, 1997). In 1883, the State of New York
authorized Chautauqua College to grant degrees for a program that required
students to attend on-site institutes during the summer and then
correspondence during the rest of the academic year. This program ran from
1883-1891 (Nasseh, 1997: http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html;
http://www.deqreeinfo.com/timeline/).
Cornell University attempted to establish the first Correspondence
University in 1883, but was unsuccessful (Nasseh, 1997). The University of
Chicago established the first university level distance education program in
1892. The founder, William Rainey Harper, enabled students to received
college level courses by mail
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html;
http://www.deqreeinfo.com/timeline/). It would not be until 1906 that
correspondence study at the elementary level would be made available by
the Calvert School of Baltimore
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
In the early 1890s, the Colliery Engineer School of Mines started a
correspondence course in mine safety
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(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htnnl). This school was
headquartered in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. A year later, the Colliery
Engineer School of Mines evolved into the International Correspondence
School (ICS). This school focused on providing training to mine, railroad and
iron workers. By 1923, ICS’s had enrolled over 2.5 million students. Today,
ICS is Thompson Education Direct and remains the largest commercial
provider of home study courses in the United States
(http://www.educationdirect.com/02-our history.html;
http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
It was between 1910 and 1920 that extension programs began
experimenting with various types of media to supplement their instruction.
Lanternslides and motion pictures were added as part of the instructional
resources available to extension instructors, but it was instructional radio that
was felt to be the most promising technology for the future of
correspondence instruction
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
The wireless telegraph, or radio, was invented by an Italian physicist
by the name of Marchese Guglielmo Marconi in 1897 (Olson, 1994). His
invention came about from experiments with homemade apparatus that
enabled him to send long-wave signals for short distances. In 1896, Marconi
patented his invention and founded the Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph
Company, Ltd. Within a year, London had begun to develop commercial
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19
applications for its use. By 1899, communication was possible
across the English Channel and by 1901, across the Atlantic Ocean
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html; Olson, 1994). Despite this
great progress, it would not be until the early 1920s that the first educational
radio licenses would be granted to three universities: the University of Salt
Lake City, the University of Wisconsin and the University of Minnesota. It was
Pennsylvania State College, however, to first broadcast instructional courses
over the radio in 1922 (Nasseh, 1997; Prewitt, 1998).
Between 1918 and 1946, the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) granted 202 educational broadcasting licenses to colleges,
universities, and school boards nationwide (Nasseh, 1997). During this time
period, educational institutions that delivered educational programming
owned over ten percent of all broadcast radio stations. Nonetheless, despite
the popularity of instructional radio, by 1940 only one college-level credit
course was being offered by radio (Nasseh, 1997).
In 1921, a Russian immigrant by the name of Vladimir Zworykin
patented the first practical television camera tube, called the iconoscope.
This invention was to become the foundation of modern television.
Historians know Zworykin as "the father of television." It was thirteen years
later, in 1934, that the first television course was broadcasted by the State
University of Iowa (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/history/index.html).
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20
Even with its tremendous popularity and growth,
academicians were suspect of the overall quality of correspondence study
(Nasseh, 1997; http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
Subsequently, institutions such as the University of Wisconsin at Madison
sought to expand the research of correspondence-based education. In 1915,
they founded the National University Education Association (NUEA). The
NUEA was charged with coordinating the correspondence and extension
programs of its member schools. Their goal was to broaden the focus of
distance education to include the issues of guidelines, andragogical
considerations, institutional policies, credit transferal, and overall issues of
quality. Today, the NUEA is known as the National University Continuing
Education Association (NUCEA) (Rohfeld, 1990).
In 1920, the United States Marine Corps started to offer
correspondence courses through the Marine Corps Institute
(http://www.mci.usmc.mil/aboutmci/historv.asp). This institute, originally
known as the Vocational Schools Detachment is still housed in the Marine
Barracks at Quantico, Virginia, and currently offers approximately 150
courses at both vocational and baccalaureate levels. During World War II,
extension programs played a key role in providing a variety of technical and
mechanical courses in addition to refresher courses (Nasseh, 1997).
In 1926, the National Better Business Bureau and the Carnegie
Corporation sponsored the foundation of the National Home Study Council
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21
(NHSC) (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htnnn. This
council was comprised of 16 institutions. The purpose of the NHSC was to
improve the standards of private and federal correspondence schools. As a
result of their work, the Federal Trade Commission developed the “Fair
Trade Practice Rules for the Private Home Schools.” These rules were the
enforcement code for the federal government to prosecute unethical home
study school operators (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
From the 1930s through the 1950s, distance education witnessed a
great increase in both support and interest (Watkins, 1991). Banking and
railroad industries, labor unions, the armed forces, and national welfare
associations had begun to appreciate the value of distance education
(Watkins, 1991). Despite its growing popularity, however, academicians
continued to question its soundness (Nasseh, 1997; Watkins, 1991).
In 1933, a survey of the faculty of the University of Chicago suggested
that correspondence study should be justified on an experimental basis
(Nasseh, 1997). It would not be until 1955, however, that the Distance
Education and Training Council (DETC), formerly the NHSC, would form a
seven-member accreditation commission to provide oversight and establish
minimum standards for distance education courses. The accreditation
commission of the DETC was approved and recognized as the national
accrediting agency by the United States Department of Education
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
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22
Driven by the rising costs of higher education, growing interest
in alternative educational delivery methods, an increasingly mobile
population, the need for professional growth and new competency
development, public dissatisfaction with educational institutions, and the
great success of the British Open University, more and more alternative
instructional delivery methods were developed in the United States during
the 1960s and 1970s (Nasseh, 1997).
In the mid-1960’s, the Correspondence Education Research Project
was developed to encourage additional research in the area of
correspondence study. It was hoped that this would help define the status
and role correspondence study was playing in American higher education.
The Division of Correspondence Study changed its name to the Division of
Independent Study in 1968. This division provided additional choices for
alternative delivery education including videotape, programmed instruction,
television, telephone, and other multimedia (Nasseh, 1997).
Another major milestone in the history of distance education occurred
when the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) established the
Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) in 1963
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). The ITFS was the result
of a resolution to reserve selected transmission frequencies for the
educational purposes of local credit-granting institutions. The restrictions for
acquiring licensure for these frequencies limited the use of channels for the
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23
delivery of instruction. However, if credit-granting institutions
partnered with companies that delivered subscriber-based video services
that competed with land-based cable television systems, they could deliver
entertainment programs, as well. Instructional Television Fixed Service
enabled credit-granting institutions to provide television courses to
communities within a 20-35 mile radius of their transmitter. The first
university to apply for licensure was the California State University System
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Public Broadcasting
Act (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). This act authorized
the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) whose charge
was to promote non-commercial use of television and radio. The Corporation
for Public Broadcasting was to create high quality programs, develop a
national means to disseminate programming, and enhance the support
offered to local public television and radio stations. Two years later, the CPB
partnered with AT&T to interconnect 140 television stations, resulting in the
creation of the first national public television system. In November 1969, the
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) was born. A year later, National Public
Radio (NPR) was created which ensured interconnectivity amongst public
radio stations (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
Much of the critical research that led to significant advancements in
distance education came from the British Open University (Prewitt, 1998).
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24
The success of Britain’s Open University was the major reason for
the development of open universities in other countries such as America and
Japan. Open Universities continue to grant degrees at the bachelor,
masters, and doctorate levels (Nasseh, 1997).
Based on what was learned from the failed University of Wisconsin's
Articulated Instructional Media (AIM) Project in 1967, the British Open
University was established as a fully autonomous, degree-granting institution
in 1972 (Prewitt, 1998). The Open University was not part of a traditional
university. It had complete control of its budget, faculty, curriculum and
students. It was these factors that were blamed for the failure of the
University of Wisconsin's AIM Project. The British Open University allowed
any student to enroll regardless of academic background and experiences
(Prewitt, 1998). Their emphasis was on a comprehensive delivery system.
Their courses were supplemented by study guides, textbooks, and other
resources so as to cater to all learning styles (http://www.open.ac.uk/about/;
http://www.pbs.orq/als/dl/historv/index.html).
In 1971, the first United States Open University, the New York State’s
Empire State College (NYSES), was established. The mission of NYSES
was to increase the accessibility of higher education programs for students
unable to attend traditional classes. The NYSES College allowed greater
flexibility with regard to academic credit, degree requirements, and time
restrictions typical of traditional education (Nasseh, 1997).
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25
The community colleges first became active participants in
distance education in 1970. The State of California established a task force
to develop television courses, or telecourses, that were the equivalent of
complete traditional classroom courses
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htmn. These courses were
expected to meet the established standards and take into account the need
for student teacher interaction, assessments, and student progress reports.
Coast Community College led the task force under the leadership of Vice-
Chancellor Bernard Luskin, Ph.D.
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htmn.
The subsequent distribution and licensing of the task force’s
telecourses was assigned to Coastline Community College
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dl/historv/index.htmn. Coastline, in partnership with
public television station KOCE-TV, broadcasted these telecourses to
colleges, universities and libraries in Orange County. Lacking a physical
campus, Coastline was recognized as the first virtual college in the United
States. Within a few years, at least three community college districts, the
Miami-Dade Community College District in Florida, the Coast Community
College District in California, and the Dallas County Community College
District in Texas, would be producing and offering telecourses
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dl/historv/index.html).
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26
In 1981, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) established
the Adult Learning Service (ALS) with funding from the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting (CPB) (http://www.pbs.org/als/dl/historv/index.html). This
service was devoted to the national delivery of education programs. The
ALS currently works with over 190 public television stations and 2,000
colleges to deliver telecourses for college credit
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
Interconnectivity and course delivery via satellite and cable came in
vogue during the 1980s (Nasseh, 1997). In 1982, the National University
Teleconferencing Network (NUTN) started broadcasting signal amongst its
membership, consisting of 40 academic institutions. In 1985, the National
Technological University (NTU) opened its doors as an accredited university
offering both graduate degrees and continuing education courses
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). In NTUs system, courses
were sent via satellite from the originating university and then redistributed by
NTU’s satellite.
In 1987, the Mind Extension University (MEU) was founded
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/history/index.html). The MEU broadcasted
courses and full degree programs via cable network that were developed by
community colleges and universities. By 1991, over 18 institutions including
the Universities of California, the Universities of Oklahoma, Pennsylvania
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27
State University, and Washington State University were using the
MEU network to delivery their courses for independent study (Gorkski, 1994).
During the late 1980s and the 1990s, much progress was being made
on the European front. In 1989, the British Open University commenced
publication of the “Research in Distance Education” periodical (Nasseh,
1997). This periodical provided a focused and collaborative opportunity to
collect information on the research that was being conducted in the distance
education arena. In 1998, the Western Governors University and the British
Open University jointly announced the creation of a distance education
consortium called the Governors Open University System and in 1999, the
British Open University opened a sister institution called the United States
Open University (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html).
In the 1980’s distance education took a significant leap forward with
the invention of the personal computer and two-way video conferencing
systems (Denton, 2001). Within 4 years, institutions such as the New Jersey
Institute of Technology started offering the first online undergraduate courses
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htmn. By 1989, the University of
Phoenix and Connect-Ed were offering degree programs entirely online.
Online course delivery grew and at an even more frantic pace when Tim
Berners-Lee developed the world-wide-web in 1991
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). By 1997, a consortium of
more that 100 California Community Colleges and universities created the
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28
California Virtual University, offering more than 1500 online courses.
It was Jones International University, however, that received the distinction of
being the first accredited virtual university when it opened its doors in 1999
(Gorski, 1994; http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.htmn.
In 1996, a statewide technology strategic plan was developed for the
California Community Colleges with funding from a grant from the United
States Department of Commerce. The plan was given the name “California
Community Colleges Technology I Strategic Plan” (Mawson, 2002). This
plan was developed to address the identified need for a statewide
telecommunications and technology system to “effectively carry out the
mission of the California Community Colleges; which is to advance California
economic growth and global competitiveness and contribute to the
continuous workforce improvement” (Mawson, 2002).
The first funding for the statewide telecommunications and technology
system was received in 1996-1997 Budget Act, entitled the Technology and
Telecommunications Infrastructure Program (TTIP) (Mawson, 2002). These
monies were used in five major areas: data connection to the California State
University and California Community Colleges network, known as the 4CNet
backbone; video-conferencing capabilities at each college and district site;
the California Community Colleges Satellite Network (CCCSAT); the
California Community College Conferencing Network (CCCConfer); and
library automation and electronic information resources (Mawson, 2002).
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29
In 1998, work began on the “Technology II Strategic Plan,”
with the goals of “Student access and student Success.” This plan was to
build upon and improve the infrastructure that was being developed through
the “Technology I Strategic Plan” (Mawson, 2002). As part of this plan,
community colleges will be upgraded from T-1 to DS-3 data connectivity.
This will greatly enhance their transmission rates and will also result in a
transition to Video over Internet Protocol (VOIP) H.323 technology (Mawson,
2002).
To assist the California Community Colleges provide online education,
the California Virtual Campus (CVC) started hosting and offering discounted
rates for course management software in 1999 (California Virtual Campus,
2003). As of the 2002-03 academic year, the CVC is hosting over 3,200
online courses and have enrolled over 52,000 students. The number of
students in the California Community College system turning to distance
education continues to rise. As of 2002, they were serving over 120,000
distant education students (California Virtual Campus, 2003).
The popularity of distance education courses continue to grow as new
communication technologies emerge and distance education instructional
tools continue to be refined. Academic institutions are challenged to stay
abreast of these technologies and make challenging decisions on adopting
software and hardware that have significant fiscal impacts on the institution,
but may be outdated in a very short span of time (Kabutu, 2002; Levine &
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30
Sun, 2002; Perreault, Waldman, Alexander, & Zhao, 2002; Sherron &
Boettcher, 1997).
Distance Education Delivery Modalities: Types, Advantages, Disadvantages,
and Fiscal Considerations
Distance learning is being utilized by an increasing number of
academic institutions to enhance their ability to increase enrollments while
decreasing costs (Denton, 2001; Neal, 1999). These institutions are
struggling to serve a growing population of students seeking alternative
educational delivery formats to acquire their education (Sjogren & Fay, 2002;
Stallings, 2001). They are challenged to concurrently address meeting
increasing demand as well as a rising scrutiny regarding the value and
academic soundness of distance learning (Neal, 1999). The challenge these
academic institutions are facing is to find distance learning delivery
modalities that can be coupled with sound instructional theory to address
academic integrity issues (Nasseh, 1997).
This section of the literature review will explore what distance learning
modalities exists and the fiscal and infrastructural considerations necessary
to support each modality. The distance learning modalities that will be
covered in this review are: (1) correspondence; (2) printed text, (3) email, (4)
video-tape, (5) compact-disc, (6) instructional radio, (7) television, (8) online,
(9) compressed video, and (10) teleconferencing. While there is a growing
trend towards distance learning institutions offering courses that utilize a
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31
combination of delivery modalities, or hybrids, for the purposes of
this review, each delivery modality will be reviewed and examined
independently (Neal, 1999).
Correspondence Courses
The earliest forms of distance education originated in the Unites
States during the 1700s (Nania, 1999). They were print-based
correspondence courses. These correspondence courses grew in popularity
and by the latter part of the 1800s, where being offered internationally. In the
early 1900s, correspondence courses became common place and were
being made available by universities and private institutions to elementary,
secondary, higher education, and vocational students (Sharon, 1999; Willis,
1993).
Over the years, correspondence courses have retained their
popularity and continue to be offered internationally. Correspondence
courses have evolved to take on many different formats and utilize emerging
technologies. Mediums used today include printed text (Wilson, 1996),
email, videotape (Denton, 2001; Neal, 1999), and compact discs (Denton,
2001). Though these new mediums have opened the way to more timely
communication and feedback, incorporation of video and graphics, and
interactivity, they have also increased the technology requirements of the
student.
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32
Printed Text Courses
Advantages. Printed text courses are a relatively inexpensive and
convenient means of taking academic courses (Wilson, 1996). Their
greatest advantage is the absence of any requirement for technology. A
student does not need a computer, video-cassette recorder (VCR), or any
other form of technology. Printed text courses have further advantages in
that they are easily edited and revised and are instructionally transparent.
Instructional designers and subject-matter experts are very familiar with the
text format and printed text is familiar to and accepted by students. These
courses are often self-paced with very loose timelines for submission of
assignments, offering students great flexibility (Wilson, 1996).
Disadvantages. The drawbacks of printed text correspondence
courses include the lack of timely feedback and communication with a course
instructor or facilitator, their inability to accommodate for different learning
styles and student motivation, their lack of interactivity, and their dependence
on student reading ability (Collins, 2000; Wilson, 1996). Students must wait
for materials to be mailed to the originating institution, the grading of the
materials, and the return mailing of the materials. There is little or no
personal attention given in printed-text correspondence courses and
assignments are not collaboratively based so students work alone (Collins,
2000; Wilson, 1996).
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33
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. No literature was
found that detailed infrastructural and fiscal considerations for printed-text
forms of correspondence courses other than to say that the costs associated
with printed-text correspondence courses are relatively low (Wilson, 1996).
Email Courses
Advantages. The greatest advantages of email over printed text
courses are the student’s ability to receive timely feedback and interact with
an instructor or facilitator and their peers (Collins, 2000). Email courses also
enable instructors or facilitators to provide more frequent and rigid deadlines
for assignments to encourage students to pace themselves as they progress
through a course. These courses have the additional benefit of teaching
students basic skills such as typing and computer skills (Nania, 1999).
Disadvantages. The drawbacks to email correspondence courses are
the need for students to have or acquire basic computer skills and have or
have access to a computer with Internet access (Nania, 1999). This has
become less of a concern as Internet availability and means of accessing the
Internet has become increasingly abundant and the cost of computers have
continued to come down. Nonetheless, there continues to be the issue of
whether the costs of purchasing or gaining access to a computer with
Internet access may prohibit a student from being able to take a course and
whether or not Internet availability is even an option in some areas (Nania,
1999).
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34
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. The fiscal concerns
associated with email-based correspondence courses are significantly more
than printed text based courses. Institutions offering email based courses
must make a significant investment in technological infrastructure that
includes email servers, massive storage devices to store both emails and
assignments, routers to connect the servers and storage devices, firewalls to
prevent unwanted and unlawful access to the information contained in the
storage devices, and software (Curtain, 2002). Additionally, institutions must
hire qualified personnel to oversee and maintain this infrastructure as well as
budget for the periodic replacement of hardware and updates of software
(Curtain, 2002).
Videotape Courses
Videotape based courses can be used to deliver many different types
of educational material (Houston, 2000). They may contain copies of actual
on-site classroom sessions and be sent out to distance students weekly; they
may contain educational programming such as those seen on the Public
Broadcasting Service (PBS); and/or they may contain seminars; and/or
materials developed by the course instructor. Regardless of the content,
videotape based correspondence courses are usually offered in conjunction
with printed text or email based correspondence courses. As the cost of
videocassettes, videocassette recorders (VCRs), and televisions have
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35
decreased in price, faculty are increasingly finding value in its use
(Houston, 2000).
Advantages. Videotape courses offer significant advantages over
printed text and email courses. In both of the aforementioned cases,
graphics and text are static (Wilson, 1996). The student reads text and looks
at pictures or reads an email and views an attachment. The primary
advantage of videotape-based courses is that they are animated and are
thus capable of simplifying difficult to grasp concepts through visualization.
Students taking videotape courses can actually watch a child being born or
bridge being built as opposed to just reading about it or looking at still
photos. Videotape courses also allow students to receive more detailed
information or clarification from instructors or facilitators. Further, videotape
courses incorporate sound. Students can hear the sounds of various birds
and animals or they can listen to the tone of their instructor’s voice. Another
advantage of videotape courses is their ability to present current “as they
happen” events (Wilson, 1996).
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of videotape courses include the
time necessary to mail the tapes, timely feedback from the instructors or
facilitators, the need to have a television and VCR to view the tapes, and the
logistics of sending out a significant number of tapes. Additionally, there may
be the need to acquire copyright or broadcast privileges (Crews, 2002).
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36
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. The infrastructure
and costs associated with supporting videotape based courses is dependent
on many factors including the number of tapes that need to be created and
how frequently they need to be sent out, the quality of the tape desired, and
whether or not tapes are to be reused. The materials for these courses can
be expensive and time consuming to produce and additional costs will be
incurred for revisions and updates (Wilson, 1996).
Compact Disc Courses
Compact disc (CD) based courses are the newest form of
correspondence course (Shephard, 2001). In these courses, course
materials such as PowerPoint presentations, handouts, audio files, and video
clips can be recorded or “burned” onto a CD and mailed to a student.
Autoplay software, such as those developed by the Pollen Company, can be
used to organize the content of these CDs so that once inserted into the CD
drive of the student’s computer, the CD will run itself or “auto-play.” Students
can then work their way through the CD via interactive menus.
Advantages. Compact disc courses have many advantages. Despite
being small and compact, CDs have the ability to store a wide variety of
electronic media formats (Sheppard, 2001). They allow for interactivity and
for students to view videos and hear audio clips. With the appropriate
software, information on CDs can be password protected to prevent
unwanted copying and dissemination of information enhancing copyright
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37
protection (Perenson, 2003). If connected to the Internet, links can
be created on the CD that will automatically guide students to resources
online. By having the information available to the student’s computer via the
CD-drive, presentations are much faster and have better quality than if they
were streamed, or broadcasted, over the Internet (Sheppard, 2001). Further,
CD based courses have an additional benefit of teaching or refining students
basic computer skills (Nania, 1999).
Disadvantages. As with all correspondence courses, however, CD
based courses have their drawbacks. Like email courses, with CD courses
there is a need for students to have or acquire basic computer skills and
have or have access to a computer (Sheppard, 2001). The quality of the
interaction of the CD may vary significantly depending on the computer’s
hardware, software, and configuration. Compact discs also have a limited
storage capacity, usually around 650 megabytes (Sheppard, 2001).
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. The infrastructure
requirements for CD based learning is dependent on the number of courses,
number of students, and number of CDs required per course (R. Keith,
personal communication, May 14, 2003). Typically, however, one original
CD can be used to create multiple CDs at a time. The amount of time
necessary to copy a CD is dependent on the speed of the CD-writer. The
costs of running a CD based course can cost significantly less than email
based correspondence courses because there is no need to have a robust
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38
technological infrastructure nor is there a need to hire highly qualified
technology personnel (R. Keith, personal communication, May 14, 2003).
Instructional Radio Courses
In the early 1920s, the first educational radio licenses were granted to
the University of Salt Lake City, the University of Wisconsin, and the
University of Minnesota (Neal, 1999;
http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/historv/index.html). This was the first form of
distance education to utilize technology. By 1946, 202 educational radio
licenses were granted to post-secondary institutions and school boards.
Despite their popularity, however, by 1940, only one college-level credit
course was still being offered
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/history/index.html).
Television Courses
Television courses made their debut in 1934 when the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) made a resolution that resulted in the
creation of the Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS). This resolution
set aside selected transmission frequencies for educational purposes
(http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/history/index.html). By the 1970s, television
courses, or telecourses, were being professionally written and produced to
cater to distance students. Currently, over 2,000 colleges deliver telecourses
for college credit (http://www.pbs.org/als/dlweek/history/index.html).
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39
Advantages. There are many advantages to using television
courses as a distance education delivery method. The greatest advantage to
television courses is that the medium is familiar and readily available (Willis,
1993). These courses are an effective means of introducing, summarizing,
and reviewing concepts; motivating students, collapsing time and space so
events can be relayed as they happen; and combining motion and visuals to
illustrate complex or abstract concepts (Willis, 1993). Television courses
can be transmitted via transmitter from local stations to regular “bunny ear”
antennas, via a local cable company, or via satelIite-to-satelIite dish services
such as DishNetwork or DirectTV (L. Warren, personal communication, May
14, 2003). Regardless of the means of transmission, students can view
professionally developed educational material from the comfort of their own
home. Further, if the broadcast times for students are inconvenient, with the
addition of a VCR, they can record broadcasts for later viewing. With
television courses, there is no need for students to have access or
knowledge of how to use computers (Denton, 2001; L. Warren, personal
communication, May 14, 2003).
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of television courses include the
costs of cable or satellite based viewing, potential problems with the quality
of signal reception due to transmitter power, obstacles blocking line-of-site
transmission such as hills or large buildings, and the lack of regular contact
or communication with an instructor (L. Warren, personal communication,
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40
May 14, 2003). Further, since professionally developed television
courses are very expensive to produce, often in the millions, they are often
used for a significant number of years before a revision or replacement
series is created (Willis, 1993; Wilson, 1996). The result is that materials
presented in the television series may be outdated. It then becomes
dependent on the instructor or course facilitator to provide supplemental
information to ensure the content is current (L. Warren, personal
communication, May 14, 2003).
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. The fiscal demands for
offering television courses vary significantly depending on the infrastructure
and resources available to the originating institution (L. Warren, personal
communication, May 14, 2003). Typically, institutions must pay a per course
fee as well as a per head fee for broadcasting rights
(http://www.pbs.org/als/courses/rightspricing/index.html). In the event an
institution owns its own television station, the true cost for airing telecourses
can be offset by the tuition generated from the courses or allotments given
for enrollment, underwriting, fundraising, and collaborative/shared cost
arrangements with other institutions (L. Warren, personal communication,
May 14, 2003). These institutions try to air educational programming during
off-peak viewing hours when the station gets the least amount of
advertisements and underwriting. In the event the institution does not own its
own station, then the originating institution must pay for the costs charged by
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41
whatever television, cable, or satellite company they choose to
partner with, in addition to the broadcasting rights (L. Warren, personal
communication, May14, 2003).
Online Courses
Online or web-based courses have become the most popular means
of distance education delivery. With the creation of personal computers and
the Internet, the past 30 years has seen a tremendous growth in distance
education courses (Denton, 2001). Unlike other forms of distance education
delivery methods, online courses allow both synchronous and/or
asynchronous interaction between instructors and students as well as
amongst students. Additionally, course information can be integrated into a
student information system (SIS) that enables seamless connectivity
between records, financial aid, admissions, and counseling services within
an institution (Young, 2002).
Advantages. Coupled with powerful software, called course
management software (CMS), online courses provide faculty and students
with features such as real time discussion forums, online assessments, the
ability to post and access grades and password protect materials, a single
interface for all course-related communication and activities, and group
pages so that students can work collaboratively (Leeman-Conley, 2002).
The majority of software used to deliver online courses also help to ensure
the legal compliance of educational institutions with such legislation as the
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42
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Technology,
Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act (TEACH Act)
(http://www.section508.qov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content&ID=11; Crew,
2002). These CMSs have security features such as the requirement of
unique passwords for students to access their courses and can be timed so
that materials online will not be available to students after a specified amount
of time (Leeman-Conley, 2002).
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of online distance education
courses are much more complicated than other distance education delivery
modalities (Nania, 1998). Aside from the basic disadvantages such as the
need for students to have or have access to a computer with Internet access
and have basic computer skills, there are much more involved complications
such as the need to have training for faculty, orientation to the online
environment for students, and technical support (Nania, 1998). Online
instruction requires faculty to methodically think about and organize their
course materials; they must consider the speed of their students’ computers
as well as the speed of their connection to the Internet, they must learn how
to use different technologies such as scanners, digital cameras, and
sophisticated software to add graphics, create links, and make their students’
online learning experience more meaningful (Sheppard, 2001; Wilson,
1996).
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Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. Quality online
distance education delivery requires a very robust technological
infrastructure and a great deal of fiscal and personnel resources (Curtain,
2002; Sjogren, 2002). In a report published by the United States Web-based
Education Commission entitled The Power of the Internet for Learning:
Moving from Promise to Practice (2000), a model for the total costs of
ownership for new technology is presented. This model breaks costs into
five categories: hardware (i.e., purchase price, warranty, annual
maintenance, depreciation, and upgrades), software (i.e., license price,
support, and upgrades), networking (i.e., hardware, software, warranties,
maintenance, depreciation, and upgrades), internal staffing (i.e., salaries
overhead for management, operations, helpdesk/user support, and
applications development), and other costs (i.e., consultants/contractors,
installation, training, and downtime) (Curtain, 2002; The Power of the Internet
for Learning: Moving from Promise to Practice, 2000).
In another model proposed by Sjogren and Fay (2002), they break
costs into four categories: course design, course delivery, faculty
development, and student support. They contend that online learning course
design is much more involved than traditional courses. Above that of a
traditional class, online courses require greater detail in the defining of
learning objectives, organization of course content, the assembling of
resources, and the designing of assignments. The course delivery costs will
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include a significant investment in technological infrastructure and
course delivery software. Further costs are incurred with the need for
training for both the trainers of faculty and staff in addition to the faculty and
staff themselves. Finally, a significant investment is necessary for access to
library services, advising, financial aid, and career counseling. Fiscal
resources are necessary for both initial development and implementation as
well as for ongoing maintenance costs (Sjorgren, 2002).
Academic institutions providing online education must also invest in
training for their faculty (Nania, 1998). Teaching online can be radically
different from traditional classroom teaching. Consistent training within an
institution helps to ensure that faculty are using sound andragogical
approaches to instruction and are aware of legal issues that may impact
online instruction. These institutions must also invest in the provision of
technical support (Stallings, 2001). In many cases, technical support for
online courses is offered through computing services, but it may also be
provided through the library, the office of distance education or faculty
development, or can be outsourced to a course management system
provider (Stallings, 2001).
The costs associated with online instruction are significant. The costs
for the development and implementation of the aforementioned infrastructural
and personnel considerations, can easily reach into the millions of dollars
(Stallings, 2001). The additional costs of software can vary greatly
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depending on the level of software and features it has. For example,
a basic course management software package may cost as little as $7,500
per college per year, whereas the most sophisticated package may run an
institution well over $300,000 per year (M. Korchin, personal communication,
March 13, 2003).
Compressed Video Courses
Compressed video courses, also known as video conferencing
courses, were first introduced in the 1980s (Denton, 2001). With these
courses, students at two or more sites, though physically separated, can see
and hear each other. Typically, the instructor is located at the primary site
and teaching assistant(s) or facilitator(s) are at the other sites (Omatseye,
1999). This medium of distance education delivery has found much favor
over the past 10 years and continues to grow in popularity especially in light
of fiscal cuts. There are three types of compressed video courses, one-way
video/one-way audio, one-way video/two-way audio, and two-way video/two
way audio. Compressed video can be transmitted via many mediums
including satellite, T-1, ISDN, and optical fiber (Coventry, 1999; Omatseye,
1999).
One-Way Video/One-Way Audio Courses
As its name implies, one-way video/one-way audio enables the
primary site to send out video and audio signals. The receiving site can only
hear and see, but not respond. One-way video/one-way audio is the most
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46
common form of the three compressed video formats and is very
effective in disseminating information to multiple sites (Omatseye, 1999).
One-Way Video/Two-Way Audio Courses
The primary difference between one-way video/one-way audio and
one-way video/two-way audio is the ability for all sites to communicate.
Video is still only sent from the primary site, but now off-sites can be actively
involved in discussions. This form of compressed video is practical for fewer
sites than the one-way video/one-way audio, since the instructor must now
be cognoscente of comments and respond to questions from the off-sites
(Coventry, 1999).
Two-Way Video/Two-Way Audio Courses
The third form of compressed video is two-way video/two-way audio
(Omatseye, 1999). This format allows all sites to be active participants in
discussions and voice questions and concerns. This format also enables all
sites to see what is taking place at the other locations. The instructor can
now see students raise their hands to ask questions or, if necessary, remand
students for lack of attentiveness. This form of compressed video is practical
for even fewer sites than one-way video/two-way audio. With the addition of
video, an excess number of sites may become distracting and difficult to
observe on a typical screen (Omatseye, 1999).
Advantages. Jim Omatseye (1999) summarized the findings of
Eastern Kentucky University’s Tele-linking Network (KTLN) with regard to
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47
perceptions of the cost-benefit teleconferencing. The advantages of
compressed video were found to include equity and increases in the quality
of educational opportunities to remote students; access to subject matter
experts or career role models not available in the local community; increased
access to information and instructional resources; interactions and
opportunities for joint activities for students at other schools and locations;
opportunities for faculty and staff development and in-service training for
beneficiaries; promotion of school and community linkages; and a decrease
in the cost of travel (Coventry, 1998; Omatseye, 1999).
Disadvantages. The disadvantages of compressed video include the
need for students to travel to a location with the appropriate equipment to
receive compressed signal, the need for the training of faculty, the need to
have a person monitor the remote sites, and the distraction of having and, in
some cases, controlling the equipment while lecturing (Coventry, 1998;
Omatseye, 1999). Compressed video also has limits with regard to how
many sites it is practical to connect to and the quality of the signal is
dependent on the speed of its connection (Coventry, 1998; Omatseye, 1999).
Infrastructural and Fiscal Considerations. The technological
infrastructure requirements for compressed video can be considerable
(Omatseye, 1999). All compressed video delivery devices must be
connected to the institution’s T-1 or ISDN lines, or optical fiber for two-way
conferencing and to a satellite link for one-way transmission (Coventry, 1998;
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48
Omatseye, 1999). Additional requirements include training, technical
support for the initial set up and orientation to the equipment, and additional
hardware, depending on the features that are desired. In some cases,
academic institutions may either have a technical support person, teaching
assistant, or a student in the class be responsible for the turning on and off
the compressed video equipment at each site (Coventry, 1998; Omatseye,
1999).
In a report written by Coventry, she pointed out that there are too
many variables involved to accurately anticipate the costs of running
compressed video courses. Factors that affect costs include frequency of
use, numbers of systems running, connection costs for bandwidth (the
greater the bandwidth the greater the quality, but the higher the price), type
of equipment purchased, initial set up fees, staffing, compensation for extra
work by faculty to prepare for courses, software, training, and the costs of
maintaining each site. On the other hand, compressed video may also help
to reduce costs associated with travel for training, conferences, and other
purposes (Coventry, 1998).
Andragogical Considerations of Distance Education
Distance education is not the most appropriate means of learning for
all students. Nania (1999) finds that those students who tend to benefit the
most from distributed forms of instruction where students who exhibited
andragogical characteristics, or characteristics of adult learners. These
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49
characteristics include a desire to learn, internal motivation, preferred
learning styles, a pragmatic attitude towards learning, a desire to apply what
is learned to current situations and an awareness of their own personal goals
and objectives when they come to the learning environment (Caffarella,
1994; Nania, 1999). Adult students prefer to be active participants in the
learning process, are more motivated if a variety of teaching methods are
employed, are more receptive to the learning process in situations that are
both physically and psychologically comfortable, are greatly impacted by the
many roles they play with regard to what, when, and where they learn, and
are not likely to engage in learning unless the content is meaningful to them
(Caffarella, 1994; Nania, 1999). These were found to be the same
characteristics as students who were successful at self-paced
correspondence courses nearly 40 years earlier (Merisotis & Phipps, 1999).
In addition to having the characteristics of adult students, Merisotis
and Phipps (1999) further found that successful distance students also
needed the appropriate technical skills. They concluded that students that
possessed substantial computer literacy performed much better than those
with very limited computer literacy. In their study, they discovered that poor
computer literacy resulted in a 12% drop or failing rate and an incompletion
rate of 38%. Students that received the incomplete grades required more
time to complete the requirements for the course. Similar findings have
resulted in an increasing number of institutions requiring students to
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50
complete a computer competency course prior to taking an online
course (Denton, 2001; Neal, 1999; Merisotis & Phipps, 1999).
Faculty development is another key to assuring the delivery of sound
andragogical instruction (Nania, 1999). Faculty must be well versed in
principles of andragogical instruction in order to know their students and what
teaching strategies to employ. Further, instructors should be provided with
support and opportunities to experiment with the various distance education
delivery methods as well as adequate time for course development (Nania,
1999).
Distance education delivery modalities can be very effective in
providing sound academic learning experiences for students exhibiting adult
like learning characteristics. These delivery modalities can enable students
to participate in college credit courses anywhere, anytime, and at their own
pace and empowers them to have greater control over their own learning and
make better use of their time (Nania, 1998; Prewitt, 1998). Distance
education also allows materials and presentation formats to be customized to
best suit student learning styles and can accommodate students with
learning and physical disabilities (Nania, 1998). It is effective in making
information more engaging, allowing instantaneous feedback and
assessment, allowing for non-judgmental drill and practice, and in some
distance education delivery formats, images and sound can help adult
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51
students learn better, especially those who have difficulty reading
(Nania, 1998).
Each form of distance education delivery method will have strengths
and weaknesses in addressing andragogical considerations. Those
strengths and weaknesses will be dependent on the type of technology, or
combinations thereof, that are employed in their delivery, the individual
course design and teaching methodologies that are employed by the
instructor, and the training and resources provided by the school. For
institutions to be successful in the selection and delivery of distance
education education, their focus must be on the appropriateness of the
content being delivered, and the cognitive style, background and experiences
of their students (Nania, 1998; Merisotis & Phipps, 1999; Prewitt, 1998).
Legislative, Accrediting, and District Expectations and Requirements
Federal Requirements
In 1973, Congress passed the Rehabilitation Act (29 U.S.C. §794d).
Section 504 of this Act imposed requirements on recipients of federal funding
to provide access for persons with disabilities (1973). Section 508 of the
Rehabilitation Act specifically required federal agencies to begin developing
guidelines for electronically accessible equipment to provide access to
persons with disabilities. In 1998, Congress amended Section 508 to
generally require that all federal agencies provide data and information in
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52
alternative mediums to enhance accessibility for persons with
disabilities
(http://www.section508.qov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content&ID=14).
In 1990, Congress passed the Americans with Disabilities Act (42
U.S.C. §12101 et seq). This Act imposed the same requirements as the
Rehabilitation Act, but went further to require access for persons with
disabilities of all public entities regardless of whether they received federal
funding or not (http://www.cccco.edu/divisions/esed/aa ir/disted.htm; Mora,
Boatright, & Woodyard, 2004). Both the Rehabilitation and the Americans
with Disabilities Acts provided civil right protections to individuals with
disabilities similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race,
gender, national origin and religion (29 U.S.C. §794d; 42 U.S.C. §12101 et
seq).
The most recent piece of legislation to impact distance education was
the Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act, commonly
referred to as the TEACH Act (17 U.S.C. §110). Signed into law in 2002, the
TEACH Act loosened restrictions on using copyrighted works for online
education. This law amended existing copyright law to allow instructors, in
some instances, to use copyrighted materials in online instruction without the
need for asking permission and without charge (Shuler, 2003).
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53
State Requirements
The California Community Colleges is comprised of 109 colleges and
72 districts (http://www.cccco.edu/executive/boq/boq.htm). It is governed by
a 17 member Board of Governors appointed by the State’s Governor. The
Board of Governors has the legislatively granted authority to review, develop,
and implement policy for the California Community Colleges (Walter Stiern
Act). The Board of Governors selects a State Chancellor and, in consultation
with the State Chancellor, establishes advisory groups to facilitate a decision
and policy making process (http://www.cccco.edu/executive/boq/orders.htm;
http://www.cccco.edu/executive/boq/boq.htm).
Prior to 1994, distance education opportunities to California
Community College students were limited to courses transferable to
baccalaureate degree granting institutions. In 1994, the Board of Governors
approved the California Title 5 regulations which called for an expansion of
distance education courses to included non-transferable and noncredit
independent study courses (Siever, 1999; Wong, 2002). This expansion was
hoped to enable the California community colleges to mainstream distance
education and be innovative in addressing student access issues. To further
assist the Board of Governors understand the growth and role distance
education was playing, the Board established the Distance Education
Technical Advisory Committee (DETAC) (Wong, 2002;
http://www.cccco.edu/executive/boq/orders.htm). The charge of this
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54
committee was to evaluate the status of distance education
throughout the California community colleges. The final DETAC report and
recommendations were approved by the Board of Governors in March of
2002 and in July of 2002, the Board of Governors filed the most current
Distance Education Regulations with the Secretary of State (Wong, 2002).
The current distance education specific regulations were added under
article 3 of subchapter 1 of chapter 6 of division 6 of the California Code of
Regulations (5 C.C.R §55205 et seq). These regulations provided a
definition and application of distance education, course quality and
standards, course quality determinations, instructor contact, separate course
approval process, faculty selection, number of students, and ongoing
responsibility of districts (Sections 55205, 55207, 55209, 55211, 55213,
55215, 55217, and 55219, respectively) (5 C.C.R §55205 et seq).
Section 55205 of the California Education Code defines distance
education as “...instruction in which the instructor and student are separated
by distance and interact through the assistance of communication
technology” (5 C.C.R §55205 et seq). Guidelines released by the California
Community College State Chancellor’s Office further clarified that a distance
education course is defined as one that utilizes technology in 51 percent or
more of the total course hours (Mora et al., 2004). The State Chancellor’s
clarification is to be used by colleges when coding their courses for reporting
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55
purposes. The guidelines further clarify that the any distance
education course can include more than one delivery technology (Mora et al.,
2004).
Section 55207 and 55209 of the California Education Code deal with
academic rigor and course quality requirements (5 C.C.R §55205 etseq).
Section 55207 requires that all distance education courses meet the same
quality standards as are applied to traditional class-based courses. Section
55209 requires that all determination and judgments of course quality be
made in consultation with and with the full involvement of the faculty (5 C.C.R
§55205 et seq).
Section 55211 of the California Education Code requires that in
addition to any locally established policies and regulations, regular and
effective contact must take place between instructor and student(5 C.C.R
§55205 et seq). Examples of contact they reference include group or
individual meetings, orientation and review sessions, supplemental
seminar or study sessions, field trips, library workshops, telephone
contact, correspondence, voice mail, e-mail, or other activities (Mora et
al., 2004).
Section 55213 and 55215 of the California Education Code pertain to
course approval and faculty selection. Section 55213 requires that a
separate approval process be put in place for distance education courses,
stating, “each proposed or existing course, if delivered by distance education,
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56
shall be separately reviewed and approved according to the district’s
certified course approval procedures” (5 C.C.R §55205 etseq). Section
55215 requires that community colleges hire to the same qualifications as
they would in hiring an instructor to teach in a traditional classroom (5 C.C.R
§55205 et seq).
Section 55217 and 55219 delegate responsibilities to the districts and
their policy making processes (5 C.C.R §55205 et seq). The section 55217
of the California Education Code requires community colleges to establish
their own policies for establishing class sizes, recognizing that faculty in
community colleges are unionized and class sizes are a negotiated item.
Section 55219 requires that district maintain their own records and report
number of courses, students, and faculty involved in distance education
sections; provide an annual report to their local governing board on all
distance education activity; and provide any and all other information
requested by the State Chancellor’s Office (5 C.C.R §55205 et seq).
Additional sections of regulations are referred to by the State
Chancellors Office’s “Distance Education Regulations and Guidelines”
(Sections 55316.5 - 55340 of article 1 of subchapter 4 of chapter 6 of
division 6; sections 58003.1 and 58009 of article 2 of subchapter 1 of
chapter9 of division 6; sections 58051 and 58056 of article 5 of
subchapter 1 of chapter 7 of division 6; and section 58168 and 58170 of
article 5 of subchapter 2 of chapter 7 of division 6 of the California Code
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57
of Regulations). These additional sections are existing sections that
are not specific to distance education. Rather, the Board of Governors
has mainstreamed distance education courses to be dealt with by
community colleges as they would traditional courses (Mora et al., 2004).
The guidelines approved by the Board of Governors were meant to
assist the California community colleges meet the State regulations (Mora et
al., 2004). The guidelines provide layman terms for interpreting the
regulations and, in many cases, provide examples. By following the
guidelines, Districts and colleges are more assured that upon review by the
State Chancellor’s Office, they will be found to be in compliance with the
State regulations. The regulations approved by the Board of Governors
provides a common basis to ensure a consistent understanding of the
expectations the Board of Governors has for the delivery of distance
education courses while providing much room for the individual district and
colleges to develop their own local policies and regulations (Mora et al.,
2004).
Title 5 of the California Code of Regulations also subjects any and all
instruction offered via distance education to the requirements of the
Americans with Disabilities Act and section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of
1973 (5 C.C.R. §55205; Mora et al., 2004; Wong, 2002;
http://www.cccco.edu/divisions/esed/aa ir/disted.htm). In 1996, the Office of
Civil Rights of the United States Department of Education notified the
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58
California State Chancellor’s Office that it would be conducting a
review of the State Community College System’s compliance with the Act
(http://www.cccco.edu/divisions/esed/aa ir/disted.htm). The findings of this
review led to recommendations for areas that were deemed to be of concern.
Subsequently, the California State Chancellor’s Office developed its
“Distance Education Access Guidelines for Students with Disabilities.” These
guidelines are suggestions and recommendations as to how community
colleges might meet the Americans with Disabilities Acts requirements
(http://www.cccco.edu/divisions/esed/aa ir/disted.htm).
Expectations of Accrediting Agencies
In addition to federal and state regulations, institutions of higher
education are subject to the requirements imposed by their regionally
accrediting commission. For community colleges in the State of California,
the accrediting body is the Accrediting Commission for Community and
Junior Colleges. This commission is part of the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges
(http://www.pc.cc.ca.us/accreditation/Accreditation Standards.pdf).
In March of 2001, a joint statement was released by the Regional
Accrediting Commissions for the evaluation of electronically offered degree
and certificate programs
(http://www.wcet.info/resources/accreditation/Accreditinq%20-
%20Commitment.pdf). In this joint document, the Regional Accrediting
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59
Commissions made known their resolve to maintain certain values
regardless of the delivery methods of degrees and certificate programs.
These values included the beliefs that: education is best experienced within a
community of learning; learning is dynamic and interactive; instructional
programs should be organized around coherent curricula with defined
learning outcomes; institutions must accept the obligation to address student
needs and provide resources for their academic success; institutions are
responsible for education provided in their name; institutions take
responsibility for their own assessment and improvement, focusing on
student learning; and that institutions voluntarily subject themselves to peer
review (http://www.wcet.info/resources/accreditation/Accreditinq%20-
%20Commitment.pdf).
The statement from the Regional Accrediting Commissions also made
known their unconditional expectation for academic institutions to maintain
the same academic rigor for electronically offered degree and certificate
programs as they would for traditional classroom-based courses
(http://www.wcet.info/resources/accreditation/Accreditinq%20-
%20Commitment.pdfl Towards this end, the Regional Accrediting
Commissions outlined five areas to be utilized as an evaluative framework for
all Accrediting Commissions. These areas were:
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60
• first-time development of distance education programming
leading to a degree designated for students off-campus will be
subject to careful prior review;
• institutional effectiveness in providing education at a distance will
be an explicitly and rigorously appraised as a part of the regular
evaluation of colleges and universities such as the comprehensive
visit and the interim report;
• an essential element in all evaluative processes will be institutional
self-evaluation for the purpose of enhancing quality;
• in cases where deficiencies are identified and/or concerns
regarding integrity, remediation will be expected and aggressively
monitored; and
• appropriate action will be taken in keeping with individual
commission policy and procedure in those cases where an
institution is found to be demonstrably incapable of effectively
offering distance education programming.
http://www.wcet.info/resources/accreditation/Accreditinq%20-
%20Commitment.pdf
The Regional Accrediting Commissions also developed “Best
Practices for Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs” (2001,
May). This document outlines five areas that relate to institutional activity in
distance education
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61
(http://www.ncahiqherlearninqcommission.orq/resources/electronic d
eqrees/V The five areas are: 1) institutional context and commitment; 2)
curriculum and instruction; 3) faculty support; 4) student support; and 5)
evaluation and assessment. Each section of the document then outlines
expectations for best practices and encourages institutions to address
outlined questions. While this document does not outline specific
requirements, it does provide institutions with expectations they should be
addressing for accreditation purposes
(http://www.ncahiqherlearninqcommission.org/resources/electronic degrees/
The only concrete requirement outline by the Accrediting Commission
for Community and Junior Colleges is the requirement that academic
institutions submit an application for substantive change
(http://www.wascweb.org/senior/handbook.pdf). This application must be
submitted once the content of courses or programs are “altered to an extent
which represents a significant departure from current curricula or the mode of
delivery of a program so that courses constituting 50 percent or more of the
program are offered at a distance or through electronic delivery; or the credit
awarded to courses or programs.”
Local Requirements
The community college district in which this study is to be conducted
is one of 72 community college districts in the State of California and is
comprised of 2 of the 109 colleges
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62
(http://www.cccco.edu/executive/boq/boq.htm). The District is
governed by a 9 member Board of Trustees, including two student trustees,
one from each campus. The Board of Trustees selects and provides
direction to the Chancellor of the District. The Chancellor, in turn, provides
direction to the two campus Presidents. The policies of the district are
established by the Board of Trustees per the recommendations of the District
Chancellor, Vice-Chancellors, Campus Presidents, and advisory groups.
The community college district in which this study is being conducted
has no documented policies governing the delivery and offering of distance
education courses and programs at the local level. The only policies
governing distance education delivery and offerings are those regulations
and guidelines approved by the Board of Governors of the California
Community Colleges for all California Community Colleges (5 C.C.R. §55205
et seq). All board policies, campus regulations, and faculty negotiated
contracts are all encompassing and do not treat distance education courses
differently than traditional class-based courses.
The Barriers to Implementing Distance Education
Considerable attention is increasingly being paid to the planning
necessary for the successful adoption of distance education as a medium for
offering academic courses and programs (e.g. Berge, Muilenburg, &
Hanghan, 2002; Galusha, 1998; Yap, 1996; Zirkle, 2001). To implement
effective and comprehensive distance education programs, academic
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63
institutions must consider and develop strategies to deal with the
barriers associated with its implementation (Zirkle, 2001). A number of
studies exist that attempt to identify what these barriers are (e.g. Berge et al.,
2002; Galusha, 1998; Yap, 1996; Zirkle, 2001). All of the literature reviewed
were found to have consistent findings, some being more comprehensive
than others.
The most comprehensive and inclusive study was by Berge et al.
(2002). In their study, 32 case studies of the barriers faced by organizations
attempting to adopt distance education were analyzed. Based on their
findings, they concluded that of the 64 barriers they found, 10 of these
factors could attribute for 52% of the overall variance. These barriers were
technical expertise and support, administrative structure,
evaluation/effectiveness, organizational change, social interaction and
quality, student support services, threatened by technology, access, faculty
compensation and time, and legal issues (Berge et al, 2002). Though it is
inherent in all these factors, since cost is presented by some literature as the
most significant barrier to the implementation of distance education, fiscal
considerations will be presented and discussed as an additional factor
(Galusha, 1998).
Technical Expertise and Support
Lack of technical expertise, training, and support poses a significant
barrier to the adoption of distance education as a viable means of instruction
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for many academic institutions (Kazlauskas, 2005;Yap, 1996;
Galusha, 1998; Zirkle, 2001). These institutions are challenged to stay
abreast of ever emerging technologies. They must consider what
technologies to adopt that will enable them to further their mission and goals
and yet be cost effective (Yap, 1996). The technologies academic
institutions adopt should be compatible with existing infrastructure and be
reliable (Yap, 1996). The lack of dependable distance education delivery
system will reflect poorly on the institution, impede student learning, and
frustrate faculty (Yap, 1996).
Academic institutions must also have the expertise in the areas of
training and support (Cho & Berge, 2002). Faculty must know how to use the
technology well for effective instruction and learning to take place (Daniels,
2002; Lan, 2001). Support services need to be provided for instructional
design, course development, and technical questions and assistance (Yap
1996). Without a significant investment in expertise, training, and support,
academic institutions will be challenged to provide viable programs and get
the commitment of their faculty to teach via distance education modalities.
Much of the literature reviewed attributed the lack of equipment in
classrooms, staff training in course development and technology, and
technical support, in general, as a major area impeding the adoption of
distance education (e.g., Galusha, 1998; Yap, 1996; Zirkle, 2001).
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To address this barrier, institutions need to be innovative and
be open to all possibilities. The lack of technical expertise can be addressed
either through hiring experts, contracting with consultants or companies that
will run the institutions technology department, or provide ongoing training for
staff, instructors, instructional designers and site coordinators (Cho & Berge,
2002; Kazlauskas, 2005). Technical support can be provided by hiring new
personnel, offering electronic support features, providing phone-based
automated responses, or through cross training of existing support personnel
in areas such as learning resource centers (Cho & Berge, 2002). With
regard to technological infrastructure, academic institutions must consider
the scope and scale of their projected offerings. The infrastructure must be
robust enough to accommodate whatever distance education delivery
modalities the institution hopes to offer and the size of population they wish
to serve and yet be compatible with the institution’s student’s technical skills
and access capabilities (Galusah, 1998; Zirkle, 2001). Further, academic
institutions must also consider the life expectancy of the technologies
associated with the infrastructure to weigh cost versus benefit (Kazlauskas,
2005; Yap, 1996).
Administrative Structure
The characteristically slow process by which change takes place in
post-secondary institutions is a barrier to the implementation of distance
education (Levine and Sun, 2002). Slow governance impedes an institution’s
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ability to keep pace with the emergence of new technologies and
teaching modalities. These institutions are slow to respond to the need for
revisions to policies and procedures. Further, institutions whose faculty are
unionized face the additional issues of contractual negotiations to account for
new technologies into faculty and staff workloads (Levine & Sun, 2002).
The lack of an administrative structure designed to address an
academic institution’s commitment to distance education poses another
barrier (Kazlauskas, 2005; Spodark, 2003; Yap, 1996). Faculty and staff
perceive the priorities of their institutions based on the level of support the
administration allocates to different areas (Galusha, 1998; Lan, 2001). The
lack of commitment of resources, negative attitudes, lack of knowledge, and
the lack of support committed by the administration to distance education
endeavors suggests to faculty and staff that distance education is not an
institutional priority (Galusha, 1998; Lan, 2001; Yap, 1996). This perception
leads to a significant barrier towards any progress in implementing distance
education (Spodark, 2003; Yap, 1996).
To address these barriers, an administrative structure for distance
education should be developed in such a way that faculty, staff, and the
entire institution believes that distance education is an important component
and priority of the institution (Lan, 2001; Yap, 1996). Yap (1996) suggests
that the administrator overseeing distance education should be one
knowledgeable and experienced in its delivery. This administrator should be
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responsible for developing, in cooperation with educators, proactive
and long-range plans that include management of program change,
recruiting new staff or training existing staff, and the obtaining and repairing
of equipment. This administrator should further be responsible and
empowered to managing contracts and financial agreements, selecting and
preparing classrooms, establishing lines of responsibilities, coordinating
distance education schedules, and have fiscal resources committed to further
the academic institution’s vision for distance education (Berge et al.,2002;
Yap, 1996).
Evaluation and Effectiveness
The lack of a systematic means of evaluating the effectiveness of
courses and programs and the lack of ability to track learning achievement
are yet other barriers to the successful implementation of distance education
programs (Kazlauskas, 2005; Berge et al, 2002; Galusha, 1998; Zirkle,
2001). Institutions considering the adoption of distance education as a
means of instruction are perplexed by the lack of clear applicable guidelines
and inconsistent or even non-existent accreditation standards governing
distance education. Existing accreditation standards for distance education
were initially developed with the traditional classroom in mind and those
developed for distance education are just starting to be published (Levine
and Sun, 2002).
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Academic institutions are slow to adopt an educational
delivery system for which some say pedagogy does not yet exist and for
which there are significant instructional concerns (Levine and Sun, 2002;
Zirkle, 2001). Further complications arise due to the lack of expertise and
know-how in aligning distance education programs with traditional curriculum
and institutional mission and goals (Galusha, 1998; Yap, 1996).
Academic institutions hoping to overcome these barriers should
conduct feedback forums and collect information for evaluation before,
during, and after programs (Cho & Berge, 2002). These institutions should
consult with their accrediting agencies to understand and work towards
establishing policies, guidelines, and standards. Academic institutions must
be open to experimentation and should align the focus of their distance
education programs with the mission and goals of their traditional curriculum
(Lan, 2001; Yap, 1996).
Organizational Change
Another barrier is organizational change. Considerable problems
emerge when there is a lack of clear vision and leadership (Cho & Berge,
2002; Lan, 2001; Spodark, 2003). Yap (1996) contends that distance
education will be most effective only if applied to address the clearly defined
needs of the academic institution. Without a clear vision in mind, the
attempted implementation of distance education can have a negative impact
on the institution, tainting its reputation and frustrating its faculty (Levine &
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Sun, 2002). The literature further suggests that in order for distance
education to be successfully implemented, institutions must have an
“enabling environment” (Spodark, 2003; Yap, 1996). Spodark (2003)
characterizes an “enabling environment” as having universal student access,
reliable networks, multiple opportunities for training and consulting, and
having a tolerance for experimentation.
Institutional leadership that establishes a clear vision based on the
need of the institution is necessary to address this barrier (Cho & Berge,
2002; Spodark, 2003; Yap; 1996). This leadership should lead out the
strategic planning process, speak with a unified voice for the administration,
solicit support from executives, and get secure buy-in from faculty and staff
(Cho & Berge, 2002). It should foster an environment tolerant and supportive
of experimentation and provide frequent and effective communication
(Spodark, 2003). The institutional leadership should be able to articulate the
mission of the distance education program, build infrastructure and provide
operating guidelines and standards (Cho & Berge, 2002).
Student Services
Student support services can have a major influence on the success
of distance education programs. These services can include inquiry,
admission and pre-advisory services; tutoring; guidance and counseling
services, assessment of prior learning and credit transfer; study and
examination centers; residential schools; library services; record keeping and
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information management; differentiated services for students with
special needs; and career planning (Kazlauskas, 2005; Cho & Berge, 2002;
Tait, 2000). The need for these services to accommodate distance
education poses additional, and substantial, requirements for training,
support, and resources (Zirkle, 2001). The costs associated with student
services for distance education is significant and yet in order to meet the
expectations for quality presented in the literature and by emerging
guidelines for accreditation and best practices for distance education
delivery, institutions must strongly consider the investment (Council for
Higher Education Accreditation, 2002; Higher Education Program and Policy
Council, 2000).
In addition to a significant investment of time, money, and resources,
ensuring a comprehensive student support structure requires individuals
working collaboratively (Tait, 2000). Academic institutions working to
overcome the barriers associated with student services need to have liaisons
representing the different student services area (Cho & Berge, 2002). There
must be a monitoring system in place to ensure that all distance students
receive the same services they would if they attended traditional courses on
site. Institutions can also design web-pages that provide information on
services such as registration, admissions, class information, library services,
etc. Additionally, phone-based help-desk and counseling services can
supplement online support services. Academic institutions must plan for a
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comprehensive student support services structure that can
accommodate distance students regardless of the type of distance education
modality they use to take classes (Cho & Berge, 2002).
Threatened By Technology
Poor skill levels, low self-regard, and negative perceptions of distance
education presents another barrier to the implementation of distance
education (Galusha, 1998; Levine & Sun, 2002). Many faculty are unfamiliar
with the interactive and individualized nature of distance education. Their
perceptions of what distance education is and what it entails can lead to
premature rebellion to teaching via distance education before they even get
exposed to it (Galusha, 1998; Levine & Sun, 2002). These perceptions may
further be tainted by lack of peer support and concern over the well being of
their students (Galusha, 1998; O’Quinn & Corry, 2002). Further, depending
on the institution for which they teach, distance education instruction may not
count towards their tenure creating a disincentive (Galusha, 1998; Lan,
2001). These considerations coupled with a lack of experience and
technological skills leave some faculty uncertain about their own roles within
teaching (Galusha, 1998; Levine & Sun, 2002; Zirkel, 2001).
To address this barrier, academic institutions need to provide ongoing
training and support for faculty teaching or interested in teaching via distance
education. They must ensure that existing policies do not create
disincentives for faculty (Galusha, 1998; O’Quinn & Corry, 2002). These
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institutions should consider what the concerns of their faculty are and
consider employing strategies to address these concerns (Lan, 2001).
Additional consideration should be given to the allocation of time and the
provision of incentives to encourage faculty involvement in distance
education. Institutions considering implementing distance education
programs should start by enlisting the support and teaching of faculty already
expressing interests in alternative methods of instruction (Ellis, 2000; Lan,
2001).
Access
A potential barrier to the implementation for all academic institutions is
student access (Berge et al, 2002; Galusha, 1998; Levine & Sun, 2002; Yap,
1996). Many students lack access to the resources necessary for distance
education. For those that do have access, there is still the concern over the
adequacy of their access and the technical skills they possess as students
(Yap, 1996). Limitations to access caused by costs, physical or other
disabilities, technical abilities, or the availability of technological resources
can all detract from learning experiences and program effectiveness (Yap,
1996). The failure of an academic institution to take into account the specific
needs of their students and provide adequate resources can jeopardize the
success of distance education programs and further impede their
implementation (Levine & Sun, 2002; Yap, 1996).
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To address access barriers, academic institutions must be
aware of the resources available to their students. Depending on the
location of the student, there may be concerns over the availability of Internet
access and libraries and other learning resources (Galusha, 1998; Tait,
2000; Zirkle, 2001). When considering the development of an infrastructure
to support distance education, institutions must consider the technical
equipment of their students. Failure to do so can result in students being
frustrated over the inability to view certain types of documents, slow
connection speeds, and hardware and software incompatibilities. Institutions
must further consider the technical skill levels of their students (Galusha,
1998; Yap, 1996; Zirkle, 2001). These institutions may consider having a
technical orientation course or having the student pass basic skills
competencies prior to starting a distance education course (Merisotis &
Phipps, 1999).
Social Interaction and Quality
Concern over the quality of interaction and communication amongst
students and between students and their instructors is another barrier (Cho
and Berge, 2002; Zirkle, 2001). The transition from the traditional classroom
to distance education dramatically changes the type of interactions students
can expect with their peers and their faculty. Students are now isolated from
one another and interaction is usually asynchronous (Daniels, 2002;
Galusha, 1998). There are questions of the adequacy of the student’s basic
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skills, need for interaction, and the impact the lack of these have on
the student’s overall educational experience (Cho and Berge, 2002).
To overcome this barrier, academic institutions need to explore and
consider alternative forms of interaction. Courses can be designed to require
small group projects and interactions (Daniels, 2002; Klemm, 1997). Many
institutions are opting for a “hybrid” format in which two or more forms of
instruction are combined (e.g., online and in-class). This provides
accommodation for different learning styles as well as increases the level of
interaction (Neal, 1999). The downside of hybrids is the potential need for
students to come on-campus. Finally, collaboration software is available and
are geared towards getting students more engaged in learning and
increasing the students ability to relate and communicate with one another
(Klemm, 1997).
Faculty Compensation and Time
A significant barrier impacting the implementation of distance
education is the issue of faculty compensation and time (Berge et al, 2002).
Faculty at many institutions are not provided with additional time or
compensation for the effort they invest in developing distance education
courses (Galusha, 1998; Lan, 2001; Spodark, 2003). The lack of investment
on the part of the institution is an indication to faculty that distance education
is not a priority of the institution and they are less likely to invest the
necessary time and effort to develop a distance education course (Yap,
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1996). For the faculty that continue to develop distance education
courses despite a lack of institutional support, there is the potential for
resentment to develop due to the perceived lack of appreciation for their
efforts (Lan, 2001; Yap, 1996).
The steps that can help to address this barrier are the same as those
necessary to address the “threatened by technology” barrier. Academic
institutions need to provide ongoing training and support for faculty teaching
or interested in teaching via distance education; they must ensure that
existing policies do not create disincentives for faculty; they should consider
the concerns of their faculty and employ strategies to address these
concerns; they should provide an allocation of time and incentives; and they
should start by enlisting the support and teaching of faculty already
expressing interests in alternative methods of instruction (Galusha, 1998;
Lan, 2001; Levine & Sun, 2002; O’Quinn & Corry, 2002).
Legal and Accreditation Issues
Concerns over legal issues and the ability to meet accreditation
requirements are the basis for another barrier (Berge et al., 2002; Levine and
Sun, 2002). Legislative and regulatory policies have been great obstacles to
distance education. Rigid laws governing financial aid impose a 50 percent
law which limits how many distance education courses an institution can offer
before losing its ability to offer financial aid (Levine & Sun, 2002). Further
varying state regulations and standards can impede distance education
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programs growth due to the need to ensure compliance with all
states. Other legal and policy issues that academic institutions must grapple
with that may pose as barriers to distance education include intellectual
property rights, copyright, and labor union issues (Levine & Sun, 2002).
There is little that academic institutions can do to overcome the legal
issues associated with the implementation of distance education. They are
not able to change state and federal legislation governing distance education
related issues (Levine & Sun, 2002). Nonetheless, it is important that
institutions remain cognizant of what these laws and regulations are as they
are frequently and rapidly changing. With regard to accreditation, institutions
should consult with their accrediting agencies to understand and work
towards establishing policies, guidelines, and standards (Council for Higher
Education Accreditation, 2002; Higher Education Program and Policy
Council, 2000).
Fiscal Challenges
According to Galusha (1998), the primary concern for all institutions
considering the adoption of distance education, are costs (Galusha, 1998). A
serious barrier to distance education implementation is presented with the
decline in federal and state aid. Colleges and universities are facing lower
revenues and rising costs in equipment, staffing, and the marketing
expenses associated with distance education programs (Levine and Sun,
2002). To provide quality learning experiences and ensure institutional
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support and the adoption of distance education, academic institutions
must provide funding for the necessary changes in curriculum, modes of
instruction, and adoption of new technologies. Further, they must invest in
capital outlay, staff training, ongoing operation and maintenance, and
continue subscriptions to delivery systems. The significance of this
commitment and these investments pose a significant barrier to institutional
adoption of distance education (Galusha, 1998; Yap, 1996; Zirkle, 2001).
To address this barrier, academic institutions must first clearly define
their goals for implementing a distance education program and then consider
the most appropriate distance education delivery methodology to convey the
program content (Spodark, 2003; Yap, 1996). They must consider all of the
barriers to implementing distance education and project the costs associated
with dealing with each of these barriers. Finally, cost considerations should
include ongoing maintenance and upgrade costs, in addition to the initial start
up costs, for all aspects and components of a comprehensive distance
education program (Cho & Berge, 2002).
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide a review of the literature
on many of the issues that impact the implementation and delivery of
distance education courses. The four major sections covered, included: (1)
History and Milestones of Distance Education with an emphasis on post
secondary institutions, particularly the community college; (2) distance
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education delivery modalities: types, advantages, disadvantages,
and fiscal considerations; (3) legislative, accrediting, and district expectations
and requirements; and (4) the barriers to implementing distance education.
The findings in the literature review suggest that distance education
has a long history in academia. Throughout that history many scholars have
been suspect of its quality and effectiveness. Nonetheless, distance
education has been instrumental in providing education to individuals
otherwise denied access based on gender or race. Distance education
continues to grow in popularity and there are many state initiatives to provide
community colleges with support.
There are many different forms of distance education delivery
modalities, each with their own advantages, disadvantages and fiscal
considerations. The selection of instructional modalities is dependent on the
technological capabilities of institutions and the types of learners they are
trying to serve.
The legislative, accrediting, and district expectations and requirements
imposed on community colleges are limited. There are expectations that
distance education course have the same academic rigor as traditional
course, go through a separate approval process, institutions evaluation such
courses accordingly, and that institutions provide the appropriate services to
cater to the distance education population of students. Assurances of
compliance are mostly through self-monitoring and during accreditation visits.
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The barriers to implementing distance education identified in
the literature included: 1) technical expertise, 2) administrative structure, 3)
evaluation and effectiveness, 4) organizational change, 5) social interaction
and quality, 6) student support services, 7) feeling threatened by technology,
8) access, 9) faculty compensation and time, 10) legal issues, and 11) fiscal
challenges.
The findings from this literature review will be compared to a study
that will be conducted at a two-college community college district in Southern
California. The study will explore the history of distance education at the
college, types of distance education instructional modalities employed,
knowledge of regulatory requirements, and a study of the barriers the
colleges experienced when trying to implement distance education programs.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Over the past several years, the California Community Colleges have
witnessed tremendous growth in distance education programs. Despite
coordination and significant support from the California Community College’s
System Office, few colleges have experienced much success in developing
well-defined, coordinated distance education programs. Most community
colleges have distance education programs that offer a few selection of
courses. Few are able to offer enough courses to enable students to
complete degrees, certificates, or articulate to a four-year institution via the
distance education delivery modality of their choice.
The purpose of this study was to conduct a case study of the barriers
that impede the implementation of distance education programs in the
community college setting. The literature identified eleven primary areas that
pose as barriers to implementing distance education programs. These
include: 1) technical expertise, 2) administrative structure, 3) evaluation and
effectiveness, 4) organizational change, 5) student services, 6) staff and
faculty being threatened by technology, 7) access, 8) social interaction and
quality, 9) faculty compensation and time, 10) legal and accreditation issues,
and 11) fiscal challenges. This study explored each of these themes as they
applied in a case study at one multi-college community college district in
Southern California.
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This chapter will be divided into four sections: 1) exploratory
questions, 2) design, 3) procedures, and 4) participants of the study.
Exploratory Questions
1. What is the history of distance education and what major
milestones have impacted the California Community Colleges?
2. What is the vision for the direction of distance education in the
California Community Colleges?
3. What resources do the California Community Colleges have for
distance education?
4. What are the federal, state, and local legislative requirements;
expectations of accrediting agencies; and the Community
College District’s institutional policies governing the delivery
and offering of distance education courses and programs?
5. What are the barriers to the implementation of successful
implementation of distance education programs?
Design
The purpose of this study was to conduct a case study of the barriers
that impede the implementation of a distance education program in the
community college setting. Findings from the study could potentially be used
to develop institutional strategic plans for the comprehensive, coordinated,
and effective implementation of distance education programs in the
community college setting. This study was qualitative in design and
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endeavored to discover the variables and dynamics present in
community colleges that impeded the successful implementation of distance
education programs. This study explored the perceptions and positions of
key stake holders (faculty, administrators, and support staff) on distance
education and perceptions of their college’s and district’s position on distance
education. The impact of varying levels of support and resources were also
explored.
A qualitative case study design model was employed in which data
were collected via an analysis of budgets, contracts, institutional policies, and
federal, state, and local legislation; accreditation requirements; and semi
structured interviews. Triangulation was used validate to validate or confirm
the information and data collected and the case narrative was, subsequently,
developed.
Procedures
Data Collection
Nineteen interviews were conducted over a three month period,
including eight administrators, five support staff, and six distance education
faculty (Table 1). All interviews took place in person and lasted
approximately one hour each.
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Table 1
Study Participants by Job Classification
Participants by Job
Classification
District College A College B Total
Administrators 2 3 3 8
Staff 2 1 2 5
Faculty 0 4 2 6
Total 4 8 7 19
Descriptive information was collected via semi-structured interviews
with participants. The interview format utilized open-ended questions and
offered all interviewees the ability to elaborate upon their responses and
perspectives (Appendix A). Detailed notes were taken at each interview and
all interviews were tape-recorded.
Prior to each interview, following the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
protocol, the interviewees were informed of the purpose of the study,
procedures, potential risks and discomforts, potential benefits to the subject
and society, their rights to cease and/or withdraw from the study, and that
information collected would be used for a doctoral dissertation project at the
University of Southern California. Interviewees were also informed that all
information collected in the study would be kept confidential and all tape-
recorded interviews would be kept secured and destroyed at the end of a
year or upon completion of the dissertation, whichever came first.
Data Analysis
Data collected from the semi-structured interviews were categorized
into three groups: 1) administrator responses, 2) support staff responses,
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and 3) faculty responses. The data were then compared to barriers
associated with implementing distance education programs identified in the
literature: 1) technical expertise, 2) administrative structure, 3) evaluation and
effectiveness, 4) organizational change, 5) social interaction and quality, 6)
student support services, 7) staff and faculty being threatened by technology,
8) access, 9) faculty compensation and time, 10) legal and accreditation
issues, and 11) fiscal challenges. The information collected was analyzed
and used to develop the case study narrative.
An inductive process was utilized to compare and contrast the issues
and themes that the colleges face when trying to implement distance
education programs. Emerging patterns and themes were explored and
combined to build concepts to improve focus and data collection. Data
analysis was an ongoing process conducted simultaneously with data
collection, interpretation, and the development of the case study narrative.
Collected and analyzed data were used to guide subsequent data collection.
The data analysis method used in this study was “Pattern-Matching,”
described by John Creswell (1994) and Robert Yin (2003). In this method,
the researcher searches for patterns from theory or the literature and
attempts to compare his/her findings with the results of his/her case study. In
this study, the patterns that were searched for were the barriers to
implementing distance education programs.
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Open-coding was initially employed to develop broad themes
and categories. Selective-coding was then used to match and compare the
findings of this case study with the barriers to implementing distance
education programs that were identified in the literature.
Triangulation was used to cross-verify sources of information. Each
source of information was verified against two additional sources of
information (i.e., budgets; contracts; institutional policies; federal, state, and
local legislation; accreditation requirements; and interviews) to ensure
accurate data. A detailed narrative was then developed utilizing the “Pattern
Matching” method for analyzing data.
Participants
The California Community College District, in which this study was
conducted, was chosen based on convenience and having two colleges
within the District. This District is one of twenty multi-college districts in the
state. Despite having unique organizational structures and missions, both
colleges offer distance education courses and have administrators, staff, and
faculty involved in their distance education offerings.
Participants interviewed in the study were identified based on 1)
position within the college or district, 2) involvement in the delivery of
distance education, and/or 3) involvement in the direction of distance
education. Though 20 participants were initially identified to participate in the
study, 19 actually participated (Table 1). In some instances, participants
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performed multiple roles in the delivery of distance education (i.e. a
faculty member may have previously been the Director of Distance Education
or a telecourse faculty may have also taught online courses, etc.).
This two-college district was studied to identify the variables that
impeded the successful implementation of a distance education program.
Issues, processes, and perceptions related to the adequacy of support and
resources, motivation, training, and stakeholder input into decision making
processes were evaluated in relationship to the research question.
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CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to conduct a case study of the barriers
that impede the implementation of distance education programs in the
community college setting. As an initial step, the literature was reviewed to
explore the history of distance education and role it has played in the
community college setting, identify whether a vision for distance education in
the community colleges has been established, identify resources available
for the implementation of distance education, and explore barriers that have
been identified that impeded the implementation of distance education
programs. Interviews were then conducted at one multi-college community
college district in Southern California to compare the barriers experienced at
the district with those found in the literature. This chapter will report the
findings of those interviews.
The chapter will be presented in twelve major sections: (1) District
Organizational Structure and Demographics, (2) College “A” Organizational
Structure and Demographics, (3) College “B” Organizational Structure and
Demographics, (4) Subject Background, (5) History and Role of Distance
Education, (6) Vision for Distance Education, (7) Governance, (8) Technical
Expertise, (9) Training and Support, (10) Evaluation and Effectiveness, (11)
Student Services and Access, and (12) Perceptions of Distance Education
and Technology.
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District Organizational Structure and Demographics
Organizational Structure
The multi-college district selected for this study is governed by a nine-
member Board of Trustees. Seven of the nine members are elected and two
members are non-voting student trustees. Among their many
responsibilities, the Board of Trustees is charged with selecting and
delegating authority to the Chief Administrative Officer, or Chancellor, for the
district; they establish policies and approve educational plans and programs;
employ and assign all personnel; manage and control district property and
funds; establish student fees; and establish rules and regulations for
governing student conduct.
The Chancellor has the executive responsibility for administering
policies adopted by the Board and executing all decisions made by the
Board. It is within the Chancellor’s right to delegate any duties entrusted to
him or her by the Board, but ultimate responsibility still rests with him or her.
Under the current “District Level” organizational structure, the Chancellor has
ten administrators reporting directly to him: two College Presidents, the Vice-
Chancellor of Fiscal Services, the Vice-Chancellor of Human Resources, the
Executive Director of Facilities and Planning, the Executive Director of
Governmental Affairs, the Director of Marketing, the Director of Distributed
Education and Technology Services, the Director of the Professional
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89
Development Center, and the General Manager of the District owned
Public Broadcasting Station (PBS) (Figure 1).
Despite there being two separate colleges, each with its own
President, the only legal entity is the “District.” All contracts are signed with
the “District” and all funds, property, and employees are District governed
and employed. The two College Presidents, despite their title are Senior
District Administrators. The only individuals authorized by the Board of
Trustees to sign any documents, contracts, or agreements are the
Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor of Fiscal Services, the Vice-Chancellor of
Student Services, and the District Business Manager.
In addition to the two colleges, the District has a Professional
Development Center and a PBS television station. Both managers for each
of these areas report directly to the Chancellor. Each entity is expected to be
financially self-supporting, with the exception of salaries for district
employees working in these areas.
There are currently six recognized District-level committees: the
Administrative Services Advisory Council, the Distributed Education
Coordination Council, the Economic Development Coordinating Committee,
the District Technology Council, the District Budget Committee, and the
Measure P Oversight Committee. Additionally, there are two executive level
cabinets: the Collegiate Cabinet (attended by the Chancellor, Vice-
Chancellors, District Administrators, College Presidents and Vice-Presidents,
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Figure 1
District Organizational Structure
Chancellor
Board of Trustees
President
College “A’
President
College “B
Vice-Chancellor
Fiscal Services
Business
Manager
Director
Human Resources
Vice-Chancellor
Human Resources
Director
Fiscal Services
Director
Marketing &
Public
Relations
Director
District Computing Services
Director
Distributed
Education &
Technology
Services
Executive
Director
Facilities &
Planning
Executive
Director
Governmental
Affairs
Director
Professional
Development
Center
General
Manager
Public
Broadcasting
Station
C D
O
91
and the PBS Station General Manager); and the Chancellor’s Cabinet
(attended by the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellors, College Presidents, and the
PBS Station General Manager). In addition to the structured committees
and councils, there are also two District-level open meetings: a monthly
Board of Trustees meeting and District Assembly (a monthly meeting in
which representatives from both campuses and the District give progress
updates and raise any issues or concerns).
The District’s mission is to “promote the discovery and application of
knowledge, the acquisition of skills, and the development of intellect and
character in a manner that prepares students to contribute effectively and
ethically as citizens of a rapidly changing and increasingly technological
world.”
Demographic Data
The District chosen for this study is located in Southern California. It
consists of two colleges, one founded in 1926 and the other in 1972. The
District serves approximately 40,000 students annually. For the 2003-2004
fiscal year, the District reported to the State a total enrollment of 12,315.40
FTES (Table 2). Student demographics are represented in Tables 3
through 5.
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92
Table 2
Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for District (Annual 2003-2004)
College Credit FTES Non-Credit FTES
District 12,315.40 0.00
Table 3
Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for District Annual 2003-2004
Ethnicity Headcount
Total Percentage
African-American 6,861 17.40%
American Indian/Alaskan Native 509 1.29%
Asian 1,890 4.79%
Filipino 725 1.84%
Hispanic 13,131 33.3%
Other Non-White 505 1.28%
Pacific Islander 265 0.67%
Unknown 1,818 4.61%
White Non-Hispanic 13,727 34.81%
Totals 39,431 100%
Table 4
Student Enrollment by Age Group for District (Annual 2003-2004)
Age Group Head count
Total Percentage
19 or less 8,099 20.54%
20 to 24 11,575 29.36%
25 to 29 5,201 13.19%
30 to 34 3,700 9.38%
35 to 39 2,885 7.32%
40 to 49 4,879 12.37%
50+ 2,182 5.53%
Unknown 910 2.31%
Totals 39,431 100%
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93
Table 5
Student Enrollment by Gender for District (Annual 2003-2004)
Gender Heac count
Total Percentage
Female 22,160 56.20%
Male 15,582 39.52%
Unknown 1,689 4.28%
Totals 39,431 100%
Currently, the District employs a total 678 employees across all three
sites (District, College “A,” and College “B”), including 251 full-time faculty, 3
part-time faculty, 384 classified staff, and 40 managers. Of these, 65
employees are assigned to the District Office, including 1 full-time faculty, 53
classified staff, and 11 managers (Table 6). The District has an operating
budget of 78 million dollars, including state, federal, and local and county
funding.
Table 6
Employee Classification by Site
CLASSIFICATION College “A” College “B” District Total
Manager 9 20 11 40
Staff 121 210 53 384
Full-Time Faculty 75 175 1 251
Part-Time Faculty 1 2 0 3
Total 206 423 65 678
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94
College “A” Organizational Structure and Demographics
Organizational Structure
The newer of the two colleges of the district selected for this study, is
33 years old. The college is headed by a College President and three Vice-
Presidents: the Vice-President of Instruction, the Vice-President of Student
Services, and the Vice-President of Administrative Services. The remainder
of the college’s administrative structure consists of three Deans (Program
Development, Student Services/Counseling and Matriculation, and
Instruction and Economic Development) and four Directors (Marketing and
Public Relations, Research and Planning, Financial Aid, and Admissions and
Records) (Figure 2). Aside from the aforementioned college administrative
leadership, the remainder of the campus is overseen by classified
supervisors and/or faculty with reassigned time. For example, each
academic department on campus is chaired by a “Faculty Department Head”
instead of a Dean.
While governed by the policies adopted by the Chancellor and the
Board of Trustees, the campus leadership is charged with developing the
regulations for the policies. This structure allows the Board of Trustees to
establish umbrella policies to ensure certain levels of conformity, but frees
the colleges to establish regulations that are specific to their unique
population and needs.
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95
College “A” has several planning committees, including a
Distance Education Planning Task Force, a Staff Development Committee, a
Technology Planning Committee, a Curriculum Committee, and a General
Education Task Force. This list encompasses only campus-wide committees
and is not inclusive of area specific committees.
College “A’s” mission statement is:
In a serene, welcoming environment, [College “A”] promotes learning
through self-discovery application of knowledge and skills. This
mission is carried out in a dynamic educational community curiosity
and fosters openness to a wide range of people and ideas.
Demographic Data
College “A” chosen for this study is located in Southern California,
generally covering the eastern portion of the District. Founded in 1972, the
college servers approximately 11,000 students a year. For the 2003-2004
fiscal year, the college reported to the State a total enrollment of 3,932.72
FTES (Table 7). Student demographics are represented in Tables 8
through 10.
Table 7
Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for College “A ” (Annual 2003-2004)
College Credit FTES Non-Credit FTES
College “A” 3,932.72 0.00
Currently, College “A” employs 206 employees, including 75 full-time
faculty, 1 part-time faculty, 121 classified staff, and 9 managers (Table 6).
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Figure 2
College “A ” Organizational Structure
Director of
Financial Aid
Director of
Admissions
and Records
Vice -President,
Student Services
Vice -President,
Administrative
Services
Dean of Student
Services,
Counseling, and
Matriculation
President
Dean of
Program
Development
Director of
Research and
Planning
Director of
Marketing
Vice -President,
Instruction
Dean of Instruction
and Economic
Development
CD
O i
The college’s budget is allocated as a percentage of the
overall District’s budget, annually.
Table 8
Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for College “A ” (Annual 2003-2004)
Ethnicity Headcount
Total Percentage
African-American 535 4.28%
American Indian/Alaskan Nat 184 1.47%
Asian 442 3.54%
Filipino 207 1.66%
Hispanic 2,656 21.25%
Other Non-White 142 1.14%
Pacific Islander 67 0.54%
Unknown 970 7.76%
White Non-Hispanic 7,294 58.37%
Totals 12,497 100.00%
Table 9
Student Enrollment by Age Group for College ‘A ” (Annual 2003-2004)
Age Group Headcount
Total Percentage
19 or less 3,493 27.95%
20 to 24 4,032 32.26%
25 to 29 1,460 11.68%
30 to 34 884 7.07%
35 to 39 685 5.48%
40 to 49 1,058 8.47%
50+ 548 4.39%
Unknown 337 2.70%
Totals 12,497 100.00%
Table 10
Student Enrollment by Gender for College “A” (Annual 2003-2004)
Gender Headcount
Total Percentage
Female 6,045 48.37%
Male 5,341 42.74%
Unknown 1,111 8.89%
Totals 12,497 100.00
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98
College “B” Findings Organizational Structure and Demographics
Organizational Structure
The older of the two colleges of the district selected for this study, is 79 years
old. As with College “A,” College “B” is headed by a President and three
Vice-Presidents: the Vice-President of Instruction, the Vice-President of
Student Services, and the Vice-President of Administrative Services.
College “B,” however, uses a slightly different administrative leadership
structure that adds greatly to the number of administrators working at the
college.
College “B” divides the instructional side of the campus into
“Divisions.” For each division, there is a Dean. This is in marked contrast to
College “A” which has no divisions. There are a total of 12 Deans and 8
Directors for the college (Figure 3).
As with Campus “A,” though governed by the policies adopted by the
Chancellor and the Board of Trustees, the campus leadership is charged with
developing the regulations for the policies. This structure allows the Board of
Trustees to establish umbrella policies to ensure certain levels of conformity,
but frees the campuses to establish regulations that are specific to their
unique population and needs.
College “A” has several campus-wide committees including
accreditation, budget, college council, curriculum, enrollment management,
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99
facilities and safety, space utilization, matriculation, Partnership for
Excellence, program review, research, staff and student diversity, student
equity, and technology. This list encompasses only campus-wide
committees and is not inclusive of area specific committees.
College “B’s” mission statement is:
To prepare students to transfer to four-year colleges and universities;
to provide students with the knowledge and skills need to succeed in
business, industry and the professions; to advance the state and the
region’s economic growth and global competitiveness through
continuous workforce development; to work in partnership with the
local community to improve the quality of life in the [region]; and to
prepare students for active participation in a multicultural society. The
faculty and staff of [College “B”] are committed to student success and
to teaching and service excellence.
Demographic Data
College “B” chosen for this study is located in Southern California,
generally covering the western portion of the District. Founded in 1926, the
college servers over 27,000 students a year. For the 2003-2004 fiscal year,
the college reported to the State a total enrollment of 8,382.68 FTES (Table
11). Student demographics are represented in Tables 12 through 14.
Table 11
Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) for College “B” (Annual 2003-2004)
College Credit FTES Non-Credit FTES
College “B” 8,382.68 0.00
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Figure 3
College “B” Organizational Structure
Dean
Institute & Community
Advancement
Dean
Occupational Education/
Extended Day
Dean
Research Planning
& Development
Director
Marketing &
Public Relations
o
President
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Division Dean
Director
Transportation
Director Child
Development
Director
Financial Aid
Director
CalWorks
Vice-President
Instruction
Vice-President
Student Services
Director
Health Services
Dean Student
Support Services
Director
Transfer Services
Dean Student
Development
Vice-President
Administrative Services
Director
Admissions
and Records
o
Table 12
Student Enrollment by Ethnicity for College “B” (Annual 2003-2004)
Ethnicity Headcount
Total Percentage
African-American 6,326 23.49%
American Indian/Alaskan Nat 325 1.21%
Asian 1,448 5.38%
Filipino 518 1.92%
Hispanic 10,475 38.89%
Other Non-White 363 1.35%
Pacific Islander 198 0.74%
Unknown 848 3.15%
White Non-Hispanic 6,433 23.88%
Totals 26,934 100.00%
Table 13
Student Enrollment by Age Group for College “B” (Annual 2003-2004)
Age Group Headcount
Total Percentage
19 or less 4,606 17.10%
20 to 24 7,543 28.01%
25 to 29 3,741 13.89%
30 to 34 2,816 10.46%
35 to 39 2,200 8.17%
40 to 49 3,821 14.19%
50+ 1,634 6.07%
Unknown 573 2.13%
Totals 26,934 100.00%
Table 14
Student Enrollment by Gender for College “B” (Annual 2003-2004)
Gender Headcount
Total Percentage
Female 16,115 59.83%
Male 10,241 38.02%
Unknown 578 2.15%
Totals 26,934 100%
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102
Currently, College “B” employs 423 employees, including
175 full-time faculty, 2 part-time faculty, 210 classified staff, and 20
managers (Table 6). As with College “A,” College “B’s” budget is allocated
as a percentage of the overall District’s budget, annually.
Subject Background
The following section describes the backgrounds of the respondents
at each of the three sites. Only administrators, staff, and faculty involved in
the direction or delivery of distance education were interviewed.
District Subjects
The District personnel interviewed for this study had an average of
over 35 years experience in academia, an average of 29 years experience in
the community college setting, and with the exception of the Chancellor, had
been employed by the district an average of 18 years. The Chancellor has
been with the District approximately 5 years (Table 15).
All District administrators interviewed considered themselves to be
“heavily” involved with technology. They described their role in technology
as “setting the tone for technology,” “setting or assisting with policy direction,”
and “financing and developing financing mechanisms.” District
administrators also viewed themselves as “heavily” involved in Distance
Education, describing their involvement the same as they did for technology.
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Table 15
Respondent Background and Self-Perceptions of Involvement in Distance
Education
COLLEGE “A” College “B” District
Mean years of
academic
experience
26 25 35
Mean years of
experience in
community
college setting
23 22 29
Mean years
employed at this
District
20 18 18
Perception of
level of
involvement with
technology
Administrators
>Somewhat
Staff
>Heavily
Faculty
>Somewhat
Administrators
>Somewhat
involved, but
heavily interested
Staff
>Heavily
Faculty
>Heavily
Administrators
>Heavily
Staff
>Heavily
Perception of
level of
involvement with
distance
education
Administrators
>Somewhat
Staff
>Somewhat
Faculty
>Heavily
Administrators
>Somewhat
involved, but
heavily interested
Staff
>Heavily
Faculty
>Heavily
Administrators
>Heavily
Staff
>Heavily
Chancellor has been at this District for 5 years
2 College “B” President has been at this District for 2 years
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104
The District staff interviewed for this study, considered
themselves to be “heavily” involved with technology, as well. “Implementing
and maintaining the core technology infrastructure” and “providing
technology support services to the campuses” were most frequently cited as
their primary role. District staff also considered themselves to be “heavily”
involved in distance education.
College “A ” Subjects
The College “A” personnel interviewed for this study had an average
of over 26 years experience in academia, an average of 23 years experience
in the community college setting, and have been employed by the district an
average of 20 years (Table 15).
All College “A” administrators interviewed considered themselves to
be “somewhat” involved with technology. “Finding monies for technology,”
“using a computer at work,” and “giving advice” were most frequently cited as
the extent of their involvement with technology. Campus “A” has a
technology coordinator that is entrusted with virtually all technology related
decisions and most interviewees deferred to the coordinator for technology
related questions. Half of administrators described themselves as “not
involved” and the other half, “somewhat” involved in distance education.
Campus “A” staff considered themselves to be “heavily” involved with
technology and “somewhat” involved in distance education. Staff
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105
respondents cited a wide range of examples of their involvement,
including being involved in “virtually all technology decisions,
recommendations or considerations.”
Campus “A” faculty considered themselves to be “somewhat” involved
with technology, but “actively” involved in distance education. In describing
their involvement in technology, they often were referring to their use of
technology in the delivery of their distance education courses.
College “B” Subjects
The College “B" personnel interviewed for this study had an average
of over 25 years experience in academia, an average of 22 years experience
in the community college setting, and have been employed by the district an
average of 18 years (Table 15).
Campus “B” administrators considered themselves to be between
“somewhat” and “heavily” involved with technology, but emphasized they
were “heavily” interested in technology. They cited their primary roles as
being “making money decisions,” “providing resources,” “being the champion
of technology for instructional resources,” and “facilitating discussions that
make it possible to work within the parameters of the collective bargaining
agreement and other district policies, so that we can make change happen
with technology faster than those rules and regulations currently permit.”
College “B” administrators further considered themselves to be “somewhat”
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106
to “heavily” involved in distance education, but definitely “heavily”
interested, citing the same examples for technology.
All staff and faculty at campus “B” considered themselves to be
“heavily” involved with technology. Most College “B” staff cite “training and
support for online faculty” or “learning the skill-sets necessary to teach
online” as the reason they are “heavily” involved with technology. As with
College “A,” most College “B” faculty describe their involvement with
technology in terms of how they use it in the delivery of their distance
education courses.
History and Role of Distance Education
All subjects interviewed concurred that telecourses were the first form
of distance education offered by the District. Though all were uncertain as to
when telecourses were first offered, they all agreed that they originated out of
College “B” sometime in the “late 60’s” or “early 70’s.” Telecourses were
aired over the Public Broadcasting Station (PBS) situated on the College “B”
campus. Prior to telecourses being professionally produced by companies
such as Intelecom, Dallas Learning, Coast, and PBS, faculty played an active
role in having their courses taped for broadcast.
In the mid-1990’s, the California Community Colleges started to
recognize the potential of online courses in serving California students. In
1996, a plan was developed to address the identified need for a statewide
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107
telecommunications and technology system to “effectively carry
out the mission of the California Community Colleges; which is to advance
California economic growth and global competitiveness and contribute to the
continuous workforce improvement” (Mawson, 2002). By 1997, the California
Virtual Campus (CVC) was formally established to assist colleges interested
in offering online courses. It was during this peak-period of interest in online
teaching that faculty at both College “A” and “B” started experimenting with
online courses.
In 2000, the incoming Chancellor, working with the Board of Trustees,
started to develop on long-term plan for the District. They hired an outside
economist to conduct a study of the region to identify population and
occupational growth trends and demographics. The goal was to better align
and the District and its colleges with the communities they serve and position
them to meet the needs of the future. One of the end products of this
process was the development of a “technology strategic plan” for each of the
three sites.
The technology strategic plans identified support of distance education
as a goal and priority of each site. Though not always specifically stating
“distance education” the intent of creating an environment in which distance
learning can take place is clear. Among other areas, they outline
connectivity, training, expansion of student services areas, provision of email,
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108
and staffing. These plans did prove to be effective in
communicating to the District and its colleges that technology and distance
education were priorities of the Chancellor, the Board of Trustees, and the
Colleges. All interviews with District and College subjects suggested that
they believed distance education was a priority of the Chancellor. The
downside of the technology plans, however, was that there was no fiscal
support tied to the plan nor was there any official monitoring of the plan’s
progress.
Despite a bold mandate in 2001 by a former College “B” President for
the development of 40 online courses within a year, enrollment in online
courses remained modest. Faculty and staff from College “B” attribute the
lack of success to no college or district level support. Faculty needed to pool
department budgets to purchase a site license for Blackboard, which was
shared between the two colleges. Unfortunately, there was no use made of
the resources being provided by the CVC and distance education was not
being considered a priority at the time. Despite there being a “Distance
Education Office” housed at College “B,” there was no true district or college
administrative support at either campus to support any development in
distance education. The prestige and availability of having a PBS television
and radio station on site, history, and the popularity of telecourses, kept
telecourses as the predominant form of distance education in the district.
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109
One of the issues faced by the Chancellor upon being hired
on by the District, was a disconnect between the two colleges. Nearly all
district services operated out of College “B,” including District Printing
Operations, District Computing Services, and the Office of Distributed
Education. College “A” perceived that the quality and efficiency of services
received by College “B” was much better than that received by College “A”
due the ready availability of services on-site. To better ensure equality of
service between the two colleges, the Chancellor mandated that all District
entities be housed off-site at a more central location. This mandate would
take almost two years to comply with, but by the Fall of 2004, District Printing
Operations, District Computing Services, and the Office of Distributed
Education were all housed at a central site, off-campus.
In the meantime, the Office of Distributed Education was being
headed by faculty with reassigned time and/or interims and the Chancellor
wanted to permanently fill the position. This, he believed, was in alignment
with his commitment to making distance education a priority of the District. In
October of 2002, the position was filled and by late November of that year, a
Distributed Education Coordination Council was established. This council
had representatives from both colleges and included the Vice-Presidents of
Instruction, Academic and Student Services Deans, technology staff, online
faculty, representatives from faculty senates and the PBS station. By
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1 1 0
January of 2003, faculty had tested many course management
systems and agreed to the Easy To Use Distance Education Software
(ETUDES) course management system (CMS). A MOU was signed with the
provider of the CMS and a line item was created to fund the CMS out of the
District Distributed Education Office. By late Spring, fees for telecourses
were centralized out of this office, as well.
Beginning the Spring of 2003, College “A” and “B” started to take two
very different approaches to distance education. Whereas College “A”
continued to offer distance education courses as they had been, the Vice-
President of College “B” announced her intent to start an “Online College.”
This college would not be a separate college, but rather “a college within a
college.”
Initially, there was some hesitation on the part of College “B” faculty
and staff. References to the mandate of the previous College President for
40 online courses were made. However, by the Fall of 2003 enrollment in
online courses nearly matched that of telecourses and by the Spring of 2004,
enrollment in online courses had surpassed that of telecourses for the first
time in the history of the college (Figure 5, Table 17). Enrollment trends at
College “A” have remained relatively the constant (Figure 4, Table 16).
To gain support for the “Online College,” the Vice-President of
Instruction met regularly with faculty both on-campus and through meetings
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11 1
Figure 4
College “A ” Distance Education Enrollment Trends
E nrollm ent
Fall 02 S pring 03 Fall 03 S pring 04 Fall 04
A cadem ic Term
□ O nline
■ Telecourse
Table 16
College “A ” Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) Reported to State by Term
Term Online
FTES
Telecourse
FTES
Total DE
FTES
Fall 2002 5.19 13.67 18.86
Spring 2003 1.90 16.30 18.20
Fall 2003 4.34 16.27 20.61
Spring 2004 2.70 14.81 17.51
Fall 2004 5.11 15.19 20.30
Figure 5
College “B” Distance Education Enrollment Trends
1600-1
1400
1200
1000
E nrollm ent 800
600
400
200
0
Fall 02 S pring 03 Fall 03 S pring 04
Academ ic Term
Fall 04
□ O nline
■ Telecourse
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1 1 2
Table 17
College “B” Full-Time Equivalent Students (FTES) Reported to State by Term
Term Online
FTES
Telecourse
FTES
Total DE FTES
Fall 2002 53.25 24.27 77.52
Spring 2003 70.25 23.10 93.35
Fall 2003 70.54 39.35 109.89
Spring 2004 96.68 15.43 112.11
Fall 2004 134.55 12.19 146.74
at her home. She asked for input from all constituent groups and developed
a written proposal which she circulated to Deans, department heads, and
faculty (Appendix B). She further presented the proposal to the President’s
Cabinet, Board of Trustees, Faculty Senates, and the Distributed Education
Coordination Council. The Vice-President of Instruction was active on both
technology and DE committees, met regularly with seasoned online faculty to
discuss issues and barriers, identify resources, and “facilitate discussions
that make it possible to work within the parameters of the collective
bargaining agreement and other district policies.”
College “B” administrators perceived the push for online education as
being “collective” in nature, citing administrative leadership, the District, and
faculty as pushing for DE jointly. Staff at College “B” perceived the push to
be from the college administration and faculty from College “B” perceive the
push and being predominantly faculty. In all interviews with College “B”
subjects, distance education was perceived as a priority of the campus
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113
administration and the Vice-President was mentioned specifically
as being seen as the major “advocate” and “supporter” of online education.
Only within the past year, has College “A” begun to engage in regular
conversations regarding distance education’s role in their institution. Spear
headed by the College President and an outside consultant, a Distance
Education Task Force was established. Their direction is to systematically
identify who they are trying to serve and how best to serve them.
At College “A,” administrators had mixed views on who has been
advocating for distance education, but all agree it is more of a district priority
as opposed to a campus priority. Administrators believed that the push for
distance education, if any, should come from the faculty, stating it’s not their
role to “impose such a thing on faculty.” Faculty and staff at College “A”
perceive the push for DE as coming from a “few faculty.” Both faculty and
staff at College “A” perceive their administration as being against or
“extremely reluctant” to support distance education endeavors. All
interviewees at College “A” generally agree that distance education is a
priority of the District, but not the college. College “A’s” online and telecourse
enrollment continues to remain relatively the same.
Vision for Distance Education
District administrators generally agree that the vision for distance
education in the District comes from the Chancellor and that the Board of
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Trustees support his vision. They state adamantly that the vision
has been communicated through the District and the colleges. District staff
believe they have an idea of what the Chancellor’s vision is, but state they
don’t know for sure (Table 18). In reviewing planning documents, reference
specifically to distance education is made in two areas: the District
Educational Master Plan Goals and the Technology Strategic “the district will
implement a technological strategic plan that will define a technological
presence through [the PBS station] and the colleges’ distributed education
program to enhance access to instructional technology and global learning
throughout the [region].” In the Technology Strategic Plan, reference is
made to goals to support the colleges, but in both cases no specific vision
statement is cited. District staff do state that the Chancellor talks about
distance education regularly at meetings and through District emails and
literature.
At College “A” administrators generally agree that they believe there is
a vision for distance education at the district level, but not at the campus
level. Faculty and staff state they are aware that the District is very
supportive of distance education, but are not aware of any vision at the
district or campus level (Table 18).
At College “B” administrators, staff, and faculty alike know that the
Chancellor is a supporter and proponent of distance education, but they are
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Table 18
Summary of Findings
Findings College “A” College “B” District
Vision for Distance
Education
Administrators agree there is a
vision for distance education at
the District level, but not at the
college level.
Faculty and staff agree the
district is very supportive of
distance education, but are not
aware of a vision. They believe
their college administration is not
supportive of distance education
and does not have a vision.
Administrators, faculty and
staff all agree the district is
very supportive, but are
unaware of a vision. The
vision they are aware of is the
college vision for an “Online
College.”
Administrators agree there
is a vision for Distance
Education established by
the Chancellor and
supported by the Board of
Trustees.
Staff agree the District is
very supportive of Distance
Education, but know what
the vision is.
Governance There is no governance
structure for Distance Education.
Informal governance structure
headed by the Office of
Instruction. Structure
includes partnership with
Office of Distributed
Education and Technology
Services, faculty mentors,
and staff professional
development person.
The Office of Distributed
Education and Technology
Services and the
Distributed Education
Coordination Council.
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Findings College “A” College “B” District
Technical Expertise All respondents generally agree
that about half of faculty are
comfortable with technology (i.e.
basic computer use, Internet
surfing, email, etc.). They agree
this percentage is growing.
All respondents generally
agree that about half of
faculty are comfortable with
technology (i.e. basic
computer use, Internet
surfing, email, etc.). They
agree this percentage is
growing.
All respondents generally
agree that about half of
faculty are comfortable with
technology (i.e. basic
computer use, Internet
surfing, email, etc.). They
agree this percentage is
growing.
Training and Support Administrators feel they do not
provide adequate budget or
personnel to support distance
education or technology.
No training requirement in place.
Administrators feel they do
not provide adequate budget
or personnel to support
distance education or
technology.
Unclear training requirement
process.
Administrators feel they do
not provide adequate
budget or personnel to
support distance education
or technology.
Unaware of training
requirements.
Evaluation and
Effectiveness
Faculty evaluation tools do not
accommodate for online
instruction. Tools in the process
of being changed.
No evaluation is currently
conducted for any services
catering to distance education
students.
Faculty evaluation tools do
not accommodate for online
instruction. Tools in the
process of being changed.
No evaluation is currently
conducted for any services
catering to distance education
students.
Faculty evaluation tools do
not accommodate for online
instruction. Tools in the
process of being changed.
No evaluation is currently
conducted for any services
catering to distance
education students.
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Findings College “A” College “B” District
Student Services and
Access Issues
Library services, online
application, online registration,
and financial aid.
Library services, online
application, online registration,
financial aid, and online
counseling. Currently developing
online tutoring and assessments.
Uncertain as to what is
available.
Perceptions of Distance
Education and
Technology
All groups well versed in
advantages and disadvantages
of distance education.
Varied in perception of how
distance education courses
compared with traditional
courses.
Felt distance education was
“definitely” appropriate for the
population of students
community colleges serve.
Administrators believe that role
of distance education is for
social skill development which is
lost to a degree in distance
education.
All groups well versed in
advantages and disadvantages of
distance education.
Perceived distance education
being potentially better than
traditional courses.
Felt distance education was
“definitely” appropriate for the
population of students community
colleges serve.
Administrators agree with College
“A’s” belief that the role of
distance education is for social
skill development, but believe
level and quality of interaction
between faculty and students and
between students is greatly
increased.
All groups well versed in
advantages and
disadvantages of distance
education.
Perceived distance
education being as good or
potentially better than
traditional courses.
Perceived distance
education being “without a
doubt” appropriate for the
population of students
community colleges serve.
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118
not aware of his vision. The only vision faculty and staff are aware of is for a
campus level “online college” (Table 18).
Governance
The Office of Distributed Education is headed by the District Director
of Distributed Education and Technology Services (Table 18). Historically,
this position started as a faculty position with reassigned time. In 2002, the
Chancellor restructured the position to be a District Manager position entitled
“District Director of Distributed Education.” His intent was to have the
position work along side the Vice-Presidents of Instruction and report directly
to him. A budget was established for Office of Distributed Education and the
District Director of Distributed Education was charged with serving as the
Chair of the Distributed Education Coordination Council. The purpose of
designing the position in this manner was to remove barriers sometimes
created by unclear or multiple reporting and funding structures.
In 2003, in recognizing the close tie between distance education and
technology and in anticipation of the centralization of all District entities off of
the campuses, the Chancellor restructured the District Director of Distributed
Education position and renamed it as the District Director of Distributed
Education and Technology Services. Additional responsibilities now included
oversight of District Computing Services and District Printing Operations,
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serving as the building administrator to the District Annex Building, and
serving as chair for the District Technology Council.
The restructuring of the District Director of Distributed Education and
Technology Services position was not well understood or supported by the
two colleges. While the initial hiring of the District Director of Distributed
Education was viewed by the campuses as a sign of support from the District
for distance education endeavors, the additional responsibilities added to that
position were viewed as “diverting from the original intent.” From the District
standpoint, however, the restructuring of this position has been viewed
positively. The District now has two district-wide councils that ensure a
collegial consultation processes in the areas of technology and distance
education. Further, these committees ensure regular monthly dialogue and
have the ear of the Chancellor.
At College “A,” no formal distance education governance structure
exists, other than the Distance Education Task Force recently established by
the President (Table 18). Faculty wishing to teach online must go through an
approval process that includes curriculum committee review, but ultimately,
as with College “B,” the Office of Instruction has the right to decide which
classes will get scheduled. Administrators, staff, and faculty from College “A”
do participate in both the Distributed Education Coordination Council and the
District Technology Council.
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At College “B,” multiple individuals are viewed as being involved in
coordinating DE offerings (Table 18). The administration, specifically the
Office of Instruction, is viewed as the focal point of the “online college.”
Faculty indicated that if they are interested in teaching an online course, they
contact the Vice-President of Instruction who then puts them in contact with a
faculty mentor. College “B” staff and faculty are both viewed as the principle
trainers and district staff are viewed as the primary technical support staff.
College “B” uses a combination of structured didactic training through their
staff and professional development trainer and faculty mentoring. As with
College “A,” administrators, staff, and faculty from College “B” do participate
in both the Distributed Education Coordination Council and the District
Technology Council.
Neither college has a line item associated with distance education
offerings. Fees for course management systems and telecourses are paid
through the Office of Distributed Education and Technology Services.
Neither college pays stipends or grants reassigned time for teaching via
distance education.
When asked how the administration demonstrates support for
distance education, District administrators responded that they do so by
“establishing a vision from CEO,” “making clear we have made a
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1 2 1
commitment,” and “developing an organizational structure that removes most
barriers.”
College “A” administrators responded that they believed that there is
definite district level support, but state that campus level support is hindered
by a lack of funds to do much with it, others feel that there is minimal campus
level top management support. Some administrators stated “we don’t fuss if
they want to do something online,” Staff at College “A” don’t believe
administration demonstrates support due to “politics and personalities” and
state concerns or issues are used to hinder progress. Other staff state it
depends on which administrator you work with. Faculty at College “A” believe
there is little to no top college management support. They hear of such
support at the district level, but don’t see it at the campus level.
When asked how the administration demonstrates support for
distance education, College “B” administrators all agreed that support is very
high from both campus and district level management. They acknowledge
support is not in the form of financial support, but do believe they provide
acknowledgement, training and encouragement. They believe they work
hard to remove obstacles faculty may face and communicate directly and
frequently with faculty. Faculty and staff also perceive support from college
and district level management to be very high. Staff at College “B” cite
district level support in the form of personnel, campus level administrators
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meeting regularly with faculty, and training resources as signs of support.
Faculty at College “B” state that while they do not receive stipends or
reduced workloads, they do receive an incredible amount of support from the
administration in the forms of academic freedom, training, and forums for
discussion, again, specifically mentioning the Office of Instruction.
Technical Expertise
When asked how comfortable respondents felt faculty were with
technology, the responses across all three sites and classifications were
generally the same (Table 18). There is approximately an even split between
faculty that are comfortable with technology and faculty that were not
comfortable with technology. Comfort with technology was described as
basic computer usage, conducting Internet searches and using email. All felt
that faculty were becoming increasingly comfortable with technology and that
this was especially true as new faculty were being hired.
Training and Support
When asked what resources are available to assist faculty with
technology, all three entities agree they have inadequate budgets and
personnel to provide the types of training necessary to help faculty with
technology (Table 18). Other resources mentioned include CVC training,
staff development personnel, district personnel, and conference attendance.
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When asked what resources are available to assist faculty wanting to
offer distance education courses, both colleges referred to the Office of
Distributed Education and Technology Services. College “A” further added
assistance from their own campus instructional designer and some peer
support. Respondents from College “B” further added the VP of Instruction,
faculty mentors, and a Staff and Professional Development person.
There is still lack of clarity at College “B” as to whether training is
necessary as a prerequisite to teach via distance education. If so, there is
some confusion as to format of this training. The staff and professional
development training person believes training is, and should be, structured
into modules and that faculty must complete the modules prior to being
allowed to teach online. The online faculty mentors believe that once a
faculty member indicates his or her interest in teaching via distance
education, it is then up to the faculty mentor to provide the training necessary
and, if appropriate, refer the new faculty member to take “certain” modules
from the staff and professional development trainer.
Evaluation and Effectiveness
The multi-college district selected for this study is legally one entity.
As such all employees are employees of the District who are then assigned
to a particular site. Employees of the District have three generally
classifications: Academic Management, Classified Staff, and Faculty.
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Academic Management employees are not unionized. Classified staff and
faculty each have their own unions. Personnel evaluation tools are
negotiated as part of contract negotiations. The most recent contracts
lapsed in 2004 and the District and the unions are renegotiating new
contracts now. One of the contract items under review is faculty evaluation.
Both the District and the union recognized that the existing evaluation tools
used for traditional didactic courses do not lend well to distance education
courses (Table 18). The current proposal is to establish a “evaluation tools”
committee that will be able to meet as necessary, even while a contract is in
place, to adjust evaluation tools when needed.
Neither college evaluates any of the services currently being offered to
distance education students, nor the effectiveness of their distance education
programs. Both colleges have identified this as a weakness needing to be
address (Table 18).
Student Services and Access
When asked what services were available to distance education
students, District administrators and staff indicated they were uncertain.
College “A” respondents listed library services, online application, online
registration, and financial aid. College “B” respondents listed the same
services as College “A” plus online counseling and an online tutoring and
writing center. Both colleges felt the services they offered are not adequate
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125
and indicated that they are pushing for expansion of services, but have found
funding to be a major stumbling block (Table 18).
Perceptions of Distance Education and Technology
Administrators, staff, and faculty were very well informed on the
advantages and disadvantages of distance education. Some of the
advantages they cited included: the ability for students to move at their own
space, accommodation for busy life styles and learning styles. Both colleges
made clear that distance education is not for all students, but there are
definite populations of students than do benefit from it.
Respondents from all three sites were equally well informed of the
disadvantages of distance education. Examples they cited included: need for
time management skills, lack of face-to-face interaction, and technology,
access, and isolation issues.
When asked how distance education courses compared with
traditional courses, District respondents felt it was either superior or at least
equal to traditional courses. They felt that distance education was “without a
doubt” an effective form of education for the population of students
community colleges serve (Table 18).
College “A” respondents varied in their perceptions of how distance
education courses compared with traditional courses. Some statements
made by the administrators included “you lose a lot [of interaction],” “has to
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126
be very non-visual student, a student that can take direction over a
computer,” and “they’re more progressive, more student involvement” (Table
18).
College “B” administrators felt distance education courses, specifically
online courses, were “potentially better than traditional courses, elevating the
level of learning beyond just delivering information through lecture and
testing.” Staff at College “B” did not think that one is better than the other,
however, faculty at College “B” believed it was dependent on the instructor,
but were potentially better (Table 18).
Some College “A” and “B” respondents felt that distance education
courses were “definitely” appropriate for the population of students served by
community colleges. Others, however, felt that it was a “percentage.”
College “A” administrators stated that distance education may not be
appropriate for those students that lacked self-regulation or was in need of
social skill development. College “B” administrators shared those concerns
but added access issues based on technology needs. Faculty at both
colleges all agreed distance education was appropriate for the population of
students served by community colleges (Table 18).
When asked how comfortable do you think faculty are with technology,
respondents from all three sites were consistent in their responses.
Administrators felt that less than half of the faculty are comfortable with
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technology, but that number was gradually increasing, especially as new
faculty are being hired. Staff at the three sites agreed that less than half of
the faculty are truly comfortable with technology, but see interest and greater
participation in training sessions and requests for desk-side assistance.
Faculty felt there is a broad range from the comfortable to the fearful and that
most do only what is necessary to perform their duties (Table 18).
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to identify and explore the barriers that
impede the implementation of distance education programs in the community
college setting. A literature review was conducted and many barriers that
pose challenges to these institutions were cited. Subsequently, interviews
were conducted with administrators, staff, and faculty that directed or
participated in the delivery of distance education at one multi-college
community college district in Southern California. This chapter will analyze
and discuss the findings of the study in the context of the barriers cited in the
literature and is divided into eleven sections: 1) technical expertise, 2)
administrative structure, 3) evaluation and effectiveness, 4) organizational
change, 5) social interaction and quality, 6) student support services, 7)
feeling threatened by technology, 8) access, 9) faculty compensation and
time, 10) legal issues, and 11) fiscal challenges. This chapter will conclude
with a summary of findings to each of the exploratory questions used in this
study.
Technical Expertise
The literature defined “technical expertise” to include faculty skill-sets,
institutional support personnel for both technical and distance education, and
technical infrastructure. Technical expertise was not found to be a significant
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129
barrier at this community college district (Table 19). While less than half of
the faculty were considered to be fluent in the use of computers, many did
posses the technical skills necessary to delivery an online course. In areas
where there were no full-time faculty with the technical skills to teach via
distance education, the hiring of adjunct faculty was an option.
Teaching via distance education increased the likelihood faculty
members would begin to learn to use computers and other technologies.
Requests for training and much of the training offered were designed to train
faculty the skills necessary to teach using distance education. As faculty
increased in their computer skills to teach online, they in turn would also
mentor other faculty.
Administrators at all three sites agreed they would like to do more to
provide technical support and training for their faculty, but indicated they
were financially unable to do so. Despite having only one on-site training
staff available at College “B,” faculty did feel they were adequately supported
by the staff member, their “Online College” peers, faculty mentors, the
Instruction Office, and the Office of Distributed Education and Technology
Services. College “A” respondents felt that should they need training, they
did have an instructional designer on-campus.
The core technical infrastructure of the District is robust and modern.
The District continues to invest monies to maintain a sound infrastructure.
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Table 19
Significance of Barrier to Case Study Site
Findings College “A” College “B” Comment
Major Minor Major Minor
Technical
Expertise
X X Though less than half of faculty were considered to be fluent with
computers, many did possess the technical skills necessary to
offer online courses. In areas where there were no full-time
faculty with necessary technical skills to teach via distance
education, hiring of adjunct faculty was considered an option.
Administrative
Structure
X X Historical challenges experienced attributed to lack of vision,
unclear and diffuse organizational structure, unidentified and
inadequate funding, poor communication, and no demonstration of
support for distance education endeavors.
Evaluation and
Effectiveness
X X Lack of evaluation tools for courses, faculty, and services creates
quality issues and provides no tools to assess areas needing
improvement.
Organizational
Change
X X Despite demonstrated and communicated support from District,
colleges were slow to respond. College “A” faculty and staff
perceive their college administration as being unsupportive of
distance education. College “B” only began to see growth with
faculty perceived attention and support coming from high ranking
college administrator.
C O
o
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Findings College “A” College “B” Comment
Major Minor Major Minor
Social
Interaction and
Quality
X X Marked difference between colleges. College “A” administrators
perceives role of community college to help students develop
social skills and do not feel distance education is effective in this
area. College “B” administrators agree role of community colleges
is to foster social skill development, but believe students in
distance education courses communicate much more frequently
with both peers and their instructor. College “B” administrators
believe distance education courses provide definite social skill
development.
Student
Support
Services
X X Low availability of programs, established models, and high costs
are attributed to making Student Support Services a barrier.
Further, issues of confidentiality and legal compliance hinder
progress.
Feeling
Threatened by
Technology
X X With administrators assuring faculty traditional sections would not
be cut and they would not be forced to teach online, faculty did not
perceive technology and distance education as a threat.
Access X X Both colleges believe they provide adequate access opportunities
to students and faculty.
co
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Findings College “A” College “B” Comment
Major Minor Major Minor
Faculty
Compensation
and Time
X X Not considered an issue for College “A” (no new distance
education course development). At College “B,” faculty were
willing to invest time and effort to develop distance education
courses without compensation and time due to the perceived
rewards of flexibility in teaching times, greater interaction with
students and peers, being part of a “new educational culture,” and
more active involvement in innovation.
Legal Issues X X Currently not a barrier, but has the potential to be an significant
barrier as both colleges work towards expanding student services.
Fiscal
Challenges
X X Despite both college administrations stating they would like to
provide additional resources to technology and distance education
endeavors, faculty felt resources we adequate. Most core
infrastructure and software costs are paid for by the District. The
District Administrators state maintaining a solid infrastructure is
not cheap, but necessary.
co
N >
133
Administrative Structure
The literature provided many examples as to how the “administrative
structure” could potentially be a barrier. These examples include: unclear or
illogical organizational structure, minimal financial support and cost
reductions, poor staff and team building, lack of marketing, and poor vendor
management. Administrative structure was found to be a substantial barrier
to successfully implementing a distance education program at this District
(Table 19). The historical challenges that faced distance education can, in
part, be attributed to lack of vision, an unclear and diffuse organizational
structure, unidentified and inadequate funding, poor communication, and no
demonstration of support for distance education endeavors.
The turning point for distance education within the District occurred
when the fiscal and organizational challenges were identified by the District
leadership. Once the District had decided that distance education was a
priority, they structurally reorganized the Office of Distributed Education and
provided it with a budget. The reporting structure they developed had the
Director of the Office of Distributed Education working directly with the Vice-
Presidents of Instruction at both Colleges, Chairing the Distributed Education
Coordination Council (which had members from all constituent groups), and
reporting directly to the Chancellor.
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134
Unlike the previous structure, in which the Director of
Distributed Education was a faculty member with reassigned time, the new
Director was a District Manager that did not have to report to a Department
Head, Division Dean, Vice-President, or even a College President. By
removing four layers of reporting and having its own funding source, much of
the “political” barriers were removed. The Director of Distributed Education
was delegated authority by the Chancellor to act on his behalf in matters
dealing with distance education. Further, funding was allocated directly by
the Vice-Chancellor of Fiscal Services and was not as prone to the
fluctuations it may have experienced under additional layers of management.
Identifying the close tie between technology and distance education,
the District leadership combined the Office of Distributed Education with
District Computing Services, creating the Office of Distributed Education and
Technology Services. This helped to ensure that education led technology
and not vice-versa. It also ensured that as instructional needs were
identified, technology would be prepared to support them. By bringing
technology and distance education under one roof with clear reporting
structure up to the Chancellor, yet another political barrier was removed.
Despite there being no clear vision statement made by the District
Office, the organizational restructuring of the Office of Distributed Education,
assignment of personnel, allocation of budget, and frequent communications
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135
in the form of monthly newsletters and emails to the campuses,
discussions at Board and District Assembly meetings and other forums, kept
all administrative, faculty, and staff respondents aware that Distance
Education was a priority of the District.
Staffing for the Office of Distributed Education and Technology
Services continues to be a challenge. With the increase in responsibilities to
the Director, the Office of Distributed Education and Technology Services is
challenged to maintain the same level of support to the Colleges.
Evaluation and Effectiveness
The literature defined the barrier of “evaluation and effectiveness” to
include: evaluation tools for courses and programs and the ability to track
learner achievement. Evaluation and effectiveness is a barrier for both
Colleges of the District, not because the lack of such tools prevents a
distance education program from being established, but rather it leaves
quality assurance questions in the minds of those that are already suspect of
distance education instruction (Table 19). Without data to confirm on deny
that students enrolled in distance education courses perform as well as those
in traditional courses, many administrators and faculty refuse to use it. Some
also express concerns over academic integrity issues. How can they be sure
that the students taking exams or submitting papers are actually the student
registered for the course? Distance education faculty counter, how do
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136
traditional faculty be sure of those same questions in the
traditional setting. These types of questions perpetuate the hesitation to
teach using distance education methods.
Organizational Change
The literature describes the barrier of “organizational change” to
include organizational support towards a shared vision and learning culture.
For this District, organizational changed was a significant barrier (Table 19).
Despite demonstrated and communicated support from the District and
demonstrated interest by some faculty, the colleges were slow to respond. A
former College “B” President attempted to mandate 40 additional online
courses within a span of one year, but without committing any additional
resources, communicating a plan, or establishing a vision, faculty did not
respond to the mandate. College “A” administrators viewed distance
education as a priority of the District, but not of the college. Faculty at
College “A,” despite being aware distance education was a priority of the
District and demonstrating an interest, did not expand on offerings, stating
that their College administration did not support distance education, and
even went so far as to discourage it through their actions.
The first indications towards growth in distance education offerings
occurred when the leadership at College “B,” specifically, the Vice-President
of Instruction began meeting with online faculty. Faculty perceived the
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personal attention being paid to online instruction from a high
ranking administrator to be a significant sign of support. These perceptions
were amplified when discussions were held with Department Heads,
Academic Deans, Faculty Senates, at the Vice-President’s home, and in
other forums regarding the possibility of establishing an “online college.”
Despite making clear that no additional stipends or release time would be
granted for the development of online courses, many faculty started to attend
the online meetings. Within the span of a year, meeting attendance grew
from ten to fifteen attendees to over fifty.
Faculty perceived being part of the “online college” as being part of a
forward thinking, innovative teaching culture. They perceived distance
education as being a priority of both the district and the college and felt
supported. Many faculty that were suspect of the soundness of online
andragogy and slow to adopt technology, began teaching online and
attending technology training sessions.
Social Interaction and Quality
Social interaction and quality was described in the literature as a
barrier due to the lack of learner interaction and communication. This barrier
was a point of marked difference between the philosophies and perceptions
of the two colleges (Table 19). While both colleges agree that distance
education is not suited for all students. College “A” felt strongly that part of
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138
the value of a community college experience is to develop social
skills. They believe that much of this skill development is lost in the distance
education environment, there may be some additional skill-sets developed,
but not interpersonal social skills, not the type developed through face-to-
face contact with faculty and peers. College “B” administrators agreed with
this perception, but went on to express that online students communicate
much more frequently with both peers and their instructor. They expressed
that they believed there was definite social skill development taking place
online.
Online faculty at both colleges contend that they spend significantly
more time communicating with each of their students and get to know them
better than they do in a traditional classroom environment. There were some
administrators and faculty from all three sites that expressed a preference for
the “hybrid” or “blended” approach to distance education instruction. They
believe that these courses provide many of the advantages of distance
education courses, but still allowed for social skill development.
Student Support Services
The literature described student support services barriers as including
the provision of advisement, library services, admissions and financial aid,
and other services to distance education students. The literature further
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139
expressed that lack of certainty of the identity of students was also
a concern.
This is one of the most significant barriers being faced at the District
(Table 19). Despite the success of online programs, without the ability to
serve students from a distance, students must still commute to the college to
receive advisement and other services. Though both colleges have made
significant strides in getting library services, financial aid, application,
transcript services, and a few other areas online, there are many other
services they have yet to be able to offer.
Progress in offering online student services is slowed by the lack of
software programs and established models for how to serve distance
students. Most off-the-shelf software programs are geared towards
instruction, not student services. Programs that are available or that need to
be developed are extremely expensive. In considering any approach to
serve distance students, the student service areas must address many
issues such as laws dealing with student confidentiality and the technical
skills of counselors and other student services staff.
Feeling Threatened by Technology
The literature interpreted “feeling threatened by technology” to mean
faculty fearing they may be replaced by experienced distance education
faculty or feelings of insecurity due to low competence with technology.
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140
There were some early indications that faculty did feel threatened
by technology at College “B.” Early in the establishment of College “B’s”
online college, some faculty expressed concern that their sections may be
cut and be replaced with online sections, but the administration made it clear
that they would not cut sections. If faculty wished to transition their courses
to online, they would be supported. If they opted not to teach online and an
online section was desirable, additional sections would be added and an
adjunct instructor hired, but the college would not cut sections. Alleviating
these initial fears and being consistent with their commitment through their
actions, helped many skeptics of the online college become not only
supporters, but participants. Feeling threatened by technology was not
considered a significant barrier to either college (Table 18).
Access
Access barriers were described in the literature as encompassing the
ability of students and faculty to have equal access to newer instructional
technologies. This potential barrier has not been fully explored by either
campus. While the courses being completely filled every time they are
offered, is a strong indication there is a demand for the courses, no
assessment has been done to discover what percentage of students cannot
take distance education courses as an option due to a lack of either skill-set
or equipment. The colleges contend that they provide computer labs for
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141
students, have Disabled Students Programs and Services (DSPS)
offices dedicated to disabled students, and most public libraries have
computers available for the public to use. The need, however, for students to
commute to campus or to a public library to use a computer lab may negate
some of the advantages of taking distance education courses. They would
still have more flexibility in terms not being constrained to a classroom time,
but they would be limited to facility and transportation time constraints. To
help mitigate some of these access issues, both campuses do maintain
traditional sections concurrent with the distance education sections.
Access has been identified as a minor barrier with faculty at College
“A.” Though computers are provided to all faculty and faculty are expected to
maintain a 40 hour work week, some faculty complain that the computers
they receive at work are recycled computers that are significantly older and
slower than computers they use at home. This generates frustration on the
part of the faculty. The administration acknowledges that new computers go
to student areas first and faculty second, but state that a limited budget
forces them to prioritize how computers are allotted. College “B” faculty did
not identify computer access as being a barrier (Table 19).
There is a move being made at the District to centralize the costs for
all software and hardware District-wide. This would help to remove some the
faculty access issues expressed by College “A.” Under this plan, all
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142
computers would be rotated out every 3 years ensuring all
computers were kept up-to-date.
Faculty Compensation and Time
The literature described the barrier of “faculty compensation and time”
as dealing with incentives and accommodation for faculty to develop their
distance education materials. The literature states that the development of
online material may take up to twice as long to prepare as material for
traditional courses. At this District, only College “B” was actively developing
new courses and did not provided any stipends or release time. Faculty
wanting to teach online did so at their own investment of time and effort.
Faculty at College “B” did feel that the effort was worthwhile to be part of the
“online college.” They felt that teaching online offered its own rewards
including flexibility in teaching time, greater interaction with their students and
peers, being part of a “new educational culture,” and more active involvement
in innovation. Faculty teaching online at College “A” expressed considerable
frustration at the level of support demonstrated by their college
administration, stating that the administration not only did not demonstrate
any support for distance education faculty, but actual hindered them. They
did feel they would be willing to develop more distance education course
without compensation or release time because they felt they would be
serving a higher purpose in connecting to students who preferred this form of
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143
learning. Faculty compensation and time was not considered a
major barrier for either college (Table 19).
Legal Issues
The literature identified “legal issues” as a potential barrier to the
implementation of distance education programs, but did not offer any specific
examples. At this District, legal issues were not identified as a major barrier
to the implementation of distance education (Table 19). This has the
likelihood of being a future barrier as both colleges work towards expanding
the variety of students services they make available to distance education
students.
Fiscal Challenges
Fiscal challenges was cited as another potential barrier for the
implementation of distance education programs. Both colleges identified
limitations in funding as preventing them from providing the level of support
they would like to provide for distance education. The types of support they
would like to provide included additional training and training resources and
increased forms of student services. College “A” added that they would like
to provide faculty with newer computers. Administrators at College “B,”
indicated that even with additional funds available, they were opposed to
providing stipends or release time to faculty. Faculty at College “B,” did not
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144
perceive that they needed any additional support. Faculty felt that
resources and support currently available were adequate.
Neither college discussed the costs of maintaining the core
infrastructure, course management systems, internet connectivity or other
associated infrastructure costs. These costs are covered under the District’s
central budget. District administrators stated that a solid infrastructure was
“not cheap,” but necessary to sustain quality learning experiences for
students.
Exploratory Questions
What is the history of distance education and what major milestones have
impacted the California Community Colleges?
The first major milestone in history to truly have an impact on
the California Community Colleges was the birth of the Public Broadcasting
Service (PBS) in 1969. Within a year, led to the development and offerings
of television courses, or telecourses, that were the equivalent of complete
traditional classroom courses. Subsequently, telecourses became the
leading form of distance education in the community colleges.
The State’s investment in the Technology and Telecommunications
Infrastructure Program (TTIP) in 1996, was another major milestone. This
helped to start to pave the way to provide all community colleges with the
infrastructure necessary to provide online instruction. These monies were
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145
used in five major areas: 1) data connection to the California State
University and California Community Colleges network, known as the 4CNet
backbone; 2) video-conferencing capabilities at each college and district site;
3) the California Community Colleges Satellite Network (CCCSAT); 4) the
California Community College Conferencing Network (CCCConfer); and 5)
library automation and electronic information resources.
In 1998, the “Technology II Strategic Plan” was introduced with the
goals of “Student access and student Success.” This milestone built upon
and improved the infrastructure that was being developed through the
“Technology I Strategic Plan.” As part of this plan, community colleges will be
upgraded from T-1 to DS-3 data connectivity.
These milestones helped introduce the modern forms of distance
education and provide the technology infrastructure for its delivery. Modern
challenges are at the college level and involved the costs for campus
infrastructures and technologies and the barriers identified in this study.
What is the vision for the direction of distance education in the California
Community Colleges?
Statewide, no clear vision has been established for the direction of
distance education. Student demand and faculty innovation continues to be
a motivating force in encouraging community colleges to implement distance
education programs and expand upon their offerings. The role of the state
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146
and central district offices is to provide the infrastructure and
resources necessary to support and enable the colleges to have distance
education offerings. Visions for distance education programs must be at the
college level. The way in which the programs are developed and
implemented must be unique to the demographics and philosophies of the
college. This is to ensure ownership and investment in the distance
education program’s success.
What resources do the California Community Colleges have for distance
education?
To a large degree, the resources California Community Colleges have
for distance education programs are unique to each college and is greatly
dependent on how much of a priority distance education is to the institution.
The state has provided a reliable, standardized technology infrastructure,
and occasional funding for specific projects. Further, the state continues to
fund the California Virtual College. This entity offers online training, hosts
distance education conferences, and negotiates discounted rates for course
managements systems. The viability of the California Virtual College,
however, is suspect as continued funding from state is frequently a question.
What are the federal, state, and local legislative requirements; expectations
of accrediting agencies; and the Community College District’s institutional
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147
policies governing the delivery and offering of distance education
courses and programs?
Federal regulations require all public entities to provide access for
persons with disabilities. These public agencies are required to provide data
and information in alternative mediums to enhance accessibility for persons
with disabilities whether or not they received federal funding. Federal
regulations also impose restrictions for the use of copyrighted materials.
However, the Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization Act,
commonly referred to as the TEACH Act loosened restrictions on using
copyrighted works for online education. This law amended existing copyright
law to allow instructors, in some instances, to use copyrighted materials in
online instruction without the need for asking permission and without charge.
State regulations for distance education come from the California
Education Code. The state regulations define distance education and its
application. The state regulations outline requirements for course quality and
standards, course quality determinations, instructor contact, course approval
processes, faculty selection, number of students, and ongoing the
responsibility of districts.
The California Community Colleges’ accreditation comes from the
Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges. This
commission is part of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. The
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148
expectations outlined by the commission include: instructional
programs should be organized around coherent curricula with defined
learning outcomes; institutions must accept the obligation to address student
needs and provide resources for their academic success; institutions are
responsible for education provided in their name; institutions take
responsibility for their own assessment and improvement, focusing on
student learning; and that institutions voluntarily subject themselves to peer
review.
The Commission also outlines five areas to be utilized as an
evaluative framework for all Accrediting Commissions. These areas are: 1)
first-time development of distance education programming leading to a
degree designated for students off-campus will be subject to careful prior
review; 2) institutional effectiveness in providing education at a distance will
be an explicitly and rigorously appraised as a part of the regular evaluation of
colleges and universities such as the comprehensive visit and the interim
report, 3) an essential element in all evaluative processes will be institutional
self-evaluation for the purpose of enhancing quality; 4) in cases where
deficiencies are identified and/or concerns regarding integrity, remediation
will be expected and aggressively monitored; and 5) appropriate action will
be taken in keeping with individual commission policy and procedure in those
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149
cases where an institution is found to be demonstrably incapable
of effectively offering distance education programming.
There are no District policies governing the delivery of distance
education.
What are the barriers to the implementation of successful implementation of
distance education programs and the strategies to overcome them?
A review of the literature identified 11 barriers to the implementation of
distance education: 1) technical expertise, 2) administrative structure, 3)
evaluation and effectiveness, 4) organizational change, 5) social interaction
and quality, 6) student support services, 7) feeling threatened by technology,
8) access, 9) faculty compensation and time, 10) legal issues, and 11) fiscal
challenges. The findings of this study were consistent with the findings of the
literature.
The strategies to overcome these barriers are unique to the context of
each college. Although all of these barriers will likely be a challenge for all
colleges, some may be more pressing and/or more difficult to overcome than
others. To address these barriers a candid in-depth review and
understanding of the organization and resources must first be conducted.
For this purpose, hiring outside, impartial consultants may be desirable. Only
when a clear picture of the institution, its culture, and the potential barriers
are identified can progress be made towards addressing barriers.
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Summary
The literature reviewed did an effective job of identifying the issues
encountered at the community college district used in this study. Whether
each of the perceived barriers mentioned in this chapter were in fact barriers,
challenges, or merely issues to be cognizant of, all issues were realized and
dealt with at some level. For this community college district, the most
significant barriers were: administrative structure, evaluation and
effectiveness, organizational change and student support services.
Perceptions of distance education’s role in the development of social skill
development was a marked point of difference between the two colleges.
Access issues have the potential to be points of discussion with further study.
Technical expertise, faculty feeling threatened by technology, faculty
compensation and time, and legal issues were not found to be major barriers
faced by the District.
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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
There is a growing demand for distance education courses in the
community college setting. Fueled by student expectations, a desire to
maintain currency with educational trends, and job market demands,
community colleges are being challenged to meet these needs by developing
and implementing distance education programs. Lack of experience,
successful distance education models, high costs, and skeptics, however,
challenge the community college’s ability to meet these demands. This
chapter will conclude the findings of the study and be divided into four
sections: 1) Conclusions, 2) Significance of the Study, and 3)
Recommendations.
Conclusions
There are 109 Community Colleges in the State of California, each
with their own unique student populations, fiscal challenges, visions, and
priorities. Prior to making any commitment to the implementation of distance
education programs, colleges must first assess whether or not such an
endeavor is appropriate for their institution. As with any major undertaking, a
college must first ensure that distance education is in alignment with the
vision of the college. To make a significant investment of time and resources
without having first investigated the appropriateness of such an undertaking
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152
may lead to much unnecessary frustration. Each college has a
unique culture that may or may not be compatible with distance education
delivery.
Each barrier discussed in this study will have varying degrees of
impact on each college depending on their own circumstances. No barrier in
and of itself poses a significant enough of an issue to prevent a community
college from implementing a distance education program. Each one
introduces its own unique challenges and the more of these barriers an
institution has, the greater the potential for lack of success. The most
significant barrier found in this study was the perceptions of faculty of the
support and investment made by the leadership.
Faculty were willing to forego compensation and release time, seek
additional training, and develop online courses if they perceived it was a
priority of the leadership and the leadership invested the time to show that it
was a priority. Examples in this study of such investments included allowing
faculty to contact the leadership directly, conducting regular get-togethers
between the leadership and faculty, creating a highly visible “college within a
college” entity that faculty could identify with, removing barriers, identifying
resources (i.e., training, peer support groups), willingness to discuss the hard
to discuss or political topics (i.e., office hours, workloads, copyright, etc), and
serving as a facilitator in a process as opposed to mandating direction.
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Support, while important at the District level, is crucial at the
college leadership level. Despite vision statements, allocation of resources
and personnel, and frequent encouragement from District leadership, it is the
college administration that faculty must truly contend with when hoping to
develop distance education programs. If college administrators are unclear
or have mixed views of their level of commitment, do not provide support,
identify issues instead of solutions, and refuse to invest in the success of a
distance education endeavor, faculty will perceive that distance education is
not a priority of the institution, and with the exception of a few faculty, will not
be willing to invest the effort.
The initial steps that must be taken to successfully implement a
distance education program include: 1) a real, collective, and team oriented
commitment on the part of the administrative team, 2) developing an
organizational structure that eliminates or accommodates for political layers,
3) committing a budget that does not get cut every time another financial
priority arises, 4) empowering those charged with leading the implementation
process, 5) developing forums for regular and effective communication, and
6) creating an culture of progress that faculty will want to identify with.
Without these six elements in place as a starting point, the successful
implementation of a distance education program will be difficult to realize.
Other barriers mentioned in the literature and the study will be encountered
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by colleges to varying degrees and are surmountable, but the
development of a strong foundation is a crucial first step.
Significance of Study
As the demand for distance education programs continue to grow, an
awareness of the challenges institutions are likely to face and the steps they
can take to position themselves to mitigate those challenges will greatly
enhance their chances of success. Planning and developing an
organizational structure, complete with the resources necessary to support
that structure, and preparing the campus culture to align itself with a vision
for distance education offerings are crucial to ensuring a solid foundation.
Administrators must be well versed in the potential barriers they are likely to
face, consider how those barriers may unfold at their institution, consider
whether they are willing to commit themselves and make the necessary
investment, and consider steps to address those barriers should they arise.
The findings of this study will provide some valuable examples from two
community colleges.
Recommendations
Recommendations for Actions
Based on the findings of the study conducted at this multi-college
district in Southern California, it is clear that several areas must be
addressed:
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1) Both colleges in the study need focus on developing
tools that appropriately evaluate their distance education offerings
and services. Without these evaluation tools, issues of quality and
effectiveness of instruction and services cannot be assessed and
areas needing improvement cannot be identified.
2) Both colleges need to expand on student services offerings. In
order to offer a true distance education program, off-campus
students should be able to access the same resources as those
available to traditional students.
3) The colleges should clearly define the requirements for teaching
online. Faculty mentors and training staff at College “B” have
different perspectives on what they believe the approved training
process is. College “A” has yet to define any requirements for
distance education teachers.
4) College “A” must continue its process of defining their college’s
stance on distance education. The decision to support distance
education or not has yet to be made. Whichever decision they
ultimately reach, the College Administration should be unified in
their stance and effectively communicate their position.
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Recommendations for Further Study
This study was limited to a single two-college community college
district in Southern California. Further research to quantifiably assess the
pervasiveness of the barriers encountered in this study and how significant
each barrier is in impeding the implementation of distance education
programs, is warranted.
Issues regarding the role and actions academic administrative leaders
in bringing about cultural change were the most remarkable findings of this
study. Despite District level support in the form of allocation of resources,
removal of structural barriers, and regular communications, faculty look to
their campus leaders for their support. Perceptions of lack of campus
administrative support are considered to be, themselves, barriers. Further
research on the characteristics of successful distance education programs,
the organizational structures, and the administrative leadership support for
such programs in warranted.
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APPENDIX A
Interview Questions
Interviewee Background
1. Which title best describes your title? Administrator/Management,
Training/Support Staff, or Faculty?
2. How long have you been involved in academia?
3. How many years in the community college setting?
4. How long have you been employed by the district/college?
5. Would you consider yourself heavily involved, somewhat involved, or
not involved in technology? How would you describe your involvement?
6. Would you consider yourself heavily involved, somewhat involved, or
not involved in distance education? How would you describe your
involvement?
DE Background in District
7. What was the first form of distance education offered by the district?
When was it introduced?
8. Was there ever any goal, mission, or directive to implement or expand
in the area of distance education? Was it documented, communicated,
and supported? By whom?
9. When did the district start expanding the types of distance education
they offer and what types of distance education did they introduce? Are
they still be utilized today?
10. Who has pushed for the implementation of distance education? District
or college level administration? Division Deans? Faculty?
11. Was there any concerted effort to coordinate distance education
offerings? Who was given that responsibility? Did they have experience
and/or were they provided with training?
12. What resources have been allocated to support distance education?
Fiscal? Facilities? Personnel? Etc.
13. Is there a fixed and/or documented means by which resources are
committed to distance education?
14. What type of top management support do distance education
endeavors receive?
15. Is there a long-term strategy in place to support growth in distance
education?
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166
Vision for DE in District
16. Is there a vision for distance education’s role in the District’s future?
17. Has that vision been documented in the district or either college’s
mission statement or else where?
18. Has that vision been communicated throughout the district and its
colleges?
19. What type of resources and support are being directed to support that
vision?
Governance of DE
20. Since the decision was made to start offering distance education
courses, have there been any changes to the administrative
organizational structure?
21. Please describe your administrative structure for decisions made
regarding the delivery of distance education (technology/software/fiscal)
22. Do you believe that distance education is a priority of the district?
Colleges?
23. How do you think distance education is perceived by the faculty?
Administration? Students?
24. In what ways does the administration demonstrate support for
distributed education? It’s faculty?
25. What governs the delivery of distance education in the district? Are they
any directives from federal, state, and/or local legislation that you are
aware of?
26. What entities are you aware of that have specific requirements the
district is responsible for coming in compliance with?
27. Who is responsible for being aware of these requirements?
28. Is there any monitoring process in place to ensure continued
compliance? Please explain?
Technical Expertise/Training/Support
29. How comfortable do you think faculty are with technology?
30. What resources are available to assist faculty with technology?
31. What resources are available to assist faculty wanting to offer distance
education courses?
32. What types of support services and training are available to distance
education faculty? Staff? Students?
33. How do you keep the training you offer up to date?
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167
Evaluation/Effectiveness of DE
34. How do you decide what distance education formats to use?
35. Do you evaluate the effectiveness of your distance education delivery
formats? How?
36. Do you evaluate the effectiveness of your education courses? How?
37. Do you evaluate the effectiveness of your distance education
instructors?
38. Do you evaluate the effectiveness of the services available to your
faculty and students? How?
39. Do you evaluate the effectiveness of the training you offer to faculty,
students, and staff? How?
40. Are your evaluation tools for distance education courses different from
the evaluation tools used for traditional courses?
41. What things do you think the district and college can do to enhance the
quality of distance education courses?
Student Services/Access
42. What types of student services are available to traditional students?
43. What types of student services are available to distance education
students?
44. Has there been any push for the addition or expansion of services for
distance education? If so, by whom?
Perceptions of Technology and DE
45. What do you think are the advantages of distance education?
46. What do you think are the disadvantages of distance education?
47. How do you think distance education courses compare with traditional
courses?
48. What challenges have administrators faced in attempting to implement
distance education? Faculty? Technical and training staff?
49. Has the district/colleges encouraged faculty to teach via distance
education? How?
50. If there were things the district/college could change to enhance the
quality of distance education, what would they be?
51. If there were things the district/college could do to encourage faculty to
teach via distance education, what would they be?
52. Do you believe that distance education is an effective form of education
for the population of students you serve? Why or why not?
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168
APPENDIX B
Online College Proposal
Online College at [College "B"]
Instruction Office - October 2003
Background:
Student interest in online classes has increased significantly in the
last two years. Online classes are often the first to fill up during
registration, and courses that traditionally struggled to meet minimum
enrollments in the on-campus format are easily filling to capacity in the
online format. This proposal is an attempt to provide programmatic
focus for the growing online program and to ensure that instruction in the
online classroom meets or exceeds campus expectations for a quality
learning experience. The intention is to introduce the program during
the spring 2004 semester, and to offer the full contingent of courses and
services beginning with the 2004-2005 academic year.
Mission:
The online degree program will provide a gateway to higher
education and vocational training for those who cannot or choose not to
attend the main campus. The mission of the online degree program will
be to prepare students to transfer to four-year colleges and universities
through the acquisition of associate degrees, and to provide students
with the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in business, industry
and the professions through the acquisition of vocational certificates.
The faculty and staff working within the online program will share the
campus commitment to student success and to teaching and service
excellence.
Overview:
Associate degree component
• Courses meeting IGETC requirements will be offered in the online
format to enable students to obtain their associate degrees under
Option la and to transfer to the University of California and California
State University systems.
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169
. Courses meeting CSU breadth requirements will be offered
in the online format to enable students to obtain their associate
degrees under Option IB and to transfer to the California State
University system.
Certificate component
. Beginning in the fall 2004 semester, selected courses will be offered in
the online and/or hybrid format to enable students to obtain their
vocational certificates while spending less time on campus.
Services
. Students will receive critical campus services in alternative delivery
formats. Online services covered will include:
. Application
. Bookstore
. Career advisement
. Counseling
Degree audit
. DSP&S
. EOPS
. Financial aid
Library
. Orientation (to college resources and services)
. Orientation (to learning in an online format)
. Registration
. Transfer Center
. Tutoring
. Writing Center
Courses
. Courses have already been approved or are being developed in
alternative delivery formats in all areas needed to cover IGETC and
CSU breadth requirements.
. Existing telecourses will be converted to an online format, using DVDs
distributed through the telecourse providers, websites and the Etudes
delivery platform for instructor/student contact. (Television-based
courses will continue to be offered through [PBS Station] as well.)
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170
Promotion
. Existing online courses already have a track record of filling up within
the first few days of the registration period.
. While additional marketing efforts will promote the ability to obtain all
courses required for the associate degree in an online/hybrid format,
and will include:
. A featured announcement on the cover of the spring 2004
Schedule o f Classes.
• A page describing the program in the spring 2004 Schedule of
Classes.
. Articles on the campus website.
. A featured announcement on the college website.
. A featured announcement in distributed education promotional
brochures.
. College counselors will be oriented to the online college program.
Quality issues:
. Consistent with WASC standards, the faculty and administration will
strive to maintain an instructional program of high quality and
integrity.
. Consistent with WASC standards, the services provided for the online
college students will be functionally equivalent to the services
provided for on-campus students and will, at the same time, be of
high quality and integrity.
. Initially, up to 10 members of the contract faculty will form the core
of the online college-within-a-college.
Faculty members who are teaching their full contract loads online will
maintain campus presence through logging onto the campus server
and the course management system five days per week. In addition,
online contract faculty members will maintain an on-campus presence
at least two days per week, will participate in department and division
meetings, and will meet other responsibilities of full-time faculty
members.
. The balance of the instructors will be adjunct faculty, drawn from both
the local area (and, potentially, throughout the country).
. Contract and adjunct faculty will be selected to teach in the online
program using the following guidelines:
Meets minimum standards to teach in the discipline as defined
by the state of California
. Minimum of two years of successful teaching experience in the
discipline
Experience in or completion of training in teaching online
classes
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171
. Effective written communication skills
. Willingness to maintain standards for student contact and
timely feedback
. Willingness to use established technique requirements of the
program, including either the Etudes or FirstClass operating
systems
. Willingness to teach to the established course outline of record
. All faculty teaching on-line will be certified through the professional
development training process. Certification shall be granted upon
completion of a course of study which includes, at a minimum,
software application, pedagogy of teaching on-line, ADA Compliance,
and Copyright Compliance. Certification may also be achieved
through appropriate experience and demonstrated knowledge of the
above.
Faculty members teaching online will be evaluated in accordance with
established district procedures. The administration and collective
bargaining unit will work together to identify a student assessment
instrument that will address the unique evaluation needs of online
instruction.
Access issues:
. Instructional materials will be reviewed for Title 508 access
compliance.
. Faculty will work with the DSP&S office to address the needs of
students that need accommodations to access online instruction or to
be assessed in an online environment.
Minimum standards for hardware and operating systems will be
identified for students.
• Faculty members teaching online will be provided access to hardware
and operating systems that will enable them to support their classes.
• The college Technology Plan will be modified to address the need to
maintain adequate equipment levels to support the development and
improvement of online courses.
• Students will be oriented to the skills necessary to succeed in the
online instructional format, and will be given an opportunity to
conduct a self-assessment of whether online education is a good
match for them before registering for classes.
. Students without home access to technology will be informed of the
availability of the open computer lab in the Learning Center.
• College outreach efforts may eventually include the establishment of
regional centers where students may access online classes and
services. An initial regional center may be located in the mountain
communities.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Kuck, Glen Robert (author)

Core Title Barriers to implementing distance education: A case study in the community colleges

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, community college,education, technology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Kazlauskas, Edward (committee chair), Hitchcock, Maurice (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-454514

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Kuck, Glen Robert

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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