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A study of the profile and leadership traits of vice presidents of instruction in the California community college system
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A study of the profile and leadership traits of vice presidents of instruction in the California community college system
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Content
A STUDY OF THE PROFILE AND LEADERSHIP TRAITS OF VICE
PRESIDENTS OF INSTRUCTION IN THE CALIFORNIA COMMUNITY
COLLEGE SYSTEM
by
Joumana McGowan
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2003
Copyright 2003 Joumana McGowan
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UMI Number: 3116753
Copyright 2003 by
McGowan, Joumana
All rights reserved.
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®
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University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation written by
UVy\ Q/uu3^ ^
under the discretion of h Dissertation Committee,
and approved by all members of the Committee, has
been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the
Rossier School of Education in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
D o cto r o f E d u cation
Date
Dean
Dissertation Committee .
C / j Chairpers(cji
4 Awvd/
As' lA
P ,
f-A -S
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1 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables iv
List of Figures v
Abstract vi
Chapter One
Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 5
Significance of the Study 5
Research Questions 7
Assumptions 7
Limitations 7
Delimitations 8
Definition of Terms 8
Organization of the Study 9
Chapter Two
Review of the Literature 10
Barriers to the Advancement of Women 23
Common Career Development Patterns and Leadership Styles 39
Leadership Traits 48
Chapter Three
Research Questions 53
Research Methodology 53
Research Design and Instrumentation 54
Chapter Four
Analysis of Data 57
Personal Characteristics 57
Professional Characteristics 59
Career Paths to the Instructional Vice President Office 61
Correlations Between Gender and their Responses 64
Management Traits of Vice Presidents of Instruction 65
Relationship o f Gender to Leadership Traits 66
Relationship of Ethnicity to Leadership Traits 67
Chapter Five
Conclusion and Discussion 69
Summary 75
Recommendations 76
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Ill
References 80
Appendixes
Appendix A: Email Message Sent to Vice Presidents 86
Appendix B: Questionnaire 87
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IV
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Distribution of Respondents Gender 57
Table 2: Distribution of Ethnicity 58
Table 3 : Distribution of Age 58
Table 4: Distribution of Marital Status 58
Table 5: Distribution of Highest Degree 59
Table 6: Distribution of VP’s Currently Enrolled in Schools 60
Table 7: Distribution of Disciplines of Highest Degree 60
Table 8: Distribution of Classroom Experience 60
Table 9: Distribution of Administrative Experience 61
Table 10: Distribution of Position Held Prior to Becoming VP 61
Table 11: Distribution of Locale of Prior Position 62
Table 12: Distribution of Number of Years at Prior Position 62
Table 13: Distribution of Position Held Twice Prior 62
Table 14: Distribution of Locale of Twice Prior Position 63
Table 15: Distribution of Number of Years at Twice Prior Position 63
Table 16: Distribution of Career Pathway 64
Table 17: Male and Female Leadership Traits 66
Table 18: Leadership Traits o f W hites and N on-W hites 67
Table 19: Traits of Instructional Vice President 67
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V
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Women as CEO’s of Higher Education 3
Figure 2: Increase in Women as Campus CEO’s 19
Figure 3: Increase in Women CEO’s in Top 500 Companies 20
Figure 4: Racial Diversity of Women CEO’s 21
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VI
ABSTRACT
The number of women in community college administration is increasing.
Women now comprise 21% of current academic deans and 39% of current vice-
presidents at community colleges according to the American Association of
Community Colleges (AACC, 2001). According to Vaughan (1999), the single most
important source from which new community college leaders can be selected is the
pool of deans and vice-presidents. It seems likely that the number of women
presidents may continue to increase as more rise from these ranks. From a survey of
58 female community college presidents, Vaughan reports that key role models and
mentors are major influences for women seeking leadership positions in the
community college system. The purpose of this study was three-fold. First, to gather
personal and professional data concerning the career experiences of Instructional
Vice-Presidents in California’s 108 public comprehensive community colleges.
Second, data was used to identify significant career path predictors, leadership traits
and attributes that would facilitate the advancement of women in administration at
community colleges. Third, the researcher determined if a significant gender gap
existed in the Vice President of Instruction position in California’s community
colleges.
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CHAPTER ONE
THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
Introduction
Women currently hold 16 percent of the chief executive officer positions
(CEO) at both the university and college levels in the United States (Getskow, 1996).
This represents a sizable increase over the last two decades; in 1975, women held
only 5 percent of CEO positions (Getskow, 1996). At community colleges, the data
are less clear, but it would appear that women have gained slightly more ground,
now comprising approximately 20 percent of the CEO's at all two-year accredited
institutions (American Council on Education, 1995).
According to Vaughan (1989), the single most important source from which
new community college presidential candidates can be selected is the pool of deans
and vice-presidents. As more women join the ranks of community college leaders,
their power base for creating change will grow. Women community college leaders
are in a position to contribute fresh perspectives on leadership within their
institutions and in society as a whole. DiCroce (1995) and Vaughan (1989) suggests
ways in which women leaders can influence the culture of the community college
and improve future opportunities for women:
1. Encourage elimination of institutional gender stereotypes: As more
women become community college administrators, their presence will
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2
help eliminate gender barriers and "double standards" that may
exist at their institutions.
2. Redefine power and the power structure of the institution: Women leaders
are well positioned to model and create a power structure built less on
hierarchy and more on relations, with a free exchange of information and
an open environment for collegial debate and discussion.
3. Enact gender-related policies and procedures: Women community college
administrators are uniquely situated to promote diversity and enforce
strong policies on sexual assault and harassment.
4. Take a proactive stance on public policy and debate beyond the local
campus: The community college administrator has an opportunity to
mingle and network with a varied population of peers, researchers,
legislators, and professional associations and continue advocacy efforts
for women in the regional, state, and national arenas.
Background of the Problem
When Title VII of the Educational Amendments of Public Law 92-318 was
passed by Congress in 1972, women applauded it as a definitive step toward
removing sexual discrimination in all federal assistance programs and activities. The
passing o f the Equal Educational Opportunity Act, in 1974, amended the law to
further its coverage to employees in educational institutions. These pieces of
legislation became milestones in the growing movement for women's rights in
education and the workplace (Random and Strasburg, 1982). As the decade of the
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3
seventies ushered in growing awareness and sensitivity to issues affecting
women, this legislation gave women the hope for equal treatment and opportunity
under the law. Progress was made and women began entering fields which had
historically been closed to them; women were enjoying greater choice in determining
the directions their lives would take; women were having greater control of their
minds and their lifestyles. But, as the decade began to wane and the political climate
began to shift toward the right, “the political activism which had spurred the feminist
movement quieted into a false complacency” (Hackney, 1998).
Moreover, societal constructions of perceived gender differences have biased
the treatment of women in the educational setting. At the time when our nation's
educational system needs people of high ability and high motivation, it continues to
minimize the contributions of women and advances disproportionately small
numbers of women to administrative positions. Though promoting and hiring
practices of women in school administration have gradually loosened so that more
women hold positions at higher levels of power and decision-making, the field
remains predominately male (Hackney, 1998).
Figure 1- Women as CEOs of Higher Education Schools/Campuses, 1995
___________________ Source: American Council on Education, 1995_____________
Type of School Total Number of Women CEOs % of Total
Independent 1442 237 16%
4-year 1299 199 15
2-year 143 38 27
Public 1461 216 15%
4-year 556 78 14
2-year 905 138 15
TOTAL 2903 453 16%
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4
Many have sought to explain why so few women are represented in
the higher levels of school administration (figure 1). The organizational culture
profoundly affects the individual's sense of self and in turn the individual affects the
nature of an organization’s culture. Yet, changing the status quo, altering attitudes,
and shaping the behaviors of individuals present obstacles which may at times be
insurmountable. Because the present cultural reality reinforces the notion that
acknowledging and accepting the voices and values of others represent the loss and
surrender of power, for change to be realized, organizations of the future must be
forged in an alternative paradigm. Dr. Miller in her article titled, "Voices of Women
in Educational Administration," states that for women to stand on equal professional
footing with males in educational administration, alternative voices, experiences,
backgrounds and histories must be acknowledged by both women and men as valid.
She believes that every individual must be considered valuable to a community
college no matter what (1998). Her 1998 study found that for all people, self
confirmation and a supportive community are requisites for growth and development
that result in success and professional progress.
The number of women in higher education administration has increased over
the years but quite slowly. Of all levels of higher education in the United States, it is
the community colleges, which are now entering their fifth generation, that have the
greatest reputation for representing women in faculty and administrative positions.
However, their representation as senior administrators in the business world in
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5
general and in higher education in particular is not parallel to the available
talent pool (Gillet-Karam, Roueche & Roueche, 1991; Warner & DeFIeur, 1993).
Presidents and vice-presidents in community colleges who began in the
1960s and 1970s are now approaching retirement and leaving unanswered who the
new leaders will be. While not all women are interested in senior leadership, some
are. Hence, as women obtain administrative roles, whether it be dean, chairperson,
director or vice-president, it becomes important to study what helps administrators
move up the ladder.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is three-fold. First, to gather personal and
professional data concerning the career experiences of Vice Presidents of Instruction
in California’s public comprehensive community colleges. Second, to use this data to
identify significant career path predictors, leadership traits and attributes that
facilitate the advancement of women in administration at community colleges.
Third, to determine if a significant gender gap exists in the Vice President of
Instruction position in California’s community colleges.
Significance of the Study
This study is significant in several ways. First, the study reports the progress
which women have made in filling greater numbers of top level administrative
positions in the California community colleges. Progress has been made over the last
twenty plus years, but it has occurred very slowly and very minimally. The
community colleges have shown greater progress than other four-year universities
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6
and colleges in the representation of women in administrative positions.
More than 50 percent of its students are women, close to half of its faculty are
women, and over 10 percent of community college presidents are female
(Wolverton, 2000). Factors contributing to this increase in women faculty and
administrators must be examined for community colleges to maintain this pattern and
be perceived as role models for other higher educational institutions.
Second, this study provides data with which future studies can compare their
findings to determine if the representation of women in higher education, and more
specifically California community college administration, has changed over the years
and to what degree by identifying the numbers and levels of administrative positions
women currently hold.
Third, demographic information reported may be of help to women aspiring
to administrative positions. Understanding the paths, the support, the leadership traits
and education of current women administrators specifically (vice-presidents) may be
helpful to women in identifying their career goals and aspiring to move into
administration.
Forth, by examining the career experiences of women in community colleges
and by identifying significant career path predictors to facilitate the advancement of
women in administration, educational programs can be developed for student leaders
who wish to enter the field of administrative leadership or educational
administration. Thus providing students with a clearer understanding of what is
expected of them.
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Research Questions
This study addresses the following research questions:
1- What leadership traits contribute to the success of Instructional Vice
Presidents in community colleges?
2- How do the paths of women and men to the Instructional Vice President
position differ?
Assumptions
For this study, the following assumptions are made:
1. The measures are reliable and valid indicators of the constructs to be studied.
2. The data will be accurately recorded and analyzed.
3. The subjects will respond to the best of their ability.
4. The purposes, processes, and elements of the framework studied have a degree of
applicability and generalizability to schools and districts throughout the country.
5. The research, data gathering, and findings and conclusions of the study represent
“good research.”
Limitations
There are a variety of limitations to this study:
1. This study is limited to subjects who agreed to participate voluntarily.
2. It is limited to the number of subjects surveyed and the amount of time available
to conduct this study.
3. Validity of this study is limited to the reliability of the instruments used.
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4. This study is based on the perceptions of administrators in the top
management level (Vice-President of Instruction) at 108 California community
colleges.
Delimitations
A delimitation of this study is that only top administrator's (Vice Presidents
of Instruction) in 108 California community colleges are included.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms and phrases were used as
defined:
Administrative position: Any management position in the hierarchy of the
California community college structure.
Community College: A public California college offering the first two years
of college after high school. The second two years can be completed at a four-year
college or university.
Vice President of Instruction: The senior administrative officer responsible
for the direction of the academic program of the institution. He/she usually reports
directly to the president and depending on the size of the college and its structure,
may be called a variety of titles such as Vice President of Instruction or Vice
President of Academic Programs.
Higher Education: Formal education after high school in universities, and
two-year colleges.
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Leadership: Social influence process of inspiring and guiding others
in a common effort.
Leadership Trait: is the view of leadership that sees the personal
characteristics of an individual as the main determinants of how successful that
individual could be as a leader.
Mentor: someone who develops another person through tutoring, coaching,
and guidance.
Networking: the developing of contacts or exchanging of information with
others in an informal network, as to further a career.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One of the study presents the introduction, the statement of the
problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the significance of
the study, the definitions of terms, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and
the organization of the study.
Chapter Two is a review of recent literature and chapter three presents the
methodology used in the study, including a description and rationale of the sample,
the data collection procedures, a description of instrument development and the
methods of analysis of the data.
Chapter Four contains the findings based on the data gathered from the
study's research survey. Chapter five is a summary of the first four chapters and
contains conclusions and recommendations based on the study's findings.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The movement of women into top administrative positions in higher
education has been a very slow and tedious infiltration of its hierarchical structure,
and women in administration still continue to be under-representative of the higher
education student population. Morgan (1993) reported that Mary Dilworth, the senior
director for research at the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education,
stated in regards to the issue of student constituencies, "because higher education
needs to reflect this constituency well, colleges and universities need to have more
women and minorities at the helm as well as in the ranks." Margaret Holt in 1991
predicted that "women will gradually infiltrate the management of colleges and
universities, but transitions will be subtle, not revolutionary" (21). In 1989 Sheila
Kaplan and Adriena Tinsley expressed concern over the past twenty years that:
A great deal has been said about the need to increase the number of women in
leadership positions in the administration of America's colleges and
universities. In the opinion of some, women are making major, positive
strides in the profession. We are however, skeptical about the rate of change
and about the depth of current commitment to change (24).
This chapter will include a review of literature dealing with the history and
present status of women in higher education administration generally and, more
specifically, community college administration; the barriers which have prevented
the movement of women into the top level positions in higher education
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administration; and the paths that enable women to take their rightful place
in top level administrative positions in higher education.
Literature Review
The History and Present Status of Women in Higher Education
Before the 1970's, nearly all American college and university administrative
positions in the United States were held by men (Painter, 1971). The few
administrative positions that were held by women were usually at the bottom of the
administrative hierarchical ladder (Haring-Hidore, 1988). The Carnegie Commission
(1973) found that "if women are thinly represented on faculties, especially in
traditionally male fields, they are so rarely represented in top academic
administrative positions as to be practically nonexistent" (12-13). linger,
Eberspacher and Grovalynn Sister (1988) summarized the situation of women in
administration as follows:
Education is a field in which large numbers of women occupy professional
positions, but relatively few can be found in administration. Although federal
legislation and affirmative action programs have provided incentives for
institutions of higher education to hire women administrators, the number of
female educational executives remains negligible (27-28).
No study regarding the history and present status of women in higher
education would be complete without including the following issues:
1) Legislation
2) Progress of women in higher education
3) Women in education versus women in business
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1) Legislation: The equal protection clause of the United States
Constitution's Fourteenth Amendment is the major source of colleges' and
universities' obligation to eliminate discrimination against employees and applicants
for employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, veteran
status, or handicap. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 established guidelines for
implementation of Affirmative Action in educational institutions. It prohibits
discrimination on the bases of race, color, religion, or national origin in public
education, but not discrimination on the basis of sex.
It was not until the passage of the Equal Employment Act of 1972 that Title
VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was amended to prohibit discrimination on the
basis of gender. Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 gave federal status
to the obligations of colleges and universities to abstain from gender discrimination
against employees or employment applicants. A critical component in the guidelines
is the differentiation between non-discrimination and affirmative action. Non
discrimination is defined as "the elimination of all existing discriminatory
conditions, whether purposeful or inadvertent, on the basis of race, color, religion,
national origin or sex " (Lester, 1974). Affirmative action goes beyond this by
requiring guarantees of "employment neutrality through deliberate and positive
efforts on the part of institutions to rectify existing inequities that have resulted from
past discrimination" (Lester 1974). Other supporting legislation has passed since
1972, such as the guidelines concerning sexual harassment by the Equal
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Employment Opportunity Commission and the passage of the Pregnancy
Discrimination Act in 1978.
21 Progress: Even though legislation was passed, there has still been a lack of
progress for women. In 1984 Etaugh and Alpert (1989) recognized that women
faculty advance more slowly through the academic ranks than men, and they are
clustered in the bottom ranks. Over a thirteen year period from 1972 to 1985, the
proportion of women full-time faculty members increased from 22.3 percent to 27.1
percent (Etaugh, 1984), yet this is a lower percentage of full-time women faculty
members than the 29 percent reported in 1929.
Dona Alpert (1989) noted changes in percentages of men and women faculty
members in a study for the American Association of University Personnel at
Category I institutions. What she found was the following:
The number of female full professors has increased by 78 percent from the
1975 level; female associate professors increased by 95 percent and female
assistant professors by 22 percent. Male full professors continue to be the
largest faculty group; 38 percent of total faculty in 1987 as compared to 33
percent in 1975. Female full professors represented 3 percent of the total
faculty in 1987; they were 2 percent in 1975. In 1987, across all ranks at the
109 institutions, faculty were 79.6 percent men and 20.4 percent women (12).
Desole and Butler (1990) reported in 1989 that women faculty were still
underrepresented in colleges and universities but numbers had increased to 26.4
percent. Alpert (1989) noted that with the current rate of increase of women into
faculty positions, equal representation in the academic administrative ranks will take
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another ninety years. In the year 2149, women will have achieved 50
percent of the full professorships in higher education but only if current progress
continues.
Women faculty are not equally represented in all disciplines or in all
institutions of higher education. Women are congregated in the areas of English,
foreign languages, nursing, home economics, fine arts, and library science
(Lafontaine, 1988). There has been an increase in women being represented in
science and engineering from 14.7 percent in 1974 to 32.1 percent in 1994 due to a
strong national interest in increasing the numbers of women in these areas, but these
gains have occurred in the lower ranks of instruction (Moore and Johnson, 1995).
A far greater percentage of women faculty in higher education are located in
the nation's community colleges (Lommis and Wild, 1978; Taylor, 1989; Faulwell
and Gorden, 1985). Community colleges have 37.6 percent more women than the
four-year colleges. In 1975-76, 33.5 percent of faculty positions were held by women
in two-year public colleges and 41.5 percent in private two-year colleges (Brigham,
1978).
Most studies concur that few women are holding administrative positions,
high-level ones in particular, but progress has been made in the last ten years
(Etaugh, 1984). Claire Etaugh studied the changes in the status of women deans,
administrators and counselors since 1972 at 25 colleges. She noted in her study that
between 1972 and 1983 there was a slight increase (6 percent) of women
administrators in the 25 colleges she was studying. Shavlik and Touchton (1984)
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reported that in 1975, 95 percent of all college and university presidents in
the United States were men, leaving only 5 percent of presidencies held by women.
Two-thirds of these women presidents were members of religious orders and of the
remainder, one third, were presidents of women's colleges. The numbers of senior
women administrators increased from 1975-76 to 1983-84 by 90 percent. Jacqueline
Kane, an associate in higher education with the University of New York State
Education Department, studied the conventional wisdom of women administrators to
learn how they got there (Kane, 1998). In her study she surveyed 220 women
administrators and 20 women presidents, she found that becoming a college
president is more about having appropriate experience than any particular job.
A woman may hold almost any position in higher education and become a
college president. More than half moved up from academic administration:
chief or associate chief of academic officer, school dean or assistant or
associate dean, or dean of instruction. Others were directors, faculty, vice-
presidents, business officers, development or public relations officers, deans
of students or other professionals (Kane, 1998,p. 8)
Dingerson, Rodman and Wade (1980) conducted research to determine if
there has been a change in hiring practices for candidates in academic administration
since the 1972 Higher Education Guidelines were published by looking at
administrative positions advertised in The Chronicle of Higher Education from 1972
to 1976. They reported that changes in recruitment had taken place but it appeared
that there were no changes in hiring. The data did indicate a gain in positions of over
100 percent for white females, from twenty (5 percent) to forty-one (10 percent)
having been hired. Hemming (1982) reported:
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Over the last ten years, the decade of affirmative action and the
latter half of the current women's movement, there have been substantial
increases realized in the numbers and percentages of women both entering
and attaining higher-level positions in school management (3).
In a five year time period between 1975 and 1980, there was a 38 percent
increase of women as Chief Executive Officers in American colleges and
universities. There was more growth at the four-year public colleges, 180 percent,
and a tripling in the numbers at two-year public colleges (Hemming, 1982). This
increase could be because there are more women represented in faculty and
administrative positions to choose from for leadership positions.
The percentage of women in dean-level positions for the ten years between
1972 and 1982 showed little change (Etaugh, 1984). Looking at eighteen hundred
institutions, women deans comprised only 13 .7 percent of the dean positions, and 60
percent of these were deans of nursing and home economics (Astin, 1977). No
women held dean's positions in dentistry, engineering, medicine, business, or
pharmacy, but two women did hold dean positions in law. This situation had not
changed by 1981, when Moore (1983) reported an increase of women deans to 13 .8
percent with more than half of these deanships in nursing, home economics, arts and
sciences, and continuing education. Etaugh (1984) concluded that:
Half of women administrators in white co-educational institutions were
concentrated in ten positions: nursing dean, library director, bookstore
manager, registrar, health service director, financial aid director, affirmative
action director, student counseling director, information office director, and
chief public relations officer (24).
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Historically, the pyramidal structure of higher education
administration shows women to be clustered at the bottom. Women are more likely
to be assistants or associates than directors, deans and vice-presidents. The three
positions most often held by women are registrar, librarian, and director of financial
aid (Tinsley, 1985; Kaplan and Tinsley, 1989). Kaplan and Tinsley point out that:
Research also shows that most women administrators do "women's work" in
higher education administration. Women hold positions in continuing
education programs that focus on women or re-entry women. Women run
programs that deal with women or minorities as a special constituency, such
as women's studies programs, women's resource centers, development skills
centers, and special advising centers. Women serve as deans of professional
programs in which students are primarily women, such as nursing, home
economics and social work. They rarely serve as deans of business,
engineering or technology (24).
In the 80's, according to Shavlik and Touchton (1984), the national average
of women in top university administrative positions was 1.1 percent. Women
represented about 10 percent of the chief executive officers of about three thousand
higher education institutions in the United States in 1989. This percentage included
women serving as presidents of women's colleges and church-related institutions. If
the focus is placed on the 450 publicly supported institutions who are members of
the Association of State Colleges and Universities, there were only twenty-six
women, representing 6 percent of the chief executive officers. That number,
however, has doubled in the last ten years.
By 1990, the number of women serving as chief executive officers of
American Higher Education institutions had increased to 350 women presidents, or a
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total of 11 percent. The number and percentages of women college
presidents has doubled in the last fifteen years (Blum, 1990). Courtney Leatherman
(1992) has reported that:
About 360 women now serve as chief executive officers of the nation's 3,323
regionally-accredited colleges and universities. As of July, 212 of these
women were at two-year colleges. According to the ACE's office on women,
women represent 12 percent of presidents up from 11 percent in 1989 and 5
percent in 1975. Of the 328 women who were presidents in 1989, 195 served
at four-year institutions and 133 at two-year colleges. Twenty-three percent
were members of religious orders and 13 percent were members of minority
groups.
In 1991, 39 women had been appointed presidents, up from 30 in 1990. Of
those, 11 are at four-year public institutions, 11 at four-year private institutions, 16 at
public two-year colleges, and one at a two-year private college (A20).
In the early 1990's, women still did not head the most prestigious institutions.
Only three institutions in the Association of American Universities, a select research
organization composed of fifty-six universities, were headed by women. It wasn't
until December 1993, that the first woman was appointed to the presidency of an Ivy
League university, the University of Pennsylvania. A special report in Black Issues
in Higher Education. October 21, 1993, entitled "Women CEO's at American
Colleges and Universities" identified all the women CEO's presently in higher
education in the United Sates. The article noted an increase in the number of women
CEO's from 350 in 1991 to 357 in 1993, again showing a slow and steady increase.
In 1993, there were twenty-six women serving as college presidents, sixty-
eight women vice-presidents, and 114 women deans serving in the three top levels of
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19
management for a total of 208 women (Miller, 1994). The report, The
American College President. 2000 Edition, notes that since 1986, the percentage of
women college presidents has doubled — from 9.5 percent to 19.5 percent— while the
percentage of minority presidents increased from 8 percent to 11 percent during the
same time period.
In the late 1990's women held nearly 16 percent of presidencies at 453
colleges and universities in the United States. (See figure 2) This represents a sizable
increase over the last two decades; in 1975, women held only 5% of CEO positions.
At community colleges, the data are less clear, but it would appear that women have
gained slightly more ground, now comprising approximately 20 percent of all CEO's
of two-year accredited institutions (American Council on Education, 1999).
According to Vaughan (1989) the single most important source from which new
community college presidential candidates can be selected is the pool of deans of
instruction. A key aspect leading to the shift in the scholarship on academic women
is the fact that they make up an increasing proportion of faculty and administrators,
especially in the community college sector. The community college Chief Executive
Officer (CEO) position in Figure 2 clearly indicates this increased representation.
Figure 2- Increase in Women as Campus CEO's, 1975-1995
____________________Source: American Council on Education, 1995__________
Type of School 1975 1984 1992 1995
Private 132 182 184 237
4-year 98 134 154 199
2-year 34 48 30 38
Public 16 104 164 216
4-year 5 32 58 78
2-year 11 72 106 138
Total 148 286 348 453
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2 0
Figure 2- continued
Number of Schools 2,500 2,800 3,000 2,903
% w/women CEO's 5% 10% 12% 16%
3) Women in Education versus Women in Business: If we were to compare
women leaders at community colleges with women leaders in the business world we
could see that women administrators fare better. While women have not been making
headway toward the comer office, they are making baby-step gains in senior
management in the business world. Catalyst, a not-for-profit New York based
women’s research organization, released a report on November 11 of 2001 stating
that in its census, initiated four years ago, of women in power, 11.9% of corporate
officers of the top 500 companies they assessed are women (Conlin, 2001). Of those
women, only 27.5 % are in line jobs — positions that have responsibility for profit or
loss. This at a time when women make up half the labor force as well as middle
management. The rest of the female corporate officers are in staff roles such as
human resources and public relations. Dan R. Dalton, dean of Indiana University's
Kelley School of Business, and his wife, Professor Catherine M. Daily, found that of
the 1,250 CEO's and Vice Presidents of the Top 500 biggest companies in the United
States, only 15 women were CEO's.
Figure 3-Increase in Women CEO's in Top 500 Companies 1985-2001
Source: Catalyst Research Company, 2001
1985 1988 2001
% women CEO's 6.3% 8.7% 12%
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21
A new survey of college presidents released by the American
Council on Education (ACE) in September, 2000, shows that the growth in the share
of presidents who are minorities has been slow. The report is based on surveys of
chief executives of regionally accredited colleges who were in office in 1998, and is
the fourth in a series of reports beginning in 1986 on the backgrounds and career
goals of college presidents in the United States.
Figure 4- Racial Diversity of Women CEO's, 2000
Source: American Council on Education, 2000
Race Number of Women CEO's % of Women CEO's
African American 39 9%
American Indian 7 2%
Asian American 2 <01
Hispanic 24 5%
White 381 84%
Total 453 100%
Although women now hold a greater percentage of the top positions at
colleges and universities than ever before, minorities continue to be underrepresented
in comparison to their numbers among faculty and staff according to the American
Council on Education (ACE) 2000 report. While they accounted for just over 10
percent of college presidents in 1995, minorities accounted for 14 percent of faculty
and senior staff that same year. In 1998, 6 percent of all presidents were African-
American, representing more than half of all minority presidents. Another 3 percent
were Hispanic, and 1 percent each were Asian American and Native American.
Since 21 percent of current academic deans are women, it seems likely that
the number of women presidents and vice-presidents may continue to increase as
more rise from these ranks (Miller, 2000, p.9). Townsend (1995) contends that
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2 2
women fare better in community colleges than in four-year colleges and
universities due primarily to their larger numbers overall and to the presence of
female role models serving in positions of leadership, from department chairs to
presidents. A recent look at college presidencies by the American Council on
Education (ACE) revealed that the number of women holding college presidencies
has greatly increased during the last two decades (ACE, 2000). Community colleges
follow the pattern of increasing the number of women presidents as evidenced by the
1986 statistic of 5.8 percent of campuses having a woman in the senior
administrative leadership position, which only two years later rose to 22.1 percent
(ACE, 2000). Although women now hold a greater percentage of the top positions at
community colleges than ever before, women still remain underrepresented in
comparison to their share of all faculty and senior staff positions at U.S. colleges and
universities.
A recent study that was done by McKenney and Cejda (2000) allowed for the
development of a profile of the women Chief Academic Officers. With a 59%
response rate, the researchers found that the mean age of 142 female respondents
was 52 years old. The racial distribution of the women CEO's was predominantly
white. The Ph.D. represented the highest credential obtained by the greatest number
of CEO's (41.4%) followed by the Ed.D. (34.9%). The remaining portion of the
CEO's completed a Master's degree (20 %) or a professional or other type of degree
(less than 1%). The study also supports the notion of flexibility in the community
colleges as it allows academic administrative careers to begin without requiring an
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23
initial faculty position. Hence, this illustrates the concept that an individual
does not need to have a faculty position prior to moving into administration.
Barriers to the Advancement of Women
Studies have suggested several reasons why more women are not in college
administration or more specifically in higher education administration and refer to
these reasons as barriers (Matranga, 1990). These barriers have been recognized by
many researchers, and include the following:
a) Personal and social roles (Helson 1972, Niedermayer and Kramer 1974,
Pierce 1984 and Adkin, 1986).
b) Personal and family constraints (Krchniak, 1978, Trask 1976, Pierce
1984)
c) Discriminatory patterns of training, hiring and promotion (Blanchard
1976, Carnegie Commission 1983, Pierce 1984 and Poling, 1991).
a) Personal and Social Roles Barriers: Many researchers have concluded that
women are limited by the expectations society places on them, the guidance of their
parents, and their own expectations of themselves (Whitaker and Lane, 1990). This
social conditioning begins in childhood and continues throughout men's and women's
careers and is referred to as social stereotyping (Jones, 1989). Actually, Adkisson
(1986) believes that it begins in infancy because the family nucleus is a primary
socializing agent teaching the appropriate behaviors for one's sex. Schools are
another primary and powerful agent using student-teacher interactions, textbook
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content, counseling and the placement of students into courses and school
activities "appropriate" to their sex.
Fear has much to do with the decision women make. Men as well as women
have fear about where ambition, achievement, and accomplishment can lead but
men, unlike women, are socialized that it is acceptable and appropriate to be
ambitious, competitive, and to achieve, and are challenged to face these fears.
Without support and encouragement for women to be ambitious, competitive, and to
achieve, it is very difficult for them and results in instances where capable women
choose out of fear not to develop their talents, abilities, and interests (Schlesinger,
1999). Dr. Schlesinger, a psychologist, studied 45 women for 5 years and determined
that 38 women out of the 45 she was studying decided to choose roles that are
accepted by society, such as home responsibilities and commitment to others. She
concluded that by accepting women's work and not embracing male specialties,
women are creating the situation of self-exclusion which will "keep women from
achieving full equality in the realm of work, and that keeps them underperforming
and under-represented" (Schlesinger, 1999).
Social stereotyping extends into identification of leadership characteristics or
traits. Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found that characteristics of people in leadership
positions were identical to characteristics of the male social stereotype. There
characteristics were appropriate with the authoritarian pyramidal power structure
found in business and education (Wheatley, 1978). The identification of leadership
characteristics as identical to male social stereotyping justified the absence of women
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in leadership positions because the identified female characteristics are not
those associated with people in leadership positions; therefore, women were believed
not to be skilled enough to be in leadership positions.
One can read Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership (1974) and find scarcely any
reference to women leaders, except as a subject deserving further research. By 1995
women made up about 63 percent of the total workforce. Currently, only 3 of every
100 top jobs in the largest U.S. companies are held by women. In an often cited
survey by Judy B. Rosener, female leaders were found to be better at sharing power
and information than were their male counterparts. Critics have chided Rosener for
reinforcing this traditional feminine stereotype. Actually, a comprehensive review of
102 different studies implemented by Price Waterhouse Consulting Firm, found no
significant difference in leadership styles exhibited by women and men. Dr. Phillip
Campbell (1999) an Organizational Behavior researcher, surveyed 2,750 business
managers and came to the following conclusion:
People with traits associated with leadership — such as intelligence,
confidence, and sociability— are more likely to be perceived as leaders and
encouraged to pursue careers where they can exert leadership. This is true
regardless of gender.
A communication barrier also exists between men and women due to their
different styles of communication (Tingley, 1994). "Men tend to talk longer and
louder and interrupt more frequently. Women tend to use qualifying phrases such as
'perhaps we should' or 'why don't we consider,' instead of communicating in an
authoritarian manner." (Faulconer, 1993). Women use words which imply indecision
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and hesitancy, which makes women appear ineffective where in fact they
are just different. Other differences that Faulconer reports are "women use more
expressive language, they are more polite and cheerful, they listen and remember
facts, they use more qualifiers, and if they tell jokes they are usually personal jokes,
not jokes at other's expense."
There is evidence in research which recognizes that sex-role socialization and
stereotyping immensely decreases the likelihood that women will actively aspire to
and pursue administrative careers. In addition to women's reluctance to pursue
administrative positions and careers, organizations are not keenly receptive to
women who do (Adkison, 1996), although there seem to be some exceptions to this.
Women have reported that younger organizations and younger leaders appear to be
more supportive of women pursuing administrative positions and careers (Patton,
1990). The fact remains, however, that socialization and sex-role stereotyping are
very real barriers to women.
Women perpetuate the sex-role stereotypes by viewing themselves as less
competent than men. This effectively self-limits their careers. Teaching is an
acceptable role for women in society (Matranga, 1990) — "in fact it has been one of
the few alternatives available to women who choose to pursue a career." As
Whitaker and Lane (1990) state:
Women who teach follow the stereotyped role of nurturing and supporting
others by imparting knowledge to them. Conversely, men as administrators
use such masculine traits as dominance, aggression, leadership and
autonomy. The educational system is structured as a traditional home; men
manage the schools and women nurture the learners.
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Administration is also not an acceptable role for women, Matranga
(1990) feels that "women, socialized to internalize traits perceived to be
incompatible with leadership roles, may provide the most critical barrier to other
women who might aspire to positions in education administration." Benton (1994)
conducted a study of women top-level administrators in public community colleges
in the United States. In their responses to a questionnaire they overwhelmingly cited:
Traditional cultural conditioning of men and women to conform to sex-role
stereotypes as the primary reason so few women hold administrative
positions in public community colleges (19).
According to the respondents, the perpetuation of sex-role stereotyping in American
society has resulted in many women not viewing themselves as potential
administrators and men not acknowledging the professional capabilities of women.
bf Personal and Family Constraints Barriers: To progress into
administration, women must also resolve conflicts of family responsibilities versus
career aspirations and perceived characteristics of leadership before their goals can
be obtained (Tibbetts, 1979). Not only do the social expectations of women affect
what job or jobs they may choose outside the home, but also whether they should be
at home caring for their children and home. Even if they are working outside the
home, social expectations and women's reality still dictate that the family and home
are her primary responsibilities. Women who are interested in both an administrative
career and a family find that only a few can handle it all, and it becomes double duty
(Patton, 1990). A great deal of effort and coordination on the part of a woman is
needed to juggle the demands of children, husband, housework and career.
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Compounding the situation is the problem of mobility. Senior
administrators must be prepared to move themselves and their families if they wish
to advance professionally. For the most part, women still have to choose between
family and career in a way that men do not (Kaplan, 1989). The woman
administrator must be able to break away from the popular public image of the
mothering, nurturing woman whose duty is to stay home and tend the family or be
riddled with guilt (Patton, 1990). Most women in administration have resolved this
conflict by remaining single, or if married, having fewer children (Hemming, 1992).
Schmuck (1986) and Matranga (1990) report that most women, even those
possessing administrative credentials, apply for fewer administrative positions than
men. Women, even if qualified for a position, become immediately concerned if they
do not have the experience or lack the appropriate education. Jennifer Matranga
surveyed 256 faculty members in 1990 (89% white, 11% women of color) and
discovered from her study population that 69 percent of these women would
probably apply for a position if invited to do so. Women need encouragement and as
late as 1996 women felt that due to the small numbers of women in higher education
administration, they experienced a negative work climate and professional isolation
(Hall, 1996). "Despite networking groups and various forms of recognition, it may
be that women continue to remain somewhat isolated from receiving professional
encouragement" (Matranga, 1990).
The lack of formal and informal networking is also seen as a barrier for
women, hindering them from entering and advancing in administrative positions.
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Kanter (1990) recognized networking as an effective substitution for the
lack of women mentors in higher education. Networking is seen as far more effective
for women and not nearly as risky as the grooming model commonly utilized by men
(Millar, 1996). The origin of the term networking may have been coined by women
in the women's movement. Schmuck (1996) can not find a formal definition, but she
states that:
Women professionals in both the public and private sectors have long
recognized a ladder of career advancement that has worked to the advantage
of men and to the disadvantage of women. The Buddy System, the Old Boy's
Network or the Old Boy's Club are constructs and catch words that don't
require elucidation.
There are differences between women's networking and men's. It is said that
there are three characteristics of men's: "it is unconscious, it is informal, and it is
private" (Schmuck, 1986). Women's networking has none of these characteristics:
"Women have consciously duplicated an unconscious process, formally constructed
an informal association, and publicly operated a private system" (Schmuck, 1986).
Women have come to realize that they do need each other. Networking not only
assists in career advancement, but also it can be a boom to the female psyche. If a
network is effective, it will provide its members access to power and resources,
building a road to the center of control (Green, 1992).
Work by scholars such as Bensimon (1989,1995), Ferguson (1984), Iannello
(1992) and Smircich (1985) suggests that a fundamental problem women face in
many work settings is that the organization, at its most basic level, is male centered.
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A reality that women must take into consideration is that they do not and
can not network only with women. Men are still in power positions in most
institutions of higher education and often determine who will hold administrative
positions. They are important in networking for "they have the experience and status
and they can give sound advice" (Schmuck, 1986). Holt (1991) suggests that
membership in a network is imperative and if there is no "good new women's"
network, women should start one. "Networks give people access to significant
information and to opportunities for career advancement. Loners typically do not
advance in academe" (Holt, 1991).
cl Discriminatory Patterns of Training. Hiring and Promotion Barriers.
When looking at discriminatory patterns in training for administrative positions, both
formal and informal approaches must be reviewed. Formal training is the specific
training towards the earning of a degree and/or a credential in a formal educational
setting, while informal training is on-the-job training and/or such things as
mentoring, serving in organizations, and serving on organizational or other campus-
based committees.
"In 1900, women earned 19 percent of the master's degrees and 6 percent of
the doctorates, 40 percent of the master's in 1930 and 15 percent of the doctorates
and 34 percent of the master's and a drop to 12 percent of doctorates in 1966"
(Painter, 1971). This picture had changed by the 1990's when Desole and Butler
(1995) reported that more than half of all undergraduate and graduate students were
women, and more women than men were earning graduate and professional degrees.
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Almost all presidents of institutions of higher education now hold
doctorate degrees, and many two-year college administrators earned their degrees
after they began their administrative careers (Twomly, 1990).
Benton in 1990 recognized that top-level women cite the lack of
administrative educational preparation as a very important reason for the low
numbers of women in administration, but they feel it is the result of society's sex-role
stereotyping that has resulted in women not seeking out administrative opportunities
and men not offering these opportunities to women. Tinsely and Kaplan (1994)
emphasized the need for women wanting to move into and advance in higher
education administrative positions to obtain formal training in stating:
Education credentials are very important. The doctoral degree remains
extremely important for advancement in higher education administration yet
less than a third of all women administrators hold it, compared with than half
of the male administrators. Women seeking top positions must realize that 80
percent of all presidents and provosts hold the doctorate and that 90 percent
of the women in such positions have it.
Another barrier for women in the area of formal training for administrative
positions has been identified by several researchers as a lack of female role models
in training institutions and in the field. Students felt that the most important part of
their graduate experience— and the most disappointing— was their relationship with
faculty members (Clark and Corcoran, 1986). Blaska (1976) states that:
Women need special support and encouragement to perform intellectually
and professionally. They need to see women in roles other than
housewife/mother to know that other roles are possible for them. But the
absence of women in faculty and administrative positions serves as a silent
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32
but potent message to female students that aiming high would be
foolish indeed.
In regard to informal training and/or preparation as a barrier for women to
gain access or move up in administrative positions, mentoring is an issue. There is
considerable agreement among researchers that mentoring is necessary in order for
women to succeed in acquiring administrative positions in higher education (Ramey,
1993). In fact, Johnsrud (1990) states that: "there is probably no other single
relationship that can be as instrumental in enhancing an administrative career in
higher education as a quality mentoring relationship."
But Blaska (1996) argued that this is no longer true, for women have become
consciously aware and have identified more with other women and improved their
own self-esteem, which has resulted in women no longer being hostile to each other.
In fact, women are sponsoring and supporting each other to gain professional careers
in the same manner as men have done for other men.
It is important to have a clear understanding of what mentoring is and how it
functions in relation to the needs of women in higher education administration.
Johnsrud (1990) defines mentoring:
As an intense, lasting and professionally-centered relationship between two
individuals in which the more experienced and powerful individual, the
mentor, guides, advises, and assists in any number of ways the career of the
less experienced, often younger, upwardly mobile protege.
Johnsrud (1990) goes on to say, "essentially, mentors enhance the position of
the proteges by enabling the development of their skill and competence in a
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33
supportive environment" (59). When addressing the issues of mentors for
women in community college administration, two concerns repeatedly arise that
influence whether women have mentoring relationships as stated by Whitaker and
Lane (1990):
First, opportunities for women to have mentors are limited by scarcity of
women who occupy appropriate positions in administration
Second, cross-mentoring, when it does occur between male mentors and
female proteges, is frequently of reduced value or importance because of sex
roles
Due to mentoring we are currently seeing an increase in women in
administrative positions at the community college (Whitaker, 1999). According to
Whitaker (1999):
■ Mentoring can significantly enhance income and promote possibilities for
individuals experiencing these relationships
■ Mentoring can meet the needs of both women and institutions, and it can also
assist in attracting and retaining women and minority professionals in the
academic work environment
■ Mentoring of younger workers reduces turnover, helps mentees deal with
organizational issues, and accelerates their assimilation into the culture
■ The mentees (those women being mentored) benefit because someone cares
enough to support them, advise them and help interpret inside information
The advantages of mentoring are felt not only by the mentees and their
organization, but by the mentors themselves. They experience the fulfillment of
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34
passing along hard-earned wisdom, influencing the next generation of
upper management, and receiving appreciation from a younger worker (Whitaker
and Lane, 1990; Hagevik, 1998).
It is not uncommon for women to have male mentors, but the best mentors
for women are other women, because women interacting and sharing experiences
and knowledge are significant. Though male mentors readily encourage women to
become college leaders, they do not eagerly support them when seeking a position.
The mentoring experience must help women develop self-esteem, aggressive
management personalities, and non-traditional attitudes about women and
employment. The nurturing of attitudes and characteristics would allow for success
in the organization. The use of mentors to assist present and fixture leaders is a
powerful and successful tool that should be used to provide assistance to women
interested in moving up the ladder at community colleges.
Due to the lack of women in administration, men are needed to act as
mentors, but there are problems that accompany this "cross-mentoring". When cross
mentoring occurs, it often is interpreted or suspected to be a romantic relationship by
others. It can greatly compromise the relationship, and the professional conduct of
both individuals comes into question. For the mentoring relationship to be effective
and successful, both parties must be able to give their best efforts without finding it
necessary to compromise (Johnsrund, 1990).
Lack of feedback and ability to handle criticism is another problem for some
women in training and preparing for administration. Shakeshaft (1989) points out
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35
that feedback criticism is a very important process for learning and
growing, but most often women are not included in this process. Men are often
fearful of sharing feedback and being critical of a woman's performance because of
the possible response of tears. Women are not given honest feedback or criticism as
they grow up and enter the work world; the preparation and conditioning to
understand and handle criticism has simply not occurred.
The barrier of discriminatory patterns in hiring which confronts women in
advancing into administration has been very real. According to Dingerson, Rodman
and Wade (1980) federal legislation and Affirmative Action has made little
difference in hiring practices, although, Kistler (1979) discovered a tremendous
source for gaining experience in top administrative positions at the community
college level and that is working on committees and special assignments. Kistler
(1982) believes that " women apparently have not been integrated into the male-
dominated network of service on committees, senates, and councils— the training
ground for administrative careers." Prior to 1986, senior status of women and their
mere presence over long periods of time in academia did not appear to change
women's experiences, for they all spoke of experiencing negative work climate,
professional isolation, and considerable pressure of what was referred to as hidden
workloads Since 1986, reports have been more positive. There seems to be more
willingness to appoint women to positions of power and service and to recognize
publicly their accomplishments. Patton (1990) concluded that experience and
education undoubtedly helped and was an important factor for women to qualify for
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3 6
positions and advance, "but it would be unrealistic to say that affirmative
action has not been an influential factor" (119-120).
Greater numbers of women have been promoted into the chief executive
positions of American Higher Education institutions in the last twenty years (Miller,
2000). Leatherman (1998) reports that "Many women believe that the combination of
a 'glass ceiling' and closed searches that favor 'an old boy network' keeps them out of
the most prestigious posts."
The promotion of women into top management positions has been very slow
but steady and in some cases under unusual or difficult circumstances. There have
been situations where perceptions existed that a woman was appointed to a
presidency just because she was a woman, even though in reality she was the most
qualified candidate (Blum, 1995). The numbers of women promoted into
administrative positions have increased, but men still hold the vast majority of
senior-level positions. Women are clearly hired or promoted less frequently
(Johnsrud, 1996).
Researchers have identified these barriers mentioned earlier with the purpose
of helping people become aware of them and then working toward eliminating
and/or limiting their impact on preventing women from entering higher education
administration. Kaplin and Tinsely (1996) give a voice of encouragement and
direction in stating:
Despite difficulties and personal moments of self-doubt, women must
continue to strive to reach positions of influence and power in the university.
Women Presidents, provosts, deans, and other seasoned officers can set the
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37
agendas of their institutions, their faculties, and their staffs. Once in
positions of power, women leaders can challenge complacency, interrupt
inertia, and force an institution to examine its values and consider
alternatives. Developing curricula responsive to issues of gender, race and
class; attaining gender and ethnic balance of the faculty, staff and student
body; and addressing campus climate issues can be made institutional
priorities.
Even as research has recognized barriers, it has also offered possible
solutions to some of the barriers faced by women aspiring to advance into
administration and women presently in administration who aspire to advance into top
levels of administration. A solution that addressed the barrier of social stereotyping
and roles and the lack of role models, offered by Neff and Harwood (1998), states
that:
Numerous reports have revealed that access does not translate into equality of
experience and development for women on a coeducational campus. There is
convincing evidence that women's colleges do a much better job of providing
a campus climate which affords women opportunities for achievement,
equality, and affirmation than do their coeducation counterparts.
A solution to the barrier of women clustered at the bottom of the pyramidal
structure of higher education is that the large number of women in the lower and
mid-management positions will work to their advantage. In the near future, many of
the top-level administrators will be retiring and these women will have the expertise
and training to move into their positions.
Another solution to the inherent problems of the pyramid structure in higher
education is creating a position, a means by which an individual can gain experience
in a tailor-made job and then advance or be promoted (Miller, 2000). The creation of
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38
new positions increases the number of possible promotions. This approach,
however, is dependent on establishing the purpose and need for such a position, the
support of decision-makers to agree to establish such a position and available
funding (Estler, 1995).
According to Whitaker and Lane (1990) the shortage of women to mentor
women will not change soon. It will change when more women move into
administrative positions and are able to serve as mentors to other women aspiring to
do the same. The barriers dealing with low visibility and networking have prompted
several suggested solutions. "Being visible can provide access to people and to
agencies that less visible people do not have. Being known can open doors. It may
make it easier to be heard as well as seen" (Moore, 1995). Moore suggests serving on
task forces, committees and advisory groups, both on and off the campus. These
activities can respect, enhance visibility, and build working relationships with other
important people.
Presently, with more women in administration, women administrators need to
be eliminating some of the barriers to support other women in their endeavors to
move into administrative and top-level administration positions. "Women must come
to view themselves as leaders and change agents if they are to be promoted to
positions of responsibility" (Benton, 2000).
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39
Common Career Development Patterns and Leadership Styles
of Women in Higher Education
Mckenney and Cejda did a study on the path and profile of women leaders in
community colleges in summer of 2000. The demographic characteristics that were
collected from their study included the following: The mean age of a community
college president was 51 years old. The racial distribution of the women CEO's was
predominantly Caucasian (84.4%), followed by African-American (8.2%), Hispanic
(3.3%), American Indian (3.3%) and Asian (0.8%) (19-29).
A frequency distribution of the highest degree attained query was also
completed. The Ph.D. represented the highest credential obtained by the greatest
number of CEO's (41.4%), followed by the Ed.D. (34.9%). The final demographic
aspect was current marital status. Slightly more than two-thirds (67%) of the CEO's
were currently married. It is interesting to note that only 4.2 percent of the women
CEO's had never been married (20-29).
The analysis of career paths has proved to be the most challenging. Vaughan
(1990) identified that the path to the position of CEO is fairly wide with many
branches. Likewise, Twobly (1986) found that top-level administrative careers in
community colleges did not always follow structured career lines. "A faculty
position emerged as the primary entry port, reported in (53%) of the women CEO's
career path, and chair or head of a department (13.4%) emerged as the next two most
frequent entry ports (Mckenney, 2001). Thus, these positions served as the entry
ports for more than four-fifths (83.3%) of the CEO's. This finding supports previous
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findings on initial positions that provide access to community college
careers (Arman, 1986; Boggs, 1988).
There are also studies that support the notion of flexibility in the community
colleges as it allows academic administrative careers to begin without requiring an
initial faculty position. Many administrators do make lateral moves during their
careers and this supports Twombly's (1988) assertion that administrative experience
rather than a particular position is an important determinant in the path to the CEO
position in community colleges. She states "it is possible that type of experience or
positions held are more important than the order in which they were held" (p: 685).
Over the last two decades, much attention has been given to women's
leadership in higher education. One reason is that the literature on women's
leadership in higher education generally reveals women are less likely than men to
participate in upper levels of administration (Warner & DeFluer, 1993). Community
colleges, however, have reported the greatest increase of women in senior-level
positions between 1986 and 1991 (Faulconer, 1995; Warner and DeFluer, 1993). Yet
little existing research explores what may be at work in shaping women's career
paths at community colleges.
Additionally, community colleges are interesting sites for analyzing women's
leadership. More than a few scholars have described the organizational context of
community colleges as considerably more accepting than that of four-year
institutions (Rhoads and Valadez, 1996). As the “people's college” community
colleges report a rich and diverse student population (National Profile, 1997) and
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41
high percentages of women faculty (Townsend, 1995). Although evidence
exists of an increase in support levels of women in community colleges, a significant
counterbalance often works against women: Community colleges like most
organizations in the United States, are distinguished by their traditional bureaucratic
structures and instrumental leadership conceptions (Amey, 1999). Instrumentalism is
a functionalist doctrine stressing rational thoughts and strategic action. Implicitly,
people and ideas are often situated as tools for organizational leaders to use in
working toward increased efficiency. Instrumentalism as an organizational
orientation has been found to be associated more closely with masculine ways of
leading than feminine ways (Gherardi, 1995).
Women who enact more egalitarian or relational styles of leading are likely
to face marginality within their organizations and to be marked as "outsiders"
(Vocante, 1993). As Aisenberg and Harrington (1988) noted in their study of women
in the academy, they often become "outsiders in the sacred grove." Relational and
instrumental ways of knowing are connected to socially constructed gender roles of
women and men (Maccoby, 1990). Women most often use relational ways of
knowing to perceive the world, whereas men are more likely to embrace instrumental
ways. Moreover, studies suggest that most cultures expect women to use more
nurturing behavioral styles and treat them harshly when they do not (Tanned, 1998).
If organizations, including community colleges are more likely to support
instrumental leadership styles, then it is no wonder that despite high percentages of
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women involved in lower-level administrative work, the percentages of
women at the senior level continue to be proportionally smaller (Phillippe, 1995).
A thorough analysis of women's issues likely requires a cultural focus
primarily aimed at understanding the experiences of women as "women." Barbara
Tedrow (1999) implemented a qualitative study to gather data about the processes
women use in constructing a leadership identity within the community college
system. The study group was composed of 30 senior-level women holding positions
such as director, dean, vice-president, provost, assistant to the president, president or
chancellor. The focus of the research design consisted of exploring issues of
leadership identity, organizational culture, and the role of gender within community
college administration.
The study found that senior women community college administrators largely
constructed their leadership identity as a response to organizational expectations and
norms as defined by typical male instrumental roles and behavior. The women
tended to display a preference for one of three general strategies: 1- adaptation, 2-
reconciliation and 3- resistance (Tedrow, 1999).
1-Adaptation: represents the efforts of women to fit into the community
college context by relying heavily on instrumental styles. These women tend to
accept their deficiencies and learn to overcome them by re-aligning their behavior
with male-oriented styles. An adapter does not question the wisdom of the present
structure (Smircich, 1985). The women who constructed their leadership identity
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around adaptation filled the "big shoes" of their male colleagues by
duplicating the men's instrumental behaviors.
■ Leadership Identity: Adapters use leadership images reflective of a strong
authority figure. The use of authority and rank is very important. A
leader's success is based on her knowledge of formalized faculty
expectations (the "faculty contract") and understanding the institution's
norms. The adapter leader enforces the rules in an unbiased manner to
friend or foe so that everyone will know that she does not play favorites.
Overall, senior women leaders must set limits and standards, be the
gatekeeper and manage impressions (Miller, 2000).
■ Communication Style: For adapters, communication tends to be a de
personalized verbal performance placing emphasis on one's
organizational position.
■ Gender Issues: Adapters deny or minimize gender issues. None of the
women who used an adaptive framework considered how their college's
organizational culture created a competitive independent environment and
thus pitted one woman against another.
Goffman (1963) and Kanter (1977) suggested that a woman's behavior as an
outsider could not be understood without a contextual perspective. The women's
adaptive leadership identity which mirrors men's instrumental behaviors, tended to
be associated with achievement pressures, limited career opportunities, and the
maintenance of privileges linked with their outsider position (Yoder, 1997). It should
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be noted that these women do not reject femininity but place value on their
ability to succeed in their professional role using traditional leadership behaviors.
While perceiving themselves as individuals acting in gender neutral ways, the
women were in actuality viewed as outsiders because they were women, thereby
isolating themselves from men and women.
2-Reconciliation: these women tend to rely on both instrumental and
relational styles based on the organizational context. The success of the
reconciliation response is dependent on the women's ability to read work situations
appropriately and choose the correct style of response for the situation. Women who
construct their leadership identity around a reconciliation identity conform to
expectations of both women and men depending on the organizational context or
situation. This is because when institutions include women at the senior level, but
maintain traditional standards and values, the women are often cast as outsiders. To
reduce the tension and stress of their outsider status, they choose behaviors that
reconcile traditional organizational expectations with their identity as women
(Goffman, 1963).
■ Leadership Identity: Reconciliatory leadership reflects the defensive use
of both instrumental and relational behaviors. One vice president
explained that she sees her leadership as a kaleidoscope because she tries
to creatively respond to the ever-changing "patterns" of her
responsibilities. "You are everything to everyone" (Goffman, 1996).
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■ Communication Style: Sheldon's (1992) research on
communication suggests that women as young girls learn a "double
voiced discourse." Using this communication style a woman learns to
consider her own and another's agenda, while constantly taking initiatives
to achieve group harmony.
■ Gender Issues: Women who relied on reconciliation were aware of
gender issues and their effect on their leadership. Reconciliation leaders
recognize the power of "boys" and know direct competition with them
can be fatal. Moreover, "boys" appear to go after the most vulnerable
ones, which frightens women leaders and forces them to keep up their
guard.
Goffman (1977) observed those who responded to their outsider status by
choosing to live a dual existence tended to complicate their lives. In Tedrow's study
(1999) the women reconcilers took responsibility for reading the context and making
the "right" response for a particular situation. As a result, the women faced a never-
ending series of challenges, among which was constructing a complex language to
insure their survival. In this way, the women maintained the system of hierarchy by
saving it from having to respond to new influences.
3-Resistance: reflects a woman's ability to build coalitions and infuse
relational ways of knowing throughout various organizational contexts. Resisters
recognize dominant organizational patterns as male-oriented and challenge such
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structures whenever possible. These women emphasize that they want to
work at an institution where they could "be themselves" (Tedrow, 1999).
■ Leadership Identity: Resistance leadership looks to develop the whole
person through ongoing education and dialogue.
■ Communication Style: The communication styles of the women who
resist demonstrate the integrated nature of their leadership. They do not
fragment their lives into dichotomies such as personal and professional,
intellectual and spiritual, informal and formal, but integrate their lives
with and into their organizational activities. Ferguson (1984) calls this
personal communication style "resistance discourse." Most women are
not afraid of offering their opinion. Some women reveal a preference for
participating in social justice issues and rejected trends like Total Quality
Management if they perceived them to be dehumanizing in any way.
■ Gender Issues: Resisters tended to openly address gender issues. They
did this through coalitions and consensus, thereby prompting incremental
change so that tokenism within their institution would be eventually
eliminated. The vast majority of women employing resistance strategies
took heart in knowing that their personal convictions were expressed
through their organizational behaviors. This had an energizing effect on
these women (Tierney, 1994).
As Ferguson's (1984) study on bureaucracies highlights, when women
collectively resist the domination of masculine values in traditional work settings,
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they can help their organizations value difference, share authority, create
more inclusive forms of decision-making, include a concern for the development of
the individual, and consider the needs of the community. Given the changing needs
of community colleges, resistance strategies may offer the greatest hope for creating
more inclusive and diverse community college environments.
According to Porat (1991), women in leadership positions or those seeking
leadership positions must acquire skills to survive in the workplace. The first skill is
taking the time to plan for a successful career path, which requires hard work,
dedication, and long hours on the job. The second skill is to recognize the fact that
competition does exist and women must learn to exhibit the appropriate skills and
behaviors needed to compete. The third skill is to keep going and to develop
confidence. In order to be recognized for the work well done, performing an
exceptional job, doing a job important to the organization, becoming visible so that
others know who it was who succeeded, are essential. The fourth skill is courage
and determination to battle the male-dominated establishment. The fifth skill is
demonstrating a commitment to work in order to stay ahead of the competition and
to learn to delegate effectively. The sixth skill that should be developed is to meet
deadlines. The seventh and final skill is to develop and exercise the managerial role.
The leaders' aim is to gain respect; not love. In order to gain a leadership role, a
female must act the role and utilize the power she has in that position (Crampton &
Mishara, 1999, Morrison, 1992)
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The development of women's leadership will not occur at
community colleges unless key members of the institution are willing to examine
critically the college's culture. Through strategies grounded in adaptation,
reconciliation, or resistance, the senior-level women administrators find ways to
develop a leadership identity within their traditional work context. Even though
women tend to prefer one strategy over another, in reality each woman uses all three
responses in her organizational life (Ferguson, 1984). Because adaptation,
reconciliation and even resistance are, at the most basic level, reactive strategies; the
women are "reacting" to a male dominated organizational context. These complex
strategies place a greater psychological burden on women in comparison to their
male counterparts. The negative consequence is that women spend a good deal of
time and energy simply trying to survive, when they should be thriving. Women
leaders need to embrace resistance strategies and work together to critically examine
their organizations and help to remove barriers.
Leadership Traits
Leadership has fascinated people since the dawn of recorded history.
References of both good and bad leadership in the literature of every age give
testimony to the search for good leaders that has been a common thread running
through human civilization. Leaders such as Alexander the Great and Napolean
Bonaparte were said to have been blessed with an innate ability to lead. This so-
called great-man approach to leadership eventually gave way to a theory called the
trait approach to leadership that was developed by Gordon Allport. The trait
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approach to leadership sees the personal characteristics of an individual as
the main determinants of how successful that individual could be as a leader.
As one of the first contemporary trait theorists, Gordon Allport did some
useful work in defining a trait, differentiating it from habits and attitudes, and
categorizing different types of traits. A trait is thought of as an enduring personality
characteristic or behavioral pattern. Allport had two ways of categorizing traits. First,
he broke them down into either individual traits or common traits. In the strictest
sense, all traits are unique to the individual. With this in mind, Allport emphasized
the importance of studying individuals’ on a personal basis to assess their
personality. But, he recognized that some traits, called common traits, were generally
present among all individuals in varying degrees: "for all their ultimate differences,
normal persons within a given culture-area, tend to develop a limited number of
roughly comparable modes of adjustment" (Walsh, 1996).
Many of the early studies that attempted to summarize the traits of successful
leaders were documented. One of these summaries concludes that successful leaders
tend to posses the following characteristics (Kreitner, 2000, p:20-25)
■ Intelligence, including judgment and verbal ability
■ Past achievement in scholarship and athletics
■ Emotional maturity and stability
■ Dependability, persistence and a drive for continuing achievement
■ The skill to participate socially and adapt to various groups
■ A desire for status and socioeconomic position
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■ Energy, the capacity for vigorous action
■ Decisiveness, having the quality of showing determination or firmness
■ Tolerant of stress and uncertainty
When Margaret Thatcher was prime minister of Great Britain, she was
regularly singled out for her leadership. She was described in terms such as
confident, iron-willed, determined, and decisive. These terms are traits and,
whether Thatcher's advocates and critics recognized it at the time, when they
described her in such terms they became trait-theorist supporters.
The media has long been a believer in trait theories of leadership. They
identify people like Ronald Reagan, Nelson Mandela, Colin Powell and President
George Bush as leaders, and then describe them in terms such as charismatic,
enthusiastic, intelligent and courageous. In this, the media is not alone. The
search for personality, social, physical or intellectual attributes that would
describe leaders and differentiate them from non leaders goes back to the 1930's.
Research done by Dr. Randy Ross, an instructor of psychology at the University
of Wisconsin in 1994 provides strong evidence that people who are high "self
monitors"— that is, are highly flexible in adjusting their behavior in different
situations— are much more likely to emerge as leaders in groups than low self
monitors. Dr. Ross interviewed 89 business leaders and was amazed to see that
76 out of 89 business leaders had common traits. He concluded that traits such as
"ambition, energy, the desire to lead, honesty, integrity, self-confidence,
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51
intelligence and job-relevant knowledge do increase the likelihood of
success as leaders."
Interest in the trait approach to leadership has been stirred recently. Dr. David
Campbell, a renowned researcher in the field of Organizational Development
surveyed over 7,500 managers from across the United States during the late
1990's to determine the traits most admired in superior leaders. Based on the
results of his research Dr. Campbell created the Campbell Leadership Index (CLI
Development Survey). The CLI instrument measures 21 dimensions of
leadership organized within five major characteristics:
■ Leadership (Ambitious, Daring, Dynamic, Enterprising, Experienced,
Farsighted, Original and Persuasive)
■ Energy
■ Dependability (Credible, Organized, Productive and Thrifty)
■ Resilience (Calm, Flexible, Optimistic and Trusting)
■ Affability (Affectionate, Considerate, Empowering, Entertaining, and
Friendly)
This leadership model developed by Campbell is more comprehensive than
Allport's model because it studied both male and female traits. Campbell concluded
that there were no differences between male and female traits. Furthermore, a
comprehensive review by James Kouzes and Barry Posner of 162 different studies
between 1998 and 2000 found no significant difference in leadership styles exhibited
by women and men (Eynsenck, 2001, p:35). In real-life organizational settings,
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women did not fit the feminine stereotype of being more relationship-
oriented and men did not fit the masculine stereotype of being more task-oriented.
According to this model, women administrators are just as able as men to succeed in
leading our colleges into a brighter future.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to include information concerning the sources
of the data collected, the creation of a survey for the collection of data, and the
analysis and statistical treatment of the data. The central problem of this study is to
gather personal and professional data concerning the career experiences of
Instructional Vice Presidents in California’s public comprehensive community
colleges and to identify significant career path predictors, leadership traits, and
attributes that facilitate the advancement of women in administration at community
colleges.
Research Questions
Specific research questions that the study addresses are the following:
1. What leadership traits contribute to the success of Instructional Vice
Presidents in community colleges?
2. How do the paths of women and men to the Instructional Vice
President position differ?
Methodology
Research Population
The population of community college vice presidents includes too many
members to study entirely, so a sample of 108 male and female leaders in the
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California community colleges who were identified by their title as Vice
President of Instruction were selected. The study's participants were identified by
examining the 2002 Community College Directory, a joint publication by the
Community College Chancellor's Office and the Community College League of
California. An individual who is very knowledgeable about this population verified
its accuracy after reviewing the preliminary list. A few corrections were made to form
the final study population.
Research Design
The study was designed to collect personal and professional data concerning
the career experiences of vice presidents, as well as to help identify significant career
path predictors, leadership traits and attributes that would help facilitate the
advancement of women in administration.
Instrumentation
A survey instrument was specifically designed for this project. The
questionnaire was a modified version of two instruments: 1-The American Council
on Education National Presidents’ Survey (2001) and 2-Campbell Leadership Index
Survey (2001). The National Presidents' study began in 1986 and has presented a
series of reports (1988, 1993, and 1998) profiling the professional and personal
characteristics of college presidents. Marlene Ross, the principal investigator of the
National Presidents' study, granted permission for that survey to be modified to
gather similar data concerning community college Vice Presidents of Instruction.
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Chris McMorris, an account representative working for Dr. David
Campbell at the Center for Creative Leadership, granted the researcher permission to
adapt and use the Campbell Leadership Index Survey.
As the survey was created, changed and developed, each item was carefully
reviewed and compared with the research questions in chapter one. This cross
checking was done to ensure that there was a direct relationship between the survey
questions and research questions and that the information gathered from the survey
would provide the necessary data to answer all the research questions posed.
The evolved study was refined after consulting with Dr. Kenneth Meehan, the
Director of Research at Fullerton Community College. The refinements to the survey
included some rewording of the questions for clarity and for a more personalized
tone, as well as a slight change in the rating scale and highlighting of specific words
in the directions for clarity. An initial draft of the survey was then sent to Marlene
Ross and Chris McMorris for comments and final approval. The final version was
also approved by Dr. Linda Serra Hagedom at the University of Southern California.
Dr. Hagedorn has created several large-scale instruments specifically used in
community colleges.
A web page was created where the survey questions were posted. This
provided a means for the anonymous insertion of responses by the subjects.
Responses automatically were inserted into an Access database.
A list of email addresses of all 108 vice presidents was obtained from the
Community College League Foundation web site located at
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www.foundationccc.org/CCCdir/. The vice presidents were sent an email
informing them of the survey and the questionnaire web site location. After sending
the initial email, the researcher sent reminders every five days to the respondents
reminding them of the survey due date.
A pilot study was implemented in the college district where the researcher is
employed to measure the clarity and appropriateness of the questions, and time for
completion. However, the responses of these leaders were not included in the study's
respondents.
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CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter contains the findings based on the analysis of the data gathered
for this study. There are 108 Instructional Vice Presidents in California’s 108
colleges. Seventy-eight responses to the online survey were received following the
email to the sample. The initial e-mailing resulted in the response of 58 Vice
Presidents (53%). A follow-up e-mail message was sent to remind the sample of the
deadline which resulted in the return of 20 additional responses. Thus, the total
response was from 78 individuals (72%).
The survey results have been divided into four broad categories: 1- personal
characteristics, 2- professional characteristics, 3- career paths to becoming an
Academic Vice President, and 4-management traits of Academic Vice Presidents.
Personal Characteristics
All of the Instructional Vice Presidents who responded to the survey
indicated their gender, 42.3% were female.
Table 1 indicates the distribution of the respondents’ gender.
Female Male Total
POPULATION 50 57 107
Percentage 46.7% 53.3% 100%
SAMPLE 33 45 78
Percentage 42.3% 57.7% 100%
TOTAL 83 102 185
Percentage 44.9% 55.1% 100%
Since responses were not received from all of the CIO’s in the California
community college system, a chi-square test of the differences in proportions
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between the sample and the known population was conducted. There was
no significant difference between the sample and the population (Chi-square= 0.357,
df= 1, p= 0.550). Table 2 indicates the distribution of respondents’ ethnicity.
Table 2: Distribution of Ethnicity of Instructional Vice Presidents
Ethnicity Number Percent
African American 9 11.5%
American Indian 0 0.0%
Asian American 3 3.9%
Hispanic/Latino 7 9.0%
White/Caucasian 59 75.6%
Other 0 0.0%
Total 78 100.0%
Information regarding the age and marital status of the 78 Instructional VP’s
who responded to this query is presented in Tables 3 and 4. Using the tabulated
responses, where the response “over 65” was calculated as 66, the mean age is
approximately 55 years, with a standard deviation of 6 years.
Table 3: Distribution of Age of Instructional Vice Presidents
Age Range (years) Number Percent
36-45 3 3.8%
46-55 38 48.7%
56-65 35 44.9%
Over 65 2 2.6%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 4 indicates that the majority of Instructional VP’s were married.
Table 4: Distribution of Marital Status of Instructional Vice Presidents
Marital Status Number Percent
Single 4 5.1%
Married 60 76.9%
Domestic Partner 2 2.6%
Separated 1 1.3%
Divorced 11 14.1%
Total 78 100.0%
When the distribution of ethnicity of the respondents is compared with the ethnic
proportions statewide in California {Rand California, http://ca.rand.org) using a “chi-
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square” test, there is a highly significant difference between the ethnic
proportions of the Vice Presidents and the California population ( x 2 = 27, df = 3,
p < .00001). Specifically, Whites are greatly over-represented and African
Americans are slightly over-represented, while Asian Americans and
Hispanic/Latinos are under-represented. Thus, the typical Vice President of
Instruction is white, about 55 years old, married, and may be of either gender.
Professional Characteristics
Table 5 presents the distribution of the highest degree attained for the 78
Instructional Vice Presidents’ who responded to the survey. The Masters degree
(38%) was the highest degree obtained by the greatest number of Instructional Vice
Presidents’, followed by the Ph.D. (32.9%) and Ed.D (25.3%). No Vice Presidents’
reported the baccalaureate as their highest degree. About 58.2% of the respondents
have either a Ph.D or an Ed.D. and another 7.6% are pursuing such a degree. So,
almost two-thirds of the respondents have or will have a post-Master’s degree.
Table 5: Distribution of Highest Degree of Instructional Vice Presidents
Highest Degree Number Percent
BA/BS 0 0%
MA/MS 29 39.30%
Ed.D. 20 25.3%
Ph.D. 26 32.9%
Other 2 2.6%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 6 indicates that the majority of Instructional VP’s had completed their
education prior to becoming VP’s.
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Table 6: Distribution of Instructional VP’s Currently Enrolled in Schools
Attending School Number Percent
Doctoral Program 6 7.6%
Mater’s Program 1 1.3%
Not Enrolled 71 91.1%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 7 indicates the distribution of the disciplines of the highest degrees for the
Instructional VP’s.
Table 7: Distribution of the Disciplines of Highest Degrees Held by Instructional
VP’s
Discipline of Highest Degree Number Percentage
Agriculture/Natural Sciences 22 28%
Biological Sciences 3 4.0%
Business 3 4.0%
Education 38 48%
Engineering 1 1.5%
Humanities/Fine Arts 11 14.5%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 8 presents the distribution of classroom experience held by Instructional VP’s.
As shown, almost all of the respondents (91.7%) have had some community college
classroom experience, and many have had considerable experience.
Table 8: Distribution of Classroom Experience of Instructional VP’s
Number of Years as Faculty
Member
Number Percentage
None 8 10.0%
1-4 Years 12 15.0%
5-10 Years 22 28.5%
11-20 Years 26 33.5%
Over 20 Years 10 13.0%
Total 78 100.0%
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Using the tabulated responses, where the response “over 20 years”
was calculated as 21 years, the average number of years of classroom experience was
approximately 11 years with a standard deviation of 6 years.
Table 9 presents the distribution of administrative experience of Instructional
Vice Presidents. The average number of years of administrative experience was
approximately 13 years with a standard deviation of 6 years.
Table 9: Distribution of Administrative Experience of Instructional VP’s
Number of Years as
Administrator
Number Percentage
None 0 0.0%
1-4 Years 8 10.0%
5-10 Years 22 28.3%
11-20 Years 30 38.3%
Over 20 Years 18 23.4%
Total 78 100.0%
Thus, the typical Instructional Vice President either has a Ph.D. or Ed.D. or is
in the process of obtaining one, has about 11 years of teaching experience, and 13
years of administrative experience.
Career Paths to the Instructional Vice President Office
Table 10 indicates the distribution of the position held prior to the current
Instructional Vice President position.
Table 10: Distribution of Position Held Prior to Becoming Instructional VP
Position Prior to VP Position Number Percentage
VP Elsewhere 23 30.0%
Dean 36 46.0%
Chair/Director 13 16.6%
Faculty 4 5.0%
Other 2 2.5%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 11 represents the locations from where these Instructional VP Officers came.
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Table 11: Distribution of Locale of Prior Position
Locale of Prior Position Number Percentage
Same College 37 47.4%
Different College 37 47.4%
Business or Government 4 5.2%
Total 78 100.0%
Approximately one half were hired “in-house”, while the other half came
from outside the college.
Table 12 indicates the distribution of years held at the position prior to
becoming an Instructional Vice President. The average number of years at the
previous position prior to holding the current Instructional VP position was
approximately 6 years, with a standard deviation of approximately 4 years.
Table 12: Distribution of Number of Years at Prior Position Held by Instructional
VP’s
Number of Years at Prior
Position
Number Percentage
0-2 21 26.0%
3-5 28 36.0%
6-10 22 28.0%
11-16 4 5.0%
17 or more 3 5.0%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 13 indicates the distribution of the position held twice prior to
becoming an Instructional Vice President.
Table 13: Distribution of Position Held Twice Prior to Becoming an Instructional VP
Position Prior to VP Position Number Percentage
Dean 30 38.5%
Chair/Director 18 23.2%
Faculty 26 33.0%
Private Business 1 1.3%
Government 3 4.0%
Total 78 100.0%
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Table 13 shows that the most held twice position were the Dean
position with 38.5% followed by faculty (33%) and Director (23.2%).
Table 14 represents the locations of employment in the two positions prior to
becoming an Instructional VP.
Table 14: Disitribution of Locale of Twice Prior Position
Locale of Twice Prior Position Number Percentage
Same College 43 55.2%
Different College 28 35.8%
Business or Government 7 9.0%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 15 indicates the distribution of years held at the position twice prior to
becoming an Instructional VP. The average number of years at the twice-prior
position was approximately 6 years with a standard deviation of approximately 5
years.
Table 15: Distribution of Number of Years at Twice Prior Position
_______________ Held by Instructional VP _______________
Number of Years at Prior
Position
Number Percentage
0-2 16 20.50%
3-5 28 36.0%
6-10 23 29.50%
11-16 7 9.0%
17 or more 4 5.0%
Total 78 100.0%
Table 16 represents the distribution of the career pathway to becoming an
Instructional Vice President. If the road to the Vice President’s desk begins in the
classroom, it quite often leads through the Dean’s office: 72.9% of the respondents
included being Dean as part of their career paths. Department Chair experience was
mentioned by 35% of respondents.
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Table 16: Distribution of Career Pathway to Becoming an
Instructional VP
Career Pathway to Current Position Number Percentage
Faculty — > Chair — > CIO 9 12.0%
Faculty — > Dean — > CIO 28 35.9%
Chair — > Dean — > CIO 18 23.0%
Director — •» Dean — > CIO 11 14.0%
CIO — > Other — > CIO 2 2.5%
CIO — > Dean — > CIO 3 3.8%
Chair — > Other — > CIO 4 5.0%
Faculty — > Other —> CIO 3 3.8%
Total 78 100.0%
Thus, the typical Vice President of Instruction began as a teacher, at some
point became dean of a division or major component of the college, and then
eventually was hired as the Vice President of Instruction. He/she spent about 6 years
at each of his/her previous two positions on average.
Correlations Between Gender and the Responses Above
No statistically significant linear relationships were found between gender
and time at present positions (Spearman’s rho = -.050, n = 78, p = .665), age
(Spearman’s rho = -.001, n = 78, p = .996), highest degree earned (Spearman’s
rho = -. 142, n = 76, p = .222), years of teaching experience (Spearman’s rho =102,
n = 58, p = .447), years of administrative experience (Spearman’s rho = .088, n = 58,
p = .510), year at prior position (Spearman’s rho = .154, n = 78, p = .178), years at
twice prior position (Spearman’s rho = -.095, n = 78, p = .407).
In addition, gender was found to be independent of ethnicity
(Chi-square = 4.45, df = 3, p = .217), position prior to becoming vice president (Chi-
square = 3.64, df = 5, p = .603), position twice prior to becoming vice president
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65
(Chi-square = 3.95, df = 4, p = .413), and pathway to current position (Chi-
square = 7.52, df = 7, p = .377).
These results indicate that gender did not play a significant role in either the
demographics or the career paths of the respondents.
Management Traits of Vice Presidents of Instruction: The Campbell
Leadership Index (CLI)
The Campbell Leadership Index (CLI) measures twenty-one dimensions of
leadership organized within five major characteristics: 1-leadership, 2- energy, 3-
dependability, 4-resilience and 5-affability. Dr. David Campbell, a renowned
researcher in the field of Organizational Development surveyed over 7,500 managers
from across the United States during the late 1990’s to determine the traits most
admired in superior leaders. These traits can be organized into four broad categories:
1-Leadership
■ Ambitious: Determined to make progress, likes to compete
■ Daring: Willing to tiy new experiences, risk-oriented
■ Dynamic: Takes charge, inspires others, seen as a leader
■ Enterprising: Works well with the complexities of change
■ Experienced: Has a good background
■ Farsighted: Looks ahead, plans, a visionary
■ Original: Sees the world differently, has many new ideas
■ Persuasive: Articulate and persuasive in influencing others
2-Energy - Affability
■ Affectionate: Acts close, warm, and nurturing
■ Considerate: Thoughtful, willing to work with others
■ Em powering: M otivates others and helps them to achieve
■ Entertaining: Clever and amusing, enjoys people
■ Friendly: Pleasant to be around, smiles easily
3-Dependability
■ Credible: Open and honest, inspires trust
■ Organized: Plans ahead and follows through
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■ Productive: Uses time and resources well
■ Thrifty: Uses and manages money wisely
4-Resilience
* Calm: Has an unhurried, unruffled manner
■ Flexible: Easily adjusts to changes
■ Optimistic: Positive, handles personal challenges well
■ Trusting: Trusts and believes in others
Relationship of Gender to Leadership Traits
Table 17 presents mean scores on each of the four leadership traits for males and
females.
Table 17: Male and Female Leadership Traits
Trait Gender N Mean Std. Deviation
Leadership Female 36 17.64 7.416
Male 42 16.86 5.572
Energy-Affabiiity Female 36 11.36 4.766
Male 42 9.97 3.029
Dependability Female 36 7.41 4.748
Male 42 6.93 2.711
Resilience Female 36 8.91 3.866
Male 42 8.38 2.597
No statistical significant differences were found between males and females
on leadership (t= .426, df= 49 and p= .672), energy and affability (t= 1.278, df= 49
and p= .207), dependability (t=.454, df= 49 and p= .652) and resilience (t= .585, df=
49, and p= .561).
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Relationship of Ethnicity to Leadership Traits
Table 18 presents mean scores on each of the four leadership traits for whites
and non-whites.
Table 18: Leadership Traits of Whites and Non-Whites
Trait Gender N Mean Std. Deviation
Leadership White 51 17.50 6.013
Non-White 27 16.09 7.778
Energy-Affability White 51 10.55 3.637
Non-White 27 10.64 4.925
Dependability White 51 6.98 3.238
Non-White 27 7.73 5.179
Resilience White 51 8.60 2.772
Non-White 27 8.64 4.545
No statistical significant differences were found between whites and non
whites on leadership (t=.645, df= 49, p= .522), energy-affability (t= -.064, df= 49, p=
.949), dependability (t= -.594, df= 49, p= .555) and resilience (t= -.033, df= 49, p=
.974).
Remarkably, the top four traits with which the vice presidents describe
themselves comprise the entire category of “Dependability”. The combined average
scores in each of the four categories are listed below:
Tablet 9: Traits of Instructional Vice President
Category Mean Score
Dependability 1.78
Energy/Affability 2.11
Leadership 2.14
Resilience 2.15
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6 8
The mean score of dependability is significantly greater than that
of energy/affability (t = 3.107, df = 457, p = .002, two-tailed), and thus dependability
is seen by the respondents as a significantly stronger quality than each of the other
three categories. There is no significant difference in the mean scores among
energy/affability, leadership, or resilience.
Finally, the scores on each of the 22 traits did not significantly correlate with
gender. The genders did differ noticeably in how “optimistic” they described
themselves. However, a two-tailed t-test comparing the means yielded t = 2.009, d f=
49, p = .05008 which, though highly suggestive, does not meet the criteria for
statistical significance.
Thus, although the typical vice president of instruction views him or herself
as usually embodying all 21 leadership traits, he/she considers dependability by far
his/her most salient quality. In particular, productivity, credibility, and organization
are his/her self-identified strengths, while calmness, being entertaining, and
especially original are his/her identified weaknesses.
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69
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this research has been three-fold. First, to gather personal and
professional data concerning the career experiences of Instructional Vice Presidents
in California’s 108 public comprehensive community colleges. Second, to use this
data to identify significant career path predictors, leadership traits and attributes to
facilitate the advancement of women in administration at community colleges. Third,
to determine if a significant gender gap exists in the Vice President of Instruction
position in California’s community colleges.
In chapter one, two research questions were devised to accomplish the
purpose of the study. The responses to these questions will provide important
information of interest to women presently in higher education administration and
also to those women who aspire to administrative positions in higher education.
A review of literature and research in three related areas comprised chapter
two. The three related areas were history and present status of women in higher
education, barriers which have prevented the movement of women into the top-level
positions in higher education administration and common career development
patterns and leadership styles of women in higher education.
Chapter three reported in detail on the procedures used for the data collection,
the definition of the study population, the source and development of the survey, and
the data analysis and reporting process.
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70
The results of the survey data were reported in chapter four. The
survey results were divided into four categories: 1- personal characteristics, 2-
professional characteristics, 3-career paths to becoming an Instructional Vice
President, and 4- management traits of Instructional Vice Presidents.
A summary of this research study is found in this chapter, along with
conclusions derived from the data and its analysis. The last portion of this chapter
addresses the recommendations for areas of action, again based on the findings and
analysis of the study, and then closes with recommendations for further study.
Conclusions and Discussion
In any research project, specific parameters are established that limit the
generalization of the resulting findings. This study is no different. The Chief
Instruction Officers (CIO) in California’s community colleges provided the data for
this study. As a result, the career experiences of CIO’s from other types of 2-year
institutions or institutions not belonging to California’s community colleges were not
included in this research effort. Therefore, the conclusions are limited to the CIO
position in public, community colleges belonging in California and cannot be applied
to the CIO position in other types of institutions, or other positions in the educational
hierarchy, or to the entire field of higher education.
The representation of w om en in higher education positions has been of
concern for a number of years (McKenney & Cedja, 2001, Aisenberg & Harrington,
1988; Barrax, 1985; Moore, 1982; Moore & Sagaria, 1981). Historically, as
evidenced in my literature review, Chapter 2, women have been significantly
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71
underrepresented in administrative positions. Since 1986, women have
made progress in attaining leadership positions in community colleges. In California
community colleges, the demographic responses of this study indicate a high
proportion of female CIO’s (42.3%). Although this percentage is not equal to the
representation of women in the community college population, this research
concludes that their numbers have increased significantly in recent years.
Educational researchers such as Tedrow (1999), Yoder (1997), Kanter
(1977), and Goffman (1963) have pointed out that one of the barriers to the
advancement of women in administration has been the perceived difference in
leadership styles of women compared to men. Women were perceived in the
literature as being more “nurturing and relational” in their leadership styles, while
men were more “task and efficiency oriented”. This study has asked the respondents
to indicate their own leadership traits using Campbell’s Leadership Trait tool. The
leadership traits that were embodied by both male and female respondents were not
significantly different. The typical Vice President of Instruction viewed
himself/herself as usually embodying all of Campbell’s Leadership Index leadership
traits. He/she considers dependability by far his/her most salient quality. In particular
productivity, credibility, and organization are his/her strengths, while calmness,
entertaining and originality are his/her weaknesses. Based on Dr. Campbell’s ,
Campbell Leadership Index (CLI), there is no significant difference in leadership
styles exhibited by women and men (Eynsenck, 2001). In real-life organizational
settings, women did not fit the feminine stereotype of being more relationship-
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oriented and men did not fit the masculine stereotype of being more task-
oriented. This suggests that women administrators are just as capable as men in
being able to succeed in leading colleges into the future.
The analysis of career paths proved to be the most challenging component of
this study. Vaughan (1990) recognized this diversity when he identified the path to
the position of Chief Academic Officers as fairly wide with many branches.
Likewise, Twombly (1986) found that top-level administrative careers in community
colleges did not always follow structured career lines. The findings of this research
support previous conclusions that an individual’s career history influences his/her
success in obtaining a CIO appointment. A faculty position emerged as the primary
entry port, reported in 35.9% of the CIO’s that responded to this survey and chair
(23.0%) and director (14.0%) emerged as the next two most frequent entry ports.
Thus, these three positions served as the entry ports for more than 72 .9% of the
CIO’s. This finding supports previous research on initial positions that provide
access to community college administrative careers (Armar, 1986; Boggs, 1988;
Twombly, 1988).
Prior to their current position, 46% of the respondents had served either as a
Dean for another institution or their current institution. About half of the CIO’s were
hired “in-house”, while the other half were hired from outside the college.
Furthermore, 30% of the CIO’s have made lateral moves during their careers and this
supports Twombly’s (1988) assertion that administrative experience rather than a
particular position is an important determinant in the path to the CIO in community
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73
colleges. Therefore, the typical path taken by Vice President’s of
Instruction usually began as a teacher, transitioned at some point to dean of a
division or major component of the college, and then eventually was hired as the
Vice President of Instruction. He/she had spent about 6 years at each of his/her
previous two positions on average.
Career lines/paths have implications for both individuals aspiring to the CIO
position and community colleges. For individuals, there are some ways to optimize
the chances of obtaining a CIO appointment. First, candidates should enter the
community college labor market as a faculty member. Second, individuals should
realize that community college experience both in length and number of positions is
valued. Each of the career-line CIO’s averaged nearly 13 years of administrative
experience and 11 years of teaching experience and held two or three positions in
two-year institutions. 7hird, it should be noted that individuals are likely to assume
the CIO position where they serve as a faculty member. Finally, administrative
experiences appear to influence movement to the CIO position, since each of the
CIO’s (52.6%) held an administrative appointment in their immediate prior position.
For community colleges, the major implication stems from the basic concept
of organizational careers. Glaser (1968) argued that in order to meet their goals,
organizations must ensure that a pool of trained individuals is ready to assume
leadership roles. Community colleges would best serve themselves by realizing that
their faculty is a pool of potential CIO’s. Hence, examining the career experiences of
the VP of Instruction in the community college and identifying significant career
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74
path predictors will help inform and facilitate the advancement of women
in administration. As women obtain administrative roles, it becomes important to
study what paths administrators take to further move up the ladder. Moreover,
educational programs can be developed for student leaders who wish to enter the
field of administrative leadership or educational administration with a better
understanding of what is expected of them.
The representation of members of minority groups in higher education
positions has been an issue at community colleges (Frances & Mensal, 1981; Moore,
1982; Opp & Smith, 1994). A survey released by the American Council on
Education (ACE) in September 2000, shows that the growth of minorities in upper
level administration has been slow. The findings from this study indicate that 75.6%
of CIO’s were Caucasian and 24.4% of CIO’s were from minority groups. Hence, it
is recommended that further studies be done to determine the reasons why minorities
are moving into administrative positions at a slower than expected pace.
The average age of the CIO’s in this study was 55 with a standard deviation
of 6 years with 48.7% of sample falling in the 46-55 range. There was no difference
in average age of men and women in this sample.
This study, as well as other previous investigations, reported different
percentages of degree attainment. Moore (1985) reported that 89% of Chief
Academic Officers in his sample held either the PhD (49%) or the Ed.D (40%).
Vaughan (1990) found that almost 70% of Chief Instruction Officers held either the
PhD (33%) or Ed.D. (36%). Of the 78 Instructional Vice Presidents who responded
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to this survey, 38% of them had a Masters degree as the highest degree
obtained, followed by the PhD (32.9%) and Ed.D. (25.3%). About 58.2% of the
respondents have either a Ph.D. or an Ed.D. and another 7.6% are pursuing such a
degree. The distribution of the disciplines of the highest degrees for the Instructional
Vice President’s was in Education (48%), Agriculture/Natural Sciences (28%) and
Humanities/Fine Arts (14.5%) respectively.
A final conclusion regarding personal characteristics of CIO’s concerns
marital status. In surveying the marital status of all administrative positions studied,
Moore (1985) found that 90% of administrators were married. Vaughan (1990)
reported that 87% of all administrators were married. This study indicated a lower
proportion of married CIO’s (76.9%) and showed that 14.1% of the CIO’s were
divorced. The lower percentage of marriages and high divorce rates may lead to the
conclusion that CIO’s may have a more difficult time managing both marriage and
career.
The demographics of this study are both similar and different compared with
those of earlier research. These differences indicate the need to examine specific
positions within specific contexts. Similar studies focusing on the different types of
two-year institutions are needed to provide a clearer picture of the individuals
serving as CIO’s.
Summary
The profile of the average Vice President of Instruction of a California
public, comprehensive community college is a married male or female Caucasian
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76
with a doctorate. He or she is 55 years old and has served in office for
slightly more than 6 years. He or she has held, on average, three positions in higher
education; two were administrative and one faculty. He/she has about 11 years of
teaching experience and 13 years of administrative experience. The typical CIO
began as a teacher, at some point became a dean of a division or director of a major
component of the college, and then eventually was hired as the Vice President of
Instruction. The findings of this study support previous conclusions that an
individual’s career history influences his/her success in obtaining a Vice President of
Instruction appointment.
The Vice President of Instruction plays a crucial role in the educational
mission of the community college. Likewise, the community college plays a vital
role in the postsecondary educational system of the United States. Therefore, it is
imperative that there be a clear image of the individuals who fill this important
office. A longitudinal study of women in this and other administrative positions in
comprehensive community colleges is needed to identify the unique factors, to
determine changing dynamics, and to lead to institutional transformation and change.
Recommendations
Surprisingly, despite the current literature, this study revealed a lack of
under-representation by w om en am ong V ice Presidents o f Instruction in California’s
community colleges. However, members of minority groups were not largely
represented. Obviously, additional investigation is needed to determine the reasons
for this.
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Based on this study, several areas of action and future research may
be identified.
Areas of Action:
1. Women aspiring to or who are currently in top administrative positions need
to actively pursue an earned doctorate degree. The majority of respondents to
the survey, held a doctorate degree and the six who did not are beginning
programs.
2. For women to advance in administration they need to employ long-range goal
setting and career planning. Women need to recognize that career
advancement is a result of planning and understanding the path that other
Vice Presidents of Instruction have taken.
3. In order to meet their objectives, community colleges must ensure that a pool
of trained individuals is ready to assume leadership roles once the current
leaders retire. Community colleges would best serve themselves by realizing
that their faculty contains a pool of potential leaders. Community colleges
should discuss the possibility of expanding their efforts to groom internal
candidates or work collaboratively to provide training programs on a state or
regional basis.
4. There must be an encouragement for the elimination of institutional gender
stereotypes. As more women become community college leaders, their
presence will help chip away at gender barriers and “double standards” that
may exist at their institutions.
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5. Community colleges have shown greater progress than other
institutions of higher education in the representation of women in
administration. Hopefully, other higher education institutions as well as
business institutions will use community colleges as role models.
Furthermore, the shortage of women mentors will change as more women
move into administrative positions and are able to serve as mentors to other
women aspiring to do the same.
Areas for Further Study: There are several possibilities for additional
research in areas associated with this study. A few suggestions are identified
below, but certainly future research should not be limited to these few:
1. Similar studies should be conducted for other levels of higher education. This
study only addressed Vice Presidents of Instruction in California’s 108
community colleges. Four year colleges/universities, public and/or private, in
California and/or throughout the United states should also be studied.
2. Other research studies should look at other administrative levels.
3. It would be valuable to augment this study with the responses of subordinates
of the Vice President of Instruction who could fill their own perceptions of
their manager’s leadership traits.
4. It would also be valuable to replicate this study in five or ten years and
compare the findings.
5. Similar studies should be conducted for the K-12 sector.
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6. Additional investigation is needed to determine specific barriers to
minority group members assuming the Vice President of Instruction
positions.
7. Additional studies might focus on what strategies would facilitate the
realization of Vice Presidents of Instruction appointments for members of
minority groups.
8. It would also be valuable to look for causes of this increase of women in
leadership at community colleges and apply them to other higher education
institutions.
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86
Appendix A
E-Mail Message Sent to Vice Presidents
Dear Vice Presidents:
My name is Joumana McGowan and I am an instructor at Fullerton College and a
doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California. As part of my doctoral program in educational administration, I am
conducting a research study on the profile and leadership traits of Chief Instructional
Officers in the California community college system. You have been selected for this
study because of your position and your strong experience in the community college
system.
In this process, I am asking you to take a few minutes of your valuable time to
complete and submit this questionnaire via the Internet. The Profile and Leadership
Traits of Chief Instructional Officers Questionnaire is composed of 45 questions.
The average completion time is 5 minutes. The data from the attached survey will
help the researcher do the following:
1. Obtain a clearer picture of who the Chief Instructional Officers are by analyzing
the demographic information.
2. Determine what paths Chief Instructional Officers take prior to holding their
current positions.
3. Analyze the leadership traits that make the Chief Instructional Officers
successful.
The survey is located at http://staffwww.fiillcoll.edu/jmcgowan/survey. The deadline
for you to submit your responses is March 25, 2002.1 want to assure you that you
have my personal guarantee that your responses will remain anonymous.
Your participation in this process is very valuable and greatly appreciated. If you
have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via email or by phone at
714-992-7082 or JMcGowan@fullcoll.edu.
Sincerely,
Joumana McGowan
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87
Appendix B
Profile and Leadership Traits of Chief Instructional Officers
Questionnaire
I-This section is concerned with the profile and career paths that Chief Instructional Officers hold in
community colleges. Respond to each item by checking the appropriate alternative.
1-Please indicate your present position:
© Vice-President
© Interim Vice-President
2- Are you:
©Female
©M ale
3-How long have you served in your present position?
© 0-2 years
© 3-5 years
© 6-10 years
© 11-16 years
© More than 16 years
4-Are you:
© Younger than 25
© 25-35
© 36-45
© 46-55
© 56-65
© 65 and beyond
5-Are you:
© African-American
© American Indian
© Asian American
© Hispanic/Latino
© White/Caucasian
© Other (please specify)_______________________________________
6- Please indicate your marital status:
© Never married
©Married
© Domestic partner
© Separated
© Divorced
7-What is the highest academic degree you have earned?
© AA/AS
© BA /BS
©M A/M S
© Ph.D.
©Ed.D.
© M .D.
© Other health degrees (e.g., DDS, DVM)
© L aw (e.g., JD, LLB, LLD, JSD)
© Other (please specify)____________________________
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88
8-Are you currently enrolled in a degree program? -
© N o, I am not
© Yes, a doctoral degree program
© Yes, a master's degree program
© Yes, a baccalaureate degree program
9-In what discipline did you earn your highest degree?
© Agriculture/Natural Resources
© Biological Sciences
© Business
G Education or Higher Education
© Engineering
© Health Professions
© Humanities/Fine Arts
©Law
© Mathematics
© Medicine
G Physical/Natural Sciences
© Religion/Theology
© Social Sciences
10-Within your entire two-year college professional career, how many years have you been a faculty
member:
© None
G 1-4 years
© 5-10 years
© 11-20 years
© 20 or more years
11-Within your entire two-year college professional career, how many years have you been an
administrator:
©None
© 1-4 years
© 5-10 years
© 11-20 years
© 20 or more years
12-In total, how long have you been involved in educational leadership (please include ALL of your
experience both as a student and/or faculty member and/or administrator?
© This is my first year
© 1-3 years
© 4-6 years
© 7-10 years
© 11-20 years
© 20 or more years
13- Would you seek another administrative and/or leadership position?
© Not likely
© Somewhat likely
© More than likely
© Very likely
© Undecided
14-Position held immediately prior to assuming current Vice-President assignment?
© Chief Academic Officer (responsible for academic programs)
© Chief Student Affairs Officer (directs the student life programs)
© Primary Academic Officer (responsible for a specific component o f the organization such as a division)
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89
6 Chair or Head (heads a specific course of study such as a department or program)
©Faculty
0 Other (positions held outside of education settings)
15-Which of the following best represents your pathway to your current position:
©Faculty ->Department or Program Chair -^Chief Instructional Officer (CIO)
© Faculty -^Primary Academic Officer (Dean)-> CIO
© Department o f Program Chair -^Primary Academic Officer (Dean) -> CIO
© Other Higher Education Post (Director) -> Primary Academic Officer (Dean) -> CIO
© CIO Other Higher Education Post -> CIO
© CIO -> Primary Academic Officer (Dean) CIO
© Department or Program Chair -> Other Higher Education Post - ) CIO
© Faculty Other Higher Education Post CIO
16-Institution (position prior to becoming a Vice-President):
© Same institution as current job
© Different institution than current job
© N ot applicable (i.e. business, government)
17-For how many years did you hold that position (position prior to becoming a Vice-President)?
© 0-2 years
© 3-5 years
© 6-10 years
© 11-16 years
© More than 16 years
18-Position held prior to the position described in question 14:
©Dean
© Director
G Faculty
©Private Business
© Local/State/Federal Government
19- Institution:
© Same institution as current job
© Different institution than current job
© N ot applicable (i.e. business, government)
20- For how many years did you hold that position?
© 0-2 years
© 3-5 years
© 6-10 years
© 11-16 years
© More than 16 years
21-Did you receive assistance and support in learning needed information about your college’ s history and
policies?
© Y es
© N o
II- This section is concerned with your leadership traits. Please select one o f the following responses to
indicate how descriptive each adjective is of you. Campbell Leadership Index (Dr. David Campbell, 1999)
1 -Always 2 - Usually 3 - Sometimes 4 - Occasionally 5 - Seldom 6 - Never
22-Adaptable - Easily adjusts to changing conditions ______________
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2 3-Ambitious - Highly motivated; determined to make progress
24-Daring - Willing to try new experiences
25-Dynamic - Inspires others through energy and enthusiasm
26-Enterprising - Clever in developing and carrying out new plans
27-Experienced - Has seen and done a great deal
28-Farsighted - Shows great vision in imagining the future
29-Original - Thinks and acts in fresh and unusual ways
30-Persuasive - Can influence others toward a plan o f action
31-Affectionate - Acts close, warm and caring toward others
32-Considerate - Thoughtful o f the needs and feelings of others
33-Empowering - Enables others to achieve more than they thought possible
34-Entertaining - Good at amusing others
35- Friendly - Warm and pleasant, nice to be around
36-Credible - Worthy of trust and believable
37-Organized - Plans ahead and then follows through
38-Productive - Gets a lot done
39-Thrifty - Manages money and other organizational resources carefully
40-Trusting - Believes in the goodness o f others
41-Calm - Unhurried and unruffled
42-Flexible - Handles change and ambiguity well
43-Optimistic - Sees the best in people and situations
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Asset Metadata
Creator
McGowan, Joumana
(author)
Core Title
A study of the profile and leadership traits of vice presidents of instruction in the California community college system
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, administration,education, community college,OAI-PMH Harvest,women's studies
Language
English
Contributor
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Hagedorn, Linda Serra (
committee chair
), Picus, Lawrence O. (
committee member
), Sundt, Melora (
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