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Gender role conflict, personality, and help -seeking in adult men

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Gender role conflict, personality, and help -seeking in adult men

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Content GENDER ROLE CONFLICT, PERSONALITY, AND HELP-SEEKING IN ADULT MEN by Jill Ridenhour Cortese A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSEER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY EDUCATION (COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY) May 2003 Copyright 2003 Jill Ridenhour Cortese Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3103877 UMI UMI Microform 3103877 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089-1695 This dissertation, written by under the direction o f h e r dissertation committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Director o f Graduate and Professional Programs, in partial fulfillment o f the requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Director D ate May .1 6 , . 2 0 0 3 dissertation Committee Chair t g — — Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Marilyn and Henry Ridenhour, and to my husband, Anthony M. Cortese. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee: Rodney K. Goodyear (dissertation chair), Kaaren Hoffman, and Merril Silverstein. The following colleagues and mentors also provided their wisdom and professional guidance: Gary Wolfe, Susan Steinberg, Peter Graves, Naomi Himmelfarb, Leona Payton-Franklin, Clyde Crego, and Richard Cantey. I am especially grateful to Stephen Strack whose training in assessment sparked my interest in personality theory and whose assistance was extremely valuable. The love of my family and friends greatly enriches my work. I thank Terrance Jakubowski for his unsurpassed friendship and expert consultation throughout my graduate studies. My thanks also to my dear friends: Karen Gladstone, Tamara Alito, Michael Kinman, Scott Polenz, Colleen Lynch, Christopher Camino, Christine Guzzardo, Karen Enyedy, Christopher Hodson, and Thomas Locke. Finally, it is with great love and respect that I acknowledge my brother, Keith Ridenhour, and my sister, Susan Redelfs, and express my deepest appreciation for their confidence in me during this endeavor and all others. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IV Table of Contents Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii List of Tables v Abstract vi Chapter I Introduction and Review of the Literature 1 Chapter II Methodology 41 Chapter III Results 50 Chapter IV Discussion 64 References 86 Appendix A Gender Role Conflict Scale 98 Appendix B Personality Adj ective Check List Items by Scale 100 Appendix C Scale Descriptions of Personality Styles 101 Appendix D Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Scale 103 Appendix E Participant Demographic Questionnaire 106 Appendix F Participant Packet Cover Letter 108 Appendix G Drawing Rules and Procedures 110 Appendix H Participant Follow Up Letter 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 List of Tables Personality Adjective Check List (PACL) Frequencies 53 Univariate Statistics and Reliability for the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Scale(ATSPPH) 55 Standardized Scores for the Means of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Gender Role Conflict Subscales 56 Correlation and Regression Analysis of PACL Subscales and Gender Role Conflict 57 Summary of Personality Style Frequencies by High and Low Gender Role Conflict Groups 58 Correlation Matrix for Scores on the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH) 61 ANCOVA of Gender Role Conflict, Personality, and Help-Seeking Variables 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vi Abstract This study examined male gender role conflict, personality style, and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. A randomly selected, nonclinical population of 308 male university employees completed three self-report measures: the Gender Role Conflict Scale, Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale, and Personality Adjective Check List. Results indicate that the dominant type of gender role conflict in this sample was Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. Chi square analysis revealed a meaningful relationship between gender role conflict and personality style in which the low gender role conflict group was associated with the Sociable personality style and the high gender role conflict group with the Introversive personality style. Gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help were correlated negatively and significantly. The relationship between attitudes toward help-seeking and personality style, however, was not significant. Personality style did not mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking psychological help, as predicted. Limitations of the study are discussed, as well as implications for counseling, and directions for future research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 CHAPTER I Introduction Theory development and empirical investigation of masculinity has been an increasingly important focus of the psychology of gender over the last several decades. A primary component of the research has been the study of the effects of the gender roles of men. O’Neil (1981a) defined the construct gender role as behavior, expectations, and role sets defined by society as masculine or feminine which are embodied in behavior and culturally regarded as appropriate to males or females. In an age when social, political and economic institutions are in a state of flux, it follows that socially prescribed gender roles, too, may be undergoing change. Some men may adhere to traditional conceptualizations of the idealized male role despite the changing social conditions due to difficulties discerning what constitutes acceptable behavior. What has become increasingly clear, however, is that how men experience their gender roles exerts an influence on their lives on many levels— psychologically, physiologically, professionally and relationally. Masculinity has been conceptualized in various ways throughout the psychological and popular literature. Doyle (1989) identified five themes of traditional masculinity common to most conceptualizations. First, the prime directive for a man is don’ t be female. Displays of vulnerability or sensitivity are prohibited. Next, inherent to the masculine role is the expectation of success. Being successful means distinguishing oneself, first in athletics, later in one’s chosen profession. Competition, winning and acting as the primary breadwinner serve as comparative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 yardsticks for measuring self-worth against that of other men. The third theme of masculinity is reinforced by social institutions such as the military, the corporate world and the justice system: the idea that being a man requires being aggressive— emotionally, psychologically and physically. The fourth theme has to do with the importance of sexual prowess. Socialized to demonstrate virility through sexual conquest, men are expected to exhibit a high level of interest and skill in the sexual arena to continually prove their masculinity. Finally, men must be self-reliant. Self- reliance involves solving problems without help from others and maintaining emotional control under all conditions. When men cannot meet the often unrealistic and contradictory demands of the traditional male gender role, they may experience gender role conflict, “a psychological state where gender roles have negative consequences or impact on a person or others” (O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986, p. 336). That is, men may constrict their own potentials and expression of human needs out of fear of feeling or behaving in any way considered feminine. Evidence of the potentially negative aspects of the masculine gender role is demonstrated consistently in studies examining men’s personal experience and has been associated with overall psychological symptomology (Good et al., 1995). Despite their vulnerability to the potentially negative effects of the male role, American men are generally hesitant to seek counseling services and do so approximately half as frequently as women (Cheatham, Shelton, & Ray, 1987; Wills & DePaulo, 1991). Bearing the prohibitions of traditional male gender ideology in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 mind, it makes intuitive sense why men are reluctant to seek counseling services. The counseling process calls for self-disclosure, interpersonal vulnerability, and emotional expression—activities virtually banned by the traditional male role. Although much research attention has focused on the reasons for women’s higher use of counseling services, substantially fewer studies have considered male help- seeking behavior. Gender role conflict and help-seeking behavior both have been linked with personality variables (Tokar, Fischer, Schaub & Moradi, 2000) and calls have been made for additional research in this relatively new line of inquiry (Good, Wallace, & Borst, 1994; Heppner, 1995). Given men’s potentially negative experience of their gender roles and their decreased likelihood to seek help, personality styles of men assume critical importance with regard to understanding their counseling needs and drawing possible inferences as to the intrapersonal and relational issues they may face. In this context, personality style refers to a man’s typical manner of interacting and behaving (Strack, 1987). It is possible that the masculine gender role socialization process shapes men’s personalities and a particular set of personality traits may characterize individuals who experience high or low levels of gender conflict. The amount of redundancy between personality measures and masculinity measures (Tokar, Fischer, Schaub, & Moradi, 2000) is unknown. Recent findings in the area of personality and gender roles, however, suggest that the gender role conflict construct may overlap with features of personality not assessed by popular gender trait measures. Thus, on both theoretical and clinical grounds, additional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 inquiry into the relationship between gender role conflict, help-seeking and personality style is warranted. Review of the Literature The literature relevant to the study is divided into four sections: gender role theory; gender role conflict research; gender role conflict and attitudes toward help- seeking; and, gender role conflict and personality. In the first section, the Masculine Sex Role Identity model (MSRI) and the sex role strain paradigm (SRS; Pleck, 1981) are discussed as the two major gender theories that set the stage for the emergence of gender role conflict theory (O’Neil, 1981a, 1981b). Scale development procedures for the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS: O’Neil, et al., 1986) are described. In the next section, studies of gender role conflict in relation to demographic, psychological, and interpersonal variables are reviewed. Literature concerning gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help is considered in the third section. In the fourth section, studies of personality variables and gender role conflict are reviewed. The review of the literature is followed by the rationale for the current study, purpose of the study, research questions, and hypotheses. Gender Role Theory Critical paradigm shifts occurring over the last 75 years have significantly affected the conceptualization and analysis of masculinity. These shifts continue to shape research questions central to the study of masculinity and reflect societal beliefs concerning the changing roles of men. Because of its relatively recent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. emergence in the field of gender studies, gender role conflict theory is best framed as an extension and refinement of previous theories of masculinity. Toward that aim, the traditional Male Sex Role Identity paradigm and Pleck’s Sex Role Strain Model (1981) are presented here as the primary theoretical influences on the development of gender role conflict theory (O’Neil 1981a, 1981b, 1986). Each is discussed in turn in following sections. Male Sex Role Identity Model Early conceptualizations of masculinity relied on the Male Sex Role Identity model, a paradigm that dominated the academic and social sciences from the 1930s forward (Biller & Borstelmann, 1967). As an essentialist theory of sex role development reflected in multiple models of masculinity, it is a set of interrelated ideas, propositions, and assumptions concerning appropriate sex roles, particularly the male sex role. Central to the essentialist views is the notion that men have little choice concerning the enactment of their masculinity, that their roles as men follow a prescribed order to successfully fulfill the role. That is, the sex roles are inextricably attached to biological assignment of gender. If one is a man, then he must accept and adopt what the essentialist position views as the correct behaviors. The term sex role refers to the set of behaviors and characteristics widely viewed as typical of and desirable for women and men, including aspects of personality and social roles (Terman & Miles, 1936/1968). The emergence of the Male Sex Role Identity model was strongly influenced by the rise of psychoanalysis in the 1940s and by standardized intelligence testing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 Standardized intelligence testing led to the creation of the first masculinity/femininity scales, thereby allowing for the measurement of sex roles. Psychoanalysis lent complexity to the examination of sex roles and brought with it an important and influential differentiation between conscious and unconscious levels of sex role identity. Further, Miller and Swanson’s (1960) work in the area of intrapsychic conflict suggested that some masculine behavior could be interpreted as a mask for an unconscious, female identity. As a psychoanalytically based theory, sex role identity is viewed as an innate drive. The Male Sex Role Identity position holds that a boy needs the presence of a male mentor to survive the threats of femininity and engulfinent. The way to masculine independence is to disidentify with the mother which allows boys to develop emotional autonomy by eventually counter-identifying with their fathers. Men are forced repeatedly to prove their masculinity in order to differentiate themselves from women and to resolve ultimate competition with their fathers through identification with them. Fearing castration anxiety, they must repress sexual desires for their mothers and banish their libidinal energy (Chodorow, 1978). Many theorists have discussed men’s general discomfort with the feminine (Blazina, 1997; Homey, 1932; Jung 1953; Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & McKee, 1978; McCreary, 1994). The fundamental problem of psychological development involves establishing a sex role identity derived ideally from a person’s relationship with the same-sex parent (Brown, 1957; Kagan, 1964a; Lynn, 1969). Individuals have an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 innate psychological need to develop a sex role identity, thus the individual is preprogrammed to learn his or her traditional sex role as part of normal psychological development. Culturally defined sex roles do not arbitrarily restrict individuals’ potential. In fact, they are necessary external structures integral to the promotion of normal development (Mowrer, 1950). From the MSRI perspective, individuals must be fitted to traditional roles. The problems of traditional sex roles derive not from the nature of the roles themselves, but from the fact that so many men fail to fit the roles. Fraught with numerous challenges, the path to achieving “normal” male sex role identity can be strewn with such obstacles as paternal absence, maternal overprotectiveness, the “feminizing” influence of the schools, and the general blurring of male and female roles (Ruitenbeek, 1967, p.17). Failure of men to achieve masculine sex role identity creates cultural problems resulting in deleterious social ills such as homosexuality, delinquency, and hostility toward women. Therefore, from the MSRI essentialist viewpoint, the goal of psychological research and treatment is to understand the factors causing sex role identity problems in men in order to prevent or reduce those problems. Sex Role Strain Theory Despite the nearly universal acceptance of the tenets of the MSRI paradigm during the early part of the 20th century, competing theories eventually produced alternative explanations for the development of masculinity and the defining features Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of the male sex role. Pleck (1981) was among the first masculinity researchers to present a comprehensive, critical analysis challenging the propositions of the MSRI. In his seminal work, The Myth o f Masculinity, Pleck deconstructed the MSRI and proposed an alternative theory known as the Sex Role Strain (SRS) paradigm. Pleck recognized the pervasive influence of masculinity standards imposed by societal norms. The problem for men was the imposition of an unattainable “ideal” sex role, not faulty identity development. Drawing on the Turner’s (1970) and Kamarovsky’s (1976) formulations of role strain as a sociological and social psychological concept and on analyses of masculinity presented by Hartley (1959) and Hacker (1957), Pleck created a systematic framework of ten propositions. The following are the most current version of those propositions, reflecting a revision of the original Sex Role Strain model (Garnets & Pleck, 1979) and featuring updated terminology (e.g. “sex role” to “gender role” and “roles” to “role norms”) (Pleck, 1995). 1. Gender roles are operationally defined by sex role stereotypes and norms. 2. Gender roles are contradictory and inconsistent. 3. The proportion of individuals who violate gender roles is high. 4. Violating gender roles leads to social condemnation. 5. Violating gender roles leads to negative psychological consequences. 6. Actual or imagined violation of gender roles leads individuals to overconform to them. 7. Violating gender roles has more severe consequences for males than females. 8. Certain characteristics prescribed by gender role norms are psychologically dysfunctional. 9. Each gender experiences gender role strain in its paid work and family roles. 10. Historical change causes sex role strain. (Pleck, 1995, p. 15). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 Sex role strain for men is characterized by a discrepancy between a man’s perception of his personal traits and his standards for himself derived from sex role norms (Garnets & Pleck, 1979). Although the notion of discrepancy between real self and same-sex ideal self is based on Rogers (1951) client-centered psychotherapy research, it refers in this case specifically to the self-concept in terms of sex role norms. The Sex Role Strain model (Garnets & Pleck, 1979) represented a major paradigmatic shift in the conceptualization of the relationship between sex role and psychological well-being. Rather than prescribing optimal traits, or combinations of traits, or combination of traits, being viewed as optimal, the Sex Role Strain model emphasizes examining the individual’s real and ideal self as well as the individual’s degree of sex role salience (i.e. the importance he places on successful fulfillment of the male role). Low levels of sex role strain are associated with better psychological adjustment, while higher levels are hypothesized to create conflicts, poor psychological adjustment, and lower self-esteem. Within the updated Sex Role Strain model, Pleck differentiates three subtypes of male gender role strain: gender role discrepancy; gender role trauma; and, gender role dysfunction. Gender role discrepancy-strain refers to the fact that a significant proportion of males experience long term failure to meet role expectations. This type of strain may be experienced by men in arenas such as in athletics, dating, or within their careers. Any situation in which men feel that they are not living up to the standards of masculinity as compared to what they should be achieving has the potential to result in gender role discrepancy-strain. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 In the course of attempting to meet gender role expectations, males encounter the second subtype, gender role trauma-strain. Trauma-strain refers to the emotional and psychological damage males experience during socialization, even if they are able to “successfully” fulfill male roles (Pleck, 1995). Repeated experiences of striving to fulfill the requirements of being a man involve exposure to numerous potentially traumatic incidents with family, peers, and colleagues. These experiences often bring about feelings of shame, even when a man has proven that he is meeting the ideals of masculinity. Gender role dysfunction-strain occurs when successful fulfillment of male role expectations presents potentially negative consequences, because many of the characteristics viewed as desirable have inherent negative side effects for the male himself, or for others (Pleck, 1995). For example, if a man adheres to the societal admonition against overt displays of affection toward others, he may experience difficulties in interpersonal relationships where such expression is desired or expected. Gender Role Conflict Theory Garnets and Pleck’s (1979) sex role strain analysis served as the impetus for the development of the gender role conflict construct. Whereas the Sex Role Strain model posited a relationship between failure to meet gender role expectations and negative psychological consequences, it did not provide an operational definition that would allow for empirical examination or validation of gender role dysfunction (O’Neil, Good & Holmes, 1995). James O’Neil and his colleagues (O’Neil, 1981a, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 1981b, 1982, 1990; O’Neil & Egan, 1992a, 1992b, 1992c; O’Neil & Fishman, 1992; O’Neil, Fishman, & Kinsella-Shaw, 1987; O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David & Wrightsman, 1986) responded by providing that empirical support and operationalization of gender role dysfunction-strain through their examination of gender role conflict, a parallel construct created and investigated in the late 1970s and 1980s. As stated previously, when men cannot meet the often unrealistic and contradictory demands of the traditional male gender role, they experience gender role conflict, which is defined as “a psychological state where gender roles have negative consequences or impact on a person or others” (O’Neil, et al., 1986, p. 336). O’Neil (1990) later offered a somewhat more specific operationalization of gender role conflict as occurring when “rigid, sexist, or restrictive gender roles, learned during socialization, result in personal restriction, devaluation, or violation of others or self’ (p. 25). O’Neil theorized that traditional male role socialization produces messages that are unrealistic and lead to fears of femininity (O’Neil, 1981a, 1981b, 1982). Stereotypical femininity includes behaviors such as emotional vulnerability, intimate disclosure, and relation building. As a multidimensional concept, gender role conflict is an individualized phenomenon. An individual’s experience of his race, sexual orientation, class, age and ethnicity colors his experience of gender role conflict. Pointing out the conceptual and experiential complexity of gender role conflict, O’Neil, Holmes and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 Good (1995) suggest four simultaneous levels on which men experience gender role conflict at any given time: cognitive, affective, behavioral, and unconscious. Central to the violation of gender role norms and gender role stereotypes is the notion of a broadly defined, generally accepted (though perhaps not clearly specified) set of prescriptive and proscriptive behaviors for what it means to be a man, or what O’Neil (O’Neil, 1981a, 1981b, 1982) termed the Masculine Mystique and Value System. The beliefs and values embedded in the Masculine Mystique and Value System define optimal masculinity. Learned during early socialization and continually reinforced, these values are based on rigid stereotypes and beliefs about men, masculinity, and femininity. In 1981, O’Neil published two major reviews of the psychological and sociological literature on sex role strain in men (O’Neil, 1981a, 1981b). In search of a model that offered explanations of how men’s socialization affected their personal and work lives, O’Neil concluded that very limited research involving sex role strain in men was available and that operationally defined patterns of sex role conflict did not exist. His reviews revealed the pronounced void between popular literature that identified men’s problems (David & Brannon, 1976; Farrel, 1974; Fasteau, 1974; Goldberg, 1977; Nichols, 1975; Pleck & Sawyer, 1974) and empirical investigations of those problems. In his attempt to develop an appropriate measure of gender role dysfunction- strain, O’Neil (1981a) offered the first theoretical summary of men’s sex role conflict, enumerating 17 patterns of men’s sex role conflicts and 24 psychological Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 effects on men’s family, health, career and interpersonal lives. Later, based on Unger’s (1970) argument that the term “sex role” did not adequately encompass the psychological, social, and cultural features that have become associated with the biological categories of male and female, O’Neil (1982) began referring to men’s “gender role” conflict in his work. The original 17 patterns were reduced to six primary patterns of gender role conflict: restrictive emotionality; socialized control, power, and competition; homophobia; restrictive sexual and affectionate behavior between men; obsession with achievement and success; and health care problems. Subsequent factor analyses during the development of the widely used Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, Helms, David, Gable & Wrightsman, 1986) resulted in the identification of four patterns of gender role conflict. The GRCS measures gender role conflict in terms of four factors: Success, Power and Competition (SPC), Restricted Emotionality (RE), Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM), and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR). The Success, Power and Competition factor is a measure of the emphasis that a man places on achievement (particularly in work settings), authority and control over others, and the struggle against others for personal gain. Restrictive Emotionality refers to a man’s difficulty with his own emotional self-disclosure as well as discomfort with the emotional expressiveness of others. The third factor, Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men, is an index of discomfort with expressions of caring between men. Finally, Conflict Between Work and Family Relations is a measure of the level of distress experienced by men that is attributable Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 to the impinging of work or school demands on family life (O’Neil, 1981a, 1981b; O’Neil et al., 1986). O’Neil et al. (1986) reported scale development procedures for the original GRCS. The analysis of the data and construct validity of the GRCS was determined by item-reduction procedures, factor analysis, and reliability data analysis. For item reduction, all items were submitted to three different raters to assess the degree to which items were gender related rather than related to other types of human conflicts. For the GRCS, raters assessed the items on a 1-5 point scale that item definitely does not relate to men’ s gender role (1) to item definitely does relate to man’ s gender role (5). Using an arbitrary 3.5 cut off, all items met the criteria as being assessed as a gender-role related item. All items were excluded that did no meet the criterion of having a standard deviation of at least 1.00. Factor analysis, employing both principal components and common factors with both orthogonal and oblique rotations were completed. All items with factor loadings less than .35 were excluded from the scale, as well as items that had loadings of greater than .30 on two or more scales. Common factor analysis with oblique rotation yielded the most significant factor composition for the GRCS. Internal consistency reliabilities (N = 17) for each scale score were calculated using Cronbach’s alpha procedure and ranged from .75 to .85. Four-week test-retest reliabilities ranged from .72 to .86 for each factor. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 Summary o f Gender Role Theory As a dominant theoretical force in the area of masculinity, the Male Sex Role Identity theory shaped and guided gender role research until the early 1930s. An essentialist theory, it conceptualized the male gender role as an innate drive expressed via identification with the same sex parent. Traditional masculinity was not viewed as restrictive; it was simply the appropriate way to fulfill the male role. Other powerful theories of gender role development emerged such as Pleck’s (1981) Sex Role Strain theory that offered a markedly different conceptualization of the male role. Masculinity was no longer considered an innate drive. Indeed, the masculine role was acquired through learning and it was through learning that boys acquired the definitions of what it meant to be a man. It was hypothesized that in the course of development boys and men suffer psychological damage from attempting to meet the socially prescribed ideals of masculinity. Since the demands of the male role are contradictory and impossible to achieve, gender role dysfunction occurred, a subtype of which is termed gender role dysfunction-strain. As a refinement and extension of the Sex Role Strain theory, gender role conflict theory operationalized gender role dysfunction-strain and drew associations between gender role conflict and negative psychological effects. Gender Role Conflict Research To date, there have been over 125 studies of gender role conflict in men. A number of others are currently in progress. More than 50 empirical studies using the GRCS have been published in the psychological literature. Gender role conflict in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 men has been empirically linked to a number of variables relevant to the research and practice of counseling psychology. The following section is an overview of empirical studies of gender role conflict and the following categories of variables: demographic (age, fraternity status, ethnicity), psychological (anxiety, depression, self-esteem), relational (intimacy, relationship and marital satisfaction) and attitudinal (contraceptive use, women, gays and lesbians). Gender Role Conflict and Demographic Variables Age. The majority of studies using the GRCS, including the original instrument development study (O’Neil, et al., 1986), have assessed college-age men’s gender role conflict (Archer, Murphy, Foos, Jensen & Morgan, 1985; Bergen, 1997; Blazina & Watkins, 1996; Braverman, 1990; Davis, 1987; Fischer & Good, 1998; Good, 1987; Good, Dell, & Mintz, 1989; Good & Mintz, 1990; Good, Robertson, Fitzgerald, & Stevens, 1996; Good & Wood, 1995; Kaplan, 1992; Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1999; Rhoades, 1985; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991, Simonsen, Blazina, & Watkins, 2000; Wisch, Mahalik, Hayes, & Nutt, 1995). Some studies have been conducted with adult men, including men in white-collar jobs (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; O’Neil, Owen, Holmes, Dogopolov, & Slastenin, 1994; Sharpe, 1993), engineers (Mendolson, 1988), Black and Hispanic men (Stillson, O’Neil, & Owen, 1991), married men (Campbell & Snow, 1992), male therapists (Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992; Wisch & Mahalik, 1999), and recently separated men (Nahon, 1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 Results of two studies comparing adult men and college men indicate they experience different types of gender role conflict (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Mendelson, 1988), though no consistent patterns distinguishing the two groups have been identified. Mendolson (1988) found that men in their late twenties reported significantly higher levels of Restricted Emotionality than men in their early twenties. Gender role conflict related to Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men was significantly higher for men in their late teens than for older men. By contrast, in Coumoyer and Mahalik’s 1995 study comparing undergraduate men and adult men, younger men experienced gender role conflict primarily in the sphere of Success, Power, and Competition, whereas adult men were more likely to experience gender role conflict with regard to balancing the competing demands of work and family relations. These findings lend support for the idea that gender role conflict changes with age. Given the lack of consistency of findings and the homogeneity the samples, only preliminary conclusions can be drawn at this point concerning gender role conflict and age. Fraternity Status. The relationship between fraternity status, time on campus, and gender role conflict has been investigated. Braverman (1990) studied nonfratemity and prospective fraternity college students in relation to gender role conflict over an 18-month period. Prospective fraternity males experienced higher levels of conflict in the area of Success, Power, and Competition when compared to active fraternity members. Across the time of the study, both groups reported increased levels of conflict concerning Restrictive Emotionality and Conflict Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 Between Work and Family Relations. Of note is that both groups in the study reported higher levels of overall gender role conflict as a function of time on campus. This finding may be salient to understanding the broader experience of college men’s gender role conflict as it relates to the gender role expectations associated with college life, in general. Ethnicity. The study of gender role conflict, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status is in its early stages as evidenced by the small literature focusing on multicultural conceptualizations of masculinity. It appears that ethnic groups experience gender role conflict differently and that level of gender role conflict may be influenced by socioeconomic status (Stillson, et al., 1991). For example, Stillson, et al. (1991) found that White, Black, and Hispanic men reported experiencing problems with Success, Power, and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. Black men of lower socioeconomic status reported higher levels of conflict in the area of Success, Power, and Competition. They did not, however, report conflict in the other three types, as did men from higher socioeconomic classes. In a study of the acculturation levels of Chinese-American, Japanese- American, and Korean-American students, Kim (1990) found significant differences in two scales of gender role conflict, Success, Power, and Competition and Restrictive Emotionality, but only in the samples of Chinese-American and Japanese-American students. Higher levels of acculturation were significantly, positively correlated with conflict in the area of Success, Power, and Competition Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 and to lower levels of Restricted Emotionality. The Restrictive Emotionality factor may be related to cultural norms as evidenced by a study in which Asian American tied their masculinity to politeness, obedience, and a willingness to perform domestic tasks (Liu, 2002). O’Neil (1994) compared levels of gender role conflict of Russian men to that of American men. Russian men reported significantly higher gender role conflict with regard to Success, Power, and Competition and in Restrictive Affectionate Behavior between men. Horhoruw (1991) investigated gender role conflict, male friendship, and confiding behaviors in Indonesian men. That study revealed a negative correlation between confiding behaviors and scores on the Restrictive Affectionate behavior between men. The findings in this area of the literature support the notion that race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and acculturation exert influence on men’s experience of gender role conflict. Gender Role Conflict and Psychological Correlates Of great concern have been the potentially negative psychological effects of traditional masculinity and more specifically, gender role conflict. Three broad areas of psychological correlates are reviewed in this section: anxiety, depression, and self-esteem. Anxiety. Studies indicate a relationship between gender role conflict and anxiety, though results vary with regard to which scales are most important. Davis (1987) found all four scales to be significantly related to anxiety. Sharpe and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 Heppner (1991) found a positive correlation between anxiety and three of the scales, Restrictive Emotionality, Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men, and Conflict Between Work and Family. Correlations were found between anxiety and two of the scales in a comparison of college-age and middle-age men, (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995). However, Sharpe’s (1993) study of financially successful middle- age men revealed a correlation with only one scale of gender role conflict, Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. Although the research indicates an overall relationship between anxiety and gender role conflict, definitive conclusions concerning which scales are significantly related to anxiety cannot be drawn, particularly in light of the possible relevance of the effects of socioeconomic status and age. Depression. Several studies have examined the relationship between depression and gender role conflict in men (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Fragoso, 2000; Good & Mintz, 1990; Good & Wood, 1995; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991; Shepard, 2002). Good and Mintz (1990) found a significant relationship between all four scales of gender role conflict and depression in a sample of college men. Sharpe and Heppner (1991) found a significant relationship between depression and two scales, Restrictive Emotionality, and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. In Coumoyer and Mahalik’s 1995 study, depression correlated with Success, Power, and Competition and Conflict Between Work and Family. Good and Wood (1995) found similar results, with Success, Power, and Competition and Conflict Between Work and Family being highly predictive of depression. For middle-age men, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 single gender role conflict factor correlated with depression was Restrictive Emotionality as it was in sample of college men (Shepard, 2002) and in a community sample of Mexican-American men (Fragoso, 2002). Thus, though there are associations between gender role conflict and depression, patterns of gender role conflict are not consistent. Self-Esteem. In examining the relationship between gender role conflict and self-esteem, Davis (1987) found negative correlations between self-esteem and three types of gender role conflict: Restrictive Emotionality, Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men, and Conflict Between Work and Family. Sharpe and Heppner (1991) reported similar findings. However, in a study of the same variables with a population of middle-age men, Sharpe (1993) found no significant correlations. Coumoyer and Mahalik (1995), however, did find a correlation between self-esteem and Restrictive Emotionality in adult white-collar men. Preliminarily, it appears that while college-age men experience lower self-esteem in relation to gender role conflict, the relationship between self-esteem and gender role conflict in adult men is less clear (Sharpe, 1993) and may be influenced by socioeconomic status. Gender Role Conflict and Interpersonal Variables The gender role conflict construct has been related to intrapersonal, interpersonal, relational and attitudinal variables. The following section reviews the literature specifically concerning gender role conflict and intimacy, relationship satisfaction and attitudes toward women, gays, and lesbians. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 2 Intimacy. Several researchers have investigated intimacy and gender role conflict. In a sample of college men, Sharpe and Heppner (1991) found a negative relationship between intimacy and gender role conflict with regard to the patterns of Success, Power and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between men. Results of this study suggest that men experiencing higher levels of gender role conflict find it more difficult to be intimate with significant others than men who report lower levels of gender role conflict. Sharpe’s (1993) study of gender role conflict and intimacy revealed that type of gender role conflict seems to vary depending on the intimacy measure used. Using one intimacy scale, Restrictive Emotionality negatively correlated with intimacy. On a second scale, Restrictive Emotionality and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men both had a negative correlation with intimacy. Good, et al. (1995) found similar results using the same measures used by Coumoyer and Mahalik (1995) in their study of intimacy comparing college students and middle-age men. For the college-age group, Restrictive Emotionality was negatively correlated with intimacy. For the middle-age group, two scales of gender role conflict were negatively correlated, Restrictive Affectionate behavior Between Men and Restrictive Emotionality. Chartier and Arnold (1985) found a negative relationship between gender role conflict and global intimacy. In short, findings regarding the relationship between gender role conflict and intimacy have been consistent in showing an inverse relationship between the two. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 Marital Satisfaction. In light of the consistent findings that higher gender role conflict relates to lower self-esteem (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Davis, 1987; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991) and lower levels of intimacy (Chartier & Arnold, 1991; Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Good et al., 1995; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991; Sharpe, 1993) it seems likely that men who experience high gender role conflict may very well experience lower levels of relationship and marital satisfaction. For example, Campbell and Snow (1992) found that married men’s reported Restrictive Emotionality and Conflict Between Work and Family had a negative relationship with marital satisfaction. Sharpe (1993), too, found a negative correlation between Restricted Emotionality and marital satisfaction. Sharpe and Heppner (1991) had similar results with regard to the relationship satisfaction of male college students. Conversely, men who thought less traditionally about women and who were less emotionally restrictive tended to experience less differentiation and relationship problems (Blazina & Watkins, 2000). Gender role conflict also appears to affect familial relationships. Evidence exists supporting the relationship between men’s gender role conflict, stress, parental attachment, and separation (DeFranc & Mahalik, 2002). Men who perceived their fathers as having more gender role conflict and stress and who viewed themselves with more gender role conflict reported poorer quality attachments to both parents. It may be that gender role conflict relates to parent-child relationships and potentially be transmitted intergenerationally. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 Attitudes Toward Women. Hostility toward women has been associated with gender role conflict. Chartier, Graff and Arnold (1986) found that men with high gender role conflict reported significantly less trust and higher anger toward women. Kaplan (1992) and Kaplan, O’Neil, and Owen (1993) studied the relationship between gender role conflict and sexually aggressive experiences of college men and the likelihood that men would force rape or sex. The Success, Power and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men scales correlated significantly with self-reported aggressive experiences. In a comparison of sexually aggressive college students and sexually non-aggressive students, Rando, Rogers, and Brittan-Powell (1999) found that sexually aggressive students scored higher on the Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men subscale. These findings suggest that men with high gender role conflict may be more likely to engage in sexually violent or aggressive behavior. Blazina and Watkins (2000) examined separation/individuation, parental attachment, and gender role conflict in relation to attitudes toward femininity. As gender role conflict increased in men, so did their desire for traditionally feminine women. Problems with attachment, separation, and individuation also correlated with higher gender role conflict scores. Attitudes Toward Gays and Lesbians. It also appears that men who experience higher gender role conflict hold less positive views toward gay men and lesbian women. Ducat (1994) studied the relationship between gender role conflict in college men, attitudes toward homosexuals, and political ideology. Negative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women were correlated with gender role conflict patterns of Success, Power, and Competition and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between men. These same types of gender role conflict were correlated positively with pro-war attitudes, anti-environmentalism, and opposition to gays in the military. Rounds (1994) reported similar results with regard to negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women. In that study, an additional type of gender role conflict, Restricted Emotionality, was also positively correlated with anti-gay attitudes. Summary o f Gender Role Conflict Research Based on a small but growing literature, gender role conflict has been linked to numerous variables. Age seems to be a possible moderator of the relationship between gender role conflict and many of the variables. Most evidence points to the conclusion that college-age and middle-age men experience different patterns of gender role conflict which suggests that gender role conflict changes across the lifespan. Although fraternity status may affect gender role conflict, a more significant finding from the research appears to be length of time on campus. Whereas gender role socialization is a strong component of the gender role conflict construct, it is quite possible that the college or university environment may somehow produce or increase existing gender role conflict. Gender role conflict as it relates to ethnicity poses a complex set of unanswered questions concerning the unique cultural expressions of masculinity in addition to the potential effects of acculturation and socioeconomic status. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 6 Psychological variables such as anxiety, depression, and self-esteem appear to be strongly correlated to gender role conflict. Concomitantly, interpersonal variables such as intimacy and relationship satisfaction are linked to its negative psychological effects. Finally, based on the research conducted to date, the effects of gender role conflict may extend beyond interpersonal relationships and extend to larger attitudes toward groups such as women, gays, and lesbians. Gender Role Conflict and Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking Various social, interpersonal and personality factors affect a man’s decision to seek professional counseling. Preconceptions or beliefs about counseling, attitudes of family or friends toward counseling, the ability or desire to disclose feelings and experiences, along with the immediacy of interpersonal difficulties are factors that also influence the decision. In general, men hold less favorable attitudes toward seeking psychological services and use them less than women (Fischer & Turner, 1970; Horowitz, 1977; Kessler, Brown, & Broman, 1981; Leaf, Bruce, Tischler, & Holzer, 1987; Rule & Gandy, 1994). In examining barriers to help-seeking, Komiya, Good and Sherrod (2000) observed that compared to women, men possess more closed attitudes toward help-seeking, perceive more stigma associated with counseling and report less severe psychological symptoms. A negative relationship between attitudes toward help-seeking and gender role conflict poses compounded risk for men who experience high gender role conflict. For example, Good et al. (1989) found negative help-seeking attitudes were significantly and positively related to the Restrictive Emotionality and Restrictive Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 Affectionate Behavior Between Men scales of gender role conflict. Robertson and Fitzgerald (1992) also examined gender role conflict as it relates to negative attitudes toward help-seeking. In their study, negative attitudes toward help-seeking were related to the Success, Power, and Competition, and Restrictive Emotionality. The study also revealed that men experiencing high gender role conflict were more likely to prefer a nontraditional counseling brochure (i.e., brochures promoting workshops, self-help resources) to a brochure portraying more traditional counseling center services (i.e., one-on-one counseling). The relationship between gender role conflict and negative attitudes toward help-seeking was supported by Good and Wood’s 1995 study in which gender role conflict accounted for one-quarter of the variance in men’s scores of attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. However, unlike the findings of previous studies, three types of gender role conflict accounted for that variance: Success, Power and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, and Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men. Similarly, Wisch, et al. (1993) found that men with lower gender role conflict expressed a greater willingness to seek psychological help than those experiencing higher levels of gender role conflict. Blazina and Watkins (1996) found that the Restricted Emotionality was significantly related to negative attitudes toward help-seeking. Those results are partially consistent with those of Good et al.’s study (1989). Good et al. (1989) found the Restrictive Emotionality variable to be the only significant predictor whereas Blazina and Watkins (1996) also found the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 8 Success, Power, and Competition variable to be predictive of participants’ likelihood to seek professional psychological help. Other studies (Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992; Rochlen, Blazina, & Raghunathan, 2002; Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002) suggest that negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help may link to specific types of counseling. For example, men who reported high gender role conflict were more likely to express a greater willingness to seek psychological help after viewing a cognitively oriented counseling session as compared to men who viewed an affectively oriented counseling session (Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992). Findings of studies examining utilization of career counseling appear to parallel those found in the psychological help-seeking area. In a study assessing men’s attitudes toward career counseling approaches, more traditional (i.e. those with higher gender role conflict) men valued career counseling, but equated it with higher levels of stigma than personal counseling (Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002). Summary o f Gender Role Conflict and Help-Seeking The literature concerning gender role conflict and help-seeking suggests that men experiencing higher levels of gender role conflict are more likely to have negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Restrictive Emotionality has been consistently related to negative attitudes. Additionally, men with higher gender role conflict appear to prefer cognitively based counseling sessions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 Gender Role Conflict and Personality Variables Compared to the number of studies investigating gender role conflict in relation to psychological symptoms and attitudes toward help-seeking, fewer studies have focused on links to personality variables. This is despite the fact that studies conducted thus far demonstrate important potential relationships between masculinity variables and personality variables. Such studies can be divided into two categories: a) those assessing gender role conflict in relation to one or two personality traits or attributes and b) those investigating gender role conflict within the framework of comprehensive models of personality. Both categories are reviewed in the following section. Gender Role Conflict and Personality Traits Personality traits associated with gender role conflict include instrumentality- expressiveness from Spence and Helmreich’s (1978) Personal Attributes Questionnaire (O’Neil et al., 1986; Stillson, et al., 1991), ego identity (Arnold & Chartier, 1984; Chartier & Arnold, 1985; Rounds, 1994), shyness (Bruch, Berko & Haase, 1998), preferred psychological defense (Mahalik, Coumoyer, DeFranc, Cherry, & Napolitano, 1998) and authoritarianism (Chamberlin, 1994). With regard to instrumentality and expressiveness, O’Neil et al. (1986) found that men who described themselves as expressive (feminine), instrumental (masculine), expressive and instrumental (androgynous), or neither, expressed varying degrees of gender role conflict. Those men describing themselves as expressive had lower scores on the Restrictive Emotionality scale than men who Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 described themselves as instrumental. However, men who described themselves as neither expressive nor instrumental still reported more difficulty with expressing and receiving emotion. Stillson, O’Neil, and Owen (1991) found that men who described themselves as instrumental and inexpressive had conflict related to Success, Power and Competition, but not with Restrictive Emotionality or Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. Interestingly, in a community sample of adult men, Sharpe, Heppner, and Dixon (1995) found no significant correlations between the gender role conflict and instrumentality. Two of the four gender role conflict scales, however, negatively correlated with the expressiveness subscales: Restrictive Emotionality and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men. Higher expressiveness scores were related to less gender role conflict. Researchers have also considered gender role conflict in relation to interrelated aspects of ego identity and intimacy. Arnold and Chartier (1984) examined the relationship between ego identity and intimacy in a sample of college students and found that high ego identity and low gender role conflict interacted to predict high intimacy, while low ego identity and higher gender role conflict interacted to predict low intimacy. In a sample of American college students, Rounds (1994) found a significant correlation between ego identity scores, gender role conflict scores, primarily with Restrictive Emotionality subscale as it related to attitudes toward homosexuals. In that study, gender role conflict again demonstrated a significant negative relationship to ego identity. These studies provide initial Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 evidence that a potentially significant relationship exists between ego identity and gender role conflict. Bruch, Berko, and Haase (1998) used the Restricted Emotionality subscale to assess emotional inexpressivity as a latent variable in a sample of college men. They investigated how emotional inexpressivity may mediate the relationships between shyness, gender identity, and physical attractiveness, and men’s interpersonal competence. Working from the premise that men use psychological defenses to help manage the negative affect they experience when overconforming to the male gender role injunctions, Mahalik, et al. (1998) examined the relationship between gender role conflict and preferred defense mechanisms. They concluded that men who report greater rigidity with regard to success, expressing emotions, and expressing affection to other men use less mature and more neurotic psychological defenses. Chamberlin’s (1994) study of airline pilots represents one of the first studies to examine a cluster of personality traits and gender role conflict rather than focusing on a singular personality attribute. In that study, authoritarian personality traits were strongly correlated with Success, Power and Competition, Restrictive Emotionality, and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations. Two specific attributes of authoritarian personality, ineffective leadership and interpersonal conflict, positively correlated with all four types of gender role conflict. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 Gender Role Conflict and Personality Models Previous studies of the relationship between masculinity variables and personality variables have been indirect and limited in scope. Further, few analyses using comprehensive conceptualizations of personality have been conducted. Although psychology has many frameworks from which to understand the source of interpersonal acts and conflicts, how gender role conflict relates to personality has received little attention. Only very recently have researchers begun to hypothesize how gender role conflict might relate to comprehensive conceptualizations of personality (Mahalik, 2000; Tokar et al., 2000). Mahalik’s (2000) investigation of gender role conflict as it relates to the Interpersonal Circle model of personality and Tokar et al.’s (2000) analyses using the Five Factor Model (Digman, 1990) are two examples of studies geared toward investigating how masculinity variables and personality variables relate. Both studies are reviewed in the following section. Mahalik (2000) examined gender role conflict in relation to 101 college men’s self-rated behavior on the Interpersonal Circle. Participants averaged 21.50 years of age. OF the sample, 98% were single and 2% were married. Of the 101 participants, 65 were Caucasian, 20 were Asian or Asian American, 7 were African American, 3 were Latino or Hispanic, and 6 self-described as “Other.” Participants completed the GRCS and the Checklist of Interpersonal Transactions-Revised (CLOIT-R; Kiesler, 1984, 1987). The CLOIT-R consists of 96 items keyed to the 16 categories of the 1982 Interpersonal Circle (Kiesler, 1983). The inventory produces 15 scores corresponding to the 16 Circle categories: dominant, competitive, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 mistrusting, cold, hostile, detached, inhibited, unassured, submissive, deferent, trusting, warm, friendly, sociable, exhibitionistic, and assured. Results of the study indicated that higher scores on the Success, Power, and Competition were related to controlling and rigid behaviors, while the Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men scale was related to both hostile and rigid behaviors. Specifically, the results of the canonical analysis indicated that Success, Power and Competition was related to dominance and interpersonal rigidity (i.e. psychopathology), and follow-up correlational analysis indicated that Success, Power and Competition related to dominance, competition, mistrust, being cold, hostile, detached, exhibitionistic, and assured. Restricted Emotionality and Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men was related to hostility and interpersonal rigidity, and follow-up correlational analysis indicated these gender role factors related to being more suspicious, aloof, reserved, and docile. Finally, the results of the canonical analysis also suggest that gender role conflict factors can be conceptualized along the two dimensional interpersonal model with Success, Power and Competition falling along the dominance - submission dimension and Restricted Emotionality and Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men falling along the hostile - friendly dimension. The results of this study lend support to O’Neil’s (1990) hypothesis that the restrictive nature of the ideal male role results in an interpersonally rigid personality style and associated behaviors. Mahalik’s (2000) findings merit careful consideration. By placing gender role conflict in the frame of an interpersonal Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 theory, there exists potential for a more complete understanding of how men experience gender role conflict and how it affects interpersonal interaction. Mahalik (2000) concludes that men who internalizes messages about being successful, but do not internalize message about being unemotional and uncommunicative may act differently than men who internalizes messages about restrictive emotionality but does not need to win and compete. With the burgeoning interest in the potential relationship between personality and masculinity variables in the gender research literature have come valid questions concerning the existence of significant overlaps between the two, including challenges to construct validity. Tokar et al.’s (2000) study of a combined sample of 300 college men explored the mediating role of personality in relation to a number of previously investigated psychological variables and attitudes toward help-seeking. The Five Factor Model (FFM; Digman, 1990) was used to measure personality. Two measures assessed masculinity, the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; 1986) and the Masculine Gender Role Stress scale (MGRS; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987). To measure global psychological distress and psychological symptomatology, the Brief Symptom Inventory was used (BSI; Derogatis & Spencer, 1982) and attitudes toward help-seeking was measured by a revised version of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH; Fisher & Turner, 1970). A shortened Toronto Alexythymia Scale (TAS-R; Taylor, Bagby, & Parker, 1992) was used to determine the extent to which individuals have difficulty describing and demonstrate externally oriented thinking. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 Tokar, et al. (2000) hypothesized that personality would mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and previously investigated mental health variables (e.g. anxiety, depression, hostility, paranoia, interpersonal sensitivity, psychoticism and obsessive-compulsive behavior) and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. The hypotheses received partial support. Predictions concerning the relationship between the Five Factor Model and the gender role conflict scales were substantiated. Gender role conflict (a) accounted for little of the variance in counseling-related variables, and (b) contributed considerably less than personality to the prediction of counseling related variables. They found the block of Big-Five personality variables completed mediated 20 and partially mediated 9 of the 31 significant masculinity-counseling links. Eight of the remaining zero-order links were nonsignficant and thus were not tested. The relationship between gender role conflict, personality, and the help-seeking variable was only partially mediated by personality. Summary o f Personality and Gender Role Conflict The existing studies of personality and gender role conflict highlight the need for additional investigation. Thus far, studies of high gender role conflict and personality suggest a predictable negative correlation between the expressiveness trait and the Restricted Emotionality scale. Gender role conflict also appears to have the potential to affect the formation of ego identity and has been associated with the use of more primitive psychological defenses. Attributes of authoritarianism also have been related to gender role conflict. The two studies that considered gender role Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 conflict as it relates to comprehensive models of personality indicate that gender role conflict may have a stronger relationship to personality than previously thought. Rationale for the Current Study Whereas numerous studies have considered the negative psychological and various interpersonal correlates of gender role conflict, only several have considered its relationship to overall personality style, defined here as an individual’s typical and usual manner of interpersonal functioning. Studies of the relationship between gender role conflict and personality have generally focused on singular personality traits or clusters of traits (Mahalik, 1990; Stillson, O’Neil, & Owen, 1991). Findings from these studies support the hypothesis that men experiencing varying degrees of gender role conflict may fall into predictable personality styles. If this is the case, an important link between gender role theory and personality theory may be established. Relating personality styles to gender role conflict has the potential to increase our understanding of individual differences in how men experience gender role conflict as well as how they relate interpersonally. As was evident in the review of the literature, men who experience higher levels of gender role conflict are less likely to see professional psychological help for their problems, though their problems may be more severe than men who report lower levels of gender role conflict. Therefore, additional information concerning the personality styles of men who experience higher levels of gender role conflict and who are less likely to seek help enriches our understanding of more strategic and appropriate ways to offer psychological services. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 How personality functions as a mediating variable between gender role conflict and help-seeking also warrants further attention. Recent findings in the area of personality and gender role conflict have raised questions concerning the construct validity of gender role measures. Tokar, Fischer, Schaub, and Moradi (2000) found that personality partially or completely mediated the relationship between gender role conflict and many previously investigated psychological variables. Personality, however, only partially mediated the relationship between gender role conflict and the help-seeking variable in that study. To reinvestigate this relationship, the current study reconsidered personality as a mediating variable. Purpose of the Study The first purpose of this study was to examine the gender role conflict of a nonclinical sample of adult men. The second purpose of the study was to test the general hypothesis that individual differences in gender role conflict are related substantively and meaningfully to personality style. The third purpose of this study was to reinvestigate the relationship between gender role conflict and help-seeking with personality considered as a mediating variable. Research Questions and Hypotheses On the basis of previous theoretical and empirical literature, the following research questions and predictions are presented concerning the relations between gender role conflict, personality style, and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Research Question 1: What types of gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986) are most prevalent in the current sample of adult men: Success, Power and Competition (SPC); Restricted Emotionality (RE); Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM) and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR)? Hypothesis 1: It is hypothesized that the most prevalent type of gender role conflict in the current sample of adult men will be Success, Power and Competition (SPC), followed by Restricted Emotionality (RE), Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM), and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR). Research Question 2: What are the personality styles of participants, as measured by the Personality Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987) who report high gender role conflict as measured by Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986)? Hypothesis 2: Participants with high gender role conflict scores will be more likely to be in the Respectful and Confident categories of the Personality Adjective Check List. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Research Question 3: Is there an association between gender role conflict and personality styles as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List of participants who have high or low gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale? Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant association between personality styles and high and low gender role conflict groups of participants. Research Question 4: Is there a relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986) and attitudes toward seeking professional help as measured by the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help scale (ATSPPH; Fischer & Turner, 1970)? Hypothesis 4: Gender role conflict will be negatively correlated with positive attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Research Question 5: Is there a relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986), personality style, as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987), and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help as measured by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 the Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH; Fischer & Turner, 1970)? Hypothesis 5: Personality style will partially or completely mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 CHAPTER D Methodology This chapter addresses the methods by which this study was conducted. It includes descriptions of participants, measures, and survey procedures. Participants Participants were 308 male employees of a large, private research university. Mean age was 44.32 (SD = 12.23) with a range of 19 to 85 years. The sample was made up of: 194 European Americans (63%), 45 Latinos (14.6%), 35 Asian/Pacific Islanders (11.4%), 24 African Americans (7.8%) and 8 Other (2.6%) employees. Participants reported their marital status as: 136 first marriage (44.2%), 73 never married (23.7%), 51 remarried (16.6%), 19 divorced (6.2%), 18 cohabiting (5.8%), 3 separated (1%), 3 widowed (1%), and 4 Other (1.3%). The majority of participants self-reported their highest level of education as a Doctorate degree (38.3%), followed by a Bachelor’s degree (21.8%), Master’s degree (21.4%), Some College (15.9%), High School (2.3%) and Elementary School (0.3%). Two hundred and ninety four participants (95.5%) reported working full time and 14 (4.5%) part-time. With regard to self-reported income, participants reported their annual income levels as: less than 10,000 (0.7%), 10,000-20,000 (0.7%), 20,000-30,000 (6.6%), 30,000-40,000 (14.9%), 40, 000-50,000 (12.5%), 50,000-60,000 (9.6%), 60,000-70,000 (8.3%), 70,000-80, 000 (7.6%), 80,000-90, 000 (5.3%). 90,000- 100,000 (3.0%), and greater than 100,000 (30.5%). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 Further demographic inquiries showed that the percentage of participants who had undergone previous psychological counseling (51.6%) was very nearly equal to those who had not (48.4%). The majority of participants were familiar with counseling services offered at the university where they were employed (60.1%) though a much smaller percentage (19.5%) had used campus psychological counseling services. The sample was drawn from a university which has a main campus and an affiliated health sciences campuses. Taking into account all possible participants, the percentage rate of responses from each campus was nearly proportionally equal with 29% participants responding from the main campus and 30% of participants from thus health sciences campus. Therefore, the sample was not unduly influenced by a larger response from either group. Measures Gender Role Conflict Scale Gender role conflict was measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986) (Appendix A). The GRCS contains 37 items that assess men’s thoughts and feelings about their gender role behaviors using a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree (6) to strongly disagree (1). Participants reported the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with each item. The GRCS has the following four subscales: Success, Power and Competition (SPC) (13 items-e.g. “Competing with others is the best way to succeed,” “Being smarter or physically stronger than other men is important to me”); Restrictive Emotionality Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. , 43 (RE) (10 items-e.g. “I have difficulty expressing my tender feelings,” “I do not like to show my emotions to other people”); Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM) (8 items- e.g., “Hugging other men is difficult for me,” “Men who touch other men make me uncomfortable”); and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR) (6 items- e.g. “My need to work or study keep me from my family or leisure more than I would like,” “I feel tom between my hectic work schedule and caring for my health”). Subscale scores were obtained by summing the responses to individual items; higher scores reflect greater gender role conflict. Because the number of items varies for each subscale, the range of possible scores for each of the four subscales was: Success, Power, and Competition (13 items), 13 to 78; Restrictive Emotionality (10 items), 10 to 60; Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men (8 items), 8 to 48; and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (6 items), 6 to 36. Normative data for the GRCS is based on college students, but several validity studies suggest that the GRCS has validity for older men, as well (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Mendelson, 1988). O’Neil et al. (1986) determined reliability using Cronbach’s alpha (alphas ranged from .75 to .85) and a test - retest after a 4- week interval (reliability ranged from .72 to .86) Good, Dell, and Mintz (1989) found Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .78 to .88 for the subscales. More recently, internal and factorial validity was supported in analyses by Rogers, Abbey-Hines, and Rando (1997) and Moradi, Tokar, Schaub, Jome, and Sema (2000). The internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) of the GRCS in this study were .86 for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 SPC, .87 for RE, .86 for RABBM, .84 for CBWFR, and .92 for the GRCS total score. Personality Adjective Check List Personality styles of the participants were measured by the Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987). In the first section, description of the PACL is provided along with validity and reliability coefficients. In following sections, the PACL’s use in this study and its theoretical underpinnings are provided. PACL. The Personality Adjective Check List (PACL) is a 153-item, self- report and rating measure ofMillon’s (1969/1983b) eight basic personality patterns for use with normal adults and nonpsychiatric patients (Strack, 1987). Respondents were asked to endorse as many of the adjectives as they believed were self- descriptive on the check list. Examples of items include: reserved, insecure, agreeable, extravagant, arrogant, courageous, industrious, and edgy (Strack, 1991c) (Appendix B). Eight personality scores were derived from the check list, one each for Million’s basic eight personality styles and were renamed to reflect the measurement of personality style rather than personality disorder (i.e. Introversive for Asocial, Inhibited for Avoidant, Cooperative for Submissive, Sociable for Gregarious, Confident for Narcissistic, Forceful for Aggressive, Respectful for Conforming and Sensitive for Negativistic) (Strack, 1987). Scale scores were reported as T-scores. Strack (1991c) reported a median alpha coefficient of .82 for both sexes combined. Test-retest correlations derived at one-, two- and three- month intervals Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 showed stability of scores for men and women. The coefficients range from .55 - .90 at one month, from .63 to .89 at two months, and from .63 to .86 at three months. The median correlation across time for men was .71, and for women was .74. Normative data for the PACL is based on 2,507 normal adults between the ages of 16 and 72. Subjects were sampled between 1980 and 1986, with 90% coming from colleges and 10% from businesses. Men made up 47.4% of the sample and women 52.6%. Ethnicity was 65.2% non Hispanic White, 17.3% Hispanic, 9.1% Black, 7.6% Asian, and 0.8% Native American or Eskimo. The Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987) features validity indices that detect random responding, favorable responding (presenting oneself in an overly positive light), and unfavorable responding (presenting oneself in an overly negative light). Profile validity also depends on the number of adjectives endorsed by the participant. Profiles with less than 10 or more than 120 endorsed adjectives are invalid (Strack, 1991c). PACL scales were created with item overlap as recommended by Millon (1983a, 1987). Therefore, some correlation is built in so that traits that coexist in certain styles are measured in each scale. The most prominent personality style of an individual is characterized by his or her score on the single highest PACL scale (Appendix C). That is, he or she is assigned to a category. Personality styles for those participants with tied scores were determined by dividing the number of endorsed items on the tied scales by the number of possible adjectives on the scale, with the greater ratio determining the personality style. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 Theoretical Basis. Millon’s model of personality was chosen for this study for its comprehensiveness, as well as for its strong theoretical and empirical base. Millon (1969/1983b) delineated his original theory and a taxonomic scheme for describing at the global level the basic dimensions of personality and proposed three axes—active-passive, pleasure—pain, and self—other as the basic building blocks of personality. Conceived in terms of instrumental coping patterns designed to maximize positive reinforcements and avoid punishment, the model crossed the active-passive axis with four reinforcement strategies— detached, dependent, independent, and ambivalent. The resulting configuration yielded eight basic personality patterns (Asocial, Avoidant, Submissive, Gregarious, Narcissistic, Aggressive, Conforming, Negativistic), which served as the model for the development of personality categories measured by the PACL. Millon’s assumptions about normal personality are: 1. Normal and abnormal personality are shaped according to the same basic processes and learning principles. 2. Normal personality is on a continuum with pathological personality. 3. No sharp dividing line exists between normal and abnormal personality types. 4. Normal personality patterns may be distinguished by their adaptive flexibility and balance on the active-passive, pleasure-pain, and self- other polarities. (Millon & Davis, 1994; Strack, 1993; Strack, 1997) The original assessment instruments designed by Millon detected the presence of personality disorders and clinical syndromes. However, Millon clearly indicates that his theory applies to normal as well as pathological personality styles. He sees Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 normal and abnormal personalities as stemming from the same sources, and their manifestations as being different only in terms of the severity, rigidity, and maladaptiveness: Normality and pathology are relative concepts; they represent arbitrary points on a continuum or gradient. Psychopathology is shaped according to the same processes and principles as those involved in the normal development of learning; however, because of differences in the character, timing, intensity, or persistence of certain influences, some individuals acquire maladaptive habits whereas others do not. When an individual displays an ability to cope with his environment in a flexible and adaptive manner.. .then he may be said to possess a normal and healthy personality pattern. Conversely, when average responsibilities and everyday relationships are responded to inflexibly or defectively.. .then a pathological personality may be said to exist. Of course, no sharp dividing line divides normality and pathology... (Millon, 1969/1983b, p. 222) In sum, the PACL was designed for measuring personality styles of a nonclinical population and retains the theoretical basis of Millon’s theory. Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale Participants’ attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help were measured with a revised version of Fischer and Turner’s (1970) Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help (ATSPPH) scale (Appendix D). The scale consists of 29 statements of opinion regarding general orientation toward seeking professional help for psychological problems. For the purposes of this study, the word “counselor” was substituted for the world “psychiatrist” on eight items. Subjects were asked to respond to these statements of opinion on a 4-point scale from agree (0) to disagree (3). Eleven of the items are keyed so that a negative response indicates positive attitudes toward seeking psychological help and 18 of the items are keyed so that a positive response indicates positive attitudes toward Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 psychological help. The total score was obtained by reversing the items keyed in a negative direction and summing the item scores. The total score ranges from zero (negative attitude toward psychological help-seeking) to 87 (positive attitude toward psychological help-seeking). Fisher and Turner (1970) reported test-retest reliability over a two-week period of .89 and over an 8-week period of .84 and an internal consistency of .83. Normative reference is based on a nonclinical sample of 492 female and 468 male students. Scores on the scale have discriminated between subjects who had never sought out psychological assistance from those who had sought counseling, thus providing evidence for construct validity (Fischer & Turner, 1970). Further, neither the total score nor any of the items correlated significantly with a measure of social desirability, which would have indicated that subjects tended to respond in a socially desirable manner. Demographic Questionnaire. Each participant completed a self-report demographic questionnaire (Appendix E) that requested information about age, ethnicity, marital status, education level, and occupational status. Participants were also asked about previous participation in counseling, their familiarity with on campus counseling resources, and whether they had ever used on campus counseling. Procedures One thousand potential participants were randomly selected from a staff directory of university employees of a large, private university. Each participant was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 mailed a packet containing a cover letter with instructions for participation and explanation of consent (Appendix F), demographic questionnaire, three instruments (Gender Role Conflict Scale, Personality Adjective Check List, Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help), a postage paid return envelope and a postcard to enter a drawing for a cash prize of $500. A description of the rules and procedures for the drawing was made available by request (Appendix G). Instruments were randomly ordered to protect from systematic order effects. Names and identifying numbers were kept separately to maintain the confidentiality of responses. To ensure that only men completed the measures, participants were asked to indicate their gender on the demographic questionnaire. Participants returned packets by mail to a post office box located outside of the university where the sample was collected. One month after the initial mailing, follow up letters were sent to all nonrespondents (Appendix F). Three hundred and nineteen packets were received for a usable response rate of 308 (30.8%). The winner of the cash prize was randomly selected from the original pool of 1,000 potential participants and was awarded a $500 money order via first class, registered mail. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER HI Results This chapter presents (a) an explanation of the sources and treatment of invalid and missing data; (b) descriptive analyses; and (c) the results of the data analyses by research question. The research questions were: (a) What types of gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986) are most prevalent in the current sample of adult men: Success, Power and Competition (SPC); Restricted Emotionality (RE); Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM) and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR)? (b) What are the personality styles of participants, as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987) who report high gender role conflict as measured by Gender Role Conflict Scale?, (c) Is there an association between gender role conflict and personality styles as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List of participants who have high or low gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale?, (d) Is there a relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help as measured by the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help scale (ATSPPH; Fischer & Turner, 1970)?, (e) Is there a relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale, personality style, as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List, and attitudes toward seeking professional help as measured by the Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Scale? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 Before statistical analyses were applied to the scores, the data set was inspected for invalid and missing data. A description of the criteria used to delete or retain survey data for each of the instruments is presented in the next section followed by descriptive analyses and the test of the research questions. Treatment o f Invalid and Missing Data Personality Adjective Check List (PACL) PACL scale profiles for this study were generated via a computer program that assigned personality style based on highest T-score and assessed the validity of each profile. Invalid profiles were eliminated. Of the 321 PACL profiles received, 311 (97%) were valid and 10 (3.08%) profiles had tied T-scores on two or more personality styles. Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) One GRCS profile was eliminated due to insufficient data. Otherwise, very few item responses (0.02%) were missing from the participants total possible item responses to all the items on the GRCS. For the missing data, the subscale mean insert method was used. Most of the missing data centered on two questions: Item 20, “Telling others of my strong feelings is not part of my sexual behavior,” and Item 30, “Telling my partner my feelings about him/her is difficult for me.” The failure to respond to these items may be attributed to the participants’ not having a sexual partner at the time of the survey; therefore, certain participants may not have felt that the question applied to them or simply found the question too intrusive. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help (ATSPPH) Two participants were eliminated from the study due to insufficient data on the ATSPPH which resulted in a final sample size of 308 participants. For the 308 participants who completed the ATSPPH, a total of 25 (0.03%) individual questions were left unanswered in the entire response set. Thus, the participants completed 99.97% of the individual questions. The 25 missing responses were evenly distributed throughout the subscales of the measure and the subscale mean insert method was applied to the data. Descriptive Analyses Frequencies for the PACL are reported by personality style for each of the eight personality style categories in Table 1. The Respectful personality style had the highest frequency, comprising nearly 30% of the sample followed by Introversive (16.2%), Sociable (13.6%), Cooperative (13.3%), Inhibited (11.7), Sensitive (8.1%), Forceful (5.8%), and Confident (1.9%) personality styles. The distribution of personality styles differs from the normative data (which includes scores of both men and women), which had the following distribution of personality styles: Introversive (11%), Inhibited (10%), Cooperative (12%), Sociable (15%), Confident (10%), Forceful (12%), Respectful (16%) and Sensitive (13%). Compared to the normative sample, the Confident, Sensitive, and Forceful personality styles are less prominent sample and the Respectful and Introversive personality styles are more prominent in the current sample. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 Table 1 Personality Adjective Check List (PACL) Frequencies Personality Style N % of Sample Introversive 50 16.2% Cooperative 41 13.3% Confident 6 1.9% Respectful 90 29.2% Sensitive 25 8 .1 % Inhibited 36 11.7% Sociable 42 13.6% Forceful 18 5.8% Means, standard deviations, and ranges of the raw scores are reported in Table 2 for the scores on the GRCS subscales, the GRCS total and the ATSPPH. For the GRCS and its subscales, the Cronbach’s alpha exceeded .84, indicating that each subscale was highly reliable. Similarly, the alpha coefficient (.89) for the ATSPPH also indicates high reliability. Therefore, for the subscales of the GRCS, the total GRCS and the ATSPPH, the alpha coefficients indicate that these measures were internally consistent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 Test o f the Research Questions Research Question 1: What types of gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, et al., 1986) are most prevalent in the current sample of adult men: Success, Power and Competition (SPC); Restricted Emotionality (RE); Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM) and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR)? Hypothesis 1: It was hypothesized that the most prevalent type of gender role conflict in the current sample of adult men would be Success, Power and Competition (SPC), followed by Restricted Emotionality (RE), Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM), and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR). Because some previous studies report GRCS data in raw and standardized scores, raw scores of the current sample were converted for each of the scales to a common metric by dividing the raw score by the number of questions for each subscale. Means for each of the four subscales of the GRCS and total GRCS were calculated using the common metric and are reported in Table 3. Using matched-pairs t-tests with a Bonferroni correction, it was determined that the mean scores for each of the subscales were significantly different from each other (ts > 4.04, ps < .001), except for the difference between RABBM and RE (mean difference = 0.13, £(293) = 2.37,p - .018). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2 Univariate Statistics and Reliability for the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Attitude Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH) Variable No. Items M SD Observed Range Possible Range Alpha GRCS Total 37 118.21 27.46 86.41-162.70 37-222 .92 GRCS SPC 13 44.19 11.18 22.67-57.16 13-78 . 8 6 GRCS RE 1 0 28.17 9.98 23.36-33.34 10-60 .87 GRCS RABBM 8 23.55 9.01 21.69-28.72 8-64 . 8 6 GRCS CBWFR 6 2 2 . 0 0 7.00 14.61-26.16 6-36 .84 ATSPPH 29 58.22 13.15 39.95-75.00 1-87 .89 Note. GRCS - Gender Role Conflict Scale; SPC - Success, Power and Competition, RE - Restricted Emotionality, RABBM - Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men, CBWFR - Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (O ’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986) ATSPPH - Attitude Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help (Fischer & Turner, 1979). 56 Table 3 Standardized Scores for the Means o f the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Gender Role Conflict Subscales Variable Raw Score No. Items Mean Score GRCS Total 118.21 37 5.62 GRCS SPC 44.19 13 3.40 GRCS RE 28.17 1 0 2.82 GRCS RABBM 23.55 8 2.94 GRCS CBWFR 2 2 . 0 0 6 3.67 Note. SPC - Success, Power and Competition, RE - Restricted Emotionality, RABBM - Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men, CBWFR - Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (GRCS; O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986) Research Question 2: What are the personality styles of participants who report high gender role conflict? Hypothesis 2: It was hypothesized that participants with high gender role conflict scores were likely to be in the Respectful and Confident categories of the Personality Adjective Check List. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 To examine the relationship between the gender role conflict total score and each of the eight personality styles, simple linear regressions were run for each PACL subscale as a criterion. The results are presented in Table 4. Introversive, Inhibited, and Sensitive personality styles were positively related with gender role conflict. The Sociable personality style was negatively related to gender role conflict. Table 4 Correlation and Regression Analysis o f the PACL Subscales and Gender Role Conflict PACL Subscale r P beta P Introversive .191 .0 0 1 ** .19 .0 0 1 ** Inhibited .245 <ooi*** .25 .0 0 1 ** Cooperative -.088 A36(ns) - . 0 1 .068(ns) Sociable -.230 < 0 0 1 *** -.23 .0 0 1 ** Confident -.086 AA2(ns) -.09 .071 (ns) Forceful .023 .691 (ns) . 0 2 .346(ns) Respectful -.027 64?>(ns) -.03 322(ns) Sensitive .141 .016* .14 .008** Note: * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p <.001 GRCS scores were divided into the highest third, middle third, and lowest third to create the high and low gender role conflict groups. The highest third Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 represented the high gender role conflict group and the lowest third represented the low gender role conflict group. The groups were determined by cumulative frequency with 108 participants (33.8%) having a GRCS score of 107 or lower, 96 participants (31.2%) with scores between 107 and 129, and 101 participants (35.1%) of the sample having scores of 129 or higher. The results are reported in Table 5. Table 5 Summary o f Personality Style Frequencies by High and Low Gender Role Conflict Groups Personality Style GRCS Low GRCS High Introversive 1 0 25 Inhibited 8 18 Cooperative 17 1 1 Sociable 2 2 8 Confident 0 3 Forceful 5 4 Respectful 32 29 Sensitive 1 0 1 0 From inspection of the frequencies, the Respectful personality style is associated with both the GRCS High and GRCS Low groups in that the greatest Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 number of participants in both groups endorsed that personality style. In descending order of frequency, the personality styles reported by the GRCS High group were: Respectful (29), Introversive (25), Inhibited (18), Sensitive (10), Cooperative (11), Sociable (8 ), Forceful (4), and Confident (3). The personality styles reported by the GRCS Low group were: Respectful (32), Sociable (22), Cooperative (17), Introversive (10), Sensitive (10), Inhibited (8 ), Forceful (5), and Confident 9 (0). Research Question 3: Is there an association between gender role conflict and personality styles as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List of participants who have high or low gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale? Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant association between personality styles and high and low gender role conflict groups of participants. High and low gender role conflict groups were created using the method described in Research Question 2. For the total GRCS and each of the four subscales of the GRCS, a chi square analysis was performed to determine if there were significant associations between gender role conflict and personality style ((7.212) p = 0.03). Residuals indicated that participants in the high GRCS group were more likely to have an Introversive or Inhibited personality style whereas individuals in the low GRCS group were more likely to have Cooperative and Sociable personality styles. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 Research Question 4: Is there a relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help? Hypothesis 4: Gender role conflict will be negatively correlated with positive attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. A Pearson correlation was performed to determine if a significant relationship exists between help-seeking scores, total GRCS scores, and each of the GRCS scales. Results of the correlation analysis indicate there is a significant correlation between total GRCS scores and scores on the ATSPPH (>(308) = -.375, £><.001. This finding suggests that men with higher gender role conflict have more negative attitudes about help-seeking. The correlations for each of the subscales of the GRCS and the scores on the ATSPPH are reported in Table 6 . Each subscale of the GRCS was significantly, negatively correlated to attitudes toward help-seeking. The largest negative correlation was between the RABBM scale and the ATSPPH scale. Using hierarchical regression analysis it was found that the RABBM scale represented the major GRCS relationship with help- seeking F (I, 306) - 70.621. p < .001). No other combination of GRCS scales was as significantly related, nor did any other subscale when added to the regression equation significantly increase the percentage changed (R2 = .008, p = .395). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Table 6 Correlation Matrix fo r Scores on the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) and Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH) ATSPPH SPC RE RABBM CBWFR GRCS ATSPPH SPC _ 2 4 *** RE _ 2 9 *** .36*** RABBM _ 4 3 *** 3 7 *** 6 3 *** CBWFR -.1 2 * 4 3 *** 30*** .16* GRCS _ 3 9 ** 7 7 ** 7 9 ** .76** .59** Note. ATSPPH - Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help (Fisher & Turner, 1970), GRCS - Gender Role Conflict Scale Total Score, SPC - Success, Power and Competition, RE - Restricted Emotionality, RABBM - Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men, CBWFR - Conflict Between Work and Family Relations, GRCS - GRCS Total Score (GRCS; O’Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986) *p<05 **p<.01 * * * p < .001 Research Question 5: Is there a relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the Gender Role Conflict Scale, personality style, as measured by the Personality Adjective Check List, and attitudes toward help-attitudes toward seeking Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 professional help as measured by the Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Scale? Hypothesis 5: Personality style will partially or completely mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Using the GRCS, PACL, and ATSPPH scores, an ANCOVA was performed to determine if the relationship between GRC (independent variable) and ATSPPH (dependent variable) was mediated by personality style. The results of the ANCOVA are presented in Table 7. Table 7 ANCOVA o f Gender Role Conflict, Personality, and Help-Seeking Variables F P GRCS 44.31 . 0 0 1 PACL 1 . 1 1 360(ns) When scores on the GRCS and the PACL were considered together, gender role conflict was significantly related to attitudes toward help-seeking and the PACL was not. To determine the conditions of mediation, a follow up ANOVA was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 performed with the PACL as the independent variable and attitudes toward help- seeking as the dependent variable. Personality style was not significantly related to help-seeking scores (F(7, 300) = 1.69, p =.111). Therefore, conditions for mediation were not established. A follow up regression analysis of Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help on Gender Role Conflict and the PACL personality styles was conducted. Only GRCS Total was significantly related with ATSPPH (beta = -3.70, t(289) = -6.564,p < .001). All of the PACL subscales were non-significant (ts < 1.599,/? > .110). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 CHAPTER IV Discussion This chapter discusses the relevance of the previously presented results and addresses the findings for each research question. The discussion of the findings is divided into the four sections: (a) Gender Role Conflict, (b) Personality Style, (c) Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help, and (d) Gender Role Conflict, Help- Seeking and Personality Style. Limitations of this study are considered, as are the clinical implications for counseling and directions for future research. This study investigated the relations among gender role conflict, attitudes toward help-seeking and personality style. This study had three primary purposes: (a) to gain a more refined understanding of the dimensions of gender role conflict experienced by adult men; (b) to reexamine the relationship between gender role conflict and men’s attitudes toward help-seeking; and, (c) to discover the role of personality style as it related to both gender role conflict and help-seeking. In discussing the finding of the study, attention will be given to how the demographics Based on the findings of the study, characteristics of the sample may have affected the results. Gender Role Conflict The gender role conflict of a random sample (N = 308) of university- employed adult, employed males was examined. The means on the GRCS and its subscales indicate that the participants scored higher on the total GRCS and higher on four subscales than a sample (N=401) of primarily White college students Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 assessed by Good and Mintz (1990). It was hypothesized that the most prevalent type of gender role conflict in the current sample of adult men would be Success, Power and Competition (SPC), followed by Restricted Emotionality (RE), Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM), and Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR). The hypothesized ordering of types of gender role conflict was based on the supposition that in a sample comprised entirely of employed, adult men, a significant concern would be pressure to succeed in their careers and feelings of competitiveness. Results did not support the predicted pattern of gender role conflict. In this study, Conflict Between Work and Family Relations (CBWFR) was the primary type followed by Success Power and Competition (SPC), Restricted Emotionality (RE), and Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men (RABBM). Although this finding was not expected, it was similar to the findings of two previous studies of adult men (Coumoyer & Mahalik, 1995; Mendolson, 1988). For example, measuring gender role conflict in adult men, Coumoyer and Mahalik (1995) reported similar subscale scores for the GRCS subscales of gender role conflict seen in the current study. There exist several possible explanations for the higher scores of the Conflict Between Work and Family scale. A majority of the participants (62%) were married or remarried which may increase the pressure to balance competing demands of personal relationships and work life. Compared to studies of gender role conflict in college students, the mean age of the participants in this sample was higher; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 therefore it was might be more likely that the respondents might have children. Unlike many previous samples, virtually all of the men in this study were employed full-time, potentially decreasing the free time and flexibility of their personal lives. Another possible explanation for the prominence of the Conflict Between Work and Family Relations type of gender role conflict may be the relatively high income and education levels reported by the participants. Nearly 79% of participants reported an income level of $40,000 or higher and of that group, 31 % reported an annual income of over $100,000. For education level, 38% of participants reported having doctorate. With a substantial number of participants having already achieved relatively higher levels of income and education, issues surrounding success, power, and competition may assume less relevance than conflicts between work and family. Personality Style In addition to determining type of gender role conflict, this study categorized the personality styles of the respondents. Considering personality style as a variable is important because it represents an attempt to link gender role conflict to the broader conceptualizations of personality to better understand how it is expressed and how it may affect interpersonal relationships. Relating gender role conflict to personality style allows inferences to be drawn as to what types of personality styles might be potentially associated with various levels of gender role conflict. Based on theoretically derived personality categories, it was predicted that the greatest number of participants reporting higher levels of gender role conflict would fall into two personality style categories, Respectful and Confident. This Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 hypothesis received partial support with greatest number of participants falling in the Respectful style (29%) followed by the Introversive style (13.3%) with surprisingly few participants categorized as having a Confident personality style (1.9%). Compared to the normative sample, the distribution features a disproportionately large percentage of participants in the Respectful personality style category. A key feature of understanding and interpreting the PACL is the theoretically prescribed overlap in personality styles. In this study, participants were assigned personality style based on the category with the highest T-score. Were the score profiles used clinically, two or three of the highest scores would be interpreted configurally and common features among the different styles would be expected. Thus, the Respectful personality style shares one trait, “obedient”, with the Cooperative personality style, as part of the model’s original theoretical approach. Because of the overlap in the scales, however, differences may be less sharp, which is an important factor to take into account when looking at personality style in relation to such constructs as gender role conflict or attitudes toward help-seeking. A participant with a Respectful personality style may also exhibit personality characteristics from several personality styles (e.g. Confident, Sensitive). Characterized by rigid attitudes and behavior, individuals with the Respectful personality style often instinctually constrict their feelings when experiencing problems (Strack, 1999). As the normal counterpart of Millon’s Compulsive personality disorder (Millon 1968/1989), individuals with the Respectful personality type may seek help with anxiety complaints, tension and psychosomatic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 upsets such as headaches and gastrointestinal problems. They often exhibit a sense of worry, fearfulness, and inadequacy. In terms of vocational and work interests, there appears to be correspondence between the self- reported traits of individuals that are necessary for some of the jobs common to a university setting such as administrators and professors. For example, individuals with the Respectful personality style are frequently “attracted to conventional, mechanical and intellectual occupations” (Strack, 1999, p. 190). With a large number of highly educated staff and faculty members in the university sample holding advanced degrees, it appears understandable that they would endorse adjectives pertaining to Respectful personality style, such as, “careful”, “upright”, “efficient”, and “hard-working” as descriptors. Although occupations of the participants in the sample may be loosely inferred by education level, it must be acknowledged that conclusions drawn here are speculative. It was hypothesized that the second highest percentage of participants would be categorized in the Confident personality style for two reasons. First, the Confident personality style features adjectives that seemingly correspond closely to the Success, Power and Competition subscale of the GRCS such as: “intimidating,” “arrogant,” “egoistic,” and “powerful.” Since the Success, Power and Competition scale was hypothesized to have the highest overall GRCS subscore for this sample, it seemed logical that the Confident personality style would be apply to a number of participants. Second, on a more general level, the Confident personality style adjective descriptors mirror traditional, stereotypical masculine traits. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 The findings did not support the hypothesis. In fact, the Confident personality style comprised 1 0 % of the normative sample (which included men and women) while the current sample had only 1.9% in that category, thus it appears that it may be underrepresented in the sample. One possible explanation for this finding is that many adjectives associated with the Confident personality style are socially undesirable. Despite the research that indicates “most PACL scale scores show negligible association with need for approval or self-deception” (Strack, 1991c, p. 48) the adjectives arguably appear to have a negative valence. For example, the Confident personality style is indicated by endorsement of adjectives like “self- satisfied,” “boastful,” “conceited” and “vain.” Men reporting any level of gender role conflict may have refrained from endorsing such socially undesirable descriptors. The findings support the hypothesis that there is a significant difference in personality styles of participants who had high and low gender role conflict and provides a sense of some of the group differences in personality styles of the two groups. Participants in the high gender role conflict group were significantly associated with the Introversive personality style, which is described by adjectives such as “reserved,” “remote,” “rigid,” “unemotional”, and “detached.” Based on Millon’s Schizoid personality disorder category (Millon, 1981), the Introversive personality style reflects a quiet, slow paced, pleasant demeanor. Introversive individuals respond to stress and pressure by withdrawing, often becoming insensitive and detached from themselves and others. Essentially, they experience great difficulty expressing their feelings and are generally uncomfortable in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 realm of emotions (Strack, 1999). They often do not seek help unless others strongly encourage them to do so. Concerning professional and vocational interests, individuals with an Introversive personality style often prefer intellectual or mechanical occupations that allow them to work in a self-directed fashion. They often seek a stable, quiet work environment where they can work independently at a pace they set for themselves. Usually they are reliable and dependable employees who are comfortable with repetitive tasks. They prefer not to assume leadership positions or actively participate in groups. Interpersonally, coworkers may experience frustration interacting with these individuals due to their tendency to simply ignore others around them, and even sometimes appearing insensitive to the needs of others. The finding that men with high gender role conflict fit the profile for the Introversive personality style is consistent with important aspects of the gender role conflict theory (O’Neil, 1987), which describes the prohibition of expressing feelings, the emphasis on self-reliance and the restriction of affectionate behavior between men. The restriction of feelings (i.e. Restricted Emotionality) has been consistently associated with depression (Fragoso, 2002; Sharpe & Heppner, 1991; Shepard, 2002) and the lack of emotional expression is hallmark of the Introversive personality style. Less focus has been placed on the personality characteristics of men with low gender role conflict. In this study, participants with low gender role conflict scores Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 were significantly more likely to endorse those adjectives in the Sociable personality style category such as “playful,” “extravagant,” “gregarious,” and “merry.” The normal, healthy Sociable personality style corresponds to Millon’s (1968/1983b) original description of the Histrionic personality disorder. Thus, these individuals may appear dramatically distressed, depressed, or exhausted when presenting for help (Strack, 1999, p. 185). Artistic, enterprising and social, individuals in this category possess a high need for attention and stimulation. They enjoy novel experiences and are easily bored with repetition. They thrive in active environments and do well in large groups. They are extraverted, lively, and energetic. When contrasted with prior investigation in the area of gender role conflict and personality, the current results parallel the literature in this area such as the previous finding that high gender role conflict is related to interpersonal rigidity (Mahalik 2000) and low gender role conflict is related to expressiveness (O’Neil et al., 1989; Stillson, et al., 1991). In light of previous considerations of personality characteristics and types, this study differs in that participants in the current sample exhibit personality traits described in the context of particular personality style. The current findings are consistent with the themes of rigidity and lack of emotional expression that characterize the high gender role group and the extraversion of the low gender role conflict group across several of the personality and interpersonal variables that have been studied thus far, including instrumentality- expressiveness (O’Neil et al., 1986; Stillson, et al., 1991), ego identity (Arnold & Chartier, 1984; Chartier & Arnold, 1985; Rounds, 1994) and authoritarianism Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 (Chamberlin, 1994). By determining the personality styles of men with high and low gender role conflict inferences can be tentatively drawn about their interpersonal functioning. What may be most salient, perhaps, is the notion that men with an Introversive personality style may be experiencing high gender role conflict and be least likely to express it. Theoretical positions concerning the relationship between masculinity constructs and personality differ widely and affect how researchers conceptualize and measure personality. Assumptions about the plasticity and heritability of personality drive the selection of instruments. Most current masculinity research focuses on the development and experience of gender role conflict through social learning and reflects movement away from essentialist theory. By contrast, in their analysis of the mediating role of personality using the Five Factor Model, Tokar et al. (2000) returned to a more essentialist position, stating . .these highly gender conflicted men are predisposed to be neurotic and disagreeable, which, in turn, predisposes them to experience chronic distress, emotional instability, and antagonism toward others” (p. 390). As an instrument based on integrative theory, the personality measure used in this study recognized some biological basis for personality and incorporated social learning principles. Attitudes Toward Help-Seeking Concerning the relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking psychological help, the findings support the expected hypothesis that the two are negatively correlated. Results of the correlation analysis indicate there is a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 significant, moderate correlation between total GRCS scores and help-seeking behavior which suggests that men with higher gender role conflict have more negative attitudes about help-seeking. This finding is generally consistent with previous studies of gender role conflict and help-seeking (Blazina & Watkins, 1996); Good et al., 1989); Komiya, Good & Sherrod, 2000; Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992; Rochlen, Blazina, & Raghunathan, 2002; Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002; Wisch et al., 1993). Using hierarchical regression analysis, it was found that RABBM scale represented the major GRCS relationship with help-seeking. No other combination of GRCS scales was as significantly related, nor did any other subscale, when added to the regression equation, significantly increase the variance explained. With scores on the Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men subscale being the best predictor of help-seeking behavior, explanations must take into account the item content of that scale. Noteworthy is the fact that the scale originally measured some aspects of homophobia that is still reflected by the item content. Previous research has found negative correlations between high gender role conflict and negative attitudes toward gays and lesbians (Ducat, 1994; Rounds, 1994). Thus, negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help might reflect homophobia as a facet of gender role conflict, though that relationship has not been tested. Gender of the counselor and whether or not a man may seek psychological help might also be a factor. Rather than appear “feminine” by disclosing feelings and problems with a male counselor, men may choose to simply avoid counseling altogether. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 In the current sample, the scores for attitudes toward help-seeking were comparatively higher than in other samples (of college students) and featured a large percentage of participants had who sought psychological help in the past. Therefore, this sample of men could not only be characterized as being positively disposed to seeking help, slightly over half of the sample already had sought some type of counseling or therapy. The higher help-seeking scores also may be have been due to the nature of the sample population which included health care providers and other professionals whose positions exposed them to the health care field. It is possible that those individuals may be more likely have positive attitudes toward help-seeking due to exposure to the health care environment. On a broader level, that exposure could possibly extend to the university staff, as a whole, since equal percentages of respondents came from the university campus and the affiliated health sciences campus. Participants who had sought counseling in the past and had a positive experience may have been more likely to participate in the study. Men who did not participate survey may be the very ones that that are the least likely to seek psychological help. Quite likely, men willing to reply to a survey concerning gender roles and therapy may differ from those who will not. Gender Role Conflict, Help-Seeking, and Personality Style The findings of this study suggest a meaningful relationship between gender role conflict and personality style. Therefore, additional evidence of the overlap between personality and gender role conflict was identified. Help seeking and gender role conflict were also linked. Given these findings, the final question of the study Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 examined the relationship between personality style, gender role conflict, and attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. It was hypothesized that personality style would mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and help-seeking as it did in previous research where most of the links between masculinity and counseling related variables were best conceptualized as indirect and occurred through personality (Tokar, 2000). Mediation is established when several conditions emerge from a series of regression equations assessing the link between gender role conflict, personality style and help seeking. In this study, these conditions were not met because a there was not a meaningful relationship between personality style and help-seeking and, as a result, the hypothesis that personality style would function as a mediator was not supported. This finding indicates that, in the current sample, personality style did not affect the degree to which a participant would have positive or negative attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. The lack of mediation is somewhat consistent with Tokar et al.’s (2000) study of college students in which the relationship between help-seeking and personality was only partially mediated. It would seem logical that personality style would be related to help-seeking behavior in that it makes intuitive sense that a man with an Introversive personality style might be less likely to seek help and, conversely, a man in the Sociable personality style category would be more likely to attend counseling or therapy. However, what is important about this finding is that one simply cannot infer the likelihood that a man, based on personality type alone, would have more positive Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 attitudes toward counseling. An additional explanation for this finding is that since there are a high percentage of help-seekers in this sample, the lack of relationship between help-seeking and personality may due, in part, to the large number of participants in the sample who had attended counseling or psychotherapy. Previous research using another personality model indicates that masculinity variables add nothing beyond personality variables in elucidating how personality and gender role conflict interact (Tokar et al., 2000). The directionality between the two is not yet clear. That is, it is possible that gender role conflict shapes personality while it is also quite possible that personality shapes gender role conflict. What is central to the relationship between personality style and gender role conflict is the recognition of the idea that they are inextricably linked and the gender role conflict cannot be separated from personality. Limitations o f Current Research Several methodological limitations for this study must be noted. The essential goal of survey research is to define a target population, develop an unbiased sampling procedure and to establish a set of procedures which will result in a high response rate (Weathers, Furlong & Solorzano, 1993). Under ideal conditions, a random sample is gathered and external reliability is established. The return rate for this study (30.8) indicates that two thirds of potential participants did not reply, thereby decreasing its representativeness of the larger population. Although the sample for this study was chosen randomly via the university directory, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 generalizability of results remains in question. The majority of participants in the sample were White, college-educated, and had a high socioeconomic status. Potential bias may have been introduced by sampling from a university. In the case of this study, a majority of participants held postgraduate degrees, which again limits the representativeness and generalizablity of the sample to other populations. Overall, because the factors associated with traditional male gender roles are culturally specific and may be affected by class and education, the results of this study should be generalized to other groups with care. Along with the issue of external validity comes the question of whether or not the nonrespondents were similar on characteristics critical to the population being sampled. The university from which the sample was drawn declined to provide demographic information concerning its employees. What is known is that an equal percentage of participants sampled responded from the university and its affiliated health sciences campus. In this study, a monetary incentive was offered to the potential participants. A sizable percentage of participants who responded to the survey were generally in higher SES categories and had higher levels of education. One hypothesis that might be drawn is that the individuals with higher gender role conflict may simply not participate, even if a monetary incentive is offered. Their lack of participation could be explained by the sensitive nature of the survey questions (i.e. masculinity), which they may have construed as too intrusive. While previous studies indicate that incentives do not bias those who respond and therefore have minimal effect on the representativeness of the respondent group (Mizes, Fleece, & Roos, 1984; Nederhof, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 1983; Zusman & Duby, 1987), a substantial cash prize may not be inviting enough to engage the participation of men who do not wish to disclose their thoughts concerning gender role conflict and attitudes about seeking professional psychological help. It appears that nonrespondents value their privacy over the possibility of financial reward. Though the sector of participants who responded represented higher level of income and higher levels of education was imbalanced, it does provide a useful barometer for future study. Most previous gender role conflict research utilized intact classroom groups of college students who were awarded extra course credit for their participation. In this study, participants were sampled from a much wider range of ages, ethnicities, and occupations. Given the opportunity to express their viewpoints and to disclose personal information, we now have more information about who might respond to a masculinity survey. The use of self-report questionnaires as the sole method of collecting data may have limited the reliability and validity of this investigation. Self-report measures are vulnerable to various types of error and bias, including difficulty distinguishing between individuals reporting gender role conflict and those individuals who experience it, yet decline to disclose it. In keeping with the previous discussion of who responds to surveys of masculinity, self-report issues are central to the examination of gender role conflict research and the men’s experience of gender role conflict. Men may minimize their level of distress in order to conform to the male role or be less self-disclosive. Social desirability, which rests on traditional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 conceptualizations of masculinity, may also have been a key factor in the participants’ responses or the lack of participation of the nonrespondents. The fact that data were collected anonymously should have mitigated this possibility, but some misreporting may have occurred. Like many other gender role conflict studies conducted thus far, the current study used a passive design. No variables were manipulated, therefore causality cannot be determined by the data, and conclusions must be qualified accordingly (Sharpe & Heppner, 1991) Furthermore, because these data were correlational, it is possible that some of the observed relationships are bidirectional, rather than solely in the hypothesized direction. Worthy of note is the theoretical bias inherent in the selection of a personality measure to be utilized in the study of gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. The PACL operationalizes personality style from a bioevolutionary, social learning approach. Assumptions included in that approach dictate that part of personality is genetically inherited which would provide some support for both the essentialist position of the MSRI theory and that aspects of personality are learned, which is in support of gender role conflict theory. Participants chose from a limited number of adjectives, which would necessarily influence the results. Further, the assumption that personality categories overlap and share characteristics renders the assignment of personality style to participants in this study somewhat arbitrary. Nonetheless, the current study is among the first to consider gender role conflict and to categorize participants of high and low gender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 role conflict group in a taxonomy of personality styles. As such, only cautious interpretation of the findings is warranted. Despite these limitations, this study provides empirical support that while personality style did not mediate help-seeking, it related meaningfully to high and low gender role conflict. Implications fo r Counselors Delivering quality mental health services requires counselors to attend to multiple levels of meaning occurring in the lives of their clients. Simultaneously taking into account presenting problems, family history, and symptoms in conjunction with the considerations of race, socioeconomic status, and gender issues presents significant challenges. Bieri (1955) formulated the notion of cognitive complexity and defined it as a measure of an individual’s capacity to examine and to process information in a multidimensional fashion before coming to a conclusion. More cognitively complex therapists are more capable of and are less likely to form biases in judgments. Pederesen (1988) concluded that cognitive complexity is a desirable characteristic of psychologists involved in counseling and research, endeavors that require individuals to entertain in an unbiased manner a variety of perspectives at the same time. Based on these ideas, it is reasonable to hypothesize that cognitive complexity may be a critical skill for psychologists who hope to work effectively with different types of men who enter counseling and psychotherapy. As aptly noted by Kisleca (1999), there are a wide variety of conceptions of masculinity expressed by men in therapy and psychologists must avoid forming simplistic stereotypes about Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 males. Instead, practitioners need to think complexly about their male clients and to examine whatever biases they may have about males and the potential effects of these biases on their treatment of their male clients. Describing and examining the psychological experience of men as men is a relatively new endeavor for social science researchers. Historically, psychological research focused solely on men, as though their experiences seamlessly generalized to women or that men possessesed no gender at all. The multidimensional nature of gender role conflict represents a framework for understanding each client’s individualized experience of masculinity. This research shifted the focus of gender role conflict research to an older, employed population of men. The importance of that shift is clear. Types of gender role conflict may be a function of age and life stage (O’Neil & Egan, 1992b). Gender role conflicted individuals who are of college-age may not yet have reached a life stage where they experience the competing demands of work and family and be more absorbed with issues of success and building their careers. The findings of this study suggest that counselors need to take into account that other variables affect gender role conflict, such as level of education and socioeconomic status. Exploring these issues with male clients using the heuristic of gender role conflict types has the potential to create a stronger therapeutic alliance between counselors and their clients. Identifying themes in the life of the client may elucidate how gender role conflict affects his life. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 Several authors advocate the incorporation of gender role analyses into the psychological assessment (Brown, 1986; Stillson, et al. 1991). That high gender role conflict is associated to an Introversive personality style has important implications for counseling and psychotherapy. The development of interventions designed to indirectly tap men’s experience of gender role conflict may need to be employed, such as the therapeutic assessment of masculinity. A critical component of the therapeutic assessment of masculinity is the use of test results (e.g. the GRCS) as part of the counseling process. Test interpretation of the GRCS holds promise as an important adjunct to simply discussing gender role in a free form fashion. It bears repeating that the GRCS (or other measures of masculine roles or masculinity) provides context for the discussion of each client’s personal experience of his gender role. Since the theoretical orientation of the GRCS rests on some basic conceptions of masculinity (Brannon, 1976), it offers a useful introduction to clients who may be unfamiliar with considering their own personal sense of masculinity as well as facilitating discussion between client and counselor. The finding that gender role conflict was again negatively correlated with attitudes toward seeking psychological help suggests that counselors must be particularly mindful of building a working relationship with male clients as early in the relationship as possible. Clients should be encouraged to openly and freely discuss their problems in an empathic environment. Counselors who are aware of the unique challenges inherent to the male role will be better equipped to create the type of environment that offers an optimal balance of support and challenge. Gender of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 the counselor, too, may be an important issue. It may be that unconscious biases on the part of female counselors may affect how they work with male clients. However, as Brooks (1998) notes, “a gender sensitive female or male therapist will be far more successful in working with traditional men than will non-gender sensitive therapist of either sex” (Brooks, 1998, p. 28). In sum, counselors’ awareness of the gender role conflict issues that occur at different points in a man’s life with understanding and sensitivity is crucial. Bearing in mind the personality style of each client and how he uniquely expresses his masculinity will allow for the creation of a richer assessment and potentially deeper therapeutic alliance. The alliance may be strengthened through the use of personality and masculinity measures interpreted collaboratively. This study suggests personality style did not mediate the relationship between gender role conflict and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. However, that finding should be interpreted cautiously due to the unusual characteristics of the sample participants whose help- seeking attitudes were much more favorable than those of most other samples. Implications for Future Research An ideal reciprocal relationship between theory building, research and practice allows for synergistic development of new thought with regard to the understanding the experience of living as a man in contemporary society. In the area of gender role conflict, personality, and help-seeking, several potentially fruitful lines of area would enrich that understanding. First, additional studies considering men in middle and older age would help to build a knowledge base that would Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 explicate gender role conflict across the lifecycle and to delineate what developmental factors influence gender role conflict. If it is the case that men in middle-age experience greater difficulties with conflicts between work and family relations, as was suggested by this study, then gender role conflict and its relation to the family system bears additional investigation. Discovering a more refined sense of the nature of gender role conflict between work and family may lead to a more systems oriented view of gender role conflict. In turn, such a view may broaden the conceptualization to the construct. For example, gender role conflict between family and career may have more to do with marital satisfaction than with parenting responsibilities. A more systems oriented view of gender role conflict would encompass the effects it exerts on the family system as well on men as individuals and would lead, ideally, to the development of useful counseling interventions. The extremes of gender role conflict continuum offer two equally important directions for further research. For men with high gender role conflict, additional study into creating a counseling environment more inviting and amenable to traditional men may influence attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help. Studying men with low gender role conflict would reveal how some men are adaptable to the inconsistent demands of the male role. Considering men’s development with regard to familial and interpersonal relationships as it relates to gender role conflict fits well with counseling psychology’s emphasis on positive growth. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 How personality interacts with the expression and experience of gender role conflict requires further attention. Since this study represents one of the first to relate gender role conflict and a specific taxonomy of personality categories, additional studies using other models of personality need to be conducted. Comprehensive models offer the opportunity better understand gender role conflict within the larger context of personality rather than considering singular traits. In the interest of linking personality and gender role, studies might focus on the simultaneous development of personality and gender role conflict. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 References Archer, J., Murphy, M., Foos, J., Jensen, R., & Morgan, J. (1985). Role conflict in college males: Implications for preventive mental health programs. Unpublished manuscript, University of Florida, Gainesville. Arnold, W. J., & Chartier, B. M. (1984, May). Identity, fear o f femininity and intimacy in males. Paper presented at the 45th annual convention of the Canadian Psychological Association. Bergen, D. J. (1997). Gender role conflict and coping: A preliminary investigation of college males (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina- Greensboro). 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Journal o f Research and Development in Education, 20, 73-78. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 Appendix A Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) Instructions: In the space to the left of each sentence below, write the number which most closely represents the degree that you Agree or Disagree with the statement. There is no right or wrong answer to each statement; your own reaction is what is asked for. Strongly Strongly Agree____________________________________________________________Disagree 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. Moving up the career ladder is important to me. 2. I have difficulty telling others I care about them. 3. Verbally expressing my love to another man is difficult for me. 4. I feel tom between my hectic school and work schedule and caring for my health. 5. _____ Making money is my idea of being a successful man. 6. Strong emotions are difficult for me to understand. 7. Affection with other men makes me tense. 8. I sometimes define my personal values by my career success. 9. Expressing feelings makes me feel open to attack by other people. 10. Expressing my emotions to other men is risky. 11. _____ My career, job, or school affects the quality of my leisure or family life. 12. _____I evaluate other people’s value by their level of achievement and success. 13. Talking (about my feelings) during sexual relations is difficult for me. 14. I worry about failing and how it affects my doing well as a man. 15. I have difficulty expressing my emotional needs to my partner. 16. Men who touch other men make me uncomfortable. 17. Finding time to relax is difficult for me. 18 . ____ Doing well all the time is important to me. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 Strongly Strongly Agree____________________________________________________________Disagree 6 5 4 3 2 1 19. I have difficulty expressing my tender feelings. 20. Hugging other men is difficult for me. 21- I often feel that I need to be in charge of those around me. 22. Telling others of my strong feelings is not part o f my sexual behavior. 23. Competing with others is the best way to succeed. 24. Winning is a measure of my value and personal worth. 25. I often have trouble finding the words that describe how I am feeling. 26. f am sometimes hesitant to show my affection to men because of how others might perceive me. 27. My needs to study or work keep me from my family or leisure more than I would like. 28. I strive to be more successful than others. 29. I do not like to show my emotions to other people. 30. Telling my partner about my feelings about her/him during sex is difficult for me. 31. My school or work often disrupts other parts o f my life (home, family, health, leisure). 32. I am often concerned about how others evaluate my performance at school or work. 33. Being very personal with other men makes me feel uncomfortable. 34. Being smarter or physically stronger than other men is important to me. 35. Men who are overly friendly to me make me wonder about their sexual preference. 36. Stress caused by the need to achieve on the job or at school affects my life. 37. I like to feel superior to other people. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 Appendix B Personality Adjective Check List Items By Scale Scale 1. Introversive, 19 items: reserved, remote, yielding, sluggish, apathetic, unemotional, rigid, uninspired, solitary, subdued, expressionless, indifferent, detached, uncomfortable, serious, disinterested, impersonal, inexpressive, distant Scale 2, Inhibited, 27 items: ignored, insecure, oversensitive, apprehensive, timid, uneasy, afraid, yielding, worried, depressed, fearful, shy, excluded, solitary, touchy, moody, hesitant, nervous, unnoticed, lonely, anxious, apologetic, uncomfortable, overlooked, self-conscious, ill-at-ease, rejected Scale 3, Cooperative, 26 items: consenting, oversensitive, innocent, yielding, agreeable, naive, shy, traditional, decent, conforming, hesitant, proper, docile, obedient, apologetic, gentle, sweet, self-conscious, helpful, dependent, cooperative, trustful, respectful, sweet-tempered, warm-hearted, understanding Scale 4, Sociable, 21 items: playful, extravagant, bubbly, gregarious, vivacious, daring, peppy, lively, outgoing, fickle, animated, talkative, coy, dramatic, adventurous, care-free, sociable, seductive, theatrical, flirtatious, merry Scale 5. Confident, 22 items: self-satisfied, boastful, extravagant, intimidating, arrogant, selfish, cool, vivacious, daring, self-centered, overconfident, care-free, seductive, self-admiring, self-contented, egoistic, conceited, powerful, self- important, righteous, immodest, vain Scale 6 , Forceful, 26 items: intimidating, courageous, competitive, arrogant, cool, daring, overconfident, fearless, militant, blunt, adventurous, commanding, combative, bossy, mean, disagreeable, powerful, self-important, domineering, revengeful, unafraid, forceful, tough, hard headed, aggressive and hostile. Scale 7. Respectful. 21 items: strict, careful, industrious, virtuous, upright, straight- laced, precise, disciplined, neat, traditional, conforming, proper, orderly, obedient, formal, efficient, moralistic, organized, serious, respectful, hard-working Scale 8 , Sensitive. 26 items: insecure, apprehensive, edgy, erratic, aggravated, fluctuating, temperamental, testy, depressed, annoyed, irritable, baffling, touchy, moody, nagging, blunt, nervous, anxious, mean, complaining, grouchy, bossy, confusing, disagreeable, ill-at-ease, pessimistic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 Appendix C Scale Descriptions of Personality Styles Scale 1: Introversive High scorers are characterized by an aloof, introverted, and solitary nature. They often prefer distant or limited involvements with others and have little interest in social activities, which they find unrewarding. Scale 2: Inhibited The Inhibited personality is marked by a tendency toward social withdrawal. In Inhibited personalities this pattern is motivated not by disinterest, but by fear of negative consequences. Inhibited persons tend to be sensitive, both to their own feelings and to the feelings, motives, and desires of others. They often appear shy or skittish, particularly in unfamiliar surroundings. Scale 3: Cooperative High scorers are identified by a need for social approval and affection, and by a willingness to live in accord with the desires of others. They adapt their behavior to the standards of others but in the process may deny their own needs. They are typically cooperative, reliable, considerate of others, dependent and deferential. Scale 4: Sociable Sociable persons take the initiative in assuring their reinforcements by being center-stage. They are characterized by an outgoing, talkative, and extroverted style of behavior and tend to be lively, dramatic, and colorful. These people are typically viewed by others as spontaneous, clever, enthusiastic, and vigorous. Scale 5: Confident Aloof, calm and confident in demeanor, high scorers tend to be egocentric and self-reliant. They may have a keen sense of self-importance, uniqueness, or entitlement. High scorers tend to be socially bold and have a need for attention. They can also be so self-preoccupied that they lack concern and empathy for others. Scale 6 : Forceful Forceful individuals can be identified by an inclination to turn toward the self as the primary source of gratification. Forceful people seem driven to prove their own worthiness. High scorers on this scale may be characterized by an assertive, dominant, and tough-minded personal style. They tend to be strong willed, ambitious, competitive, and self-determined. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 Scale 7: Respectful High scorers are responsible, industrious, and respectful of authority. Conforming persons try hard to uphold rules and regulations and, at times, can be seen by others as moralistic and judgmental. The have a desire for order and tend to be conventional in their interests. These individuals are often seen as being perfectionistic, inflexible, and formal. A noticeable constriction of affect can make Respectful types seem cold, self-absorbed, or withholding. Scale 8 : Sensitive Sensitive personalities tend to be unconventional, moody, and changeable. Interpersonally, they often appear awkward, nervous, worried, or distracted, and seem angry or dissatisfied with themselves and others. They tend to be indecisive and have fluctuating attitudes and interests. These individuals are typically not happy with the status quo. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 Appendix D Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (ATSPPH) Instructions: Below each of the following statements, circle the word that most closely represents the degree to which you agree or disagree with the statement. 1 . Although there are clinics for people with mental troubles, I would not have much faith in them. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 2. If a good friend asked me advice about a mental problem, I might recommend that he see a counselor. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 3. I would feel uneasy going to a counselor because of what some people would think. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 4. A person with strong character can get over mental conflicts by himself, and would have little need of a counselor. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 5. There are times when I have felt completely lost and would have welcomed professional advice for a personal or emotional problem. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 6 . Considering the time and expense involved in counseling, it would have doubtful value for a person like me. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 7. I would willingly confide intimate matters to an appropriate person if I thought it might help me or a member of my family. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 8 . I would rather live with certain mental conflicts than go through the ordeal of getting counseling. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9. Emotional difficulties, like many things, tend to work out by themselves. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 10. There are certain problems which should not be discussed outside of one’s immediate family. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 11. A person with serious emotional disturbance would probably feel most secure in a good mental hospital. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 12. If I believed I was having a mental breakdown, my first inclination would be to get professional attention. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 13. Keeping one’s mind on a job is a good solution for avoiding personal worries and concerns. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 14. Having been a counseling client is a blot on a person’s life. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 15.1 would rather be advised by a close friend than by a counselor, even for an emotional problem. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 16. A person with an emotional problem is not likely to solve it alone; he is likely to solve it with professional help. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 17. I resent a person—professionally trained or not—who wants to know about my personal difficulties. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 18.1 would want to get counseling if I was worried or upset for a long period of time. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19. The idea of talking about problems with a counselor strikes me as a poor way to get rid of emotional conflicts. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 20. Having been mentally ill carries with it a burden of shame. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 21. There are experiences in my life I would not discuss with anyone. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 22. It is probably best not to know everything about oneself. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 23. If I were experiencing a serious emotional crisis at this point in my life, I would be confident I could find relief in counseling. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 24. There is something admirable in the attitude of a person who is willing to cope with his conflicts and fears without resorting to professional help. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 25. At some future time I might want to have psychological counseling. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 26. A person should work out his own problems; getting psychological counseling would be the last resort. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 27. Had I received treatment in a mental hospital, I would not feel that it ought to be “covered up.” Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 28. If I thought I needed counseling, I would get it not matter who knew about it. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree 29. It is difficult to talk about personal affairs with highly educated people such as doctors, teachers, and clergymen. Agree Somewhat Agree Somewhat Disagree Disagree Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 Appendix E Participant Demographic Questionnaire Instructions: For this section please provide some personal information about yourself for the purposes of describing the sample used for this study. All information is strictly confidential. Thank you. 1. Sex Male Female 2. Age years 3. Marital status (circle one): a. Never Married b. First Marriage c. Remarried d. Separated e. Divorced f. Widowed g- Cohabiting h. Other 4. What is your racial/ethnic background? (circle all that apply) African American (Black) Caucasian (White) American Indian Hispanic/Latino Asian/Pacific Islander Other (specify)_______________ 5. What is your annual income? a. Under $10,000 b. $10,000-$20,000 c. $21,000430,000 d. $31,000440,000 e. $41,000450,000 f. $51,000460,000 g - $61,000470,000 h. $71,000480,000 i. $81,000490,000 j- $91,0004100,000 k. Over $100,000 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 6 . What is your highest level of education? Elementary High School Some College Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Doctorate 7. Are you currently employed full-time or part-time? a. Full-time b. Part-time 8 . Have you ever had any type of professional psychological counseling? a. Yes b. No 9. Are you familiar with the personal counseling resources available on your campus? a. Yes b. No 10. Have you ever utilized the personal counseling resources on your campus? a. Yes b. No Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 Appendix F Participant Packet Cover Letter Dear Participant: You are asked to participate in a research study being conducted by Jill Cortese, M.A. and supervised by Rodney K. Goodyear, Ph.D. from the Division of Counseling Psychology at the University of Southern California. The results of this study will contribute to the completion of a doctoral dissertation. Your participation is voluntary. We are asking you to take part in this study because we are trying to learn more about how adult men view themselves and what they think about counseling. Your name was randomly selected as a possible participant because you are a male 25-75 years old. To participate in the study: 1 . Complete the enclosed surveys and demographic questionnaire. They can be completed in approximately 15-20 minutes. 2. Place the surveys and the demographic questionnaire in the enclosed postage-paid envelope and return them. Please do not put your name or address anywhere on the surveys or on the outside of the large envelope. 3. Fill out your name and address on the postage-paid postcard and send it separately from the survey. All participants who return the postage-paid postcard are eligible to enter a drawing for a $500 money order. Completion of the surveys and demographic questionnaire is not required for drawing eligibility nor is any purchase of any kind needed to participate in the drawing. Post cards must be postmarked on or before 12/31/01 to be entered into the drawing. Only one entry per participant is permitted. The winning entry will be selected from all completed postage-paid cards received on or before 12/31/01 and will take place 1/15/02. The $500 money order will be awarded via first-class mail to the winner on 1/15/02. A description of the rules and procedures for the drawing is available and can be obtained by sending a request to Jill Cortese, P.O. Box 811308, Los Angeles, CA 90081. Completion and return of the surveys will constitute as consent to participate in this research project. Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity. The data will be kept in the researchers’ possession, locked, and will be destroyed after five years. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer questions you do not want to answer and remain in the study. The investigators may withdraw you from this research if circumstances warrant doing so. If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Dr. Rodney K. Goodyear at (213) 740-3267 or Jill R. Cortese, M.A. at (213) 623-7609. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you have any questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Bovard Administration Building, Room 200, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-4019, (213) 740-6709 or upirb@usc.edu. We appreciate your participation. Thank you, Jill R. Cortese, M.A. Student Investigator Rodney K.Goodyear, Ph.D. Principal Investigator Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Appendix G Drawing Rules and Procedures Men’s Attitudes Toward Counseling Principal Investigator: Dr. Rodney K. Goodyear Student Investigator: Jill R. Cortese, M.A. USC UPIRB #01-05-127 DRAWING RULES AND PROCEDURES 1. To enter drawing, participant must send in a postcard. 2. No purchase of any kind is required to participate in the study or to be eligible for the drawing. 3. Only one entry per participant will be entered into the drawing. 4. Completion of survey and/or demographic questionnaire is not required to participate in the drawing. 5. Entries must be postmarked on or before 12/31/01 to be included in the drawing. 6 . No purchase of any kind is required to participate in the drawing. 7. Replacement postcards will be provided to participants upon request. 8 . The winning entry will be randomly selected from all eligible entries. 9. One $500 money order will be awarded to the winner. 10. The drawing will take place 1/15/02 and the $500 money order will be mailed to the winner via first class mail on 1/15/02. 11. All participants have an equal opportunity to win the $500 money order. 12. Participation in the drawing is limited to the individuals to whom the original postcard was sent. Postcards for the drawing are non-transferable. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill Appendix H Participant Follow Up Letter Dear Participant, In the last several weeks, a packet was mailed to you with a short questionnaire, a return envelope, and a postcard to enter a drawing for a $500 cash prize. This letter serves as a quick reminder that there is still time to complete the questionnaire and to enter the drawing for the cash prize that will be held September 30, 2001. Each and every completed questionnaire contributes significantly to this study. The confidential data collected in this study will help us gain a better understanding of how men view counseling and what issues are important to them. We hope that you take a few minutes to complete the questionnaire and return it to us if you have not had the chance to do so already. If for some reason you did not receive the initial mailing or would like another packet, we would be happy to send you another one. Please feel free to contact Jill Cortese, M.A. at (213) 623-7609 or send an email to cortese@usc.edu and a packet will be sent to you immediately. Many thanks for your valued participation. We look forward to receiving your questionnaire. Sincerely, Jill R. Cortese, M.A. Student Investigator Rod Goodyear, Ph.D. Principal Investigator Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cortese, Jill Ridenhour (author)

Core Title Gender role conflict, personality, and help -seeking in adult men

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education - Counseling Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,psychology, personality

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Goodyear, Rodney (committee chair), Hoffman, Kaaren (committee member), Silverstein, Merril (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-360172

Unique identifier UC11339991

Identifier 3103877.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-360172 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3103877.pdf

Dmrecord 360172

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cortese, Jill Ridenhour

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA