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Community college English courses: The road less traveled by community college students
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COMMUNITY COLLEGE ENGLISH COURSES: THE ROAD LESS TRAVELED
BY COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS
by
Tammy Renee Robinson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2004
Copyright 2004 Tammy Renee Robinson
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UMI Number: 3140547
Copyright 2004 by
Robinson, Tammy Renee
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1 1
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my beautiful daughter, Morgan. You have inspired
me to be the best that I can be. Thank you for understanding all of my hard work and
dedication to this.
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Ill
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my advisor, and dissertation chair, Dr. Linda Serra
Hagedom. I could not imagine going through this arduous process without you.
You have shown me what a true professional is, a true educator is, and what a true
friend is. I will always look up to you because you brought out greatness in me. I am
honored to have worked with you throughout this process and I hope to continue our
relationship long after this dissertation is finished. I would also like to acknowledge
Dr. Melora Sundt, who is my greatest critic. We all need you in our lives to make us
better and help us to reach new heights. I thank you for your tireless effort in helping
me throughout this doctoral and dissertation process. Next, I would like to thank Dr.
William Maxwell. I want to acknowledge your professionalism and zest for my
work. I will always remember your enthusiasm in my defenses when I was scared to
death. I would also like to thank and acknowledge my benefactor, Verna Dautrieve.
You generously gave to my education in the Rossier School of Education for four
years and it is now my life's goal to show you that you have made a great investment
in me. I will continue your generosity. Lastly, I would like to thank and acknowledge
all of those behind the scenes at the University of Southern California. I would not
have been able to make it through this process without the help of the support staff at
the campus.
This dissertation has my name on it, but many have participated on my behalf
to help me reach this goal. I must first thank my friend, mentor, confidant, colleague
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IV
and surrogate mom, Professor Rosa Lee Blaekiston. Without you, I would not have
been a member of the University of Southern California, Rossier Sehool of
Education. You were always in my comer and worked tirelessly for me to get in the
program and stay through all of my adversity. Next, I would like to thank Professor
Harry S. Blaekiston, who aided in being my editor, critic, friend, mentor, and
surrogate father throughout this process. There is no doubt that I could not have
finished without you. Also, I would like to thank Dr. Stephen R. Greene for his
tireless dedication and coaching. You have been in my comer for many years and
helped me when there was no one else around. You will always hold a very special
place in my heart. You will always be my friend and I know I can count on you.
I would like to thank my brother, Curtis E. Robinson, who cannot remember
a time when I have not been a student. Well, you are about to see what I look like. I
hope you recognize me. You have been the best older brother any sister could ask
for. I must also acknowledge my aunt and uncle, John and Pat Page. You both
epitomize what it means to be family. Thank you for making my life important and
being there for almost every single important event. My additional family members
include my cousin Melvin McGautha, and my brothers, Caesar, Joshua and Hiram all
of whom have been very supportive during this long and worthy process. Of course I
must thank, my vivacious mother, Carolyn Ann Robinson, who is the proudest
mother on earth. I thank her for always believing in me. You have truly been my
loudest cheerleader. My daughter, Morgan Renee Robinson Hale, you are the love
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of my life. I hope that you are as proud of me as I am of you. You are my greatest
joy and I can only hope that you will look upon me as an inspiration and continue my
legacy of excellence. There are many people who I will thank quickly and this does
not minimize their space in my heart. My best friends: Cheryl Morgan, Joyce
Bastoli, Leslie McDaniel, Stephanie Cole, Violet Bastoli, George Bastoli, Jana
Calvert, the entire Greene family, Kenneth Ballard and my sister-in-law, Tara
Robinson. They have all contributed to my success and for that I am forever
grateful.
I would like to thank my colleagues who have always supported me and
wondered how I ever found the time to complete a doctorate, be a mother and teach
full-time. It is possible to do it all. And lastly, I would like to give thanks to God. He
has given me the strength when I did not think I had anything left. He provided me
with direction to walk on faith and believe that I can do anything I put in motion. I
give the glory to Him. And as this signals the eompletion of my long journey in
achieving my final degree, I would hope that my students look to me as their role
model. I would hope that they see a young girl with a dream to better her life. I hope
they see a young girl who was not afraid to make the hard choices and sacrifice
because the prize is worth it all. I thank you all for all of your love, help, and
guidance.
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VI
Table of Contents
Dedication............................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................iv
A bstract................................................................................................................................ vi
Chapter 1...............................................................................................................................1
Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem....................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................ 4
Purpose of the Study...............................................................................................7
Significanee of the Problem...................................................................................9
Research Questions.................................................................................................. 9
Significance of the Study.......................................................................................10
Role of Remediation and the Identity Crisis......................................................13
Obstacles of Open-Entry/Open-Exit....................................................................20
Methodology...........................................................................................................23
Assumptions...........................................................................................................23
Limitations..............................................................................................................23
Delimitations..........................................................................................................24
Definition of Terms...............................................................................................24
Organization of Study............................................................................................25
Chapter 2 .............................................................................................................................. 27
Remedial English and the Community College................................................. 27
Literature Review.................................................................................................. 27
Historical Perspective............................................................................................28
Student Profiles...................................................................................................... 29
Academic Models.................................................................................................. 30
Use of Learning Communities............................................................................. 33
Opposition to Remediation...................................................................................34
Obstacles to Student Success................................................................................40
Conclusions.............................................................................................................42
Implications............................................................................................................52
Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................. 50
Research Methodology........................................................................................ 54
Research Questions...............................................................................................54
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Vll
Methodology..........................................................................................................55
Research Population..............................................................................................55
Research Design.................................................................................................... 56
Sample Selection................................................................................................... 52
Protocol.................................................................................................................. 57
Data Analysis.........................................................................................................51
Student Selection................................................................................................... 54
Structured Interviews............................................................................................55
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................................................. 57
Findings...................................................................................................................57
Focus Groups.........................................................................................................57
Table 1: Focus Group Population Distribution................................................. 58
Reliability of Placement Test...............................................................................59
Quality of Instruction............................................................................................65
Over Confidence and Lack of High School Preparation..................................68
Supportive Services and Computer Skills-Typing, Internet, surfing.............. 75
Transfer Student Issues........................................................................................ 76
Chapter 5............................................................................................................................. 89
Conclusions............................................................................................................. 89
Persistence Issues................................................................................................... 90
Retention and Student Confidence......................................................................93
Support Services.................................................................................................... 99
Transfer Issues......................................................................................................102
Recommendations................................................................................................ 105
Final Analysis.......................................................................................................106
Future Studies.......................................................................................................110
References........................................................................................................................ I l l
Appendix A ...................................................................................................................... 125
Appendix B ......................................................................................................................127
Appendix C ......................................................................................................................128
Appendix D ...................................................................................................................... 130
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Abstract
Taking a descriptive approach, this dissertation examined English courses taken by
students in the Los Angeles Community College District, specifically at an urban
community college. Since the placement test can be a predictor of student
persistence and retention, this dissertation took a detailed look at the assessment
students were given and the course patterns they followed as a result. Part of the
California Community College mission is to offer English courses from the very
basic to transfer-level. However, reaching transfer-level English completion is a key
determinant for persistence and retention. This dissertation explored the factors that
contributed to a frequency of repeating certain courses by these students and their
levels of frustration about their placement and remedial course outcomes. These
factors were studied by using the qualitative data approach in the form of focus
group and individual interviews. The students who participated in the study
provided valuable insights about their experiences at the urban community college.
They gave candid answers regarding their experiences with placement and if they
felt confident about it. They informed the researcher about other issues involving
remedial classes and their confidence with their outcomes. The students in the focus
groups also shared their experiences with uses of supportive services.
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CHAPTER 1
Community College English: The Road-Less Traveled
Introduction
Remedial education— also known as developmental, preparatory, or basic
skills— grew as the percentage of students poorly prepared in secondary school
swelled community college rolls (Cohen and Drawer, 1996). The apparent
breakdown of basic academic education in secondary schools in the 1960s, coupled
with the expanded percentage of people entering college, brought remedial education
to the fore (Cohen and Drawer, 1996). Contemporarily, many students continue to
enter college unprepared to do college-level work. Even though the definition of
what skills students need to be successful in a college environment continues to
remain ambiguous, assessment exams are used to place students, especially those in
community colleges, in the appropriate courses. After exam results are published,
many students are advised to enroll into an English course that can be one or two
levels below the college-level course.
Some relevant questions are: does the exam accurately place the students in
the appropriate courses? Once placed into the appropriate English courses, the
persistence and retention of these students varies because of the differing
competency levels of students. The purpose of this study is to examine the
persistence and attitudinal issues faced by students after they take the assessment
exam. The research questions are: What is the relationship between the results of the
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community college assessment and the persistence of students in their remedial
courses? Is there a relationship between the frequency of repetition in remedial
English classes and student confidence in their initial course placement? Is there a
relationship between self-reported student knowledge and usage of supportive
services (writing centers, counseling, faculty intervention, etc.) and satisfactory
course progression?
Background of the Problem
It is not a new phenomenon that students are not doing well in school and are
unprepared and under-prepared to do college-level work after graduating from high
school. The literacy rates of high school graduates began to deteriorate in the mid-
1960s, resulting in the matriculation of a large proportion of college students with
inadequate basic skills (McCusker, 1999). Duckett (1996) cites a Post-Secondary
International Network study, which claims that between 50 percent and 70 percent of
university and college students in the United States need remedial and developmental
support. Students continue to require more education after completion of high
school. For many, attending their local community college becomes almost a last
hope for gaining the skills and training necessary to compete economically after high
school. Moreover, community colleges are low cost, accessible, and open door
institutions that are in place to address the needs of the economically disadvantaged
and under-prepared population of students.
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Many students are in need of more education before even considering going
on to the senior institutions. The number of academically under-prepared students
attending college has been increasing in recent years (Batzer, 1997). Thus, there is a
parallel need for effective remedial programs to prepare students for college-level
work. The issue of remediation presents itself here in the form of English courses.
Colleges and universities across the nation are eliminating remedial English
programs. Students are asked to leave their 4-year senior institutions if they cannot
demonstrate certain competencies in a short time frame. In recent years, the
California State University system and the City College of New York have expelled
students for not meeting particular competency levels in English and math.
Adelman (1996) cites a longitudinal study conducted by the National Center for
Educational Statistics that examined the academic careers of 2.45 million students in
more than 2,500 institutions. O f the students in the study who had earned more than
a semester of college credit by 1993, 55 percent of those who did not take any
remedial courses and 47 percent of those who took only one remedial course eamed
bachelor’s degrees. In comparison, 24 percent of those students who took three or
more remedial courses eamed bachelor’s degrees. The data show that those students
who needed remedial math fared better in their studies than those who needed
remedial reading: “Deficiencies in reading skill are indicators of comprehensive
literacy problems, and they significantly lower the odds of a student’s completing
any degree”(p. A56). Adelman further reports that 1 out of 8 students took remedial
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reading courses, and 65 percent of this group needed to take at least three other
remedial courses, including math.
According to Colby and Opp (1997), three different perspectives exist on this
issue. Many argue that inadequate high school standards and programs, coupled
with a lack of parental concern and support, are culpable. Others believe that
developmental education properly belongs in adult schools, or the private sector.
This has already been decried in New York City. A third perspective asserts that
fostering access to higher education is one of the community colleges’ primary
missions and if the community colleges abdicate their responsibility for teaching
under-prepared students, this “denies the reality of today’s educational landscape”
(Colby & Opp, 1997). Whatever the views, students who enter with deficient skills
need more education in order to do well in college.
The problem of academic preparedness of our students in their early school
years is an important societal issue. The depth of the need is certainly one reason that
this issue must be addressed. Additionally, intervention needs to happen at the high
sehool and middle sehool institutions, so that alliances can be formed with
community colleges. Colby and Opp (1997) report that state higher education
policymakers intentionally concentrate the remedial role within two-year colleges to
free public colleges and universities from this function. Community colleges are
places where these students, who are often ineligible to enter four-year institutions,
can receive help to strengthen their skills and obtain a college education that would
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otherwise be out of their reach due to poor basic skills (Adelman, 1996).
Carrasquillo (1986) reports a study that surveyed first-year community college
students enrolled in remedial English reading at the City University of New York
community colleges. Student biographical data were collected, as were the students’
reasons for taking remedial English and their belief about how the course would help
them attain their academic goals. The college used this study to become familiar
with its students and also as an aid to match students with appropriate teaching
techniques and goals. McCusker (1999) states to be effective, surveys should be
clearly written and provide a range of responses. Allowing student input will aid in
tailored services for them that might increase the response rate and the validity of the
responses. Institutions can benefit by extending the process into a longitudinal
survey that can track students’ progress throughout their remedial and non-remedial
course taking. This would aid counselors, teachers, and administrators make
necessary adjustments to student-centered programs. Statement of the Problem
Since most students enter the two-year institution without much background
with higher education, they do not understand the role of assessment and may
experience difficulty when attempting to register in an unfamiliar environment. A
study conducted at Southwestern Community College in North Carolina, Conlin
(1989) found that 30 percent of the students who needed additional help did not
register for remedial courses (although they had been placed there by testing) or
registered for the incorrect course. This resulted in negative effects on students’
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grade point averages and class retention rates. With more information, early
intervention programs such as pre-registration counseling can be used. In addition,
referrals to counselors and tutors might help to prevent students’ poor attendance or
decrease the inclination to drop out (Hennessey, 1990). Another intervention strategy
is evident in a Maxwell (1997) report. She states that experience and research
indicate that stand-alone remedial courses are not cost-effective and “have negative
effects on students’ attitudes and expectations, force students to take longer to finish
degrees, lower their self-concepts, and make it more difficult for them to shed the
image of being at-risk students” (1997). One solution Maxwell (1997) offers to
combat these problems is to establish a strong Learning Assistance Center containing
the following characteristics: be course-related, be systematic with highly structured
group tutoring, have some computer instruction, and provide developmental course
credit.
Crawford (1993) also concurs that developmental as well as orientation
courses should be assigned credit. He states that the more credit you award students,
the more time they will spend working on that course. These findings are similar to
earlier work done by Roueche and Champaigne. Addressing the dropout rate caused
by discouraged remedial students faced with up to five remedial courses, Roueche
(1984) suggests assigning elective credit to some of the courses. Champaigne (1981)
also arrives at a comparable conclusion in his study at the Community College of
Finger Lakes, New York. He describes how the college initiated the Personalized
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Approach to College Education (P.A.C.E.) program, a federally funded pilot
program, in 1974. The program is team-taught and uses a developmental approach
designed to improve basic college-level skills for academically deficient students.
One of the criteria for enrollment is that students not have a high school
diploma. The student simultaneously enrolls in the high school equivalency
program, which provides no college credit, but is coordinated with his or her college
credit courses. The P.A.C.E. program consists of each student enrolling in a nine-
credit core course, consisting of English, math, and college study skills. The student
also enrolls in one or two courses in a program of interest. A grade is issued for each
of the three core courses. In this study, success was tracked and compared for the
years 1974, 1976, and 1981.
In 1974, the percent of students still in school or who graduated was 44
percent; in 1976, 48 percent; and in 1981, 53 percent. The study also found that 65
percent of all P.A.C.E. students attained a grade point average of 2.1 or better, and
23 percent had a 3.1 or better. The student attrition rate declined 4 percent from
1974 to 1976 and 4.8 percent from 1976 to 1981. Champaigne’s study scrutinized
many aspects of the program, including course implementation and student profiles.
Although assigning credit to courses that were formerly noneredit was not the only
the contributing factor to the rise in student success, it likely boosted student
motivation, especially for those students who saw themselves without a high school
diploma, as being far behind their peers.
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Studies also reveal that the uses of innovative techniques such as computer
technology aid in students’ performance in remedial courses. Successful structures
and teaching practices that use multiple learning systems provide reinforcement for
student success. Yevoli (1993) states that computers, which are one example of a
different learning system, can be used to review, test, provide motivation, and
incorporate relevant activities through the use of e-mail and word processing
applications. Similarly, Roueche (1996) reports computers are an innovative
approach to teaching and learning in the community college. She states that
computers can be used in various ways, including posting class notes, using e-mail to
clarify questions or problems, accessing World Wide Web resources, and for support
services. Moore (1993) also reports that students had positive gains in reading and
math with computer-based instruction at the Cumberland campus of Nova Scotia
Community College.
Purpose of the Study
Since community colleges have been institutions that are shaped by economic
and societal need, the definition of success varies. Hennessey (1990) suggests that
community colleges too often equate success with retention in remedial programs,
forgetting two other main goals: (a) preparation for other college level courses and
(b) improvement of skills that enable students to complete a degree program or
perform better in the work force. All students entering the community college
system must take some form of an assessment test. Clearly, this is designed to aid
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students in their overall sueeess with their eollege-level work. This early intervention
becomes essential as institutions address the needs of the student population,
especially with the open door and open admission policy of the community colleges.
This study examines the remedial English course performance of students in the Los
Angeles Community College District. The primary purpose of this study is to
examine the relationship between the number of remedial courses taken and their
effect on other college outcomes such as persistence and retention.
Significance of the Problem
The purpose and the mission of the community college vary greatly and that
is also true of the population that enters its doors. One essential element is
“knowing” the incoming student population. To help achieve this, randomly selected
remedial students can be surveyed or all incoming basic skills students can be
required to fill out a brief biographical and self-evaluation questioimaire (McCusker,
1999). Some people believe that two-year colleges, as institutions of higher learning,
should not offer any developmental courses. They maintain that such education
belongs in adult schools, the private sector, or on-the-job training (Colby & Opp,
1987). This argument is often advanced by faculty who feel their work environment
would be improved if students were better prepared to handle course requirements
(Brawer & Friedlander, 1979, p.32). However, this recommendation goes against
the Truman Commission Report establishing community colleges in the first place.
Additionally, the state higher education policy makers intentionally concentrate the
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10
remedial function within two-year colleges in order to free the state colleges and
universities of this function.
This study examines the function of the remedial English course progression
taken by students at the Los Angeles Community College District, specifically at an
urban community college. The primary purpose of this study is to examine the
relationship between the number of remedial courses taken and their effect on other
college outcomes such as persistence and retention. Further the study will use
descriptive research techniques to ascertain student perceptions of their experiences.
Finally, the study examines whether the variables representing the number of courses
taken influence success of future course eompletion.
Research Questions
Question 1: What is the relationship between the results of the community
college English assessment and the persistence of students in their remedial
course(s)?
Question 2; Is there a relationship between the frequency of repetition in
remedial English classes and student confidence in their initial course placement?
Question 3: Is there a relationship between self-reported student knowledge
and usage of supportive services (writing centers, counseling, faculty intervention,
etc.) and satisfactory course progression?
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11
Significance of the Study
The community college is an outgrowth of many societal needs. Community
colleges’ early history in expanding educational opportunity represents a uniquely
Ameriean success story. Established in 1901, the first two-year “junior” colleges
were dedicated to providing access and education to the mass population, often
serving as a bridge between the high school and the university (Phelan, 2000). As
technology was continually changing, these institutions were in a position to educate
and ready the workforce. Cohen and Brawer (1996) introduce the question often
asked in the early history of this institution, “What knowledge yields the greatest
tangible benefit to individuals or to soeiety?” Since the knowledge that will be of
benefit to society is recurrently changing, it has been complicated because of the role
community colleges play in educating a population that would have been locked out
of more selective institutions.
Additionally, the mission and the purpose of the institutions has continued to
work to meet the changing needs and it leaves itself open to decide about its
effectiveness. This question is eontinually asked when one studies the purpose and
the mission of the community college.
After the Truman Commission report at the elose of World War II, the concept of a
“community college within commuting distance of every Ameriean” eame into
being. This institution was to provide not only the first two years of pre
baccalaureate education, but also career (i.e., vocational) education, continuing
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12
education, employee training and community service (Phelan 2000). Eells’s
definition (1931) of the junior college included the university branch campuses
offering lower-division work either on the parent campus or in separate facilities.
Hence, the name “junior college” was coined and widely used. The Truman
Commission Report advocated that junior colleges become an avenue to provide
educational access for the vast majority of American youth and adults. This early
vision permeates the United States’ system of community colleges today. Pointing
to inequities and emphasizing the importance of expanding educational access
beyond high schools, the Truman Commission proclaimed:
If the ladder of educational opportunity rises high at the doors of some youth
and scarcely rises at all at the doors of others, while at the same time formal
education is made a prerequisite to occupational and social advance, then
edueation may become the means, not of eliminating race and class
distinctions, but of deepening and solidifying then. It is obvious, then, that
free and universal access to education, ... must be a major goal of American
education (U.S. President’s Commission on Higher Education, 1948,
p.36).
The president’s message was clear that education was a major priority for the
advancement of citizens in the United States. As a result of the president’s message
and his commitment to educational access, community colleges began to expand
throughout the country. The president’s report addresses the issues that continue in
modem day. The vision of the message holds true, that without access to education
the people at large will continue to have deeper societal problems. Therefore, the
creation of the neighborhood college with access for all who want to attend became a
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13
revolutionary act that changed the face of education. Hence, the number of two-year
institutions grew while demand and support for community colleges also grew at
exponential rates. The number of colleges increased from 20 institutions in 1909; to
667 in 1958; 1,091 in 1971; and then to 1,238 in 1991. In 1997-1998, there were
1,092 public two-year institutions; 184 private, nonprofit two-year institutions; and
an estimated 500 private, for-profit two-year institutions (Phelan, 2000). Junior
colleges helped to relieve the senior institutions (especially those dedicated to
research) from the burden of teaching first and second year students (Diener, 1986;
Frye, 1992).
The emphasis with community colleges was on teaching rather than research.
Also, accessibility was a key factor that leads to the success of these institutions.
They have also evolved into institutions that deal with the factors leading to college
success and student proficiency. At the end of the two years, students are able to
transfer to senior institutions. An outstanding manifestation of this is Joliet Junior
College. Joliet Junior College is widely acknowledged as the first junior college in
the United States and retains its original name today. Doing so recognizes its early
role in bridging the local high school with the university. Upon graduation, Joliet
Junior College students received advanced standing in their entrance to the
University of Chicago (History of Joliet, 2000). Therefore, the institution was
fulfilling the mission of transfer and this function served as a model for future
institutions.
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With the evolution and accessibility of the community college, enrollments
also have spiraled upwards, growing from approximately 16,000 students in 1909 to
more than 10.2 million students in 1997. According to the American Association of
Community Colleges, approximately 5.2 million students sought credit instruction in
1994, while an additional five million students were pursuing training, retraining,
capacity building or personal development instruction (i.e., non credit activities).
Community colleges currently enroll 44 percent of all undergraduates attending
colleges and universities nationwide (Phelan 2000). Communities without higher
education institutions in close proximity welcomed the chance to provide citizens
with access to collegiate education beyond the 12* grade (Bragg, 2001). Clearly, the
community colleges have made an impact on the delivery of education. It has opened
the door to many who either did not desire the traditional approach or had varying
reasons for needing a briefer more directed educational experience. The idea of this
institution fulfilling this need for education as well as for soeiety is directly related to
the Truman Commission report of creating the necessary access for all citizens who
were indeed able to get to their neighborhood college. This idea of access and
opportunity for all also feeds into the argument about the misunderstood nature of
those who attend. Since community colleges do cost less, and do not have strict
admission criteria, many leaders refuse to see the necessity o f having these
institutions. Nevertheless, community colleges continue to remain innovative and
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15
certain that their function will probably never be clear because they must continually
amend it as the needs of the population they serve transform.
Role of Remediation and the Identitv Crisis
Additionally, two-year institutions are not as homogeneous as their four-year
counterparts. The community college has been able to address the needs of diverse
student populations. The mission and the purpose of these schools have been
misunderstood throughout its history. The social transformation of our nation reflects
the need for changes in American higher education and community colleges are a
major part of the American institution of education. Community colleges serve a
dynamic role in the educational structure to prepare students for the workforce or
university transfer. In spite of everything, the society they serve has always varied
and modemly it serves mostly “nontraditional students.” Historically, colleges have
geared their curriculum and focus on “traditional” college students. These are
students who come to college without breaks from high school and attend college.
Generally, they are 18-20 years of age, have no children and attend college full-time.
The “non-traditional” college student is generally older— about 24-28 years of age.
They have been out of school for a period of time and they have other
responsibilities such as a family and/or work. These populations also attend college
largely on a part-time basis. With this in mind, the community college has become
an attractive place for “non-traditional” students because of the structure and the
accessibility. This is also a supplement to the mission of the two-year institutions.
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Almost anyone can attend them at almost anytime and classes can be held at any
number of places. These institutions welcome innovation because the focus is to get
the job done and reach the masses that feel locked out o f traditional educational
settings.
According to The American Community College (1996), the history of the
community college student is one that parallels the need for trained manpower. Until
the 1900s, two essential components were not yet in place; sizable numbers of
students graduating from high school, and public school districts managing
secondary schools to which they could readily append two more years of curriculum,
with or without special legal sanction (Cohen, 1996, p.l 1). In 1919, McDowell
submitted the first doctoral dissertation describing the junior college movement. He
found the roots of the junior college and acknowledged that the universities had
supported the junior college because of their need to divert the many freshmen and
sophomores whom they could not accommodate. He also traced the expansion of
secondary school into grades 13 and 14 and the conversion of many church colleges
and normal schools into junior colleges (Cohen, 1996).
The diseussion about the evolution of the junior college continued to take
place during the 1920s and 1930s. From the very beginning, junior colleges have
searched for an identity. Were they expanded secondary schools or truncated
colleges? Initially, the school districts were broken up into three types: elementary
schools including grades 1- 6, junior high schools with grades 7-10, and combined
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high schools and junior colleges with grades 1 1 -1 4 . The model was called the 6-4-4
plan. This plan had mass appeal at the time. It allowed an avenue for students to take
if furthering their education was not their aspiration. It also allowed teachers to teach
at either the high sehool or the junior eollege levels. With this plan in plaee for the
junior eolleges in the nation, Harvard president James Bryant Conant viewed the
community college as a terminal education institution: “By and large, the occasional
road should fork at the end of the high school, though an occasional transfer o f a
student from a two-year college to a university should not be barred” (quoted in
Bogue, 1950, p. 32). This attitude about the community college student abilities
continues to illustrate the misunderstood value of this institution. The Harvard
president’s eomment shows that he is certain that the status quo will not be harmed
by letting a few students enter the program through this system because only the
superior students will seek an education beyond the 10* grade with the 6-4-4 plan.
Diener (1986) cites as our society continually changes, educational
institutions are faced with meeting the needs of industrialization, urbanization,
immigration, rising equalitarianism and the increasing secularization of society. All
these and many more forees were producing a new nation. Our nation was becoming
more centralized and cohesive during the 19* century. With the nation evolving,
there was a greater need to outreaeh to the community. Services to adults in the
community became increasingly necessary. Following World War II, the junior
college expanded still further. Continually, it beeame necessary to open the door for
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women, blacks, Hispanics and other minority members, and to working men and
women who needed to upgrade their job skills or broaden their vocational needs.
Also, the doors were open to retirees and those making mid-life career changes, and
to citizens interested in the economic, cultural or political development of their
community.
Thus, the continuing and evolving needs of the population challenge the
missions of the community college. By law, the California Community Colleges
shall admit any California resident and may admit anyone who is over 18 years of
age and who is capable of profiting from the instruction offered. The colleges may
also admit any nonresident, possessing a high school diploma or the equivalent
thereof (Mission Statement, Chancellor’s Office). The mission continues to envelop
the differing aspects of the community college student population as well as the
world. The statement endeavors to provide economic growth and global
competitiveness through education, training and services that contribute to
continuous work force improvement. Further, the mission manifests the need to
address the “remedial instruction” requirements for those in the community.
From all indications, enrollment demands at community colleges are likely to
continue expanding well into the new century. Over the next decade, many states
will experience explosive growth in the number of high school graduates, many of
whom will look to the community college for initial access to four-year eolleges and
universities or for specialized vocational training. The demographic profile of these
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students increasingly will reflect the population’s growing ethnic diversity and ever-
widening range of socioeconomic backgrounds (Phelan, February 2000). Therefore,
community colleges are continuing a long-standing tradition that educational
institutions in America were founded upon and that is meeting the needs of the
society it is serving. According to the State Chancellor’s Office the community
college mission encompasses an even broader scope:
The provision of quality transfer education is a primary mission of the
community college.. .Vocational and technical education is a primary mission
of the California Community Colleges.. .The provision of remedial education
is an essential and important mission of the community colleges.. .The
provision of English as a second language is an essential and important
mission of the community colleges.. .Programs in noncredit adult education,
including adult literacy and citizenship programs conducted in the California
Community Colleges are important and essential functions of that
system.. .(www.faccc.org. March 2002, FACCTS).
With these provisions in place, the community college has an enormous task. By
examining these statements, it is clear that the policy of “open door” creates an
atmosphere of inclusion. It is one that the Truman Commission more than likely
intended. However, these create the paradox of how to serve all of the entities with
the efficiency that each group requires. If we look closely at the provisions for
remedial education, English as a second language, adult literacy, and even the
vocational training, the colleges have a tremendous responsibility to meet the all of
the needs and each one is multifaceted. All of these issues can be present in an
individual student. Equally, all areas must be met with a level of competence in order
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for the student to be successful with his/her transition. In view of the fact that the
student population is diverse, so to is the mission to meet the needs of these students.
The community college mission has grown and there is a greater expectation
that it will continue to encompass a population of people of varying ethnic and
educational backgrounds. However, the twenty-first century brings new expectations
of the importance of having access to higher educational institutions. Modemly, all
students must complete twelve years of education or pass an exam in order to be
considered proficient as a high school graduate. The societal institutional base of
education could then believe that students would have at least a basic knowledge of
English and mathematics. However, the opposite is now true. Many students enter
college unable to write and read at the college level. The student population has
changed in many ways, and the community college now must address the needs of a
populace that is also widely in need of remediation by college and societal standards.
The population that enters the community college is largely ethnic minorities and
many immigrants. These entering students require an institution to address their
many needs consistent with the mission of most schools in the past. Generally,
schools gave students a framework on which to place knowledge stemming from
various sources, learning to think critically, developing values, understanding
traditions, respecting diverse cultures and opinions, and most important, putting that
knowledge to use. It thus differs from the ideal collegiate function (Cohen, 1996).
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The community college adheres to this definition because it must continue to change
to survive. Therefore, it cannot fit neatly into a traditional paradigm.
From its beginnings, the community college was created to provide differing
avenues for those in the community to receive an education. Clearly, the community
college provides an avenue to education that the traditional four-year institution no
longer wants to. Addressing the needs of the population is a long-standing issue.
While remediation is currently under-fire in 1977 the Camegie Foundation of the
Advancement of Teaching published o f the College Curriculum, indicating
the imminence of the first curriculum reforms in higher education in thirty years.
The Camegie Foundation said the time was right because the test scores of students
entering college were down, and it was obvious that much was wrong in pre-
collegiate education. Further, students seemed to be leaming less in college. Even
though all types of colleges had tried remedial education, it was difficult to show the
efficacy of these efforts (Cohen, 1996). The foundation sought a retum to what is
commonly known as “general education.” The definition of general education is -
information that everyone must know. The term has been a good part of all
educational institutions, but the definition has been one that has been narrowly
defined. According to the Executive Committee of the Cooperative Study in General
Education, general education should provide “the basic understandings and skills
which everyone should possess” (1947, p. 17). This very broad definition affects the
students with whom eommunity colleges deal. One set of contentions holds that no
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knowledge is basic to everyone because everyone has a different background that
gives rise to a unique outlook (Cohen, 1996).
Ohstacles of Open-Entrv/Open-Exit
Many students are now “nontraditional” students. The very definition of
general education becomes a failure because many educators ignore the importance of
teaching the fundamental skills necessary to create efficient eollege students. A major
criticism of many instructors of remedial education courses is that they do not teach
critical thinking, values, and cultural perspectives. These courses tend to stay with
the curriculum of basic skills and do not require the student to reach further
educationally. Therefore, the nontraditional students that largely need remediation
are doomed to failure by the very system they try to embrace because many find it
difficult to integrate into the collegiate level curriculum courses.
Clearly, the factors of remediation play an increasingly important function at
the community colleges. As the populations of students rise in the community
college so too does the need for continuity in the structure of what every student
should know in order to be successful. Moreover, a key component in the factors
that lead to the lack of continuity is transitory nature of the community college
student. With that in mind, how does the college deliver to a population that has open
access and open exit as the basis for their educational foundation? The definitions of
open access and open exit are part of the accessibility that makes community college
attractive for diverse student populations. It also provides the part of the problem
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faced by the population because they have so many obligations that it may be
difficult for them to have success unless the system is flexible. Students can come
and go at will therefore making it difficult to offer a curriculum that is continuous
and precise.
Currently, community colleges bear the burden of how remediation has
evolved and it became a part of our nation’s education foundation. However, our
modem connotation is not one that colleges look upon fondly. Most importantly, all
colleges must begin to embrace the importance of remediation within the institution
as it serves the population of “nontraditional students.” Since their inception,
community colleges have carried out a number of complex and competing foci as
part of their open-access mission (Cross, 1985; Deegan, Tillery & Associates, 1985).
The institutions often serve individuals who would not otherwise participate in
higher education.
Community colleges, whose open access mission is deeply embedded in their
past and equally important to their future, require new thinking about student
outcomes. Thinking about their functionality, these institutions cannot continue to
be measured by the same yardstick as selective institutions, and this is one factor that
relegates them to a subordinate position, always stmggling to demonstrate that their
students are successful (Bragg, 2001). The entire focus of community college
students’ journey may be different from their past counterparts. Contemporary
students often have different needs and requirements than their predecessors, leading
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to educational programs and services that do not fit neatly into categories that
scholars have constructed over the years (Bragg, 2001). Students are coming to
college for a variety of reasons. The definition of transfer does not necessarily mean
that a student will matriculate from a two-year institution to a four-year institution.
With the global economy changing, a vocational student who discontinues
his/her education may not simply go into immediate employment as has happened in
the past. The modem day students’ goals are as diverse as their needs. Hence, the
community college must continue to meet the traditional needs of its senior
institutions. Equally, the community colleges must remain abreast of the ever-
evolving needs of its “non-traditional” student needs. The populations of students at
the community colleges face many changes due to their educational needs.
Increasingly students are entering college unable or ill prepared to do the work.
Therefore, they require assistance through developmental or remedial education
courses that will better prepare these students for the expeetation of work.
Currently, developmental enrollments have reached as high as 80 percent of
new college entrants (Gmbb, 1999a, Lewis, Farris & Greene, 1996). Reporting on
results from his national study, McCabe (2001) observed that poverty is the highest
correlate with under-preparedness, and that minority students are disproportionately
represented in the highest poverty status. For under-prepared students, remedial
coursework is necessary to bridge the gap between high school and college, along
with related developmental services such as peer tutoring, counseling, and leaming
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labs (Shaw, 1997). Through these various strategies, developmental education is
increasingly relied on to bring students up to a level that enables them to be
successful in their collegiate pursuits. Coupled with other foci, developmental
education has become a core component of the comprehensive mission of
community colleges (Bragg 2001). Again, the mission is continually shifting to meet
the continuing needs of the student population. Our definition of what it means to be
a remedial student is also evolving as institutions continue to re-shape and readdress
their institutional focal points on remediation.
Methodology
This study employs a qualitative approach to research by: (a) conducting
focus groups and (b) conducting individual interviews. Additionally, this study will
focus on the English course pattems and frustrations faced by students at an urban
community college.
Assumptions
For this study, the following assumptions are made:
1. The measures are reliable and valid indicators of the constructs to be studied.
2. The data will be accurately recorded and analyzed.
3. The subjects will be assessed in a quiet, controlled atmosphere.
4. The subjects will respond to the best of their ability.
5. The purposes, processes, and elements of the framework studied have a degree of
applicability and generalizability to schools and districts throughout the country.
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6. The research, data gathering, and findings and conclusions of the study represent
“good research.”
Limitations
1. This study is limited to subjects who agree to participate voluntarily.
2. It is limited to the number of subjects surveyed and the amount of time available
to conduct this study.
3. Validity of this study is limited to the reliability of the instruments used, and the
honesty of the participants.
4. Information is only as reliable as the students’ responses
Delimitations
The study will confine itself to surveying the students from an urban
community college, one of the nine colleges in the Los Angeles Community College
District. The study will focus on the student perceptions of their assessment, their
self-concept of their academic achievement, and their usage and knowledge of
supportive services. Only students who have volunteered will be allowed to
participate in the study.
Definition of Terms
Associate Degree- the highest degree conferred at two-year community
college institutions.
Beginning Composition - it is the lowest course placement for entering
students in English. This course is two-levels below Freshman Composition.
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Critical Thinking Courses - university transferable classes that consist of the
study of prose fiction, drama, plays, poetry or argumentative essays.
“Developmental” Education - Commonly used interchangeably with
“remedial,” but these programs are designed to aid under-prepared students to take
college level courses. However, the assistance offered by developmental education
programs includes remedial classes and personal development (Carriuolo, 1994;
Higbee, 1993).
Freshman Composition - the first transferable college-level English course.
Intermediate Composition - a course one level below Freshman
Composition. It is the last level of remedial English.
Remedial Education - At the college level is generally defined as those
courses (generally non-credit) specifically targeted to improve the writing, reading,
and mathematical skills of students who enroll in college with less than expected
ability, knowledge, or proficiency (Hagedom, Chavez, & Perrakis, 2001).
Remedial English - These are courses that are not college-level, but are
necessary to teach students about the expectations of college-level writing and
reading. Students are given placement exams to determine their placement into the
required English courses for college credit.
Senior Institutions/Four-Year Institutions -Traditional academic institutions
that admit students based on test scores, high school grade point average and
designated criteria. Many community college students intend to transfer to the senior
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institutions after completion of their general education courses at the two-year
institution.
Under-prepared - These are students who enter college lacking fundamental
skills that should have been acquired while in primary and secondary institutions.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One of the study presents the introduction, the statement of the
problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the significance of
the study, the definitions of terms, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and
the organization of the study.
Chapter Two is a review of recent literature.
Chapter Three presents the methodology used in the study, including a
description and rationale of the sample, the data collection procedures, a description
of instrument development and the methods of analysis of the data.
Chapter Four presents the finding of the study.
Chapter Five summarizes the findings, draws conclusions, and makes
recommendations. References and appendices conclude the study.
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CHAPTER2
Remedial English and the Community College
The purpose of this literature review is to highlight remedial English and its
implications in the community college setting. Remedial education is under fire in
many institutions across the United States and many senior institutions are
eliminating remedial English programs altogether. It is important to review the
literature pertinent to this subject because this is a major function of the community
college. However, the need for remedial English classes is on the rise and these
institutions have been asked in recent years to play a greater role. The purpose of this
dissertation is to underscore students who participated in group and one on one
interviews in the Los Angeles Community College District, specifically at an urban
community college. Is there a significant difference in student achievement based on
the number of remedial courses these students take? Does this infringe on his/her
ability to make successful progress in other college-level courses? The key variables
for this study are assessment test placement and overall student confidence in the
instrument used.
Literature Review
The backlash against remedial English has gone national. President Bush
spoke out against the rise of remediation in a back-to-school speech on August 29,
2002, and many state leaders are joining the fight (Cloud, 2002). The numbers
continue to grow as at least eight states ban the teaching of remedial courses at the
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four-year institutions. The community college is left to handle the influx of students
entering with what many consider as under-prepared skills. In fact, more than
600,000 of the freshmen who arrived at U.S. colleges this fall— remarkably, 29
percent of the total— are taking at least one remedial reading, writing, or math class.
Taxpayers spend approximately $1 billion a year on the classes (Cloud 2002). Some
worry that students who are forced into community colleges for remedial classes will
never transition to four-year universities.
A study of preparatory programs in Maryland sought to find if college
preparatory programs were effective in reducing the number of students requiring
remediation in college. The findings of the study from 1996-1997 were not
promising. For students who completed college-preparatory in high school and
immediately attended a community college, 40 percent needed math remediation and
one in five required English remediation, one out of four needed remedial reading.
At one community college, 73 percent of college preparatory students needed math
remediation, 79 percent needed English remediation, and 76 percent required reading
remediation (Maryland Higher Education Commission, 1998).
Several colleges are addressing the intense scrutiny facing remedial programs
by establishing innovative programs that address the need of remediation. These
models provide important information about the current climate that remedial
programs are facing at both the two and the four-year institutions. An example dates
back to April 1981, the Advisory Commission on Articulation Between Secondary
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Education and Ohio Colleges, appointed jointly by the Ohio Board of Regents and
State Board of Education, published a report on the status of high school graduating
students’ math and writing skills. Among the conclusions reached by the commission
was that students lacked the necessary skills to be successful in college-level work
(Richey, Mathem, O ’Shea, 1997). These students showed weaknesses in critical
thinking, analytical and problem-solving skills.
In trying to propose recommendations, the commission postulated that the
problem was a result of confusion on the part of the high schools in deciding the
nature and level of college entry-level skills students should master. Continually, it
is indeed a prominent issue that, “With notable and praiseworthy exceptions, no
formal, systematic communication network exists to ensure that educational
institutions at all levels communicate their expectations for incoming students”
(Ohio Board of Regents, 1981, p.6). As a result of this study, the Board of Regents
under the auspices of the Ohio General Assembly (Richey, Mathem, O ’Shea, 1997)
initiated a recommendation by the commission to establish the Early English
Composition Assessment Program (EECAP). Perhaps this area needs further
attention and analysis because there continues to be a lack of communication on the
part of what foundational skills students need to graduate from high school and enter
college.
After studying high school student performance in opposition to college
performance, Costrell concluded that a lower admission standard lulls these students
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into less effort in high school, leading them to rationally defer effort to college. Upon
arriving in college, some will follow through on the deferred effort and some will
not, depending on many factors that are difficult to label (1989). Among those who
find it harder than expected, there will now be fewer to rise to the challenge: they
find themselves unable or unwilling to overcome their poor preparation in order to
graduate (Manski, 1989). Many more collaborations will need to happen in higher
education. The history of the community college and the fact that it is often
misunderstood contributes to some of the confusion within educational institutions.
Nonetheless, standards must be addressed at the high school level as students
continue to falter on assessment tests and need remedial courses in order to do
college-level work.
Ohlemacher, Galbincea & Okoben (2002) cite that in 1997 a law in Ohio
increased high school graduation requirements, starting with the class of 2002. Ohio
high school students now must take at least four years of English, three years of math
and social studies and two years of science. The regents in the state of Ohio had a
study that deconstructed remediation rates by school districts. The regents
concluded that the State Board of Education should develop a more coordinated
education system that sets clear expectations for student from their beginnings
through college. The Communications/Humanities Department at Owens
Community College has been actively involved in EECAP since 1988. The Owens
Community College/Findlay High School project was implemented in 1994 with an
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ambitious scope. The project design fostered a strong positive rapport among the
faculty members, a mutual understanding of high school English writing
requirements and college-level writing requirements and expectations, and a liaison
that strengthened communication (Richey, Mathem, O’Shea, 1997). According to
the Ohio Board of Regents (1988), EECAP has two purposes: to identify high school
students’ writing strengths and weaknesses in order that the high schools may
intervene prior to student enrollment in college, and to facilitate strong liaisons
between high school and college faeulty so that a communication bridge is
constructed.
Historical Perspective
The City College of New York lowered its admissions standards in 1970 to
increase the number of Black and Latino students. As a result, the college was
overwhelmed with students who did not understand writing basics. These students
had never understood how to write a coherent paragraph, analyze a simple essay or
read a book (Traub, 1993). Mina Shaughnessy, the director of a program for
disadvantaged students in the college was asked to organize a remedial writing
curriculum. She coined the term “basic writing.” Her states in her book. Errors and
Expectations (1977), basic writing students write the way they do “not because they
are slow or non-verbal, indifferent to or incapable of academic excellence, but
because they are beginners, and must, like all beginners, learn by making mistakes.”
Pedagogically, this highlights the depth of the issue presented to the institutions’
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faculty. They must meet student at their competency levels while reviewing and
teaching principles that are hasic. The goal is to get the students to college-level
work and this will take time and remediation.
Although this is a large part of the mission and the purpose of the community
college, limited evidence exists on outcome measures that could provide deeper
understanding of how students participate in and benefit from a community college
education (McCabe, 2000). Basic skills, developmental education, nontraditional
coursework, high-risk classes and remedial classes - these are among the terms used
to describe courses that are below college-level. Regardless of the term, the objective
is the same— to help the under-prepared students (McCabe, 2000). This has
historically been the focus of college until recently. It began with Harvard College
in the 17‘ ^ century, where tutors in Greek and Latin were provided for under
prepared students, and continued in the middle of the 20‘* ’ century with the
establishment of the G.I. Bill. Remediation for inadequately prepared students has
been an integral part of American higher education {College Remediation: What It Is,
What It Costs, and What’ s at Stake, The Institute o f Higher Education P o l i c y 998).
The need for remediation dates back to an early address by the president of
Harvard, Charles W. Eliot, in his 1869 inaugural address, took the opposing view
saying: “The American college is obliged to supplement the American sehool.
Whatever elementary instruction the schools fail to give, the college must supply.”
These views were not reflected by his Yale counterpart however, the Yale Report in
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1828, “called for an end to the admission of students with defective preparation”
{Remediation: A Must fo r the 2 f ‘ Century Learning Society, 2000). The debate is
long-standing. The question is who should provide foundational skills or remedial
education? Some critics claim that the core function of transfer for community
colleges has been replaced by its remedial function. However, a greater number of
students need remediation and four-year institutions are phasing it. Therefore, the
community college must accept these students and address their edueational needs.
In pursuit of differing ways of addressing the educational needs of these students
some institutions are reporting success with the adaptation of leaming communities
(Hill, 1985; Gableniek, MacGregor, Matthews, & Smith, 1990).
Student Profiles
In some institutions, “remedial” students now make up a majority of
entering student body, many requiring “remediation” in virtually every academic
skill area (Tinto, Riemer, 2000). An appropriate question to ask would be who is
taking remedial classes? Female enrollment exceeds male enrollment. Over eighty
percent are United States citizens, and one in five is married. One in ten is a veteran,
and one in three works thirty-five hours or more per week. Another, sixty percent are
white and non-Hispanic, while twenty-three percent are African-American and
twelve percent are Hispanie. The population is sixty percent of remedial education
students are enrolled full-time. Additionally, forty-percent receive some form of
financial aid, and fifty-four percent have an annual family income of less than
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$20,000. Additionally, at the community colleges, forty-five percent of remedial
students are under 24 years of age, 24 percent are between the age of 25 and 34, and
npercent are over 35 (McCabe, 2000). This is the picture of the remedial education
student. And, contrary to some veiled opinions, this is not an issue exclusive to
ethnic minorities as shown by the sixty percent white, non-Hispanic figure. It is
clearly shown to be a diverse population with very special needs that can probably
best be met at the community college level.
Academic Models
Models have emerged to address the needs of the changing population. The
models range from comprehensive to specialized. There are at least four different
types of program categories: college/campus tutorial/ remedial, college outreach
programs, campus assistance centers, and off campus instruction (Tomlinson, 1989).
These programs provide the necessary intervention that remedial students need upon
entrance. The specific types of intervention involve the teaching/learning process,
counseling, peer support, and supplemental use of media and the arts to develop
students articulation of basic skills and the application of those skills to various
content areas in the college curriculum (Tomlinson, 1989). Since remedial students
require special attention and special services, many institutions are reconsidering
these programs. Another, model that targets high schools in California is the
Collaborative Academic Preparation Initiative. During the 1999-2000 school year,
the program received nine million dollars in state funding. It acts as an intervention
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program between colleges and high school. The California State University System
is attempting to address remediation by intervening while students are still in high
school.
In New York, a program called Search for Education, Elevation and
Knowledge or SEEK provides students who are economically and educationally
disadvantaged with added help when they enter college. The students in the SEEK
program will not be taking remedial classes, but their academic background is
considered roughly equivalent to those admitted as remedial students in previous
years (Arenson, 2000). As for the SEEK program, it enrolls nearly 11,000 students,
but the overwhelming majority never graduate from the university (New York
Times, Editorial 2002). Programs like these continue to be the cornerstone of where
students find themselves because of the growing tension associated with remedial
programs in colleges and the students that need additional help after completing high
school. Rather than blaming students for being ill prepared clearly partnerships
should be strengthened to find the reasons behind the shortfalls of so many students.
Another model is evident in the Community College of Denver; the system
prides itself with goals of reaching higher recruitment, retention, and graduation rates
for a diverse and under-prepared urban population. In a state that is about 88 percent
white, the college prides itself on reflecting the greater diversity of urban Denver and
being the most ethnically diverse institution of higher education in Colorado (Hebei,
1999). There is not an ethnic majority in the population of students of the institution;
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however, 31.6 percent of the faculty and staff are members of a minority group. In
comparison to the rest of the colleges and universities in United States, the faculty
and staff ratio is 21.1 percent minority in 1995 when the statistics were available
(Hebel, 1999).
The Community College of Denver provides one-third of all remedial
instruction in the state’s public institutions. Almost 60 percent of its students take
remedial courses. Further, degree-seeking students who take remedial courses at
Denver are slightly more likely to graduate or transfer to a four-year college than
their classmates who are not in remedial classes. In 1998, 40 percent of students who
had taken remedial courses graduated or continued their studies at other institutions
after three years at the community college, compared with 39 percent of all students
(Hebel, 1999). This model is held in high regard and stands well above the norm
nationally because of the student success rates. The continued success of this
program is reflected in the monetary support used to fund programs in the Student
Support Services division. The programs include the federally funded TRIO program
for disadvantaged students, which offer counseling, academic advising, and many
other services for low-income students.
The Community College of Denver began intervention programs in the
poorest neighborhoods. The college felt it necessary to reach out to the community
by using intervention techniques that included developing joint education and job-
training projects with the Denver public schools, the mayor’s office, Community-
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based organizations, prisons and advocacy. The community continues its efforts to
provide intervention while students are still in high school. The college helps
prospective students fill out financial aid forms, and offers tuition-free courses for
high school juniors and seniors. These types of intervention techniques gain the trust
of students when they are characteristically disadvantaged because they are generally
low-income and first generation college students. Consequently, these types of
techniques place a new face on the traditional hands-off approach to education.
These measures provide a more comprehensive and hands-on approach to gaining a
higher education to these students before they enter the college setting. Additionally,
the college takes pride because students who receive services from programs such as
La Familia persist at an 80 percent rate. Comparatively, 62 percent o f other students
who do not participate in the program and are first generation college students
persist.
Examining the areas of attrition and persistence, Dougherty (1994),
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991), Nora (2000), and others offered concerns about
student persistence in community college, particularly for minority students. Results
of a study conducted by Nora and Rendon (1998) showed attrition rates of minority
students ranging from about 60 percent to as high as 80 percent in some settings.
Poor academic preparation in high school, lesser motivation to succeed, financial
difficulties, and competing commitments are factors that play a role in attrition of all
groups of community college students, including minorities (Tinto, 1996).
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Richardson and Bender (1987) concurred with this perspective, but suggested
attrition for minority students stems from their concentration in a few urban
community colleges that offer diminished quality education. The demand for greater
intervention and remediation for students at risk with poor academic setting is
beeoming very critical. Therefore, the models of counseling, peer support and overall
campus intervention become critical in addressing the difficulties many students face
with the college transition.
Use of Leaming Communities
Tinto, & Riemer (2000) describe the leaming communities as being
organized around a eentral theme that links the courses. For instance, a course is
designed to combine disciplines. One such course is called, “Body and Mind.” The
students enroll in required courses in human biology, psychology, and sociology.
These courses are linked in pursuit of a singular piece of knowledge: how and why
humans behave as they do. The point of doing so is to ensure that the sharing of a
curriculum provides students with a coherent interdisciplinary experience that
promotes a deeper type of leaming than is possible in simply taking the eourse alone.
Additionally, leaming communities require faculty to collaborate in a variety
of ways. Although there are several types of leaming communities, all share two
commonalities: (1) shared knowledge and (2) shared leaming. By organizing the
shared courses around a theme or single large subject, leaming communities seek to
constmct a coherent first year educational experience that is not just an unconnected
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array of courses( Tinto & Riemer, 2000). Promoting shared knowing and using
collaborative leaming techniques students take an active role in the constmction of
knowledge that cannot be accomplished when working alone.
Hunter College, part of the City University of New York (CUNY), has linked
two writing courses with an American History course designed for developmental
students (Smoke & Haas, 1995). The reason for linking these courses was taken from
the study done by Pereira and Cobb (1990) that found that developmental students
cite “a low rate of eaming credits” [as] a major factor in the decision to drop out of
college” (p. 28). By linking the content course, American History, with the reading
and writing course, the students are able to cam credit and also gain experience in a
content course. Smoke and Haas (1995) conducted a preliminary study on the
outcomes of the course with respect to course completion and a passing grade on the
CUNY Writing Assessment Test (WAT). They found that 90 percent of the students
in the linked courses passed both courses as well as the WAT. Students who were
not in the linked course pass the WAT at a rate of 40-75 percent over the course of
six semesters from the fall of 1988 to spring 1991.
Opposition to Remediation
The debate over remediation is deafening. The state of New York embraced
the “open door” policy until it found that remedial courses were on the rise and
students were not graduating. As a result of public outcry, the tmstees and the
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politicians of the City of New York changed the educational structure. According to
a New York Times article:
In 1998, the City University of New York trustees voted to stop admitting
any remedial student to the senior institutions. Under its new policy, students who
cannot demonstrate their readiness for college-level English and math may not enroll
in bachelor’s degree programs, but may enroll in the two-year community college
program (Arenson 2000). This development would change the manner in which
remediation is delivered in the state of New York. The former Mayor of New York
City, Rudolph Giuliani, proposed to privatize the remedial courses taught by City
University o f New York. He states, “The community colleges in New York City are
the end result of a disaster that we weren’t doing anything about” (Breneman &
Haarlow, 1998).
The opposition is also seen on the west coast. The California State
University system decided that remedial courses would he reduced at the California
State University system. Keeping in step with New York City, the California State
University System has recently abandoned its remedial programs. In accordance with
Executive Order 665, California State University System follows these strict
guidelines:
At Cal-State Los Angeles, the university requires all incoming students to
enroll in an English and Math course during their first-term of attendance
regardless of placement. In addition, all students must successfully complete
the required college-level English and math course within the first year of
attendance.
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If students in the California State System do not pass the required courses in the
specified time, they are expelled. As a result of this new executive order, what
options are available to those who are asked to leave? It appears that their options are
few. They can attend or return to the community college, or drop out of college
altogether. Between the years 1997-98 and the academic year 98-99, the first year the
policy was implemented over 2000 students were affected. As a result, the
percentage of freshman successfully completing remedial courses jumped from 40
percent to 79 percent, according to system officials (Roach, 2000). In 2000, the
number of students completing climbed to 94 percent. This is a reflection of the
attitudes about remedial courses across the nation. A major issue comes into play
when institutions deal with the cost to deliver the necessary skills for the students in
need, and who will teach these courses?
The community college is left with the difficult task of meeting the
educational needs of the public in a time when it is finding itself the victim of budget
crises and expanding roles. The California Community College report, noted that
nearly $300 million in outlays to remedial education (Breneman & Haarlow, 1998).
This represents a significant amount more than any other state. It is clear that
providing remedial education classes is part of the mission and the purpose of the
community college. However, in many states including California, the burden will be
heavier for the community college because institutions such as the California State
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University system plan to reduce, or eliminate, all remedial programs by 2007
(Breneman & Haarlow, 1998). This added push to eliminate remedial programs does
place a strain on community college because the population will increase and the
funding from the State of California will not match the growth.
More recently, in states like New York and Massachusetts, efforts are
underway to reduce the amount of remedial courses offered in postsecondary
education. Legislators in Texas and other states are troubled that tax dollars are
being used in colleges to teach high school courses, and some states like Florida have
shifted virtually all remediation efforts to the community college. The legislatures in
New Jersey, Montana, Florida and other states have considered proposals that would
force public school systems to pay for any remedial work that one of their graduates
must take in college {College Remediation: What It Is, What It Costs, and What’ s at
Stake, The Institute o f Higher Education Policy, 1998).
The statistics may be startling, while 67 percent of high school students earn
a diploma, only 47 percent of those graduate from high school prepared to college-
level work {No One to Waste: A Report to Public Decisionmakers and Community
College Leaders, McCabe 2000). Remediation classes are offered in at 100 percent
of community colleges and over 81 percent of four-year institutions (Remedial
Education at Higher Education Institutions in Fall 1995, NCES, 1996). Considering
that higher education enrollments have continued to increase, there is little data to
support that remediation is rapidly growing (McCabe 2000). Community colleges are
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a part of our educational culture, so the need for more understanding about the
important role it plays in aiding its four-year senior institutions with college-level
preparation needs to be emphasized.
Many of those in favor of remedial education see it as a key component of
access, equal opportunity and assimilation to higher education. On the other hand,
those who are opposed see it as a symptom of academic degradation and as
contributor to “dumbing down” entire institutions (McCabe, 2000). Remediation is
only part of the mission of the community college. These institutions are faced with
the changing attitudes toward students of remediation. As Alexander Astin states, “It
goes without saying that the under-prepared student is a kind of pariah in American
higher education, and some of the reasons are obvious: since most of us believe that
the excellence of our departments and of our institutions depends on enrolling the
very best-prepared students that we can, to admit under-prepared students would
pose a real threat to our excellence” (1998, p. 11). This statement is reflective of the
atmosphere that students are facing while they are in need of assistance to increase
their ability to complete college-level work. The responsibility to ready these
students for higher-level learning is falling on the community colleges.
Recently, remedial courses in college have become a favorite target of
politicians and reformers who cite them as evidence that our primary and secondary
schools fail to provide preparation for students (washingtonpost.com, April 2001).
The executive summary of President’s Bush’s new education plan states, “As
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America enters the 2 1 ® * Century full of hope and promise.. .too many of our neediest
students are being left behind.” According to the federal government’s National
Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 29 percent of college freshman took at least
one remedial course in reading, writing, or mathematics. Contrary to the impression
left by the Bush statement, the vast majority were enrolled in regular courses in other
subjeets while they took eare of their aeademic deficiency (washingtonpost.com,
2001). The debate over what needs to be done in terms of students needing
remediation is not new. Unfortunately, many states are opting to eliminate it at four-
year institutions all together.
In June 1998, the trustees of City University of New York voted to phase out
most remedial education in the system’s 11 four-year institutions, beginning
September 1999. Backed by former Mayor Rudolph Giuliani and Governor George
Pataki, the new policy requires applicants who fail one or more university
assessment tests in mathematics, reading, or writing to sueeessfully complete a free
summer program or pass remedial courses at a City University of New York two-
year college or elsewhere. This sweeping change will affeet thousands of students
and profoundly alter the structure of the City University of New York system
(College Remediation: What It Is, What It Costs, and What’ s at Stake, The Institute
o f Higher Education Policy, 1998). The national attitude of negativity towards
remediation is widening.
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Notwithstanding increased opposition to remediation, there has been an
explosion in the diverse portion of the eommunity college student population. The
diversity of community college institutions is a eonsequence of the accessibility,
affordability, and the flexibility of these institutions. Many nontraditional and
minority students are actively enrolled. In fact, persons of color make up 30 percent
of all participants in community colleges compared to approximately 24 pereent in
four-year institutions (NCES, 1999a). More than half of African-Ameriean and those
of Hispanie origin who enroll in eollege after high school graduation select a
community college. Hence, these groups are represented in high numbers at these
instimtions. Those of Asian and Paeific Islander baekground and Native Ameriean
are also represented in significant numbers. This is explained by the fact that large
numbers of minority students reside in states having expansive community colleges
(Bragg, 2001). Longitudinal analyses eondueted by Adelman (1992) eorroborate
these figures, showing how Hispanics have been over-represented in community
colleges historically relative to other racial and ethnic groups.
A key issue is finding the difficulty of assessing smdents when institutions
lack the means to do so effectively. The problem that colleges and universities face is
consistency in determining student aptitudes. One determining factor that determines
student suecess is high school preparation. It has become more and more difficult to
determine what essential elements are necessary for a student to succeed at the four-
year institution. As a result of a decrease in remedial studies being offered at
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universities, many four-year institutions are giving students one year to reach college
level work. If the deadline is not met, they are sent to the community college.
Additionally, financial concerns are major issues students face entering
college. Community college or two-year institutions are much less expensive.
California is the cheapest in the nation at $11.00 per unit to attend a two-year
institution and has gone up to $18.00. The cost to attend is a far cry from their
university counterparts which can be almost $1,000.00 per unit at a private four-year
institution; therefore, many students chose to do their first two years of general
studies at the two-year institution and then transfer to the four-year university.
In 1998, a book published by the League for Innovation in the Community
College and the College Board titled: Developmental Education: A Twenty-First
Century Social and Economic Imperative, notes that students at Prince George
Community College who were identified as needing remediation early completed at
the same rates as those students not needing remediation. College success can be
defined in many areas. Collaboration, early assessment, and clear faculty expectation
contribute to students making the transitions to college. Still, other factors related to
success include class size and faculty proficiency (McCusker, 1999). Garza and
Gibbs (1994) analyzed the success of developmental reading programs in Texas
community colleges and found that classes with 20 or fewer students have better
success rates. An additional practice that promotes success includes hiring
instructors that are specialist in remediation. These faculty members should work in
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conjunction with regular faculty to incorporate basic skills in regular curriculum and
to use regular course curriculum content in the basic skills courses, especially
reading and writing (Commander & Smith, 1995). Many community college faculty
members who do teach basic skills have no formal training in reading and writing
remediation (MsCusker, 1999).
Obstacles to College Success
As we examine the role of college in the lives of students, race and
socioeconomic factors also play a role in the suceess of the students. Some Blaek
students, especially those from lower soeioeconomic communities, leave college
almost as quickly as they enter (Astin, 1988; Levine & Associates, 1990; Noel,
Levitz, Saluri & Associates, 1991). Studies examining attrition have attempted to
explain the languid growth rate of numbers of Black students and poor retention of
these students, pointing to weaknesses in their college preparation (cf. Astin, 1988,
1993; Browne-Miller, 1996). Other important factors influencing retention included
the ability of students to reach and maintain college-level academic standards,
incongruent personal and college goals, and lack of motivation or interest (cf. Astin,
1993; Tinto, 1987). Colleges and universities are hard-pressed to meet the needs of
these students who become lost in the system of higher learning.
McClenney (2000) writes that in too many places the majority of students
needing developmental help are people of color. The problems continue when
students leave the community college and transition to the four-year institutions.
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Academic problems experieneed by transfer students include having lower than
average grade point averages after one semester in the four-year school and lower
persistence and graduation rates (Hughes & Graham, 1992; Jacobs, Busby & Leath,
1992;Townsend, NcNemy & Arnold, 1993). The higher academic expectations and
the increased difficulty of the specialized major courses in the four-year college in
comparison to the general education courses taken in the two-year college may also
affect academic adjustment (Graham, 1987). The literature does address the needs of
these students and it is an important issue that leads itself to persistence issues. Most
do not have a basic understanding of the college experience in the home. They may
be the first person in their family to attend college, so it not looked upon fondly to
deviate from the group norm and achieve an education. Researchers Astin (1988,
1993), Fleming (1984), Hurtado (1992), Neville, Heppner, and Wang (1997) have
found that race ethnicity, and socioeconomic factors further complicate student
adjustment to eollege.
For Black students from lower socioeconomic communities, developing and
sustaining relationships with individuals who understand the college environment is
an even greater challenge (Anderson, 1994; Dalton, 1989; Fleming, 1984; Gonchar,
1995; Jaynes & Williams, 1989; Tinto, 1987). If they are extroverts, these students
do not seek new associations (Fleming, 1984; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991).
Research shows that when students reside in communities in which values are
noticeably different from those of their colleges, adjustment is significantly affected
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(cf. Astin, 1988; Gonchar, 1995; Malone, 1992). Grubb (1999b) found that, for
minority students who do persist, attending a community college confers greater
advantages in the labor market than for Whites, compared to high school graduates.
Looking at community college graduates overall, Grubb (199b) contended bis results
“clarify that completing Associate degrees enhances wages, employment, and
earnings by significant amounts, in both conventional and statistical senses” (p. 10).
Nora (2000) pointed out the disproportionate enrollment of minority students
in transfer curricula rather than vocational where more positive outcomes might be
apparent in placement in employment and subsequent economic benefits. He
contended that in 2-year colleges, where the majority of students are non-White, over
one-half of those receiving vocational degrees are White. Such results lead Nora
(2000) to question whether minority students gain equal access to high-tech
programs that provide lucrative jobs after graduation. At the same time, he
questioned if the presence of vocational-technical programs, along with community
services and remedial-developmental education, have diluted the transfer focus so
that minority students are less likely than White students to persist, complete
degrees, and make the transition to baccalaureate institutions.
Conclusions
The issue of remedial English courses and the role it plays in the eollege
setting is not straightforward. This study will accentuate the role of English courses
in the Los Angeles Community College District, specifically An urban community
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college. Although there are over 2.5 million students in the California Community
College system, this study delineates those students who are part of the Los Angeles
Community College District, specifically An urban community college, which is one
of the nine colleges in the district.
The conclusions from the literature review are clear. Institutions have a
problem with how these classes should be delivered. Initially, the problem is
identifying those who need remedial assistance. Subsequently, institutions must
determine an instrument to measure student readiness. Further, factors such as
family education, socio-economics, and demographics are indicators of success in
students and this study underscores the role they play in student achievement.
However, institutional collaboration needs to take place on many levels within the
two-year institutions, four-year institutions, and seeondary schools. The standards
must be provided if students are expected to participate effectively in a two-year
college setting and outside of it.
Implications
The implications of this study mean that there will be a greater understanding
of the uses of remedial courses that prepare students for college-level work.
Therefore, with greater information available for educators and colleges, there can be
more intervention programs and a more balanced curriculum base. This study is quite
valuable because of the number of women of color who took part in the study.
Although the study is not limited to the voices of women, it observes the activity of
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the large minority population because it reflects the college. The interaction
occurring within the group accentuates empathy and commonality of experiences
and fosters self-disclosure and self-validation (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). Hence,
the research questions are: What is the relationship between the results of the
community college English assessment and persistence of students in their remedial
course(s)? Is there a relationship between the frequency of repetition in remedial
English courses and student confidence in their initial course placement? Is there a
relationship between self-reported student knowledge and usage of supportive
services (writing centers, counseling, faculty intervention) satisfactory course
progression?
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CHAPTER 3
Research Methodology
This study uses qualitative methods to investigate both how students are
placed into English courses below college-level, (otherwise known as remedial
English courses) and how they persist in their college-level English courses. This
dissertation will also examine the results of the actions by the students. To answer
the research questions of this study, focus group interviews were conducted at An
urban community college, one of the nine campuses of the Los Angeles Community
College District. The reasons behind the exploration of this area are to assess and
comprehend the journey of the remediation process the student encounters from
admission to the classroom experience and beyond. This study will explore
placement, support services, counseling and the transfer experiences of students.
Research Questions
Question 1: What is the relationship between the results of the community
college English assessment and the persistence of students in their remedial
course(s)?
Question 2: Is there a relationship between the frequency of repetition in
remedial English classes and student confidence in their initial course placement?
Question 3: Is there a relationship between self-reported student knowledge
and usage of supportive services (writing centers, counseling, faculty intervention)
and satisfactory course progression?
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Methodology
Research Population
The research population is the students of the Los Angeles Community
College District. This study was conducted at one campus of the nine-eampus
district, an urban community college. The eollege is located in a lower middle
income, working class area. It is a largely minority neighborhood. The surrounding
area is a reflection of the population that attends the institution. It is largely Hispanic
and Armenian. The students described in this study represent the diverse population
at An urban eommunity eollege. The population of students at An urban community
eollege is 40.9 pereent Hispanie, 24.3 pereent White, largely Armenian, 20.4 percent
Asian, and 11.9 pereent, African-American. The demographies of the area
surrounding the college reflect the population on campus. According to the latest
census data, the median household income for the area is $28,947 compared to the
greater Los Angeles Area which is $43,942 {Greater United Way, 1998). The ethnic
distribution in the year 2001 of the eommunity is 43 percent Hispanic and 23.4
pereent White, 19.0 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 12.1 percent Black/African-
American. The student population at An urban community college is 40.9 percent
Hispanic, 24.3 percent White, 20.4 percent Asian, and 11.9 percent (Office of
Institutional Effectiveness, An urban community college).
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Research Design
There are compelling reasons for using a qualitative approach to study the
remediation process faced by these students. The most convincing argument for
using this method is the unique strengths of this paradigm for research that is
exploratory or descriptive, and it assumes the value of context and setting. A
qualitative methodology searches for deeper understanding of the participants’ lived
experiences of the phenomenon (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). By using a
descriptive approach, the investigator learns that “it is essential to know how people
define their situations (Thomas 1949, p. 39).
Sample Selection
Students volunteered to participate in focus group interviews and individual
interviews. Students were encouraged to share their experiences about attending a
community. The sample population for the focus group was selected by using a
random process. Flyers were posted and brief announcement were made in
classrooms in the English and Math Departments. Flyers were also posted around
popular campus areas. Many students responded favorably to the focus group. All
students who wanted to participate were accommodated. If a focus group time could
not be arranged or they were special cases, then one-on-one interviews were
conducted. Over sixty students participated in the overall process. They were given
several time options to participate. The process was developed to allow for
maximum participation of the population. They were given movie tickets for
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participation. The flyers served as invitations and at least two hundred students were
notified and almost sixty participated.
The focus group interviews took place from February 2003 to August 2003.
After accommodating all students, nine sessions were established for sixty students.
The group sessions all lasted at least one hour or sixty minutes. All students
participated on a strictly volunteer basis. The interviews were taped and notes were
used as a backup. All students spoke only with the principal researcher and met in a
comfortable classroom or office setting. Each participant was given the opportunity
to write his/her answers at the beginning to become familiar with the questions and
to help generate data.
Individual interviews also took place in classrooms because students were
more at ease in their own setting. Students who did not participate in the group found
it uncomfortable to talk about their negative experiences in a group setting. In order
to accommodate all who would participate, special arrangements were made for
students to meet individually with the principal researcher. They were all assured of
that their comments would be held in complete confidence.
Protocol
The urban community college has used the assessment instruments since May
2001 are the Aecuplacer Reading Comprehension and Accuplacer Sentence Skills.
The faculty selected these placement instruments after a content validity study
concluded that the tests were appropriate for the curriculum covered by each of the
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four levels of English. The English department is eonsidering replacing one of the
assessment instruments with a locally developed English Essay. The ESL Essay has
always used the essay. The ESL essay is on the State Chancellor’s approved list as a
locally managed test.
In an effort to measure student-centered issues, the instruments given to
students were eharaeteristie sheets and focus group interview questions. The
characteristics questionnaire detailed students’ background and parental education
(See Appendix A, figure 1). A structured format was used for the interviews so that
all students would have opportunity to participate. This allowed the participants to
recall information and formulate perspectives about their experiences that they might
not otherwise have found important (See Appendix A, figure 2). The format of the
focus group allowed students to hear other responses from their classmates. These
interviews helped to triangulate the experience of the initial assessment, the class
placement, and the course outcome of the students in the study. This helped the
researcher because while in a group setting, students were more likely to remember
their own experiences that in turn allowed them and the researcher see the
commonalities.
Data Analysis
Student Selection
Students were all selected randomly and the process was open to all who
wanted to attend. The participants were told that the information given would be
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confidential and used to help understand the proeess from their perspeetives. It was
open to all students. However, sinee the population of the eollege is largely women,
our groups tended to have more female respondents than male. It was also important
to seek as many eourse levels as possible. Our respondents had taken all levels from
the English-as-a-Second Language to English 103. This allowed the questions to
cover a wide range; therefore, the students were able to answer from a more
informed perspective and not just the perspective of a new enrollee. The transfer
student experienee was also an important area to note and two of the respondents had
graduated from four year institutions and one student had gone to the four year and
transferred to the eommunity college. It was imperative to capture the data they
could provide to better understand what happens when students transfer.
Additionally, the data captured the effects of the reverse-transfer student and the
issues they face at the community college.
Structured Interviews
The structured fashion of the focus group interviews allowed for the entire
sample population to be involved in the study. The focus group questions were
designed to formulate an appropriate picture of the variability o f the community
college student population. The students were from “non-traditional” backgrounds,
so in order to eneapsulate the population the data gathered needed to provide the
appropriate information so that student information would be useful. The pilot focus
group consisted of eight students at Santa Monica College in the fall 2002 semester.
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Doing this pilot focus group provided the researeher with adequate information to
adjust the questions to be ineluded in the actual focus group interview questions and
the characteristies form for the students at an urban community college. In doing so
many areas were added for discussions that would later add to a broader analysis of
the data provided. Students at the pilot recommended that the research address the
language background of the student and his household. What is the primary
language of the student and how long has each student spoken/written English? After
adding these aspects to the questionnaires, the researeh could take a broader look at
the students involved and see the commonalities and differenees between those that
were native and non-native English speakers. Also, the pilot group spoke candidly
about their parental educational background being important. They also favored the
stmctured format, which gave them the opportunity to address each question if they
cared to add their point of view.
After the pilot focus group, the characteristics’ form was slightly reworked.
When the students entered they were greeted and given the consent form to
partieipate, the eharaeteristie form and the questions they would be asked. Eaeh time
the groups met, time was allowed to eover the necessary information so that eaeh
student was clear about their participation. They all knew they would be taped, and
the researcher would take notes as back up. However, the greatest emphasis would
be on listening to their responses and making sure everyone was given the
opportunity to participate in the proeess. Before any questioning began, each student
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wrote his/her responses onto the questionnaire so that the information could be coded
later. The characteristics form was used to gather initial data on the sample student
population. The data were then coded according to student gender/age/race/year and
semester in college. The specific themes of the study include: reliability o f placement
test, quality of instruction, over confidence, lack of high school preparation, support
services, availability of classes, computer skills -typing internet, surfing, and usage
of support services which includes faculty and counselor intervention. The focus
group data were preserved on tape and the researcher transcribed students’ notes.
This greatly increased the efficiency of the data gathered for the study.
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CHAPTER 4
Findings
O f all postsecondary educational structures in America, the public
community colleges have home the brunt of the poor preparation of students in the
twentieth century (Cohen and Brawer, 1996). An urban community college uses
assessment for English, math, and ESL placement. The English and math assessment
tests are conducted through the College Board’s Accuplacer system and were
adopted by the college in May 2001. Accuplacer is a computerized set of adaptive
tests used to place students in the appropriate level of math and English. The
Accuplacer English component consists of Reading Comprehension and Sentence
Skills tests. In our examination of the community college students for the purposes
of this dissertation, it is important to understand the fullness of the community
college students’ experiences. Therefore, it only seems appropriate to ask students
about their experiences beginning with assessment, placement, and ending with
course outcomes.
Focus Groups
The focus group interview is essentially a qualitative data gathering
technique that relies upon systematic questioning of several individuals
simultaneously in a formal or informal setting (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). Focus
group interviews were used to provide first-hand knowledge of the assessment
process, classroom-experience, and transfer experiences. Because focus groups
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emphasize the collective, rather than the individual, they foster free expression of
ideas, encouraging member to speak up (Denzin, 1986; Frey & Fontana, 1993).
Some of the studies that have been conducted on focus groups show that group
participants find the experience more gratifying and stimulating than individual
interviews (Morgan, 1988; Wilkinson, 1998).
Focus group interviews took place from February of 2003 until August 2003.
Some focus groups had more female participants. Since many of the female students
at this urban community college have many other obligations, this study provided an
avenue to ask them about their experiences when they may not have the time to
participate or be active in other campus activities. As a result, the issues and
observations provided a method to study women of color and women of lower
socioeconomic background without them feeling any pressure. Notwithstanding male
participation, this methodology did allow for the voice of all of the participants
including men, but it did not silence these women. It was important to underscore
that the experiences of the participants that were significant. This awareness may
contribute to raising consciousness among women that their problems are not just
individual but structural and these problems are shared by other women (Denzin and
Lincoln, 2000). The voices and facial expressions of all the students prove to be
valuable in the overall focus group experience
Focus group interviews were conducted at an urban community college in the
spring and summer of 2003. Sixty students participated in focus group discussions.
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The distributions of students are from the major ethnic groups on campus. The
valuable insights of students gave the investigator the chance to understand the
community college experience from the students’ perspective. Students volunteered
to discuss their English placement and classroom experiences. Questions ranged
from their overall feeling about their English placement to their attitude and
experience in taking English courses in high school and college. In attempting to
gain a full picture of this varied population during the focus group interviews,
several questions were given to allow the students to interject their experiences (See
Appendix A, Figure 2). The students were candid in their explanations of how they
viewed taking English courses.
Table 1: Focus Group Population Distribution
Ethnic
Maie Femaie
Age-
Femaie
Age-
Male
African-American 4 17 18-59 2 1 -5 0
Hispanic 7 7 19-36 19-55
Asian 9 10 14-33 14-43
White 4 2 19-33 19-35
Totai= 6 0 2 4 36
The findings are organized in a series of themes that aid in the understanding
of the information obtained. The themes include reliability of the placement test,
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quality of instruction, over-confidence of the students, lack of high school
preparation, use of support services, computer skills- typing, Internet, surfing, and
transfer student issues.
Reliability o f Placement test
Community colleges are unique institutions because they aceommodate all
types of students and do not turn anyone away. However, they do provide
educational preparation for those students who have greater aspirations than to stay
or simply complete an Assoeiate’s Degree at the two-year institution. Regardless of
students’ future aspirations, if they want to take college-level English and math
courses, they must be placed into them using the assessments tests. Taking the
examination does not ensure a student will succeed or even advance to college-level
courses. In recent years, this study duly notes that remediation has gained much
more attention. According to Cohen and Brawer (1996), placement testing and
integrated developmental education services have dominated recent efforts in
remedial studies. Beginning in the late 1970s, the nation’s community colleges
moved toward a system of placement testing, restricted admissions to many courses
and programs, integrated remedial programs complete with counseling and tutorial
services and assessment of the efficacy of these procedures.
The populations of students who do not possess a degree are required to take
an assessment test at an urban community college in order to register in an English
course. The college is attempting to address the need to know the population of
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students entering the college. With the placement tests, the college concentrates on
the need of the students to gain skills that were either forgotten or never fully
understood in high school. Therefore, the reliability of the placement exam is very
important for the students and the institution.
Collaboration should occur within the same district and that appears to be a
basic concern. However, even within the same large district students can experience
different standards of what it means to be a remedial student. Frequently, it was
noted in the investigation, that students took the tests over repeatedly to get different
result. When students were not satisfied with their placement, they tended to take
matters in their own hands and retake the tests. The most significant cases occurred
when students took the exam at one college within the district and then took the same
exam at another college, but achieved different results. One student who participated
in the focus group took tests at two different colleges in the district and he received a
different score. The student is a fifty year-old, African-American male in his third
semester in school, he states:
I took the placement exam at two different schools and I received a different
score at each. At one school he was placed in English 21: Beginning
Composition then I took it again and was placed in English 28: Intermediate
Composition.
Continuity of testing requires that schools collaborate on the necessary skills students
need to succeed in college. The discrepancy here is significant because it occurs
within the same district, Los Angeles Community College District and there should
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be some similarity in the skills required to succeed and progress through the English
course progressions within the colleges. The literature is clear that the more remedial
classes a student takes the greater likelihood that student will not advance to
graduation. Consequently, the initial placement can be critical for some students. The
issue is presented here because English 21 is an extremely basic English course that
is sentence to paragraph and some students may need the review. While still others,
as seen in the focus group interviews felt that class was too easy and did not provide
them with the confidence they needed to succeed in the future college level courses.
This student ended up taking English 28, which is Intermediate Composition, and it
is only one course before the college-level course English 101: Freshman
Composition. English 28 course is considered paragraph writing to essay writing
and is supposed to present more challenging writing assignments for the students.
Undoubtedly, misplacement in these courses can provide the student with the insight
and knowledge they need or it can discourage them from taking future classes. In
combating this issue further collaboration should occur with the instruction and the
testing.
When English is your second language this experience is further exacerbated
because it may be the first American English class. A twenty-four year old, female
Asian student expressed concerns about the appropriateness of her placement test
scores. She states:
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I was excited about going to community college after working for two years.
I was worried about my English because it is my second language. I took the
English as a Second Language Test and I tested Level 4 and I did not think it
was right for me. So, I took the English Placement test again and tested into
English 21.
This is understandably a difficult area because students are supposed to be blocked
from taking multiple tests too quickly. The differences in taking a class where it is
designed for second language students create a great challenge for the college to
face. This student decided that being in ESL 4 was simply too low and took the
exam again and did achieve the higher level. In the focus group interviews, most
students did express confidence in their placement test scores. Satisfaction with the
placement exam was a question asked of the students. Each population seemed to
have differing views about their level of satisfaction. African-American females
were satisfied with their placement at a level of 64 percent, while 14 percent were
not satisfied. African-American males were satisfied with their placement at a rate
of 50 percent and dissatisfied at a rate of 25 percent. Hispanic females were satisfied
with their placement at 57 percent and 14 percent were not satisfied while 29 percent
had no response. Hispanic males were 38 percent satisfied and 38 percent dissatisfied
with their placement and 25 percent had no response. The most significant group that
showed dissatisfaction was Asian females. They were dissatisfied at 57 percent and
only 14 percent were satisfied and 29 pereent had no response. Asian males were 70
percent satisfied with their placement and 20 percent were not satisfied and 10
percent had no response. White females were also significantly unhappy with their
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placement seores. They were dissatisfied at a rate of 67 percent and only 33 pereent
were satisfied. Again, when students did not agree with the plaeement they did take
the initiative to petition to take the exam again or challenge it.
Sinee registering for courses is a time sensitive activity, students face the
challenges of the classes they need being elosed before they even have an
opportunity to know where they belong. Developmental students are among those
who ean least afford to enter a class in the second and third week of the term. The
availability of late registration options encourages them to believe this is possible
(Roueche and Roueche, 1993; Roueehe and Roueche, 1999).
Some question if ESL eourses fall under the term of remediation because the
definition of the term is still vague. Does the term stand for information in courses
that students should have learned in secondary schools and are therefore being
covered for a second time? Whereas some would argue that any eourses that
students enroll in that are below college level as remediation, so ESL eourses fall
under that part of the ambiguous mission of the community college. The Missions of
the California Community Colleges state, “The provision of English as a seeond
language is an essential and important mission of the community college”
(“Missions: Possible,” p. 21). The most recent change in the collegiate curriculum in
recent has been in English as a seeond language (ESL), which expanded from 30
percent of the foreign language enrollment in 1983 to 43 percent in 1986, and 51
percent in 1991. Together with Spanish, it accounted for 75 percent of all the foreign
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language credit-course sections. Approximately 250,000 students were taking ESL
for credit and nearly as many were in noncredit courses (Cohen and Ignash, 1992).
At an urban community college students who take an the placement exam for
ESL and are sometimes required to write an essay while other times they are given
multiple choice options. The test requirements appear ambiguous and students
expressed having issues with the outcome. A twenty-six year old, Asian female
student in the focus group states:
I took ESL 5a and my test was multiple-choice. They asked us which levels
do you think you should be in: level 1, level 2 or whatever level. I chose
ESL level 5 because ESL 6 was too much for me.
Results of the plaeement exam lead to questions about the reliability of placement in
ESL courses. Students can chose where they belong? Almost all educators,
legislators, and citizens want to see the total number of remedial students decline; it
seems likely that there will always be a significant number in this category. Even if
most students could succeed in regular college preparatory curricula, there will
always be ESL students, special needs students, and retuming adults (Breneman and
Haarlow, 1999). This area should be scrutinized for greater understanding of the
factors that lead to this frustration faced by students. Students are faced with a greater
pressure to achieve at a faster rate. Most of the ESL courses are not for college credit.
Many ESL students are part of the International Students’ Program and they pay a
higher price for their classes. Therefore, they have incentives to take the degree
applicable eourses.
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Quality of Instruction
Beginning with the earliest two-year colleges and continuing well into the
1960s, instructors tended to have prior teaching experience in the secondary schools.
Eells (1931) reported a study done in the 1920s showing 80 pereent o f junior college
instructors had previous high school experience. In the 1950s, Medsker (1960) found
64 percent with previous secondary or elementary school experience. Around 44
percent of new teachers of academic subjects entering two year colleges in California
in 1963 moved in directly from secondary schools, and others had had prior
experience with them (Califomia State Department of Education, 1963-1964). In
1973, Bushnell reported that 70 percent of the two-year college faculty nationally
had previously taught in public high schools. However, as the number of newly
employed instructors declined in the 1970s, the proportion of instructors with prior
secondary school experience declined with it. More were coming from graduate
programs, for the trades and from other community colleges.
In an issue of New Directions fo r Community Colleges on the theme of
“Responding to New Missions,” one community college instructor began an article,
“Let’s be candid about the major issue in the community college today: the low
academic achievement of its students” (Slutsky, 1978, p. 9). Noting the
demoralization of faculty members who had expected to be teaching college-level
students but who found few able students in their classes, she reported the concern
felt by instructors who believe that the decline in student ability was encouraged by
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institutional policies over which the instructors themselves had no control. Students’
ability exerts the single most powerful influence on the level, quality type, and
standard of curriculum and instruction offered in every program in every school
(Cohen and Drawer, 1996).
A twenty-six year old, male Hispanic student sums up his experience. This
student’s experience is a blend of both themes the placement test reliability and the
quality of instruction. He stated:
I was placed in English 21 and signed up to that class. Passed it. Don’t
remember much about that class. Then took English 28 twice. The first
teacher didn’t explain or teach anything well. Plus, he missed the class once
in a while. Passed the second time. Two years later I took this class English
101.
Students who suffer from lack of continuity from an instructor will pay a heavy price
educationally with their confidence in their own ability as a student. Interestingly,
the class, English 21 and then English 28 are the first introduction to the college
writing and the student does not remember much about them. Perhaps that could
stem from many factors we are unable to see here, but it appears that he did not gain
the competency he should have because he had to repeat English 28. Additionally,
an unfortunate reality is that students believe they are smarter than the curriculum
they face in English 21. Many students think it is not challenging and reluctantly
stay. Questions arise based on academic standards. What constitutes college-level
versus remedial courses? What standards are in place for textbook readability and
coverage? How effective is the course pacing and sequence? What will a course
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cover and how will it be taught? These are fundamental concerns that should be
clear to students upon entry. This student is a twenty-five year old Hispanic female.
She stated:
I was placed in English 21 and I thought it was very low, but I stayed. Once
in English 2 8 ,1 did get a B and I did not do all the work that I was supposed
to. Once in English 101,1 did not do that well. 1 took the class 5 times. Twice
1 dropped because it was too hard and then the other two times because of
work.
Simply to pass through a remediation program or set of activities does not
necessarily ensure that the student has gained the appropriate knowledge, skills and
attitudes (Spann, 2000). The student clearly stated she passed her preparation course,
English 28, without completing all the work. Although it may appear one
dimensional, it proves important here because fundamentally all course materials
must be completed within prescribed deadlines or the student may have a difficult
time in the next level course. She faces the possibility of repeating coursework,
which she did.
Her situation is one that is a contributing factor to a lack of persistence.
Continually, as the investigation found out, she had greater difficulty meeting the
standards set in the transfer-level English course. The student had to repeat the
course “5 times.” The reasons were varied but the fact remains that she continued
and chances are many other students would not have continued to try to pass the
course as she finally did. Ongoing systematic evaluation in both the cognitive and
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affective domains of learning is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the
remediation (Spann, 2000).
The entering skills level of the students continues to be a major factor that
affects what is taught and how it is taught. The literature speaks to the level of
student readiness being a key factor in the overall deterioration of the ability of
faculty to teach college-level work. A nineteen year old, African-American female
student had negative feelings about the instruction she was given in her first semester
of community college English. She stated:
I placed directly into English 101: Freshman Composition and did feel I had
the background to do well in the course. It was an horrific experience. The
teacher would sit there a read the newspaper with coffee. He would give you
a question and you were told to write a whole page. And you would be
docked a letter grade if you had a mistake. Then you were told to figure out
your mistakes on your own. I really didn’t learn any principles that I could
incorporate into any of my other class papers. I felt I was at such a
disadvantage.
The experience by the student relates to the pedagogical techniques of the instructor.
However, the student perceived her experience in a negative way because she
thought she would receive more attention from her professor. Nevertheless,
instructors at the community college also have certain academic freedoms, but
student confidence building cannot be achieved if there is little or no contact with the
instructor. It is especially important when students first enter and trust the placement
exam when they first enter the college setting. This student felt she had been
appropriately placed in the course, but did not feel confidence with the level of
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interaction and instruction she was given. Nonetheless, she did not feel that she had
acquired the skills necessary to succeed in her other college-level courses.
Additionally, the level of this course is the first college-level writing class, so the
expectation is high for the students and the instructors as well.
Over Confidence and Lack of High School Preparation
Many students expressed an over confidence after not achieving the course
placement on the assessment they found appropriate. Even though they had not been
in a college setting many students felt for many reasons ranging from doing well in
high school to living in America for a number of years that they had met the
prerequisite for doing well in English courses. It proved to be quite detrimental for
some students that since they were not confident that the placement was correct they
took matters into their own hands. In the focus groups, it was determined that some
succeeded but still other students failed and repeated courses as a result of their over
confidence.
When students do not believe it is an accurate measure then it creates issues
that are complex. When there is no confidence in the placement test, students
diagnose themselves. Moreover, our college population is older than our traditional
counterparts. Students think that since they have a working knowledge of English
that it should translate into the academic world. A 33-year old female student with a
German/Turkish background felt that since she had been in America long enough
college would not pose major problems. The student stated:
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English was my third language. For the past eight years, I have been speaking
and writing at work, and for the past 114 years in college, too. I was placed in
English 21 in spring 2002 and it was my first year in college. I thought
English 21 was too easy for me. I challenged myself and I took English 28. I
failed the class. I went back and took English 21 and passed with a credit and
then took 28 again.
The challenge here is not following the placement test. It correctly placed this
student. It is fortunate that this was a determined student who was willing to face the
challenge of repeating a course after failing it. She expressed an over confidence in
her ability and was not at all clear about the expectations of college writing. She
stated that she felt she was sure she could handle college because she had been
working and had been in college for over a year. Nevertheless, she felt she had a
working mastery of the language and would therefore succeed in her new
environment. However, when faced with writing in an academic environment, her
skills needed to be polished. She persisted for many reasons. Partially, she was very
determined and since she was already in the work world and retuming to school, she
knew the importance and relevance of furthering her college education.
In this study, it was found that students who had done well in high school had
a level of confidence about their ability; however, they still tested into remedial
courses. For example, a twenty-year old, Hispanic male was not accepted to the
college of his choice, the University of Southern Califomia. In high school, he was
also enrolled in Honors English, but he took the assessment test and placed into
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English 28: Intermediate Composition which is one-level below the college-level
course. He states:
I was placed in Intermediate Composition and I felt it was just a review of
high school. I was disappointed by my score, but I followed the prescribed
courses from the placement exam which was English 28: Intermediate
Composition. I did feel that Intermediate Composition did strengthen his
writing skills. Additionally, I did not understand the relevancy of English
until I could not enroll in classes that required the completion of Freshman
Composition. After completing both courses, I found that I did better in my
classes because I wrote with more confidence and structure.
He followed the prescribed placement after having been an excellent high school
student. Many believe community college students enter with very low skills.
However, this student entered the institution after taking honors classes in high
school and not testing high enough to enter into the college-level writing course.
Ironically, he followed the prescribed plan, which many students would not have
done with his background.
An example of the over-confidence in students and lack of preparation occurs
when students enter and do not feel the community college writing is difficult. If
English was not an important class in high school, then it becomes complicated for
students to rise to the challenge when they find expectations are greater. An
eighteen-year old Korean student whose primary language is English spoke out about
English progression. He had serious misconceptions about the course difficulty
before attending a commimity college right after high school. He stated:
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I was placed in English 28 expecting and “A.” I ended up getting a “C.” I
don’t think that my English 28 class really prepared me for English 101. All
I learned was basic writing and grammar skills. I never heard of MLA format
until finally learning it in 101. When I started community college, I thought it
as going to be just as easy as high school. Boy was I wrong. I am very fluent
in English. Having really easy, “kick-baek” types of teachers in high school,
it never prepared me for college English courses.
This student’s experience exemplifies the number of students who are bright, but are
over confident about their education. He felt that because his English classes were
“kick-back” in high school, they would be the same in college. The level of
expectation also surprised him in his Freshman Composition: English 101 course.
Emphasis was not placed on excellence in his prior high school experience, so his
conclusion was that college is probably just as easy as high school. He was wrong.
Luckily, he did persist and continue with his education after his “culture shock”
experience. Unfortunately, many who have to take so many levels do not continue
unless they are very serious because diagnosing the specific writing issues can be
quite complex.
This study captured students who had taken courses from the beginning of
the English course progression to the transfer-level English courses. The issue of
persistence here is clear, but it is not without factors that were prevalent in far too
many students. The students that seemed to have the most difficulty came from
families where both parents had not entered middle school. These observations
became clear on the Student Characteristics Form (See Appendix A, Figure 1). In our
focus group a 20-year old, female who is very shy, and of Mexican decent started
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from English 20, which is lowest level in the English progression at the urban
community college. Neither of the student’s parents finished elementary school and
this is a fact that is substantiated by the data. She has had great difficulty with her
English even though she has been living in America most of her life. In our analysis
of this student’s particular joumey, it appears that her largest obstacle was the lack of
education in her household. She stated:
I manage both languages. Even since I was a little girl. I read, write and
speak English and Spanish. I took the plaeement test and I deeided to start
from the bottom. English 20, 73, 28, and 101.1 was given a “D” in “English
101, so 1 needed to repeat the elass to transfer. It has been hard taking English
classes not for the language beeause 1 understand everything. It is just that the
writing kills me.
This student is not over-eonfident about her baekground; her laek of high school
preparation is a deeper issue. The education and the socio-economie background are
apparent with this student since neither parent completed elementary school. It
appears that the student’s struggle has been long-standing because the parents were
unable to interact with her edueationally long before she entered high school. It is not
a mystery that she continues to struggle in the two-year college setting. This student
clearly has completed the course pattern because she started with English 20 and
finished with English 101. In doing so, she also had to repeat her transfer-level
course because she continued to have major problems with academic writing.
Fortunately, she did persist and retake English 101. For this student, she understood
that English Composition was difficult for her since English was also her second
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language. However, the number of remedial courses she had to take added to her
frustration level. Additionally, she spent even more time than the English
progression of courses suggests because she repeated courses. The number of
students in the study that repeated courses in African American females was 29
percent. The number of African American males who had repeated was 25 percent.
Hispanic females had repeated courses at a rate of 57 percent. While the Hispanic
male population had repeated courses at a rate of 25 percent, but 50 percent did not
respond to the question. Asian females had repeated courses at a rate of 14 percent,
and Asian males had repeated at a rate of 10 percent. The female White students
repeated at a rate of 33 percent. No White male students had reported repeating any
courses.
This student’s experience is one that is more common than research can show
because many of the students in the study who experienced difficulty were first-
generation college students. Even more troubling, they were the first to attend and
graduate from elementary, middle school and high school in their immediate
families. The issue of remediation and whether it affects the student’s ability if they
come from a household where the parents’ education levels were low was clearly a
factor in her struggle. Students from these environments do achieve according to the
focus group interviews, but they had great difficulty.
Education of the parents was a key factor in examining student persistence.
The educational background of the parents of the students’ who participated in the
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study reflected varying levels. The parents of the African-American female students
in the group had completed high school at a rate of 50 percent. They had some or had
graduated from college at a rate of 29 percent. They had completed some elementary
at a rate of 7 percent and 14 percent of the respondents did not know their parents'
educational background. The education of the African American male respondents’
parents reflected 25 percent had completed high school. Another 50 percent had
some college or had graduated. Interestingly, 25 percent of the respondents did not
know the educational background of their parents. The Hispanic female population
also showed a varied educational background in regards to their parents where only
14 percent had some high school and another 14 percent had some junior high or
completed it. There were 14 percent who did not know or had no educational
background. The parents of the Hispanic male population reflected 50 percent high
school and some college. They reported that 25 percent of their parents had some
college or had graduated. Another 13 percent had completed some elementary and
another 13 percent did not know. The educational background of the Asian female
population was 86 percent had completed some college or graduated. Another 14
percent had some or completed high school. The Asian male’s parental background
was 80 percent had some college or had graduated and 20 percent had some high
school or completed. The White female parents’ educational background was 67
percent had some or graduated from high school. Another 33 percent had some
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college or had graduated. The parental background of the White male population
was 100 percent some college or had graduated.
Even though English has been a language that this student had been learning
since she was a “little girl” she continued to have problems in her classes and in
writing her papers for “college-level” expectations. The initial placement is quite
significant because the student is in a fundamental position where they are eager to
address their writing issues. However, the community college students with their
varied backgrounds can prove very hard to diagnose at times. The skills that the
placement test attempts to address should be general to the population; however, the
exam can only be expected to go so far. As a result, the lack of English skills and
lack of education of the parents become prevailing issues.
Supportive Services and Computer Skills-Tvping. Internet, surfing
Many students in the focus group expressed either indifference to supportive
services confusing them with having financial need as opposed to what it truly is.
Even the use of support services seemed to be an issue that is treated differently
among the varied student populations. The use of supportive services is high among
African American females. They used it at a rate of 60 percent. Among African
American males, they utilized supportive services at a rate of 50 percent. Hispanic
females utilized supportive services at a rate of 14 percent. Hispanic males utilized
supportive services at a rate of 38 percent. Asian female used supportive services at
a rate of 43 percent, and Asian males at a rate of 50 percent. Surprisingly, White
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female students did not use supportive services and responded at 67 percent that they
did not use utilize it. The White male student population did utilize supportive
services at a rate of 67 percent. Confusion seems to exist regarding supportive
services and many students did not seek help or utilize the services available. The
focus group interviews addressed whether or not students utilized the support
services. A twenty-year old, Hispanic male responds.-
I never used the writing center even though it was available me. The EOPS
counselor did not tell me how early I had to apply to transfer. I missed
deadlines, but I did get help getting my classes. I went to the writing center
to help with an outline course. I know I should have known it. I felt I was
ahead of people and those that were available to help you. I did not feel I
could not get the help I needed in the laboratory.
This student did not use the laboratory even though it was available to him. Students
in the study did not fully understand that supportive services were available to them
as part of their admissions and they were not required to pay additional fees. The
integrated developmental programs, such as EOPS, Educational Opportunity
Program and Services, provide counseling, tutoring and some financial assistance to
students who qualify, are also designed to effect retention. The effects of these
programs are positive even though this student’s experience was not. The staff
tended to pay closer attention to students, integrated teaching with counseling,
provided greater variety of learning materials, and motivated more of their enrollees
to devote more time to their studies. Understanding the availability of resources on
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and off campus is an important factor that all students including those who need
remediation should be aware of.
Transfer student issues
Community college transfer students have the added complications of dealing
with multiple institutions and the higher-risk students that are more numerous at
community colleges are among the least prepared to make such decisions on their
own (Rifkin, 1998). For instance, a twenty-three year old, African-American student
transferred to the University of Southern Califomia in 2000. She attended an urban
community college and spoke of her experience while attending the college. The
student stated:
There seems to be stigma attached to community college; however, there
seems to be a need to have this intermediate step for some. However, the
outside views don’t value it as much. The transition was difficult to
University o f Southern Califomia. There are things that are difficult. I was
prepared, but the expectations were only slightly more difficult. Not so
difficult that most people couldn’t get it. When I took the upper-level writing,
the course at an urban community college did help to prepare for later
courses. The expectation of the university professor is much more stringent
than community college professors. When you transfer from the community
college, what you realize is that students that begin at the university already
have a base and you are trying to develop that base when you transfer.
The students who transferred into a four-year institution provided a wealth of
knowledge about the complications faced when they transferred. Part of the issue
presented was the attitude that others had about them coming from a community
college. This only added to the difficulty of transferring to the senior institution.
More recent data suggest that once community college students transfer to a four-
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year institution, they graduate at the same rate as student who began at the four-year
institution (Rifkin, 1998). By interviewing this population, this study is able to
address specific questions about this high-risk population. There is a discrepancy
between the students at the community college and the university. Many that attend
the community college have no intention of going on. The admission standard of
each institution does change as the aspirations and the ambitions of each student
changes. While the number of community college students applying for transfer to
the Califomia State University in 1998 increased, the decline in the enrollments of
these students stemmed from lower admission rates that may be the result of stricter
enforcement of transfer requirements. On the other hand, at the University of
Califomia, the number of community college students applying for transfer increased
modestly, while the admission rater for these students decreased (Roach, 2000).
Despite a number of articulation policies aimed at helping community college
students transfer to four-year institutions, many students enrolled in transfer-oriented
programs either do not pursue a bachelor’s degree or experience problems in the
process.
When students transfer to the university they are expected to have certain
skills in place. The most prevalent is computer skills and the ability to generate a
paper by using the computer. Another transfer student was a twenty-nine year old,
African-American male. He stated:
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The teachers were stricter at Califomia State University Northridge. The
professor wanted us to be better. There was a lot of competition and the level
of skill in the freshmen was not high. There was clearly a difference between
those that had experience and those that don’t. I could not type and I could
not keep up because I could not type. I could not continue to pay others to
type papers for me. It was my lack of internet skills that proved to be difficult
for me. Learning the internet was a must. My skills were about 90 percent
and I had to do a lot of reading outside of my college reading. I had to
continue to focus on what I was writing. The stmcture of my writing had to
be addressed. I wasn’t just writing to write, but I was writing my project
according to the specifications of the assignments.
Beyond the community college, the evidence suggests that transfer students can and
do graduate from senior institutions given sufficient time. In fact, a study of
Canadian community college students showed that the transferring students did
better academically than students entering from high school. However, the
community college students took longer to graduate (Bell, 1998). Employment and
mediocre student support services increase the amount of time required for
graduation (Glass & Bunn, 1998). Continually, Davies and Casey (1999) attest to
the importance of a welcoming campus and staff, better training of faculty and staff,
standard transfer o f credit policies, and improved financial resources for promoting
transfer student success.
Summarv
The students who participated in the study provided valuable insights about
their experiences at the urban community college. They gave candid answers
regarding their experience with placement and if they felt confident about it. They
informed the researcher about other issues involving remedial classes and their
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confidence with their outcomes. The students in the focus group also shared their
experiences with uses of supportive services.
The data show that many students were confident with the placement test
results. The most paradoxical relationship was seen in regards to female Hispanic
students in opposition to their female Asian counterparts. Hispanic female
respondents had high confidence in their placement results at a rate of 57 percent.
They had high confidence in their course outcome at a rate of 71 percent.. However,
their rate of repeating courses was also very high. It was at a rate of 57 percent. In
contrast, Asian females had very low confidence in the placement test results
responding at a rate 57 percent. They also expressed low confidence in their course
outcome at a rate of 57 percent. But, they did not repeat in high number. Their rate
of repeating courses was 14 percent.
The relationship between the English assessment and the persistence of
students in their remedial courses seems somewhat significant. By examining the
data, African American females seemed most satisfied with their placement at a rate
of 64 percent and they were also satisfied with their course outcomes at a rate of 57
percent. They repeated their courses at a rate of 29 percent. Male Hispanics and
Whites had the highest rate of satisfaction with their placement. Male Hispanics were
satisfied at a rate of 70 percent and were also satisfied with their course outcomes at
a rate of 70 percent. White males were satisfied with their placements and course
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outcomes at rate of 100 percent. There appears to be a significant relationship
between the assessment and the persistence of students in their remedial courses.
The self-reported student knowledge and usage of supportive services
information that the students provided was of some significance because of student
misconceptions about what supportive services entail. Female Whites did not use
supportive services at all. Male Whites utilized supportive services at a rate of 67
percent. Male Asian students utilized the services at a rate of 50 percent. The
responses also varied, but many of the students did utilize some form of supportive
services.
In conclusion, the findings of the performance of the urban community
college are favorable. Since the populations are varied and resources are limited the
college is doing a fine job considering the limitations that are present. Community
colleges continue to serve the needs of varied and non-traditional populations of
students. It is difficult to measure the extent at which a college meets its goals due to
the changing needs of society and the population.
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CHAPTER 5
Conclusions
According to the Commission on the Future of Community Colleges,
“Literacy is essential for the individual and the society.. .Community colleges must
make a commitment without apology to help students overcome academic
deficiencies and acquire the skills they need to become effective, independent
learners” (p. 7). With the Truman Commission’s establishment of the community
colleges, they were intended to offer access to higher education that could not be
realized in selective four-year colleges and universities. The two-year college with
its flexibility and open admissions has provided opportunities for disadvantaged
individuals who might not otherwise attend college (Fusch, 1996). The selection
process in public two-year institutions requires only the possession of a high school
diploma, or its equivalent. Age and test scores are selection factors in nearly 40
percent of the two-year schools, while more than 60 percent use the “ability to
benefit” as admission criteria (Bryant, 2001). This creates the dilemma inherent at
community colleges. It also adds to the difficulty with the comparison of these
institutions to their senior institutions because the criterion for selection is extremely
ambiguous. Since four-year colleges and universities require students to have certain
examination scores on their national test, provide high school transcripts and
complete admissions exams that are intended to document readiness, these students
are likely to persist because the institutions have many instruments to help determine
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student preparedness. The community colleges lack of clear criteria that is mandated
to accurately measure student persistence and success; therefore, students and the
overall institution will suffer.
Over the past decade, the use of technology and specifically computers has
been used to enhance the teaching-learning process, particularly in remedial courses
that are hierarchical, linear, and stable in their structure and content. Several
controlled studies in colleges and universities have indicated that this type of
pedagogy has great potential for remedial education (Academic Systems, 1997). The
budget cuts of the 2003 school year added to the deficiency of student lab usage.
Many labs had to cut hours and staff in order to accommodate a shortage of funds
available to maintain their operation. Therefore, new and innovative forms of lab
usage will be necessary.
Persistence Issues
The community colleges were never designed to be exclusionary. The
mission and the purpose of these institutions are to bring higher education to the
masses of citizens that would not under traditional circumstance have the
opportunity. However, as community college enrollments rose since the 1960s,
community college students as a whole became more diverse—more
nontraditional— than in earlier years (Roueche & Roueche, 1993). Looking at age
alone, only 35 percent of today’s community college students are traditional
students age 18 through 21 (NCES, 1999a; Phillippe & Patton, 2000). In one of the
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first comprehensive studies of junior colleges, Medsker (1960) reported that 53
percent of students were in the 18 to 21-age range in the late 1950s, with the rest
being older. These factors contribute to the paradigm shift apparent in this
population.
Remedial education at the college level is generally defined as those courses
(generally non-credit) specifically targeted to improve the writing, reading, and
mathematics skill of students who enroll in college with less than expected ability,
knowledge, or proficiency (Hagedom, Chavez, & Perrakis, 2001). Socioeconomie
status, instead of ability, was once the primary determinant of attendanee at a college
or university. The student populations are now admitted to institutions of education
with developmental programs or where the regular curriculum reflects a wide range
of statuses in terms of race, ethnic origin, socioeconomic background, high school
grade point average, age and career objectives (Tomlinson, 1989). Providing
remedial education courses is part of the mission of the community colleges. It is that
way for many reasons. Since the eommunity eollege is designed to serve the needs of
the community, it has a broad scope. The community college serves the vocational,
transfer, remedial and simple edification needs of the general public. Nevertheless,
across the nation school systems are re-examining the need and the uses of
remediation.. In response, admissions criteria have evolved to meet the needs of
these students.
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According to the American Association of Community Colleges, community
colleges currently enroll 44 pereent of all undergraduates attending colleges and
universities nationwide. From all indications, enrollment demands at community
colleges are likely to continue expanding well into the new century. Over the next
decade, many states will experience explosive growth in the number of high school
graduates, many of whom will look to the community college for initial access to
four-year colleges and universities or for specialized vocational training. The
demographic profile of these students increasingly will reflect the population’s
growing ethnic diversity and ever-widening range of socioeconomic backgrounds
(Phelan, February 2000). The data show the plight of community college students. It
is a world that is often misunderstood. It has many issues that make obtaining a
higher education continually difficult for its students. The idea of this institution
fulfilling this need for education as well as for soeiety is directly related to the
Truman Commission report for creating the necessary access for all citizens who
were indeed able to get to their neighborhood college. The idea of access and
opportunity for all also feeds into the argument about the misunderstood nature of
those who attend. This creates many of the obstacles to success that its four-year
universities do not face. The admissions policy of accepting all who can benefit only
adds to the difficulty faced by the environment of the institution. It is with this in
mind that this study addressed some of the issues faced by this population of
students.
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Retention and Student Confidence
The population that enters the community college is largely ethnic minorities
and many immigrants. These entering students require an institution to address their
many needs. Generally, schools gave students a framework on which to place
knowledge stemming from various sources, learning to think critically, developing
values, understanding traditions, respecting diverse cultures and opinions, and most
important, putting that knowledge to use. It thus differs from the ideal collegiate
function (Cohen, 1996). The community college adheres to this definition because it
must continue to change to survive. Thus it cannot fit neatly into a traditional
paradigm. From its beginnings, the community college was created to provide
differing avenues for those in the community to receive an education. Some areas that
need addressing are the entry exams students take in order to be placed in the proper
English and math courses. Many students interviewed felt confident that their
placement was correct while still many others did not feel confident with it. As a
result, many challenged the result or did not take the recommended classes. There
seemed to be an extreme discrepancy in the English and English-as-a-Second
Language tests scores that students received. Some of the results gave students a
sense that they could not be confident with the scores. Students need the required
levels of English in order to be successful in their community college environment
and beyond.
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University students follow a more structured path that leads them to afford
greater success at the four-year level. The California Education Round Table has
recommended that all but the most severely remedial students complete four years of
English and two years of higher-level mathematics in order to graduate. Students
with limited English proficiency, many of whom first attend community colleges if
they go on to higher education at all, would be expected to meet the higher
educational standards. This caveat has drawn some criticism from educators of
students from English-as-a-second language programs who say the standards may be
out of reach for non-native English speakers (Manzo, 1996). It is well documented
that achieving well in English is a key determinant of college success; however, there
are many pressures in the current student population. They are asked to learn and
become proficient in as short a period of time as possible.
Since the population served at two-year institutions comes with many
academic issues that need to be assessed at the entry level, the factors of remediation
play an increasingly important function. As the demographics of students change in
the community college, so to does the need for continuity in the structure of what
every student should know upon entry in order to be successful. Many of the
nontraditional students largely needing remediation must overcome serious obstacles
and face educational hardships because of being under-prepared before entering a
college environment. Many find it difficult to integrate into the collegiate level
curriculum courses. Moreover, numerous factors lead to the lack of continuity in
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how would the college delivers to a population that has “open access” and “open
exit.” The definition of “open access” and “open exit” is part of the accessibility that
makes attending the community college an attractive for diverse student populations.
Students can come and go at will therefore making it difficult to offer a curriculum
that is continuous and precise. Currently, community colleges bear the burden of
being the place remediation has evolved. Most importantly, more colleges should
embrace the importance of remediation within the institutions as they serve more of
the “nontraditional students” that community colleges have always attracted.
The absence of “role models” also may make the path to higher education
difficult for minority students. Williams’ 1990 study found that African-American
students indicated the absence of a role model as a reason for not pursuing higher
education. Another factor is a lack of genuine cultural understanding of students on
the part of the professors (Rendon and Valdez, 1993). Faculty in community
colleges is primarily Caucasian, whereas the student population is becoming
increasingly diverse. Professors often have difficulty understand the academic
encouragement and directions that minority students seek, thus feel as though they
are simply “lowering standards” in order to account for a multicultural campus. A
lack of cultural understanding, on the part of faculty, may make the students
skeptical of remaining enrolled in a community college (Rendon and Valdez, 1993).
Many students were extremely adamant about what they wanted from their
instructors. They did not feel they received the interaction they needed and the
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instructor competence they deserved. Therefore, their confidenee and self-esteem
suffered throughout their eourses. Faculty should validate students as learners in
order to help them become better acquainted with this new aeademic setting.
Community eollege instructors generally have more contaet with their
students, so their perception of the students plays a significant role into students’
performance academically and socially. Rendon argues that faculty validation can
transform under-prepared students into college-ready learners through respect,
support, and care that faculty demonstrate through meaningful relationships (1994a,
1994b). As we enter the twenty-first eentury, criticizing college professors looms
like a contemporary sport without shortage of participants or spectators. Television,
radio, and newspaper cast college professors as eontent, lazy, and arrogant.
Academic jobs are depicted as low-pressured, complete with short working hours,
high salaries and lifetime job security (Hagedom, 2000). In an increasingly
pluralistic society, remedial educators require not only speeialized training in the
content and processes but also in the preparation in the understanding and
appreciation of cultural differences (Spann, 2000). Similarly, the quality of
instruction at the eommunity college is also an area that has gone through a
transformation. Since community college instructors’ primary responsibility is to
teach, the aeademic backgrounds vary widely from their university eounterparts.
According to Cohen and Drawer (1996), they rarely do research or scholarly inquiry.
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They are more concerned with the subject matter than their counterparts in secondary
schools.
Most students who participated in the study could name at least one faculty
member or counselor who had helped them. Consistency of instruction that many
students spoke of is a very complex issue. It is very difficult to address the faculty
and their pedagogical freedom. It is unfortunate when students do have certain
expectations and they feel they are not met. Additionally, when students also do not
understand the college system, they do not know their rights. They do not know that
they can switch the instructor or drop the course and take it later. It is difficult
because one of the largest problems facing this population is that they are generally
first generation college students.
Even in their home environments students cannot get the help and the
understanding they need. Students attend college and feel alienated both at school
and at home. The level of intervention should be higher after the first semester when
the students have a better working knowledge of the expectations of the college
environment. In the beginning, students are bombarded with the new environment
including: seeking financial aid, having to see a counselor, obtaining an educational
plan, and taking assessment tests. Many emotions flowed from students the first few
weeks of the new experience. With that in mind, after the completion of the first
semester and dealing with obtaining classes, students have a better understanding of
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the timeline necessary for success in their English courses and their other college-
level reading courses.
With more responsibilities on the whole than their four-year counterparts,
these students have a lot more at stake when it comes to gaining an education.
Community colleges serve a dynamic role in the educational structure to prepare
students for the workforce or the university transfer. In spite of everything, the
society it serves has always varied and modemly it serves mostly “nontraditional
students.” Historically, colleges have geared their curriculum and focus on
“traditional” college students. These are students who come to college without
breaks from high school and attend college. Generally, they are 18-20 years of age,
have no children and attend college full-time. The “non-traditional” students are
generally older- about 24-28 years of age. They have been out of school for a period
of time and they have other responsibilities such as a family and/or work. They also
attend college largely on a part-time basis. Additionally, with the diversity of the
populations of students there is also a diversity of skill levels and educational needs
that must be addressed by two-year institutions.
Nevertheless, two-year institutions are continually changing as the population
they serve changes. As students transfer to four-year institutions, they tend to
experience academic and social problems. Those interviewed did adjust but
expressed concerns about the level of difficulty and higher expectations of the
university. The more traditional social environment o f a four-year university does
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not always provide the special needs and support that many community college
students require to persistent. Transfer students are then left to seek others avenues
for help.
Student success is difficult to define in a community college context because
students’ reasons for attending college vary widely. Harris (1998) identifies student
goal attainment, course retention, and success in coursework, fall-to-fall persistence,
degree or certificate completion, and placement rate in the workforce as indicators of
success. Certainly this broad range of indicators is inclusive of the similarly broad
purposes of community college enrollees. Again, the need for intervention could be
used to identify student progress in the early weeks of the semester. This
intervention could help many students address their persistence issues when they
lack a clear understanding of the college environment.
Support Services
Under-prepared students require individualized help and can often be
intrusive. The issues they have need to be diagnosed and addressed as soon as
possible. Additionally, tutorial labs and additional instruction should be provided
including the use of peer and professional tutors. The use and availability of
supportive services is vital to the success and persistence of students, especially
those who are new to the college environment. Unfortunately, more students do not
utilize the support services available to them. They seemed to not fully understand
what the services entailed. Even when they did need the support, many students
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admitted to never using them. The message needs to be presented in orientation
about the services available to all students including, but not limited those with
financial needs.. Far too many students wait until most of the semester has passed
before they seek help. At that point, it is generally too late. Napoli and Wortman
(1998) indicate that academic and social integration have both direct and indirect
effects on persistence in college overall. In general, interaction with faculty and
peers can aid in the success and persistence of students in college because it aids in
understanding the connections necessary for success in their new environment.
Typically, peer interactions for students in community college revolve around
study sessions or discussions about coursework (Maxwell, 2000). Studies continue to
reveal that gender differences play a role in whether students interact with their
peers. Hagedom, et. al. (2000) reveal that women especially tend to form study
groups with other students and also report having less difficulty meeting and making
friends than do male students. These relationships with other students can prove to
be key factors in a student’s success in terms of the student socially integrating with
his/her college environment. Rendon (1994a, 1994b) offered other insights into
academic and social integration.
Community college students, particularly minority students who may also be
under-prepared, lack confidence to form meaningful relationships with faculty
members and fellow students. To be successful, they need to be integrated more
fully into the academic and social life of colleges. The limitation here is participation
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is very difficult for community college students. Since they have so many
responsibilities outside of college, participating and benefiting from a social life on
campus is not an option for most students. They are never able to fully integrate into
the culture of college. Several state initiatives are imderway to define what a first-
year college student needs to know and be able to do, with specific attention to the
ability to read at a minimum level and perform broad math skills (Phipps, 1998).
College faculties in Colorado are now working with classroom teachers in high
schools, developing assessments that measure the competencies. In 1996, the
General Assembly modified the state statute that defined the higher education
admission criteria from “high school grade point average and standardized test
scores” to “high school performance measures and national test scores” (Colorado
Commission on Higher Education, 1998).
The community college is left with the difficult task of meeting the
educational needs o f the public in a time when it is finding itself the victim of budget
crises and expanding roles. The California Commimity College report noted nearly
$300 million in outlays to remedial education (Breneman & Haarlow, 1998). This
represents significantly more per capita than any other state. It is clear that providing
remedial education classes is part of the mission and the purpose of the community
college. However, in many states including California, the burden will be heavier for
the community college because institutions such as the California State University
system plan to reduce, or eliminate, all remedial programs by 2007 (Breneman &
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Haarlow, 1998). This continues to strain the educational system at the community
college level and place more students here who are under-prepared.
Critical of integration, Eaton (1994) characterized the amalgamation of
curriculum as an identity crisis, arguing quality of collegiate education is diminished
when transfer function is not kept pure. The Commission on the Future of
Community Colleges (1988) agreed and recommended isolating vocational
education from the liberal arts because students cannot transfer what they know from
one discipline to another.
Transfer Issues
Consequently, as community colleges continue to evolve, it is clear that they
provide the option to many that may not see higher education third and fourth year
college or university as a possibility. As this investigation showed, students
transferring felt that the transition was difficult at first. Many had to adjust to higher
expectations with their academic work and the requirement to have greater computer
technology skills posed problems as well. Those students who transfer to the four-
year college experienced an overall “campus culture shock” after transferring from a
community college to the university (Davies & Casey, 1999). According to Davies
& Dickmann within the shock o f being on the university campus, undesirable student
experiences included; parking, crowds, lines, and lack of individual attention (1998).
The research supports that the transition is especially difficult in minority
communities. Academic problems experienced by transfer students include having
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lower than average grade point averages after one semester in the four-year school
and lower persistence and graduation rates (Hughes & Graham, 1992; Jacobs, Busby
& Leath, 1992);Townsend, NcNemy & Arnold, 1993). The higher academic
expectations and the increased difficulty o f the specialized major courses in the four-
year college in comparison to the general education courses taken in the two-year
college may also affect academic adjustment (Graham, 1987). Given that many
minorities do not get an understanding of the basic college experience in the home,
they are left to figure out the new scheme on their own. They may be the first person
in their family to attend college and that is a major obstacle. Additionally, they feel
marginalized because they must deviate from the group norm in order to achieve an
education.
Race and socioeconomic factors continue to play a major role in the lives and
success ratios o f the transfer students. Colleges and universities are hard-pressed to
meet the needs of these students who can become lost in the system of higher
learning. The students in this study did persist and make the transition from
community college to the four-year institution. All of those interviewed expressed
many moments of frustration, but they were also very satisfied with their community
college experience. Research has demonstrated that Black student transfer rates are
higher at larger schools, when day-care facilities are provided, and when schools are
located in affluent commimities with a high percentage of Black residents. The
transfer rate is lower when Black students are concentrated in particular programs
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104
(namely vocational) in predominately White schools (Blau, 1999). Hagedom,
Maxwell, and Hampton, (2001) report that grade point average, strength o f college
commitments, number of course credit hours, extent of high school preparation, and
perceptions o f the need for assistance are positively correlated with the retention of
African-American males in community colleges. Retention of Asian Pacific
Americans is similarly correlated with grade point average and number of credit
hours. Additionally, for these students, there is a positive relationship between
retention and the extent of financial aid (Makaukane-Drechsel & Hagedom, 2000).
Vazquez and Garcia Vazquez (1998) suggest that Latino students’ attitudes towards
themselves and their community college experiences are strongly related to
interactions with the faculty and self-image.
While the community college has faced criticism for preventing students
from achieving social mobility, under the right conditions, minority students can
benefit from their attendance in community colleges. The experience alone does not
hinder them and can result in positive outcome (Bryant, 2001). The transfer students
interviewed did find that attending the community college did help to bridge the gap
brought about because of the lack of experience of college versus the university. By
attending the community college, they felt better able to handle the university, but
they did express some difficulty in knowing where to find help at first. The problem
faced seems to have more to do with the stigma placed on community college
students that they were not “good enough” to enter the university first. However,
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105
after more time for assimilation into their new culture they seemed to make the
seamless transition and graduate from the institutions they transferred to.
Unfortunately, since these students also come from first generation college families
and are minorities, their newly found achievement of attending and later graduating
from a university is often met with some dissention from their home environments.
The literature does address the needs of these students and it is an important issue
that leads itself to persistence issues.
Researchers Astin (1988,1993), Fleming (1984), Hurtado (1992), Neville,
Heppner, and Wang (1997) have foimd that race ethnicity, and socioeconomic
factors further complicate student adjustment to college. The focus group interviews
reveal that adjusting to college life and its expectations can be a determent to success
if the student is not willing to assimilate into his/her new collegiate culture.
However, once the student accepts the challenge and seeks the help needed, they
tend to benefit greatly from their new academic achievements.
Recommendations
♦Early intervention should be mandatory for all students who are enrolling in
reading and writing and math courses.
♦Many of the lower level courses should be re-designed, so that the course content
addresses the general education requirements for the students.
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106
♦ Instructors should lead laboratory/learning centers. Having faculty led assistance
for student students would add to greater level of competency for students.
♦More workshops should be designed for students to get to know instructors and
understand their expectations.
♦The assessment of students should be researched and more reliable tools should
used to diagnose student needs at entry.
♦Informed counselors should be there to help students feel integrated into the new
collegiate culture. Counselors should have more time to talk to the students and have
expanded roles.
♦More incentives for faculty to discuss student issues, and discuss pedagogical
techniques that are effective.
♦There should more collaboration between faculty members within the same district
and a greater understanding of effective teaching models and assessment techniques.
♦ Students involved in developmental or lower-level English courses should not be
allowed to register for classes after the first week of classes.
♦There should be greater reliance and usage by faculty of technology inside and
outside of the classroom.
Final Analvsis
In a study conducted by Alfred and Lum (1984), they reported that individual
demographic characteristics and placement policies paled as predictors in
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107
comparison with the grades earned in the remedial classes. With the elimination of
remedial programs, the experience is very prevalent in the current climate of budget
shortfalls and crisis. The community colleges suffered a great deal with the deficit in
the State of California. Many classes were cut. The reality of going to a college that
relies heavily on state funding is quite difficult for the overall standing of two-year
institutions. It remains clear that the community college is a unique institution. The
institution continues to meet the needs of the public and this creates problems with
its own identity.
The mission of the community college remains a bit too ambiguous, and with
the ambiguity the institutions may do more than it should to meet the needs of its
ever-changing population. However, considering the challenges faced by the
institution to be in touch with the changing needed of the workforce, the community
college is meeting the challenge. Clearly in our investigation of the community
college and the English course patterns o f students in our focus groups, we find
many areas that need serious attention, but student continue to express confidence in
the college system despite its shortcomings. Students are persisting, but many times
the issues that they face are inherent in the community college structure and they
should be addressed.
Phelan (2000) believes that the open door policy o f community colleges is
“threatening to close” (p. 1) as a result of rising enrollments and declining public
interest and investment in high education. He suggests that the available policy
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108
options such as capping enrollments, instituting performance-based funding, and
restricting enrollments of students already holding degrees have been positive and
negative implications for community college access. The most important time to
capture a student is upon entry. Nevertheless, when students and faculty do not feel
confident about the overall placement instrument then the problems begin. The
assessment instrument can never be fool proof; however, by overwhelming numbers
many students did not feel confident in their placement and proceeded to retake the
exam. This leads to many other issues. They cannot register for the most important
classes that are pre-requisites for other college-level reading courses. The English
courses fill very quickly and when students need to take the time to not only assess
once, but sometimes twice, there is a greater likelihood they will not get the classes
they need. Additionally, it is an area that has to be addressed in the near future
because students, faculty and counselors all rely heavily on assessment as a predictor
of student outcomes.
Even with all of the issues prevalent in the institutions, students who attend
feel most confident once they master their English courses. They begin to realize the
importance of communication on paper and they also realize they cannot register for
additional courses until the English courses are passed with at least a satisfactory
grade. Regrettably, it is also becoming increasingly difficult for students to take
advanced classes at the institution. With the unprecedented budget cuts of the 2002-
2003 school year smaller more advanced classes were the first classes to be cut.
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109
Enrollment is smaller in those courses because most students need remediation or the
Freshman Composition and Critical Thinking courses for transfer, but the more
advanced literature course cannot survive in this environment w'hen only large
classes are deemed as cost effective.
Frequently, the attitude persists among students and society at-large that only
those who were not “good enough” to attend a university “end up” at a community
college. This is a reason community colleges need to become more visible in the
community and outside o f it in order to get more information out about the
institutions’ fimction and purpose. This is a long-standing issue that also goes along
with the identity crisis. It is one that the institution must continue to work against.
The college still serves and will continue to serve a multitude of people who would
not otherwise have access to an education that would allow them mobility between
the social classes. As Cohen and Drawer (1996) state, the real benefit of the
community college cannot be measured by the extent to which it contributes to the
overthrow of the social-class system in America. Nor can it be measured by the
extent to which the college changes the mores of its community. It is a system for
individuals, and it does what the best educational forms have always done: it helps
individuals learn what they need to know to be effective, responsible members of
their society. The colleges can and do make it easier for people to move between
social classes.
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110
Continually, the fact that the community college serves minority students and
other groups never before served by the higher education establishment does not
mean they have abandoned their commitment to teach. In fact, it means that they are
teaching what most do not want to teach. Community colleges remain at the
forefront of the educational ladder and continue to hold true to the Truman
Commission Report that established them in the first place. In the course of the
exploration o f English progression and its effect on the confidence o f students many
areas that are positive were discovered, but many areas that are negative need
immediate attention. In summary, the students of an urban community college where
the study took place expressed great confidence once they felt they had the skills to
persist. It was difficult find out if students had repeated courses using descriptive
research because phrasing the question in a group session was problematic when
negative issues had to be discussed. However, the method is effective because the
student view is what is analyzed. The student is able to discuss the experience from
his/her perspective and for that reason alone it is invaluable information. Students
up to now are not often asked about their experience in an open forum. If that
changes the community college student will begin to add to the body of information
available about the two-year college experience.
Future Studies
♦ How does academic performance increase in students when they are placed in
highly supportive environments?
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I ll
♦W hat are the long-term effects on student retention when there is increased
intervention during the first year of college?
♦W hat are the earliest possible intervention procedures that can enhance female
student persistence when the parents' primary language is not English?
♦W hat types of collaboration with primary schools will promote subsequent college
success of students whose parental education is below high school?
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112
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and Statistics. 3’ ^ '^ Edition. Washington D.C.: Community College Press,
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Phipps, Ronald (1998). College Remediation: What it is, what it costs and what’s at
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125
APPENDIX A
Student Focus Groups
Characteristic Form
All information will be held in the highest regard. This is confidential and no one
will see this information except the investigator. Your name will be coded and not
used in the study.
Name
Age Year (semester) in college Ethnicity
Parent’s Educational Background (How much formal education do they have)
Your educational aspiration ( i.e. to transfer, to get a certificate, to get a job,
etc.)
GPA GPA in your major Major
Please answer the following questions:
A. How many colleges do you attend or have you attended?
B. How many are you attending right now?
C. Which are they?
D. Is English your primary language? If not, how long have you spoken/written
English?
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126
Student Focus Groups-
Spring 2003
1. What was your attitude about attending community college before you
started?
2. What was your English background before attending college? Did you take
English courses in high school? How many years?
3. What were your overall feelings about the placement? Did you feel you were
placed appropriately?
4. Overall, how was your first English course experience?
5. Did you know the relevance of English before taking courses? Explain.
6. If you have taken this class before, please explain why you are re-taking or
retook any o f these courses?
7. Are the principles you learned helping you in your other classes? If so, how
are they helping? What are the noticeable differences, you see?
8. What support services where available to you? Did you use them? How
often? If you did not use them, why not?
9. Did taking English courses help or hinder your confidence or any other
internal changes within you? Tell us why?
10. What is your overall attitude about attending a community college now?
11. Did a professor, a coimselor, other school professional take particular interest
in your educational endeavors? If so, who and what happened?
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127
APPENDIX B
Focus Group Sessions Schedule
Date
Febniary 23, 2003
February 26,2003
February 27, 2003
March 6,2003
July 22, 2003
July 30, 2003
August 5, 2003
August 6, 2003
August 7, 2003
Time
12:30-1:30pm
1:45-2:45pm
ll:15-12:15pm
ll:15-12:15pm
12:30-1:30pm
1:45-2:45pm
2:15-3:15pm
12:30-1:30pm
l:45-2:45pm
12:00-12:30pm
12:45-l:15pm
4:00-6:00pm
2:00- 3:00pm
1:00 - 2:00pm
Number in sessions
6 students
4 students
4 students
4 students
4 students
4 students
7 students
12 students
10 students
1 student
1 student
1 student
1 student
1 student
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1 FB1824 F B 18 2 4 HS HS transfer 2 Y Y Y NR NR NR
2 FB1923 F B 19 2 3 AA HS transfer 2 Y Y Y N y Y
3 FBI 924 F B 19 2 4 C C transfer 2 Y Y N N NR NR
4 FBI924b F B 19 2 4 HS HS ■ transfer 1 Y N Y N Y N
5 FB2036 F B 20 3 6 HS H S. transfer 1 Y N Y Y Y . N
6 FB2223 F B 22 2 3 C C transfer 1 Y NR NR NR NR NR
7 FB2236 F B 22 3 6 AA 7 career 2 Y Y N Y N Y
B FB2400 F B 23 G G HS HS graduate/AA Y 1 1 1 1 1
9 FB4012 F B 40 1 2 HS HS RN 3 Y Y N Y Y N
10 FB4424 F B 44 2 4 HS HS transfer 1 Y Y Y Y Y Y
11 FB4836 F B 48 3 6 0 0 transfer 1 N Y Y N Y Y
12 FB5023 F B 50 2 3 6 graduate/AA 2 Y Y N N Y Y
13 FB5223 F B 52 2 3 0 0 undecided 2 Y - Y N Y Y
14 FB5924 F B 59 2 4 HS HS transfer 1 Y Y Y N Y Y
1 MB2126 M B 21 2 6 C C transfer . 2 Y N Y Y Y
2 MB2424' M 8 24 2 4 7 7 transfer 1 Y Y N N N
3 MB2900 M B 29 G G BA BA MA 3 Y NR 1 1 1 1
4 MB5036 M B 50 3 a 11 11 transfer 1 Y Y Y N Y Y
f
1 MAI 924 M C 19 2 4 C C transfer 1 N Y N N Y N
2 MA2835 M C 28 2 5 JH JH transfer 1 N NR Y NR NR NR .
3 MA2825b M C 28 2 5 HS BA transfer 1 N N Y NR NR NR
1 FA1911 F F 19 1 1 HS HS transfer 1 Y N N N N NR
1 MAI 936 M F 19 3 6 BA C transfer 3 Y N N N Y Y
1 FH1924 F H 19 2 4 E E transfer 1 N Y Y
2 FH2036 F H 20 3 6 E- E- transfer 1 N N Y Y NR Y
3 FH2111 F H 21 1 1 0 0 transfer 1 N NR NR NR NR NR
4 FH2300 F H 23 1 1 ? 7 transfer 1 N Y Y Y N N
5 FH25714 F H 2£ 7 14 JH JH transfer 1 N Y Y Y N Y
6 FH3123 F H 31 2 3 HS HS transfer 1 N NR NR NR NR NR
7 FH36510 F H 3e 5 It) E E BA 1 N Y Y Y Y Y
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1 MH1924 M H 19 2 4 C C transfer 2 N N Y Y Y
2 MH1924b M H 19 2 4 HS HS graduate/A A 2 N NR NR NR NR NR
3 MH2013 M H 20 1 3 HS- HS- transfer 1 N N Y N N Y
4 MH2013b M H 20 1 3 C HS PHD 2 Y - Y Y N Y
5 MH2124 M H 21 2 4 HS- HS- tran sfer 1 N Y N NR Y Y
6 MH2636 M H 26 3 6 graduate//VA 1 Y Y N N Y N
7 MH3123 M H 31 2 3 HS HS education 1 N Y Y NR NR NR
8 MH551420 M H 55 14 20 5 1 transfer 1 N N Y NR Y Y
1 1 FA2136 1 F 1 1 1 2 l l 3 1 6 1 MA | MA | tran sfer | 1 | N | N 1 | 1 n 1 Y
1 FA2024 F J 20 2 4 HS BA transfer 1 N NR N NR NR NR
2 FA2724 F J 27 2 4 C C transfer 2 N N N Y NR
1 MA4312 M J 43 2 5 BA BA transfer 2 N Y Y N Y NR
1 FA2125 F K 21 2 5 BA BA transfer 2 N N N Y Y Y
2 FA22523 F K 25 2 3 C C transfer 3 Y Y N . N Y N
3 FA3311 F K 33 1 1 BA BA transfer 2 N NR Y N N NR
1 MA1411 M K 14 1 1 HS HS graduate/A A • 1 N Y Y N Y N
2 MAI 825 M K 18 2 5 C C transfer 1 Y Y N N N N
3 MA2336 M K 23 .3 6 BA BA transfer 2 N Y Y Y Y N
1 MA2136 M M 21 3 6 BA BA transfer 2 N Y N NR NR NR
2 MA2636 M M 26 3 6 BA BA transfer 2 N Y Y NR NR NR
1 FW1911 F W 19 1 1 HS HS tran sfer , 1 N Y Y N NR N
2 FW3326 F W 33 2 6 HS HS transfer 1 N N N Y N NR
3 FW3313 F W 33 1 3 HS C undecided . 3 N N N N N NR
1 MW 1924 M W 19 2 4 C C transfer 1 N Y Y N NR N
2 MW1924b M W 19 2 4 MA MA MA 1 N Y Y N Y N
3 MW3524 M W 35 2 4 C C graduate/A A 2 Y Y Y N Y Y
K )
130
APPENDIX D
TRUCCS English Class designations
Number Course
lA lA Integrated Skills (6) NDA
IB IB Integrated Skills (6) NDA
2 English 2 -College English As A Second
Language II (12) NDA
2A English 2A- College English As A Second
Language I (6) NDA
2B 2B College English As A Second Language
n (6) NDA
3 3 College English As A Second Language
(12) NDA
4 English 4 -College English as a Second
Language (12) NDA
4A English 4A Writing/Grammar (6) NDA
4B English 4B ReadingA^ocabulary (3) NDA
4C English 4C Listening/Speaking (3) NDA
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131
20 English20: College Reading
Skills 6Units (NDC)
33 Basic Vocabulary (3) NDA
47 Reading Clinic (3)
64 Intermediate Reading and
Composition: Basic Skills (3)
77 Content-Specific English:
Job Search/Success for ESL Students
79 Beginning College English
as a Second Language (6) (NDA)
21 English Fundamentals (3) NDA
33 Basic Vocabulary (3) NDA
46 Reading and Study Improvement
(3) NDA
67 Writing Laboratory (.5)
69 Writing and Revising on the Computer
(1) RPT 3 (CR/NCR)
73 Beginning College Reading and
Writing (3)
75 Methods for Tutoring Writing
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132
(1) NDA
85 College English as a
Second Language II (5) CSU
86 College English as a Second
Language IH (5) UC:CSU
94 Intensive Grammar Review
(3) NDA
5 College English as a Second
Language(12)
5A Writing/Grammar (6)
UC:CSU
5B ReadingA^ocabulary (3) NDA
5C Listening/Speaking (3) NDA
6 College English as a Second
Language (12) NDA
6A Writing/Grammar (6) UC:CSU
6B ReadingA^ ocabulary (3) NDA
6C Listening/Speaking (3) NDA
7B College English as a Second
Language - Reading/ Vocabulary (3) (NDA)
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133
22 Technical English (3)
23 Advanced Vocabulary (3) NDA
5A Writing/Grammar (6) UC:CSU
5B ReadingA^ ocabulary (3) NDA
22 Technical English (3)
23 Advanced Vocabulary (3) NDA
28 Intermediate Reading and Composition (3)
31 Composition and Critical Reading (5)
UC:CSU
101 College Reading and Composition I (3)
102 College Reading and Composition II (3)
103 Composition and Critical Thinking (3)
127 Creative Writing (3) UC:CSU RPT 2
130 Report Writing for Law Enforcement -
(3) CSU
185 Directed Study - English (1) CSU
203 World Literature 1 (3) UCrCSU
204 World Literature II (3) UCrCSU
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134
205 English Literature I (3) UCrCSU
206 English Literature H (3) UCrCSU
207 American Literature I (3) UCrCSU
208 American Literature II (3) UCrCSU
209 California Literature (3) UCrCSU
210 The Twentieth Century Novel (3) -
UCrCSU
211 Fiction (3) UCrCSU
212 Poetry (3) UCrCSU
213 Dramatic Literature (3) UCrCSU
215 Shakespeare I (3) UCrCSU
218 Children's Literature (3) CSU
219 The Literature of American Ethnic
Groups (3) UCrCSU
233 American-Jewish Literature
(3) UCrCSU (Same as Jewish Studies 6)
234 African-American Literature (3)
UCrCSU
239 Women in Literature (3) UCrCSU
240 Literature and the Motion Picture I
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135
(3)UC:CSU
250 Mythology and Literature (3)
UCrCSU
254 The Latin-American Short Story (3)
UC
255 Latin American Literature (3) UCrCSU
285 Directed Study - English (2) CSU
385 Directed Study - English (3) CSU
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Creator
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Community college English courses: The road less traveled by community college students
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Tag
education, community college,education, language and literature,OAI-PMH Harvest
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Hagedorn, Linda Serra (
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