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Assessment of Taiwanese business students' learning styles using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
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Assessment of Taiwanese business students' learning styles using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
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NOTE TO USERS
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scanned at the request of the author. They are available for
consultation in the author's university library.
Apx G, pgs 131-135, Apx H, pgs 137-140
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ASSESSMENT OF TAIWANESE BUSINESS STUDENTS’
LEARNING STYLES USING THE MYERS -BRIGGS TYPE
INDICATOR
by
Pei-Shih Chen
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2005
Copyright 2005 Pei-Shih Chen
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UMI Number: 3180467
Copyright 2005 by
Chen, Pei-Shih
All rights reserved.
INFORMATION TO USERS
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submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and
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UMI Microform 3180467
Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company
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DEDICATION
The accomplishment of the degree of Doctor of Education is
dedicated to my father, Chin-Tsao Chen, my mother, Mei-Mei Lo, and
my sister, Angela. My parents would be proud and happy that their
oldest daughter successfully obtained a doctoral degree in the United
States and also the second person obtaining a doctoral degree in the
family.
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iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I first want to extend my genuine appreciation to each member of
the doctoral committee: Dr. Melora Ann Sundt, Dr. Linda Serra
Hagedom, and Dr. Nelly Stromquist for their endurance, support, and
guidance throughout the year. Particularly gratitude is expressed to Dr.
Melora Ann Sundt, the chair and academic advisor, who dedicated
generously of her time and enthusiasm as a teacher, mentor, and friend
in providing me with constructive feedbacks and suggestions as well as
incessant supports to pursue my doctoral degree.
Special acknowledgements are extended to my father, mother, and
sister. I thank them for their love, encouragement and assistance. To my
father, Chin-Tsao Chen, I thank him for his extensive knowledge about
school system in Taiwan. To my mother, Lo Mei-Mei Chen, I express
my deep gratitude to her in providing care throughout my school years.
Grateful gratitude is made to my sister, Ya-Yi Chen, for her endless love
and constant support in completing the dissertation.
A special thanks goes to my dearest friend, Yuh-Shiow Li, for her
kindness, help, and support. She was very kind in sharing her
educational information. I am extremely grateful for her friendship and
for her being a mentor in my professional endeavor. I also thank my
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dearest American friend, Mrs. Marcella Willson, who provided me with
invaluable help in English.
To the teachers and students of the Overseas Chinese Institute of
Technology in Taiwan, I greatly appreciate their assistance and
participation. My successful accomplishment of the doctoral degree
requirements is the result of the love, assistance and support from the
faculties, my family, and friends. There are not enough words to fully
express my appreciation to the people who helped me in obtaining the
degree of Doctor of Education in University of Southern California.
Thank you all.
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V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
ABSTRACT xii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Introduction 1
Background of the Study 3
Statement of the Problem 7
Purpose of the Study 10
Significance of the Study 10
Research Questions 10
Methodology 11
Assumptions 12
Limitations 13
Delimitations 13
Definitions of Terms 13
Learning Styles 15
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 15
Two-year Associate Program in OCIT 15
Five-year Associate Program in OCIT 15
Two-year Bachelor Program in OCIT 15
Four-year Bachelor Program in OCIT 16
Organization of the Study 16
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction 17
Education System in Taiwan 17
Overview of the Current Educational System 17
Technological and Vocational Education 19
Characteristics of Teaching in Taiwan 24
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vi
Learning Styles 26
Concepts of Learning Styles 26
Definition of Learning Styles 27
Categorization of Learning Styles 29
Instruments of Learning Styles 30
Research about Learning Styles 32
Gender 32
Academic Achievement 33
Cultural Background 33
Non-western Population: Taiwan 34
Characteristics of Business Students 35
Learning Styles and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 36
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 36
Development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 36
Construction of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 39
Research about Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 41
Summary 43
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
Introduction 46
Research Question 46
Methodology 47
Research Population 47
Sample 50
Instrumentation 51
Reliability 51
Validity 52
Research Procedure 52
Data Analysis 54
Summary 55
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
Introduction 56
Results for Research Question One: Learning Styles among
Business Students 60
Discussion of Research Question One 63
Results for Research Question Two: Family Background
vis-a-vis Learning Style 65
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vii
Discussion of Research Question Two 66
Results for Research Question Three: Learning Styles
vis-a-vis Students’ Biological Characteristics 68
Discussion of Research Question Three 70
Results for Research Question Four: Learning Styles
vis-a-vis Majors 71
Discussion of Research Question Four 72
Results for Research Question Five: Learning Styles among
Academic Degree Programs 73
Discussion of Research Question Five 74
Results for Research Question Six: Learning Styles
vis-a-vis Academic Performance 75
Discussion of Research Question Six 81
Summary 83
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR
BUSINESS EDUCATION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of the Study 84
Conclusion 89
Implications for Business Education 90
Faculty Development in Promoting Awareness 91
Student Orientation and Career Counseling in
Understanding Students 94
Recommendations 97
Summary 99
REFERENCES 100
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Permission from the Overseas Chinese Institute of
Technology 110
Appendix B: Permission from Institutional Review Board 112
Appendix C: The English Version of Information Sheet for
Participating Students 115
Appendix D: The Chinese Version of Information Sheet of
Participating Students 120
Appendix E: The English Version of the Demographic Sheet 123
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viii
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
F: The Chinese Version of the Demographic Sheet 125
G: The English Version of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) Form G Self-Scorable
(Revised Version) 127
H: The Chinese Version of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) Form G Self-Scorable
(Revised Version) 133
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ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: Timeline of Development of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator
TABLE 2: Number of Students in different academic programs
at OCIT
TABLE 3: Number of Students in different majors at OCIT
TABLE 4: Frequency Distribution of Participating Business
Students in Four Different Majors by Academic Degree
Program
TABLE 5: Frequency Distribution of the MBTI Scores For
Participating Business Students
TABLE 6: Dichotomous Scales For Participating Business
Students
TABLE 7: The Ranking of the MBTI Scores of Participating
Business Students by Father’s Education Level
TABLE 8: The Ranking of the MBTI scores of Participating
Business Students by Gender
TABLE 9: The Ranking of the MBTI Scores of Participating
Business Students by Age Groups
TABLE 10: The Ranking of the MBTI Scores of Participating
Business Students by Major
38
49
50
58
61
63
66
69
70
72
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X
TABLE 11: The Ranking of the MBTI Scales of Participating
Business Students by Academic Degree Program 74
TABLE 12: The Ranking of Grade Point Average by MBTI Type 76
TABLE 13: The Ranking of Mean of GPA by MBTI Type 77
TABLE 14: The Ranking of College Entrance Exam by
MBTI Type 79
TABLE 15: The Ranking of Mean of College Entrance Exam by
MBTI Type 80
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xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: Current Education System in Taiwan 18
FIGURE 2: Current TVE Education System and its Entrance
Pathways in Taiwan 22
FIGURE 3: Distribution by Type 61
FIGURE 4: Distribution of Grade Point Average by MBTI Type 78
FIGURE 5: Score Distribution of College Entrance Exam by
MBTI Type 81
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xii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore Taiwanese business
students’ learning style in an institute of technology using the Chinese
version Form G of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). MBTI is
the instrument measuring learning preferences in four dichotomous
scales of Jungian theory: extraversion/introversion; sensing/intuition;
thinking/feeling; and judging/perceiving. The combination of four
dichotomous scales result in 16 types.
The study sample consisted of 400 business students: 123 male
students and 277 female students. Of this initial sample, 134
Management Information System (MIS) students, 130 International
Trade students, 67 Banking and Risk Management students, and 69
Applied Foreign Languages students. Of these students, 387 returned a
complete questionnaire, yielding a participation rate of 89%. Analyses
of data revealed that the most common learning style was ISTJ, a
combination of introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging among
Taiwanese business students.
There were significant differences in the learning styles of 16 types
found in father’s educational level, but not in the mother’s educational
level. No significant relationships were found between learning style of
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16 types and such variables as gender, age, majors, and academic degree
programs. In this study, academic performance measured by grade point
average were significantly related to learning style of 16 types (p
= .003). However, another academic performance factor, college
entrance exam, was not significant relationship to the 16 learning style
types. A large sample is recommended for further research.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
For centuries, scientists, researchers, and others have been
interested in how people acquire information and knowledge (Reynolds
& Gerstein, 1992). They have been more interested how to use such
information in learning processing in school, or in the work places
(Dunn, Beaudry, & Klavas, 1989; Kolb, 1985; Nelson et al, 1993).
Researches have pointed out students or learners learn at best in a
harmonic environment or using matched teaching aids with students’
learning preferences (Dart, Burnett, Prudie, Boulton-Lewis, Campbell,
& Smith, 2000; Dunn, Given, Thomson, & Brunner, 1997; Gau & Tzai,
1999).
However, the didactic instruction or so-called the lecture method
still remains as a dominant teaching style in Taiwan (Li, 2003). Teachers
are the major speakers standing in front of the classroom; meanwhile,
students just sit there and listen to what teachers have said and take
notes. The method of didactic instruction, however, only favors one
group of students. Because of one dominant teaching style, others might
lack of interests or motivations in learning. Later they might lose their
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2
confidents in finding their paths for the future (Baxter Magolda & King,
1999).
In the contemporary world, with the rapid expansion of technology,
people require new skills and knowledge that will enable them to
perform more complex tasks to meet current working standards (Chen,
2003). As a matter of fact, people today need to be effective learners
(9999 Man Power Bank, 2003). The development of these new skills
and knowledge requires different varieties of teaching methods and
learning strategies. Therefore, exploring students’ learning styles might
provide an effective way to study the foundation needed for future
career development (Wu, 1997).
Learning style, which refers to the way in which learners approach
information and formulate decisions, is a vital factor to be considered in
planning for effective and efficient learning (Childress, 2001; Irvine &
York, 1995). Recent research has demonstrated that one’s learning style
significantly influences one’s academic performance and retention in
school (Nelson et al, 1993). In fact, instructors often teach according to
their own preferred styles of learning. For instance, most college
professors tend to use discussion and presentation in their teaching (Wu,
1997). However, this approach favors only certain groups of students.
According to Dart, Burnett, Prudie, Boulton-Lewis, Campbell, and
Smith (2000), the best way to assist students is to create a harmonious
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3
learning environment and to use teaching methods that are closely
matched to students’ preferences for learning.
In this modem business world, the more learners know about
themselves, in terms of their preferred learning styles, the more
confident they become in making decisions about their education as
well as their future plans (Baxter Magolda & King, 1999). Therefore,
“the primary role of the teacher is to recognize the many potentialities
of his or her students and to consciously plan for the balanced
development of each individual” (Stellwagen, 2001). Moreover,
identifying individual learning styles can increase the choices students
may have both for their education and as well for their career paths.
When they move on to their working fields, they might be also benefit
from their style profiles in searching themselves as well as their
strengths and weakness.
Background of the Study
The idea of learning styles was first introduced by Western
researchers and educators beginning in the 1950s and through the 1980s.
Given the origin of the research, many of the learning style inventories
that were developed used samples taken exclusively from
college-educated Caucasian students (Hickcox, 1995). A great deal of
study on the topic still remains to be done. Hickcox (1995), for example,
has mentioned that there is a critical need for research on the learning
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styles of international and non-traditional students. With the recent
increase in enrollment of international students in schools in the United
States, traditional teaching instruction may no longer be suitable for the
wider student population. International students bring with them a
different learning experience and different learning habits from their
countries of origin. For example, most students from Asia tend to prefer
a system of highly structured instruction that relies heavily on lecturing
(Li, 2003). This may not be the case for others. Yet, understanding how
international students learn and perform at school could benefit both
teachers’ and students’ in their experiences.
According to international student enrollment reports at the
University of Southern California (USC), in the past five years the
greatest number of international students has come from Asian countries,
especially the East Asian countries of Taiwan, China, and South Korea.
During this period East Asian students represented 50% of the
international student body and 10% of total USC enrollment. Among
these students, Taiwan had the greatest number of students (Office of
International Students of USC, 2003). Given the large international
student body, foreign students at USC likely encounter various physical
and emotional challenges such as culture shock, and new peer relations.
By understanding these students’ individual differences the university
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will be better able to foster their smooth transition to a new educational
system.
The learning styles of non-traditional students should also be
studied because enrollment in this sector has been growing with every
year (Cohen & Brawer, 1996). In Taiwan, for example, non-traditional
students comprise a major portion of the work force (Department of
Technological and Vocational Education in Taiwan, 2003). Most
non-traditional students in Taiwan receive a technological and
vocational education, which is overseen by the Department of
Technological and Vocational Education within the Ministry of
Education. The goal of technological and vocational education is to
provide students with the knowledge and skills necessary to be
productive members of society (Department of Technological and
Vocational Education in Taiwan, 2003).
With increasing enrollment every year plus a growing number of
graduates, the statistics for 1111 Man Power Bank (2003) and 9999 Fan
Ya Man Power Bank (2003), two major head-hunting companies in
Taiwan that provide job-related services, indicate that the
unemployment rate for college graduates in Taiwan remains at 70%.
About 40% of those unemployed college students believe they did not
get hired because “their educational backgrounds or their chosen majors
are not good enough” (9999 Man Power Bank, 2003). Graduates with
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majors such as fine arts, liberal arts, and journalism have the most
difficulty finding jobs. But companies have a different reason for the
situation. According to 1111 Man Power Bank (2003), college graduates
are not hired because it is believe d that they lack working values, have
poor attitudes, and/or demonstrate inadequate professional skills. Many
businesses think that students need more practical training and should
acquire more knowledge about the job market before they are employed
(9999 Man Power Bank, 2003).
While most companies believe that college students with a
technological or vocational education are under-prepared for the job
market, government officials and educators see the problem within the
system itself. The main shortcomings of technological and vocational
education today are that the coursework is too difficult and the course
materials are too heavily oriented toward theory and therefore
impractical for society’s needs (Wang, 1995). With teaching materials
that are incongruent with the job market, curriculum reform is an
important step in combating the high unemployment rate. Yet, to
achieve effective and efficient curriculum reform including developing
appropriate teaching materials and methods, one must first identify and
understand students’ individual differences (Rou, 1995).
The modem business world is evolving into a multifaceted system
of knowledge and technology. Students of business are definitely
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7
learning something, but not what employers want them to learn. Given
the high unemployment rate and the competitive job market, insufficient
training and education can hamper students’ chances of finding work.
One way to deal with the problem is to understand students’ individual
learning styles. Educators and researchers should be expected to
identify individual students’ ways of learning and to generate materials
that lead to a higher level of learning outcomes (Li, 2003).
By providing instruction appropriate to particular learning styles,
one can foster a more effective learning process (Keefe & Ferrell, 1990).
Information on students’ leaming-style profiles can also help faculty
become more sensitive to the differences that students bring to the
classroom (Ewing & Yong, 1992). It is also helpful in broadening adult
students’ self-knowledge, empowering them to develop their own
learning strategies, and, in the long term, prompting them to take
responsibility for learning throughout their lives. Researchers often
recommend that teachers broaden their awareness of learner preferences
to more effectively stimulate student learning. Moreover, if students are
aware of their own learning styles they can improve the situation for
themselves.
Statement of the Problem
The areas of international students and non-traditional students are
still needed to be discovered as suggested by Hickcox (1995). Moreover,
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8
the statistics has showed that among the group of international students,
students from Taiwan remain the number one in the enrollment ranking.
Among these enrollment reports, the area of business is the most wanted
field (Department of Technological and Vocational Education in Taiwan,
2003; Office of International Students of USC, 2003). In addition,
according to major head-hunting companies in Taiwan, students in
business majors are learning, but not what employers are looking for,
which idea is also supported by the view point of American Institute of
Certified Public Accountants (AICPA, 2003). Reports from AICPA
(2003) has signified that changes are needed in the education of
business professionals. Areas like professional demeanor, leadership,
and interpersonal communications should be addressed. Moreover,
Williams (1999) has demonstrated that educators increasingly are asked
to teach not only technical and functional skills, but also personal and
interpersonal skills. In addition, “personal competencies” (AICPA, 2003)
has been identified as one of the major categories of competencies that
business students need to acquire before entering the work force. A
student’s personal characteristics are now at the center of this matter. To
tackle these issues, research using an appropriate psychometric
instrument on the nature of personality as it relates to learning would be
beneficial (Wheeler, 2001).
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Educators and researchers continue to be held accountable for
student learning. Despite these concerns, there seems to be a lack of
specific information on how business students learn in Taiwan. The
information that is lacking is best identified as a student’s “learning
style” (Wu, 1997). Research on learning styles has been flourishing in
the United States for several decades, but little has been done using
Taiwanese students as an object of study and none has examined the
commerce and management sector under technological and vocational
education. In a country such as Taiwan, the commerce and management
sector increasingly has become the driving power of the economy (9999
Man Power Bank, 2003). A study of the learning styles of business
students may benefit students who seek to match their interests with
appropriate career paths.
According to Wheeler’s review (2001), 13 studies have been
conducted on the topic of learning styles in accounting-related areas,
which is one of the categories under the commerce and management
sector in Taiwan. The field of commerce and management encompasses
a broad range of fields, such as accounting, finance, and marketing.
According to the Science and Technology Information Center database
in Taiwan, to date only one study of college students has been
conducted using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Huang, 2003).
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between
the learning styles of Taiwanese business students and their learning
outcomes.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study is as follows:
1. To outline learning styles among current students at an institute of
technology in Taiwan to better aid Taiwan’s Department of
Education in understanding the characteristics of business students
as a reference for improving the learning environment and for
providing greater support to students in their school choice and
career plans.
2. To assert that the development of professional skills should be an
important goal in the curriculum of the institute of technology, based
on this study’s conclusions regarding the learning styles of business
students.
Research Questions
The research questions that guide the study are:
1. What is the most common learning style of business students in
Taiwan?
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2. Is there a relationship between family background (parents’
educational level) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
3. Is there a relationship between students’ biological characteristics
(gender and age) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
4. Is there a relationship between students’ majors (Information
Management, International Trade, Banking And Risk Management,
and Applied Foreign Language) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
5. Is there a relationship between academic program types (two-year
associate degree program, five-year associate degree program,
two-year baccalaureate program, and four-year baccalaureate
program) and student scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
6. Is there a relationship between students’ academic performance
(college entrance exam, semester GPA) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
Methodology
This is a quantitative and exploratory study. The research
population consists of college students from the central district of
Taiwan at an institute of technology. This study uses as its instrument
the Chinese version of Form G of MBTI to examine the learning styles
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12
of business students. While a more current version (Form M) of MBTI
was published in 1998, Form G of MBTI is the only version that has
been translated into traditional Chinese at this time. The MBTI consists
of four scales of paired opposites, also named dichotomies:
Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/iNtuition, Thinking/Feeling, and
Judgment/Perception. MBTI’s sixteen possible personality types were
derived from the potential combination of these four pairs of scales. The
collected data is transformed into codes for statistical and analytical
purposes.
Assumptions
The following assumptions are implicit in this study:
1. The measurements and instruments were reliable and valid.
2. The data were accurately recorded and analyzed.
3. The subjects were assessed in a controlled atmosphere.
4. The MBTI was used to determine students’ learning styles because
most behavior is involved with ideas of perception and judgement
(Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998).
5. The MBTI could be used internationally because a traditional
Chinese version is provided by licensed publishers.
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Limitations
The following limitations are included:
1. A traditional Chinese version of the MBTI was used due to the fact
that the study was conducted in Taiwan. Therefore, there might be
a cultural influence.
2. Data were collected from only one institute so a conservative
analysis of the finding is needed.
3. There are no other studies in the area of learning style and business
education in Taiwan using the MBTI to allow for a comparison of
findings.
Delimitations
The following delimitations are noted:
1. The sample is limited to a selected institute (the Overseas Chinese
Institute of Technology - OCIT) in Taiwan.
2. The sample is limited to full-time students only.
Definition of Terms
Learning Styles
“Learning styles” are preferred ways of acquiring knowledge and
drawing conclusions (Savvas, El-kot, & Sadler-Smith, 2001).
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a theoretically based
instrument in a forced-choice format that was developed by Katherine
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14
Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers. The four scales of paired
opposites, also named dichotomies, identified in the MBTI are:
Extraversion/Introversion, Sensing/iNtuition, Thinking/Feeling,
Judgment/Perception. In past studies that use the Indicator a capital
letter generally has been identified for each scale. That system was
followed in the current study.
Extraversion (E)/Inversion (I). “The attitude (orientation) of
Extraversion identifies the direction and flow of energy to the outer
world”; in contrast, “the attitude (orientation) of Introversion identifies
the direction and flow of attention and energy to the inner world”
(Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 390).
Sensing (S)/Intuition (N). Sensing and Intuition are functions of
perception. “Sensing is concerned with experiences available to the
senses” (Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 391); in
contrast, “Intuition is concerned with meanings, relationships, pattern,
and possibilities” (Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 392).
Thinking (T)/Feeling (F). Thinking and Feeling are functions of
judgment. “Thinking is the one by which decisions are made by
ordering choices in terms of logical cause-effect and objective analysis
of relevant information” (Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p.
393); in contrast, “Feeling is the one by which decisions are made
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15
through ordering choices in terms of personal values” (Myers,
McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 390).
Judging (J)/Perceiving (P). “The attitude (orientation) of Judging
indicates that either Thinking or Feeling is the preferred way of dealing
with the outer world and is likely to appear in observable behavior”; in
contrast, “the attitude (orientation) of Perceiving indicates that either
Sensing or Intuition is the preferred way of dealing with the outer world
and is likely to appear in observable behavior” (Myers, McCaully,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 391).
Two-year associate program in OCIT
Students admitted into the two-year associate program have
graduated either from high schools or from vocational high schools.
Two-year associate programs include two types of classes: daytime and
evening classes. Students enrolled in the daytime program finish their
degrees in two years, while students in the evening program finish in
three years.
Five-year associate program in OCIT
Students admitted into the five-year associate program have
graduated from junior high schools and enter at an average age of 15.
Two-year bachelor program in OCIT
Students admitted into the two-year bachelor program have usually
completed either a two-year or five-year associate program.
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16
Four-year bachelor program in OCIT
Students admitted into the four-year bachelor program have usually
completed either high school or vocational high school.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One presents the background of the study, the statement of
the problem, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study, the
research questions, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, the
definitions of terms, and the organization of the study.
Chapter Two is the review of literature, which includes a general
review of the literature on learning styles and on the current educational
system in Taiwan.
Chapter Three presents the methodology used in the study,
including a description of the population and the sample, the procedures
for data collection, a description of the instrument (MBTI), and the
methods of analysis used on the data.
Chapter Four is the analysis of the findings.
Chapter Five includes conclusions, implications for business
education, and recommendations for future research.
References and appendices are included at the end of the study.
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17
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to assess the learning styles of
business students in Taiwan with the ultimate goal of enabling
instructors to improve their teaching styles and create a more effective
learning environment for students. This review of relevant scholarly
literature is comprised of three major sections: an overview of the
current educational system in Taiwan, a summary of research on
learning styles, and a summary of studies using the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator, the instrument of this study.
The Educational System in Taiwan
Overview o f the current educational system
Under the current educational system in Taiwan, preschool
education lasts 2 years. Compulsory education is 9 years, with primary
school for the first 6 years and junior high school or secondary school
for the following 3. Senior secondary education lasts 3 years, and higher
education ranges generally from 6 to 13 years. A chart that outlines the
current school system in Taiwan is provided below (Ministry of
Education in Taiwan, 2003):
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SCHOOL
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Figure 1. Current educational system in Taiwan
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SUPPLEMENTARY AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
19
In Taiwan, every student is entitled to 9 years of compulsory
education, beginning with primary school for the first 6 years and
followed by 3 years of junior high school. They are the equivalent of
grades 1-6 and grades 7-9, respectively, in the American system.
Students in Taiwan enter primary school at age 6 and junior high school
at age 12. Preschool is not part of the compulsory education, but
students tend to begin when they are 4 or 5 years old.
Compulsory education is followed by senior secondary education,
which is divided into two systems. The first is the technological and
vocational educational system, which focuses on teaching applied
sciences and technology to boost the professional workforce. The
second is the standard educational system, which involves traditional
academic areas and research (Chen, 1996). The current study takes as its
focus the area of technological and vocational education and looks at
business students at a particular institute of technology in Taiwan.
Technological and Vocational Education
Since the early 1950s, when Taiwan began a transition from a
period of skill-intensive work to one of service-intensive work,
technological and vocational education (TVE) has played a vital part in
the country’s economy. To meet the changing employment demands, a
system of senior vocational schools, junior colleges, and
institutes/universities of technology emerged to expand the TVE.
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20
There are three levels in the TVE system: senior vocational schools,
junior colleges, and institutes/universities of technology. The programs
in senior vocational schools are divided into daytime and evening
programs, cooperative educational programs, technical programs,
special technical programs, and supplementary programs. The junior
college system is divided into two-year and five-year programs.
Institutes/universities of technology have undergraduate, masters, and
doctoral programs. Undergraduate programs are two-year and four-year
programs, and are also open to individuals in the workforce.
Students who graduate from a senior high school, a senior
vocational school, or a five-year junior college are free to enroll in any
school program within the system of higher education either by taking a
college entrance exam offered by a group of universities and colleges or
by taking an exam given by an individual school. Students who graduate
from senior high school have the choice of entering a four-year general
university or college, or a four-year institute/university of technology.
Graduates of senior vocational school have four choices for higher
education. They can choose to attend a four-year university or college or
a four-year institute/university of technology. Or instead, they may
choose to attend a two-year junior college before enrolling in a
four-year general university or college to complete the last two years of
a college program, or to a two-year institute/university of technology.
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21
Finally, students who graduate from five-year junior colleges can either
enter a four-year general university or college to complete the last two
years of a college program, or a two-year institute/university of
technology. Figure 2 summarizes the various entrance pathways into
Taiwan’s system of higher education (Ministry of Education in Taiwan,
2003).
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22
Junior College
(2 years)
Junior College
(5 years)
Junior High School
(3 years)
Doctoral Program
(2 years & up)
Master Program
(2 years)
Sr. High School
(3 years)
Sr. Vocational School
(3 years)
University & College
(4 years)
Institute of Technology &
University of Technology
(4 years and 2 years)
Figure 2. Current TVE system and its entrance pathways in Taiwan.
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23
Institutes/universities of technology are the highest level of TVE in
Taiwan. The goal of the institute/university of technology is to create a
more sophisticated workforce for the fields of technology, engineering,
and management. The institutes/universities of technology offer
undergraduate, masters, and doctoral programs.
Each institute/university creates its own programs to suit its
particular focus. Semesters within the academic year contain a
minimum of 18 weeks. To graduate, students must finish a minimum of
137 credits in a four-year program and a minimum of 72 credits in a
two-year program. Masters programs require the completion of at least
24 credits and submission of a thesis; doctoral programs require an
additional 18 credits and submission of a dissertation.
Teachers at institutes/universities of technology are lecturers,
assistant professors, associate professors, or professors. Most teachers
graduate from local or foreign graduate schools with a master's degree
or a doctorate.
In the academic year 1996-1997, there were 10 institutes of
technology in Taiwan in the fields of engineering, design, agriculture,
management, home economics, medical, nursing and healthcare
technology, and commercial services: 6 public and 4 private. The
number of schools continues to grow exponentially. The total student
population in the academic year of 1997 was 30,806, with 93% in
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24
undergraduate programs and 7% in graduate programs (Department of
Technological and Vocational Education in Taiwan, 2003). The statistics
from the Ministry of Education (2003) show that the two largest fields
are engineering (40%) and management (20%). In the same academic
year, 5,322 students graduated from institutes of technology, 45 of
whom received doctorates, 685 master's degrees and 4,865 bachelor's
degrees. After graduation students either pursued their career options or
pursued additional studies based on their interests (Department of
Technological and Vocational Education in Taiwan, 2003).
As the number of graduates increases each year, so does the
unemployment rate (1111 Man Power Bank 2003). Why can’t these
graduates find jobs? Most are hampered by a lack of appropriate
professional skills and by inadequate knowledge of their own abilities
and the job market (9999 Fan Ya Man Power Bank, 2003). Building
confidence is the first step to understanding one’s personality, including
one’s learning capabilities (1111 Man Power Bank, 2003). Working with
strengths and compensating for weaknesses by exploring preferred and
non-preferred learning styles can help students in their search for a
desired academic focus and later for an appropriate and suitable job.
Characteristics o f the Teaching in Taiwan
In the past, the learning environment in school is teacher-centered
and test-driven (Chao, 1998; Li, 1992; Lin, 1998; Wu, 1998). Both Li
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25
(1992) and Lin (1998) have mentioned that the key speaker in the
classroom is the teacher himself or herself. The teacher is the one who
gives the lessons and directions to the contents of the materials and
topics. Students have no choices, and just receive the learning
knowledge passively from the teachers. The students’ abilities and
interests are often ignored. Most schools in Taiwan focus on
memorization which might create a dull learning atmosphere.
The following are potential problems that Chen (2004) have
summarized when observing the students’ learning in a Taiwan’s
college:
1. Teachers are the main speakers who focus on delivering knowledge
to students. Students, on the other hand, receive such knowledge
passively. Teachers might be tired of giving lectures all the time.
Students might be also tired of listening.
2. There is mainly one-way conversation in the classroom which lacks
of interactions and discussions between students and/or with
teachers.
3. There is a greater tense and pressure to the teachers and students in
the classroom because a certain amount of lessons needs to be
covered.
4. There is lesser fun and motivation in learning. Students might feel
bored or not interested in learning subjects from teachers.
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26
5. Test-driven assessment might lose the true value of assessing what
students have learned. Students might not be benefit from it and lose
opportunities in developing other learning skills.
The traditional way of teaching in Taiwan mostly focuses on the
learning results rather than learning process. Even though the learning
results are important, learning process is what we should concentrate on
(Lin, 1998). By focusing on the learning results, students might not be
able to develop their learning skills fully. However, this is not to say that
teachers should throw away the traditional way of teaching. In deed,
they might also need to consider students’ learning preference in order
to learn effectively and efficiently and have more fun in learning.
Learning Styles
Concepts o f Learning Styles
Learning is an important behavior that influences everyday life.
Either consciously or unconsciously people learn something every
minute (Woolfolk, 2001). Human learning is complex and unique to
every individual (Dunn, Beaudry, & Klavas, 1989; Dunn, Given,
Thomson, & Brunner, 1997). “Learning style” refers to the individual
ways people acquire information and use knowledge to make decisions
(Loo, 2002).
The concept of “learning style” was based initially on the idea of
“cognitive style” as it appeared in clinical research of the 1950s (Riding
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27
& Cheema, 1991). Nowadays many researchers use the terms
interchangeably. In the 1950s, most research focused on exploring
individuals’ cognitive behavior such as the use of memory information
in the learning process to better understand individual differences. For
example, Witkin’s theory of “field-independent” and “field-dependent”
was widely used in research and could be considered as the frontier of
research on cognitive style (Yang, 1996). The idea was based on
exploring the importance of visual cues in orientation and reference to
the horizontal. Research subjects were asked to locate their body
position in relation to the true vertical. Those who were able to maintain
their orientation were designated as “field-independent”; others were
“field-dependent” (Chinien & Boutin, 1992). The results of this research
had significant value for education. Consequently, in the 1970s, the term,
“learning style” became popular in the field (Kuo, 1986). Researchers
such as Kolb (1985) and Dunn and Dunn (1981) and others expanded
the idea of learning style in the later period.
Definition o f Learning Styles
The term “learning style” has a broad range of meaning. Given that
each scholar who conducts research on learning styles has his or her
own objectives, “learning style” has been defined, classified, and
identified in many different ways according to researchers’ instructional
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28
or experimental exploration needs (Reiff, 1992). The following includes
some popular definitions of learning style.
Dunn and Dunn defined learning style as “the way each individual
begins to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and
difficult academic information or skills” (Dunn, Griggs, Olson, and
Beasley, p. 353, 1995). Keefe (1979) saw it as “characteristic of
cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively
stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to
the learning environment” (p. 17). Lin’s (1985) definition emphasized
individual preferred ways of learning insofar as they influence how
individuals receive stimulation, memorize, think, and solve problems.
Kuo (1987) defined learning style as the factors that effect individual
learning, personal tendencies that are consistent during the learning
process, problem solving, and strategic planning.
Among the above definitions of learning style, we find some
common characteristics. Most agree that each person is unique in his or
her manner of learning. While many researchers have concluded that
learning styles are bipolar, self-consistent, pervasive, stable, and
idiosyncratic, they also occur on a continuum with no right or wrong
way of receiving or processing information (Kolb, 1985; Riding &
Cheema, 1991; Witkin, 1976; Yang, 1996). Under different
circumstances people might shift their preferred mode to a
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29
non-preferred mode of perceiving and judging information (Myers,
McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Therefore, understanding such
knowledge about learning styles might lead to more effective learning.
Categorization o f Learning Styles
Even while acknowledging individual differences, researchers still
have not reached a consensus on an appropriate definition for learning
style. The numerous areas of individual emphasis include the origin of
learning (What is learning? Is it memorization, analyzation, or
application?), a definition of the learning process (Is it simulation,
observation, cognition, or thinking?), and the nature of learning (Is it
individual or environmental?) (Kuo, 1987)
In 1987 Curry published a paper that attempted to categorize into
distinct groups the various uses of learning style. Curry’s paper divided
21 learning style instruments into three categories: instructional and
environmental learning preferences, information-processing learning
preferences, and personality-related learning preferences. She described
this organization of learning styles as resembling an onion, with
instructional and environmental preferences as the outermost layer, and
personality-related preferences as the core layer (Hickcox, 1995).
The outmost layer, instructional and environmental preferences in
learning, represents the most observable, but the least stable styles
because they interact most directly with the learning environment
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30
(Hickcox, 1995). An example of these preferences would be a
preference for brighter light and cooler temperature, or preferring to
learn alone versus with a peer. Dunn and Dunn’s Productivity
Environmental Preference Survey measures these types of preferences
using four categories: environmental (such as brighter light or warmer
temperature learning atmosphere), emotional (such as motivation),
sociological (such as learning alone or with a peer), and physiological
(such as high or low energy) (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1981).
The middle layer represents the ways in which an individual
prefers to take in information (Hickcox, 1995). An example of such a
preference would be using concrete experience versus abstract
conceptualization. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (1985) measures
this preference and one other bipolar concept, reflective observation
versus active experimentation, from which four types are drawn:
converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator.
The core or inner layer of Curry’s onion model represents
personality-related preferences, which describe an individual’s ways of
perceiving and judging information. These preferences are the most
stable because they do not involve a direct interaction directly with the
learning environment. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is an example
of an instrument for measuring this preference (Hickcox, 1995).
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31
Instruments o f Learning Styles
There are many instruments that have been developed to measure
people’s learning styles. Three commonly used ones, Dunn and Dunn’s
Productivity Environmental Preference Survey, Kolb’s Learning Style
Inventory, and Witkin’s Group Embedded Figures Test, are described
below.
Dunn and Dunn’s Productivity Environmental Preference Survey
measures learning style preferences using four categories:
environmental (sound, temperature, light, design), emotional
(motivation), sociological (learning alone or with a peer), and
physiological (high or low energy) (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1981).
There are four learning types in Kolb’s (1985) Learning Styles
Inventory: convergers, divergers, assimilators, and accommodators.
Convergers focus on abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation. Divergers focus on concrete experience and reflective
observation. Assimilators focus on abstract conceptualization and
reflective observation. Accommodators focus on concrete experience
and abstract conceptualization (Reynolds & Gerstein, 1992).
Witkin (1976), father of the field dependence/field independence
theories, developed the Embedded Figures Test and the Group
Embedded Figures Test to test learners as either global learners (field
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32
dependent) or analytical learners (field independent). The following are
some characteristics of field-dependent and field-independent learners:
Field dependent learners:
1. are global.
2. have more difficulty isolating a shape from a surrounding area.
3. benefit from cooperative learning.
4. need strategies to help organize and comprehend material
(analogies, outlines, color-cues).
5. need teacher to model how to organize information.
6. have problems with crowded/busy worksheets.
Field independent learners:
1. are analytical.
2. can isolate a shape from a surrounding area.
3. are more internally motivated.
4. have more cognitive flexibility.
5. like internally independent projects.
(Reiff, 1992, p. 15)
Research About Learning Styles
Gender. Research has suggested that gender is one of the significant
factors in learning styles. In a study by Ewing and Yong (1992), the
authors used Dunn, Dunn, and Price’s Learning Style Inventory to
analyze the learning styles of 54 African Americans, 61 Mexican
Americans, and 40 American-born Chinese. The results of the study
showed that there was a significant relationship among males and
females in their preferences for tactile modality and intake. Male
students consistently preferred tactile modality and intake more than
female students preferred them.
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33
Academic achievement. Results of most research have indicated that
there is a significant relationship between learning styles and academic
achievement. Nelson et al. (1993) gave Dunn’s Productivity
Environmental Preference Survey to 1089 freshmen, and found that
retention rate and grades were higher when instructors’ teaching styles
were matched with students’ preferences.
Cultural background. According to various studies, cultural
background seems to be an unstable significant factor in learning styles.
The results of a study by Savvas, El-kot, and Sadler-Smith (2001), with
students from Egypt, Greece, Hong Kong, and the United Kingdom,
indicated that there were no statistically significant differences in style
among students in the undergraduate business programs, but a
significant relationship was found in the post-graduate level. Moreover,
Park (1997) found cultural differences in style among various groups of
Asian American (Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese) students
in secondary schools that used a visual mode of learning versus those
that used a group mode of learning. Chinese American students had the
strongest preference for the visual mode of learning, followed by
Filipino American students, Korean American students, and Vietnamese
American students. Vietnamese American students showed a strong
preference for the group mode of learning, and Korean American
students showed the least.
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34
Non-western population: Taiwan. Since the 1980s researchers in
Taiwan have been interested in exploring learning styles. The results
from various studies have shown a significant relationship between
learning styles and variables such as gender, academic performance, age,
and academic majors. In a study by Lin (1985) that used Dunn and
Dunn’s Learning Style Inventory with regard to 916 junior high school
students, the results pointed to a significant relationship between gender
and learning style. According to the study, male students preferred an
doing type of learning style, as opposed to female students who
preferred listening and writing. Moreover, in the same study, there was a
significant finding in regard to academic performance and learning style.
The results showed that grades on math and physics have a positive
significant relationship with the doing mode of learning and a negative
significant relationship with the structured mode of teaching. Wu’s
(1997) study, which used 423 industrial education students from
different discipline groups with Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory,
showed that there was a negative significant relationship with regard to
age and the abstract conceptualization dimension of learning, meaning
that older students tend to prefer less abstract conceptualization. A
significant relationship was also detected among different discipline
groups with regard to the abstract conceptualization dimension. The
industrial technology group favored the abstract conceptualization
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35
dimension of learning more than either the industrial mechanics group
or the industrial electronics group.
Characteristics o f business students. Most research in the United
States that looks at business students as subjects uses Kolb’s Learning
Style Inventory. Results of Reading-Brown & Hayden (1989), for
example, indicated that in a sample of 110 accounting majors twice as
many participants fell into the converger style (n = 43) of learners as
into the accommodator (n = 24), diverger (n = 21), or assimilator (n =
22) styles (Baker, Simon, & Bazeli, 1986). Loo (2002) found similar
results. Among accounting majors there was a higher proportion of
convergers and a lower proportion of accommodators. Finance majors
revealed a higher proportion of assimilators and a lower proportion of
divergers. Marketing majors revealed an equal distribution of styles.
Biberman and Buchanan (1986), in a study of 300 students majoring in
accounting, economics/finance, management, marketing, or science,
also found that accounting majors, like science majors, were more likely
to score as convergers. However, Brown and Burke (1987), using 267
accounting majors, found that accounting majors indicated no marked
preference for one style over another. Also, Holley and Jenkins (1993)
arrived at different results using 49 intermediate accounting students: 26
of the 49 students fell into the assimilator quadrant, 10 into the diverger,
8 into the converger, and 5 into the accommodator quadrant.
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36
Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory is very commonly used in
analyzing the learning behavior of business students in the United States.
Of the various studies that use Kolb’s instrument with business students,
the results generally have indicated that accounting students tend to
prefer the learning style of a converger, whereas finance students lean
more toward the style of an assimilator.
Learning Styles and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
In Curry’s onion model of learning styles a relationship is
established between learning styles and the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. The MBTI is a personality instrument used to measure
learning preferences. In Curry’s model, the MBTI is located at the
center, insofar as the inner layer involves personality-related preferences
that describe an individual’s way of perceiving and judging information
(Hickcox, 1995). The following discussion of the MBTI begins with its
development and continues on to describe its constructs. It ends with a
brief section that outlines current research that uses the MBTI in regard
to the present topic.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Development o f the MBTI. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) is a theoretically based, forced-choice, widely used
psychological test that was developed by Katherine Cook Briggs and
Isabel Briggs Myers. Briggs and Myers based their instrument on Jung’s
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37
theory of psychological types and translated Jung’s concepts into
behavior of everyday life. The purpose of the MBTI is to identify
individual differences in learning preferences in order to provide a
rational structure for designing activities for students that encourage
learning, no matter what style they prefer (Lee, 2003). The evolution of
the MBTI is described in the following table (Saunders, 1991):
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38
Table 1
Timeline o f development o f the MBTI
1921 Jung’s Psychological Type was published.
Jan. 1942 Isabel Briggs Myers reads about Humm-Wadsworth in
Readers’ Digest; with advice from her mother, Katherine
Briggs, begins to develop her own instrument on “type”
1943 Forms A and B of MBTI developed.
1944 Form C of MBTI developed.
1958 Form F (166 items) of MBTI developed under funding of
Educational Testing Service (ETS)
July 1959 Isabel Briggs Myers signs contract with ETS to publish
MBTI
Late 1969 Isabel Briggs Myers meets Mary McCaully in
Philadelphia
Sept. 1975 Isabel Briggs Myers signs contract with Consulting
Psychologists Press (CPP), Palo Alto, CA, to publish
MBTI
1978 Form G (94 items) developed at CPP
1998 Form M (93 items) developed and the third edition of the
MBTI manual is published.
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39
Construction o f the MBTI. The MBTI is comprised of four bipolar
scales, also named dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion;
Sensing/iNtuition; Thinking/Feeling; Judgment/Perception. The higher
scoring at the end of each scale is represented by the first letter of each
scale to create MBTI’s sixteen possible personality types, except using
“N” for intuition because there might be a confusion with “I” in
introversion (Myers, 1998). “ISTJ,” as an example, would reflect
characteristics of introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging, which
combine to mean that the subject is characteristically quiet, practical,
logical, and orderly.
Carl Jung first developed the idea of psychological types in 1921.
He developed six primary personality traits, which are two dichotomous
pairs of mental functions—Perceiving (Sensing/Intuition) and Judging
(Thinking/Feeling)—and one dichotomous pair of attitudes toward the
outside world—Extraversion and Introversion. He later added the idea
of dominant and auxiliary functions. Myers and Briggs expanded the
idea of dominant and auxiliary functions and added one dichotomous
pair of attitudes to Jung’s mental functions: Judging and Perceiving.
According to the MBTI manual (1998) and Introduction to Type by
Myers (1998), the four dichotomies are explained as follows:
Perceiving mental functions deal with how information is taken in
by learners. Jung identified two perceiving functions: Sensing and
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40
Intuition. People who score higher in the Sensing area than in the
Intuition area tend to be interested in direct or objective perceptions
made through the physical senses, having factual and observant
characteristics. Intuition learners favor subjective or indirect perceptions
of the structures and relationships among objects and experiences, and
tend to be insightful and creative.
Jung’s judging mental function describes how inputs from the
perceiving function are transformed into useful output, and contains one
scale: Thinking and Feeling. Thinking learners tend to link ideas and
experiences together by making logical connections, which are
impersonal and rational in nature. Feeling learners, on the other hand,
weigh the relative merits of personal and group values, and more often
have idealistic and compassionate natures.
The two dichotomous pairs of attitudes are attitudes toward the
world and attitudes toward mental functions, the former developed by
Jung and the latter expanded by Myers and Briggs. The two attitudes
toward the world are Extraversion and Introversion. Extraversion is an
attitude wherein an individual is drawn to people and to objects that
comprise the external world. This type of learner tends to be more
friendly and outgoing. Introversion, on the other hand, is an attitude
wherein an individual’s attention is directed primarily to the inner
environment of the mind and those things that comprise this subjective
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41
world. This type of learner tends to be more contemplative and
reflective.
The two attitudes toward the mental functions that were later added
by Myers and Briggs are those of Judging and Perceiving. This last pair
of the MBTI reflects preferences forjudging or perceiving mental
functions. Those with a stronger Judging attitude prefer planning and
organizing activities, tend to follow problems to their solution, and are
inclined to be decisive and committed. As for Perceiving learners, they
tend to gather as much information as possible and thus leave a problem
unsolved as long as possible. They are more open-minded and
questioning.
Research about the MBTI. Some research using the MBTI appears
to find a significant relationship over the years among variables such as
academic performance, student persistence, and selection of a major for
learners (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Wolk and
Nikolai (1997), using a sample of 152 accounting undergraduates, 94
accounting graduates, and 98 accounting faculty members, found no
differences between undergraduates and graduates on El and JP scales,
but found differences on the SN and TF scales. Undergraduates were
higher on the Feeling preference; however, there were no differences
between graduates and faculty on the four dichotomous scales.
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42
Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer (1998) also stated that
students with stronger preferences for Sensing and Judging had a higher
overall persistence to graduation rate. Preferences on Introversion,
Intuition, and Judging predicted scores on the SAT. Preference of
Judging predicted college grade point average. The results supported by
Macdaid, Kainz, and McCaulley (1984) indicated that students with
learning styles of 1ST J and ISFJ had the highest rate of graduation and
students with learning styles of ESTP, ENTP, ISTP significantly more
often had not graduated. Stronger preference in Extraversion as opposed
to Introversion resulted in an increase in persistence, probably because
the students’ outward focus helped them to more easily adjust to the
social and environmental demands of college life. Sensing as opposed to
Intuition resulted in greater persistence into the sophomore year,
probably because successfully getting through the first year of college
requires taking in many new facts and information, such as the specific
skills necessary to help their academic performance (Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Moreover, one might also conclude that our
educational system and traditional testing methods tend to favor Judging
learners and that college level professors tend to be Intuitive (Wu,
1997).
Several studies have shown that a student’s learning style is a
significant predictor in the selection of a major. Results from Tobacyk
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43
and Cieslicka (2000) using 107 Polish marketing/management students
and 75 Polish English language majors demonstrated that significant
differences existed between the two groups. Marketing/management
students tended toward Extraversion, Sensing, Thinking, and Judging,
while English language majors tended toward Introversion, Intuition,
Feeling, and Perceiving. Moreover, within a different area of business
majors, a study conducted by Laribee (1994) using 320 accounting
students indicated that there is a greater tendency of ISTJ and ESTJ type
learning among accounting students, especially a higher preference for
Thinking when compared to the general student population.
Summary
When trying to improve students’ learning outcomes, it is
important to carefully examine learning styles. Curry’s onion model of
learning styles was covered in the section of learning styles. Previous
research about learning styles was also briefly discussed. Relationships
between learning styles and the MBTI were revealed in Curry’s model.
The development of the MBTI and its constructs along with a brief
discussion of previous research on the instrument was also covered.
Emphasis on the learning styles of adult learners, especially business
students has been discussed.
In Taiwan, business students are a major source of manpower for
the working environment (Department of Technological and Vocational
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44
Education, 2003). The inability of business graduates to find appropriate
work may be the result of an incongruity between students’ learning
styles and their selected majors. Understanding learning styles can
benefit both teachers and learners. Teachers can use their heightened
awareness to more effectively stimulate student learning (Campbell,
1991; Davidson, 1990). Students can use the knowledge about their
strengths to overcome obstacles in self-improvement (Ewing & Yong,
1992; Neely & Aim, 1993). With such information counselors can
provide multiple survival strategies for students who have problems in
school. Curriculum planners can modify school programs accordingly
(Hickcox, 1995). Understanding the concept of learning styles helps
reduce frustration for students and teachers, improves self-awareness
and achievement among students, improves planning and management
by educators, increases variability and flexibility in the system, and
fosters communication among participants in the learning process (Reiff,
1992).
Most research on learning styles in past decades has been
conducted in the United States, but little work has been performed using
Taiwanese students as subjects, and no research has focused on the
commerce and management sector of technological and vocational
education. Since this sector has become Taiwan’s major economic
force (9999 Man Power Bank, 2003), a study of learning styles is
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45
greatly needed in various areas of business such as information
management and banking. By identifying the typical learning styles of
business students, students contemplating such a career might benefit
from knowing how their interests match up with certain career paths.
This study examines the relationships between the learning styles of
Taiwanese business students and their family background, biological
characteristics (gender and age), chosen major, school program, and
academic performance using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The
research design and methodology are presented in Chapter Three.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to understand the learning styles of
business students at the Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology. The
study investigated the relationships between learning styles, family
background, biological characteristics, majors, academic programs, and
academic performance.
Research Questions
The research questions that guided the study are:
1. What is the most common learning style among business students in
Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between family background (parents’
educational level) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
3. Is there a relationship between students’ biological characteristics
(gender and age) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
4. Is there a relationship between students’ majors (Information
Management, International Trade, Banking And Risk Management,
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47
and Applied Foreign Language) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
5. Is there a relationship between students’ academic programs
(two-year associate degree program, five-year associate degree
program, two-year baccalaureate program, and four-year
baccalaureate program) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
6. Is there a relationship between students’ academic performance
(college entrance exam, semester GPA) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
Methodology
Research Population
The Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology (OCIT) is a private
institute that was established in 1964 by Chen Chi-chung. Prior to
August 2000, when the OCIT upgraded its status from junior college to
institute of technology, the OCIT was known as the Overseas Chinese
College of Commerce. The campus area is 57,783 square meters.
At the time of the study, OCIT offered degrees in Business
Administration (BA), International Trade (Trade), Accounting (ACC),
Banking and Risk Management (Bank), Information Management
(MIS), Applied Foreign Languages (LAN), Marketing (MKT), and
Distribution Management and Finance (FIN). Two schools operate
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48
within OCIT, the Technical Institute and the Vocational Junior College.
Each institution offers two types of programs, a standard daytime
program and an evening school. At the Technical Institute the daytime
and evening schools both offer two-year and four-year degree programs.
At the Vocational Junior College two-year or five-year degrees can be
earned as part of the daytime program, and a two-year degree can be
earned through the evening school.
The mission of OCIT is to provide educational opportunities to
students to allow them to meet society's need for effective, trained
professionals. To fulfill its goals of education, OCIT uses both theory
and application of general and professional knowledge. As a result, to
develop high professional ethical standards and personal values OCIT’s
curriculum focuses on a holistic education.
The study population was comprised of all students enrolled in the
two-year and five-year associate degree of business programs and the
two-year and four-year baccalaureate degree of business programs for
eight majors (BA, Trade, ACC, BNK, MIS, LAN, MKT and FIN) at
OCIT.
There were approximately 900 students in the two-year associate
program, 2500 students in the five-year associate program, 900 students
in the two-year baccalaureate program, and 2400 students in the
four-year baccalaureate program. In the two-year and five-year
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49
associate programs, there were 600 female students, 300 male students,
and 2000 female students, 500 male students, respectively. In the
two-year and four-year baccalaureate programs, there were 600 female
students, 300 male students, and 1700 female students, 700 male
students, respectively. Table 2 presents the number of students in
different academic programs.
Table 2
Number o f Students in different academic programs at OCIT
2-yr associate
program
5-yr associate
program
2-yr bachelor
program
4-yr bachelor
program
Male 300 500 300 700
Female 600 2000 600 1700
Total 900 2500 900 2400
There were approximately 1000 students majoring in BA, 1200
students majoring in Trade, 700 students majoring in ACC, 700 students
majoring in BNK, 1300 students majoring in MIS, 700 students
majoring in LAN, 150 students majoring in MKT, and 300 students
majoring in FIN. Among BA majors, there were 750 female students
and 250 male students. Among Trade majors, there were 1000 female
students and 200 male students. Among ACC majors, there were 550
female students and 150 male students. Among BNK majors, there were
500 female students and 200 male students. Among MIS majors, there
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50
were 750 female students and 550 male students. Among LAN majors,
there were 550 female students and 150 male students. Among MKT
majors, there were 120 female students and 30 male students. Among
FIN majors, there were 220 female students and 80 male students. Table
3 summarizes the number of students in different majors.
Table 3
Number o f Students in different majors at OCIT
BA Trade ACC BNK MIS LAN MKT FIN
Male 250 200 150 200 550 150 30 80
Female 750 1000 550 500 750 550 120 220
Total 1000 1200 700 700 1300 700 150 300
In the two-year and five-year associate programs, the average age
of enrollment for each program was 18 to 20 and 15 to 20, respectively.
In the two-year and four-year baccalaureate programs, the average age
of enrollment was 20 to 22 and 18 to 22, respectively.
Sample
A stratified random sample of business students was selected in
representative proportions from four chosen majors (MIS, Trade, Bank,
and LAN) to total 400 students: 130 MIS students, 130 Trade students,
70 BNK students, and 70 LAN students. Students were chosen from
these four majors because: 1) MIS and Trade had the largest student
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51
body and also showed the lowest grade point average distribution
among the eight majors; and 2) besides MIS and Trade, BNK and LAN
demonstrated a unique relationship within the business disciplines at
OCIT that would allow for comparison.
Instrumentation
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was used as the
instrument in this study for measuring students’ learning styles. Curry
(1987) ranked the MBTI with a strong rating for reliability and a good
rating for validity.
Reliability
Internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability are the
criteria generally used for measuring the reliability of an instrument.
Split-half and coefficient alpha are usually calculated for the purpose of
internal consistency reliability, which indicates “how consistently
respondents answer the items on a given scale” (Myers, McCaully,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 160). According to Myers, McCaully,
Quenk, and Hammer (1998), the reliability of the MBTI’s Form G
ranged from .82 to .86 (rn-i = .82, rs_ N = -84, rj-F = .83, rj.p = .86) using a
databank sample of 32,671. With Form M, the reliability improved,
ranging from .89 to .94 using a national sample of 3,036. The internal
consistency of the four MBTI scales was also estimated using a
coefficient alpha. The coefficient alpha of Form M ranged from .91
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52
to .92 using a national sample of 2,859. There is little or no difference
between Form G and Form M in obtaining the coefficient alpha.
Test-retest, an estimate of how stable a characteristic is over time,
is another common method for estimating reliability. Test-retest
product-moment correlations of meta-analysis of Form G ranged
from .77 to .84 (rE-i = .84, rs-N = .81, r-r-F = .77, rj.p = .82) using a sample
of 1,139 with intervals of one to eight weeks. Form M ranged from .87
to .93 using a sample of 258 at the Public Utilities Company.
As a result, the internal consistency of the four MBTI scales is high
(Myers, McCaully, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). The test-retest reliability
of the MBTI shows consistency over time.
Validity
The validity of an instrument indicates that the instrument has met
its purpose for measurement. The purpose of the MBTI is to measure
learners’ preferences. A study by Carskadon and Cook (1982) using 118
introductory psychology students found that after receiving a packet of
one-page type descriptions eight weeks after taking the MBTI, 50 % of
the students chose the correct description of their learning type on their
first pick.
Research Procedure
The Traditional Chinese translation of Form G of the MBTI was
administered in the academic year 2003-2004 by the qualified
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researcher following the established guidelines. While a more recent
version of the MBTI, Form M, was published in 1998, there was no
Chinese translation available at the time of purchase. After the MBTI
was administered, the primary source for additional student data was the
student database of the Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology. Using
a spreadsheet, various student data were compiled from the database
including major, college entrance score, and semester GPA.
Demographic data, collected from a one-page survey attached to the
MBTI, included gender, age, family background, and interests. The
MBTI was hand scored by the researcher who administered the
instrument. Individual data were initially recorded with students’
identification numbers to match it to MBTI scores. However, during the
analysis, all data were coded. Neither names nor student identification
numbers were connected to the data.
Prior to the start of the study, permission from the Overseas
Chinese Institute of Technology was obtained (see Appendix A). The
study was approved by USC’s Institutional Review Board for Human
Rights Protection (see Appendix B). Students were invited to participate
through an information letter, which contained an introduction to the
study and a request to participate (see Appendix C). Student
participation was anonymous and voluntary.
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After collecting data from the students and the school, the modified
procedures in Li’s (2003) study were followed in analyzing data and
making recommendations, which appear in Chapters 4 and 5.
1. All MBTI forms were entered into the calculations and were divided
into 16 types.
2. The numbers of subjects were displayed using the type table
described in the MBTI manual.
3. The findings were organized and guided by each research question.
It included the 16-type table, function pairs, and four dichotomous
pairs.
4. The most common learning styles were identified as well as the
suggested learning preferences from a review of past literature.
5. Implications, suggestions for further research, and recommendations
were discussed.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS 11.0) for Windows software program. Demographic
data were analyzed to describe the sample, using frequencies,
percentages, ranges, means, standard deviations, and modes. An alpha
level of .05 was set a priori.
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Summary
This study used the Traditional Chinese translation of Form G of
the MBTI for a sample of students at the Overseas Chinese Institute of
Technology in Taiwan. The students were enrolled in the two-year or
five-year associate program or the two-year or four-year baccalaureate
program at OCIT with majors in Information Management,
International Trade, Banking and Risk Management, and Applied
Foreign Languages. A stratified random sampling technique was used. A
one-page demographic sheet, which included variables such as family
background, interests, major, academic program, and biological
characteristics, was attached to the MBTI when it was distributed.
Students’ grades or scores were obtained from the Registrar’s Office.
The data were analyzed using functions of SPSS such as descriptive
statistics, chi-square, and analysis of variance. The discussion of
findings and results are presented in Chapter 4.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
Introduction
A total of 400 business students were invited to participate in the
study: 123 male students and 277 female students. Of this initial sample,
134 students were majoring in Information Management (MIS), 130 in
International Trade, 67 in Applied Foreign Languages, and 69 in
Banking and Risk Management. Of these students, 387 returned a
complete questionnaire, yielding a participation rate of 89%. Table 4
presents the frequency distribution of the students in the four different
majors by academic degree program. As noted in Table 4, beginning
with the year of the study, there were no more new enrollments for the
two-year associate degree (AA) program. There were also no third and
fourth year students in Applied Foreign Languages and Banking and
Risk Management at that time because the four-year baccalaureate (BA)
program in those majors had just been introduced the previous year.
Also noted in Table 4, the participation rates are similar across the four
majors as a whole. By looking at the academic degree programs
individually across the four majors, similar participation rates also
revealed on the table representation, except the four-year BA program
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57
under the majors of Applied Foreign Language and Banking and Risk
Management.
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58
Table 4
Frequency Distribution o f Participating Business Students in Four
Different Majors by Academic Degree Program
^\M ajor
Prograih\
MIS Int’l Trade Applied LAN Banking
N Total % N Total % N Tota % N Total %
2-year AA
1st year
2n d year 19 82 23.2 14 46 30.4
Total 19 82 23.2 14 46 30.4
5-year AA
1st year 11 132 8.3 9 92 9.8 13 93 14.0 14 84 16.7
2n d year 124 92 9 94 9.6 96
3rd year 45 146 30.8 49 100 49.0 103 91
4th year 174 177 111 103
5 th year 139 193 16 55 29.1 10 93 10.8
Total 56 715 7.8 58 654 8.9 38 456 8.3 24 467 5.1
2-year BA
1s t year 11 90 12.2 12 81 14.8 48 7 48 14.6
2n d year 89 83 44 39
Total 11 179 6.1 12 164 7.3 0 92 0 7 87 8.0
4-year BA
1st year 33 102 32.4 22 103 21.4 20 53 37.7 22 50 44.0
2n d year 15 101 14.9 24 114 21.1 9 54 16.7 16 54 29.6
3rd year 115 114
4th year
Total 48 318 15.1 46 331 14.9 29 107 27.1 38 104 36.5
TOTAL 134 1294 130 1195 67 655 10.2 69 658 10.5
10.4 10.9
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Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS 11.0). The results will be presented according to the
research questions listed below and in comparison to other relevant
studies:
1. What is the most common learning style of business students in
Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between family background (parents’
educational level) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
3. Is there a relationship between students’ biological characteristics
(gender and age) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
4. Is there a relationship between students’ majors (Information
Management, International Trade, Banking and Risk Management,
and Applied Foreign Languages) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
5. Is there a relationship between academic programs (two-year
associate degree program, five-year associate degree program,
two-year baccalaureate program, and four-year baccalaureate
program) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
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60
6. Is there a relationship between students’ academic performance
(college entrance exam, semester GPA) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
Results for Research Question One:
Learning Styles among Business Students
The results of the first research question (“What is the most
common learning style of business students in Taiwan?”) indicate that
among the students tested at the institute of technology in Taiwan the
most frequent learning style preference was ISTJ (15.3%), followed by
ESTJ (9.5%). Table 6 and Figure 3 display the frequency distribution of
the 16 types for the participating students.
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Table 5
Frequency Distribution o f the MBTI Scores For Participating Business
Students
Type Frequency Percent
ESTJ 38 9.5
ESTP 27 6.8
ESFJ 17 4.3
ESFP 13 3.3
ENTJ 24 6.0
ENTP 30 7.5
ENFJ 16 4.0
ENFP 31 7.8
ISTJ 61 15.3
ISTP 19 4.8
ISFJ 29 7.3
ISFP 27 6.8
INTJ 12 3.0
INTP 16 4.0
INFJ 8 2.0
INFP 19 4.8
Missing 3 0.8
N/A 10 2.5
Total 400 100.0
N f A
M i s s i n g
I N F P
I N F J
I N T P
I N T J
I S F P
I S F J
« is t p ;
a .
? I S T J
E N F P
E N F J
E M I P
E N T J
E S F P
E S F J
E S T P
E S T J
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Number of Students
Figure 3. Distribution by Type
Note. N= 400, N/A (Not Available) means that the subjects did not
finish the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) questionnaire. “Missing
data” includes three subjects who did not participate in the survey. Bold
represents the highest percentage among participating students.
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62
Studies that use the MBTI often consider the four dichotomous
scales. As noted in Table 6, the business students in the sample preferred
extraverted (50.6%), sensing (59.7%), thinking (58.7%), and judging
(53.0%) modes of learning over introverted (49.4%), intuitive (40.3%),
feeling (41.3%), and perceiving (47.0%) modes of learning, respectively.
According to Li’s (2003) study using Taiwanese nursing college
students, a similar result occurred on both studies, except for the
extraverted/introverted dimension. In her study, introverted students
were more represented than extraverted.
The most common learning preference among the students at the
institute of technology was ISTJ, a combination of introversion, sensing,
thinking, and judging. Once again, using Li’s (2003) as a comparison, a
similar result showed on both studies. ISTJ is also the most common
learning style in her study.
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Table 6
Dichotomous Scales For Participating Business Students
Dichotomous N %
Scales___________________
E 196 50.6
I 191 49.4
S 231 59.7
N 156 40.3
T 227 58.7
F 160 41.3
J 205 53.0
P 182 47.0
Note. Bold represents the highest percentage among participating
students
Discussion of Research Question One
Of the 16 types, the most frequent learning style among the
business students in the sample was ISTJ (15.3%), followed by ESTJ
(9.5%). However, according to the individual dichotomous scales, the
preference for extroversion fell short of the preference for introversion
by only a fraction. With the distribution of the four dichotomous scales,
preferences for extroverted, sensing, thinking and judging styles stood
out as the most common dimensions.
These findings are partially supported by Western studies (Cooper
& Miller, 1991; Kalsbeek, 1986; Carland & Carland, 1987; Tobacyk and
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64
Cieslicka, 2000). Tobacyk and Cieslicka (2000), for example, using 107
Polish marketing/management students, indicated that the distribution
of the four dichotomous scales among marketing/management students
revealed greater proportions of students who preferred extraversion,
sensing, thinking, and judging. In contrast, in my study ISTJ emerged as
the most common of the 16 types, followed by ESTJ. In other studies,
business majors were more inclined to be extroverted, sensing, thinking,
and judging in their learning styles than non-business students (Cooper
& Miller, 1991), especially with regard to the sensing and judging
dimensions (Carland & Carland, 1987).
The most common learning style among business students at the
institute of technology in Taiwan was ISTJ descriptively. Students with
a preference for ISTJ in learning tend to be introverted and depend
primarily on sensing to gather and process information and on thinking
to draw conclusions. People with such preferences are involved mainly
with the inner world of experiences and ideas. They also pay more
attention to facts and instructions. They make decisions through
impersonal analysis and logic, and seek cause and effect. The common
characteristics of people with ISTJ preferences are that they are quiet,
serious, successful as a result of their thoroughness; they are practical,
realistic, and responsible; they decide logically what should be done and
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65
work toward it steadily; and they take pleasure in making everything
orderly and organized (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998).
Results for Research Question Two:
Family Background vis-a-vis Learning Style
The results from the second research question [“Is there a
relationship between family background (parents’ educational level) and
students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?”] showed that
there was a significant difference (X 2 = 124.090,p = .010) in the father’s
educational level among the 16 types by using chi-square as the test
statistic, but not in the mother’s educational level (x2 = 91.073, p = .449).
Students with fathers who lacked a high school degree followed the
learning style pattern of ISTJ. In contrast, students whose fathers
graduated from high school tended to be ESTJs. However, students with
fathers who held college or university degrees preferred ISTJ and ISFP
learning styles.
Among the total sample of business students in Taiwan the most
common educational level for both parents was high school or
vocational school (N of students’ fathers = 147, N of students’ mothers
= 138). Table 7 presents the frequency distribution of the 16 types by
father’s educational level.
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66
Table 7
The Ranking o f the MBTI Scores o f Participating Business Students by
Father s Education Level
\E d u .
Lfeyel
Ranking
Elementary Junior High Senior High/
Voc. Sch
College
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ISTJ 21 29.6 ISTJ 16 19.5 ESTJ 19 12.9 ISTJ 8 12.9
2 ESFJ 8 11.3 ENTJ 8 9.8 ENFP 17 11.6 ISFP 8 12.9
3 ISFJ 7 9.9 ISFJ 8 9.8 ISTJ 15 10.2 ENTP 7 11.3
4 ESTJ 6 8.5 ISFP 8 9.8 ENTP 13 8.8 ESTJ 5 8.1
5 ENTP5 7.0 ESTJ 6 7.3 ESTP 1 1 7.5 ENTJ 5 8.1
6 ISFP 5 7.0 ESTP 6 7.3 ISFJ 10 6.8 ENFP 4 6.5
7 ENFP 3 4.2 ENFP 6 7.3 ENFJ 9 6.1 ISFJ 4 6.5
8 ESTP 3 4.2 ISTP 6 7.3 INFP 9 6.1 ESTP 3 4.8
9 ISTP 3 4.2 ESFP 5 6.1 INTP 8 5.4 ESFJ 3 4.8
10 ENFJ 2 2.8 ENTP 3 3.7 ESFP 7 4.8 ENFJ 3 4.8
1 1 INFP 2 2.8 INFP 3 3.7 ENTJ 6 4.1 ISTP 3 4.8
12 INTJ 2 2.8 ESFJ 2 2.4 ISFP 6 4.1 INTJ 3 4.8
13 ENTJ 1 1.4 INTP 2 2.4 INTJ 6 4.1 INFP 3 4.8
14 ESFP 1 1.4 ENFJ 1 1.2 ISTP 4 2.7 INTP 2 3.2
15 INFJ 1 1.4 INTJ 1 1.2 INFJ 4 2.7 INFJ 1 1.6
16 INTP 1 1.4 INFJ 1 1.2 ESFJ 3 2.0 ESFP 0 0
Discussion of Research Question Two
There was a significant difference in the father’s educational level
among the 16 types of learning styles. In contrast, no significant
relationship was found between the mother’s educational level and the
16 types. The results support an earlier study by Matthews (1995),
which indicated that the father’s educational level is correlated with a
student’s learning style development and the socioeconomic level of the
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67
family. The findings suggest that the level of father’s education might
influence children’s development into types.
Among the total sample of business students at the institute, the
most common level of education for both parents was high school or
vocational school. A greater number of students had mothers who had
not received any education than fathers who had not attended school.
On the other hand, there were a greater number of students whose father
had received a college or graduate degree than those whose mother had
received such an education. This trend might be explained by Taiwan’s
history of male dominance in the household. In previous years, parents
traditionally sent their boys to school, not the girls, because the male
family members were given the responsibility of finding jobs and taking
care of the family’s livelihood. Receiving a higher education often
meant procuring a higher paying job. Female family members, on the
other hand, were given the responsibility of taking care of the children
and the household. In such a system of male dominance, fathers
generally held the authority and meted out the discipline. Therefore, the
educational level of a student’s parents might directly factor into a
student’s learning style. To provide students with adequate support to
fulfill their learning needs, educators must be aware of students’
individual differences, including their backgrounds.
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68
Results for Research Question Three:
Learning Styles vis-a-vis Students’ Biological Characteristics
The third research question [“Is there a relationship between
students’ biological characteristics (gender and age) and their scores on
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator”] was analyzed using chi-square as the
test statistic. The results demonstrated that there was no significant
difference between genders among the 16 types. The ranking of the
frequency distribution by gender of the types is summarized in Tables 8.
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69
Table 8
The Ranking o f the MBTI scores o f Participating Business Students by
Gender
^ ''''\< je n d e r
R a n k in g ''''\
Male Female
MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ISTJ 17 14.8 ISTJ 44 16.2
2 ENTP 13 11.3 ESTJ 28 10.3
3 ESTP 11 9.6 ISFJ 27 9.9
4 ESTJ 10 8.7 ENFP 22 8.1
5 ENFP 9 7.8 ISFP 20 7.4
6 INFP 8 7.0 ENTJ 17 6.3
7 ENTJ 7 6.1 ENTP 17 6.3
8 ISTP 7 6.1 ESTP 16 5.9
9 ISFP 7 6.1 ESFJ 12 4.4
10 ESFJ 5 4.3 ENFJ 12 4.4
1 1 INTJ 5 4.3 ISTP 12 4.4
12 ESFP 4 3.5 INTP 12 4.4
13 ENFJ 4 3.5 INFP 11 4.0
14 INTP 4 3.5 ESFP 9 3.3
15 ISFJ 2 1.7 INTJ 7 2.6
16 INFJ 2 1.7 INFJ 6 2.2
To examine the relationship between age and type, I grouped age
into three categories: 1) 15-18 year-olds; 2) 19-22 year-olds; and 3)
23-25 year-olds. The results indicated that there was no notable
connection between age and the 16 types using chi-square as the test
statistic which results were supported by Li’s (2003) study. The ranking
by age group of the 16 types is summarized in Tables 9.
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70
Table 9
The Ranking o f the MBTI Scores o f Participating Business Students
by Age Groups
Groups
R anking^\
15 to 18 19 to 22 23 to 25
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ENFP 16 9.7 ISTJ 39 19.9 ISTJ 8 30.8
2 ESTP 15 9.1 ISFJ 21 10.7 ESTJ 5 19.2
3 ISTJ 14 8.5 ESTJ 20 10.2 ESTP 2 7.7
4 ESTJ 13 7.9 ENTP 16 8.2 ENTP 2 7.7
5 ENTJ 13 7.9 ENFP 15 7.7 ESFP 1 3.8
6 ENTP 12 7.3 ISFP 14 7.1 ENTJ 1 3.8
7 ISFP 12 7.3 ESTP 10 5.1 ENFJ 1 3.8
8 ISTP 10 6.1 ESFJ 10 5.1 ISTP 1 3.8
9 INFP 10 6.1 ENTJ 10 5.1 ISFJ 1 3.8
10 ENFJ 9 5.5 ISTP 8 4.1 ISFP 1 3.8
1 1 INTP 9 5.5 INFP 8 4.1 INTJ 1 3.8
12 ESFJ 7 4.2 ENFJ 6 3.1 INTP 1 3.8
13 ESFP 7 4.2 INTP 6 3.1 INFP 1 3.8
14 ISFJ 7 4.2 ESFP 5 2.6 ESFJ 0 0.0
15 INTJ 7 4.2 INTJ 4 2.0 ENFP 0 0.0
16 INFJ 4 2.4 INFJ 4 2.0 INFJ 0 0.0
Discussion of Research Question Three
In this study, there were 115 male students and 272 female students.
No significant relationship emerged between the 16 types and gender.
The mean age in the study was 18.83 years old, the median 19 years old,
the mode 19 years old, and the standard deviation 1.94 years in the total
sample (N = 387). Students ranged from 15 to 25 years old. Among the
16 types, there was no significant showing in regard to age. A possible
explanation for the finding is that the sample of business students is
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71
very heterogeneous given that percentage under each dichotomous is
very closely represented to half and half. No significant difference
under age groups was found among the 16 types which was supported
by Li’s (2003) study.
Results for Research Question Four:
Learning Style vis-a-vis Majors
The fourth research question [“Is there a relationship between
students’ majors (Information Management, International Trade,
Banking and Risk Management, and Applied Foreign Languages) and
their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?”] was analyzed by
using chi-square as the test statistic. At a .05 level of significance,
chi-square was used to examine the differences in the 16 types
according to the four different majors. Statistically there was no
• y
significant difference (X = 43.793, p = .523) found in the 16 types
among the four majors (Information Management, International Trade,
Banking and Risk Management, and Applied Foreign Languages).
Tables 10 presents a comparison of the type distribution among the
participating business students with majors in Information Management,
International Trade, Banking and Risk Management, and Applied
Foreign Languages. The most common learning style among the
students was ISTJ, except for those who majored in Banking and Risk
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72
Management, for whom ESTJ was more common.
Table 10
The Ranking o f the MBTI Scores o f Participating Business Students
by Majors_______________________________________________
^ M ajo r
Rankihg^
MIS Int’l Trade Applied LAN Banking
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ISTJ 23 18.0 ESTJ 19 15.1 ISTJ 1 1 17.2 ESTJ 9 13.0
2 ENTP 15 11.7 ESTP 14 11.1 ESTJ 9 14.1 ENFP 8 11.6
3 ISFP 14 10.9 ESFJ 12 9.5 ENFP 6 9.4 ISTJ 8 11.6
4 ESTP 8 6.3 ESFP 10 7.9 ENFJ 5 7.8 ISFJ 7 10.1
5 ENFP 8 6.3 ENTJ 10 7.9 ISTP 5 7.8 ESTP 5 7.2
6 INTP 8 6.3 ENTP 10 7.9 ESTP 4 6.3 ENTJ 5 7.2
7 ENTJ 7 5.5 ENFJ 9 7.1 ENTP 4 6.3 INFP 5 7.2
8 ISTP 7 5.5 ENFP 9 7.1 ISFJ 4 6.3 ESFJ 4 5.8
9 ESTJ 6 4.7 ISTJ 6 4.8 INFP 4 6.3 ESFP 4 5.8
10 ENFJ 6 4.7 ISTP 5 4.0 ESFJ 3 4.7 ISTP 4 5.8
1 1 ISFJ 6 4.7 ISFJ 5 4.0 ESFP 2 3.1 ENFJ 3 4.3
12 INFP 5 3.9 ISFP 5 4.0 ENTJ 2 3.1 ISFP 3 4.3
13 ESFJ 4 3.1 INTJ 4 3.2 INTJ 2 3.1 ENTP 2 2.9
14 ESFP 4 3.1 INTP 3 2.4 INTP 2 3.1 INTJ 1 1.4
15 INTJ 4 3.1 INFJ 3 2.4 INFJ 1 1.6 INTP 1 1.4
16 INFJ 3 2.3 INFP 2 1.6 ISFP 0 0.0 INFJ 0 0.0
Discussion of Research Question Four
In this study, there was no significant relationship between the
students’ majors and the 16 learning style types. A possible explanation
might be that the subjects sampled came from only one institution, and
one that focuses on the field of business. Therefore, “identification of
personality profiles of students in majors within business schools is
more difficult,” and “expected intra-college differences between majors
are probably smaller than the differences between college majors”
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73
(Tedefalk, 1988, p. 2). Moreover, one possible explanation is that
students in the field of business were taught in the similar philosophy
which might be matched with the idea of MBIT. Therefore, there might
have no obvious significant relationships exited in the study.
Results for Research Question Five:
Learning Styles among Academic Degree Programs
The analysis of research question number five, [“Is there a
relationship between academic degree programs (two-year associate
degree program, five-year associate degree program, two-year
baccalaureate program, and four-year baccalaureate program) and their
scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator”] revealed no significant
relationship between academic degree programs and the 16 learning
style types. The most common learning style among students in the
two-year associate program, the two-year bachelor degree program, and
the four-year bachelor degree program was ISTJ (n = 7, n = 11, n = 27,
respectively). In the five-year associate degree program, however,
students preferred ENFP (n = 18). Table 11 presents the ranking of the
16 types by academic degree program.
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74
Table 11
The Ranking o f The MBTI Scales o f Participating Business Students
by Academic Degree Programs______________________________
\ ^ r o g .
Rankihg^
2AA 5AA 2BA 4BA
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ISTJ 7 17.9 ENFP 18 11.2 ISTJ 1 1 36.7 ISTJ 27 17.2
2 ENTP 6 15.4 ISTJ 16 9.9 ESTJ 6 20.0 ISFJ 16 10.2
3 ENFP 6 15.4 ESTJ 14 8.7 ENFJ 2 6.6 ESTJ 14 8.9
4 ESTJ 4 10.3 ESTP 14 8.7 ISFJ 2 6.6 ENTP 13 8.3
5 ISFJ 4 10.3 ENTJ 12 7.5 ISFP 2 6.6 ISFP 12 7.6
6 ENTJ 3 7.7 ISFP 12 7.5 ESTP 1 3.3 ESTP 10 6.4
7 ESTP 2 5.1 ENTP 1 1 6.8 ESFP 1 3.3 ESFJ 10 6.4
8 INFP 2 5.1 ISTP 1 1 6.8 ENTJ 1 3.3 ENTJ 8 5.1
9 ESFJ 1 2.6 INTP 10 6.2 ISTP 1 3.3 ESFP 7 4.5
10 ENFJ 1 2.6 INFP 10 6.2 INTJ 1 3.3 ENFJ 7 4.5
1 1 ISTP 1 2.6 ISFJ 7 4.3 INTP 1 3.3 ENFP 7 4.5
12 ISFP 1 2.6 ESFJ 6 3.7 INFP 1 3.3 ISTP 6 3.8
13 INFJ 1 2.6 ENFJ 6 3.7 ESFJ 0 0.0 INTJ 6 3.8
14 ESFP 0 0.0 ESFP 5 3.1 ENTP 0 0.0 INFP 6 3.8
15 INTJ 0 0.0 INTJ 5 3.1 ENFP 0 0.0 INTP 5 3.2
16 INTP 0 0.0 INFJ 4 2.5 INFJ 0 0.0 INFJ 3 1.9
Discussion of Research Question Five
The results of the study indicated that there was no significant
influence of academic degree programs on the distribution of learning
preferences among the 16 types. These findings are echoed by Li (2003)
who also found no significant difference among the 16 types with
regard to academic degree programs in a study using students at a
technological and vocational school in Taiwan. A possible explanation
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75
for the lack of significance in the present study might be that there were
too few students in the two-year associate degree and two-year bachelor
degree programs to allow for sufficient comparison.
Results for Research Question Six:
Learning Style vis-a-vis Academic Performance
The results of the sixth research question [“Is there a relationship
between students’ academic performance (college entrance exam,
semester grade point average) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator?”] revealed that there was a significant relationship
between grade point average (GPA) and the 16 types of learning
preferences (y2 = 55.437,/? = .003). This was not the case, however, for
the college entrance exam. At a .05 level of significance, chi-square was
used to examine the differences in the 16 types of preferences according
to students’ college entrance exam scores and semester GPAs. Tables 12
and 13 and Figure 4 display the distribution of GPAs among the 16
MBTI Types. The most common type for students who scored below 70
was ENTP (n = 16). Students with scores between 70 and 79.99 and
with scores above 80 shared a preference type of ISTJ (n = 32 and n =
19, respectively), which also registered as the most common learning
style.
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76
Table 12
The Ranking o f Grade Point Average by MBTI Type
\ G P A
R a n k in g
<70 70- 79.99
> =
= 80
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ENTP 16 13.9 ISTJ 32 16.6 ISTJ 19 24.1
2 ESTP 12 10.4 ESTJ 21 10.9 ISFJ 12 15.2
3 ISFP 12 10.4 ENFP 18 9.3 ESTJ 9 11.4
4 ISTJ 10 8.7 ENTJ 15 7.8 ESTP 8 10.1
5 ESTJ 8 7.0 ENTP 14 7.3 ENTJ 6 7.6
6 ENFP 8 7.0 ISFJ 13 6.7 ENFP 5 6.3
7 ISTP 8 7.0 ESFJ 11 5.7 ISFP 5 6.3
8 INFP 8 7.0 ENFJ 10 5.2 INTP 4 5.1
9 INTP 6 5.2 ISFP 10 5.2 ESFP 3 3.8
10 ESFJ 5 4.3 INFP 10 5.2 ENFJ 2 2.5
1 1 ENFJ 4 3.5 ISTP 9 4.7 ISTP 2 2.5
12 ISFJ 4 3.5 ESTP 7 3.6 INTJ 2 2.5
13 INTJ 4 3.5 ESFP 7 3.6 ESFJ 1 1.3
14 INFJ 4 3.5 INTJ 6 3.1 INFP 1 1.3
15 ESFP 3 2.6 INTP 6 3.1 ENTP 0 0.0
16 ENTJ 3 2.6 INFP 4 2.1 INFJ 0 0.0
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77
Table 13
The Ranking o f Mean o f GPA by MBTI Type
GPA
Ranking
MBTI Mean SD Min. Max.
1 ISFJ 76.52 7.26 57.00 57.00
2 ENTJ 74.96 6.16 62.00 62.00
3 ISTJ 74.89 7.81 54.00 54.00
4 ESTJ 74.05 7.95 55.00 55.00
5 ESFP 73.00 8.80 58.00 58.00
6 ENFJ 72.63 5.85 63.00 63.00
7 ESFJ 71.88 5.10 65.00 65.00
8 ENFP 71.87 7.65 52.00 52.00
9 INTJ 71.17 8.22 52.00 52.00
10 INFP 70.95 5.53 60.00 60.00
1 1 ISFP 70.70 8.45 56.00 56.00
12 INTP 70.44 13.58 31.00 31.00
13 ESTP 70.22 9.78 52.00 52.00
14 ISTP 69.37 8.75 45.00 45.00
15 ENTP 67.80 5.46 59.00 59.00
16 INFJ 64.13 9.52 50.00 50.00
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78
Figure 4
Distribution o f Grade Point Average by MBTI Type
Distribution of GPA in MBTI
<
0 .
C 3
100
90
80
70
60
50
40 -
30 - |
20
10
0
16 Types
I Min
I Max
M ean
After examining the relationship between the learning styles of the
16 MBTI types and college entrance exam scores, no significant
variation was found. As noted in Tables 14 and 15 and Figure 5, the
most common learning style among students with exam scores below
200 was ENFP (n = 17). For those with scores between 200 and 299.99
or 300 and 399.99 the more frequent preference was ISTJ. Students in
the category of ISFJ tended to score between 400 and 499.99 in addition
to having the highest mean scores among the students tested.
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79
Table 14
The Ranking o f College Entrance Exam by MBTI Type
\ E n t .
exam
Ranking^
<200 200--299.99 300- 399.99 4 0 0 - 499.99
MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N % MBTI N %
1 ENFP 17 13.1 ISTJ 25 21.2 ISTJ 18 22.5 ISFJ 9 15.3
2 ESTJ 14 10.8 ESFP 2 1.7 INTJ 1 1.3 ISTJ 8 13.6
3 ENTJ 13 10.0 ESTJ 11 9.3 INFJ 1 1.3 ENTP 7 11.9
4 ISTJ 10 7.7 ISFP 10 8.5 ISFJ 9 11.3 ESTJ 6 10.2
5 ISFP 10 7.7 ESTP 9 7.6 ESTJ 7 8.8 ESTP 5 8.5
6 ESTP 9 6.9 ESFJ 8 6.8 ENTP 7 8.8 ESFP 5 8.5
7 INFP 8 6.2 ENTP 8 6.8 INFP 6 7.5 ENTJ 3 5.1
8 ENTP 8 6.2 ENTJ 6 5.1 ENFP 5 6.3 ENFP 3 5.1
9 INTP 7 5.4 ENFJ 6 5.1 ISFP 5 6.3 ISTP 3 5.1
10 ESFJ 6 4.6 ENFP 6 5.1 ESTP 4 5.0 ISFP 2 3.4
11 ISTP 6 4.6 ISTP 6 5.1 ENFJ 4 5.0 INTJ 2 3.4
12 ENFJ 5 3.8 ISFJ 6 5.1 ISTP 4 5.0 INTP 2 3.4
13 ISFJ 5 3.8 INTJ 4 3.4 INTP 3 3.8 INFP 2 3.4
14 INTJ 5 3.8 INTP 4 3.4 ESFJ 2 2.5 ESFJ 1 1.7
15 ESFP 4 3.1 INFJ 4 3.4 ESFP 2 2.5 ENFJ 1 1.7
16 INFJ 3 2.3 INFP 3 2.5 ENTJ 2 2.5 INFJ 0 0.0
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80
Table 15
The Ranking o f Mean o f College Entrance Exam by MBTI Type
x\E n t.
exam
R an k in £ \
MBTI Mean SD Min. Max.
1 ISFJ 324.24 99.28 170.00 489.00
2 ESFP 311.31 124.06 148.00 492.00
3 ENTP 291.37 98.92 172.00 490.00
4 ISTJ 282.56 83.30 168.00 474.00
5 ISTP 274.47 98.80 143.00 488.00
6 INFP 267.16 100.88 151.00 464.00
7 ESTP 266.11 95.04 168.00 480.00
8 ESTJ 266.03 95.89 158.00 456.00
9 ENFJ 257.06 76.96 162.00 420.00
10 INTJ 254.17 101.08 174.00 450.00
11 INTP 253.31 84.59 170.00 418.00
12 ISFP 245.70 77.89 172.00 442.00
13 ENTJ 236.88 88.26 150.00 440.00
14 ESFJ 235.88 66.48 173.00 430.00
15 INFJ 235.38 74.74 157.00 386.00
16 ENFP 235.10 87.03 115.00 400.00
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81
Figure 5
Score Distribution o f College Entrance Exam by MBTI Type
Distribution of College Entrance Exam in MBTI
500
£ S 300
LU CO
16 Types
l ------ 1
Min
Max
Mean
Discussion of Research Question Six
A significant relationship between the 16 types and grade point
averages emerged when they were analyzed using chi-square. The most
common learning type among those with scores below 70 was ENTR
The common characteristics of ENTPs are that they are quick and
outspoken; creative in solving new and challenging problems; adept at
generating abstract possibilities and then analyzing them strategically;
bored by routine and not inclined to do the same thing the same way
twice (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Scores between
70 and 79.99 and scores above 80 shared the same preference type of
ISTJ. Moreover, students who preferred ISFJ had the highest mean
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8 2
scores. The learning style of ISTJ was also found significantly in Li’s
(2003) study under the same grade categories of the scores between 70
and 79.99 and with scores above 80. An explanation might be using
lectures is the main teaching method in Taiwan which is best suited for
ISTJ learners. ISTJ learners preferred a structured learning environment.
This type of students usually gets rewarded with a higher grade point
average. Students who preferred ISFJ had the highest mean scores.
These findings were also partially supported by Tharp (1992), who
demonstrated that ISFJs have a higher GPA than those of the lowest four
types (i.e., the ISFPs, ESTPs. ESFJs, and ESFPs). The common
characteristics of ISFJ types are that they are quiet, friendly, and
accountable; committed and steady in meeting their responsibilities;
understanding, and attuned to specifics about people important to them;
and likely to create an orderly and harmonious environment at work and
at home (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). Moreover,
Anchors and Robbins (1988) suggested that learning styles relate to
persistence in education. Given this information, educators must be
aware of students’ individual differences and be sensitive to their
personal learning styles if they are to provide adequate academic
support and if they are to be successful in guiding their students through
an effective learning experience.
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83
Summary
The research questions for the study were designed to identify the
learning styles of business students at an institute of technology in
Taiwan. The most common type of learning style among the students
was ISTJ. Among the factors tested, parents’ educational level, students’
biological characteristics, academic degree programs, and the choice of
majors appeared to have no influence on the 16 MBTI learning types.
One exception to this trend was grade point averages under the category
of academic performance.
The overall findings of the study have implications for future
research in the field. Chapter 5 presents a summary and conclusions
drawn from the findings. It also outlines the study’s implications for
business education and makes recommendations for further research.
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84
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS
EDUCATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of the Study
The purpose of this study was to analyze the learning styles of a
sample of 387 business students at an institute of technology in Taiwan
using as the instrument the Chinese version of Form G of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The study examined common
learning types among business students. It also investigated whether the
educational level of a student’s parents, a student’s biological
characteristics such as gender and age, participation in particular
academic degree programs, major field of study, and academic
performance as measured by grade point average (GPA) and college
entrance exam factor into learning style preference as reflected in the
MBTI’s 16 types. Six research questions directed the present study.
1. What is the most common learning style of business students in
Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between family background (parents’
educational level) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
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85
3. Is there a relationship between students’ biological characteristics
(gender and age) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator?
4. Is there a relationship between students’ majors (Information
Management, International Trade, Banking and Risk Management,
and Applied Foreign Language) and their scores on the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator?
5. Is there a relationship between academic degree programs (two-year
associate degree program, five-year associate degree program,
two-year baccalaureate program, and four-year baccalaureate
program) and students’ scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
6. Is there a relationship between students’ academic performance
(college entrance exam, semester GPA) and their scores on the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?
This was a descriptive and exploratory study using the Chinese
version of Form G of the MBTI as the instrument. Past research has
indicated that the MBTI has strong reliability and validity for measuring
learning style preferences (Hickcox, 1995; Myers, McCaulley, Quenk,
& Hammer, 1998). The findings of the present study are briefly
summarized below.
The most frequent of the 16 types among the students in this
sample (n = 387) was ISTJ (15.3%), which is also consistent with the
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8 6
findings of Li (2003) who studied Taiwanese nursing college students.
Moreover, in terms of the four dichotomous scales, preferences for
extraversion (50.6%), sensing (59.7%), thinking (58.7%), and judging
(53.0%) were the most common selections, which previous studies
(Cooper & Miller, 1991; Tobacyk and Cieslicka, 2000) also support.
Overall, the 16 types of preferences only differed with regard to the
educational level of the students’ fathers. Given that male dominance is
still a societal phenomenon in Taiwan, one must consider that the
father’s educational level may have some impact on the student’s
learning type development as well as on the student’s selection of a
school and course of study. Therefore, a further research is
recommended including the learning styles of fathers.
Similar results were also found in examining the relationship
between learning styles and students’ biological characteristics, in that
no significant difference was found among the 16 types with respect to
gender and age. There was a similar result found in Li’s (2003) study,
no significant different occurred in age. One explanation for this finding
might be that the sample was an overly homogenous group with ages
that ranged only from 15 to 25 years old. If part-time students, who are
traditionally of diverse ages, were to be included in the study, the
limitation might be overcome.
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87
Parallel findings occurred when the connection between type
preferences and academic degree programs (two-year associate degree,
five-year associate degree, two-year bachelor degree, and four-year
bachelor degree) were investigated. There was no significant
relationship between the 16 types and academic degree programs, a
finding that was also supported by Li (2003) in a recent study. One
possible explanation for this result is that there were too few students in
the two-year associate degree (n = 38) and two-year bachelor degree
programs (n = 30) to allow for a sufficient comparison. In future studies,
a broader range of students in academic degree programs should be
included to remedy the shortcoming.
There was no significant difference found in the 16 types with
regard to major. A possible explanation for the finding is that the study
only sampled one institution in the field of business. According to
Tedefalk (1988), determining students’ learning style profiles might be
difficult within a single discipline category and the results between
majors might be small. Moreover, the students in the field of business
might be taught with the similar principles as MBTI’s. Further research
should be considered that would take as a sample a general four-year
college with multiple disciplines instead of a single business discipline.
Another alternative would be to sample a number of schools from
within the same category of technological and vocational education
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8 8
system rather than from a single institution. Additional studies might
consider including an informal interview or questions on the
demographic sheet that ask why a student chose the field of business
and its anticipated career paths, to determine whether factors other than
personality inform the choice of a major.
The results of examining the relationship between learning styles
and academic performance as measured by a GPA and college entrance
exam indicated that a significant difference existed with regard to GPAs
and the 16 types. Compared to Li’s (2003) study, ISTJ is also found
significantly in the grade sectors with scores between 70 and 79.99 and
with scores above 80. One possible explanation might be students who
preferred ISTJ mode of learning preferred the common teaching method
of structured lecturing. This type of students usually might earn a higher
grade point average. The preferences for sensing and judging learn best
through a method of teacher-led question and answer with repetition and
drill exercises which are the main teaching style in Taiwan. Teachers in
Taiwan usually use drills, workbooks, lectures, and memorization in
class. These types of students usually receive a higher score on quizzes
or exams. Higher scores in the GPA were received by students who
prefer sensing or judging modes of learning. Similar results were also
found in observing the association between college entrance exams.
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89
Conclusion
The goal of this study was to explore business students’ learning
styles determined by MBTI scores and to understand the relationships
between the different variables in this study and the MBTI scores
among students. In planning an efficient and effective curriculum
educators must consider the individual differences of their students.
Originally, it was thought that the learners in Taiwan might show a
difference in a certain style because it was thought to be a homogenous
student group with a teacher-centered style of teaching; however, it was
not the case. From the present study, it was shown that ISTJ is the most
preferable style descriptively; however, it only represented 15 % of the
sample. Moreover, the results showed that all types of learners exist in
the field of business with nearly 50-50 representation on each
dichotomous scale and a result of no significance in every variable,
except the one regarding students’ academic performance. It was a
heterogeneous group, rather than a homogenous one with an expected
learning style predicted by major, gender, and age. There was a wide
variety of learning styles in the classroom. Therefore, if teachers wish to
reach these students and provide effective learning environments, they
need to vary their teaching approaches. Otherwise, according to the
study, they are only reaching, at most, 15% of the sample, which is the
largest group doing best with the main teaching style in Taiwan -
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90
lectures. It is also the group with the highest grades. If teachers began
adapting a variety of teaching strategies, the remaining 85% of the
students might learn more effectively with the matched styles. As a part
of the future research, an analysis of the effectiveness of the various
teaching styles along with the students’ learning style might be
considered.
Abetter understanding of learning preferences can be
advantageous to teachers, students, schools, and even society. Teachers
must be aware of individual differences to provide academic support
accordingly. In addition, teachers, like students, can benefit from
knowing their own strengths and weaknesses to better design lesson
plans that promote critical thinking and stimulation. Students can
benefit by being able to build on their own strengths and to work on
their weaknesses in learning. Schools that provide adequate support gain
from making teachers and students assets of the institution and by
generating revenue from retaining more efficient teachers and producing
more effective students. Society in turn benefits from having effective
and efficient people working in various fields, who contribute to the
creation of a wealthy public and a harmonious society.
Implications for Business Education
A school is responsible for providing students with knowledge and
skills. The goal of business education is to generate and train productive
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91
members of society with particular competences. This study outlines the
learning preferences of business students at an institute of technology in
Taiwan using the Chinese version of Form G of the MBTI. The findings
of this study provide information and knowledge that can improve
curriculum and program design, lead to academic and social support,
and ultimately enhance the learning outcomes of business college
students. The information derived from the study can be used to adjust
modes of teaching, arrange student participation, design student
assignments, and seek other means to enhance learning. The author
suggests two specific areas in which this information could be applied:
(1) faculty development and (2) student orientation and career
counseling. Turning students into assets of an institution begins with the
schools’ cooperation in providing sufficient faculty development, in
promoting an awareness of students’ learning styles, in holding
supportive student orientations, and in offering effective career
counseling to establish the foundation for the balanced social and
intellectual life of an institution.
Faculty Development in Promoting Awareness
Faculties usually teach according to whatever method they are
most comfortable with as learners. In colleges and universities in the
United States, lecturing is the most common method of knowledge
delivery to students. This method is also traditional and widely used in
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92
Taiwan, but given every student’s unique learning preference, such an
approach may not reach every student. This type of teaching method
tends to favor sensing and judging learners who prefer structure and
memorization. It is no surprise that such students had significantly
higher grades than others in this study. These finding suggests that
students perform better in school when the teaching style matches their
own learning preferences. Fairhurst and Fairhust (1995) have found
evidence of students excelling when a teaching-leaming match occurred.
The Sjs, for example, prefer an instructional mode of lectures with clear
and concrete procedures and enumerated facts. They learn best through
a method of teacher-led question and answer with repetition and drill
exercises. The SPs tend to like a teaching mode of performances that
involve a manipulation of materials to learn the subject matter. They
learn best through presentation that integrates action and hands-on work.
Like the SJs, the NFs prefer an instructional mode of lectures, but about
real people, beliefs, and actions of influential people, ideas, and values.
The NFs learn best through small group discussions and projects and
through one-on-one interaction. The NTs tend to like a teaching mode of
lectures, but about abstract and intellectual subjects and on the topic of
future trends. They learn best through independent study and debate.
Given these various preferences, teachers must be flexible and use
alternate teaching techniques to meet the learning needs of the entire
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93
group and to promote an effective learning experience for everyone. For
the SJ learners, teachers have many tools at their disposal: workbooks,
lectures, course outlines, memorization, and rhetorical questions. The
SP students favor techniques such as audiovisuals, drama, and debate.
With the NF learners, teachers can draw from activities such as writing
notes to students, peer tutoring, discussions, creative writing, and
divergent thinking. For the NT students, teachers may relay on learning
activities such as the Socratic method, independent study, exercises in
divergent thinking, and lectures.
With support from the school to provide faculty development
workshops that elevate awareness of learning preferences, faculties will
be better able to understand their own learning and teaching preferences
and characteristics, as well as their students’. In fact, faculties can use
this information to provide various modes of teaching or lecturing,
arrange student participation, and design student assignments that
promote the effective transfer of knowledge. Moreover, faculty
development workshops can help teachers gain the “know-how” to
utilize these teaching techniques effectively and efficiently. Beside the
faculty development workshops, faculty meetings offer teachers the
opportunity to share their opinions and experiences. During this time
faculties can relay teaching pointers to others to help them cope with
their students’ problems. Moreover, faculty meetings could serve to
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94
develop awareness among teachers of students’ various learning styles.
By using collaborative learning among faculties, effective teaching
strategies can be developed that arise out of an understanding of
students’ learning preferences.
Student Orientation and Career Counseling in Understanding Students
A current problem among business students in Taiwan is that they
often lack sufficient competencies and efficient working attitudes. To
solve this problem, research has suggested that determining and
understanding students’ learning preferences may be a first step in
reforming teaching materials, methods, and curriculum to fulfill the
needs of most companies in the business community and to satisfy
demand within the job market.
Before working with a career counselor to find a suitable job,
students should look to their student orientations to learn more about
themselves and begin on the right track toward achieving their career
goals. Student orientations are often the first place students become
familiar with the social and academic life of an institution. During the
orientation, schools can provide various workshops for students, such as
sessions in which students are guided through a process of discovering
their own learning preferences using a personality inventory like the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Students can later use this information for
self-exploration, major selection, academic advisement, or career
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95
planning. A supportive student orientation not only eases the transition
to college by introducing academic strategies, social support, and
information about campus life, but it also provides a means for students’
self-exploration through the knowledge of learning styles. The
inventory administration process has been found to be particularly
helpful in broadening the self-knowledge of adult students, empowering
them to develop their own learning strategies, and, in the long term,
encouraging them to take responsibility for learning throughout their
life.
In an effective career-counseling program, counselors should
communicate with schools frequently to gain adequate support. They
also need to be in close contact with companies to know what they are
looking for in hiring employees and to provide feedback to schools to
improve the education. With plenty of support from the schools and
knowledge of what the job market requires, the counselors should use
various personality instruments such as the MBTI to help students
choose their major and plan their career. Such information can provide a
framework for knowing students’ interests, strengths, and weaknesses.
Moreover, this information may help students cope with social and
academic problems by providing various learning strategies and
adjustments.
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96
An example from the Bronx Community College of the City
University of New York’s Freshman Outreach, Caring, Understanding,
and Support (FOCUS) Center (Baron, 1997) shows successful evidence
of the implementation of an orientation and counseling program to
increase student persistence. The Freshman Year Initiative Program
(FYIP) was established in 1991 at Bronx Community College. It was an
academic and counseling program designed to improve academic
achievement for a select group of first-semester students who required
at least three remedial courses in English composition, reading, and/or
mathematics. The program included a Freshman Outreach, Caring,
Understanding, and Support (FOCUS) Center, that provided assistance
with vocational, personal, academic, and social counseling;
psycho-education testing, including the Noel-Levitz Retention
Management System, the Myers-Briggs Type Indictor, and the
California Occupational Preference Survey; peer counseling and
tutoring; a rapid contact counseling system; and a revised orientation
and career development course. The results showed that the program
was effective in that the retention rate from the Fall of 1993 to the Fall
of 1994 for FYIP freshman participants was 76.5%, whereas for
non-FYIP freshman participants it was only 59.3%. Moreover, FYIP
participants received higher grades in developmental and college-level
courses and withdrew less and received fewer incompletes.
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97
Recommendations
While the findings of this study can contribute to our
understanding of the learning behavior of Taiwanese business students
at an institute of technology, more research is needed. This study
recommends pursuing further the following issues:
1. Verification of type occurrence: Replicate this study, with a larger
sample of business students for a generalized conclusion. Two
recommendations regard future uses of variables such as majors and
academic programs. First, in the present study, the results showed
that there is no significant relationship between majors and learning
styles. It is recommended that in future studies a consideration of
the type of institution or the number of institutions be addressed
because of possibility of. Further research is proposed that would
also sample a general four-year college instead of just an institution
from the sector of technological and vocational education.
Alternately, one could gather information from a number of
institutions of the same type, i.e. technological and vocational
schools. Furthermore, an informal interview or questions on the
demographic sheet regarding the reasons why a student chose the
field of business and its anticipated career paths should be included
to determine if any factors other than personality influence the
choice of a major. Second, it is clearly that the selection of an
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98
academic degree program is a possible indicator of students’
learning preferences and development. In future research, an
informal interview or questions on the demographic sheet regarding
reasons for choosing a particular academic degree program should
be included to expand our understanding of the selection process,
and to point to factors other than personality that may influence the
choice of a program. Besides the non-significant variables, a further
research should use the significant variable such as grade point
average to understand a more detailed relationship between
academic performance and learning style. A study habit form,
interest profiles, ways of preparing exams might include on the
demographic sheet.
2. “True” type: Collective behavior is an important factor in Chinese
society. A learning type of a person from Asian countries might
influence biologically, culturally, or environmentally. Future
research should consider using a longitudinal study to determine the
stability of business students’ “true” learning styles.
3. Validity and reliability: The validity and reliability of the Chinese
version of Form G of the MBTI needs to be examined in further
research. Moreover the Chinese version of Form M of the MBTI is
now available. The validity and reliability of both Forms G and M
should be examined for further validation.
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99
4. To match, or not to match: Comparisons of situations where
teaching-leaming styles are matched with situations in which they
are not matched would provide a more thorough understanding of
the relationship between pedagogy and learning preferences in
looking at students’ learning outcomes.
Summary
The goal of this study was to enhance the education of Taiwanese
business students by identifying their learning preferences. Recognizing
students’ learning preferences allows teachers to reach a diverse
audience of students. Teachers must work with other teachers and the
schools to provide an effective learning experience for their students.
Teachers should keep in mind that no single learning style is better than
others. Being an effective teacher implies recognizing individual
differences among students and adjusting and selecting teaching
methods accordingly.
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100
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Appendix A
Permission from the Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology
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W f t #1 ^ fk .
The Overseas Chinese Institute of Tecnnoiogy
e t p f B S S y f t S S 'O O S g T E L : * 8 3 4 - 4 - 2 7 0 1 6 8 5 6
No. K)0, Chioo K wang Rd., T okhung 4 0 7 , Toiwon.R.O.C.
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It’s our pleasure to have you in oor institute to do yotar research and . sthveyi
Ifyou need any help, please don’ t Whesitated to contact me at: .
President@ocit.edu.tw
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OrerseaS. Chinefe Institute of Technology;
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112
Appendix B
Permission from Institutional Review Board
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113
m wm s-ijx-
( I W J l '
CAUPOKNIA '
Office of the Provost
University Park
Institutional Review
Board {U P IR B )
University of
Southern California
Los Angeles,
Caitotma 900S9-1635
T e ):2 !3 8 2 rsm
Fax: 213821 52?$ .
t^roair.
upsrb@usc.edu •
I MVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA_
U n iv e r s ity P a r k I n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v ie w B o a r d
MPA No. M-1299
Review of Research Involving Human Subjects
APPROVAL NOTICE
Date: April 5,2004
Principal Invastigatort'st: Melora Snndt, PiJD. I Pei-Shfh Chen
Project Title::- Assessment of Taiwanese Business Students’ Learning Styles Using
the Mycrs-Briggs Type Indicator
USC UPIRB # 04-04-124
The University Park Institutional Review Board has reviewed the information you
submitted pertaining to the above proposal at its meeting o f N/A______ and has:
3 Approved study Educ-Psych SocWk Socio Bus Annen
G Approved the Delegated Review jy Q D D D D
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-Approved continuation
D Approved amendment
UJApproved under the expedited review by the Delegated Reviewer - 45 CFR 46.110
Category# 7
(Approved with conditions on April 2,2004)
Conditions of Approval;
The Investigators must provide the following requested information prior to proceeding research (which
includes contacting, recruiting* and enrolling potential subjects) or adhere to the following conditions:
1. Please clarify the purpose of the study in the “Purpose of the Study” section of
the Information Sheet Please explain the purpose in greater detail or provide
an example for clarification purposes.
2. Please provide an Information Sheet in Tai or Chinese, it is not clear what
language the subjects speak as the surveys are currently in Chinese.
3. Please provide a local phone number or email address in the contact
information of the information sheet where the investigator can be reached, the
subjects should not be expected to call the United States to reach the
investigator.
4. Please format your Information Sheet according to the attached “Guidelines for
Formatting IRB Documents.”
5. Please note that no subjects may be contacted or recruited until all the above
forms have been submitted to and approved by the UPIRB, and a revised
approval notice has been issued.
IRB APPROVAL EXPIRES! April 1. 2005 . Your protocol is approved for a 12-
month. period. If this research study continues beyond 12 months, you must request re
approval of this study prior to the expiration date by submitting an Application for
Continuing Review Status Report Form. This form should also be used when your study
is completed to notify the UPIRB.
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114
University Park IRB Approval "Notice
Page 2 of 2 -
NOTE: The IRB must review all advertisements and/or recruiting materials. Serious
adverse events, amendments and/or changes in the protocol must be submitted to the
UPIRB for approval Changes may not be implemented until you have received the
Board’s approval. Exception: changes involving subjects’ safety may be implemented
prior to notification to the UPIRB.
Principles To Be followed By Principal Investigators:
As the Principal Investigator, you have ultimate responsibility for the conduct of the
study, the ethical performance of the project, tire protection of the rights and welfare of
human subjects, and strict adherence to any stipulations imposed by the USC UPIRB.
You must abide by the following principles when conducting your research:
1. Perform the project by qualified personnel according to the approved protocol.
2. Do hot implement changes in the approved protocol or consent form without prior
USC UPIRB approval (except in a life-threatening emergency, if necessary to
safeguard the well-being of human subjects.
3. If written consent is required, obtain the legally effective written informed consent
from human subjects or their legally responsible representative using only the
currently approved USC-UPIRB stamped consent form.
4. Promptly report all undesirable and unintended, although not necessarily unexpected
adverse reactions or events, that are the result of therapy or other intervention, within
five working days of occurrence. All fetal or life-threatening events or events
requiring hospitalization must be reported to the USC UPIRB in writing within 48
hours after discovery.
5. No subjects may be identified, contacted, recruited, or enrolled until the University
finalizes the contract with the sponsor.
Marlene S. Wagner, PhJ)., Chairperson
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115
Appendix C
The English Version of Information Sheet for Participating Students
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116
University of Southern California
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Assessment of Taiwanese Business Students’ Learning
Styles Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Melora
Sundt, PhD, and Pei-Shih Chen, Doctoral Candidate, from the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California. The
results will contribute to Ms. Chen’s dissertation. You were selected as a
possible participant in this study because you are enrolled in full-time,
day-time programs of 2 year associate degree, 5 year associate degree, 2
year bachelor degree, or 4 year bachelor degree at the Overseas Chinese
Institute of Technology in Taiwan. A total of 400 subjects will be
selected from Overseas Chinese Institute of Technology in Taiwan to
participate. Your participation is voluntary.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying
to learn more about identifying the learning style of business students in
Taiwan to better understand the relationship between business students’
learning styles and their learning outcomes. The research results will
serve several functions in 1) establishing structures of learning styles in
current students of institute of technology in Taiwan in order to aid the
Department of Education of Taiwan in understanding business students’
characteristics as a reference for improving learning environment and 2)
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117
helping to analyze effects of students’ learning style use in promoting
the development of professional skills.
Completion and return of the questionnaire or response to the interview
questions will constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PROCEDURES
You will be asked to fill out the Traditional Chinese Version of Form G
of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which consists of 94 questions with
an additional demographic sheet. The total length of time to complete
the survey and demographic sheet is approximately 20 minutes.
Directions for completion of the questionnaire are given in the
questionnaire. Please do not put your name on any forms. All
information disclosed in the demographics and the MBTI questionnaire
will be kept anonymous. This is a voluntary participation. You have the
right not to participate in this survey.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Minimal. If you wish to withdrawal from the study, you may do so
anytime.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There is no direct benefit to you for participating in this study. The
results of the study can help society in understanding business students’
learning characteristics for future learning environment improvement.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There will be no payment for participation.
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118
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that
can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed
only with your permission or as required by law.
Please do not put your name on any form. All information disclosed in
the demographics and the survey will be kept anonymous. Your
responses will never be personally connected with you in any way. The
data are coded and will be stored at co-principal investigator’s home
personal computer with password-protected only the investigator can
access to the data. Data will be erased after completing the degree.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in
conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your
identity.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to
be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of
any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t want
to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw
you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so.
Your participation may be terminated by the investigator without regard
to your consent when you show any sign of irritation of filling out the
survey or the demographic sheet.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel
free to contact Melora Sundt at 213-740-2157. The school address is
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119
USC Rossier School of Education, WPH 503, Los Angeles, CA 90089.
Or to Pei-Shih Chen at 626-445-1919.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue
participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims,
rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.
If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject,
contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Building, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
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120
Appendix D
The Chinese Version of Information Sheet of Participating Students
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121
Melora Sundt n ± m n n m n ± G M x
ftlo
*»^ iik E 3sa»ii< feiiw ± 5fe»«i2|i«-
w & & m
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m & ,
igm niM M
^ 1 4
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123
l i f e ' M ' f t — iH l f i;±MMfof t ^ ? , / t f f e ( f t £ f £
f t^ jf c jS S , , FJffeftS^
tMSS&ttffifiS, M & #feffl& A #$fliftaftm ii± , SM #fe
m i t m m m ^ o
5 n m w ^ fe m » a ± a a w g s , ^ * # ftfa * m ¥ 5 ii« ff tft#
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^ R r& & » # n ^ # n a /fcto fflss , jn m ^ # n w s ^ , tfnw
j ^ j i » f i # B # r a j i a i , , m $ t
A#niLtfFift#Jt, ^ m ffcW ftM ^ iS ^ sftm s^ feo
Wi^AftSIJl^j^C
!& , S fflW * ltJl2 1 3 -7 4 0 -2 1 5 7 tt Melora Sundt ,
^ peishihc@usc.edu
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124
® mm,o , r t u j s ^ w
University Park IRB !$$8b Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Building, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA
90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@use.edu.
Appendix E
The English Version of the Demographic Sheet
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125
Identification Number:
Age:_______ years old Gender: □ Male a Female
Type of Program You Are Enrolled in:
n 2-Year Associate Degree 1 = 1 5-Year Associate Degree
D 2-Year Bachelor Degree D 4-Year Bachelor Degree
What Year You Are Currently in: □ 1st □ 2n d □ 3rd □ 4th □ 5th
What Major You Are Currently in:
n Accounting a Applied Language □ Banking
n Business Administration Q Business Law n Finance
□ Information System n International Trade
□ Marketing D Undecided
Highest Level of Education Completed by Your Parents:
Father Mother
None D D
Elementary n D
Junior High School D n
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126
High School or Vocational School n n
Junior College n D
University D a
Graduate School a a
I do not know a D
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127
Appendix F
The Chinese Version of the Demographic Sheet
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128
M l : _____________________
14^!): □ M D &
mm-.
□
□ □ m &
□ 1st □ 2n d D 3rd n 4th D 5th
□ # !+ □
D >4 # D n S W n MM
□ f i m □
n m m r n m r n w :
2 $
□ °
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129
□ □
g |i£ □ n
D D
A M D n
ffiftpfr G n
□ □
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130
Appendix G
The English Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Form G Self-Scorable (Revised Version)
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136
Appendix H
The Chinese Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Form G Self-Scorable (Revised Version)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Chen, Pei-Shih
(author)
Core Title
Assessment of Taiwanese business students' learning styles using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, business,education, curriculum and instruction,Education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Sundt, Melora (
committee chair
), Hagedorn, Linda Serra (
committee member
), Stromquist, Nelly (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-384323
Unique identifier
UC11340943
Identifier
3180467.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-384323 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
3180467.pdf
Dmrecord
384323
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Chen, Pei-Shih
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, business
education, curriculum and instruction