University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The impact of academic automation on the field of education and the teaching profession

(USC Thesis Other)

The impact of academic automation on the field of education and the teaching profession

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content THE IMPACT OP ACADEMIC AUTOMATION ON THE FIELD OP
EDUCATION AND THE TEACHING PROFESSION
by
Marvin Flgatner
V &
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(Sociology)
June 1962
DM I Number: EP65784
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these wilt be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
DIsswtmtion R ïfc ü lis M n g
UMI EP65784
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
G R AD UA TE SC HO O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LOS A N G ELES 7. C A L IF O R N IA
êû F47 )
T his thesis, w ritte n by
..........
under the direction of h..l&..,Thesis Comm ittee,
and approved by a ll its members, has been pre- ^
sented to and accepted by the Dean o f the
Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f re
quirements fo r the degree of
MASTER OP ARTS
(
Dean
Date.
JUBB 1962
P S CO M M IX
C h i L Æ «
6- 61— 2M— HI
TABLE OF CONTEHTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ............................... Iv
I. INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Cernerai Qmestlons
Gomparisom of Sub-Croups
Importance of the Problem
Definition of the Major Term
Methods of Research
II. A SURVEY OF TIE LITERATURE
Basis for Labeling Teaching Devices
Automated
Educational Films
Educational Television
Teaching Machines
Experiments in the Field of the Teaching
Machine and Programmed Learning
Extent of Usage of Teaching Machines
Survey of Pupils * Opinions on a
Particular Teaching Machine
Some Opinions Regarding the Use of
Teaching Machines
III. INVESTIGATION OF GENERAL QUESTIONS DEALING
WITH AUTOMATED TEACHING MACHINES........
Characteristics of the Sample
Use of Academic Automation in the Home
Effectiveness of Automated Teaching
Machines According to Subjects
Job and Income Security
Different Types of Students
ii
ill
Page
Some Alternatives of Widespread Use
of Automated Teaching Devices
Effectiveness of Automated Teaching
Devices in Certain Areas
Use and Worth of Educational Films
Use and Worth of Television
Teaching Machines
Comments
IV. ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE POPULATION BY COMPARISON
OF SUB-GROUPS.......................
Marital Status
Length of Teaching
Number of Dependents
Percentage of Total Income Derived
from Teaching
Gross Salary Derived from Teaching
Grade Level Taught
A Career in Education as an
Original Goal
Comparison of Those Who Would and Would
Not Choose Teaching Again
Comparison of Responses Based on Sex
Comparison of Two Associations
A Composite View of Respondents
V. FINDINGS ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION
Possible Effects of Use of Academic
Automation on the Teaching Profession
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. l48
APPENDIX .......................................
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Types of Teaching Aids and Devices........ 10
2. Television Audience...................... 24
3. Content by Disciplines.............. 25
4. Some Specific Sub-Issues Related to the Role
and Design of Teaching Devices.......... 38
5. Attitudes of Advanced Students Toward
Audiovisumatic Teaching................ 58
6. Critical Negative Factors Listed for
Audiovisumatic Teaching by Elementary
Psychology Students .................... 59
7. Critical Negative Factors Listed for
Audiovisumatic Teaching by Advanced
8, Critical Positive Factors Listed for
Audiovisumatic Teaching by Advanced
Students . .............................
9. Use of Academic Automation in the Horae ... 77
10. Comparing Automated Teaching Devices to
the Class Room Teacher by Subject Area . . 79
11. Comparing Automated Teaching Devices to
the Class Room Teacher by Subject
Area of Specialty................. 80
12. Comparison of Academic Automation Only
to Instruction by Teacher.............. 8l
iv
Table Page
13. Opposition to Academic Automation........ 84
14. Protection of Income ......................
1 5. Comparison of Automated Teaching Devices
to Present School Methods with
Different Types of Students ............ 87
1 6. Some Alternatives of Widespread Use of
Academic Automation ...................
1 7. Comparison of Automated Teaching Devices to
Results now Achieved at School in
Different Areas ........................ 91
1 8. Use of Educational Films ..................
1 9. Comparing Educational Films to
Instruction of Teachers............... 93
20. Use of Educational Television............ 94
21. Comparing Educational Television to
Instruction of Teacher ..................
22. Use of Teaching Machines in Instruction . . 96
2 3. Comparing Teaching Machine to Instruction
of Teacher ........................... 96
Knowledge of Teaching Machine and
Effectiveness Compared to
Present Teaching Methods ................
Comparison of Marital Statuses on Effectiveness
of Academic Automation Over-all........ 102
Comparison of Marital Statuses on Academic
Automation as a Threat .......... 103
2 7. Comparison of Marital Statuses on Academic
Automation as an Aid................... 103
Vi
Comparison of Years of Teaching on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all ..........................
Comparison of Years of Teaching on Academic
Automation as a Threat ................
Comparison of Years of Teaching on Academic
Automation as an Aid ..................
3 1. Comparison of Number of Dependents on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all ..........................
Comparison of Number of Dependents on
Academic Automation as a Threat........ 110
3 3. Comparison of Number of Dependents on
Academic Automation as an A i d .......... Ill
Comparison of Percentages of Household
Income Derived from Teaching on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all ...............................
Comparison of Percentages of Household Income
Derived from Teaching on Academic
Automation as a Threat................. Il4
Comparison of Percentages of Household
Income Derived from Teaching on
Academic Automation as an Aid ..........
Comparison of Gross Salaries from Teaching
on Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all............................... 117
3 8. Comparison of Gross Salaries from Teaching
on Academic Automation as a Threat ....
3 9. Comparison of Gross Salaries from Teaching
on Academic Automation as an Aid .....
vil
Table Page
40. Comparison of Grade Levels Taught on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all............................... 121
41. Comparison of Grade Levels Taught on
Academic Automation as a Threat......... 122
42. Comparison of Grade Levels Taught on
Academic Automation as an A i d ........... 123
4 3. Comparison of Teaching as Original Goal on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all ...............................
5 1. Comparison of Men with Women on
Academic Automation as an Aid
44. Comparison of Teaching as Original Goal
on Academic Automation as a Threat .... 125
45. Comparison of Teaching as Original Goal
on Academic Automation as an Aid........ 125
46. Comparison of Choice of Teaching Again on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all............................... 127
47. Comparison of Choice of Teaching Again
on Academic Automation as a Threat .... 128
Comparison of Choice of Teaching Again
on Academic Automation as an Aid ........
4 9, Comparison of Men with Women on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all............................... 129
5 0. Comparison of Men with Women 01%
Academic Automation as a Threat .....
viil
Table Page
5 2. Comparison of Two Associations on
Effectiveness of Academic Automation
Over-all.................................. 132
5 3. Comparison of Two Associations on
Academic Automation as a Threat............ 133
5 4. Comparison of Two Associations on
Academic Automation as an A i d ............. 133
CHAPTER I
INTROroCTION
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This exploratory investigation is an attempt to
ascertain the impact of automated teaching devices on the
field of education and the teaching profession. The prob
lem has been approached from two vantage points. One
vantage point proceeds through the review of the literature
wherein automated teaching devices will be reviewed and the
extent of their usage examined. Since adoption of a seg
ment of automated teaching devices is still not widespread^
some opinions as to future possible uses and effects will
be given. The second approach ascertained the present
impacts of academic automation among those in the field of
education. A questionnaire was sent to a sample of teach
ers and others in the field of education to evoke their
Judgment of present and possible uses of automated teaching
devices and aids.
GENERAL QUESTIONS
Investigation among those in the field of educa
tion proceeded through a questionnaire which covered dif
ferent areas to gain information regarding the impact of
academic automation. Through the questionnaires^selected
aspects of the role of the teacher came under considera
tion.
COMPARISON OF SUB-GROUPS
In addition, sub-groups, that is those groups
whose members reveal certain characteristics as measured
by the following factors, were compared by their answers
to three questions in order to ascertain whether respond
ents belonging to different sub-groups held different views
regarding academic automation.
Marital status.— On three questions the responses
of persons who were single are compared to the responses
of persons who were married.
Length of teaching.--The responses of those who
have taught varying numbers of years are compared.
3
Nimber of dependents.--Would the number of depend
ents of persons working in the field of education have an
effect on their opinions regarding academic automation?
The answers of persons with fewer dependents are compared
to the answers of persons who have more.
Grade level taught.— Bo the opinions of persons
who teach older students differ from the opinions of those
who teach younger students?
Percentage of total income derived from teaching.--
Bo teachers who have more of their income derived from
teaching differ from those who derive less of their income
from teaching?
Gross salary derived from teaching.— Will a
teacher * s gross salary in some way affect his attitudes
regarding academic automation? Respondents who earn vary
ing amounts of money are compared.
Was a career in education an original goal?--
Persons who selected teaching as a career originally are
compared with persons who did not choose this occupation
originally in their responses to three selected questions.
Selection of teaching again.— If they had their
lives to live over again would the opinions of those who
would elect to teach again differ from those who would not
elect to do so? The responses of both sub-groups are
compared on three questions.
Sex.— Will men differ in their responses towards
automated teaching devices when compared with women?
Associations.— Bo teachers who hold membership in
the American Federation of Teachers differ in their
responses towards automated teaching devices compared to
those who hold membership in the Administrators Associa
tion?
IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM
Automation is now being utilized in the production
of goods and is already having important effects. Perhaps
automation is not limited in its application to producing
goods but may also play a part in other areas. The intro
duction of automated teaching devices on a wide scale, if
this happens, may affect the field of education and the
teaching profession. Audio-visual aids have been in use
5
for some time but have not markedly altered the teacher’s
traditional role of teaching. As implied by the previous
statement, the devices which fall under the rubric of
audio-visual aids are made use of at the discretion of the
teacher who introduces them to accomplish a particular
goal in his lesson plan. This investigation was under
taken to ascertain among a sample of teachers the impact
of automated teaching devices as indicated by their opin
ions as to its general efficacy. To what extent is the
teacher afraid of being replaced by the teaching machine?
In assaying the use of automated teaching machines
and present views regarding their place and the teacher’s
role, the social milieu of the school is presented. It is
in the present milieu that academic automation is to find
a place. It cannot be predicted with accuracy Wiat effect
present conditions will have, but they are certain to
affect the use of automated teaching devices. It is
equally cogent to consider what might be the effects of
the adoption of automated teaching machines on a wide scale
on persons in the field of education.
DEFINITION OF THE MAJOR TERM
Automated teaching devices.-"Devices which present
material and provide for practice of it without a teacher
mediating, such as the Pressey Device, Punehboard, Subject
Matter Trainer, and Arithmetic Machine. These devices and
others will be described under "Teaching Machines. ”
METHODS OF RESEARCH
A questionnaire was circulated among teachers in a
Southern California community. Approximately 99^ ques
tionnaires were mailed with provisions made for return
postage. Of the questionnaires sent 392 were returned.
This sample may or may not be representative of the opin
ions of those in the field of education, although results
indicated are made in reference to the sample.
Responses were transcribed to IBM cards; these
were programmed for the above questions, and processed at
the Western Data Processing Center at the University of
California, Los Angeles.
CHAPTER II
A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
The present study investigates the impact of auto
mation on the field of education and the teaching profes
sion. In order to do this it seems advisable to describe
(l) automated teaching machines and the extent of their
usage, and (2) to present some opinions as to possible
future use of academic automation. A survey of student
reaction to an automated teaching device is also given.
BASIS FOR LABELING TEACHING DEVICES AUTOMATED
There is one sense in which teaching machines may
be described as automated in that feedback is provided by
immediate knowledge of the correctness or incorrectness of
the student's response. In branching techniques, feedback
is provided by presenting the student with easier material
or additional and perhaps more difficult material, depend
ing upon his performance. Although this concept is
8
included in the reasons for calling devices automated
(where provisions for this are made), it does not form the
entire basis. Devices have been termed automated when in
their utilization it is not necessary for the teacher to
mediate for learning to proceed.
This approach is broader than the one used by
Porter in that it is being proposed that media which pre
sent material be included as well. Students may learn
using media which present material without the help of the
teacher. The content of subject matter presented by var
ious media such as educational films and television can be
incorporated into the program of the teaching machine or
in some cases the teaching machine may be designed to
include equipment that presents visual and/or audial
material in its program.
In the broad sense of the term a book in the hands
of an intelligent and motivated person is a form of auto
mated learning, as the teacher does not need to mediate if
the student understands the book well. There have been
many self-educated men of great standing in society. The
school provides an easier road to education than can be
gained through other experience. It is to a majority of
9
students t© which automated teaching devices are currently
directed. These devices are designed to educate students
by presenting material and providing for practice of it
either concurrently or to follow. To the extent that the
teacher is still necessary in providing motivation or
additional instruction, all these devices might be called
"aids.** However, in the area that they operate, while
presenting material and providing for practice of it,
without the aid of a teacher (vocally), the devices never
theless may be considered automated.
Porter breaks down **mechanical aids and devices"
into three categories: (l) stimulus devices, (2) response
devices, and (3) stimulus-response devices. The "stimulus
devices" are so labeled because they provide a student
with information about how to make a response. They do
not provide a setting for the practice of responses under
specific and controlled conditions. "Response devices,"
on the other hand, give the student the opportunity to
make responses. They provide, however, no information
under which a particular behavior is appropriate. Thus
responses are performed in relation to the mechanical
properties of the machine but not to subject-matter
content. "Stimulus-response devices" (or stimulus devices
TABLE 1
TYPES OP TEACHING AIDS AND DEVICES'
10
Visual
STIMULUS
Auditory
Audio-visual
Models
Motion pictures
Motion picture loop
Opaque projector
Orthographic projector
Printing devices
Still film projectors
Phonograph
Public address
Tape
Sound motion
Television
Tactile Braille
Data
RESPONSE
Gatherers
Abacus
Code typewriter
Counting devices
Desk calculator
Typewriter
Alertness indicator
Automatic test scorer
Classroom communicator
Galvanic skin response
indicator
Recorders
D. Porter, "A Critical Review of a Portion of the
Literature on Teaching Devices," Harvard Educational
Review (Vol. 27, No. 2, Spring 1 9 5 7), p.
11
TABLE 1 (continued)
Simulators
Add-a-part films and tapes
Dearborn reading film
Electronic flight simulators
STIMULUS-
RESPONSE
DEVICES
Immediate
reinforcers
Pacers
Pressey Multiple Choice
Chemical paper
Electric answer board
Punehboard
Skinner device
Trigger squeeze indicator
Memory drum
Metronome
Metronoscope
Reading accelerators
Reading films
12
and response devices used in combination) are designed to
present stimuli sequentially and provide a setting in which
correct responses may be made and practiced.
It is pointed out that many devices fall into one
category or another depending upon how they are used. A
motion picture in which provisions are made for audience
participation would then fall into the "stimulus-response
devices" category. The following quotation of Porter's
offers one approach for qualifying devices as aids or
teaching devices:
On the basis of the distinction between stimulus
devices, response devices, and stimulus-response
devices, it is suggested that the stimulus type and
the response type are not teaching "devices" but
teaching "aids," which must be supplemented by some
means, usually a teacher, in order to be effective.
The term "teaching device," moreover, should be
reserved more correctly for the stimulus-response
type of device which is capable of teaching with
out the mediation of a human teacher. . . .^
EDUCATIONAIi FILMS
Educational films as well as educational television
programming have been selected for review as media in
which the content of subject matter can be presented to
^Ibld., p. 127.
13
the student. Educational films play an important role in
2
the education of most young people today. A stockpile of
educational films in excess of half a billion dollars may
be drawn upon to present subjects in great diversity.
Many of these sound films are available without cost;
others are rented for a small charge.
Integrated use of educational films with instruc
tional materials offers an efficient means of improving
learning. There is a greatly varied group of educational
films already available— a single catalogue lists more
than eleven thousand l6 mm sound films for school use and
there are new films being produced constantly by educa
tional, industrial, religious, governmental, and commer
cial groups. Their usage has expanded with the appearance
of so many new films and the development of better projec
tion equipment. In the past the lack of simple projectors
made film use in the classroom difficult. In 1940 there
were twenty-five thousand l6 mm sound motion-picture pro
jectors in the United States. The number of projectors
jumped over half a million in the next fifteen years.
Although the increase in the use of educational
^James W. Brown, Richard B. Lewis, and Fred F.
Harcleroad, A-V Instruction: Materials and Methods (Hew
York: McGraw-Hill, 1939), pp. 157-169._________ __________
14
films in the classroom has been great in the post war
years, many schools still lag in their employment of these
3
devices. It is pointed out by the National Educational
Association that although there has been considerable re
search done, newer devices of communication have not been
completely accepted by the teaching profession, especially
is this true of films. While government, industry, and
social institutions such as churches and welfare groups
have shown great enterprise in developing films, acceptance
of films by teachers has fallen short of obvious possibili
ties, It was estimated that in 1956, business and industry
spent more than seven times as much as did all schools and
colleges for l6mm film production, prints, equipment, and
distribution. Total expenditures of government agencies
for films were also greater than those of education.
The fact that industry spends more than education
for a teaching device does not necessarily guarantee
the device is a good one. But the slow acceptance of
audio-visual material--the average teacher is still
poorly equipped for it— is not the result of a dis
trust of the educational potential of motion pictures.
It seems to be, rather, a combination of inconveniences
9
-'National Educational Association, Mass Communica
tion and Education, Educational Policies Commission
(Washington, DC.: The Association, 1 9 5 8 pp. 87-
15 ^
of utilization, perhaps a certain condescension, and
a general^unawareness of significance in research
There are special advantages that can he cited in
using films. They combine sight and sound that act upon
two senses at once. They also compel attention through
the use of motion and directed attention in a semi-darkened
room. Films can help overcome important intellectual bar
riers to learning. Students who experience difficulty in
reading may be helped in building concepts by well-paced
and clear presentation.
Educational films help to recreate the past and
help provide for common experience. Caution should be
applied in accepting the latter statement without qualifi
cation. While it may be true that communication is im
proved when all the students may refer to a common problem
or the same subject matter by way of a film they have seen,
it is well to note that what has been perceived or experi
enced by each student is not necessarily the same. Each
individual will view a film and interpret its meanings
based on the individual's own past experiences.
l6
Films also provide continuity of action and "front
seats" for students. Through the employment of various
techniques, barriers imposed by physical factors such as
size of objects and time may be overcome. A teacher who
makes good use of films will incorporate them into his
lesson plan in addition to other media and the teacher can
also test his students on content they have viewed.
There are several types of films which may serve
different purposes. "Factual films" present ideas and
information precisely. The use of sight and sound clarify
meanings in a superior way to the usual illustrated lec
ture. While it is true that an illustrated lecture by a
teacher would not generally measure up to a good film, the
fact that a teacher presents the lecture does add another
dimension. However, stating that there are "factual films"
leads one who is philosophically minded to believe that the
problem of what are "facts" has been solved. Pictorial
reports record events as they occur with little or no edit
ing. Again, however, the eye of the camera can emphasize
and de-emphasize and can create moods very effectively.
Fictional drama films often present stirring,
believable versions of literary classics. They, as well as
17
other types, may be used in developing attitudes, building
appreciation, and presenting information. There are also
training films, travelogues, and "true-drama" films which
present the lives of actual people. Documentary films are
familiar to many. They attempt to portray accurately and
realistically stories about people and situations. Some
stories because they have been done well and are interest
ing stand the test of time while an ever-changing world
lessens the value of other films and brings forth new
material worthy of presentation.
How effective are educational films? Experimental
results of their effectiveness will be cited using only a
few of the many experiments cited in the Encyclopedia of
Educational Research. Some thirty-five years of instruc
tional film research has been reviewed and some of the
results of the research are offered under four categories :
(l) knowledge of facts, (2) perceptual motor skills,
(3) concepts, and (4) motivation, interests, attitudes, and
opinions,
! Knowledge of Facts.--The evidence clearly supports
the conclusion that films can teach factual information
g effectively over a wide range of subject matter con
tent, ages, abilities, and conditions of use. This
factual learning, however, tends to be rather specific
to the information communicated by the film. In early
18
studies, Amspier, Corns it t. Ho la day, and Stoddard,
Knowlton and Tilton, Marchant, Watkins, Weber, and
Wise demonstrated the effectiveness of films in
teaching factual information. In more recent
studies, Movland and others showed that films had
considerable influence on increasing soldiers* fac
tual knowledge of the background of the war strategy,
and the events of the so-called Battle of Britain.
Meirhenry reported that Nebraska high-school classes
devoting one sixth of their instructional time in
certain courses to an enrichment program with motion
pictures, made significantly better scores than non
film classes on informational tests directly related
to the content of the films, and equal scores on
national standardized tests.
Perceptual-Motor Skills.— There is little doubt
about the effectiveness of films in teaching percep
tual motor skills. Studies by McClusky and MeGlusky
in teaching the construction of a reed mat and a
pasteboard box; Freeman and others in teaching hand
writing performance and position; and those by Brown
and Messer smith, Lockhart and Friebe and Burton in
teaching athletic skills, demonstrate that instruc
tion on film was at least as effective as conven
tional methods.
Concepts.— Although a frequent criticism of
instructional films is that learning from them is
"passive" and interferes with thinking and the
development of concepts and inferences, there is no
experimental research to support this negative opin
ion. On the contrary, the evidence is on the side
of the film in developing concepts. Rulon compared
the learning from eight films in Grade ¥111 general
science as it related to the learning of pure "rote"
items and so-called "edmetive" items which require
the application of a concept or the inferring of one
fact from another. He found that when films were
added to instruction with textbooks alone, the
eductive items were learned significantly better than
the rote items as measured by both an immediate learn
ing test and a retention test administered three and
one-half months later.
19
Motivation, Interest, Attitudes, and Opinions.—
Considerable attention has been given to the study of
motivation, interests, attitudes, and opinions as
modified by films. In general it might be concluded
that films can modify motivations, interests, atti
tudes, and opinions if they are designed to stimulate
or reinforce existing beliefs of the audience. There
is, however, little evidence that films can make
changes if they are contrary to the existing beliefs,
personality structure, or social environment of the
individual in the audience.
Ramseyer*s study of social attitudes with documen
tary films indicated strongly that a motion picture
can influence specific attitudes if the attitude to
be changed is closely related to the content of the
film and if the film conforms to the social norms of
the audience. If the film tries to promote an atti
tude in conflict with the social norm, it may result
in a "boomerang” effect, actually reinforcing the
existing attitude instead of changing it. This result
was seen in the study by Cooper and Dinerman in which
a film intended to have a specific effect on an
audience actually had the opposite effect depending
on the audience. A study by Wilner found that south-
emers viewing the film "Home of the Brave" were not
persuaded to change their attitudes toward the Negro,
but actually had their prejudices reinforced. This
fact was also demonstrated in a study with political
cartoons by Cooper and Jahoda.^
It has long been a practice of advertisers to con
nect their product with something desirable in the minds
of their audience. Thus beautiful models advertise many
products. However, the product does not necessarily go
against the grain, so to speak, of the audience in the first!
^"Audial Visual Communications,” Encyclopedia of
Educational Research, ed. Chester Harris (New York; The
MacMillan Co., i9 6 0), Third edition, pp. II6-II8 .
20
place. Perhaps this technique may he used with good
results in films that Intend to change attitudes. However,
one important fact is being overlooked; that of the
Zeitgeist. It may be that present conditions will change
older views. Also, repeated viewing of films that present
about the same theme may have the effect of changing
originally antithetical beliefs. It seems the degree of
intensity of belief is an important factor in the change
ability of attitudes.
EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION
Educational television can be viewed both at home
as well as in the school. Theoretically, therefore, it
might be possible to combine both educational television
and teaching machines in the home, and require of the
student a certain level of attainment according to his age.
It could be determined whether students satisfactorily per
formed by evaluating submission of required work and
results of outside testing. This would be a radical
departure from present practices centered in the school
where requirements are met under the guidance and control
of teachers. Absent also would be the motivation to
21
perform that arises through the Interactions of students
among themselves and with teachers.
In general, educational television can achieve yùi&t
educational films can, if only by using them, and possesses
the additional value of being able to present current
events as they occur. The heightened emotional intensity
of what is important here and now— a special session of
the United Nations, a speech by an important personage that
may have Immediate repercussions— are well conveyed via
television.
However, the use of television is not without its
problems. The scheduling of programs to fit their use by
classrooms is one. There are others.
Present day instruction by way of educational tele
vision in American schools and colleges may be considered
under four headings.^ The first type is total television
teaching. The only instructional help offered is through
the television series. The rest of the learning experi
ence must be provided by the learner who must be suffi
ciently motivated to accomplish the work required by the
National Educational Association, And TV, Too!
ed. Lee E. Campion, et al. (Washington, B.C.: The Associa
tion, 1 9 6 1), pp. 16 and 1 7.
22
course. Courses Im Russian, available in many communities,
serve as an example of courses that may be offered to
adults for credit or non-credit. The student receives a
syllabus, buys a book, and carries on his own drill,
translation, and conversation. Some small high schools
unable to offer advanced courses in mathematics and science
are encouraging their advanced students to secure these
courses by television, supplemented perhaps, as in
Nebraska, by correspondence tutelage.
The second type of instructional television is
major resource teaching. The broadcasts carry the main
burden of formal course presentation but learning is
facilitated by teachers through discussion, laboratory
experiments, small group activities, practice and drill,
creative expression, problem solving, and individual diag
nosis and remedial measures. A good deal of present
ins true t ional television on both school and college levels
is of this type.
The third type is supplementary television teach
ing. Here television follows a course of study and adds
fruitful experiences which an individual teacher may find
difficult if not impossible to provide.
23
The fourth type deals with observation. A small
elosed-cireuit system is used because it provides a better
view of important phenomena. Television in this respect
can serve in many places. An installation in a college of
dentistry may provide a close-up view of dental manipula
tions to large groups of students. A teachers college may
equip its demonstration school with closed circuit tele
vision in order that students may observe child behavior
and demonstration teaching. Television instruction is not
tied to any particular type of utilization nor related to
particular size of receiving group.
Television has already had an impact on the educa
tional scene. The extent of its usage and some of its
effects will now be examined. Two tables are presented;
the first shows different television audiences and the time
they spend viewing various types of television stations;
the second table indicates time allotted by program hours
to various areas of knowledge by the different types of
stations. Over eighty per cent of the program hours can be
so coded provided that one introduces another area,
"utility" to handle programs on gardening, cooking, home
repairs, etc. In Table 3 social science is defined to
include public affairs, humanities to include language.
24
1 — 1
w
N
M O 43
o A m
•H G d •d
+a *H €U o \ ON G G
0 4> &
• vH
*4
O W c d
VG O J © S 3 G
g 45 G -5t
rH - = d " •H G
P
C Q 8 > 44 d
M G G G
rH Qi
G 45 C Q
45
O
0 0 Æ
d
rH
B
O
O G B }4
O •H lA vo en ON d M G
S 4^
• *
O G
4)
W o 5 d " VG t H G G
0 > 45 en VD 45
{H
G
% C Q (3 E H M
O
0 G
•G
n
Jd
W G d
45
M Ü o
O O tn iH g
O •H fn 00 00 -sj" ta P
4^
•
•H d
O W -5|- VG
00 G > 44
C Q 45 rH en Æ G
C Q 45 rH G
G G
44 E H •H
G *d
>» iH 0
4>
a
O 45
•H g
en d C Q
m G G
u •H
G \ i— i m VG 44 • •H •d
< D 45
• •
G ON 45 G
> e t } en VG O G
45
•H 45 in rH m S O N
2
G
& C Q G rH 0 G
tD >
*G
rH
M G
0 g C Q
44
ta g
O
+> % d 45 d
0 o 0 45
O
s G

o
45 m rH en G G G
o C Q G G O rH
> G
G *H G 64
45 45
«d
U G O
E H rH
0) O A G G
bû 44 rH
45
G
(6 0 G •H g O
4 i
m
G G ■ G ta d *H
G e m P 4 Si
G G
o
45
(D
•H 45 *d o u ta ta •H
G
O 45 iH rH ta o G 45 G
) L i 0 •H 0
45 a S 0
e > 4 h "G G 0 U G G
45
d
(L, G •< S N O o % G M
1
d
0
rH
•H
vd
•d
1
G
4
• »
d
G S '
"ë
G rH
o
1
O
•H
u 2
C Q
"d
s 1
•d C Q :
d
G
i
1
rH
•H rH
G H
•H 1
> 44
G q
rH
G S
E H 45
•H
rH G
1 1
vH
*d
45
d
G
O
0
1
*d G
M
1
rH
i
1 ;
•r H 1
45
g :
G
g
% G
d
G 4#
X i O
45 C Q
25
en
a
§
a
+>
o 0 $ m
0 # < D
*0 ( 5 Q s:
M
m O
ç * en
o
•H
I
O «H
-P
O
W
+>
m
% 03
fH
I
03
I
-P m
03
44
® A
< D 0
W44
W
•P 0
O p
A
(S
en lA m rH C V I
rH
C V J
LA G \ rH
C V J C V J C V J rH rH
o 00
Eu rH
0
i
•H
O
0 9
0
a
a \ €vi
rH ©
S §
S #
CO
0 9
P
f H
c S
I
KO
rH
lA VD C V I O
VO
Q
o \ o \ w
rH en rH rH rH
P ra
•H 0
09 G vo en en en tA
k *H
• • • •
G P G \ C> en
00
rH
VD
> c H C V I C V I C V J C V I
" H P
O 03
tG
>s
P 0 3
•H C
û o
g P 00 b - 00 O b -
0 P en
• f • • •
e 0} rH C V J -g- O
o p C V I C V I rH C V I rH
o 03
P
iH
•H
ë
00
â
•o
•H
fi
c d
26
literature^ history, and philosophy, and natural science to
Include engineering. Fine arts Includes graphic arts,
plastic arts, music, and design.
Â conservative estimate based on data provided by
non-commercial educational stations In twenty-six states
Indicates that during this school year about 7500 elemen
tary and secondary schools are offering some Instruction
by television to about three million students. This figure
does not Include pupils receiving their television lessons
over open-circuit commercial stations or closed-elrcult
Installations, who may number an additional one and a half
million,^
The results of the first two years of testing In
the National Program are Illustrated by 251 comparisons
made. In 1957-58 they Included 14,326 television students
and 1 2 ,6 6 6 control students of equal ability; and In 1 9 5 8-
59 they Included 43,105 television students and 26,092
control students. Of the 251 comparisons made during the
two year period, one hundred sixty-five favored the
^The Ford Foundation, Teaching by Television: A
Report from the Ford Foun<^tlon and the Fund for the
Advancement of Education (New York: The Foundation,Office
of Reports, January, 1 9 6 1), Second edition, preface and
pp. 10-13.
television students and eighty-six favored the control
students. In ninety eases, there was a statistically sig
nificant difference in the achievement of students in the
two groups. Of these statistical differences, sixty-nine
were In favor of the television classes, and twenty-four
were In favor of the control groups.
Televised courses have been much more carefully
planned and organized than conventional courses, and the
combination of the skills of the studio teacher and of the
classroom teacher has made possible a cooperative effort
far better than either teacher could achieve alone. At the
elementary and secondary levels, for example, the usual
practice has been for the studio teacher to meet only one
class a dayj generally for twenty to thirty minutes. The
teacher then has the rest of the day to plan tomorrow’s
lesson. The classroom teachers, relieved of the burden of
planning and presenting the principal material In several
different subjects during the course of the day, are free
to concentrate on other aspects of teaching. I.e., elicit
ing student participation, answering questions, leading
discussions, and so forth.
The use of superior teachers on television has
proved an Important means of upgrading the quality of other
teachers, particularly heglmmlmg teachers. Another Impor
tant result of the experimentation has been a more effec
tive use of teaching time and classroom space. This has
been especially true In the elementary and secondary
schools where the shortages of teachers and classrooms are
most acute. Several school systems, notably those of Bade
County, Florida, and Washington County, Maryland, have
found that the use of television In teaching large classes
has enabled them to serve more students with the able
teachers already on their staffs and to get along with
fewer teachers than they otherwise might need. This may
also mean that they can be more selective In hiring new
teachers.
Several other school systems have used the teacher
time saved by the use of television In large classes to
establish much smaller classes than usual for slow learners
and for rapid learners and to provide overworked classroom
teachers with one or more free periods during the day.
There seem to be a number of possibilities, then,
as to what may happen to teachers idaen television Is used
In the educational program.
29
TEACHING MACHINES
Some of the theories which form the basis of the
teaching machine have been known for some time. As with
other teaching devices It Is well to know the mechanics of
teaching machines and how well they perform. It Is also
worthwhile Investigating what may be the effects upon the
teaching profession If these devices In combination with
educational films, television, and other audlo-vlsual de
vices are widely used In school systems. This Investiga
tion first deals with the theories behind teaching
machines, the devices, some opinions of students of a par
ticular teaching machine, and the extent of usage. After
this area of teaching machines Is covered, the survey pro
ceeds to deal with possible effects on the field of educa
tion and the teaching profession brought about by use of
teaching devices as seen by certain Individuals who are
connected either directly or Indirectly with teaching
machines or the field of education.
Socrates 2500 years ago used some of the principles
Involved In teaching machine programs when he guided his
students toward an understandlng of complex subjects by
the question and answer method. The prlncIples are simple :
(l) learning proceeds most easily If it is acquired by
very small steps, (2) active participation Is more effec
tive than passive reception, (3) rewards strengthen or
“reinforce” learning, and the sooner the reward the strong
er the reinforcement, and (4) learning Is best when a
student proceeds at his own pace. Although Socrates did
not publicize his method the principles are essentially the
8
same as used by Skinner much later.
As to the need for teaching machines and programs,
the following quotation well states the case:
Guidance In habit-formatIon and reasoning. Text
books often state what habits are to be formed without
giving the reader exercises In forming them, but this
Is not a necessary feature of printed matter. Text
books on geography, history, spelling, English compo
sition, grammar, economies, philosophy or sociology
could, by the exercise of enough Ingenuity, provide
for the actual formation of habits In the way that
books of examples to be done In arithmetic, or
sentences to be translated In Eatln, or experiments
to be done In chemistry do.
Text-books still less often guide the pupil to
think out conclusions for himself so far as he can.
They commonly give the results of reasoning and
perhaps problems demanding reasoning, but they do not
so manage the latter that the pupil Is at each stage
helped Just enough to lead him to help himself as
much as Is economically possible. They do not, that
8
“The Truth About Those Teaching Machines,“
Changing Times, The Klpllnger Magazine, February, 1962,
p. 1 6.
31
Is, usually set the full value of the questioning,
“developing,” inductive, and experimental methods,
of teaching. Nor do they usually give work In
deductive thinking so arranged as to stimulate the
pupil to make and test Inferences himself.
This fact Is partly due to conventional customs.
But there Is also a real difficulty, due to the fact
that pupils cannot be trusted to follow directions.
Books could he written giving data, directions for
experiments and problems with the data, and ques
tions about Inferences. The student could be In
structed to read each helping piece of Information,
suggestive questions and the like only after he had
spent a certain time In trying to do for himself
what he was directed to do. Such books might be
more effective than all but the best tenth of
personal teaching. If students would faithfully try
as directed before reading ahead for the helps given.
But they will usually greedily use up all the helps
first. If, by a miracle of mechanical Ingenuity, a
book could be so arranged that only to him who had
done #iat was directed on page one would page two
become visible, and so on, much that now requires
personal Instruction could be managed by print.
Books to be given out In loose sheets, a page or so
at a time, and books arranged so that the student
only suffers If he misuses them, should be worked
out In many subjects. Even under the limitation
of natural tendency of children to get results In
the easiest way, a text-book can do much more than
be on the one hand a mere statement of the results
of reasoning such as an ordinary geography or German
grammar Is, or on the other hand a mere statement of
problems, such as the ordinary arithmetic or German
reader Is.
From the point of view of Interest In work,
personal teaching Is usually more sociable, but
the difference between it and text-book teaching in
this particular could be reduced by skill In organ
izing the latter.9
One would probably believe that this Individual
wrote an argument In favor of books or mechanical devices
which use programmed learning directed to the present day
person Interested In Improving education. But this
scholar, Edward L« Thorndike, stated this position to the
person Interested In Improving education In 1912, long
before the present Interest In teaching machines.
In tracing the history of the teaching machine. It
may be noted that In 1 9 1 6, Sidney L. Pressey, of Ohio State
University, believed that he could conserve the benefits of
comprehensive and frequent testing by developing mechanical
devices that would do much of the routine work associated
with presenting material, recording student responses, and
Informing the student Immediately of the correctness of
the responses. Pressey and his students developed about a
dozen such devices which saved time and drudgery for the
teachers. In the early 1920*s, Pressey saw further poten
tial In these devices for performing certain routine
teaching functions In drill and recitation. If these were
^Edward L. Thorndike, Education (New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1912), pp. l64-l67.
33 ;
i
SO arranged as to supply the student with Immediate know- ^
ledge of results oomcemlng the correctness of each !
I
response made. A self-scoring multiple-choice apparatus
exhibited In 1924-25 possessed an attachment which pre
sented the child with a piece of candy If he answered a
predetermined number of questions correctly. It seemed
evident to Pressey that Immediate knowledge of results
would provide a more effective means of teaching than com
monly used classroom procedures. Pressey*s basic objec
tive was to provide more effective learning through Instru
mentation which maximizes active student response and
relates Immediate knowledge of results.
Some years ago In a laboratory at Harvard, pigeons
were taught to dance In unison, strut In a figure eight,
discriminate among playing cards, adjust a light precisely,
play a tune on a toy piano, and play a modified game of
table tennis. The psychologist who was able to accomplish
this, B. F. Skinner, did so by breaking down complex
maneuvers Into tiny segments and rewarding the pigeons upon
completion of each component segment. For every minute
advance In the right direction the pigeons were fed a
single kernel of corn. Skinner wrote In 1954 that he had
constructed a device that applied the same principles to
34
human learning and the “boom” In teaching machines and
10
programmed learning was touched off.
Skinner, himself, makes the following points ; The
machine Itself does not teach but brings the student Into
contact with the person who composed the presented mater
ial. It Is a labor-saving device since It brings the pro
grammer Into contact with an Indefinite number of students.
Although this might seem like mass production, the effect
upon each student Is like that of a private tutor In the
following respects: (a) There Is a constant Interchange
between student and program, unlike lectures, textbooks,
and the usual audlo-vlsual aids. (2) Like a good teacher
the machine Insists that a point be thoroughly understood
before the student may move on. Textbooks, lectures, and
their mechanized equivalents easily leave the student
behind. (c) Like a good Instructor the machine presents
only that material the student Is able to handle step-by-
step. (d) The machine helps the student arrive at the
right answer partly through orderly construction of the
program and partly by use of hints and prompts, (e) Last;
the machine reinforces the student for every correct
10
“The Truth About Those Teaching Machines,” p. 15.
35 I
response, using Immediate feedback not only to shape his
behavior but to maintain It In strength In a manner ^leh
the layman would describe as holding the student’s Inter-
est.^^
It might be added here that the type of reinforce
ment described by Skinner will work with a student tdio Is
Interested In learning and Is Interested In ascertaining
the “correct response.” It Is not difficult to visualize
a student who could not care less about the material pre
sented and his own correct responses and In reference to
whom reinforcement becomes a meaningless phrase. A pigeon
must have food and so will perform. The relationship
between learning and a satisfaction of needs Is not so
clear to certain students.
Lurasdalne gives a broad view of the teaching
machine In which he first deals with some major Issues and
classes of variables, then Investigates some problems that
TO
are illustrative. The review Is offered here because It
F. Skinner, "Teaching Machines,” Science
, Oct. 24, 1958), p. 971.
2
A. A. Iiumsdalne, "Some I
and Programs for Automated Learning," Teaching Machines and
12
A. A. Lumsdalne, "Some Issues Concerning Devices
Programmed Learning; A Source Book, eds. A. A. Lumsdalne
and Robert Glaser ( ; Washington, B.C. : National Education
Association, i9 6 0). Part V, pp. 517-535.
36
epitomizes well the field of the teaching machine and
programmed learning. It should he noted that the devices
mentioned are only a part of the devices now extant and
consideration should he given to the possibility that
future Improvements In devices and perhaps changes In con
cepts will make some present devices and concepts obsolete.
Three major Issues are put forth. The first of
these deals with idiat role Is to be played by automated
teaching devices for presenting so-called programmed
Instruction within the framework of a total plan of Instruc
tion. This Issue Includes not only a question of the cate
gories of behavior desired as Instructional outcomes, but
also the relation of automated teaching devices and pro
grams to other forms of Instruction.
A second Issue to which many students of automated
learning methods are addressing themselves Is: what should
be the characteristics of the teaching machine In terms of
Its response apparatus, Its display capabilities, the forms
of feedback or correction It can provide, and the recipro
cal effect of right or wrong answers on what Is registered
or presented by the device?
The third Issue, It seems. Is attracting the atten
tion of numerous workers In automated teaching. This Issue
37
Is less a question about the device Itself, it seems, but
the kind of program being used. This issue is concerned
with the size of steps by Waich the student progresses
through a subject matter program, the form of prompting
with which he Is provided, the Information he Is given to
correct or reinforce his responses, and the logic of the
way In idilch a subject matter Is organized and sequenced
In developing a program. For Lumsdalne, equal In Impor
tance to the program Is the device used because of the
effect of Its physical properties. I.e., display panel, on
what can be expected from the program. Lumsdalne*s table
on the next page makes It possible to see the organization
of some of the following material at a glance.
The first Issue Is partly concerned with what types
of outcomes are sought. In using a teaching machine, one
outcome sought may be the achievement of verbal learning
through paired associates. Or It may be desired to acquire
concepts and principles tied to some form of connected dis
course where substance learning and Interchangeablllty of
symbolic responses are essential. It may be possible to
leam sequential patterns, either verbal or nonverbal, as
In memorizing a prose passage, poem, procedural list, or a
series of motor acts, to which a symbolic or perceptual
38
o
m B
@ 9
0 8 9
C 9 G
8 9 rH
H ,0
i l
C O
o
0 *d
S Ê
01 ( d
C O
0
I
0
w
§
T?
G cr € d
G G
0, A s
O G
•& JQ
G 4 - 1
G O G
m G
0 04
•H *&
C S 0
O G
n H -P C d
44 G G
G G G
•0 r a 4H
&
OJ
G
Ï 4 G
G G
a
o #
G G
^ G
G 0 e ^ '
iH G ^
®-i i
© rH 4 H
•P G -P
^ * , *
r4 C V I rH 0 ,
7
a i
O 1 r4 G Ol 44
P 43 G ,0
0 G G 0 H
G G O © 44 © G
G 44 % rH %
44 P > 1 G
O G G O J L | G
•0 «0 0 O O 0
G G G 44 p G
rH P Ê â G > O G
G G 0 H G G H
P 3 é 4 H «W A 44 — '
G G
!: g"
= ^
0 • • '
O G
4 H P
p G
•H
0 O
W G
O *H
G *G
G
P 4 U
Q
G *G
> G
0 5
® g
P P
O G
i
p o
G
0 •
O G
O 5 >
rH
g
G
rH
f )
44
G
g
04
%
m
ii
G
r4
rH •.*
É
G
G
G O
44
' G
g-g
G
P
I
G
G
:#
G 01
G
G m
lA
39
•o
I
I
o
G
G
0 G
G G
H i
i
G
I
M
o
^ S
A G
C O
G
G
§
G
H
O
4 - 3
•G 0
G G
r4 P
w G
P
G G
1 G
•H > » G r4
0 G 44 G
O U © P 0
O O G
G '0
P
G
r4 0 0 G
r4 44 G P
G 0 G
P G
P 0
•
0 G G G 66
G G
# G
W o
*d G
>
0
&
U
G
I
O G
P P
G O
8 G
o
p
4
I
P
O s
G * >
II
0 u
44
• nS
P
1 §
G
• G
G G
> iH
G
P
0 •
G O
6 P
G G
fi
G
G P
G 44
§4>
Â *G
U
G O
G 4-i
O G G
•G »d
G P
G G
CO
\ G
M
—
O G P
G 43 0
A P G G
•G • d. 0
G O 0 p
G P p
44 G 0
0 ©
0
©
44
G 4 4 O G
44 P P G g
O 0 P 0 G
G G G O O 0
« H 0 •0 G A 66
G 0 0
44 G ©
G G P 44 G 0
m O G M 0 A
O J m
G
ïï
G
44
G
>
>
•G
44
4
è
p
o ***
4-i *d
“■I
I
o
o
44
O
G 44
G r4
G O
0
*G 44
G ~ — ' > >
r4 iH
r4 ^ r4
G G G
Î4 r4 *H
P © * P
â
o »d G
G
G P
6 A
II
il
> G
& - S
r4 G
Oi 44
G >
44 o
*o U •
A O
M P
G iH G
44 G
60 44 4
0 O G
â
o G o
I
0
1
r4
A
G
44 G
•G o
44
rj p
S G
> P
4o
seqmence to transfer as a mediating instrumentality is
sought for. Finally, it may be either a specific one
involved in a motor act, i.e., typewriting, or it may be a
more generalized one where concepts and principles are msed
in diagnosing malfunctions or other forms of problem solv
ing, Matmrally, the outcomes sought play an important
part in determining the program msed as well as the type
of teaching machine.
Role of the machine.— ©ne possible mse of the
machine is in the total instruction of a course, or smb-
mnits of the comrse, depending upon the qmestion and answer
program presented by some form of machine.
A second kind of mse or role is one in which the
teaching machine forms a follow-mp, complement, or adjunct
to other instruction. The original multiple-choice pro
grams of Pressey and his associates were of this type. It
was not presumed that the teaching machine would be used
until after prior study or lecture instruction. The qmiz-
like items and their sequences were conceived as having
follow-mp, review, and testing functions. More recently,
experimentation has been initiated with programs that are
planned as a complement to basic lecture-demonstration
4l
teaehimg presented fey film or television. Mere the teach
er’s role can involve presenting and correcting a program
of exercises to fee done fey stmdents in a study or as
assigned homework.
Finally, attention has feeen given to making
machines available for voluntary use fey students in their
free time. The optimal characteristics of devices and
programs may obviously differ, depending on which role a
teaching machine program is to play.
Device characteristics and their relation to
programming.— Matters become more involved when the proper
ties of various teaching machines are analyzed. It is well
to keep in mind that the function of the teaching machine
has an effect on such factors as form and diversity of
students * responses and the type of response language
utilized.
Four characteristics with respect to which some of
these devices differ are listed in Table 4. These are :
(a) form of student response, (fe) basis for feedback
correction to the student, (c) reciprocal feedback to the
device and its program based on the student'S response,
and (d) visual display characteristics.
The Skinner Disk Machine, Porter Device, Bell
Device, and Step-hy-Step Sound Film Demonstrator all
employ freely constructed responses made by the student.
The Skinner, Porter, and other devices are designed pri
marily for "continuous discourse" verbal subject matter.
Correction or confirmation of a written response is made
possible Wien the student causes the device to display the
correct answer.
The Step-by-Step Sound Film Demonstrator consists
of motion picture or slide presentation with accompanying
oral directions to teach sequential procedures. Although
the external "manipulanda" employed are much more complex
than with verbal machines where only a pencil or pen is
required, the essential pattern of feedback is basically
similar, since it consists of comparing some form of freely
constructed response judgmentally against a visual criter
ion. As in the verbal learning machines, the learner can
proceed by very small steps, here consisting of short
demonstration segments, which he can readily imitate and
then check the step just taken against the pictorial model
on the screen.
In contrast to the devices mentioned, the Pressey
Device, Ptinchboard (Pressey, et al.). Subject Matter
43
Trainer (Briggs), and Variable-Program Microfilm Device
(Growder) differ in several respects in the response form
they employ and the type of feedback provided to the stu
dent. One difference is that the apparatus is self-
contained, not requiring even a pencil, so that the student
simply pushes a button to indicate his answer. The student
is restricted to making discrete choices, which has two
important implications. In the first place, the device
can be said to involve selective rather than constructive
responding. However, this distinction becomes blurred if
the number of choices is large; for example, as many as
twenty choices in the Briggs Subject Matter trainer.
The distinction is also blurred where the response desired
is actually that of selecting or identifying, where a
"freely constructed" response can be coded into a finite
number of possibilities.
The use of discrete responses permits automatic
scoring rather than dependence on judgmental comparison.
Because of this, correction feedback may be accomplished
without directly revealing the correct answer. The stu
dent's selection of a wrong response may, depending upon
p. 5 2 5.
44
how the device is constructed and programmed, score am
error and require him to make another or more attempts
before he can proceed to the next question. The use of
discrete choices for scoring and feedback need not limit
the student to recognition responding as he may first con
struct his response and then compare it to the category
choices offered.
These devices provide control of the question
elements in a program, so that the student is prevented
from looking forward and backward while responding to a
particular item. In these particular devices the length
of the verbal stimulus for each "question-^frame" in a
program is spatially constrained. More extensive material
must be presented through adjunctive panels, for Wiich the
same degree of stimulus control is not available. This
disadvantage is avoided by using projected microfilm, as
in Growder * s "tutor."
The Arithmetic Machine (Skinner-Zeeman),
"Polymath," (Rothkopf), and Digital Computer (Rath-
Anderson Perlis), combine the features of constructed
responses with discrete and automatic wrong-answer dis
crimination. The simplest of these is the arithmetic
45
machine in which sliders and dials are used to "set in" an
answer to a numerical problem. More complex devices,
employing keyboards or sliders for setting in an answer and
permitting an extended alphabetic as well as numeric reper
toire of responses, have also been constructed.
An experimental device of this sort, Rothkopf's
Polymath, has an extended response repertoire which permits
extended multiple-choice responding and also an alpha
numeric, constructive-answer input through sliders similar
to those in the preceding device. In addition, through use
of criterion patterns employing printed circuitry, not
visible, two-dimensional positioning or tracing responses
can be entered into the scoring device; for example, such
responses as tracing a route on a map or a signal through
an electric circuit diagram displayed in a particular
"frame" of the program.
More complex devices that can score a full alpha
betic and numeric repertoire consist of electronic digital
computers coupled to a keyboard input and printout devices.
Two additional features with respect to correction-
confirmation and program sequencing are permitted. The
Ibid., p. 5 2 7.
; first is correction-confirmâtion provided for each serial
element of a complex verbal or numeric response. This can
be accomplished by more simple microfilm devices using
special forms of response coding, such as photoelectric
response matching machine recently devised by Wyckoff•
Branching programs.— A second feature is that the
great versatility of the computer frees the teaching
machine from a simple predetermined sequence. It permits
the use of contingent branching sequences in much the same
way a tutor can adapt his program of questioning and dis
course to the needs of individual students.
Thus, as a result of a particular error or pattern
of errors, the program presented to the student may be
caused to revert to a remedial review or prerequisite sub
program, or on the basis of near-perfect performance,
which could result in unnecessary repetition of already
mastered material and lead to boredom, the student may be
jumped ahead to any desired, more advanced, portion of the
subject matter or to supplementary alternative material.
Through this method, even though mastery may be
achieved by slower students, faster students will have a
means for outstripping their slower fellow students, for
47
the moment, in a few or many subjects. To quote Lumsdaine:
The machines will help our gifted students, so
badly needed by the United States, by allowing them
to finish their mathematics, for example, in half
the time they need now.^5
On the one hand "time" is saved by accomplishing
the same amount of work in a shorter period. On the other,
one may wonder if the "time" saved is not really spent in
doing something else usually required.
Fairly complex branching sequences may be more
simply mediated by semi-automatic means as in the programs
described by Crowder for use in the variable program
microfilm projector. This may be done through "intrinsic
programming." In this arrangement the student's answer to
the question can be punched into the machine to indicate
his answer of a conventional multiple-choice question.
The pre-arranged program consists of a branching tree
covering a large number of anticipated response sequences
that the programmer thinks may be called for to adapt to
individual differences among students. A quite similar
branching sequence comes about more economically through
the use of Crowder's scrambled-book arrangement, or "Tutor-
Crane, "Machines Think, Correct and Remember,"
Herald-Examiner, Vol. XGII, No. 8, April 3s 1962, p. D-8.
48
Text. "
The use of branching programs is an interesting
area in which research is needed. Superficially, their
potential advantage seems to rest with problem-solving
exercises which inherently comprise contingent branching
sequences. The value of highly flexible Item-by-item
branching seems less clear where concepts need to be built
up by easy steps or where simple identifications are being
sought. If the steps in a program are made sufficiently
easy, as advocated by Skinner and others, providing branch
ing for alternatives would seem a waste, since in such a
sequence the programmer tries to keep the student from
making more than a very few errors. If he is highly suc
cessful in this attempt, the frequent alternative pathways
provided as consequences for errors might be too seldom
used to justify them. The over-use of hints or prompts
may bore the bright student.
Another form of program variation should be men
tioned here. This is the drop-out of "mastered" or already
correctly responded to items in a moderately long sequence,
requiring repetition of only the incorrectly answered
items.
A much less expensive alternative that is nearly as
4 9 j
satisfactory in terms of effectiveness of learning may be j
preferable to a method requiring highly expensive instru-
I
mentation or extremely elaborate contingent program
sequences. The requirements for branching sequences within
a program may also be greatly reduced if it be assumed that
a teacher will be present who can take care of certain
contingencies not built into the program.
SÂKI, by Pask, is a device which is inherently
directed to sequential requirements for the behavior which
represents the objective of instruction rather than the
teaching of verbal or conceptual information. In "Saki"
the electronic feedback mechanism provides for branching
in the content of the practice materials that are shown to
be in need of differing amounts of practice. This is done
not on the basis of a single response but rather by inte
grating the student's response in terms of accuracy and
speed over a period of time. The second notable character
istic is that the device "paces" the student and is capable
of adapting to and of influencing what amounts, in effect,
to his "level of aspiration." It does this by adjusting
the speed at which he must correctly punch the keys to
satisfy his mechanical tutor.
Notwithstanding the complexities of the devices.
50
programming remains perhaps the important factor to suc
cessful learning on the part of the student. One of the
integral parts of a program is "size of step." Lumsdaine
explains that this may take on different meanings, even
though we are concerned with the principle that mastery
of a complex subject should be built upon fairly "small
The notion of "size of step" may refer to the dif
ficulty of giving a correct response to any item. Also,
it may refer to the difference or increment in difficulty
between the concepts or terminology between successive
steps in a program. For example, it is a large and logic
ally difficult step from the elementary information that
electric current flowing through a fine wire heats it up to
the relationships between incandescence and emission
arrived at by the end of this sequence. But it is a very
small step, which the student takes, from any one item in
the sequence to the immediately succeeding item.
A second sense in which the notion of "size of
step" may be applied is the size of the response segment
which the student is required to perform. For example, in
a verbal learning sequence this may be a single letter, a
word, or several words. More particularly, it may be asked
51
about the magnitude of the required response in terms of
the number of elementary components that are emitted before
a response is corrected. Depending on both the device and
the programming practices, this may occur one letter or
digit at a time. For example, this occurs in the Bath-
Anderson IBM-6 5© binary arithmetic program referred to
earlier or in a device recently developed by Wyckoff.
A third sense in which "size of step" sometimes is
used is perhaps better described as "size of frame." One
aspect of this is the interval between successive ques
tions the learner is:asked to respond to. This is common
ly only a phrase or a sentence as in the Skinner-Forter-
Pressey types of devices. However, in other cases, such
as some of Glaser and Homme's programmed text frames, it
may be a number of sentences, or a paragraph. It may be
several paragraphs as in Crowder's scrambled-book or micro
film projection sequences. Mere we have incomplete pro
gramming in which several steps are combined into a single
step. Dependence is thus placed on implicit rather than
overt responding until near the end of the frame.
In addition there are important variants in the
16
-*-^Ibid., p.
52 j
I
kinds of difficulty-gap referred to by step size that are
determined by the nature of the learning outcomes sought.
Extremely short and easily understood segments of a serial
performance may be presented and performed one at a time,
i.e., part learning, or much longer steps may be used.
The longer steps may be used either from the outset, or
there can be a transition to lengthened steps as learning
progresses through repeated practice sessions.
One of the crucial factors in controlling error
tendencies, and thus keeping successive steps between
frames in a program small, is the use of prompts. Skinner
has done much work in this area. Prompting techniques are
also the everyday stock-in-trade of nearly anyone who is
engaged in the practical training of either human or sub
human species.
Essentially what is done is that prompts are chosen
which are initially adequate cues for a desired response,
and these adjunctive unconditional stimuli are then tapered
off, as learning progresses. Skinner uses the term
"vanished."
Holland makes the following recommendations:
(l) There must be immediate reinforcement for each
response. (2) Only behavior that is emitted and reinforced
i 53
I
' is learned. (3) Errors have negative effects which lower
the rate of responding. (4) There must he a gradual pro
gression from simple to complex concepts in successive
steps. (5) The student's observing behavior should be
controlled. (6 ) Extensive discrimination training must be
given to establish an abstraction or concept. (7) Let the
student write the program. Steps are not ready to use for
programmed learning until they have been tested on stu-
17
dents and revised. *
Programming has progressed to the point where
formalistic patterns have been set down such as the one
propounded by Evans, Glaser, and Homme. Their formula,
difficult to reduce in description, might be thought to be
"based on the premise that the verbal subject material
which appears in a program can be classified into two
classes of statements which we will term RB's (for rules)
and EG'8 (for examples)." However, people working in
the field of programming have come to realize that compos
ing programs that will successfully promote learning is an
^^Joseph W. Rigney and Edward B. Fry, "Current
Teaching-Machine Programs and Programming Techniques,"
Communication Review, Vol. 9s No. 3s May-June, 1 9 6I,
pp. 15 and 1 6.
p. 16.______________________________________
54
art.
EXPERIMENTS IN THE FIELD OF THE TEACHING MACHINE
AND PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Expérimentation in the field has increased in the
last few years. The experiments generally indicate that
programmed material can successfully teach students. The
following are cited only by way of example to indicate
what has been taking place.
The purpose of this experiment was to determine
the effect of Immediate and delayed knowledge of
quiz results on three types of learning in fresh
man chemistry. The types of learning were know
ledge of facts and principles, application of facts
and principles in nonquantitative problems, and
application of facts in quantitative problems.
Students in the experimental group obtained imme
diate knowledge of quiz results by means of the
Ange11 and Troyer punchboard. Delayed knowledge
of results was obtained through the use of IBM
answer sheets which were scored and returned to
the students at meeting following the taking of
the quiz. Differences between scores on a final
examination were statistically in favor of the
experimental group that used the punchboard and
received immediate knowledge of results.
Another experiment which is worthwhile noting is the
^G. W. Angell, "The Effect of Immediate Knowledge
of Quiz Results on Final Examination Scores in Freshman
Chemistry," Journal of Educational Research, 42:391-94,
January, 1949.
53
Two groups totaling 24 mature and superior stu
dents completed a five-hour course in psychology in
five weeks in an independent study laboratory, 54
per cent obtaining "A" grades on the basis of two
objective midterms and a final examination, as
compared to 10 per cent so graded in 27 sections
of the course taught in the usual manner. A dis
tinctive feature of the laboratory was an extensive
set of tests covering the entire course, used with
the "punchboard" so as to make them self-instruc
tional. These tests were also used as the point of
departure for selective review and discussion with
other students or the assistant in charge, when
needed. There was no teaching in the usual sense.
The students not only made good grades, but
reported gains in capacity for independent work,
and saved time so as to take an extra course or
engage in some other undertaking not otherwise
feasible.
EXTENT OF USAGE OP TEACHING MACHINES
Although teaching machines are not new, they have
not been extensively adopted by school systems. However,
interest in the field is increasing. From 1948 to 1957
there were less than ten experiments per year which tested
the results of the use of teaching machines. In 1958 there
were over 30 experiments and in 1959 there were more than
T. Jensen, "An Independent-Study Laboratory
Using Self-Scoring Tests," Journal of Educational Research,
43:134-37> October, 1949.
21
Numerous manufacturers are entering the field of
producing teaching machines for consumption by schools and
the public at large. Companies numbering 136 are now
pp
engaged in some phase of the teaching machine field.
Conservative estimates are that sales will surpass the
$100,000,000 mark before the end of the decade.
Programs have been developed covering several
fields and areas. For example, programs have been devel
oped for business education, electronics and engineering,
foreign languages, humanities, language arts, mathematics
with more individual courses, covered here than elsewhere,
the biological sciences, general science, and the social
21
Joseph W. Rigney and Edward B. Fry, "Teaching
Machines, an Annotated Bibliography," Audio-Visual
Communie at ion, Supplement 1, Vol. 8, No. 2, i9 6 0, p. 6.
p o
James D. Finn and Donald G. Perrin, "Teaching
Machines and Programmed Learning 1962: A Survey of the
Industry" (Washington, B.C.: National Educational Asso
ciation, 1 9 6 2), Occasional paper No. 3, pp. 53-78.
23iig^g Truth About Those Teaching Machines,"
p. 1 5.
57 I
' SURVEY OF PUPILS* OPINIONS ON A PARTICULAR TEACHING MACHINE
The following tables refer to a survey taken with
different types of students who used audiovisumatic teach
ing machines. These machines combine the presentation of
magnetic tape recordings and visual projection materials by
means of flexible electronic controls. As adapted to self-
study and review purposes, presentation of questions can
be controlled in relation to answers given by the student.
Although it is not claimed that these tables are
representative of the opinions of all students who have
used teaching machines, it is interesting to find what
some reactions are. Other surveys taken of particular
teaching devices will invariably run into the difficulty
of how perfected is the device and how good is the program
used?
SOME OPINIONS REGARDING THE USE OF TEACHING MACHINES
Establishing the role that academic automation
will play in the educational system, to a great extent,
may establish for the teacher her role. Role playing may
be defined as the enactment of behavior that is expected
of one in a particular situation. One may ask what will
TABLE 5
ATTITUBES 0P ABVAN6EB STBBEKfTS
TOWAKB ABBIBVISBHATie TEACHXHG'
a
Item
Strongly
Agree Douibt
Would like machine some
times in class
( 48)
20 (43) 18
(9)
4
Would not he interested
in having it in class (®)
0 (O) 0
(®)
0
Would like complete audio-
visumatic course (2) 1 (2 9) 12 (38) 16
Would never take audio-
visumatic course
(7) 3 (17) 7 (7) 3
Would like audiovisumatic
center at University of
Wisconsin
(50)
21 (38) 16 (12)
5
Would not like it at
University of Wisconsin (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) #
May be as good as live
lecture (2) 1 (21) 9 (29) 12
Gan*t be made as good as
live lecture (20) 8 (2 6) 11 (2) 1
May be made as good educa
tionally as motion
pictures (20) 8 (46) 19 (14) 6
Gan*t be made as good
educationally as
motion pictures
(2)
1 (9) 4
(9)
4
Karl ¥. Smith, "Audiovisumatic Teaching: A
Dimension in Education and Research," Audio-Visual
Communications Review, Vol. 8. No. 3, May-June. 1966
94.
New
A p.
59
TABLE 6
CRITICAL NEGATIVE FACTORS LISTED
TEACHIMG BE ELEMENTARY PSYCHO
FOR AUDIOVISUMATIC
LOGY STUDENTS^
^ “ ^ ^ s * > ^ iis s a K : ^ s s ^ s s s g ^ ^ s s s ^ s s s s a e a B S S s a s ^ s s B . ... , ..4.... , aaaaaaei ,1 .,, ..—
Factors Frequency Per cent
Can't raise specific questions of
your own
31
16
Too impersonal; doesn't have
human effect
31
16
Lecture given was too fast 24 12
Will not permit rapid return to
earlier point
15 7
Could become boring; or, lacks
interest
9 5
Lecturer too technical
9
5
Hot as convenient or as good as book S 4
Hard to remember things by machine
7
4
Too mechanical (degrades student)
7
4
Monotony of voice and rate of machine 6
3
Can't go at your own rate 6
3
Note-taking difficult
5 3
Can't replace books
5 3
Not as good as live lecture
5 3
Total negative responses : 194
^Ibid., p. 93.
TABLE 7
CRITICAL NEGATIVE FACTORS LISTED F0R
ABDICVISTOATie TEACHING BE ADVANCED STUDENTS®
Factors Frequency Per cent
No chance for questions of your own 32 28
Too standardized and impersonal 24 21
jpoesn't hold attention as well as
lecturer 10
9
Might he misused
7
6
Too fast and "production-like" 4
3
Mechanical failure would spoil
lecture 4
3
Possibility of boredom great 4
3
No repetition to clear up points 4
3
Novelty of machine may wear off 4
3
Total negative responses: 115
®Ibld., p. 93-
TABLE 8
CRITICAL POSITIVE FACTORS LISTED FOR
AUDIOVISUMATIC TEACHING BE ADVANCED STUDENTS®
Factors Frequency Per cent
Can be used to bring experts to class
33 27
Correlates vision and lecture 20
17
Used to perfect lectures 12 10
Lecture more complete or better
organized
7
6
Reduces load on instructor 6
5
Attracts attention better
5
4
Increases variety in class 4
3
Can be used when lecturer is absent 4
3
Changes atmosphere of classroom 4
3
Total number of responses: IS>0
&Ibid., p. 9 2.
61
be expected of the teacher of the future or what will she
be doing if academic automation becomes widespread?
The general view of those in the field is that the
teacher will be released from certain tasks to do others.
To be more explicit, the teacher will be released from
routine testing and drill work, for example, to do other
things such as provide inspiration, sharpen concepts, and
related activities,
One statement of this general view comes from
Pressey:
Education is, of course, almost always con
servative, and, comparatively, a teacher's time is
cheap. The result is that there are at present
many things now done in our schools and colleges
in very unnecessary labored and enthusiasm killing
fashion. The writer is convinced that mechanical
aids are possible which would do much to relieve
the situation. These aids would probably do
their particular work better (just as a calcu
lating machine is more accurate than the old-time
bank clerk). More important— they would leave
the teacher more free for her most important
work, for developing in her pupils fine enthu
siasms, clear thinking, and high ideals.
Dr. Lumsdaine, Professor of Education at TJ.C.L.A.,
predicts students will learn more in a shorter time from
machines than from human teachers. He feels the machines
L. Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus Which Gives
Tests and Scores--and Teaches," School and Society (Vol.
2 3, March 20, 1 9 2 6), p. 376.
62
will mot throw teachers out of work, but will give stm
dents the rudimentary knowledge and allow the teacher time
for creative instruction especially planned for indi
viduals .
Bamo amplifies the use of academic automation in
the schools more fully. If some of his ideas appear
visionary it is well to note that work is being carried
out at the present time covering several of the areas men
tioned. For instance, Ramo's first suggestion that records
and registration may be handled in an automated fashion is
not far-fetched. Some school systems are now seriously
considering putting all essential information which per
tains to a particular student on an IBM card.
Some of the tasks that may be performed by aca
demic automation consist of the following: (l) registra
tion and records may be handled in an automated fashion,
(2) motion pictures that provide for students* responses
may be used in large classes, (3) after progress and score
are calculated by an electronic master scheduler to pre
pare for the special handling of the student, the student
may address himself to an individual teaching machine with
25
J. Grane, "Machines Think, Correct, and Remem
ber," Herald Examiner, Vol. XCII, April 3, 1962, p. B-8.
63
a special animated film and keyboard where feedback is
provided, (4) these machines may be used for memory work,
may have a place in the laboratory, may teach some parts of
English, and teach foreign languages.
The role of the teacher is spoken of in these terms:
These mechanical aids require a teacher to be highly skilled
so that the material may be adapted to the student's needs*
The teacher must be able to judge the understanding and
reception of the material and adjust it to the student
during presentation, to discover his problems and misunder
standings, and in general provide the feedback and inter
action between teacher and student that is essential in
transferring knowledge from one person to another. The
objective is to raise the teacher to a higher level in
the teaching process and to remove from his duties that
kind of effort which does not use the teacher's skill to
the fullest. He will attend to individual student needs on
the basis of the student's performance.
Skilled teachers would be available to indicate how
the teaching machines may be improved. The teaching staff
^^Simon Hamo, "A New Technique of Education,"
Engineering and Science Monthly, Vol. 21, Oct., 1957,
pp. 17-22.
would Include experts In the various subjects who would
examine the records of pupils and be able to help them in
special problems. |
A number of significant points are added. The high
school becomes partially transformed into a center run by i
administrators and clerks, with a minimum of the routine j
assigned to the teaching staff. The teaching staff is |
elevated to a role that uses nothing but highest intelli
gence and skills. A smaller number of teachers makes pos
sible the education of a large number of pupils. The last
statement of this resume may be one of the most significant
points made. Ramo does not imply that all this is going
to come about tomorrow but puts this forth to illustrate
what might be done.
The following more explicitly enters into the role
2 7
of the teacher and use of automated teaching devices.
The material is used to indicate that the high school is
not a static entity but that it, along with education in
general, may take on different forms in the future. The
changes which take place may partially be brought about
through the use of academic automation.
Lloyd Trump, Images of the Future (Washington,
B.C.: National Education As^sociation, 1959)^ pp. 5-27.
65 I
I
A study sponsored by the Commission on the Experi- ;
I
mental Study of the Utilization of the Staff of the Second
ary School described by Trump has come up with a hypotheti
cal high school of the future. The ideas presented are not
untried. Nearly every proposal may be found in some
secondary school. Many of the ideas have grown out of the
experiences of schools working on commission-sponsored
projects.
The secondary school of the future will not have
standard-size classes of twenty-five to thirty-five stu
dents meeting five days a week on rigid schedules. The
size of the class and the length of the classes will both
vary day to day. Methods of teaching, grouping of stu
dents, and activities will vary according to the purposes
and content of instruction.
The teacher will not be in charge of all of a
class* activities in one subject. Instead teaching will be
organized around three types of activities: large group
instruction, individual study, and small group discussion.
Large group instruction will include a number of activities
carried on in groups of 100 or more students. Instruction
and discussions will be carried on by teachers who are
competent, who have more time to prepare, and who will
66
utilize the best instrmctional aids. In the large groups
the following will be undertaken: introduction, motiva
tion, explanation, exploration, planning, group study,
enrichment, generalization, and evaluation. The large
groups will occupy 40 per cent of the student's time. The
amount of time spent will also vary according to subjects
and to student interest and maturity.
Small group discussions would include membership of
from twelve to fifteen students and mind will be pitted
against mind to sharpen understanding. Here, concepts will
be examined along with problems. The students may reach
agreement or disagreement when examining problems. The
role of the teacher in this instance is one of consultant
and evaluator. Discussion activities will take up about
20 per cent of the student's time.
Wnder individual study, students may leam indi
vidually or in groups of two or three, with a minimum of
supervision. Conferences will be able to clarify goals,
content, and personal problems. Students will read,
listen to tapes, view, question, experiment and examine.
These activities will proceed in project and material
centers, museums, workshops, libraries, laboratories, in
and outside of school.
67
Flexibility is the keynote of the system based on
differences in students. Individuals will not necessarily
be placed in a single group for an entire year. Curricu
lum and class schedules will also be affected. The general
education required of all citizens in a democratic society
will be determined. The organization of instruction
described, as well as an extended school day and year, will
provide more time for specialized interests.
More emphasis will be placed on training students
to check their own progress. The students will be able to
do this using a variety of machines and self-marking tests,
instead of waiting for teachers to grade their work.
Evaluation by teachers will continue but will occupy a less
important position than it does now. The student may pro
ceed at his own rate and will not be called to something
else perhaps unrelated to what he is doing by bells ringing
every 4o to 55 minutes. Hsing recommendations of teachers
and counselors, individual schedules will be worked out by
electronic devices.
The school of the future will include the following
classifications of personnel; (l) professional teachers
including general and specialist teachers, (2) instruction
al assistants, (3) clerks, (4) general aids, (5) community
68
consultants, and (6) staff specialists. Needless to say,
the personnel will he performing specialized tasks.
Teacher specialists will he those who are experi
enced teachers and who are known to have career interests
and abilities. They will possess a master's degree as a
minimum and many will have training beyond the master's
degree. They will be responsible for overseeing the
instruction in a given subject. These individuals will
teach the subject matter for which they are qualified,
usually to a large group of students. At times they will
act as consultants to students individually or in groups
and will assist in extra-curricular activities. Most of
these instructors will be qualified to use such teaching
aids as television, tape recordings, projectors, student's
self-appraisal devices, and the like. Some may be particu
larly effective with small groups of students. These
teacher^speciallsts will have general charge of evaluating
student achievement.
General teachers will be certified persons with
less experience. Their obligations may prevent them from
giving full-time service. Their participation in this
program will be primarily as observers and consultants in
dis cussion groups. Small groups would require less daily_
preparation on the part of the teaeher. These teachers
will also assist in student counseling and with evaluation
of the student's progress. They will work with the teacher
specialists so that all the phases of the school work may
be coordinated and they will also be competent in a subject
area.
Instructional assistants will work on activities
higher on the professional scale than clerks. These activ
ities will include reading and evaluating some English
themes, science reports, and social studies essays. They
will evaluate and criticize some of the student's work in
art and mechanical drawing. When they demonstrate their
competency, they will instruct. These people will also
confer with individuals and report on the student's
progress with the teacher. They will serve in the labora
tory, library, and material centers when the school is in
session and afterwards. The ranks of assistants may be
filled partly by housewives willing to work part-time, and
college and high school students, also so inclined.
Clerical activities such as typing will be carried
on by clerks who will be high school graduates. General
aids will take on the supervision of the grounds. They may
also sponsor extra-class activities. Community Consultants
70
and staff specialists will toe experts in their fields, the
former garnered from the outside.
It can be seen that the tasks performed by the
average teacher, with perhaps some help, have been appor
tioned into various categories and taken over by special
ists or others. Coupled with this has been a change in
class size and time spent by the student in different
situations. As a result of specialization, teachers may
spend more time in preparing their lesson plans. Automated
teaching devices are to be made use of extensively. The
new plan also envisages differentiated pay scales as well
as differentiated hours of work.
Changed staffing will affect salaries. Here a
comparison is offered between today's salaries and future
proposed salaries. It should be noted that over-all costs
remain about the same.
Today2 l6 teachers--average salary $5>5©©
(Some clerical help available but now
charged to principal's budget.) $88,000
Future: 5 teacher specialists--average
salary each $8,000 40,000
5 general teachers--average same as
present, $5,500 27^500
Balance forward 67^500
71
Balance 67,500
Instruction assistants, 200 hours
per week @ $1.S0 per hour 12,
Clerks, 100 hours per week @
$1.40 per hour 5,
General aids, 50 hours per week
@ $1.30 per hour 2,340
Total $87>84o
The professional teacher who is a career specialist
will also be able to supplement his income by teaching
during the summer, thus raising his salary to $15^000 per
year if he chooses. Part of the increase will also result
from communities willing to pay more for education of
superior quality. Schools will operate more hours each
day and this extended schedule will not require teachers to
work a longer day; however, those willing to do so will be
paid more.
Salary policies will be based more on what staff
members do and how they do it, rather than solely on years
of training and experience. The capable teacher who wishes
to earn more money will not have to enter some phase of
educational administration or leave the profession to
attain this objeeitve. Today, merit proposals are based on
72
the assumption that teachers employ about the same skills
im dealing with the same number of students. However, some
teachers do their jobs better. This will be abandoned to a
great extent in favor of the concept of professional serv
ices . Salaries will take into consideration training,
experience, quality of service, and hours actually worked.
All qualified staff members will have the opportunity to
work toward the level of the professional teacker-special-
ist.
To quote Trump:
. . . Professional standards will be raised by
improving selection methods for teacher training
institutions, more comprehensive training, better
assignment techniques, improved working conditions,
and higher salaries. Professional teachers will
assume roles quite different from those they have
today. The fetish of uniformity that seems to be
dooming the teaching profession to mediocrity will
be discarded. Moves to raise professional stand
ards today are mainly concerned with higher
certification requireim nts and uniform salary
schedules. The teachers* new role in education
will go far beyond that
Educational facilities will be as different as
will be the learning activities planned for the
students. These learning activities will take
place not only in the school building but outside
as well. The broader concept of facilities will
require different kinds of control and supervision
over students from those now possible.
73
It is being assumed by Trump that uniformity is
dooming the teaching profession to mediocrity. It is
believed the desire status among a few who
d will be sufficient to imp^rove the ins true- are
tion of students.
CHAPTER III
INVESTIGATION OF GENERAL QUESTIONS DEALING WITH
AUTOMATED TEACHING MACHINES
A questionnaire was designed to elicit from a seg
ment of the population in the field of education their
opinions as to what they believed was the impact of auto
mated teaching devices. The questions were so formulated
as to place the respondents in a realistic relationship
with these devices. In presenting the results, reference
is made to the sample only since sampling procedure was not
random. This cautious approach is necessary. However, the
views expressed by the sample may be representative.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE
The sample was selected from a community in
Southern California. Of the 99^ questionnaires mailed,
3 9 2 were returned. Each respondent was asked to check one
of the following appropriate categories: teachers, coun
selors, employees in the registrar's office, principals,
74
I 75
vice-principals, co-ordinators, supervisors, and others.
Since some respondents, at least twenty-one, responded to
more than one of these categories, am exact number of
respondents working in each one is not available. However,
the number and percentage of the sample engaged in each of
the classifications is given in the appendix. The Middle
West was the region in udiich the highest proportion of the
sample was bom. The respondents were mostly married, 82
per cent, with only 9*5 per cent single. The average
length of teaching was from six to fifteen years, although
6© per cent of the respondents had taught less than ten
years. Over 64 per cent of the sample derived the majority
of their income from working in the field of education. It
should be remembered that many are married women who,
although working full-time in education, have husbands who
contribute to the household income and are not in education
Although slightly half the sample chose teaching originally
as an occupation, over three-fourths would choose it again
if the opportunity again presented itself.
USE OF ACADEMIC AUTOMATION IN THE HOME
Use of the home as a place in which students could
76
be taught by way of automated teaching devices poses an
interesting question. If it could be demonstrated that
students could leam via these automated devices, then
perhaps a great deal of money could be saved that would
otherwise be spent in maintaining school plants. However,
the respondents did not favor a device that could be used
in the home in place of the school and they overwhelmingly
believed that there are some values in the school situation
that cannot be replaced by automated teaching devices in
the home.
Some possible explanations for their responses are
the following: (l) The respondents do not believe that
these devices would be entirely effective, (2) there are
advantages to learning in the school over the home, and
(3) the characteristics of the respondents might have some
affect on the answers they give. The third possibility
will be investigated further when the sub-groups are com-
The matter of values in the school situation is
further investigated by another question which compares
results achieved in certain areas presently by students to
results expected using academic automation only in the
school. Although all areas received an inferior rating___
77
TABLE 9
USE OF AGADEMie AUTOMATIOlf IN THE HOME
58.
If it cam be demonstrated that 1
learn through automation, would
that could be used in the home <
the school?
che students could
you favor a device
mly, in place of
Number Per cent
Yes 38
1 0 .9
No 304
7 9 .2
Don * t know 42
9.9
Total 384
59. Do you feel that there are some values in the school
situation that cannot be replaced by a teaching
machine in the home?
Number Per cent
Yes 378
9 7 .7
No 5
1.3
Don* t know 4
Total 3 8 7
1.0
78
If only automated devices could be used by students with a
monitor present, the response was not as negative as the
above response dealing with automated devices in the home.
It may be, then, that automated devices in the school are
preferable to these devices in the home. It was repeated
often by the respondents that an understanding teacher is
important and that motivation may not be supplied by auto
mated teaching devices only. Relationships between pupil
and teacher and between pupils were cited as being very
important.
effectiveness ©f automate© teaching machines
ACGGRDING T© SUBJECTS
Perhaps not all subjects can be taught equally well
using these devices. In most cases the respondents did not
believe that teaching devices could be developed that would
serve as well as the classroom teacher in their particular
subject. However, as indicated by Table 10 there are dif
ferences in the negative and positive responses to differ
ent subject areas that can be ordered by over-all favora-
bility to academic automation. Those subjects where the
respondents thought that automated teaching devices would
79
TABLE 10
eOMPARINS
TO THE CLASS
■
AUTOMATED TEACHING DEVICES
ROOM TEACHER BY SUBJECT AREA
'
Do you believe that teaching devices will be developed that
may serve as well as the class room teaeher?
Note : The following
in their subject area
Includes both the replies of
and other subjects.
Don’t
Yes 5 6 Ho know %
teachers
No. of
responses
Foreign Language
3 5 .9 48.9
1 5 .2
92
Driver Education 2 6 .4 48.6 2 5 .0 72
Business Education
2 3 .9
50 ; 0 2 6 .1 88
Mathematics
2 3 .7
6 0 .2 1 6 .1
93
Science 24.5 6 3 .2
12.3 106
Social Studies 2 5 .0
6 5 .5 9 . 5
116
English
1 8 .9
6 9 .8
1 1 .3
106
Music 1 7 .6
7Q.3
12.1
91
Art
1 5 .7 6 8 .5 1 5 .7 89
Other
1 5.Q 7 2 .7
11.4 44
Kindergarten to
6th Grade Subjects 14.6 7 6 .6 8.8
171
Industrial Arts 10.8
7 2 .3 1 6 .9 83
Physical Education 10.1 7 6 .4
1 3 .5 89
Homemaking
7 . 7 7 6 .9
1 5 .4
78
Overall percentage
of responses 19-. 4 .66..,2
... 14..3 ...
TABIÆ 11
GOHPARIN® AOTOMATEB TEACHIN® DEVICES TO THE
CLASS ROOM TEACHER BÏ SUBJECT AREA OP SPECIALTY
Do you believe that
may serve as well as
teaching devices will be developed that
the class room teacher?
Don*t No. of
Yes % No ^ know % responses
Foreign Language
33.3
50
16.7
18
Social Stmdles 36.1 6 1 .1 2.8 36
Mathematics 20
65 15
20
Science
22.7
68.2
9.1
22
Business Education
15
60
25
20
Art
14.3 64.3
21.4 14
Kindergarten to
6th Grade 14.6 76.4 9.0 89
Other
16.7
79.2 4.2 24
Physical Education 11.1 77.8 11.1 18
Industrial Arts 11.1 77.8 11.1 18
Music
6.3 75
18.8 16
English 12.1 Si .8 6.1
33
Driver Education
16.7 16.7 66.7
6
Homemaking
14.3 42,9 42.9 7
Overall percentage
of responses
17.9
70 12
81
TABLE 12
COMPARISON OP ACADEMIC AUTOMATION ONLY
TO INSTRUCTION BY TEACHER
Do you believe that the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be Imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as you
presently do?
No. of
Percentage Responses
Yes
7 .3
46
No 8 0 .8
311
Don't know
1 1 .9
28
Total
385
I
be most effective are listed at the top of Table 10. The
list reads In order of effectiveness as follows: foreign
languages, driver education, business education, mathe
matics, science, social studies, English, music, art,
other, kindergarten to 6th grade subjects. Industrial arts,
physical education, and lastly, homemaking.
Perhaps this ordering of subjects by the sample
reflects the effectiveness of the present use of audio
visual and other teaching devices. The Increased use of
teaching machines may either alter a future ordering or
prove the automated teaching devices to be comparatively
effective In various subject areas.
The teachers were slightly more favorable towards
automated teaching devices when used In subject areas out
side their own specialty.
If the content of the subjects taught by the
respondents could be Imparted by academic automation with
only a monitor present, this certainly might be a good
Indication that the teacher as he Is known at present would
not play a major part In the teaching of subject matter.
The respondents, however, generally believed that the con
tent of the subject matter they teach could not be Imparted
by automated teaching devices with only a monitor present.
83
JOB AN© INCOME SEGTOITY
As indicated earlier by their responses It does not
seem that the sample Is at present much concerned with
automated teaching devices affecting jobs adversely. The
respondents generally would not oppose the use of automated
teaching devices If It affected their jobs regardless of
the effectiveness of the devices. However, they were more
Inclined to seek protection of Income by other appropriate
means.
It may be the respondents do not believe the devi
ces would be as effective as teachers are and thus do not
think It necessary to oppose the use of something that
could not affect them. However, assuming the devices to
be as effective as the teachers themselves and affecting
their jobs adversely, the respondents because of their
professional standards may still be unwilling to oppose
using automated teaching devices. More respondents decided
they would seek protection of Income by appropriate means.
It Is difficult to perceive what means would be appropriate
that would not make use of some type of control or perhaps
subsidy If jobs were affected.
84
TABIaE 13
OPPOSITION TO AGABEMG AUTOMATION
If your job were affected, and opportmnity for outside
employment lessened by academic automation, would you
oppose Its use as a teaching device, regardless of Its
effec tlveness?
of
Percentage Responses
Yes 1 3 .2
51
No 6 5 .2
251
Don't know 2 1 .6
83
Total
TABLE 14
PROTEGTION OF INCOME
Bo you think teachers should demand protection of their
Income by some appropriate means before automation Is
widely accepted In the classroom?
No. of
Percentage Responses
Yes 31.9
No 44.5
Don* t know 23.6
Total 382
85
DIFFERENT TYPES OF STUDENTS
It is well known that students perform at different
levels. What Is not so well known Is the basis for the
difference In performance. One of the values of teaching
machines cited by their proponents Is that mastery of sub
ject matter can be accomplished at the rate the student Is
I
able to work. A superior student can cover extra material !
and the average student can achieve mastery of the required
subject matter If the teaching machine Is programmed to
meet Individual needs.
The respondents did not believe that students could
achieve the same results using only automated teaching
I
devices and a monitor present. Automated teaching devices '
obviously fared much better for students having the high
est I.Q., who were highly motivated, and were well behaved,
than the devices were rated for students who were low In
I.Q., were lowest In motivation, and who were behavioral
problems.
In examining the differences In over-all favora-
blllty of automated devices with different types of stu
dents, perhaps the teachers do not see themselves as neces
sary to the Instruction of superior students as they see
themselves necessary to the instruction of students who are;
average in performance or who do poorly. For the above
average student the respondents are more willing to believe
that automated teaching devices will be as effective as
their own teaching, and perhaps that their teaching and
teaching devices are not as essential.
The question of motivation of students, differences
In l.Q.'s, and behavioral problems could be endlessly
Investigated. If a student Is not motivated. Is It the
fault of the teaching device, the teacher, the student,
the content of the course, the student's environment, or
what? If the heredity of the student Is discounted, since
It cannot be changed (although It Is nonetheless extremely
Important) and the environment then plays the most Impor
tant part, the problem hardly becomes less complicated.
Students who have not done well In the beginning have
Improved, In some cases greatly, under the guidance of
experienced teachers and counselors.
Since conditions outside the school cannot be con
trolled in most cases, the school situation then becomes
paramount. Will a student be as motivated by automated
teaching devices as he Is by a teacher. If we assume
approximate equality of excellence? Teachers largely felt
87
TABUS 15
CONPABISON OF AWTOMATEB TEACHING DEVICES
TO PRESENT SCHOOL METHODS WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF STHDENTS
Do you believe that automated t;eachlng devices, with only a
monitor present in the room, could achieve as good results
as present school methods with these types of students?
Students with: Yes $ No. %
Dora't
know
No. of
Responses
Above 110 I.Q. 3 7 .8 46 1 6 .2 376
From 91-110 I.Q. 1 2 .1
6 9 .8
1 8 .1
371
Prom 7 0 -9 0 I.Q.
7 .3
8 3 .2
9 . 5
370
Below 7© I.Q. 6 . 5
84.4
9 .1
372
High motivation
41.5
44
14.5
366
Average motivation 14
6 9 .9
16 356
Low motivation 12.8 7 6 .4 10.8
351
Students who are
well behaved 4 3 .4 40.1
1 6 .5
369
Students of
average behavior 14.4 66.8 1 8 .8 361
Students who are
behavioral problems 6.6
8 2 .3
11.1 361
that they could motivate the students better than automated
teaching devices could. It may be possible to have inter
esting presentations coupled with psychologically sound
programming in the teaching machine that would also moti
vate .
SOME ALTERNAMVES OP WIDESPREAD ¥SE
OP ADTOMATED TEACHIH0 DEVICES
Among the alternatives offered, the respondents
believed that teachers and automated teaching devices would
share in the instruction of students. Only one out of
420 replies would have automated teaching devices largely
replacing the teacher.
EPPECTIVEMESS op ADÏOMATED TEACHING
DEVICES IM CERTAIN AREAS
In all areas, where values and skills are pre
sented, the "inferior" category received the highest per
centage of responses from the sample when the respondents
were asked to compare use of automated teaching devices
with only a monitor present by students to results achieved
by students at present. Again, favorability towards
TABLE 16
SOME ALTERNATIVES OF WIDESPREAD W8E OF ACADEMIC AUTOMATION
The following alternatives assume widespread use of auto
mated teaching devices. Select one of the alternatives of
your choice to apply to teachers in general:
No. of Re- % selecting
spondents alternative
3#4 91*4 Both the teaeher and automated
teaching devices will share in
instruction of subject matter.
34 8.1 Automated teaching devices will
account for the instruction of
subject matter and the teacher
will perform other services.
These will include taking attend
ance, maintaining discipline,
endeavoring to motivate and inter
est students, and in general try
ing to help the students achieve
success in the area(s) where
automated teaching devices may
be deficient.
1 .2 Automated teaching devices will
account for the instruction of
subject matter and the teacher
will be replaced by a monitor.
His job will be to set up the
machines, take attendance, and
.2 Automation will largely replace
the teacher.
automated teaching devices in various areas differed and an
ordering of these areas can be made. Table 17 is so
ordered to show first the area in which automated teaching
devices were most favored, gradually changing until those
areas in which automated teaching devices were least
favored are presented. The areas in which the responses
least favorable towards teaching devices were registered
may signify the respondents did not mean that the school
was necessarily more effective than the devices ineffective
¥SE k m WORTH OP EDUCATIONAL FILMS
Only 11 per cent of the sample does not make use of
educational films ; 46.2 per cent use them once a week. The
respondents in the main felt that the students learn as
well from educational films as the students learned from
their own teaching. Earlier it was noted that the sample
did not believe that the content of the courses they teach
could be imparted as well using automated teaching devices
as it is now imparted by the teachers. This reversal may
be explained by the fact that teachers widely use educa
tional films as "aids" and believe them effective in this
capacity. Some teachers held that films are able to
iH
I
g I
0 0 3
>> « a
r4 O
0
1 Je
-p
m
g
W < D
• g k
r-T O
O +>
© *H
M
o
0 9
P - i cd
©
f > 5 rj
P> ©
^ je
© -p
>
a
43
o
©
q
m
©
>
- iî
© *o
I
©
I
©
-p
1 - 4
0
©
©
p H
I
o
■p
*©
:
•H
€
I
P
•©
©
P
I
P
• T - t
o o
0 M
© ©
44
t4
©
0
P
O
a ©
I?
I
i
i
o
u
I
© ©
P
• ^
44 ©
© •©
©
CU
© %
5 w.
- m
VO c v j • 5 f in C V I € V J CO
p
§
©
II
< d
CO
00
rH i
©\
rH
tv
rH d
o\
rH
in
«H
VO
1 —1
p H
©
•H
p H
H
o C O in in G \ in VO in
VO in in in VO in in in in
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO C O CO
r - VO rH in OJ VO in VO
vo VO O J ov ov O J o\
CO - = j - ■ s a VO m in VO VO VO
S t t - C V J S t o i t -
©
B rH 00 o o rH VO
â
O J rH 01 rH rH rH
a # " - S t
O € V J
rH r— I
p H
© ■W tn - s a -
• • •
p H rH VO 00
© rH rH
1
CO rH
t - 1 c v i
M
tn
O J
CO 00
O- St
©
§
P
q ©
© ©
g
P ©
q Je
©
© •H 1 ©
© 0 q q W 44 © ©
•H q 0 © q rH «H , a
0
rH © M q q © P 0 rH
© © 4
0 •H •H © •H © ©
O
1
H © q 44 q q >
• H © rH p q ©
’ 0
t a O 60
© O 44 iH • H • H
q o a
o U 44 © q
P © O q •H
o © © © © p © © © © q
A q q © © O q © ©
rH 44 © rH •H © q a q
q
O
W
©
0
i
q
© M »a w
s
0
1
0 •H q © • H H q p
•H
© > » q •H © q
>
44 q •H
©
P •H
b
q •H > N •H q
•H
q iH
© rH « q p 0 •H • H
0 44 © 0 q ©
O © p P h © P © o o © © q
© O o q •H O O ©
> H O
«3 <
CO
rH
I —I
CO
O J
present snbjeet matter in certain areas better than they
conld.
TABLE 18
¥SE GF EMJGATIONAL FILMS
How often do you make use of educational films
in your teaching?
No. of
Percentage Responses
10.9
46.2
10.3
15.3
17.1
42
178
59
385
Bo not use them
Once a week
Once every two weeks
Once a month
Other
Total
USE AND WORTH OF TELEVISION
The respondents replied in the majority of eases
that their students viewed television, but their reply as
to its worth is mixed. Since the viewing Jiakes place
generally outside the school classroom, the teachers have
no direct way of assessing the value of television unless
93
the programs are incorporated in some manner into the
lesson plan of the teacher. It is not known whether this |
is done. In the area where this sample took place, the
use of television in the school is not compulsory and so
teaching time is not replaced by it.
TABLE 19
GOMPARING EBWGATI0HAL FILMS TO
INSTRUCTION OF TEACHERS
Bo you feel the students learn from
educational films as well as they
learn from your teaching?
No. of
Yes
No
Bon*t know
Total
59.9
31.5
12.9
117
94
TABLE 20
USE 0F EBUCATIOmL TELEVISION
Has your school district made use of television
for your students to view in your classroom?*
No. of
Percentage Responses
Yes
59.9
230
No
33.9
130
Don*t know
6.3
24
Total 384
♦Note: Since this school system has only
installed one television set per elementary
school, television is not viewed in the
classroom.
TABLE 21
00MPARIN# EBUGATI0NAL TELEVISI0N
T© INS*mU0TI©N 0F TEACHER
Do you feel the students learned as well view
ing television as they would have learned from
you without its use?
No. of
Yes 30.7 75
No 34.8 85
Don*t know 34.4 84
Total 244
TEACHING MACHINES
in general do not make mse as yet The
For those who do nse them tfe of are
thought to be effective although the is rather
mixed. For those who were d in some manner with
to its effectiveness their
methods was largely ”Don*t with #
who said Of they worked with
machines when asked to them generally listed what
could be described as audio-visual devices. The answers
for the majority of the appear to be based on
with audio-visual devices. However
those who did use machines as previously described
in II with others in the view that
certain tasks t are to be used as
96
TABLE 22
USE ©P TEACHING MACHINES IN INSTE¥CTI©N
in instructing Are you
your sti
No. of
21.8 Yes
78.2
Total
TABLE
COMPARING TEACHING MACHINE TO INSTRUCTION OF TEACHER
If the answer is yes, do you feel the students
would
from you without its use?
learned as well viewing television as
have
Yes
No
31.1
Bon* t know
Total
97
TABLE 24
KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHING MACHINE AND EFFECTIVENESS
COMPARED TO PRESENT TEACHING METHODS
If yom have made any studies of teaching machines, or have
worked with them (in programming, for example), do you
believe them^in comparison with present teaching methods,
to be :
Percentage No. of Responses
Better 1 7 .4
31
Same
1 0 .7 19
Poorer 1 5 .2
27
Don't know
3 6 .7
101
Total
178
Comments covering academic automation were sought
from the sample. Some of the comments given most were:
(1) the warm personal touch of the teacher was necessary,
(2) automated devices limited personal contact, (3 ) auto
mated devices have their place but cannot replace the
teacher, (4) the value of automated teaching devices was
dependent upon the programs used, (5) gadgets come and go,
(6) academic automation will raise teaching standards.
(7) aeademic automation will not motivate, and
if yon wish to train use
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE POPULATION BY COMPARISON OF SUB-GROUPS
The preceding chapter investigated the impact of
académie automation by asking questions covering different
areas that were designed to place persons in the field of
education in a direct relationship with academic automa
tion. Chapter IV will investigate sub-groups in the popu
lation in order to determine whether the characteristics
of sub-groups play a part in determining this impact.
The following chapter compares different sub
groups in the sample concerning their responses to three
questions. The three questions are: (l) ©o you believe
that the content of the subjects you teach could be im
parted to the student using automated teaching devices with
only a monitor present as well as you presently do?
(2) ©o you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom? and (3) ©o you feel the
students learn as well from educational films as they learn
100 '
from your teaching?
The first question is used as a basis for compari
son of sub-groups to indicate over-all effectiveness of
automated teaching devices. The second question was used
as a basis for comparison to indicate how much the various
sub-groups believe academic automation to be a threat.
The third question was used to indicate how much the sub
groups considered academic teaching devices as "aids."
The responses of the sub-groups did not form an
over-all pattern due to the nature of both the questions
asked and the sub-groups. It may be found that more men
than women think that automated teaching devices are effec
tive in themselves and also as "aids." In this instance
it is well to refer back to the preceding analysis. All
the following sub-groups thought these devices to be effec
tive as aids, more than they believed them to be effective
as the teacher himself. Again, it is the sub-groups that
are being compared, and it is desirable to compare them
also on their opinions as to the over-all effectiveness of
academic automation. .
For many of the comparisons of sub-groups in their
"yes," "no," and "don't know" answers, the differences
between them are not very significant. Eliminating the
101
i
I possibility of statistical differences and treating differ
ences as absolute, they are quite small. However, in the
analysis some slight differences do occur and they will be
pointed out. If this were a random sample, these differ
ences could be spoken of as due to chance. They may also
be treated as insignificant differences which uhder other
circumstances might become more pronounced.
There are two types of tables. One type shows sub
groups divided in their "yes," "no," and "don*t know"
answers to different questions on the basis of the sub
group. The other type of table gives an average income,
age, grade level, etc. for the sub-groups who answered
"yes," "no," and "don*t know," to the different questions.
MARITAL STATUS
To determine the effects of marital status on the
opinions of respondents concerning academic automation,
comparisons were made between single and married persons
only. Single persons to a greater extent felt academic
automation to be most effective. Married persons more than
single persons seemed to consider automated teaching
devices a threat as they were more willing to seek
102
protection of income by appropriate means. Perhaps the
matter of economic responsibility enters somewhat into the
decisions of both groups in these areas. So far as “aids”
are concerned, married persons were inclined to favor them,
TABLE 25
COMPARISON OF MARITAL STATUSES ON EFFECTIVENESS
OF ACADEMIC AUTOMATION OVER-ALL
Do yon believe the content of the smbject(s) yon teach
conld be imparted to the stndent nsing amtomated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as yon
presently do?
Yes No 1)on* t know Total
Single
7
2€ 4
37
No. of responses
18.9
70.0 10.8 100 Per cent
Married
37 257 25
319
No. of responses
11.6
80.5
8.0 100 Per cent
TABUE 26
C®MFARIS®N OF MARITAL STATBS
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
Do yom think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before amtomation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Yes No Don't know Total
Single 10
17
10
37
No. of responses
27.0 4 5 .9 2 7 .0
100 Per cent
Married 101 140 78
319
No. of responses
31.6 4 3 .8 24.4 100 Per cent
TABLE 27
COMPARISON OF MARITAL STATUSES
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS AN AID
Do you feel the students learn as well from educational
films as well as they leam from your teaching?
Yes No Dc►n't know Total
Single
17
5 1 .5
11
3 3 .3
5
1 3 .1
33
100
No.
Per
of responses
cent
Married
171
5 5 .7
98
3 1 .0 7
38
1 2 .0 5
307
100
■ . No.
Per
of responses
cent
LENOTH OP TEACHING
Respondents who have not been teaching as long
believed to a greater degree that academic automation
devices were effective over-all and also favored them more
as “aids'* compared to respondents who have been teaching
longer. Teachers who have been teaching for many years
seemed threatened by academic automation.
Persons who have not been teaching as long, and
are generally younger, perceived automated teaching devices
with more favor both over-all and as "aids," Perhaps this
is because they are acquainted with their usage more
through training and have come to accept them. Respondents
who have taught longer may not have been exposed to audio
visual devices to the same degree and may see no necessity
to change patterns of instruction. These persons may also
be instructing in upper grades where the devices are not
used as much.
Persons who have taught longer also may feel that
they have more at stake when protection of income arises.
105
o
%
o
o s
4»

4 ^
u
w
m
+>
&
A m
8 6 3
44
Q)
n e f
r -i
g
O
W
m
-p
@
K
§
■P
vf
i
g
o
g
< - N . n4
€ 9 ^
O 5 3
O < D
*r» O
;Q v4
>
•§
g
I
•H
04 Æî
O O
(d
O
+i "ë
o
"ë
©
o
•©
©
+>
© ©
43 -p < > •
^ §■§
>
© Àï
v4 v) -P
r4 © g
© 0 ©
43 ©
•P ©
P & U
© © A
^ 0 0
p P O
A © >»
©
60
g
I
P
B
00
\o
m
en
c v i
tn ON
fH tn
CM CM
VO o
• s t fH
en
en
t- CM
en
t- CM
CM en
iH CM CM
CM rH
rH CM GfN VO
rH
ON jM*
m # en c^
r4 CM
O en
VO en ON CM
rH VO CM
O rH
rH en 00 CM
00
rH en o
VO -St ON en
rH en
o r4 en
o o
% ^ %
©1
© ol
XI %l
c v i
en
p
i
t f \
1 - 4
CM
O
en
o
M en
rH
CM VO
r4
CM VO
r4
en o\
CM
VO 00
rH
in
00 ^
rH tn
o
s e s
©
s
tn
tn
r— I
rH
G O
rH ro m 00
o tn 00
" i H
en en rH
•H
rH
tn
-P
•H en
tn en 00 00
rH
O <
% O
00
rH
V©
rH
I —I
en
en I —I
en
© fH
in
È^
tn
en en
en
C Q iH
-p
II
< d
0 ) 0
-p &
QP
rH
en
rH
tn 0\
en en
>» £ 3
+>
rH
O Q cn
rH
C O
I —I
I T N rH I —I
iH H
m
•H
m m ■ = } *
lA m
fo VO tn
iH
C O
m
m
m
rH
VO m
rH
00
00
m
VO
rH
m
m
iH
00
m
H¥MBEH OF BEFEIÏBIISTS
Raspondemts who had more dependents believed to a
greater extent in the effectiveness of amtomated teaching
devices over-all. They also womld demand protection of
their income to a greater extent than womld those with
fewer dependents. Persons with fewer dependents favored
amtomated devices more as ”aids.**
Certain problems arise in ascertaining reasons
for the respondents* decisions when an investigation of
the replies takes place. It may be said that those with
more dependents womld choose to seek protection of income
for economic reasons to a greater extent than those with
fewer dependents. When it is asked if economic reasons
play a part in the decision of the respondents to reply
favorably or mnfavorably towards academic amtomation, the
answer is not so clear. The person who sees academic amto*
mat ion as a threat might choose to answer that he does not
believe academic amtomation as effective as his own teach
ing. On the other hand, the person who believes academic
amtomation to be effective might so indicate this by his
reply even thomgh he considers academic amtomation a
threat. This question is investigated when smb-groups
are analyzed mmder gross income.
COMPARISON OF NIMBER OF DEPENDENTS
ON EFFECTIVENESS OF ACADEMIC AUTOMATION OVER-ADI
Do yon believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with a monitor present) as well as you presently
do?
0 1 2 3 4 5 Total Mean
No. 3 15 7 5 7 4 42
Yes
% 7.1 3 5 .7 1 6 .7 14.3 1 6 .7 9 . 5 2.25
No. 32 97 66 51 36 13
No
$ 1 0 .8 3 2 .9 22.4 1 7 .3 1 2 .2 4.4 2.
Don ' t
know
No. 2 10 6 6 3 3
^ 6.7 33*3 20 20 10 10 2 .2 3
Note: The foregoing classifications of ”l” "2” ”3** etc.
Stand for the number of dependents claimed by the respond
ents .
110
TAB3LE 32
COMPARISON OP NimBER OF DEPENDENTS
ON ACADEMIC AWTOMATION AS A THREAT
Do yom think teachers shomld demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before amtomation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
0 1 2 3 4 5 Total Mean
Yes
7 37 30 20 15 5 114
6 .1 3 2 .5 2 6 .3 1 7 .5 1 3 .2 4.4 2 .1 2
No
No. 19 51 31 28 25 8
% 11.7 3 1 .5 1 9 .1 1 7 .3 1 5 .4 4 .9 2.
Don* t
know
No. 11 34 18 15 6 7 91
% 1 2 .1 3 7 .4 1 9 .8 1 6 .5 6.6 7 . 7 1 .9 1
Ill
TABLE 33
C®Mf AHIS0N ©F NBMBEE OF BIFENBEHTS
ON AOADEmC AUTOMATION AS AN AID
Bo you feel the students learn from educational films as
well as they learn from your teaching?
0 1 2 3 4 5 Total Mean
Yes
. 25 66 37 32 26 8 194
1 2 .9 34 1 9 .1 1 6 .5 1 3 .4 4.1 1.
No
No. 7 36 28 21 12 6 110
^ 6.4 3 2 .7 2 5 .5 1 9 .1 1 0 .9 5 . 5 2.12
Bon* t
know
No. 3 11 13 7 6 5 45
% 6.7 24.4 2 8 .9 1 5 .6 1 3 .3 11.1 2.
PERCINTAGE ©F TOTAL INCOME BERI¥E© FROM TEA0MINO
Those who derived more of their income from teaching
believed academic automation to be effective over-all to a
greater extent compared to those who derived less of their
income from teaching. Respondents who also derived more
of their income from teaching saw academic automation as
a threat to a greater degree compared to the others. Those
who derived less of their income from teaching favored
those devices as "aids" to a greater extent than the others.
GROSS SALARY BERIVEB FROM TEAGHIHG
Comparing respondents on gross salary from teaching
could offer a good indication as to whether opinions of
the respondents were in some way affected by economic
Interests. However, as will be seen, income by itself does
not give the entire picture. When the respondents are
compared also by the percentage of income derived from
teaching, a more meaningful analysis results. Also, the
differences in average income between respondents who
answered "Yes" and "No" is very slight and not as important
as percentage of income derived from teaching.
113
-=t
m
IS
o
«$
o
§
li
-P
O
C V I
m
m
VO
GO
o\
a
v6
CVJ
t-H CVJ
®J -st
C V J
fH c v j
- 5 t 00
m
VO m
r H
m VO
CM
rH cvj
J S j *
■ s t
m VO
m
C V J GO
CM
M
-p 0 9
09 W
09
îS|
CM
O
en
VO
en
m
CM
rH
fH
fH
fH
00
rH
t-
fH
rH
Ê
I —I
fH
VO
O
c v j
m
d
fH
(n
c v j
o
VO
en
fH
en
VO
VO
en
o
vd
VO
m
%
CM
tn
en
rH en
fH
CM vd
fH
CM vd
C M
fH
rH
en m
CM
rH
CM
rH
en o\
o
fH
en a \
00
CM
-p
>
S I
*4
S 1
I
0 9
m CM 0
fH
1
fH
iH ©
M O O
s en
t! • •
SB rH rH
O en CM
fH
fH
O en CM
44
â>
^ o o
+3 VO m
U fH
O
4h
I
fH
tn-st
•d in^
I
” 1-0
0 9 00 h -
o
I I
- rH rH
•H VO
e a ^
Ü is-vo
•H
44
r a 'g.
0 9 o
cô
fH
O
O O
fH ON
I I
fH fH
ON 00
O ON 00
bO
s ••
a g »
Ç ) 43
g
Il4
m
m
I
o
0 V©
gn
VO
m 6$ m 00
43 O î
(à g VO VO LA
•H
U
O i r-l
O W VO E^
A -P rH VO m
O i 0 rH rH
@ 4 §4
w
0 •=t rH
© O
C 9 JSf C V I J 5 |*
N
.o
00 -4" en
© rH
g <ïï\ 0 \ rH 0 \ o \
© rH rH
S g
a o VO 00 rH
U • • ' •
U m m C V I en rH
J5 |- J 5 j-
T i m
© ©
,23 rH
P O eu C V I en
44 © VO LA C M rH rH
0 JO rH rH rH
m
o o LA C M en
•H iH - = S *
P 00 LA C M en o ©
O *0 rH rH C M rH rH rH
© ©
p p
© O i LA VO C M
^ © lA
• • •
©t O rH © \ rH VO t - t -
0 rH rH
*© ©
I k
C M rH
i tH V©
• • •
© © J t CA îv ^
J 5 j* J 5 |-
•© *©
•H
*© >
rH 00 C M rH
0 © b -
# •
© *iH m h - ■ © * •©•
M .
© ©
O
© iH C V I C M C M
(4 P G ©
• • «
© © * \ !2ïl A M
115
V©
en
g
Q
m
is
A <5
O
© m
m
U 0
# 5
©
© g
il
«4 ©
M
ë i
#g§
k B
© ©
0 #4
CQ
1
I
I
ê
&■
:g
a
©
a
•H
44
©
v4
P
©
O
- i
0
1
r-i
rH
%
a
©
g
rH
a
I
a
©
g
©
© o
4 h
Ih
>5 0
©
©
P
0 rH eu en
© VO ■ = t
©
• • •
& m VO VO
1 — 1
© rH J S j -
VO
P
©
rH
© €M rH
EH
©
V©
©
en rH
#N
rH
eu
eu
o\ o\ LA
rH
•=t f H On h - en VO
eu t —1
in vo (A
en rH en eu en VO
jU - en eu
en
• • *
rH o VO LA rH m
eu rH
en
©
■ s t
• • •
çp en
eu VO en
C V ] rH rH rH rH
LA en
in
• • •
rH O en eu JSt .
eu rH
en en
VO LA
# •
in
e v î
VO LA eu - = 3 l *
t -
© ©
ON
VO en 00 LA
©'
rH
o
00
• • •
00 o \ en 1 —1 ■ = t eo
rH rH rH
en O n en
m
• • •
Q \ O en Q \ rH
VO en LA rH s t
i % i
a
}S|
p
0
116
Two different gromps emerge. The first group has
more of its income derived from teaching although its
earning power is slightly less. This gronp believes aca
demic automation effective by itself to a greater degree
than the others. This same group would also demand protec
tion of income or consider academic automation a threat
more than the others.
The other side of the picture includes persons who
have less of their income derived from teaching and earned
slightly more money from teaching. This group believes
that automated teaching devices were not as completely
effective over-all to the degree the other respondents did.
They would not demand protection of income as much as the
others. For this group, who are earning slightly more
money, perhaps income is supplemented by another job,
investments, or from a husband working in another field.
Their interests may not depend as heavily upon income from
teaching as the others, or other factors may be at play.
The respondents with a higher gross salary believed
automated teaching devices as “aids” to be more effective
than did the others.
P t 4 CO
O C O
II
i
4 >
00
VO
tn
m
C V J
cy
VO
C V J
m
0 3
c v i
o
VO
d
m
m
m
pH
rH
JSt 00 t - C V J
m rH
JSt C V I
J5j -
< D lA
rH m O m
1 — i
c^ rH
rH LA b - 00
C V J •sf rH m
rH
O N • s d *
LA CD LA rH
rH cn rH
, ,
© ©
%
C V I
VO
I — I
-p
%
CVJ
©
m
iH
VO
C V I
a
lA
C V I
d
j
I
%
B
0 9
0\ O
VO 0
F —I * >
Ô M
o - « o *
o
u
tn 0 )
rH >
■ to * ©
n H
1^-00
o\ ov
o\ o\
o\ o\
#v #k
CVI
pH rH
O
+>
C V I
m
rH
I
o
I
o
o ©
0,0 o
S T "
• » rH CO
CO 03 rH rH
- t / 0 - 00-
(D
ÆÎ I I I I
+>
lAVO
rH ^
^ O
09 © 0\
CJ «P CTV C?N
O 0\ C ? v
•rH 0V • '
+> © « % CD
( 0 *0 00 M
© ^ 1
© O
_
09 O O
© * \ * »
^ b- C7\
-te- 6Q-
©
é
09
©
t S
rH
O © I I I I
I
©
J
O nH
w
on^
2
<2
©
0v o\
© G\ ON
© ON ON
© » \ • *
^ -5t VO
te-te* I
ê^îi
•H rH n
^ © LA
• « © - t e *
© rH
-P rH I I B
© O
< 4 - 4 rH C V J
118
%
m
S
EH
i
e s
g
Î M
O -P
I
©
P 4
m
a
©
A
I
«P
©
I
■P _
O «©
© *H
-P >
©
k e s
©, *H
•O d
d ©
©
+>
d ,
©
o
o
w
r%
iH
©
•P
"d
d
iH
I
©
©
P
S
©
P 4
©
© 4 - *
P 4 ©
© P©
■§
d
©
P i
I
.d
p
I
©
p
a
k
u
g
d
§
Ê
rH
d
P
S
G O
V©
m
m
O J
Si
rH
c v i
CM
m
-j-
0N
- S t
oi
rH
S
C M
00
e -
I —I
©N
©N
C M
en
LA
o
-d"
o \
0N
©
Ni
t -
V#
C M
i
lA
V©
K?
%
O
V©
C M
VO
C M
I —I
C M
O
C M
J S t
en
ON
LA
m
00
m
I —I
%
-=t
C M
LA
C M
rH
% I
V©
LA
C M
rH
iH
• S i *
© 1
rH
I —I
LA
i
C T \
LA
jM *
C M
C M
I —I
ON
PO
I
k
Eh « a Ç
ê C Q
m ^
II
Ê H
a
< s
C Q ©
EH
§ ©
© M
p C f
O A
S 2
O <<
C Q __
as
«d
o
©
d
JSt
00 O N
d
•
h-
© C M • •
N S
C V I C V J
©
.d
p
rH
© d JSt V O h-
d p O rH ■sf
o ei rH
rH E H
rH
©
>
m
© 00
*
d rH
©
8
rH O N rH
iH f*— « •
rH rH C V I
1 — 1
d
d
rH
O V O
•
« i H C V I rH rH C V I
P
d
o
0 tn V O V O
•d tn
• « #
© rH C O O J
in o
r— 1
8
©
* 4 C O -=t C O
C h s M *
• • •
b- 00 O N V O O J -d*
d
1 —1 rH rH
d
d
© O N O N O N
rH C O
• •
c - .
C O o - 5 j * 0— m rH
© w V O C O J=t C O rH C O
d «H
© ^
V O p H O J
d o € V J
• « •
0 d O J C O N- N V O
p © O O -=t -s j* C O rH C O
ra p
© ^ O J 01 00
X5 0 rH
• •
p © C O V O V O m V O C V I
N
C O rH rH
rH
© 0
© ©
44 k
•
•
•
0 _ 05 'tK %
© d P
—
>
d ©1 d ©
p © ©1 ©1 © d
A rH
N l 05| A Ü 2
12©
©BABE LEVEL TAWtHT
Respondents who tamgkt at the lower grade levels
believed slightly more in the effectiveness over-all of
automated teaching devices than did respondents who taught
in the upper grade levels. These respondents who taught
the lower grades also believed "aids” to be effective more
than the others. Also, those who taught in the lower
grades would demand protection of income in greater num
bers .
Audio-visual devices are used more in the lower
grades at this time. Perhaps this situation is the reason
for the above responses, ©ertainly college students can
make good use of automated teaching devices as well as
indicated by experiments. Younger students are quite
receptive to educational films that are interestingly
presented and that are within their comprehension.
The reason why respondents who teach at the lower
grade levels see automation more as a threat may be because
they are using these devices and believe in their effec
tiveness more. Again, the latter is only a supposition.
121
C0MPA1IS®N OF ©HADE LEVELS TA¥©HT
0N EFFEOTIVINESS OF ACADEMIC ADTOMATIOM OVER-ALL
Do you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as you
presently do?
0 1 2 3 4 5 Total Mean
No
Yes
%
1
2.2
2
4.3
21
4 5 .7
11
2 3 .9
8 3
1 7 .4 6 . 5
46
2 .7 5
No. 16
17
126 64
55 33 311
No
% 5 .1 5 .5 40.5 20.6 1 7 .7 1 0 .6
2 .8 6
Don* t
know
No 1
4
13
10 2 3 33
$
3 .1 12.1 3 9 .4
3 0 .3
6 .1 9 .1 2 .5 9
Rotes The foregoing classifications ("l," ”2,” ”3,* etc.)
stand for the following grade levels responded to by the
sample.
1— Kindergarten 3--7th to 9th 5— 13th to
2--1st to 6th 4--10th to 12th ©--Other
122
TABLE 4l
eOHPAHISGN OP SRABE LEVELS TAU0HT
ON AGADmiG AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
D© you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
0 1 2
3
4 5 Total Mean
No.
Yes
%
4 10
3.3 8.2
59
48.4
19
1 5 .6
20
16.4
10 122
8.2 2.66
No.
No
~
9 7
5.3 4.1
62
36.5
41
24.1
30
17.6
21 170
12.4
2 .9 7
Don* t
know
No. 5 6 39 25 15
8 98
%
5.1 6.1 39.8
25.5 15.3
8.2 2 .7 8
TABLE 42
COMPARISON OF GRADE LEVELS TAUGHT
ON ACADmiO AUTOMATION AS AN AID
B© you
well as
feel the students learn from educational
they learn from your teaching?
0 1 2 3 4 5
films
Total
as
Mean
No
Yes
— n>
12
5.8
16
7.8
98
4 7 .6
39
1 8 .9
24
11.7
17
8.3 ^
206
2.62
No
No
— $
1
.9
4
3 . 4
40
3 4 .2
30
2 5 .6
29
24.8
13
11.1
117
3 .0 6
©on* t
know
No 2
4.2
2
4.2
18
3 7 .5
10
20.8
10
20.8
6
1 2 .5
48
3 .0 0
A CAREER IN EDUCATION AS AN ORIGINAL GOAL
Respondents who did not choose teaching originally
as their occupational goal believed to a greater extent in
the effectiveness of automated teaching devices over-all
than respondents who had chosen teaching originally. Those
who chose teaching originally to a greater degree would
demand protection of income. There was very little differ
ence in the opinions of the two sub-groups regarding the
effectiveness of “aids." It should be noted here that not
124
im all eases will the gromps who see academic amtomatiom
to he effective over-all also demand protection of income
as much.
TABLE 43
C0MPARIS0N 0F TEACHIN© AS 01ICIMAL ©#AL
m EFFECTIVENESS ©F ACADEMIC ACTOMATI0H
0VEH—ALL
Do you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted as well to the student using automated
teaching devices (with only a monitor present) as well as
you presently do?
Yes
Respondents who
did not choose
Respondents who
choose teach- 19
originally 9.4 • 1
Don* t
know
13.9 76.4 9.6
15
7.4
Total
202
Mo. of resp.
Per cent
No. of resp.
Per cent
TABLE 44
COMPARISON OF TEACHING AS ORIGINAL GOAL
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
Do you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Don * t
Yes No know Total
Respondents who
did not choose
teaching
originally
57
30.4
88
47.0
42
22.4
187
100
No.
Per
of resp.
cent
Respondents who
did choose
teaching
originally
65
32.1
8 2
40.5
55
27.2
202
100
No.
Per
of resp.
cent
TABLE 45
COMPARISON OF TEACHING AS ORIGINAL GOAL
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS AN AID
Do you feel the students learn from educational films as
well as they learn from your teaching?
Yes No Don* t Total
know
Respondents who
did not choose
teaching
originally
96
55.1
57
32.7
21
12.0
174
100
No.
Per
of resp.
cent
Respondents who
did choose
teaching
originally
109
55.6
60
3 0 .6
27
13.7
196
100 I
No.
Per
of resp.
cent
i
126
COMPARISON OP THOSE WHO WOULD AND
WOULD NOT CHOOSE TEACHING AGAIN
Respondents who would not choose teaching again
believed in the effectiveness of academic automation over-
1
I all to a greater degree than did respondents who would
choose teaching again* _ Those who would not choose it again
would also demand protection of income to a greater extent
than the others. There was very little difference in the
opinions of these sub-groups regarding the effectiveness of
"aids."
So far as satisfaction with one * s occupation is
concerned, both persons who did not choose a career in edu
cation originally and those who would not choose it again
believed to a greater extent than the others in the effec
tiveness over-all of academic automation. The respondents*
lack of satisfaction, for whatever reasons, seems to have
increased the value of academic automation.
It is interesting to note that these same sub-groups
did not agree in their responses as a whole to academic
automation as a threat. Those who did not choose teaching
originally were less inclined to demand protection of
income. Respondents who would not choose teaching again
were more inclined to seek protection of income. If the
127
latter sub-group is arbitrarily selected to indicate a
lack of job satisfaction, then why would these respondents
more than those who are satisfied in their occupation seek
protection of income? Is it possible that a feeling of
insecurity is felt where even though these persons are not
content with their jobs they are more concerned about their
income?
TABLE 46
m
m m m M X s m ow ghgige ©p tiagmimg again
EPPEGTIVENESS ©P AGABEMIG AUT0MATI0N ©VER-ALL
Do you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as you
presently do?
Yes No know Total
Respondents who
would not choose
teaching again :
16
m.3
56
71.7
6
7.7
78
100
No. of resp.
Per cent
Respondents who
choose teaching
again
28
9.4
244
81.9
26
8.7
298
100
No. of resp.
Per cent
TABLE 47
C®MPARIS0H ©F GH0I6E 0F TEAGH1N0 A0AIN
OH ACABmO AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
Do you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Yes No
Don * t
know Total
Respondents who
would not choose
teaching again
29
37.1
32
4l.O
17
21,7
78
100
No.
Per
of resp
cent
Respondents who
would choose
teaching again
89
29.8
131
4 3 .9
78
2 6 .1
298
100
No.
Per
of resp
cent
TABLE 48
COMPARISON OP CHOICE OP TEACi
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS
ÎING AGAIN
AN AID
Do you feel the students
well as they learn from
Yes
learn from educational films as
your teaching?
Don* t
No know Total
Respondents who
would not choose
teaching again
43
58.1
26
3 5 .1
5
6 . 7
74
100
No.
Per
of resp
cent
Respondents who
would choose
teaching again
154
54.2
90
3 1 .6
40
14.1
284
100
No.
Per
of resp
cent
COMPARISON OP RESPONSES BASE© ON SEX
A greater number of men than women believed aca
démie automation to be effective by itself. Although women
more than men would seek protection of income the responses
of the women to this question were mixed. No clear indi
cation of their feelings towards protection of income can
be ascertained, partly due to a large response of “don*t
know * s " to this question. Women more than men felt that
students could learn from educational films. Perhaps women
see these films as effective as aids and use them in the
grade levels they teach.
In their answers to a majority of questions the
women answered “don*t know" more often than did the men.
TABLE 49
CCMPARISCN ©P MEN WITH WBMEN
ON EPPECTIVENESS OP ACADEMIC AUTOMATION OVER-ALL
Do you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as you
Yes No ©on*t know Total
Men 21
109
10 140 No. of respondents
1 5 .0
7 7 .8
7.1
100 Per cent
Women 21
139 17 177
No. of respondents
11.8
78.5
9.6 100 Per cent
TABLE 50
GGMPARISON OF MEN WITH WOMEN
ON ACABEMIO AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
Be yem think teachers should demand protection of their
Income by some appropriate means before automation Is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Yes No Doii*t know Total
1
Men 47 70 23 l40 No. of respondents
33*5 50.0 16.3 100
Per cent
Women 54 69 54 177 No. of respondents
30.5 38.9 30.5 100
Per cent
TABLE 51
C0MPARI530N OP MEN WITH WOMEN
ON AGABEMIC AUTOMATION AS AN AIB
Bo you feel the students leam from educational, films as
well as they leam from your teaching?
Yes No I)on* t know Total
Men 65 51 17 133
No. of respondents
48.8 38.4 12.8 100 Per cent
Women 112
37 19
168 No. of respondents
66.6 22.0
11.3
100 Per cent
131
COMPARISON OP TWO ASSOCIATIONS
Two associations were arbitrarily selected from
those listed on the questionnaire since it was felt that
these two would indicate a divergence of opinions. The two
associations are the American Federation of Teachers and
the Administrators Association. It should be pointed out
that respondents could select more than one association in
which to indicate membership. Although this multiple
selection made for a dilution of clear divisions it is
still possible to point out differences.
Those who belonged to the American Federation of
Teachers believed automated teaching devices to be effec
tive over-all to a greater extent than did respondents who
belonged to the Administrators Association. Members of the
American Federation of Teachers would also be more inclined
to demand protection of income than the others. However,
it may be well to note that in the main the respondents
who belonged to the Administrators Association answered
“don * t know" on this question, so it is difficult to make
a comparison on this basis. It might be said that those
who belong to the American Federation of Teachers not only
see the possibilities of academic automation's effectiveness:
©ver-all but would also seek protection of income.
There was very little difference between sub-groups
on their opinions regarding effectiveness of "aids."
G0MPAEIS0M ©P TWO ASS©GIATI©HS
ON EFFECTIVENESS OF AGADmiG AUTOMATION OVER-ALL
©o you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated teaching
devices (with only a monitor present) as well as you
presently do?
Don't
Yes Ho know Total
Administrators 1 10 1 12 No. of Resp.
Association
1
8.3 83.3 8.3
100 Per cent
American Feder
13
4l 4 58 No. of Resp.
ation of Teachers 22.4
70.7
7.0 100 Per cent
133
TABLE 53
COMPARISON OP TWO ASSOCIATIONS
ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION AS A THREAT
Do you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Yes No
Don't
know Total
Administrators
Association
1
8.3
3
24.9
8
66.4
12
100
No.
Per
of Resp.
cent
American Feder
ation of Teachers
20
34.5 ,
25
43.1
13
22.4
58
100
No.
Per
of Resp.
cent
TABLE 54
COMPARISON
ON ACADEMIC
OF TWO ASSOCIATIONS
AUTOMATION AS AN AID
Do you feel the students learn from educationa]
well as they learn from your teaching?
. films as
Yes No
Don't
know Total
Administrators
Association
2
20.0
1
10.0
7
70.0
10
100
No.
Per
of Resp.
cent
American Feder
ation of Teachers
29
51.7
22
39.2
5
8.9
56
100
No.
Per
of Resp.
cent
134
A C0MP0SITE VIEW OP BESPOHDEHTS
It is possible to group the respondents by their '
I
opinions regarding three areas of academic automation that
have just been investigated. In each of the areas the sub- !
groups of respondents mentioned believed academic automa- i
I
tion to be a threat, or effective over-all, or effective as |
"aids" to a greater extent than the sub-groups of respond
ents with whom they were compared. Chapter III revealed
how the sample as a whole viewed the three areas in ques
tion.
The respondents who believed academic automation to
be effective over-all to a greater extent than the others
were: single, have not been teaching as long, have more
dependents, derive more of their income from teaching, have
a slightly smaller gross salary from education, teach on
the lower grade levels, did not choose teaching originally,
would not choose teaching again, and are men.
Respondents who would seek protection of income and
perhaps saw academic automation a threat to a greater
extent were: married, have taught longer, have more
dependents, derived more of their income from teaching,
earned slightly less gross salary from education, taught
in the lower grades, chose a career in education originally,
would not choose teaching again, and were women.
Persons who felt educational films to be as effec
tive as their own teaching or favored "aids" to a greater
extent were married, have not been teaching as long, had |
fewer dependents, had less income derived from teaching,
earned less money teaching, taught in the lower grades, and
were women.
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS ON ACADEMIC AUTOMATION
What has been the Impact of academic automation
thus far on a sample of persons working in the field of
education? The following items represent the opinions of
the respondents. Their responses were based largely on
their work with and knowledge of audio-visual material and
some teaching devices.
The respondents believed that: (l) the school was
preferable in the instruction of children to the home
equipped with automated teaching devices, (2) academic auto
mation alone would be of more value in some courses than in
others but not as effective over-all as the respondents *
own teaching, (3) the teacher could not be replaced by
academic automation, (4) if their jobs were affected they
would not oppose the use of academic automation, (5) they
would not seek protection of income before academic auto
mation became widely used but their responses were more
mixed on this question, (6) academic automation can impart
137
certain values, skills, and the lik^ better in some areas
than in others. However, although present methods of |
instruction were preferred over academic automation only in
imparting certain values, present methods fared worse in
this field than any other covered, (7) the respondents used
educational films or "aids" and found them effective, (8)
the majority of respondents did not know about or use
teaching machines. However, respondents who had used them
or know about them agree with the majority that they are
aids and of worth in a particular area, (IB) a major find
ing was that the sample utilized did not believe the teach
er would be replaced by academic automation and that auto
mated teaching devices would be useful in certain areas.
In the comparison of sub-groups it was found that
the questions themselves were the over-riding issue. The
sub-groups did not differ greatly in their replies to the
questions. If this were a random sample in the main the
differences would not be statistically significant. Speak
ing of the differences absolutely, they are not large.
The respondents formed a fairly homogeneous sample
which leads to the supposition that persons in the field of
education think of academic automation much in the same way
at present. Future usage of academic automation may alter
their ©pinions or may not. It may he that économie factors
in the future may play a more important role than they do
now, or it may he that a population of younger teachers
will he more receptive to academic automation than the
POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF USE OF AOABEMIO AUTOMATION
ON THE TEACHING PROFESSION
Even if the designers of teaching machines and
those who will eventually make use of them agree for the
most part that academic automation will he supplementary to
the teacher and will allow him to do other tasks, it may he
asked if such will he the ease? What eventually will be
the impact of widespread use of automated teaching devices
if this comes about?
One should first investigate the grounds for be
lieving that academic automation can become widespread
before investigating possible effects. At this point these
reasons might be offered: a shortage of qualified teachers,
the so-called need for catching up in certain branches of
education with the Soviet Union (although some may argue
that in some areas we would have no desire to change the
; present program offered), a growing student population, the
increase in the rate of growth of knowledge, and the need
for more efficiency. However, regardless of external exi
gencies, automated teaching devices will not he introduced
unless their use can produce results.
The teacher performs many tasks in the school room.
He performs clerical activities, presents subject matter to
his students, asks them questions and tests them, endeavors
to motivate, maintains discipline, has extra-class duties.
To what extent can automated teaching devices perform
these services?
An instructor who teaches a certain grade and sub
ject is selected. He has been found to be an excellent
teacher # 10, when he plans his lesson for the day, inte
grates the day's lesson with what has proceeded before and
indicates relationships of principles in the material to
other areas. In his presentation he modifies his voice to
promote interest, changes his approach to promote variety,
and makes use of educational films, tapes, mock-ups, etc.
He does this and whatever more is necessary to convey the
subject matter to his students. It is further assumed that
he presents his material in a logical manner and uses
language__pn_meJLeye]^qChi8^ He_ incorporates_
psychological theory in his presentation and by his per
formance indicates that he possesses those personal charac
teristics necessary to the art of teaching. During his
presentation, time is allowed for participation by his stu
dents . Consider this teacher now exposed to students
enrolled in the same course in many classrooms by way of
educational televis ion. An expert may be called upon when
warranted by the schedule. This in part constitutes pre
sentation of subject matter.
Along with presentation of content the teaching
machine provides for practice and testing. Experiments
have indicated that learning can be accomplished through
their use. However, experiments do not cover all contin
gencies to be found in the school systems, and the final
decision rests upon whether automated teaching devices will
work under the many conditions to be found in today's
classroom.
Can it be supposed that these automated devices
will be able to accomplish everything? Theoretically there
is a very great range of activities that can proceed
through electronic and automated devices. As an example.
Bell Laboratories have developed a device "Audrey," which
l4l
automatically recognizes spoken digits. It also has a
vocabulary of ten or so words recognized with about f© per
1
cent accuracy. At this point it would be well to realize
the cost involved in pursuing this type of automation for
widespread use in educational systems.
Automatic devices have been nearly perfected
which can teach a classroom full of students or an
individual, demanding attention, acknowledging
correct answers to audible questions, giving re-
instruction when questions are answered incorrectly,
taking into consideration individual difficulties
or exceptional talents, and doing just about every
thing our best teachers can do.^
There remain some problems, nonetheless. It is not
maintained that the problems are insurmountable, but they
do indicate that there is difficulty at this point in
placing total reliance upon automated teaching devices.
For one thing, the teaching machine must be compared to the
teacher. The program of the teaching machine therefore
must be more efficient to compete with the teacher giving
the same instruction or covering the same material. There
is also the matter of evaluating both academic automation
n
E. 1. David, Jr., "Voice Actuated Machines, Prob
lems and Possibilities, ' * Bell Laboratories Record, 355 281- .
, August, 1957.
P
J. Crane, "Machines Think, Correct, and Remember,"
, Vol. XCII, April 3, 1962, p. D-8.
and the teacher economically. A teacher already covering
the material, with the machine as a convenience, or a self-
sufficient machine with an excellent program that may be
cheaper in the long run may be points under consideration.
Motivation is an exceedingly important factor and
it remains to be seen whether it can be provided in both
the short and the long run via mechanical means solely.
Instruction can be aimed at a slow student via a program
that takes into consideration his slowness. However, the
student*s own lack of interest may be the overriding issue.
Although a student Wio has a low I.Q. may be able to work
at his own rate with a teaching machine, there is little
reason to assume that he will be more motivated by it than
by a good teacher. Variety must be provided because some
students have shorter attention spans than others. There
is the problem of discipline that may occur in even the
best-run class. Creativity may be difficult to develop by
automated devices whether in writing, art, music, or what
have you.
These difficulties may mean, therefore, that the
teacher will always be necessary in some function. However,
I the degree that automated teaching machines are used may
i
! have an effect on the role the teacher plays and the number
143
of teachers employed. While educational films and tele
vision are being watched by students and teaching machines
utilized, there remains little for the teacher to do with
the students. The programming, indeed, may be pre-tested
with a wide range of students which means that it may not
be necessary for the teacher to make his own programs any
more than it is necessary that he write his own textbook.
Although technically "aids," the usage of automated teach
ing devices may result in profound changes. The question
may be epitomized by asking the following: (l) How many
tasks will be performed by automated devices? and (2) How
much will they be used?
As was said before, it is possible to offer a range
of alternatives. One would be that these devices do not
radically alter the present role of the teacher by their
usage nor would they reduce his numbers.
A second alternative could be termed am optimistic
view of widespread usage of academic automation. In this
instance academic automation has proven successful with
many types of students and with different subject matter
as well as in different situations. Many of the functions
of the teacher have been taken over but the number of
teachers employed will not be redueed. These devices may
144
be termed "aids," The wide use of automation will result
in teachers becoming specialists in their fields and
incorporating new knowledge into the curriculum of their
fields. Being freed from drudgery by automated devices,
they can use their time sharpening concepts, holding panel
discussions, working in small groups, and attending to
individual needs. It may happen that work previously done
by teachers will be handled by automated devices or by
other personnel. There may be a greater range of salaries
paid to those in education. Pupil ratios will require as
many if not more teachers.
A pessimistic view would run something like the
following; With more and more automated devices being used
because of their efficiency in certain tasks, the teacher*s
role will not only be altered but his numbers will remain
the same with more pupils or perhaps be reduced. In pro
gramming material, curriculum experts will be used and
other specialization will take place, but there will not
be nearly as many people involved as there were previously
teachers. More time spent with automated devices by stu
dents will result with less time spent with teachers.
Other personnel less trained may do much of the work
previously handled by teachers.
145
Assuming that the use of automated teaching devices
affects the teaching profession unfavorably, some teachers
may not wish to accept a decrease in their numbers while
they might accept a change in their role. It is not being
said that the above will happen. However, teaching mach
ines are making their way on the market via manufacturers
who are offering them to schools, industry, and the armed
services. Teaching machines are also being offered as
educational toys. Although schools systems are adopting a
wait-and-see policy, should the devices prove workable and
economical, their adoption on a wide scale may not be far
off.
At this point, it is not realistic to state with
any finality that academic automation will reduce the
number of teachers. However, the possibility of this hap
pening should not be disregarded, the intentions of design
ers and users notwithstanding. If one development of wide
spread use of automated devices should be that proportion
ately fewer people will be doing proportionately more, it
seems senseless to continue training as many people in the
profession as are being trained now. Our present complex
isociety demands that an ever-increasing fund of knowledge
I
'be mastered on the part of the teacher (as well as others).
In the future, society and technology may make the acquisi
tion of an all-encompassing field of knowledge both unneces-;
sary and impossible for most.
To reduce the alternatives further, the effects of
automation may mean fewer or shorter jobs and more leisure, j
I
Those who maintain an ever-widening expanse of work must
refer to work that cannot ultimately be handled by auto
mation. Automation may indeed be a blessing if we take
into consideration beforehand its possible effects on
values, time spent in work, possible leisure time, and make
proper provisions.

Books
Brown, James W., Lewis, Richard B., and Harcleroad, Fred
F. A-V Instruction: Methods and Materials. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1959.
Harris, Chester (ed.). "Audial Visual Communications,"
Encyclopedia of Educational Research. New York: The
MacMillan Co., 1 9 6O, Third Edition.
, A. A., and Glaser, Robert (eds.). Teaching
Machines and Programmed Learning : A Source Book.
Washington, B.C.: National Educational Association,
Schramm, Wilbur Lang (ed.). The Impact of Educational
Television. Hrbana: Hniversity of Illinois Press,
Thorndike, Edward L. Education. New York: The MacMillan
Co., 1 9 1 2.
Pamphlets
The Ford Foundation. Teaching by Television: A Report from
the Ford Foundation and the Fund for the Advancement of
Education. New York; The Foundation, Office of Reports,
January, 1 9 6I, Second Edition.
National Educational Association. Mass Communication and
Education. Washington, B.C.: The Association, 1958.
________, Lee E. Campion (ed.). And TV, Too ! Washington,
B.C.: National Educational Association, 1 9 6 1.
Trump, J. Lloyd. Images of the Future. Washington, B.C.:
National Educational Association, 1959•
Articles and Periodicals
Angell, G. W. "The Effect of Immediate Knowledge of Quiz
Results on Final Examination Scores in Freshman
Chemistry," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 42:
Crane, James. "Machines Think, Correct, and Remember,"
Herald Examiner, Vol. XCII, No. 8, April 3^ 1962,
p • B—8 .
David, E. E., Jr. "Voice Actuated Machines: Problems and
Possibilities," Bell Laboratories Record, Vol. 35%28l-
Jensen, B. T. "An Independent-Study Laboratory Hsing Self-
Scoring Tests," Journal of Educational Research,
Vol. 43:134-37^ Cctober,
Porter, B. "A Critical Review of a Portion of the Litera
ture on Teaching Devices," Harvard Educational Review,
Vol. 27, No. 2, Spring 1957, pp. 126-4?.
Pressey, L. "A Simple Apparatus which Gives Tests and
Scores and Teaches," School and Society, Vol. 23,
March 20, 1926, pp. 373-76.
Ramo, Simon. "A New Technique of Education," Engineering
and Science Monthly, Vol. 21, October, 1957^ pp. 17-22.
Rigney, Joseph W. and Fry, Edward B. "Teaching Machines,
an Annotated Bibliography," Audio-Visual Communication
Review, Supplement 1, Vol. 8, No. 2, i9 6 0, p. 8 .
_______. "Current Teaching Machine Programs and Program
ming Techniques," A-V Communication Review, Vol. 93
No. 3^ May-June, 1 9 6 1, pp. 1 5-I6 .
Smith, Earl tJ. "Audiovisumatie Teaching: A New Dimension
in Education and Research," Audiovisual Communications
Review, Vol. 8, No. 3^ May-June, i9 6 0, pp. 92-!
Skinner, B. F. "Teaching Machines," Science, Vol. 128,
Oct. 24, 1 9 5 8, p. 9 7 1.
Finn, James D. and Perrin, Donald G. Teaching Machines and
Programmed Learning, 1962: A Survey of the Industry.
Washington, B.C.: National Education Association,
. 3,
APPENDIX
8EIÆCTED CHARACTERISTICg 0F THE SAMPLE
Section of the United States in which born
No.
%
No.
%
73
1 8 .9 1 Northeast 108
2 7 .9 7
West Coast
126 32.64 Central
27 6 .9 9
Southwest
l6
Marital
4.14 Rocky Mountain
status
11
25
386
2.84
6 .4 7
South
Other
No.
%
No.
%
37
9 .5 1 Single 21
5 .3 9
Divorced
319 8 2 .0 0 Married
3 .77 Separated
Length of time teaching
9
389
2 .3 1
Widowed
No.
%
No.
%
1 .3 Less than 1 year 22
5 . 7 2 1 -2 5 years
12 7 3 2 .6 1-5 years
9 2 .3
2 6 -3 0 years
10 7 2 7 .5 6-10 years
7
1.8 31-35 years
78
30
20.1 1 1 -1 5 years
7 .7 1 6 -2 0 years
8
389
2.1 over 35 years
2 .5 Mean
6 -1 5 years
f—
1
i
153~*
I
i Number of dependents
No. % Dependents No.
%
Dependents
37
10.1 0 63
1 7 .2
3
122 33.2 1 46
1 2 .5
4
79 21.5 2
20 5 .4 5 and over
1
367
2 .0 5
Mean
2 .0 5 Dependents
Percentage of household*® total income derived from teaching
No. No.
%
8 2.1 1-10# 29 7 .6 5 1 -6 0
37 9.7 11-20 15 3 .9
6 1 -7 0
10 2.6 21-30 20
5 .3
7 1 -8 0
29
7.6 31-40
35
9 . 2 8 1 -9 0
50 13.2 41-50
147 3 8 .7
9 1-100^
380
6.11 Mean
6I-81
Gross salary from teaching
No.
%
No.
%
47 12.2 Below $4,999 10 2.6
1 1,0 0 0-1 2 ,9 9 9
39.9 5>000- 6,999 3
.8
13,000-14,999
126
32.6 7^000- 8,999 2
.5 1 5,0 0 0-1 6 ,9 9 9
43
11.1 9,000-10,999 1
.3 Over 1 7,000
386
Mean 2.556
Range 5,000-8,999
Currently primary assignment Is
No.
%
No.
%
354 8 5 .7 0 Teacher
7 1 .6 9 Vice-Principal
l4 3 .3 8 Counselor 11 * 2 . 66 Co-ordinator
1 .24 Regis trar * s Off.
3 .7 2 Supervisor
5
1.21 Principal 18
4 .3 5
Other
413
Respondents answered in
more than on<3 category.
f~
154
1
Grade level taught
N©.
18
23
160
%
4.6 Other
5.9 Kindergarten
4-1.0 1st to 6th
Mo. %
8 5 2 1 .8
65 1 6 .7
39 10.0
390
Mean 2.7
Range 1st t
7th to 9th
10th to 12th
1 3th to 1 6th
!
0 9th grades
Was career in education an original goal?
Yes No
j
Mo. ^
202 5 1 .9 2
No. %
187 48.07
389
If given the opportunity would teaching be chosen again?
Yes No
No. %
298 7 9 .2 5
No. %
78 2 0 .7 4
376
Age
No.
86
135
123
% Years
22.1 2 1 -3 0
3 4 .7 31-40
3 1 .6 41-50
No. %
39 10.0
6 1 .5
389
Years
51-6©
Over 60
Mean 3-34
Range 31-50 years
Sex
Male Female
No. ^
140 44.2
No. %
177 5 5 .8
31 7
155
Membership Im associations
Ho.
#
65 9 .8 7
Elementary Teachers Club
64 9 .7 2 High School Teachers Association
58 8 .8 1 American Federation of Teachers
12 1 .8 2 Administrators Association
94 14.28 National Education Association
138
2 0 .9 7
California Teachers Association
158 24.01 Other
69 10.48 No association
QUESTIONNAIRE
PERSONAL BACKGROUND
Place an *'X" before the category which applies to you.
1. In what section of the United States were you born?
Northeast ^_ West Coast
Southwest
Rocky Mountain South
Other
2. Your marital status:
Divorced
Married Widowed
3. How long have you been teaching?
1-5 years 16-20 years _ 31-35 years
6-10 years __ 21-25 years __ Over 35
11-15 years _ 26-30 years
4. Number of dependents :
1 2 3 4 5 and over
5. What percentage of your household*s income is
derived from teaching?
91-100$ 71-80 ___51-60 31-40 11-20
81-90 61-70 41-50 21-30 1-10
6. Your gross salary from teaching:
Below $4,999 11,000 - 12,
5.000 - 6,999 __ 13y000 - 14,999
7.000 - 8,999 __15,000 - 16,999
9.000 -10,999 ©ver 17,000
15ê
157
7. Currently your primary assignment is:
Teacher __ Vice-principal
Counselor Co-ordinator
Registrar's office __Supervisor
Principal __ Other
8. Check grade level you teach or with which you work:
Kindergarten __ 7th to 9th 13th to l6th
1st to 6th 10th to 12th __ Other
9. Was a career in education your original goal?
Yes __ No
10. If you had the opportunity of choosing a career
again, would you choose teaching?
Yes __ No
11. Your age :
21-30 __ 31-4© 41-5© 51-6© Over 6©
12. Male Female
13. To what association(s) do you belong?
Elementary Teachers Club
High School Teachers Association
American Federation of Teachers
Administrators Association
National Education Association
California Teachers Association
Other __________________ ________
No associations
AWT©MâTI©N
Place îan "X" befcre the subject area yeu teach and under
your answer.
1. Do you believe that teaching devices will be developed
that may serve as well as the class room teacher?
Your subject area Yes No Don't know
Art ___ ___ ___
Business Education_______ ___ ___ ___
Driver Education
Mathematics
Industrial Arts
Homemaking
Physical Education
Music
Social Studies
Science
Kindergarten to 6th
grade subjects only
Other
2. If it can be demonstrated that the students could learn
through automation, would you favor a device that could
be used in the home only, in place of the school?
Yes ____ No ___ Don't know
3. Do you feel that there are some values in the school
situation that cannot be replaced by a teaching machine
in the home?
Yes No Don't know
4. Bo you believe the content of the subject(s) you teach
could be imparted to the student using automated
teaching devices (with only a monitor present) as well
as you presently do?
Yes No Don't know
5. If your job were affected, and opportunity for outside
employment lessened by academic automation, would you
oppose its use as a teaching device regardless of its
effectiveness?
Yes No Don't know
6. Do you think teachers should demand protection of their
income by some appropriate means before automation is
widely accepted in the classroom?
Yes No Don't know
7 . Do you believe that automated teaching devices with
only a monitor present in the room could achieve as
good results as present school methods with these types
of students?
Students with:
Below 70 I.Q.
From 7© to 90 I.Q.
From 91 to 110 I.Q.
Above 110 I.Q.
Yes No Don't know
High motivation and
interest in school work
Average motivation and
interest in school work
Low motivation and
interest in school work
Students who are well behaved ___ __ __
Students of average behavior ___ __ __
Students who are behavioral
problems ___ __ __
8. The following alternatives assume wide spread use of
automated teaching devices, Select one of the alterna
tives as your choice to apply to teachers in general:
1. Both the teacher and automated teaching devices
will share in instruction of subject matter.
2. Automated teaching devices will account for the
instruction of subject matter and the teacher
will perform other services. These will include
taking attendance, maintaining discipline,
endeavoring to motivate and interest students,
and in general trying to help the students
achieve success in the area(s) where automated
teaching devices may be deficient.
3. Automated teaching devices will account for the
instruction of subject matter and the teacher
will be replaced by a monitor. His job will be
to set up the machines, take attendance, and
maintain discipline.
4. Automation will largely replace the teacher.
9. Do you believe that academic automation will increase
jobs in the school system?
Yes __ Mo Don't know
10. Compared to the results the student achieves at your
school, what results would you expect using automated
teaching devices (with only a monitor present) in the
classroom, on the following items:
Superior Same Inferior Don't know
Individual thinking __ __ __ __
Vocational choice
Worthy use of leisure
Learning peer group
relationship values
Acquiring satisfying
systems of values
and self-confidence
Feeling of accomplish
ment through
Acquiring recognition
Acquiring health
habits
l6l
11. How often do you make use of educational films in your
Do not use them ____ Once every two weeks __ Other
Once a week __ Once a month
12. Do you feel the students learn from educational films
as well as they leam from your teaching?
Yes No Don't know
1 3. Has your school district made use of television for
your students to view in your classroom?
Yes No Don'w know
14. If the answer is yes, do you feel the students learned
as well viewing televjs ion as they would have learned
from you without its use?
Yes No __ Don*t know
1 5. Are you using teaching machines in instructing your
students?
. Yes No
1 6. If the answer is yes, do you feel the students learn
as well using them as they would learn from you without
their use?
Yes No Don't know
1 7. If you have made any studies of teaching machines, or
have worked with them (in programming for example) do
you believe them in comparison with present teaching
methods to be:
Better __ Same Poorer __ Don't know
1 8. Describe the teaching machine with which you have
1 9. Any further comment you would like to make regarding
academic automation?
LÎbr^

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Some differences in factors related to educational achievement of two Mexican-American groups

PDF

Familial, occupational, and social characteristics of three generations of Japanese Americans

PDF

A description of some of the viewers who enrolled for credit in the telecourse "Shakespeare on T.V.," Spring Semester, 1954

PDF

A study of the attitudes of high school teachers of vocational subjects toward vocational education and its social values

PDF

A description of some uses of television as an aid to teaching in elementary schools of the United States

PDF

A survey of the development of counseling and guidance services in colleges, universities and communities of Southern California resulting from the advisement and guidance program of the Veterans...

PDF

A comparison of the attitudes of selected groups toward the provision of dental care by the federal government with compulsory individual wage deductions, including provision for voluntary accept...

PDF

Survey of the vocational activities of the Japanese in the city of Los Angeles

PDF

The variability of denominational affiliation among students of the University of Southern California

PDF

Controlled-interview study of "the therapeutic team" in selected hospitals of Southern California evaluated from the standpoint of the Christian Church

PDF

The State Relief Administration social worker: an analysis and survey of the educational background, professional training and experience, and functions of one hundred social workers in the State R...

PDF

The effect of vitamin E on the damage in the germinal epithelium in the testis of the rat caused by irradiation

PDF

The participation of the Chinese in the community life of Los Angeles

PDF

A study of changes in services of All Nations Foundation as affected by the neighborhood's ecological changes

PDF

History of the organization and functions of the Office of the Auditor General of the State of California

PDF

Aspects of judicial administration in California, Ohio and New Jersey

PDF

The public relations image problem

PDF

An analysis of the theory and practice of contemporary corrections as a professional activity

PDF

The wayfaring stranger: a non-critical comparison of Odysseus and Leopold Bloom as the appear in the the "Odyssey" by Homer and "Ulysses" by James Joyce

PDF

Improving the teaching of high school chemistry in the laboratory

Asset Metadata

Creator Figatner, Marvin H. (author)

Core Title The impact of academic automation on the field of education and the teaching profession

School Graduate School

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Sociology

Degree Conferral Date 1962-06

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-416391

Unique identifier UC11314088

Identifier EP65784.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-416391 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP65784.pdf

Dmrecord 416391

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Figatner, Marvin H.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA