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An investigation of the relationship between measures of social, academic and global self-concept

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An investigation of the relationship between measures of social, academic and global self-concept

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AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
MEASURES OF SOCIAL, ACADEMIC AND GLOBAL
SELF-CONCEPT
by
Kenneth Gerrard O’Neill
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(Occupational Therapy)
August 2000
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UM I Number: 1405250
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UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
t h e g r a d u a t e s c h o o l
U N IV ER SIT Y R A R K
LO S A N G E LE S. C A L IF O R N IA > 0 0 0 7
This thesis, written by
K zuugrrbl < = > ' * / & t~u_______
under the direction of hii Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean of The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Occupational Therapy
Dtm *
j y afe February 9, 2000
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II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to extend special thanks to Dr. Anne Neville-Jan for her
recommendations and advice as committee chairperson. I also wish to thank
Dr. Linda Fazio and Dr. Diane Parham for their help and suggestions as
committee members.
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iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS---------------------------------------------------------- ii
LIST OF TABLES------------------------------------------------------------------ iv
CHAPTER
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT---------------------- 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW --------------------------------------------------- 6
Theoretical R eview --------------------------------------------------------- 7
Development of the Self-Concept----------------------------------------9
Between-Network Research--------------------------------------------- 11
Within-N etwork Research----------------------------------------------- 17
Occupational Therapy Interventions----------------------------------- 23
Conclusion-------------------------------------------- 26
3. METHODOLOGY---------------------------------------------------------- 27
Procedure---------------------------------------------------------------------29
Instruments-------------------------------------------------------------------29
Self-Perception Profile for Children-------------------------- 29
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IV
Page
Statistical Analysis--------------------------------------------------------- 31
4. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOM MENDATIONS------------------------------------------------ 34
Discussion-------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
Conclusions------------------------------------------------------------------ 37
Recommendations-----------------------------------------------------------38
SELECTED REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------ 40
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V
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. Results of Self-Perception Profile for Children in
Sample and in Harter Normative Sample---------------------------- 28
2. Demographic Information for Sample--------------------------------- 32
3. Correlation Between Subscales of the Self-
Perception Profile for Children in Sample and in
Harter Normative Sample------------------------------------------------ 33
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1
CHAPTER 1
PROBLEM STATEMENT
This study investigated several aspects of the self-concept of a
sample o f learning-disabled elementary school students in special education.
Specifically, this study explored the relationship between measures of the
students’ global self concept and their self-concept in the social and
academic domains.
Previous research indicated that non-leaming-disabled students show
a strong correlation between global self-concept and self-concept of
academic ability. The students’ feeling about how well they do in school is
an important factor in how they feel about themselves as persons (Bachnan
& O ’Mally, 1986; Byrne, 1984; Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Barter, 1985;
Shavelson & Bolus, 1982; ).
Learning-disabled students generally have been found to have
academic self-concepts which are lower than non-leaming-disabled
students; but their global self-concept has not been found to differ so
categorically from non-leaming disabled populations (Grolnick & Ryan,
1990; Kistner, Haskett, White & Robbins, 1987; Lincoln & Chazan, 1979;
Renick & Barter, 1989). It is, therefore, not surprising that it has been
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2
indicated that learning-disabled students in special education do not show a
significant correlation between global self-concept and academic self-
concept (Grolnick & Ryan, 1990). How well they do in school is not so
much o f a factor in how they feel about themselves as a person.
It is possible then that another domain does correlate significantly
with global self-concept in this population. This study attempted to discern
if there was such a significant correlation with self-concept of social
competence.
The social competence domain was chosen for investigation for
several reasons. Self-concept theorist Susan Harter (1990) suggested that
the importance a person places on a particular domain is influential in its
impact on the global self-concept. Good interaction with peers becomes
more important with the increasing independence at the jump to middle
school (Havinghurst, 1972). This is a transition which this study’s
participants are preparing to make.
The social domain is also an arena in which the learning-disabled
student is considered to be at risk. This population has been attributed with
problematic peer relations and decreased social acceptance (Bruininks,
1978; Bryan, 1974; Bursuck, 1989; Merrell, 1991; Perlmutter, Crock,
Cordray & Garsted, 1983; Toro, Weissberg, Guare, & Liebenstein, 1990).
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The fact that many students in special education, including these
participants, are mainstreamed for lunch, recess and physical education
suggests that in the social domain, the students are not insulated by
comparison group of peers with similar behavior.
The domain of social skills was also chosen because it is a domain o f
significance for the practice o f occupational therapy with this population. A
traditional focus of occupational therapy in schools has been on non-
academic skills and on skills which support the academic role. The domain
of social skills fits both of these categories. Social skills are a primary focus
of the occupational therapy program in which this study’s sample
participated. An investigation of this sample’s social self-concept and its
relationship to global self-concept could have implications for delineating
and justifying the role o f occupational therapy in this and similar settings. A
significant relationship would support the focus of occupational therapy on
social skills due to the importance of this domain and the ultimate impact on
global self concept.
The sample for this study was drawn from the population of the
Neville-Jan/Fazio Elementary Transition Grant (DOE grant H 029F10042-
91). This grant was a pilot program providing Occupational Therapy
services to elementary school students from diverse cultural backgrounds.
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The program focuses on providing skills which will facilitate the students’
transition to middle school.
The sample for this study consisted of students from two special
education classes at Gauldin Elementary School in Downey, California.
The classes each contained fifteen students. The students had been
identified as learning disabled, and although this category is extremely
heterogeneous, as a whole, the students could be considered mildly
handicapped, students whose needs identified them for special services
(Gresham, 1987).
The students in this sample were from diverse cultural backgrounds,
including Latino, African-American, and Caucasian. This diversity is
generally representative of the school’s neighborhood and the city of
Downey, California.
The design of this study was non-experimental. It utilized descriptive
statistics and correlational analysis. The instrument used was the Self-
Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter, 1985). This instrument
measures the affective quality o f self-concept. Measurement is broken
down into a number of domains in addition to a global rating of one’s self-
worth as a person. The SPPC measures scholastic competence, social
acceptance, behavioral conduct, physical appearance, and athletic
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competence. It was, therefore, possfble to utilize this instrument to analyze
the relationship between global self-concept and social self-concept, as well
as global self-concept and academic self-concept.
The expectation for the results o f this study was that the data would
show a correlation between global self-concept and social self-concept
which is higher and more significant, than the relationship between global
self-concept and academic self-concept. This expectation was based on a
review of the literature.
This study assumed that die SPPC was an accurate index of self-
concept for this sample. It further assumed that this sample would be able
to comprehend and respond accurately to the instrument as it was
administered.
The major limitation of this study was the limited ability to
generalize the results to other settings with accuracy. The small sample size
was not conducive to such generalization. Another limitation was that the
norms for the SPPC are based on a sample from another state which was
90% Caucasian. While this limits thie applicability of these norms for the
Downey sample, the instrument w as nevertheless useful in analyzing
correlational data and providing descriptive data for comparison within the
sample.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review will present results from the extensive research
which has explored the construct of self-concept. The theoretical
background of the construct is examined briefly. This background provides
a framework within which it is possible to discuss individual studies and
their implications. Relevant empirical research within the construct was
summarized. The particular studies which lead up to this paper’s research
question is discussed in detail. Other areas of research which illuminate the
specific question at hand is discussed.
It is expedient at this point to define several terms which are used
hereafter. “Self-concept” is used when referring to the non-specific
construct o f self- perception or self-regard. “Global self-concept” refers to
an individual’s overall perception or judgement of their own worth as a
person. “Social self-concept” refers to an individual’s perception of their
social acceptance, popularity, or the degree to which they are liked.
“Academic self-concept” refers to the individual’s perception o f competence
in the realm of scholastic performance (Battle, 1992; Harter, 1985).
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Theoretical Review
The investigation of the nature of self-concept has been a topic of
serious inquiry for at least a century. The ideas of the earliest theorists, such
as Janies (1892) and Cooley (1902), reverberate through the years to
influence the theorists of today. Both James and Cooley focused on the
determinants, or antecedents o f one’s self-concept. James (1892) thought
one’s self-concept was most significantly determined by one’s achievement
or level o f competence in areas o f value. Cooley (1902), believed that one’s
self-concept was influenced mostly by the opinions which significant other
persons held.
The majority of recent research on self-concept reflects some aspect
of these basic ideas. A large branch of the literature investigates the
relationship between self-concept and achievement-usually academic
achievement. Such a relationship would support the position held by James.
A smaller portion of literature attempts to relate self-concept to constructs
such as social support and parental support. This relationship would support
Cooley.
Modem researchers and theorists, however, are not concerned solely
with the antecedents o f self-concept. They are also concerned with the
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effects o f self-concept on behavior. Modem theorists have attempted to
define this functional role of the self-concept, how it mediates, influences,
or motivates behavior (Bandura, 1978; Barter, 1990; Epstein, 1981; Weiner,
1985).
For example, Barter (1990) addressed this functional role in terms of
a model which proposes a causal process by which self-concept affects
behavior. Self-concept is asserted to have a strong impact on affect, which,
in turn, has a strong impact on motivation, which influences behavior.
Since motivation has an important role in determining the success or failure
of actions, this model feeds back to achievement as a determinant of self-
concept. Other models make the connection from self-concept to behavior
through such mechanisms as locus of control and motivation (Covington,
1984). Because such models propose causal connections, they are difficult
to support empirically.
All researchers do not support the same model, o f course. However,
many do allude to a feedback or reciprocal relationship between self-
concept and behavior, usually achievement behavior (Adelman & Taylor,
1983; Calsyn & Kenny, 1977; Chapman, 1988; Morvitz & Motta, 1992;
Purkey, 1970; Skaalvik & Hagtvet, 1990). Self-concept is understood to
influence behavior, and behavior is understood to influence self-concept.
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This relationship is given some support by the correlations found between
self-concept and achievement. The causal structure, again, is difficult to
support empirically. Few studies claim to find support for such a reciprocal
relationship (Marsh, 1984; Skaalvik & Hagtvet, 1990)
This basic structure of relationships, achievement and social support
influencing the self-concept, and the self-concept influencing behavior, is
important to the research question under consideration here. This study
explores the relationship between social and global self-concept. While this
relationship may have some intrinsic value, its real significance is based on
this context of relationships external to the self-concept. This study
assumed that social self-concept is influenced by both social competence
and social support. It further assumed that social self-concept has an affect
on behavior. These assumptions are in line with current theorization on the
construct o f self-concept.
Development o f the Self-Concept
Given the age of the participants in this study, it is important to
understand the changes which are believed to take place in the self-concept
from early childhood to adolescence. The development of the self-concept
is most commonly linked to Piaget’s (1960) stages of cognitive development
(Damon & Hart, 1988; Barter, 1990; Rosenberg, 1986).
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In the pre-operational period o f early childhood, self-representations
reflect directly observable characteristics or skills. In the pre-operational
stage, the child is egocentric and does not compare himself or herself to
others. Consequently, they often have a idealized self-concept which
inflates their sense of competence (Barter, 1990).
In middle childhood, the concrete operational period, the child gains
the ability to relate one concert cc another simultaneously. This gives him
or her the ability to compare themselves to others. Ruble (1983) found that
this ability to use social comparison information first appears around age
seven or eight. Several other studies have also confirmed this ability
developing in middle childhood (Boggiano & Ruble, 1979; Ruble, Parsons
& Ross, 1976).
In middle childhood, it also becomes possible to organize the
observable attributes of early childhood into more conceptual traits. These
traits are higher-order representations of the self which can gather many
attributes into a category such as smart or popular (Barter, 1990) . It has
also been indicated that these traits become more interpersonal with
development and the social attributes dominate the self-concept through
middle childhood and into early adolescence (Rosenberg, 1986). In
addition, Rosenberg suggests that the significant others which influence the
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self-concept most during early childhood are the parents, but there is a shift
toward the importance of peers with development.
In adolescence, the individual moves beyond these trait
categorizations and gains the ability to form abstractions about the self and
define oneself in even more general terms (Barter, 1990).
The period of middle childhood appears to be particularly important
to the development of the self. Given the newly developed ability for social
comparison, and the growing importance of social attributes and peer
relations, it seems the self-concept is at risk at this stage, particularly in the
social domain. This risk would be compounded by lower status within the
group.
Between-Network Research
It was mentioned previously that a significant portion of the self-
concept literature explores relationships between self-concept and other
constructs. This portion is referred to as between-network research. Those
studies (Cronbach, 1971) which concern the inner structure o f self-concept
are discussed in the next section.
A consistent relationship has been established between measures of
the quality o f self-concept and academic achievement. The strongest
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relationship has been found between academic self-concept and academic
achievement (Brookover & Passalaqua, 1981; Byrne, 1984; Harter, 1985;
Lewis & Adank, 1975; Marsh, 1984, 1987; Maruyama, Rubin, &
Kingsbury, 1981; Shavels;on & Bolus, 1982). Also consistent, but not as
strong, correlations have been found between global self-concept and
academic achievement (Bachman & O’Mally, 1977; Byrne, 1984;
Pottebaum, Keith & Ehly, 1986; Shavelson & Bolus, 1982; Skaalvik, 1983).
A meta-analysis confirmed this relationship, although there was significant
variation due to factors such as grade level, socio-economic status and
ethnicity (Hansford & Hattie, 1982).
These relationships have sparked considerable research with
learning-disabled (LD) populations. Much of this research has been fueled
by the prospect that the self-concept of LD students is detrimentally affected
by the lack of academic achievement. The results only partially bear this
out. LD students do show significantly lower academic self-concepts than
non-LD students (Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Kistner, Basket, White &
Robbins, 1987; Lincoln & Chazan, 1979; Ribner, 1987; Winne, Woodlands
& Wong, 1982). In fact, three studies found a steady decline in academic
self-concept through elementary and middle school grades.
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With respect to the relationship between LD status and global self-
concept, the results are less clear. Some studies have indicated a more
negative global self-concept in LD students (Bryan & Pearl, 1979; Rogers &
Saklofske, 1985). Several other studies found no significant difference
between LD and non-LD students’ global self-concept (Grolnick & Ryan,
1990; Kistner, Basket, White & Robbins, 1987; Lincoln & Chazan, 1979;
Ribner, 1987).
It is of interest to note that some of the self-concept research done
with LD populations was undertaken to explore the effects of particular
special education placements. Specifically, many studies arose from the
controversy over the least restrictive environment legislation and compared
segregated special day classes (SDC) and mainstreamed resource specialist
programs. Differences in self-concept have been found depending on the
group, LD or non-LD, which was used by the students for comparison in
making their self-evaluations. Although the debate has shown no definitive
results, some studies show that LD students tend to rate themselves higher
when comparing themselves to other LD peers, than when compared to non-
LD students (Battle & Blowers, 1982; Chapman & Boersma, 1979; Morvitz
Motta, 1992; Rogers, Smith, & Coleman, 1978).
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The participants in this study were in an SDC for the full day. This
suggests that the students were likely to use their LD classmates as a
comparison group for self-evaluation, at least for academic self-concept.
But the students, like most in an SDC, are mainstreamed for recess, lunch,
P.E., and assemblies, which are the major social interaction times. So the
comparison group used for the social self-concept was more likely to be the
non-LD as well as LD students.
Studies which have compared the social self-concept of LD and non-
LD students have also shown mixed results. Several studies have shown
that LD students do not differ significantly from non-LD students in
measures of social self-concept (Coleman, 1983; Kistner, Basket, White &
Robbins, 1987). But both of these studies used mildly handicapped students
receiving special services for only a small part of the day. Students with
more severe problems might be expected to show different results. Another
study did show LD students perceiving themselves as more unsuccessful in
interpersonal relationships. Sobol, Earn, Bennet and Humphries (1983),
compared the social self-concept of LD students, students who had low-
acceptance ratings from peers, and students with high acceptance ratings.
They found that the LD and low acceptance students were significantly
lower in social self-concept.
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Clearly social self-concept is an area of study which has not been
closely addressed in the LD. However, the social skills of this group has
been studied from the point of view o f attributions made by teachers and
peers. The LD population has widely been attributed with poor peer
relations and problematic social skills (Bruininks, 1978; Bryan, 1974;
Bursuck, 1989; MeireU, 1991; Perlmutter, Crock, Cordray & Garsted, 1983;
Toro, Weissberg, Guare, & Liebenstein, 1990). In fact, the U.S. Interagency
Committee on Learning Disabilities (Kavanagh & Trass, 1988)
recommended changing the definition o f LD to include disorders of social
skills, making social skills deficits a characteristic of students with LD.
These data suggest that if LD students do maintain high self-concepts of
their social acceptance, then they are doing so contrary to the opinions of
observers.
To summarize, in the non-LD population, high academic
achievement correlates with both high academic and global self-concept. In
the LD population, however, low academic achievement, as evidenced by
LD status, correlates with low academic self concept. And there is a lack of
agreement on the characterization of social and global self-concept for the
LD population.
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Another between-network relationship, which is of some importance,
is the relationship between self-concept and social support. Several studies
have found a correlation between parental acceptance and self-concept in
younger children (Dickstein & Posner, 1978; Hazzard, Christensen &
Margolin, 1983; Morvitz & Motta, 1992). More interesting was Forman’s
(1988) study of LD students in grades two through ten. Students with
higher levels of perceived social support had higher global self-concept, and
support from classmates was the strongest predictor of high global self-
concept.
Forman’s (1988) literature review clearly indicates that she supports
Cooley’s view that the social environment influences self-concept. Her
study posits the social environment as the independent variable and self-
concept as the dependent variable. But Forman also suggests in her
conclusion that the relationship could be a reciprocal one. There is some
support in the literature for the idea that one’s self-concept is not only
influenced by the social environment but also has an influence on it. Winne
and Walsh (1980) found a significant relationship between self-concept and
interpersonal relationship patterns. It is at least possible that the self-
concept feeds back into the social environment byway of this mechanism,
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creating a reciprocal relationship like the one proposed between
achievement and self-concept.
These relationships have not been studied as extensively as those
concerning academic self-concept. Clearly, they do not have the same
implications for education. But there are certainly implications here for this
study. If self-concept is influenced by more than just achievement and
manifests itself in arenas other than the academic, then it is valid to ask what
relative influence the social domain and the global self-concept have on
each other.
Within-N etwork Research
Studies which are concerned with the internal relationships and
structure of the self-concept are classified as within-network studies. There
is a theoretical model which underlies much of this research. It is the
hierarchical model o f the self-concept. In this model, global self-concept is
a superordinate construct, the judgements of competence in particular
domains represent subordinate evaluations (Harter, 1982; Shavelson &
Bolus, 1982). All domains, including global self-concept, are considered
discrete from one another. This independence has been supported by factor
analysis of their measures (Harter, 1985).
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Harter (1990), in the tradition of James, theorizes that the subordinate
domains influence the global self-concept to the extent that they are valued
or are important to the individual. Harter supports this position as well with
internal validity measures of her instrument, the Self-Perception Profile for
Children (SPPC), (Harter, 1985), which contains a scale to rate the
importance of individual domains.
Another theoretical position, compatible with the above, is the
compensatory model (Marx & Winne, 1980). According to this model,
lower status in a particular domain may be compensated for by increased
status in another. Support for this position will be discussed later in this
section.
Empirical research on the internal structure of the self-concept has
been less extensive than the between-network research. But, as previously
mentioned, much of the research involved the academic self-concept.
Studies with non-LD populations have shown moderate to strong
relationships between academic and global self-concept measures (Bachman
& O’Mally, 1986; Byrne, 1984; Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Harter, 1985;
Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). According to Harter’s (1990) model, this
correlation should be taken to indicate the high importance or value placed
on academic achievement in the regular education population.
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In the LD population, the relationship between academic and global
self-concept is less clear. Two studies which have addressed this
relationship explicitly in populations similar to this study’s are Renick and
Harter’s (1989) and Grolnick and Ryan’s (1990).
Renick and Harter (1989) report findings in this area in a study
concerning the impact of social comparisons on the self-perceptions o f LD
students. The participants for her study were eighty-six students in grades
three through eight from middle to upper-middle socio-economic status in a
suburban school district. The students had shown a discrepancy between
intellectual ability and academic achievement and were therefore eligible for
LD services. The participants, however, received services for only one hour
a day and were in the regular classroom for the rest of the day. Such a
sample represents the mildest of LD interventions, so the ability to
generalize these findings to more severe LD populations is suspect.
Renick and Harter (1989) administered the SPPC but altered its
administration by obtaining two scores for the academic domain. It was
verbally requested that the student compare themselves to the regular class
for one score and to their LD classmates for the other. The results indicated
that for both comparison groups, the mean academic self-concept was
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20
significantly lower than other domains: Social self-concept and global self-
concept had similar means.
Academic self-concept, however, was found to correlate most
significantly to global self-concept when the participants used non-LD
classmates as a reference group. When the LD students compared
themselves with their non-LD classmates in formulating their academic self-
concept, this measure correlated with global self-concept to a higher extent
than social self-concept. The correlation coefficient was .53 in grades three
through six and .66 in grades seven and eight. Therefore, when comparison
is made with the non-LD students, the degree to which LD students like
themselves as a person is more highly related to academic self-concept than
to social self-concept.
When the LD students compared themselves to their LD peers,
however, the correlations were much lower. The correlation coefficient
even decreased from .48 in grades three through six, and decreased to .34 in
grades seven through eight. The social self-concept correlation to global
self-concept, on the other hand, increased slightly across these grades from
.31 to .35.
These results show some support for Renick and Harter’s (1989)
hypotheses that academic performance and self-concept are arenas of
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21
significance for LD students in their relationship with global self-concept.
But it supports the hypotheses only for LD students with mild learning
problems who are comparing themselves to non-LD students.
The study also supports the idea that academic self-concept is less
significant within an LD reference group, and that social self-concept
increases in relative importance across the elementary to middle school
grades.
Another study which addressed the academic to global self-concept
relationship was carried out by Grolnick & Ryan (1990). The participants
for their study were 148 third through sixth graders from lower to upper-
middle class backgrounds. Their study involved comparing several groups
of students: LD students, non-LD students, non-LD students with IQs
matched to the LD students, and low-achieving non-LD students. These
groupings were to control for the effect of IQ and classroom achievement,
and to find differences due to LD alone.
The LD group was classified by the school district as experiencing a
discrepancy between ability and achievement. But, unlike in Renick and
Harter’s study, more than half of the LD students spent three hours a day in
special education programs, the remainder spending one and a half hours. It
is possible that this increase in the amount of time with other LD students,
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22
compared to the previous study, is reflected in the contrasting results. This
study used an earlier version of the SPPC among other instruments.
The results of this study differ from Renick and Harter’s (1989)
results because Grolnick and Ryan (1990) found that there was a non
significant correlation between academic self-concept and global self-
concept in the LD group, while all other groups showed a strong positive
correlation. They also found no between-group differences in mean global
self-concept. Grolnick and Ryan did not measure the social self-concept.
They did, however, speculate that LD students may derive their global self-
concept from areas other than school, evidenced by their apparent lack of
valuation of academic self-concept.
This idea that children have an ability to adapt or compensate in
order to maintain feelings o f self-worth has some support in the literature.
Winne, Woodlands and Wong (1979), in studying LD and gifted students,
found contrasts in domains of the self-concept which suggested
compensation for lower levels of performance. Coleman (1961), in a less
specific inquiry, found similar compensatory mechanisms in adolescents. It
is clear, however, that the question has not yet been investigated with any
depth or specificity.
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23
Occupational Therapy Interventions
The literature shows several previous occupational therapy
intervention programs with elementary school age, LD and SDC students.
These programs are similar in their focus on developing age-appropriate
social skills.
McKibben and King (1983) developed a program for preadolescent
boys with both behavior problems and learning disabilities. They used an
activity group approach to address fundamental social skills deficits, such as
problems working with peers, and poor cooperative behavior. The group
carried out gross motor activities, crafts, or games under the supervision of
two therapists. McKibben and King reported that the group members
showed improved ability to relate with peers, more cooperative behavior,
and greater independence.
Another program was developed by Agrin (1987) for providing
occupational therapy services to a special class o f emotionally disturbed
students. Her program also utilized group activities to facilitate interaction
and cooperative skills. Agrin also notes improvement in social skills over a
school year.
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24
Both of these programs noted deficits in social skills and age-
appropriate play behavior which were not being remediated in the academic
program. Both programs successfully addressed these deficits through
group activity facilitated by an occupational therapist.
The Neville-Jan/Fazio Elementary Transition Grant (DOE Grant
#H 029F10042-91) is a program which provides occupational therapy
services to two classes o f LD elementary school students. The broad focus
of this program is on the provision of transition-related life skills. It
endeavors to provide students with the skills which they will need to
successfully move from elementary school to middle school. These skills
are also understood to be necessary and beneficial to the students in their
present environment, and constitute the foundation for more complex skills
to be acquired by the students as they mature (Neville-Jan/Fazio, 1991).
One specific focus of this program is on the remediation of social
skills deficits. This focus is justified by the severe problems which this
population has been noted to have in this area, as well as the importance of
these skills for present and future development (Havinghurst, 1972).
Another focus o f this program is improvement o f self-concept. This
focus is justified by the potential for deficits in the population, and by the
possible influence self-concept has on behavior.
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25
The present study attempted to establish a connection between these
two foci of intervention. If social self-concept and global self-concept are
demonstrated to correlate at a level which is higher than the correlation with
academic self-concept, it would provide some evidence that social self-
concept is a more significant domain in determining this population’s global
self-concept. This evidence would provide further justification for social
skills interventions with this population.
The theoretical structure of the antecedents and effects of self-
concept, previously discussed, also hold implications for interventions
which illuminate the relationship under consideration here. Social skills
interventions address social self-concept by improving competence in that
area. They would also address global self-concept if the social domain is
found to be an area o f comparatively high importance for this population. It
is also theorized that self-concept is influenced by the social support of
significant others. Improved social skills would improve peer relations and,
therefore, improve the support garnered from peers.
It is also possible, while less supported by research, that improved
social and global self-concept will feed back to motivate or have an effect
on social or other adaptive behavior. Social skills interventions, then, would
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26
not only add to the abilities and skills of the students, but would also
increase the motivation to cany out these skills.
Conclusion
This review o f the literature concerning self-concept revealed
significant antecedents to the research question being explored here. The
current question of the relationship between social and global self-concept is
precedented by studies which have explored similar relationships in other
domains. It is further supported by the evidence that LD students differ
from other populations, both in self-representations and in correlates of self
representations. Finally, die current research question extends naturally
from the network of current theoretical knowledge on the self-concept, and
has implications for interventions with this population.
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27
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants for this study were twenty-four fourth and fifth
graders from two special day classes at an elementary school in Downey, an
industrial and residential city near Los Angeles, California. These students
were identified by their school district as learning disabled (LD). They
showed borderline to average intelligence on the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R; Wechsler, 1974), but also showed
seine discrepancy between academic ability and achievement as measured
on the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery (Woodcock &
Johnson, 1977).
The students had been placed in special classes (SDC) due to die
need for small group instruction or because their needs were not met in the
regular classroom. While these students were in the segregated special
education classrooms for the full day, all were mainstreamed for lunch,
recess, PE, and assemblies. The only exception was adaptive PE for a few
of the students.
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28
The participants in this study were from a low to middle socio
economic status population. Demographic information is seen in Table 1.
Table 1
Demographic Information for Sample
Demographic Percent
Male 67
Female 33
Hispanic 62
Black 30
White 8
Note: n = 24.
The parents of the students signed permission slips allowing their
children to participate in the elementary transition program. The parents
also agreed that their children could be evaluated and their records reviewed
and information could be disseminated anonymously.
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29
Procedure
Each o f the students was individually administered the SPPC (Harter,
1985). The evaluations were administered by four occupational therapy
students from the University o f Southern California. They had been trained
in the use of this scale and were supervised by a registered occupational
therapist. Standard testing procedures were followed for administration of
the scales. To insure that the students understood the instruments, they were
read aloud and the responses were noted by the examiner.
Instruments
Self-Perception Profile for Children
The SPPC was used to assess the student’s self-concept several
domains. The questionnaire has thirty-six items which discretely measure
six domains. The instrument measures global self-worth as well as
scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical
appearance, and behavior conduct. Only the global, social, and scholastic
measures were used for this study.
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30
The SPPC is structured to avoid presenting tihis subject with
obviously more desirable responses. After hearing two descriptive
statements, the child is asked if he or she is more like one o f the other. They
are then asked if the statement is sort o f true for them or really true for them.
The four possible responses are rated from least competent (1) to most
competent (4). A mean is computed for each domain.
The reliability and normative data for the SPPC is based on four
samples. The students for these samples were 90% Caucasian and from
lower-middle to upper-middle class neighborhoods in Colorado. The
sample which was most similar to this study’s sample in ag:e will be referred
to hereafter, unless otherwise noted. It consisted of 178 students in the
third, fourth, and fifth grades.
The internal consistency reliability of the SPPC w as measured using
Cronbach’s Alpha. The reliability of the global self-concept scale was .78,
social self-concept was .75, and academic self-concept was .80.
Factor analysis was carried out on the SPPC to determine that the
measures of the subdomains each represented a separate factor, and
therefore a discrete category. For the sample similar to this study’s, the
social and the academic scale represented separate factors. Global self-
concept, while it is held to be qualitatively different from subdomains, was
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31
not expected to show a distinct factor due to the influence which valued
subdomains are posited to have on it (Harter, 1985).
Statistical Analysis
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships
between measures of students’ social and academic self-concept and their
global self-concept. These relationships are described by calculating
Pearson correlation coefficients. Previous instrument development studies
on the instrument supports the application of parametric procedures (Battle,
1972; Harter, 1985). All correlations were tested at the .05 alpha level. The
expectation for this study was that social self-concept would show a positive
correlation with global self-concept.
Results
M ean self-concept scores for the sample of twenty-four students are
shown in Table 2. The mean scores do not differ significantly from those of
the normative normative sample most similar to the participants of this
study (Harter, 1985).
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32
Table 2
Results of Self-Perception Profile for Children in Sample and in Harter
Normative Sample
Academic Social Global
M
SD
M
SD M SD
Sample
n = 24
2.77 0.59 2.74 0.62 3.21 0.59
Harter Normative
Sample
n = 178
2.78 0.69 2.88 0.71 3.13 0.69
Source for Harter statistics: Harter, 1985, p. 20. Scale is 1 through 4,
with 4 being the highest.
To assess the relationship between social self-concept and global
self-concept, as well as that between academic self-concept and global self-
concept, a Pearson correlational analysis was computed using Pearson’s
coefficients. Table 3 shows that for this sample, academic self-concept has
a higher and more statistically significant correlation with global self-
concept than, social self-concept has with global self-concept.
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33
Table 3
Correlation Between Sub scales of the Self-Perception Profile for Children in
Sample and in Harter Normative Sample
Academic Social
Sample (n = 24)
Social
0.32
p: 0.082
Global 0.55
p: 0.005
0.31
p: 0.088
Harter Normative Sample
(fi =178)
Social 0.63
Global .061 0.58
Source for Harter statistics: Harter, 1985, p. 20. Scale is 1 through 4,
with 4 being the highest.
The correlations also do not differ greatly from those given in the normative
sample, except that the correlation of social to global self-concept is even
lower in this group than in the sample. The result remains that academic
self-concept is much more significantly related to global self-concept, than
social self-concept is related to global self-concept for this sample.
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34
CHAPTER 4
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion
The theoretical model of self-concept proposes that high or low
global self-concept is derived from high or low levels of competence in
domains which one deems to be valuable. The hypothesis of this study was
that this group would show a stronger relationship between social self-
concept and global self-concept, than between academic self-concept and
global self-concept. This hypothesis was based in part on the assumption
that this LD group would need to compensate for low academic self-
concept. The compensatory model (Marx & Winne, 1980) proposed that
decreased competence in one area is compensated for by an increased
valuation of another area.
Results suggests first and most strongly that the academic domain
was still highly valued by the students in this sample. The results also
suggested that this group had not made a connection between how they
perceived their social skills and their general feeling of self-worth. The
hypothesis of this study was that this group would differ from mainstream
and gifted students in the correlates of their global self-concept, specifically
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35
that social self-concept would show a higher correlation with global self-
concept, and therefore, demonstrate a higher value for this domain in this
LD group. The results of the study clearly did not bear this hypothesis out
At first glance, the results of this study appeared to support previous
studies which have shown a strong correlation between academic self-
concept and global self-concept The results were very much in line with
the normative sample, and with studies carried out with non-learning
disabled, mildly learning disabled, and gifted students (Bachman &
O’Mally, 1986; Byrne, 1984; Grolnick & Ryan, 1990; Harter, 1985:
Shavelson & Bolus, 1982). These previous studies suggested that it is high
academic self-concept in gifted students which contributes to high global
self-concept, and similarly it is low academic self-concept in LD students
which contributes to low global self-concept. But the results of this study
did not strengthen this position. This group was identified as LD, and
segregated in a full-day program, yet they still had average academic self-
concept and average to high global self-concept. This group apparently did
not let their LD status or their placement in a special-day class affect their
academic or global self-concept. Since their self-concept in the academic
domain remained strong, there was no need for these students to compensate
with increased valuation on another domain.
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36
There are several reasons why this group might differ from the other
samples. The may be comparing themselves to their LD classmates for their
academic self-concept, rather than comparing themselves to the larger
student population. LD students rate themselves higher in self-concept
when comparing themselves to LD peers (Battle & Blowers, 1982;
Chapman & Boersma, 1979; Morvitz & Motta, 1992; Rogers, Smith &
Coleman, 1978). These previous studies of the LD population used students
segregated for only part o f the day. This study’s group was segregated for
the full day. It is possible that they have no clear comparison group of
higher achieving peers to degrade their academic self-concept.
The sample for this study was also relatively young, in the fourth and
fifth grades. Many of the previous studies included middle-school students
up to eighth grade. This group could still have the inflated self-concept of
the pre-operational child. It is possible they had not yet developed the
ability to compare themselves to others. This skill is developed in middle
childhood (Harter, 1990; Rosenberg; 1986; Ruble, 1983). Several studies of
LD students have shown that their academic self-concept declines over the
elementary and middle-school years (Grolnick & Ryan, 1990: Kistner,
Harter, & White, 1987; Winne, Woodland, & Wong, 1982:). If these
students had not yet recognized their lack of achievement in the academic
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37
area, there would be no decline in academic self-concept, and no need for
compensatory mechanisms.
It is also possible that the average to high self-concept scores in this
group were attributable to high levels of social support that the; might have
received from the school or from family. These students were in a special-
day class which is smaller and has more support firom teachers and other
school staff.
If this group did not compare themselves to their mainstream age
group, or they had not stared comparing themselves to others at all, then
they had no need to compensate for low academic self-concept by
emphasizing social self-concept. Likewise, if they had their self-concept
artificially buoyed by adult support, there should be no need for shifting the
value placed on a particular domain.
Conclusions
Clearly there were several factors, or combinations of factors, which
may have contributed to the outcome of this study differing from the
hypothesis. Possibly to their credit, this sample maintained an average self-
concept score despite their class placement and LD status. But it is certainly
possible that as this group makes the transition to middle school they may
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38
be at risk for a decline in academic self-concept, and possibly global self-
concept. Given the numerous risk factors this group faces, it is a valid
question to ask what changes there will be in the relationship between
global, academic and social self-concept with the transition to middle
school, i f the academic self-concept diminishes with increased age, what
other domains will increase in significance to bolster the global self-
concept?
Recommendations
T he results of this study suggested several implications for
occupational therapy treatment. The first and clearest statistic is that the
academic domain remains a highly valued one even by this special day class
sample. This could suggest that occupational therapy intervention with this
groups such as this sample, is justified in addressing skills which support the
academic role. Improved competence in this domain will improve a
student’s global self-concept. Second, the lack o f connection for this
sample between the social self-concept and the global self-concept could
suggest th a t it may not be possible to generalize for this group and identify a
domain w hich contributes to the global self-concept as strongly as the
academic domain. In that case, occupational therapy practice would be
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39
served by identifying valued domains on an individual basis. If this were
done, it would be possible to use intervention for improving competence in
that area and thereby bolstering the global self-concept.
The apparent lack o f importance placed on the social self-concept by
this sample clearly does not suggest that the social skills domain should be
devalued by occupational therapy practice. The evidence cited earlier,
based on attributions by teachers and parents, shows that students such as
these do have significant social skills deficits which impact their ability to
function in academic and other life roles. It is very evident that the social
skills domain, as well as the internal and external correlates of the self-
concept, are fertile grounds for further study with implications for
occupational therapy intervention.
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40
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Asset Metadata

Creator O'Neill, Kenneth Gerrard (author)

Core Title An investigation of the relationship between measures of social, academic and global self-concept

School Graduate School

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Occupational Therapy

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,education, special,health sciences, rehabilitation and therapy,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Neville-Jan, Ann (committee chair), Fazio, Linda (committee member), Parham, Diane (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-35712

Unique identifier UC11336916

Identifier 1405250.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-35712 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 1405250.pdf

Dmrecord 35712

Document Type Thesis

Rights O'Neill, Kenneth Gerrard

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA