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Community college students: The effect of parenthood and selected variables on degree -seeking aspirations

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Community college students: The effect of parenthood and selected variables on degree -seeking aspirations

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Content COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS: THE EFFECT OF PARENTHOOD AND
SELECTED VARIABLES ON DEGREE-SEEKING ASPIRATIONS
by
Cathy Berman Douglas
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2004
Copyright 2004 Cathy Berman Douglas
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UMI Number: 3140464
Copyright 2004 by
Douglas, Cathy Berman
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to David Douglas who afforded me the time to
leam and the everlasting encouragement to continue, and to Alex, Erica, and Jon who
perhaps too often understood the meaning of Mom at the computer.
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ill
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the many people who have
assisted me in the completion of this study.
First and foremost, I deeply appreciate the support, understanding, and guidance
of Dr. Linda S. Hagedom, without whom I could not have completed the program.
I extend an earnest thanks to Dr. William G. Tierney whose incomparable
counsel has been invaluable.
I particularly want to thank Dr. Melora Sundt who has provided insightful
recommendations, which strengthened this paper.
I also wish to thank the members of the University of Southem California
Hawaii Cohort for their valuable input and perpetual encouragement.
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IV
Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract vii!
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 2
Purpose of the Study 4
Significance of the Problem 4
Research Questions 5
Methodology 7
Research Population 7
Assumptions g
Limitations 9
Delimitations 9
Definition of Terms 9
Organization of the Study 1Q
Chapter 2
Literature Review 11
Introduction 11
Conclusions 48
Implications 51
Chapter 3
Research Methodology 53
Introduction 53
Research Questions 53
Methodology 5^
Research Design 57
Instrumentation 59
Data Analysis 60
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Chapter 4
Introduction 63
Construct Validity and ReiiabiMty 63
Statistical Analysis Results 65
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 74
Introduction 74
Purpose of the Study 74
Summary of Findings 75
Conclusions 78
Recommendations 81
Limitations 84
References 85
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VI
List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of predictor variables and postsecondary student
degree aspirations research 43
Table 2. Scales and Blocks of Variables 64
Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Regression 67
Table 4. Correlation Matrix of Block Regression Variables 68
Table 5. Model Summary of Regression 69
Table 6. Regression ANOVA Table 69
Table 7. Impact of Student demographics. High school background,
College Effects, and Parent’s Gender on Degree Aspirations 70
Table 8. Correlation Between Degree Aspirations and Number of
Children 71
Table 9. Frequency of Students Who View Themselves as Parents
First and Those Who View Themselves as Students or Workers First 72
Table 10. Mean and Standard Deviation of Student Identity 72
Table 11. Relationship Between Student Identity and Degree Aspirations,
Independent Samples t-test 72
Table 12. Frequency of Males and Females as Parent Primarily 73
Table 13. Relationship Between Males and Females (as Parents Primarily)
And Degree Aspirations 73
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V ll
List of Figures
Figure 1. Carter's Model of Factors Influencing College Students’
Degree Aspirations 22
Figure 2. Percentage Distribution of 1999-2000 Undergraduates’
Parenthood Status 41
Figure 3. Eight variables and their relationship to degree aspirations 54
Figure 4. Aspirations of Males and Females 62
Figure 5. Aspirations and Parent Status 62
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VII!
Abstract
This study analyzed data collected from the Transfer and Retention of Urban
Community College Students (TRUCCS) project to determine if parenthood affects
community college students’ degree-seeking aspirations controlling for gender, age,
English ability, high school GPA, determination, credits earned, and transfer plans. This
study also evaluated how the number of children living in a household, self-perception,
and gender of student parents contributed to degree aspirations. The statistical analysis
of the TRUCCS data found age, gender, English ability, determination, credits earned,
transfer plans, and parenthood statistically significant in affecting degree aspirations.
Findings included a negative correlation between degree aspirations and the number of
children and the self-perception as a parent first. Self-perceived as parents, men had
higher degree aspirations than women. The findings indicate that changes in policy can
be useful for student parents in meeting higher educational degree aspirations.
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CHAPTER 1
Community College Students: The Effect of Parenthood And Selected Variables on
Degree-Seeking Aspirations
Introduction
America’s higher education institutions have evolved over the years to reveal a
noticeably different landscape. There are over 4,000 degree-granting institutions with
14 million students in attendance (Hentschke, 2002). These students have also evolved;
the majority is older, female, and working full or part-time (Garcia & Ratcliff, 1997;
National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2002a, 2002b, 2002d). Approximately
27% of students are parents, and two-thirds of those student parents are women (NCES,
2000). This population impacts the community college as it now enrolls nearly half of
all undergraduates (Kim, 2002; NCES, 2002d).
For this study’s purposes, the concern is with urban community college students
and their degree aspirations. The nature of the problem resides in the likelihood that
parenthood restricts a student’s desire for a higher degree in education more than other
factors such as age, English comprehension, high school GPA, determination to
succeed, credits earned at the community college, and plans to transfer to an institution
that offers a bachelor’s degree. In addition, the gender of the student parents, the
number of children living in the home, and the students’ self-perception may be factors
in degree aspiration levels.
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Background of the Problem
The consequences of aspiring to a lesser degree include being especially
underprepared in a global world. Moreover, it means the student parent may be less
likely to adequately provide for Ms or her family. Without a Mgher education degree,
the job opportunities that become most available pay less money. And part of the
pursuit of a higher degree is that opportunity to earn a more powerful paycheck.
Ashenfleter and Kruger (Ashenfleter & Krueger, 1994) find that each additional year of
schooling increases wages by 12% to 16%, a rather substantial estimate. If caring for
one or more children at home interferes with completing even one year of school, wages
are likely lost. And, if parenthood interferes with obtaining a graduate degree,
substantial wages are lost.
Statement of the Problem
Students at the present time need to further their education both for personal and
vocational successes. Personal success is a separate issue and shall not be exhaustively
studied here, but the vocational aspect is more relevant to tMs study as the current
research on nontraditional students in college—a group heavily concentrated at the
community college and a group in wMch student parents are a member—is strongly
linked to educational level and economic benefits. There are many reports concerning
degree levels and earnings. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
(2002b) reports men and women, twenty-five years old or older who are Mgh school
graduates, have a median income of $34,303 and $24,970 respectively; men and women
with an associate’s degree earn approximately $41,952 and $31,071 respectively, and
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with a bachelor’s degree the earnings incre^e to $56,334 and $40,415 respectively. A
master’s degree earns both men and women more than twice as much as their Mgh
school diploma (NCES, 2002b; US Census Bureau, 1996).
Many researchers who study degree attainment or educational attrition
acknowledge the importance of measuring educational aspirations as aspirations are
believed to have an effect on outcomes such as college attendance, persistence, or
graduate enrollment (Carter, 2002). These prior studies often include psychological and
social characteristics (Sewell & Hauser, 1992), persistence (Hagedom & Maxwell,
2002; Liu & Liu, 1999; Tinto, 1993), occupational aspirations (Knottnerus & Guan,
1997), race (Mau & Bikos, 2000; Nora, 1993), and gender (Burke & Hoelter, 1988;
Jacobs, 1999; Mau & Bikos, 2000; Williams, 2002). Each recognizes the predictive
aspect of aspirations on attainment; however, these studies neither concentrate on
degree aspirations as outcomes nor do they focus on student parents.
Many of the studies on aspirations are not easily generalized to student parents
because the results are antiquated, or the participants in the sample are traditional
students or White men (Mau & Bikos, 2000). There is a glaring lack of research on
community college students who are also parents. In addition, literature on the effects of
the conflicts student parents face is limited. Without a doubt, a challenge in higher
education today is meeting the needs of a diverse student body and finding factors
involved in students’ selection and attainment of their educational aspirations. Therein
lies the usefulness of this study—to find important factors influencing educational
aspirations of a large group of nontraditional students and define those factors, so
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accommodations may be proposed. This study will add to the literature on aspirations of
student parents.
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of parenthood on
degree aspirations of urban community college students in the Los Angeles Communit}^
College District (LACCD). Predictors of degree aspirations include selected
demographics, precollege attributes such as ability and determination, college
achievement, and parenthood. In exploring the effect of parenthood, this study also
investigates differences in the relationship among number of children, self-perception of
parents, and gender of parents.
Significance of the Problem
The community college is the primary supplier of adult vocational training
services (Gill & Leigh, 2003). It is the place nearly half of all first-time freshmen begin
their postsecondary schooling (Kim, 2002; Laanao, 2001). Though community colleges
democratize higher education, they have a high dropout rate; 44% of the 1995 entrants
had left college by 1998, with no degree earned (Dougherty, 2002). The Los Angeles
Community College District (LACCD) services a large student population; 128,638
students enrolled in the fail o f2002. Of that figure, 74.5% are enrolled part-time, 53%
are nontraditionally aged (over 24 years old), approximately 38% are parents, and 7%
have no high school diploma ( LACCD, 2000; LACCD, 2003a). Those aforementioned
characteristics define a nontraditional population, and one that has a higher dropout rate
than traditional students (Horn & Carroll, 1998). Within the nontraditional student
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group, between 75% and 80% are student parents (or they may be students with
dependents) and, therefore, at a greater risk of dropping out and abandoning their
degree aspirations than are traditional students (NCES, 2002d; Reynolds & Pemberton,
2001).
This is a particular issue for the students enrolled at the LACCD as they have
high degree aspirations. Thirty-eight percent of all LACCD students aspire to a
bachelor’s degree, 29% a master’s degree, 13% a professional degree, and 13% a
doctoral degree (LACCD, 2000). These are degrees beyond what the community
college offers, so transfer to a senior institution is involved in degree attainment.
Though transfer rates are difficult to measure, they are nonetheless considered too low.
This study will benefit students, faculty, and administrators at the community college
level by simultaneously providing key predictors of degree aspirations and identifying
differences in the aspirations among student parents. Having a better understanding of
predictors endemic to the student parent population guides development of institutional
aims and services to reduce the risk of attrition, raise the rate of transfer, and increase
educational aspirations and attainment.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study were:
QUESTION 1: What is the effect of parenthood on degree aspirations
controlling for gender, age, English ability, high school GPA, total determinism,
number of credits earned, and plans to transfer to a 4-year institution? Are the
significant variables significant for both mothers and fathers?
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QUESTION 2: Is there a significant difference between the number of children
living in the home and degree aspirations?
QUESTION 3; Do students who perceive themselves as a parent first and a
student or worker second have lower degree aspirations than students who perceive
themselves as a student or a worker first?
QUESTION 4: Are male students who perceive themselves as a parent first
more likely to have higher degree aspirations than female students who perceive
themselves as a parent first?
These research questions produced the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1:
Hi: As an effect of parenthood, there will be a significant decrease in degree
aspirations over and above the effect of age, high school GPA, English ability, credits
earned, plans for transfer to a four-year institution, total determination.
Ho: As an effect of being a parent in school, there will be no difference in
degree aspirations.
Hypothesis 2:
Hi: There is a significant difference between the number of children living in the
home and degree aspirations.
Ho: There will be no significant difference between the number of children
living in the home and degree aspirations.
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Hypothesis 3;
Hi: Students who perceive themselves as a parent first will have lower degree
aspirations than students who perceive themselves as a student or worker first.
Ho: There will be no difference for students who perceive themselves as a
parent first.
Hypothesis 4;
Hi: There will be a significant difference in degree aspirations between men who
perceive themselves as a parent first and women who perceive themselves as a parent
first.
Ho: There will be no significant difference in degree aspirations and gender of
parents who perceive themselves as a parent first.
Methodology
Research Population
This is a secondary data analysis of the TRUCCS Project. The “stratified
random sampling procedure of 5,000 students attending college at nine campuses”
(Transfer and Retention of Urban Community College Students [TRUCCS], 2000) was
taken in the Los Angeles Community College (LACCD) district. The campuses were
located in a large metropolitan area with a large population trained in health and
technology and other fields that required skills learned through post-secondary
education. The demographics of these LACCD (2003a) students were as follows;
• Over 53 percent were above age twenty-four,
• 80 percent were ethnic minorities;
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• 60 percent were female;
• 76.5 percent focused on transfer, obtaining a general education, or
completing vocational or technical training as an educational goal;
• Over 73 percent planed to transfer to a four-year college or university;
• Over 34 percent had some problem (small to very large) understanding the
English language;
• Nearly 43 percent had a self-reported High School GPA of B- or better;
• 38 percent were student parents.
Assumptions
For this study, the following assumptions are made:
1. The measures were reliable and valid indicators of the constructs to be studied.
2. The data were accurately recorded and analyzed.
3. The subjects were assessed in a quiet, controlled atmosphere.
4. The subjects responded to the best of their ability.
5. The purposes, processes, and elements of the framework studied had a degree of
applicability and generalizability to schools and districts throughout the country.
6. The research, data gathering, and findings and conclusions of the study
represented “good research.”
7. The TRUCCS sample was representative of students in urban community
colleges.
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Limitations
For this study, the following limitations are noted:
1. TMs study is limited to subjects who agreed to participate voluntarily.
2. It is limited to the number of subjects surveyed and the amount of time available to
conduct this study.
3. Validity of this study is limited to the reliability of the instruments used.
Delimitations
The study will confine itself to the Transfer and Retention of Urban Community'
College Students (TRUCCS) project. The study will focus on degree aspirations of
students who have children (hereafter referred to as student parents).
Definition of Terms
Degree aspirations—in relation to this study, degree aspirations refer to the
level of degree attainment a student ideally desires.
Degree attainment—is the degree an individual receives upon completion of a
higher education program of studies.
Educational expectations—refer to the belief an individual has that Ms or her
degree aspirations can be reached in the future.
Four-year institution (4-year)—is any postsecondary institution offering a
bachelor’s degree. It may or may not offer graduate degrees.
Senior institution—is a 4-year institution.
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Student parent—refers to men and women who attend a postsecondary
institution and have one or more children or stepchildren. Custody does not apply to this
definition.
Two-year institution (2-year)—is a postsecondary institution, public or private,
that offers an associate’s degree but does not offer a bachelor’s, master’s, professional,
or doctorate degree.
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study presents the introduction, the statement of the problem,
the purpose of the study. This chapter also presents the questions to be answered, the
significance of the study, the definitions of terms, the assumptions, limitations,
delimitations, and the organization of the study.
Chapter 2 is a review of recent literature. This chapter also includes an
introduction, conclusions, and implications.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including a description
and rationale of the sample, the data collection procedures, and a description of
instrument development. The methods of analysis of the data are presented.
Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study. Descriptive and inferential statistics
are used to present and analyze the data.
Chapter 5 summarizes the findings from the literature review and this research.
Conclusions are also drawn and recommendations made.
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CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
Introduction
Understanding the factors that lead to degree aspirations gives comiminity
college students, faculty, and policymakers information needed to bring students closer
to positive educational expectations and eventual degree attainment. I begin this chapter
with a review of the role of the community college in general and the Los Angeles
Community College District (LACCD) in particular. I then review the current research
on degree aspirations and survey research that attempts to identify relationships
between students’ degree aspirations and the effects of various demographic
characteristics, students’ precollege aspects, college measures, and parenthood. This is
followed by a review of student parents’ risk factors as nontraditional students on
postsecondary campuses and the obstacles student parents face external to campus. I
close with a summary, implications and recommendations for further research.
Literature Review
The community college has been in existence since the turn of the twentieth
century. It is an institution of open access, welcoming both the college-ready student
and the academically underprepared. Much like our Lady Liberty, the community
college offers a lighted path to advancement, and many diverse people traverse that
path. Since its inception, over 100 million people have attended a community college
(American Association of Community Colleges [AACC], 2002).
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Community colleges began as “junior colleges” with a purpose to “develop a
different type of curriculum suited to the larger and ever-changing.. .needs of the entire
community” (Cohen & Brawer, 1996a). The termjimior college progressed to the more
common term of community college, and in keeping to the college’s purpose, the
curriculum also progressed to include technical, vocational, and general education. The
technical and vocational curricula offer a variety of adult training services while the
general education curriculum includes transfer level academic instruction.
Two historic instruments helped the community college grow and succeed. First,
the 1944 passage of the Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill) boosted enrollments
at all higher education institutions, including community colleges. Second, a 1947
report by the Commission on Higher Education for American Democracy (known as the
Truman Commission Report) refined the purpose of the community college and gave it
this mission;
Community colleges should charge little or no tuition; serve as cultural centers
for the community; offer continuing education for adults, in addition to technical
and general education, which meets the needs of the local community; be locally
controlled; emphasize civic responsibility; and be part of the state’s and nation’s
system of higher education (as cited in Van Every, 1999).
The fundamental objective of the community college is to equalize access to
higher education. There are 1,171 public and private community colleges in the nation
charging an average yearly tuition of $1,518 (AACC, 1999). People from all walks of
life take advantage of the opportunity, and the population on community college
campuses begins to reflect a diverse group of students. Minority, majority, wealthy, low
socioeconomic status, first generation, nontraditionally aged students and students who
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13
are pareats cluster at the community college. The diverse population also includes
students who are employed, students without high school diplomas and those who are
deemed academically underprepared (see Evelyn, 2002; Horn & Carroll, 1996; Kim,
2002).
Functions o f the Community College
The comiminity college offers three principal functions: a service education;
preparation for technical and vocational occupations; and a general education that can
be used for transfer credits (Carlan, 2001; Gill & Leigh, 2003; Townsend, 2001;
VanEvery, 1999). Students who attend the community college are there for various
reasons, and the reasons for attending the college can change from one principle
fiinction to another. The community college environment is quite flexible.
In a 1988 recommendation by the Commission on the Future of Community
Colleges, the institution was to work more closely with the needs of its community.
Partnerships with businesses and community civic groups began to materialize (AACC,
2002), Courses emerged that reflected the desires of the community. For example, basic
finance classes helped individuals leam how to spend their capital and make
investments. Remedial English courses were offered to help both native speakers who
were weak in English as well as those for whom English was not their native language.
Educational services.
The service of knowledge is an important function of a community college.
Remedial education is one example of that service. Students intending to receive a
degree or certificate may be underprepared for college math and English classes. The
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remedial courses prepare students for college level classes by working with students to
improve their knowledge and understanding of reading, writing, or math. The courses
integrate students' prior skills with the skills required to succeed academically at the
next course level. Remedial classes, however, do not contribute credit hours toward
one’s educational program. They are considered not transferable.
The service of education also provides for students who enroll to leam for
learning’s sake. These students may have no intention of entering a program or
completing a degree. But because the community college offers numerous courses
ranging from art history to computer technology to foreign languages, students are able
to increase their knowledge. The remedial classes mentioned above often enroll non-
degree-seekers who are merely trying to team English or improve their math skills.
Vocational training.
The second function of the community college is vocational training. The degree
for vocational (or technical) training is often called a “terminal” degree because it offers
the final training needed for particular occupations. A vocational or technical degree is
usually designated as the Associate in Applied Science (A.A.S.) or the Associate of
Applied Arts (A. A, A.).
The community college is the primary supplier of adult vocational training
services, offering a variety of programs and courses (Gil! & Leigh, 2003). Examples
include terminal vocational training programs and “customized or contract courses
designed to meet the particular needs of local employers” (p. 134). Customized courses
are intended to train workers for a particular skill such ^ bookkeeping or childcare.
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Contract courses can involve larger numbers of students and more dollars for the
college. For example, if a state’s administration recognizes the need for professionals in
the biotechnology field, then the community college can offer the training. According to
an administrator at a public community college, the state first approves funds for the
biotechnology training and then contracts it out to the college. The community college,
in return, provides teachers and facilities for the training. Notification of the new focus
area (biotech training) and marketing the appeal for that training resides with the
college. Students sent from the state, from local hospitals, or anyone else who wishes to
specialize can receive the certification or training in biotechnology through the
participating community college (Walsh, 2001).
General education.
The third function of the community college is to provide a general
undergraduate education that students can use for transfer to the 4-year institution. This
transfer function of the community college is an important one. It is a “stepping stone to
educational upward mobility” (Lanaan, 2000, p.24). If students have the aspirations and
capabilities, they can complete their first two years of the bachelor’s degree at the
community college, then transfer to a senior institution for their junior and senior year
courses.
The general education curriculum at the community college culminates with a
“transfer” degree, usually called an Associate in Arts (A.A.) or an Associate in Science
(A.S.). It is not a terminal degree. The transfer degree programs include specific
college-level math and English courses needed for attainment of a bachelor’s degree.
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The math courses typically entail high-level math tasks while the English courses
involve an extensive composition and literature orientation. Those transfer, or
academic, math and English courses are more complex than the non-transfer math and
English courses. Thus, the community college student enrolled in the transfer program
is one who is becoming academically prepared to pursue a bachelor’s degree at a senior
institution.
Los Angeles Community College District
The Los Angeles Community College District (LACCD) is the largest
commimity college district in America. It has nine campuses that cover more than 800
square miles of Los Angeles and accommodate nearly 130,000 students each year
(LACCD, 2003b). All nine of the campuses are unique, but they have a central mission
“to provide quality education at a reasonable price to transfer students; adults needing to
leam or upgrade their skills; employers seeking to retrain their workers; and community
members interested in life-long learning” (LACCD, p.l). The transfer function has a
primary position in the mission.
LACCD’s former Chancellor, Mark Dmmmond, view^ed the role of his district
colleges as offering an opportunity for anyone in the community who wants to succeed.
To facilitate this role, Drummond expected accessibility to the colleges to be
economically inviting, effective, and appealing. Therefore, classes in the LACCD are
both reasonably priced and accommodating. Classes are held morning, noon, and
night—and even on weekends. The flexible scheduling allows students who are
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employed, still in high school, or preparing to transfer to a senior institution find class
times that fit into their often complicated lives (LACCD, 2003b).
The LACCD has a diverse population. Of the 128,638 students enrolled in the
fall of 2002, eighty percent were minority students with over half reporting
Latino/Latina as their ethnicity, 40% did not speak English as their first language, 40%
lived at or below poverty, 53% were nontraditionally aged (over 24 years old), and 38%
were parents of children—newborn to over 18 years of age. Twenty-six percent of the
students enrolled in a full time course load (LACCD, 2003b).
With so large a population, Drummond took pride in the fact that 60% of the
California State University (CSU) graduates attended at least one community college.
Drummond was also pleased because a recently passed $1.2 billion bond measure could
be used to improve or construct laboratories, libraries, student services centers, and
cMld-care facilities (LACCD, 2003b). He believed the LACCD was living up to its
mission.
Transfer rates o f the LACCD.
Since transfer is a vita! function of the community college, it would seem that
valid, standard measures of transfer would exist. However, there are difficulties with
identifying the transfer student. Various educational goals of students coupled with data
problems interfere with a standard method for the calculation of transfer.
For example, one of the difficulties in calculating transfer rates lies in the
educational goals of students being so disparate. If a given year has more students
enrolling in the vocational track, then that cohort will most likely reveal a lower transfer
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rate. A disproportionate number of nontraditionally aged students less likely to aspire to
a higher degree can also make the transfer rate seem low, unhealthy (LACCD, 2002).
Conversely, an increase in enrollment of traditionally aged students can look like an
eventual gain in the rate of transfer. In truth, it only reflects a younger, transfer-oriented
student body. Thus, a transfer rate calculated at any given time may not accurately
represent what it tries to measure.
George Prather of the Institutional Research and Information office of the
LACCD elaborates on the problems in calculating transfer rates. He uses data from the
California Post-Secondary Education Commission (CFEC) which maintains records of
new transfers entering each fall into the UC and CSU systems (LACCD, 2002). The
total number of transfers is calculated using the CPEC data for a three-year period
ending in 1999.Those data, however, eliminate all students who transfer to out of state
institutions. Absent, too, are many transfers to private institutions. CPEC records
transfers into California’s private senior institutions, but the responses from those
institutions are completely voluntary. Plus, private institutions that have responded one
year may not respond the next year, further complicating consistency.
There are even more problems with establishing a transfer rate. Only the transfer
students who last attended a community college in the LACCD are included. LACCD
students who transfer to a community college outside the district and then transfer to a
California 4-year institution are not included in the transfer rate. LACCD students who
transfer to a 4-year institution outside of California are not included either. Thus, the
rate of transfer for the LACCD can be underestimated.
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Prather claims the transfer rate for the LACCD is 42%. That figure includes Ms
“reasonable” assumption that 12.7% of California students transfer outside the state
(LACCD, 2002). Also included in Ms figure is Ms estimation of the number of students
transferring from the LACCD to private institutions.
Chancellor Drummond claims that the transfer program of the LACCD is
established as among the most successful programs in California. Recall earlier that
60% of CSU graduates transfer from an LACCD transfer program; 30% of UC
graduates also begin their higher education at an LACCD campus (LACCD, 2003b).
WHle the rate of transfer may be difficult to decipher, the LACCD certainly makes an
impact on student aspirations and provides a diverse group of students the chance to
earn a Mgher degree.
Degree Aspirations in Higher Education
Research has shown that students’ aspirations for a degree affect the outcomes
of retention, degree attainment, and graduate school enrollment (see Astin, 1993; Tinto,
1993). Most researchers agree that degree aspirations are among the most significant
predictors of educational attainment (Mau & Bikes, 2000; Reynolds & Pemberton,
2001). For individuals who want to expand their knowledge or aspire to work at more
prestigious jobs than the typical high school graduate, educational aspirations and
attainment are fundamental (Forman, 2002).
Thus fax, the research on degree aspirations as end result is scarce. Most
research that includes student ^pirations examines a number of other variables along
with aspirations and focuses on outcomes such as persistence or attainment (Carter,
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2002; Mau & Bikos, 2000). For example, “other variables” often combined with
aspirations include precollege demop'apMcs such as gender, age, English ability, and
socioeconomic status (SES) (see (Astin, 1984,1993,1998; Blecher, Michael, &
Hagedom, 2002; Cohen & Drawer, 1996a; Ginorio & Huston, 2001; Hagedom &
Maxwell, 2002; Jacobs, 1999; Laanan, 2000; McClelland, 1990; McCormick, 1997;
Reynolds & Pemberton, 2001; Widlak, 1997), family, peer, and institutional influence
(see Arredondo, 1995; Astin, 1984,1993; Downey, 2001; Pascarella, 1984), academic
experience (see (Arredondo, 1995; Burke & Hoelter, 1988; Carter, 2002; Hyers &
Zimmerman, 2002; Laanan, 2000; Mau & Bikos, 2000; Tinto, 1993), and psychological
characteristics (see Blecher, Michael, & Hagedom, 2002; Mau & Bikos, 2000; Sewell
& Hauser, 1992).
Carter (2002) developed a theoretical and conceptual mode! based on previous
research. It comprises four blocks of variables that affect degree aspirations. See Figure
l.The first block is called “Pre-college Characteristics” (p. 151). It includes
demographic variables as well as high school achievement, extemal support, and
knowledge of career paths. The first block affects the next block of variables.
The second block is called “Initial Aspirations and Goals” (Carter, 2002, p.
151). Included are variables such as intellectual self-concept, institutional choice, and
degree aspirations. It is important to know the type of institution students choose (for
instance, two-year or four-year, low cost or high cost tuition, predominantly White
institutions or historically Black colleges and universities) because research has shown
that institutional contexts have an influence on students’ aspirations (Burke & Hoelter,
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2 1
1988; Pascarella, 1984; St. John, Oescher, & Andrieu, 1992). That is particElarly
sigmficant to this topic as it centers on community college students who are parents.
The pre-college characteristics (block one) and initial aspirations and goals (block two)
affect the third block, “Institutional Experiences/Extemai-to-Campus Involvement”
(p.151).
The variables in the third block include structural characteristics of the
institution such as size and selectivity, institutional contexts such as campus climate and
student involvement, and extemal contexts such as employees and family. The three
blocks of variables affect the fourth block, “Academic Achievement” (p. 152). Lastly,
the variables from all four blocks have an effect on degree aspirations, the final block.
Empirical studies of selected variables from each block are explained below.
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Figure 1. Carter’s Model of Factors Influencing College Students’
Degree Aspirations
Degree
Aspirations
Academic
achievement
Initial aspirations & goals
Seif-confidence
Institutional choice
Initial degree aspirations
Career goals
Institutional nature
Size, selectivity & control
Campus climate
Student involvement
External relationships to
family & work duties
Pre-college characteristics
Family status/SES
Race
Age
Gender
High school achievement
Family & others’ support
Awareness of degree/caree iths
In what follows is a review of eight variables based on Carter’s model on degree
aspirations. Seven variables, including two scales, English ability and goal orientation
(a determination scale), are derived from Hagedom et al.’s (2002) community college
model of student life. The variables are gender, age, English ability, high school GPA,
determination, transfer plans, and parenthood. Added to this review is credits earned, a
variable that has generated little research, yet it contributes importantly to educational
outcomes of community college students. When possible, specific studies on
community college students are discussed. Parenthood is the final variable presented in
this review.
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Gender
The United States Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments in
1972, making it illegal to discriminate in education on the basis of gender. With fewer
barriers, women hastened to college campuses and eventually outnumbered men.
Between 1989 and 1999, the total number of all women on campus increased 13%
while the total number of men increased only 5% (NCES, 2001a). Today, over 56% of
postsecondary students enrolled in America’s higher education institutions are women
(NCES, 2002d). Fifty-eight percent of enrolled community college students are women
(AACC, 1999).
Until the early 1990s, men sustained higher degree aspirations than women
(Carter, 2002; Mau & Bikos, 2000; McClelland, 1990). Nowadays, however, women
may have significantly higher degree aspirations than men (Mau & Bikos, 2000).
Among undergraduates, 67.7% of women aspire for graduate degrees compared to
65.2% of men who aspire for graduate degrees (Astin, 1998). In three decades, women
have increased their graduate degree aspirations by 188 to 411% while men’s
aspirations for graduate degrees have risen by only 1% to 23% (Astin).
There is one institution that has an effect on men and women’s degree
aspirations, and that is marriage. McClelland (1990) finds both men and women
significantly lower their degree aspirations once they marry but only if those men and
women are less socially privileged. Bourdieu (1973) includes social class, gender, race,
ethnicity, and religion to define privilege (cited in McClelland). The privileged are
generally men from upper White-collar homes. However, Dougherty (2002) asserts that
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most community college students tend to come from less privileged families. Recall,
too, the student population of the LACCD includes 40% living at or below poverty level
and nearly 80% are minorities (LACCD, 2003b). Marriage may significantly lower
degree aspirations for both genders especially if they are community college students.
Marriage has no effect on the degree aspirations of socially privileged men and women.
Thus far, the rise in numbers of women on campuses and their increased
aspirations has lead to a rise in degrees achieved. In fact, most associate’s degrees are
awarded to women, as are most bachelor’s degrees (Jacobs, 1999). More community
college women than men transfer to a 4-year institution with an associate’s degree, and
once there, more women than men persist to attain bachelor’s degrees (NCES, 2002c).
Additionally, just about half of all master’s and professional degrees go to women and
nearly 40% of the doctoral degrees (Jacobs). Since Title IX, women have had higher
degree aspirations and attainment than men. Yet, women have not outperformed men in
high-level occupational attainment (McClelland, 1990).
Age
The chronological age of students in higher education institutions often falls into
two categories: traditional or nontraditional. Traditionally aged students are generally
defined as those aged 24 or below; and nontraditionally aged students are 25 and over
(Adelman, 2003; Carlan, 2001; Grimes & David, 1999; Kim, 2002). While traditionally
aged students dominate the population at higher education institutions, enrollments of
nontraditionally aged students are growing. In 1970,28% of all postsecondary students
were nontraditionally aged; by 1999, that figure grew to 39% (NCES, 2002b).
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Furthermore, nontraditionally aged students are predicted to increase another 3% by
2006 (Carlan, 2001). Currently, the average age of enrolled postsecondary students is
approximately 26 for men and 27 for women (NCES, 2002b).
At the community college level, 46% of students are 25 years old or older
(AACC, 1997), and the average age is 29 (Adelman, 2003; AACC, 2002). The fact that
so many community college students are nontraditionally aged suggests that two-year
institutions look closely at the profile of the older student and see what program
development services are needed to facilitate educational aspirations.
At both the 2-year and 4-year institutions, the traditionally aged students have
higher degree aspirations than nontraditionally aged students (Laanan, 2000; Widlak,
1997). The implication is that nontraditionally aged students have had their aspirations
constricted over time. Carter (1999), however, finds age is a significant predictor of
White students’ aspirations but not of African American or Latino/Latina students’
aspirations (cited in Carter, 2002).
English Ability
The definitions of English ability and literacy are numerous. Perhaps, a good
definition, one associated with postsecondary education, is to have the capability of
“using printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one’s goals,
and to develop one’s knowledge and potential” (Cohen & Brawer, 1996a, p.267).
English ability may be the springboard to advancement in college.
Capability in English for reading, writing, and critical thinking is important,
even for students who enroll in a minimum of classes and have no aspirations for a
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degree. Faculty lecture in English, texts are written in English, and students submit tests
and essays in English. Unquestionably, students who aspire for educational degrees
need English skills to be ready for the academic demands of college. But does English
ability affect degree aspirations?
There is little empirical research found on college students’ English ability and
the outcome of degree aspirations, which is a problem considering English is not the
first language for 13% of enrolled community college students (AACC, 1999). Yet, the
importance of students’ ability with English seems obvious, especially when
researching outcomes of an education in America. Ginorio and Huston (2001) suggest
that ability with English is one of the most important factors in educational
achievement. And, if students are hindered in understanding English, particularly
students for whom English is their second language, that hindrance will negatively
affect educational outcomes (Ginorio & Huston, 2001).
English ability and aspiring for a degree.
In Widlak’s (1997) study of changing degree aspirations of community college
students, she includes students’ success in an English composition course as an
independent variable. The study examines characteristics of community college students
who begin their higher education without aspirations for a degree but change their
intentions and actually attain an associate’s degree. Does ability in the English
composition course have an effect on changing students’ aspirations from no degree
sought to degree sought and attained?
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To answer that question, Widlack (1997) examines students who are high school
graduates entering a large mid-western commimity college instead of a 4-year
institution. She notes that most students entering community college for the first time
enroll in the nontransfer, or lower level English; however, more of the associate degree
graduates begin in the more advanced (transfer) English course. Nonetheless, her
findings reveal no significant difference between level of English initially taken,
success in the English course, and change in transfer or vocational degree aspirations.
High School GPA
The studies on the effects of high school GPA and college degree aspirations are
mixed. A pre-college characteristic such as high school achievement can affect the type
of postsecondary institution students attend. For example, higher achieving, higher SES
students cluster at the more prestigious colleges and universities whereas lower
achieving, lower SES students cluster at the less prestigious institutions, particularly at
two-year institutions. The institutions, in turn, have an effect on the student’s
aspirations (Carter, 2002). Therefore, the academic standing of a student in high school
can be a predictor of that student’s degree aspirations.
In a study of variables related to high school performance, Farrell and Pollard
(1987) found GPA has a considerable effect on students’ aspirations (cited in Mau &
Bikos, 2000). Burke and Hoelter (1988) found GPA has direct effects on aspirations of
White students but not of Afiican American students. Yet, another study found the
significance of high school GPA lies in SES, not academic achievement (Arredondo,
1995).
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Laanan (2000) used a sample of 13,000 commimit>' college first time freshmen
to study students’ degree aspirations. The students were separated into two groups:
those enrolled in private and public community colleges in America. After controlling
for gender, age, race, parents’ education and income levels, simple correlations revealed
high school GPA is not a significant predictor of degree aspirations for either group.
Literature on the effect of high school GPA on degree aspirations of community
college students is sparse. Therefore, it is difficult to say whether Laanan’s (2000)
findings can be directly supported by other studies. As a secondary comparison, Hyers
and Zimmerman (2002) studied the academic characteristics of 174 students at a two-
year technical institution; however, the focus was on retention and attainment instead of
aspirations. Also, high school ranking was substituted for high school GPA.
The study used logistic regression to explore the predictive ability of high school
ranking on retention and degree attainment of community college students within three
years of enrollment, but it also tested the use of segmentation modeling. This type of
modeling “places observations into statistically mutually exclusive subsets based on the
values of independent variables” (Hyers & Zimmerman, 2002, p.6). In this manner,
segmentation modeling found subgroups of basic tendencies.
For example, in a logistic regression, the study found all positive coefficients for
high school ranking. This means higher rates of retention and attainment are found for
students with higher high school ranking. When studied using the segmentation
modeling, high school ranking was not always a positive coefficient. The finding
concluded that the highest range of high school ranking does not characterize students
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who graduate with degrees, but the mid to high range does (Hyers & Zimmerman,
2002). The researchers did not explain why the highest ranking is not a positive
coefficient. Perhaps the students with the highest high school ranking transfer out of the
technical college to pursue 4-year bachelor’s degree aspirations.
The study also found that first-quarter achievement is a strong predictor of
students earning a degree. Students with high school ranks above the median value were
significantly less likely to earn a degree if their first-quarter college GPA is 2.24 or less
(Hyers & Zimmerman, 2002). Early success in college is important for students who
graduate in the upper half of their high school class.
Research on college completion or degree attainment supports the assertion that
high school GPA is a strong predictor (Astin, 1993; Tinto, 1993). For Astin, high school
GPA was found to be the strongest predictor of college completion. Although college
completion is a different variable from degree aspirations, it is reasonable to see a link
between the two; a student has aspirations for a degree that he or she is completing.
However, recall Laanan’s (2000) finding that high school GPA is not a significant
predictor of community college students’ degree aspirations. Further research is needed.
Psychological Variables and Determination
Research has shown that high school students with higher educational
aspirations differ from their counterparts with lower aspirations. Students with high
aspirations are more likely to have a higher self-esteem and an internal locus of control
(Mau, 1995). In addition, Shepard (1992) states that students with higher aspirations are
more determined to have a prestigious job, and they spend more time contemplating
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their college plans (cited (Mau & Bikos, 2000). Research suggests “early and sustained
aspirations are important in the future attainments of students” (Carter, 2002, p. 156).
The more time and determination a student has aspiring for a degree, the more likely he
or she will earn that degree.
Laanan (2000) studied the determination of students at a community college. He
compared community college freshmen’s degree aspirations at private and public
institutions. Their determination (or drive to succeed) was a significant predictor of
public but not private community college students’ aspirations. However, the
determination to “become an authority in [one’s] own field and influence political
structure” was found to be a significant predictor for both public and private community
college students. The students determined to master expertise in a field of study and to
influence politics encouraged higher degree aspirations because academic credentials
were necessary to achieve those goals (Laanan).
Adelman (2003) holds the attribute “determination” accountable for community
college transfer students’ bachelor’s degree achievement. In his work, the community
college students are separated as either “sub-dominant” or “dominant” (p. 29). Adelman
classified community college students as sub-dominant if they took more than one
remedial course, earned less than 60 percent of the general education credits required to
transfer as a junior, and transfered to a 4-year institution. Nearly 77% of the sub-
dominant group of students who aspired to achieve a bachelor’s degree achieved the
degree. Adelman cites determination as a factor in the high achievement rate.
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Number o f Credits Earned at the Community College
No literature on the relationship between the number of credits earned at the
community college and degree aspirations was found. Rather than degree aspirations as
the outcome, there are statistics on degree attainment. For example, found in the
NELS88 study are statistics on students’ degree attainment based on the number of
credits earned. Participants from the study include only those students who started out
in community colleges right after their high school graduation in 1992 and who had
accumulated more than 10 credits by December 2000 (Adelman).
Again, the students were divided into groups called “dominant” and “sub
dominant” (p.29). Dominant students earned 30 or more credits and at least 60 % of the
undergraduate credits needed to transfer as a junior from the community college. Sub-
dominant students attended the community college for at least a year’s worth of credits,
earned less than 60 % of the credits needed to transfer as a junior, and transfered out
rather than stop out or drop out.
The dominant group exhibited lower degree attainment of bachelor’s degrees
than did the sub-dominant group. Thirty-six percent of dominant students earned an
associate’s degree, and 6.3% went on to earn a bachelor’s degree. Five percent of the
sub-dominant students earned an Associate’s degree, but 76.3% earned a bachelor’s
(Adelman, 2003). The study revealed that students who earned fewer credits at the
community college actually went on to earn significantly more bachelor’s degrees than
those students who earned more credits at the community college. In spite of that
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information, the study did not correlate earning higher degrees with spending less time
enrolled at a commimity college.
Transfer
Realizing higher degree aspirations (bachelor’s, master’s, doctorate, or
professional degree) for community college students involves transferring. In fact, the
transfer ftmction is vital. It allows a student to attend a commimity college without
giving up hope for a higher degree. By and large, the research on transfer plans focuses
on the rate of transfer, the advantages or disadvantages of transferring from a
community college to a 4-year institution, or degree attainment (Gill & Leigh, 2003;
Kozeracki & Gerdeman, 2000; Laanan, 2000; McCormick, 1997). The research does
not focus on the effect of transfer plans on degree aspirations.
Transfer rates are difficult to compare for a variety of reasons. Previously
discussed are the sketchy rates of transfer that are compiled with missing data, but
difficulties also exist because of the different sample populations used in studies. In
1995, Rendon reported a national transfer rate of 22% for students who began their
postsecondary education at a community college and then transfered to a 4-year
institution. In a later report by McCormick and Carroll (1997), data from the BPS
Longitudinal Study seem to corroborate Rendon’s finding. The report found a transfer
rate of approximately 22.5%; however, the sample was from community college
students who first aspired for a bachelor’s degree and then actually transfered to a 4-
year institution (McCormick & Carroll). Excluded from that sample, then, are students
without bachelor’s degree aspirations who transfered to a senior institution. Therefore,
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McCormick and CarrolFs finding is not measuring what Rendon measures. More
recently, Adeiman’s (2003) study using the NELS88 data reported a 26% transfer rate
for students who are aged 18 to 27.
In addition to rates of transfer, there are three other components of transfer to
mention. The first component is the advantage of access to Mgher education.
Community colleges are open door institutions offering attendance to those with higher
degree aspirations who may or may not be accepted to a 4-year institution. The second
component is the articulation between community colleges and 4-year institutions. For
students to be able to transfer to a 4-year institution and transfer credits, coherent
articulation agreements must exist. Finally, many courses taken by both the transfer and
terminal degree-seeking students do not follow the guidelines of existing articulation
agreements. Therefore, some transferable courses do not convey, and some terminal
courses not meant for transfer do convey. Currently, it is not known how these transfer
issues affect degree aspirations.
Advantages and disadvantages o f transfer.
As explained above, a primary function of the community college is to offer the
advantage of access to higher education. The advantages to beginning one’s bachelor
degree at the community college and transferring to a 4-year institution are plentiful.
Admission is easier for degree-seeking students who do not yet meet the academic
requirements of 4-year institutions. Tuition is significantly less and so is the cost of
living (Stripiin, 2000b).
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Another advantage is access for first-time students who work fiili-time. The
community college climate seems more accommodating. For example, 35% of first
time enrollees in public community colleges worked M l time compared to 11% of first
time enrollees in the public 4-year institutions (Kim, 2002). Seventy-three percent of the
students with Mi-time employment attended college on a part-time basis (NCES,
2000). The community college accommodates students who need to attend part-time.
The point is that students who are obligated with Ml-time employment take advantage
of higher education access via the community college.
The Center for the Study of Community Colleges (CSCC), in an effort to
measure the role of community colleges in students’ advancement, looked at first-time
students entering in 1993 (Stripiin, 2000b). A 4-year longitudinal study was conducted
from 1993 to 1997. By 1997, 50.7% of the students had successMly completed at least
12 credits. Of that group, 23.4% transfered to an in-state public 4-year institution
(Stripiin). The CSCC tributes the community college for offering “many of our nation’s
students...the opportunity to continue their education past high school” (p. 5).
The literature also lists several factors as disadvantages to beginning one’s
degree at the community college and then transferring to a 4-year institution. Astin
(1993) and Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) have argued that where a student begins his
or her postsecondary education significantly influences aspirations and degree
attainment level (cited in Laanan, 2000). For students who began their education at a
Community college, after controlling for educational aspirations, bachelor degree
attainment rates were significantly lower than students who began their education at a
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4-year institution (Lanaan). For example, while 26% of students in the NELS88 cohort
officially transfered to a 4-year institution, only 16% attained a bachelor’s degree
(Adelman, 2003).
Articulation agreements.
As part of Cohen and Brawer’s (1996) study, commimity college students with
aspirations of a higher degree and plans of transferring to a 4-year institution were
asked about the complications with transfer. Specifically, the respondents requested
improved articulation agreements between the community college and the 4-year
institutions (Cohen & Brawer, 1996). Articulation agreements are arrangements made
between the 4-year and community college institutions. The agreement specifies which
credits the 4-year will accept from the community college, and keeps the college abreast
of any changes in curriculum requirements. Articulation agreements may be the most
important policy arrangement that affects transferring students (Cohen & Brawer).
Ideally, the strength of articulation rests in several principles, explained below.
The most important principle is an equal partnership between the community colleges
and the baccalaureate institutions whereby both types of institutions equally provide
postsecondary students their first two years of a baccalaureate degree (Ignash &
Townsend, 2001). The remaining principles range from equal treatment of both transfer
and “native” students, that is students who begin and remain at the baccalaureate
institution, to having a statewide articulation system and a system to monitor and
evaluate the ongoing development of transfer students (Ignash & Townsend).
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A clear probiem with aiticuiation involves the students who transfer without
eaming the A. A. degree. Many studies have shown as few as 37% of transferring
community college students actually earn the associate’s degree (Palmer, Ludwig, &
Stapleton, 1994; Stripiin, 2000a; Townsend, 2001). Such a low percentage calls for
articulation agreements that are more responsive to current transfer trends, not
agreements focusing only on those students completing the associate’s degree.
To measure which states have strong articulation agreements representative of
current transfer patterns, Ignash and Townsend (2001) emailed a survey to each state’s
higher education agency. Forty-three states folly responded to the questionnaire about
articulation, and of those respondents, only five states were rated as having strong
statewide agreements. California was one of the five states scoring high in all or most of
the 7 categories. Another dozen states were included in the “Fairly Strong” category,
leaving thirty-three states falling short of a strong and effective articulation agreement
(Ignash & Townsend).
Transfers and weaknesses in articulation agreements are problematic and even
expected. Glass and Bunn’s (1998) study found 56.8% of students expected problems
with loss of credit (cited in Stripiin, 2000a). Students who transfer found they had taken
unnecessary classes at the community college—classes that were not transferable
(Kozeracki & Gerdeman, 2000). At this time, however, there is a lack of empirical
studies explaining any negative impact of articulation problems on higher degree
aspirations.
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Transferable courses and the vocational student.
The transfer of a commimity college student is not always from within the
transfer degree program. In fact, research shows that students with applied degrees are
transferring to 4-year institutions as much as or more than students with the tjpical
transfer degree (Townsend, 2001), The indication is that students who are enrolled in
terminal programs eventually aspire to earn a higher degree.
To check the current status of students in vocational programs who aspire to
transfer, Townsend (2001) refered to data from the 1995-1996 Beginning Postsecondary
Students Longitudinal Study in which 32% percent of the enrolled vocational students
planned to transfer to a 4-year institution with aspirations of a bachelor’s degree. That
study was compared to one by Palmer (1987) that found 26% of vocational students
aspired to earn a degree at a 4-year institution (cited in Townsend, 2001). From these
data, Townsend concludes that bachelor’s degree aspirations of vocational community
college students are on the rise.
The percentage of vocational or terminal students who aspire for higher degrees
and aim to transfer is on the rise. What, then, are the implications for upgrading some
technical college programs by offering transferable general education courses?
Likewise, how feasible is it to expect 4-year institutions to accept community college
students who wish to transfer their vocational courses?
Stripiin (2000a) studied the vocational or “nonliberal arts” (p. 67) transfer
phenomenon and the school systems to which they transfer. Based on the results of 26
California community colleges, she found a disparity of transferability between the
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University of California (UC) and the California State University (CSU) systems. The
CSU system accepted 72.6% of the noniibera! arts course credits while the UC system
accepted only 26.7%. This disparity in transferability between the two systems has
grown since 1991 (Stripiin, 2000b). Part of the explanation for the difference Is that the
CSU system offers more bachelor’s degrees in business and technology, so the CSU
system more readily accepts the correlating courses. A second explanation is the Mgher
selectivity of the UC system. Nonetheless, aspirations to transfer may be affected by the
irregulaiity of community college courses that axe actually accepted for transfer. Finther
research is necessary to determine the effect of transfer on degree aspirations.
Parenthood and Degree Aspirations
The term “student parent” refers to any student who is a parent, regardless of
custody, who is enrolled at an institution of higher education. A student parent is part of
a large group of students referred to as nontraditional. These students may have family
responsibilities theat compete with their schooling. Some student parents have
“partners” to share in child care responsibilities while some do not; some parents have
supportive extended families and some do not. Thus, being a parent may be a very
different experience among students. Since a great deal of the literature examines
student parents as part of the nontraditional student group, this review discusses those
findings. Recall from Chapter 1, student parents (or students with dependents) comprise
between 75% and 80% of nontraditional students (NCES, 2002d; Rejmolds &
Pemberton, 2001). The nontraditional student is recognized as having one or more of
the following characteristics: older (usually applied to those students above age 24),
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delayed entry into a postsecoadary institution, financially independent, enrolled part-
time, GED recipient, Ml-time worker, and has dependents other than spouse (Horn &
CaiToli, 1998; Kim, 2002).
Much of the existing literature regards student parents as single parents and
places married parents in another classification. Married parents are often found
included in the taxonomy of students who have dependents other than a spouse. That
classification also includes students who have no children but who support other family
members such as parents or siblings. The assumption is that obstacles facing students
who care for dependent parents mirror those obstacles student parents face. Therefore,
the current literature for parents is to some extent imprecise, and further research is
needed.
The abovementioned characteristics of nontraditional students are considered
risk factors to persistence and degree attainment. A student with only one of the
characteristics is classified as minimally nontraditional. Comprising two or three
characteristics classifies a student as moderately nontraditional, and four or more
characteristics marks students as highly nontraditional (Horn & Carroll, 1998; Kim,
2002). The more nontraditional a student is the less likely he or she will earn a degree.
Conversely, a student classified as traditional has none of these risk factors and is more
likely to persist and attain a degree.
Belonging to the student parent category automatically incorporates risk factors
to degree attainment, both for single and married parents. In Horn and Carroll’s (1998)
report, single parenthood is considered one risk factor. In addition, single parents
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40
always have a dependent, (dependent is a separate risk factor), and are always
considered financially independent (another risk factor). That places single parenthood
in the category designated as “moderately nontraditional” (Horn & Carroll, pi). The
married student parent is also automatically placed at risk. Having a child as a
dependent and being financially independent characterize the student with two risk
factors and identify the married parent as moderately nontraditional as well.
Horn and Carroll (1998), using data from the 5-year longitudinal study of the
Beginning Postsecondary Student (BPS), analyzed students by those seven risk factors.
Only students with aspirations of completing a degree or certificate were included. The
results found that traditional students (students with no risk factors) were three times
more likely to reach the desired bachelor’s degree and more than twice as likely to
reach the associate’s degree than were moderately nontraditional students (Horn &
Carroll). Recall that married and single parents were automatically placed in the
moderately nontraditional grouping. The study suggests that parenthood is fatal to many
students’ degree attaimnents, within five years of initial enrollment.
Furthermore, educational risks for student parents can quickly rise. Single
student parents automatically have three risk factors. If a single parent adds just one
more risk factor, such as being enrolled part-time, which is a likely occurrence, that
student’s likelihood of degree attainment degenerates. Likewise, when a married parent
adds two more risk factors, for example, being over the age of 24 and enrolled part-
time, that student’s chances of degree attainment also decreased. Students with four or
more risk factors are considered highly nontraditional (Horn & Carroll, 1998; Kim,
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41
2002; NCES, 2002d); they are five times less likely to attain a bachelor’s degree, and
over three times less likely to attain an associate’s degree in five years than are
traditional students (Horn & Carroll). In the BPS study, 67% of highly nontraditional
students are parents. The statistics reveal degree attainment for the student parent as
derisively low when compared with the traditional student.
According to an NCES (2000) report, 27% of all undergraduate students are
student parents. See Figure 2. The student parents fall into the moderately or highly
nontraditional categories, and therefore, suffer lower rates of persistence and degree
attainment. What obstacles affect and influence student parents’ educational
experiences?
Figure 2. Percentage Distribution of 1999-2000 Undergraduates’ Parenthood
Status
□ 13%
14%
073%
ONo Children
■ Married with
Children
□ Single with Children
Obstacles common to the student parent.
Student parents face serious conflicts extemal to the college environment. For
example, a child gets sick, a complication with day care develops, or a conflict in work
duties forces student parents into a sudden juggling of schedules, ensuing absences, or
worse—dropping out of college (Medved & Heisler, 2002). The conflict is usually a
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42
surprise and gives the student parent little if any warning (sick children and laid up
babysitters adhere to no regular schedule). If the student parent is offered no option for
having a sick child other than a negative consequence as indicated by receiving a lower
grade or having to drop out of school, then the student parent is less likely to realize his
or her degree aspirations.
Educational obstacles are even greater for women student parents. In Sewell and
Hauser’s (1992) status attainment study on gender differences, a sample of 9,000
Wisconsin men and women were studied to observe the advantages of higher
educational aspirations and occupational attainment. The data came from the Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study (WLS) that surveyed students in 1957 and 1975. The results showed
women in midlife had a lower occupational status than men in midlife (Sewell &
Hauser, 1992). The explanation was that women are socially expected to leave campus
or the workforce due to interruptions such as marriage and children (McClelland, 1990;
Sewell & Hauser, 1992). This is no surprise.
However, the results point to educational attainment as critical to women in
midiife but not so for men in midlife. When women with children return to the
workforce, they need to rely on their educational qualifications for opportunities in the
workforce while men—who have most likely been building up their careers during the
birthing and rearing of their children—rely on occupational experience (McClelland,
1990). McClelland claims women student parents are further compromised by the lack
of encouragement and support for their aspirations that men student parents
automatically receive in society. For women student parents, educational and
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43
occupational aspirations are obstructed socially, and if that student parent leaves the
workforce to raise a child, the degree aspirations and attainment are crucial for a more
successful return to employment.
Parenthood further affects women with high educational and occupational
aspirations more than it affects men with high-level aspirations. Ambitious women are
more likely to have to choose to postpone parenthood while education is pursued. That
is a positive step since women student parents rely on their educational achievements to
enter or re-enter the workforce after experiencing parenthood (McClelland, 1990). Once
the higher education degree is attained, however, ambitious women are more likely to
neglect or pass up their occupational aspirations to enter parenthood (Wu & MacNeill,
2002). Conversely, women over 30 who are childless and who have attained degrees
and a prestigious job are more likely to forgo parenthood altogether. See Table 1 for a
summary of predictor variables and postsecondary student degree aspirations research.
Table 1. Summary of predictor variables and postsecondary student degree
aspirations research
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
Astie
(1998)
Cooperative
Institutional Research
Program (CIRP)
— looking at the 31 -
year trends of
CIRP’s freshman
survey
-1966-1997
— over 9 million
students
Gender Women have higher degree
aspirations than men
Mau &
Bikes
(2000)
National Educational
Longitudinal Study:
1988-94
Gender Women have higher degree
aspirations than men
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Table 1. continued
44
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
McClelland
(1990)
7-year Longitudinal
Study of High School
Class of 1972(NLS-
72)
— 1,222 sample of
single or married
(not separated or
divorced)
Gender Marriage decreases degree
aspirations for socially
nonprivileged men and women
Lanaan
(2000)
13,000 community
college first-time
freshman in public
and private
institutions
— CIRP given in 1996
— uses hierarchical
block analysis
Age Traditionally aged students
have higher degree aspirations
than nontraditionally aged
students
Widlak
(1997)
2,650 community
college students
— uses logistic
regression because
dependent variable
(intent to graduate)
is categorical
Age Traditionally aged students
have higher degree aspirations
than nontraditionally aged
students
Adelmaii
(2003)
NELSS 88 samples
14 and 15 year olds
in 1988 and follows
them for 12 years
Age Average age of community
college students is 29
Widlak
(1997)
2,650 communitj'
college students
— uses logistic
regression
F.ngjish
Ability
No significant difference in
level of English first taken,
success in the course, and
changing degree aspirations
Btixke &
Hoelter
(1988)
Data from 717 mostly
White men high
school seniors
— looking at effect of
academic identity
on educational
expectations
High
School
GPA
Has direct effect on White men
but not African American men
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Table 1. continued
45
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
Arredondo Data from (CIRP)
1985 freshman
survey and follow-up
in 1989
— 9,631 students in
sample
High
School
GPA
GPA has positive effect on
students’ high degree
aspirations if students are from
high SES
Lanaan
(2000)
13,000 community
college first-time
freshman in public
and private
institutions
— CIRP given in 1996
High
School
GPA
GPA not a significant predictor
of degree aspirations
Hyers &
Zimmerman
(2002)
174 students at a 2-
year technical
institution
— uses logistic
regression and
segmentation
modeling
High
School
GPA
1) Logistic regression finds
higher high school ranking
means increased rates of
retention and graduation within
3 years from enrollment
2) Segmentation modeling finds
high school ranking
characterizes students who
achieve degrees if the ranking is
in the mid to high ranking
ranges but not in the highest
ranking
3) Early academic success
important predictor of degree
completion for above average
ranked high school students
Lanaan
(2000)
13,000 community
college first-time
freshman in public
and private
institutions
“ CIRP given in 1996
Deter
mination
Self-rating “drive to achieve” is
significant predictor of degree
aspirations of public commimity
college students, not of private.
Determination to become an
expert and to influence politics
is significant predictor for
public & private
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Table 1. continued
46
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
Adelman
(2003)
Sub-dominant group
of transfer students
(basically transferring
in to 4-year at less
than sophomore
standing) who
graduate with a
bachelor's degree
Deter
mination
These graduates take more
than one remedial course,
earn less than 60% of general
ed credits before transferring
to a 4-year, 76% of sub-
dominants achieve their
bachelor’s; determination is a
factor
Adelman
(2003)
NELS 88 Number of
Credits
Earned
Sub-dominant group is far
more likely to earn a
bachelor’s degree than the
“dominant group” (those who
earn an associate’s degree)
— Only 6.3% of the dominant
group earn a bachelor’s
degree versus 76% of the
sub-dominants
Striplin
(2000b)
345 college from 13
states provide data
for the 1999 Transfer
Assembly, a
longitudinal study
Transfer and
Access
By 1997, 50.7% have
completed 12 or more credit
hours, and 23.4% have
transferred to a 4-year
Townsend
(2001)
1995 to 1996 BPS
Longitudinal Study
Transfer and
Articulation
32% of vocational students
plan to transfer to a 4-year
with aspirations for bachelor’s
or beyond
Striplin
(2000a)
26 CA commimity
colleges participate in
the Center for the
Study of Community
College’s 1998
Curriculum Project
Transfer of
Vocational
Courses
CSU system accepts 72.6% of
vocational courses while UC
system accepts 26.7%
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Table 1. continued
47
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
Hom&
Carroli
(1996)
BPS follow-up in
1990, include only
students with
aspirations of
attaining a degree or
certificate
Parenthood 1) Parents are automatically
“moderately nontraditional”
in risk category
2) Single student parents add
one more factor, and married
student parents add 2 more
factors and become “highly
nontraditional”
3) 67% of highly
nontraditional are parents
4) Highly nontraditional
students are 5 times less likely
to attain a bachelor’s, and 3
times less likely to attain an
associates within 5 years
Medved &
Heisler
(2002)
39 student parents,
mostly female,
attending a mid-
western university
Obstacles to
aspirations
Student parents face
additional conflicts external to
campus environment
— sick child number one
problem
— child care problems second
most often conflict
— 50% of consequences for
abovementioned
conflict are positive such
as extension of due date;
50% of consequences
are negative
Sewell &
Hauser
(1992)
Wisconsin
Longitudinal Study
1957 to 1975 follow-
up
— 9,000 students in
midlife
Obstacles to
aspirations
Women in midlife have lower
occupational status then men
and need educational
attaiiraient
McClelland
(1990)
NLS-72
— 1,222 single or
married in 1979
Obstacles to
aspirations
Women socially affected by
receiving less encouragement
Women socially expected to
stop out of education or
occupation for parenthood
Ambitious women postpone
parenthood for degree
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48
Table 1. continued
Study Data Sample Heading Findings
Wu&
MacNeill
(2002)
General Social Survey
(Canadian Study)
— sample of 218
women between
the ages of 30 and
34 and childless
Obstacles to
aspirations
After attaining high-level
degree, women more than
men neglect occupational
aspirations to enter
parenthood
Conclusions
The population and diversity of community college students have increased
significantly over the past several years (Horn & Carroll, 1998; Jacobs, 1999; Kim,
2002; Laanan, 2001; NCES, 2001a). More students than ever before attend community
colleges, and more students have intentions to transfer to a 4-year institution. The
majority of students entering community colleges are aspiring for higher degrees
(Adelman, 2003; McCormick and Carroll, 1997), and most students who transfer are
aspiring for graduate degrees (Kozeracki & Gerdeman, 2000). However, significantly
fewer students starting at the community college with aspirations for a higher degree
actually realize their aspirations than students starting at a 4-year institution (Laanan,
2000).
The research conducted thus far has shown that the drop out rate is higher for
community college students than for 4-year native students, and the attainment of
higher degrees is lower (Astin, 1998; Jacobs, 1999; Widlak, 1997). With aspirations
much higher than actual attainment together with a glaring lack of empirical studies on
degree aspirations, determining the contribution of demographics, precollege aspects,
college achievement, and parenthood on degree aspirations is more important than ever.
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49
Women dominate America’s postsecondary campuses, and for the past thirty
years, women’s degree aspirations have increased more than men’s. \¥oineii attain more
associate’s and bachelor’s degrees than men, are awarded half of the master’s degrees,
and nearly as many doctoral degrees (Astin, 1998). As for age, the traditionally aged
students dominate campuses and maintain higher degree aspirations. The
nontraditionally aged student cohort has increased; it now comprises 39% of the
students on all postsecondary campuses (NCES, 2002b). At the community college
level, 46% of its students are 25 years old or older (AACC, 1997), and community
college students have high degree aspirations.
Research on English ability and degree aspirations is lacking and needs further
consideration. However, there are researchers who suggest ability with English is one of
the most important factors in educational achievement (Ginorio & Huston, 2001).
Widlak’s (1997) study reveals no significant difference between level of English
initially taken, success in the English course, and change in transfer or vocational
degree aspirations. The studies on the effects of high school GPA and college degree
aspirations are mixed. In a study of variables related to high school performance, Farrell
and Pollard (1987) find GPA has a considerable effect on aspirations (cited in Mau,
2000). Burke and Hoelter (1998) find GPA has direct effects on aspirations of White
students. Lanaan finds no significance between high school GPA and community
college students’ degree aspirations.
The variable determination plays a significant role in degree aspirations. Carter
(2002) asserts the more time and determination a student has aspiring for a degree, the
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50
more likely he or she will earn that degree. Laanan (2000) claims the determination of
students at a community college is a significant predictor of public and not of private
community college students’ aspirations, yet the determination to become an expert in a
field of study stimulates higher degree aspirations. Finally, Adelman (2003) holds the
attribute “determination” accountable for community college transfer students’
bachelor’s degree achievement.
No literature is found on degree aspirations and number of credits earned at the
community college. Instead, Adelman (2003) looks at bachelor’s degree attainment and
finds students who earn fewer credits at the cominunity college actually go on to earn
significantly more bachelor’s degrees than those students who earn more credits at the
commimity college.
Yet, transfer rates are almost impossible to measure. Furthermore, different
institutions employ different formulas, so the rates cannot be compared. However, the
rates seem to hover in the 22% to 26% range. And because of transfer, Striplin (2000b)
concludes it is the commimity college that offers many students the opportunity for a
higher education degree. Others argue that students who begin their education at a
community college are less likely to attain the bachelor’s degree for which they aspire
(Lanaan, 2000). For example, while 26% of students in the NELS88 cohort officially
transfer to a 4-year institution, only 16% attain a bachelor’s degree (Adelman, 2003).
Another problem with transfer is the articulation agreement. The 2-year
institutions offer an academic program of study that the 4-year institution accepts for
transfer. However, students do not trust the system. Additionally, many students from a
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51
vocational program of study raise their degree aspirations and prefer to transfer to a 4-
year institution. Two-year and 4-year institutions will likely improve transfer success by
recognizing the challenges faced by their students and by responding with appropriate
services and support.
Finally, student parents are lodged in the moderately or highly nontraditional
categories. Either category has a negative relationship with degree achievement, but
little is known about the nontraditional effect on degree aspirations. For women student
parents, the need for educational attainment is stronger as they are more likely than men
student parents to interrupt their occupational goals to raise a family (McClelland,
1990). For ambitious students, again, parenthood affects women more than men.
Ambitious women feel parenthood is an obstacle to eventual or continuous occupational
attainment and are likely to sacrifice one for the other (Wu & MacNeill, 2002).
Implications
The implications clearly suggest further research is necessary. Existing research
has shown degree aspirations have strong effects on retention and attainment, yet there
remains a serious lack in empirical research on degree aspirations as outcomes.
Furthermore, the empirical research on student parents either measure variables other
than aspirations such as student and faculty communication (see Medved & Heisler,
2002), or ultimately measure educational and occupational outcomes due to social
origins, marriage, or childbirth (see McClelland, 1990; Sewell & Hauser, 1992; Wu &
MacNeill, 2002).
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52
Current research on student parents’ degree aspirations is missing and needs to
be explored. In particular, the degree aspirations of community college student parents
need to be investigated as they actually make up 75% to 80% of all nontraditional
students, and nontraditional students are a majority population on community college
campuses (NCES, 2002d; Reynolds & Pemberton, 2001).
This review brings to the forefront factors that have been analyzed to predict
students’ degree aspirations. Understanding how factors such as gender, age, English
ability, high school GPA, determination, numbers of credits earned, transfer plans, and
parenthood have an effect on student parents’ degree aspirations is important for future
directions of aspirations and attainment research. Furthermore, administrators, faculty,
and student parents can participate in policies that reflect the needs of a significant
student body. To assist with the research on student parents’ degree goals, and to assist
students with degree attainment, a theoretical framework for further research is needed.
Carter’s (2002) model of factors influencing college students’ degree aspirations is
appropriate to use for studying student parents’ aspirations in community colleges.
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53
CHAPTER 3
Research Methodology
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to determine a set of variables that constituted an
effective combination in explaining the variance in degree aspirations for urban
community college students participating in the TRUCCS study. In particular, the study
examined the effect of parenthood on degree aspirations over and above variables
including gender, age, English ability, high school GPA, determination, number of
credits earned, plans to transfer to a 4-year institution, and number of children living in
the home. Further, the study proposed to examine the difference in degree aspirations
for students who viewed their primary responsibility as a parent first and a student or
employee second. Finally, the study sought to reveal significant differences in degree
aspirations and gender of parents whose primary responsibility is parenthood. This
chapter includes the research questions, the hypotheses, and a description of the
research methodology.
Research Questions
The conceptual framework for this study and the research questions evolved
from a review of the literature on degree aspirations of postsecondary' school students.
The review included data representing pre-college characteristics such as parenthood
and demographics, aspects students bring with them to college such as GPA and
abilities, and institutional achievement such as credits earned and further education
plans. This study’s regression model was based on the findings in the literature stating
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54
that gender, age, English ability, high school GPA, determination, number of credits
earned at a community college and transfer plans were general predictors of degree
aspirations as well as Carter’s (2002) Theoretical and Conceptiia! Model of Factors
Influencing College Students Degree Aspirations. Figure 3 shows the variables that
were used in this study’s multiple regression model.
Figure 3. Eight variables and their relationship to degree aspirations
Parenthood
English
Gender
Degree
Aspirations
High School Age
Plans to
Transfer to
4-year
Credits
Earned
The research questions for this study were:
QUESTION 1: What is the effect of parenthood on degree aspirations
controlling for gender, age, English ability, high school GPA, total determination,
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55
Bumber of credits earned, and plans to transfer to a 4-yeai institution? Are the
significant variables significant for both mothers and fathers?
QUESTION 2: Is there a significant difference between the nuHiber of children
living in the home and degree aspirations?
QUESTION 3; Do students who perceive themselves as a parent first and a
student or worker second have lower degree aspirations than students who perceive
themselves as a student or a worker?
QUESTION 4: Are male students whose primary self-perception is parent more
likely to have higher degree aspirations than female students whose primary self
perception is parent?
These research questions produced the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1:
Hi: As an effect of parenthood, there will be a significant decrease in degree
aspirations over and above the effect of gender, age, English ability, high school GPA,
determination, number of credits earned, and plans to transfer to a 4-year institution.
Ho: As an effect of being a parent in school, there will be no difference in
degree aspirations.
Hypothesis 2:
Hi: There is a significant difference between the number of children living in the
home and degree aspirations.
Ho: There will be no significant difference between the number of children
living in the home and degree aspirations.
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56
Hypothesis 3:
Hi: Students who view their primary responsibility as being a parent will have
lower degree aspirations than students who do not view their primary responsibility as
being a parent.
Ho; There will be no difference for students v/hose primary responsibility is
parenthood.
Hypothesis 4:
Hi: Men whose primary self-perception is parenthood first will have
significantly higher degree aspirations than women whose primary self-perception is
parenthood first.
Ho: There will be no significant difference in degree aspirations and gender of
parents whose primary responsibility is parenthood.
Methodology
This study used data collected through the TRUCCS project. In the Fall of 1999.
the TRUCCS research team developed a survey purposely designed for urban
community college campuses with diverse student enrollments and also with a large
Hiunber of students for whom English is not a first language. The survey was developed
to include items and scales unique to community college students reflecting the
influence of the literature of interactionist theories of student success (Bean & Metzner,
1985; Hagedom & Castro, 1999; McCormick & Carroll, 1997).
The TRUCCS sampling plan included a “stratified random sampling procedure
of 5,000 students attending college at nine campuses” (TRUCCS, 2000) taken in the
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57
Los Angeles Comimmity College district. It was designed to represent transfer students,
older students, occupational students, ESL students, day students, and evening students.
The sample reflected ethnic distributions, disabilities, full and part-timers, day and
evening as well as various age groups (TRUCCS). The campuses were located in a
large urban area with a sizeable population trained in health and technology fields that
required skills learned through post-secondary education.
Research Design
This was a secondary analysis of data that had been gathered, analyzed, and
validated through the TRUCCS Project. The sample for this study consisted of 4,968
students who participated in the TRUCCS survey from all nine colleges in the Los
Angeles Community College District. The sampling plan was a three-branch structure;
researchers surveyed three branches of English courses because they assumed students
did not take more than one English class in a semester. The branches included the upper
level (transfer English), the middle level (vocational), and the lower level (remedial).
The TRUCCS database used in this study had been validated and refined. The
sampling plan maximized variation in the independent variables in the sample to allow
the researchers to make internally valid comparisons of subgroups (Hagedom &
Maxwell, 1999). Given the established validity of the TRUCCS Project sampling
design, it was expected that generalizations could be made to urban community college
students who were the target of this study. This was a quantitative study using a quasi-
experimental research design based on frequency, multiple regression analysis, Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient, and independent samples t-test designs.
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58
The measures for the variables for this study included categorical independent
variables such as age, gender, and parenthood. In the age groups, 863 students were
between the ages of 16 and 19 and coded as “1”; 2,687 students were between the ages
of 20 and 29 and coded as “2”; 788 students were between the ages of 30 and 39 and
coded as “3”; and 573 students were from the ages of 40 to 55-plus and coded as “4”.
Gender was a dichotomous variable with Males coded as “0” and Females coded as “1”.
Parenthood was also a dichotomous variable with non-Parents coded as “0” and Parents
coded as “ 1” .
English ability was a construct measuring how well a student felt about Ms or
her capacity to read, write, understand a college lecture, read a college textbook, write
an essay exam and a term paper, participate in class discussions, and communicate with
instructors in English. High school GPA was self-reported and ranged from A+ to D or
lower (Poor). GPA was categorized into four groups of grade averages: A, B, C, or D or
below. A GPA of A+, A, or A- was coded as “4”; B+, B, or B- was coded as “3”; C+,
C, or C- was coded as “2”; D or lower was coded as “1”. Total determination was an
unobserved construct measuring how resolute a student felt he or she was in the
following areas: determination to reach goals, determination to finish courses in his or
her program of study, satisfaction in working hard to acMeve, expectation to do well
and earn good grades, and level of effort even when frustrated by a task. For each item,
the respondents were asked to mark one of the following agreement statements: “Not as
all,” “With difficulty,” “Fairly well,” or “Very well”.
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59
Niiniber of credits earned at this college was a self-reported recollectioii of the
s'um of credits the student earned in previous semesters. Students were asked to mark
one of the following choices: “None,” “1 to 3,” “4 to 9,” “10 to 18,” “19 to 2 7 ” “28 to
36,” “37 to 60,” or “More than 60.” The plan to transfer to a 4-year institution was
based on the student’s proclivity at the current moment. Students were asked to mark
one of the following choices: “Definitely Not,” “Probably Not,” “Maybe,” “Probably,”
or “Definitely.” The number of children living in the home ranged from none to 5 or
more. No children living in the home was coded as “1”, 1 to 2 children coded as “2”, 3
to 4 children coded as “3”, and 5 or more children coded as “4”.
Instrumentation
The collaboration of researchers developed, after thirty versions, a 7-page, 47-
item questionnaire (TRUCCS, 2000). The purpose was to determine factors of success
including retention and persistence of community college students enrolled in the
nation’s largest community college district, the Los Angeles community college district
(LACCD). The TRUCCS researchers sought to consider whether success factors varied
according to age, gender, socioeconomic status, full- or part-time status, or another
demographic factor, and gauge if success factors changed over time.
The survey instrument was administered to 5,000 students across 241
classrooms and nine colleges within the LACCD. Participating classrooms were
identified through a stratified random sampling method that relied on three levels of
English courses (2 levels below transfer, 1 level below transfer, and transfer level),.
Additionally, transcript data was qcquired from the LACCD for all students who signed
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60
the requisite consent forms (96 percent of the sample). The final sample for this study
consisted of 4,967 students from the LACCD who participated in the TRUCCS survey
and for whom intended level of degree aspirations could be assessed.
Data Analysis
This study used descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to investigate the
existence and extent of relationships among selected variables. Descriptive statistics
including frequencies, means, and standard deviations for the dependent variable,
degree aspirations, were examined. The statistical software package SPSS was used for
this information.
This research focused on variables that predicted degree aspirations of both
parents and non-parents and sought to find differences in aspirations between the two
groups. A frequency analysis was used to check for the size of the number of
respondents in the different subgroups. In this study, the dependent variable, Degree
Aspirations, had a frequency of 4,872. The mean was 5.46, and the standard deviation
was 1.4. Skewness was used to describe the extent of asymmetry. The variable Degree
Aspirations was shown to have a skewness of -.894, which meant the scores were
disproportionately high. More students aspired for Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral
level degrees than A. A. degrees, vocational degrees or certifications, or no degree.
To test how much of the variance in degree aspirations could be explained by
demographics, high school attributes, college achievement, and parenthood, a block
entry multiple regression was used. The block by block entries were examined to detect
the proportion of variance explained by the groups of variables in each related segment
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6i
(i.e., biock). Figures 4 and 5 provided bar graphs of the dependent variable and gender
and parent status. B-weights and Beta (standardized) weights described the change in
units and the unique contribution of each variable, respectively. The Model Summary
revealed how each biock added significance by itself. Finally, the ANOVA tested to see
if the blocks together were significant predictors of the dependent variable.
An interaction was mn to explore if the significant variables affected mothers
and fathers differently. The interaction did reveal significance, so a separate regression
was run for mothers and fathers. Both b and Beta weights were compared along with the
R Square and R Square Change statistics. A t-test of regression weights was run to find
out if the b-weights were significant to one another.
To explore the relationship between degree aspirations and the number of
children a student had living in the home, a bivariate Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient was used. The direction of the relationship between the variables
was revealed. The Pearson correlation (r) value indicated the strength of the
relationship. When squared, the correlation (r) indicated the percent of shared variance.
Independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare the mean scores of the
groups for the final hypotheses. The first t-test checked to see if there was a significant
difference in the mean degree aspiration scores for students who perceived themselves
as a parent first and for students who perceived themselves as students or workers first.
The second t-test compared the mean scores for males and females who perceived
themselves as parents first. The Levene’s test, offered in the output, revealed the
equality of variances and the significance.
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62
Figure 4. Aspirations of Males and Females
a. 0
Males
f " ’l Females
Degree Aspirations recoded into 7 values
Figure 5. Aspirations and Parent Status
f f l
a 0
# of chiidren/stepch
None
or more
%
%
\
Degree Aspirations recoded into 7 values
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63
CHAPTER 4
Results
Introduction
In this chapter, observed outcomes were analyzed in the context of the research
questions drafted in Chapter One. Statistical findings were interpreted in relation to the
extent the findings supported or failed to support the research hypotheses. The first two
research questions explored the relationship among the variables of interest while the
last two research questions compared groups. Findings were evaluated in relation to
one-tailed and two-tailed significance tests.
The first section of this chapter describes the construct validity and reliability
with an analysis of each measure. The second section presents each research question
with the corresponding statistical analysis of each hypothesis tested for this study.
Construct Validity and Reliability
Construct validity of the independent variables was established as valid and
reliable through prior research conducted by Hagedom and Maxwell (1999), The
researchers used structura! equation modeling that tested the relationship between
various factors. The Community College Model of Student Life and Retention variables
English Ability and Goal Orientation (the latter of which was labeled Determination for
this study) used in this research each had a reliability item analysis which yielded an a >
.7 Cronbach’s index of internal consistency. Other variables entered into this research’s
mode! mostly based on Carter’s (2002) Model on Degree Aspirations and Hagedom and
Maxwell’s (2002) Community College of Student Life and Retention include the
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64
following; gender, age, high school GPA, credits earned, transfer plans, and parenthood.
Table 2 provides the details of the constructs used in this study as well as the reliability
coefficients used for scales.
Table 2. Scales and Blocks of Variables
Scale and Chronbach’s
Alpha (Label)
Items Coding
DEMOGRAPHICS
Gender (Gender) Student’s Gender 0 = Male, 1 = Female
Age (AgeGroup) How old will you be on
December 31 of this year?
1 = 16-19,
2 = 20-29,
3 = 30-39,
4 = 40-55+
ASPECTS STUDENT
BRINGS TO COLLEGE
English Ability (English)
Alpha = .9233
Level Student Can
Understand the Following In
English; Read, Write,
Understand college lecture.
Write essay exam and term
paper, Participate in class
discussions, and
Communicate with
instructors
1 = Not at All
2 = With Difficulty
3= Fairly Well
4 = Very Well
High School GPA
(AsBsCsD)
Self-reported average grade
in high school
1 = = D’s or below
2 = C’s
3 = B ’s
4 = A’s
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65
Table 2. continued
Scale and Chronbach’s
Alpha (Label)
Items Coding
Total Determination
(Tdeterm)
Alpha = .7807
Extent of agreement or
disagreement student feels
with the following
statements: I am very
determined to reach my
goals; It is important for me
to finish the courses in my
program of studies; I feel
most satisfied when I work
hard to acMeve; I expect to
do well and earn good grades,
and I keep trying even when
frustrated by a task.
1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Slightly Disagree
4 = Not Sure
5 = Slightly Agree
6 = Agree
7 = Strongly Agree
COLLEGE
ACHIEVEMENT
Credits Earned (Q7) Number credits earned at this
college
1 =None 5 = 19-27
2 = 1-3 6 = 28-36
3=4-9 7 = 37-60
4 = 10-18 8 = More
than 60
Transfer Plans (Q10_08) Transfer to a 4-year
coliege/university
1 = Definitely Not
2 = Probably Not
3 = Maybe
4 = Probably
5 = Definitely
PARENTHOOD
Parenthood (Nokdorai) How many of student’s
children live in student’s
household?
0 = None
1 = 1 to 5+ children
INTERACTION
Interaction between
Parenthood and fatherhood
and motherhood (Inter)
To check for the presence of
an interaction between the
role of father and mother
1 = Fathers
2 = Mothers
Statistical Analysis Results
Research Question 1: What is the effect of parenthood on degree aspirations
controlling for gender, age, English ability, high school GPA, total determination,
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66
number of credits earned, and plans to transfer to a 4-year institution? Are the
significant variables significant for both mothers and fathers?
A hierarchical block entry multiple regression was performed to explore the
relationship of a set of selected variables on the outcome of degree aspirations. The
independent variables were grouped in four classifications: Student demographics
(gender and age), High school background (English ability, GPA, determination).
College effects (number of credits earned at this college, plans to transfer to a 4-year
institution), and Parenthood (student had his or her children living in the home or had
no children living in the home). The multiple regression model was designed to address
how well each independent variable contributed to the predictive ability of the model
and how well the variable parenthood was a predictor of degree aspirations, for urban
community college students, after controlling for the effects of the other independent
variables. Means and standard deviations of the observed variables from the regression
model were presented in Table 3. Tables 4, 5, and 6 presented the statistical analyses.
The regression model after the fourth entry was significant [F (8,
4280)=152.699, p=.000]. Upon entry of the variables in Block 1, Student
Demographics, age (t=-13.075, p=.000) and gender (t=-2.281, p=.023) were significant.
The explained variance (R^) for the first model was 4.1%. After Block 2, High School
Background, was included, English ability (t=14.286, p=.000), high school GPA
(t=2.976, p=.003), and total determination (t=8.647, p=.000) created a model with the
increased to 11.6%. The third block entry, College Effects, introduced number of
credits earned at this college (t=3.577, p=.000) and plans to transfer to a 4-year
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67
institution (t=22.563, p=.000). High school GPA was no longer significant at the .05
level. The for the third model nearly doubled to become 22.1%. Model 3 reflected
the change of 10.5%. The fourth block, Mode! 4, added Parenthood (t= -2.576,
p=.010). The value of was 22.2%. The change for the fourth model was minimal
at.1%.
Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Regression
Standard
Variable Mean Deviation
Degree Aspirations 5.46 1.41
Gender 0.61 0.49
Age 2.23 0.87
English Ability 3.30 0.60
High School GPA 2.80 0.68
Determination 31.09 3.71
Credits Earned 3.81 2.13
Plans to Transfer to a 4-Year 4.13 1.17
Children 0.34 0.47
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CD
■ D
O
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.
■ D
CD
C /)
W
o '
o
o
o
o
■ D
c q '
Table 4. Correlation Matrix of Block Regression Variables
3 -
O
CD
■ D
O
Q.
C
a
o
o
■ O
o
Degree English Credits Transfer
Aspirations Gender Age Ability HS GPA Determination Earned Plans Pai’ enthood
Degree
Aspirations 1
Gender -0.051 1
Age -0.199 0.085 i
English
Ability 0.247 -0.004 -0.046 1
HSGPA 0.048 0.134 0.037 0.011 1
Determination 0.149 0.106 0.116 0.204 0.131 1
Credits
Earned 0.108 0.041 0.095 0.032 0.086 0.08 1
Transfer Plans 0.409 -0.025 -0.221 0.165 0.061 0.178 0.182 1
Parenthood -0.132 0.187 0.342 -0.023 0.021 0.058 0.007 -0.147 1
CD
Q.
■ D
CD
(/)
(/)
O S
0 0
69
Table 5. Model Summary of Regression
Model R Square R Square Sig.F
Change Change
1 .041 .041*** .000***
.116 .075*** .000***
3 .221 .105*** .000***
4 .222 .001** .010**
***p<.001 **p<.05 *p<.10
Table 6. Regression ANOVA Table
Model df Mean Square F Sig
1 2 173.40 91.26 .000***
2 5 197.13 112.51 .000***
3 7 267.85 173.34 .000***
4 8 235.65 152.70 .000***
lool GPA, Determination, Credits Predictors: Gender, Age, English, ability, High sc
earned. Plans to transfer to a 4-year institution, Children
Dependent Variable: Degree aspirations ***p<.001**p<.05 *p<.10
To answer the question whether the important variables were significant for both
mothers and fathers, an interaction was run in the fifth block of the multiple regression.
The regression model after the fifth entry was significant [F (16,4272)=82.496,
p=.000]. The change for the fifth model was 1.4%. The F change was 9.785, and the
fifth block showed significance at .000. The sample v/as then divided by gender, and
variables significant to both men and women were age, English abilityy and plans to
transfer. The t-test of regression w'eights on the age variable (t = .085; p > .05), and on
English ability (t = , 141; p > .05), and on plans to transfer (t = .074; p > .05) was not
significant. Table 7 presents the b and Beta weights for the split sample.
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70
Table 7. Impact of Student demographics, High school background, College
Effects, and Parent’s Gender on Degree Aspirations
Independent
Variables
Fathers Mothers
b-weight (S.E.) Beta Weights
Standardized
b-weight (S.E.) Beta
Weights
Standardized
Age -.172** .080 -.105** -.180*** .050 -.103***
English
Ability
.485*** .121 .189*** .455*** .074 .178***
High School
GPA
.123 .100 .058 .011 .064 .005
Determination .017 .017 .051 .029** .013 .063**
Credits
Earned
.033 .030 .052 .027 .020 .038
Flans to
Transfer
.431*** .059 .364*** .445*** .035 .375***
***p<.001 ^*p<.05 *p<.10
Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference between the number of
children living in the home and degree aspirations?
The relationship between degree aspirations and number of children or
stepchildren a student had living in the household was investigated using Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure
no violation of the assumptions of nomiality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was
a small, negative correlation between the two variables [r=~. 118, n=4471, p<.0005],
with high levels of degree aspirations associated with lower numbers of children living
in the home.. The correlation, when squared, indicated only 1.4% shared variance.
Table 8 gives the results of the Pearson product-moment correlations.
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71
Table 8. Correlation Between Degree Aspirations and Number of Children
Degree
Aspirations
Number of
Children
Degree
Aspirations
Pearson
Correlation 1 -.118**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
Number of
Children
Pearson
Correlation -.118** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
•Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed).
Research Question 3: Do students who perceive themselves as a parent first and
a student or worker second, have lower degree aspirations than students who perceive
themselves as a student or a worker?
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the degree aspirations
for students who view themselves primarily as parents first and students who view
themselves as a student or a worker first. There was a significant difference in degree
aspirations for students who viewed themselves primarily as a parent first (M=5.12,
SD=1.50), and students who viewed themselves primarily as a student or worker first
[M=5.53, SD=1.37); t_(957.42)~6.832, g=.000] The magnitude of the differences in the
means was very small (eta squared=.01). Tables 9 and 10 provide the frequency, mean,
and standard deviation for students’ self-reported perceptions of themselves. Table 11
provides the results of the t-test.
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Table 9. Frequency of Students Who View Themselves as Parents First and Those
Who View Themselves as Students or Workers First
FrojUOTy Pa-OTt
Valid Percail
Ckmulative
Percait
vaid 1.0 Paents
pimarily
737 14.8 15.4 15.4
2.00 ^ u d a to "
aniJcjy^
4042 81.4 84.6 100.0
T(M 4779 m.2 100.0
W sarg S ^ a n 189 3.8
Total 4 ^ 100.0
Table 10. Mean and Standard Deviation of Student Identity
Degree Aspirations and
Student Identity
Parents Primarily
Students or Workers Primarily
Mean (Standard
N Deviation)
725 5.12 (1.50)
3989 5.53 (1.37)
Table 11. Relationship Between Student Identity and Degree Aspirations,
Independent Samples t-test
F Sig. t df
Sig.
(2-tailed) SE
Equal Variances Not Assumed 7.234 .007 -6.832 957.42 .000 .05965
Research Question 4: Are male students whose primary role is parent more
likely to have higher degree aspirations than female students whose primary role is
parent?
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the degree aspirations
of male and female students who viewed themselves as parents first and students or
workers second. There was a significant difference in the proportion of males (M-5.50,
SD-1.38) and females [M=5.04, SD=L51; t (711)=3.081, g=.002]. The magnitude of
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73
the differences in the means was small (eta squared=.013). See Tables 12 and 13 for
more detail.
Table 12. Frequency of Males and Females as Parent Primarily
GENDER
males are 0
and females
are 1
N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
DEGREE
Aspirations
recoded into
7 values
.00 Males
1.00 Females
121
592
5.4959
5.0372
1.37915
1.51428
0.12538
.06224
Table 13. Relationship Between Males and Females (as Parents Primarily) and
Degree Aspirations
Test for
Equality
of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig. (2-taiied)
Equal Variances Assumed 1.435 0.231 3.081 711 0.002
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7 4
CHAPTER 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
This chapter includes an introduction and review of the purpose of the study, a
summary and discussion of the investigation, followed by a statement of conclusions
and recommendations.
Introduction
Higher education institutions in America have evolved to reveal campuses that
include a majority of female and older students who are employed, many of whom
attend school while raising a family. This large population of student parents may place
restrictions on themselves, with regard to their degree aspirations. Therefore, it is
essential to first understand what factors influence the student parent’s educational
aspirations before postsecondary institutions can work to enhance these students’
educational experiences and assist them in reaching their degree goals.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether there was a relationship
between parenthood status and the degree aspirations of community college students in
the Los Angeles Community College District (LACCD). This study also investigated
predictors of degree aspirations, which included demographic information, precollege
attributes, and college achievement. Additionally, this study examined how the number
of children patented by the student, self-perception of the student, and gender of the
student parent each contributed to degree aspirations. Multiple regression, Pearson
product-moment correlation coefficient, and independent samples t-test designs were
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75
used to examine the different relationsMps among the variables using data from the
TRUCCS project.
Summary of Findings
H}'pothesis 1: As an effect of parenthood, there will be a significant decrease in degree
aspirations over and above the effect of gender, age, English ability, high school GPA,
total determination, number of credits earned, and plans for transfer to a four-year
institution. The significant variables will be significant for both mothers and fathers.
First, a block entry multiple regression was performed to determine if the effect
of parenthood decreased aspirations over and above the effect of gender, age, English
ability, high school GPA, total determination, number of credits earned, and plans for
transfer to a four-year institution. Four blocks were entered into the regression model
prior to the interaction: Student Demographics (gender and age); Aspects the Student
Brings to College (English ability, high school GPA, and determination); College
Achievement (credits earned and plans to transfer); and Parenthood (either student is a
parent or is not). Results of this regression were consistent with the a priori prediction
that indicated parents had significantly lower degree aspirations than non-parents. The
effect, however, may be minimal as indicated by the b-weight: -.112. The four-block
model explained 22.2% of the variance of degree aspirations. When number of credits
earned and plans to transfer were entered into the model, high school GPA ceased to be
significant.
An interaction was run in the final block to test if the model is the same for male
parents and female parents. The interaction was statistically significant. Therefore, the
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76
sample was split by gender; a separate regression for mothers and fathers was run, and
the b-weights and Beta weights were compared.
First, the b-weights were compared to show the impact of each independent
variable across the equation. The results revealed total determination as a significant
predictor of degree aspirations for mothers but not for fathers. Second, the results
showed age, English ability, and plans to transfer were significant predictors for both
mothers and fathers. In a separate t-test for differential importance, however, neither of
the shared significant variables was significantly more of a predictor for one parent’s
gender than the other. Finally, high school GPA and the number of credits earned held
no significance for mothers or fathers. See Table 7.
The separate regression for mothers and fathers also presented the Beta weight
values for each independent variable, which revealed which independent variables were
most important within the equation. For both mothers and fathers, the most important
variable was plans to transfer. English ability followed, also for both mothers and
fathers, but it was about half as important. Age was the third most important variable,
again for both genders. For fathers, high school GPA came next in importance, followed
by number of credits earned and determination. The latter two variables were nearly of
equal importance. For mothers, after plans to transfer, English ability, and age, the next
variable of importance was determination. Number of credits earned followed
determination yet was almost half as important. The variable of least importance to
mothers was high school GPA, which was over seven times more important for fathers.
Again, see Table 7.
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77
Hypothesis 2: There is a significant difference between the number of children living in
the home and degree aspirations.
Results of this investigation were consistent with the a priori predictions. A
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was performed to determine if the
number of children or stepchildren a student had in Ms or her household had a
significant effect on the student parent’s degree aspirations. Results indicated there was
a statistically significant difference between number of children and degree aspirations.
The correlation was small and negative [r=-. 118, p=.000] and explained only 1.4% of
the shared variance. Higher degree aspirations are associated with lower numbers of
children in the home.
Hypothesis 3: Students who view their primary responsibility as being a parent will
have lower degree aspirations than students who do not view their primary
responsibility as being a parent.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the degree aspirations
of student parents who perceived themselves as parents first, and those students who
perceived themselves as students or as workers first. The mean scores were compared,
and a significant difference was found between the two groups. Those students who
perceived themselves primarily as students or workers (and not as parents) were more
likely to have higher degree aspirations. However, the difference in the means was
small as indicated by the eta squared of .01. This figure revealed that the proportion of
variance in the dependent variable that is explained by students’ self-perception equaled
only 1%.
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78
Hypothesis 4: Men whose primary self-perception is parenthood first will have
significantly higher degree aspirations than women whose primary self-perception is
parenthood first.
An independent samples t-test was performed to determine if student fathers
whose primary self-perception was of parenthood had significantly higher degree
aspirations than student mothers whose primary self-perception was parenthood. Results
of this investigation were consistent with the a priori prediction that student who were
fathers who viewed their primary role as father (not as student or worker) indeed had
higher degree aspirations than mothers who viewed their primary role as mother (not as
student or worker). However, the difference in the means was again small as indicated
by the effect size statistic, eta squared of .013. This figure revealed that the proportion
of variance in the dependent variable that is explained by both gender and by student
parents’ self-perception equaled only 1.3%.
Conclusions
Demographics: Gender and Age
This study found gender and age were significant predictors of degree
aspirations. The findings were consistent with previous research that had shown gender
was a significant factor in predicting degree aspirations. Astin (1998) and Mau and
Bikos (2000) had found women possessing higher degree aspirations than men. Further,
the study’s findings on age were in harmony with the findings of Lanaan (2000) and
Widlak’s (1997) studies on age as a significant predictor of degree aspirations.
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79
Aspects Student Brings to College: English Ability, High School GPA, and
Determination
There were no previous studies on English ability as a factor in predicting
degree aspirations. Widlak’s (1997) study found no significant difference between
success in an English course and increasing one’s degree aspirations. However, this
study revealed English ability as a significant contribution in predicting degree
aspirations. Previous research on high school GPA found it statistically significant in
predicting degree aspirations (see Burke & Hoelter, 1988; Arredondo, 1989). This study
was consistent with a more recent study by Lanaan (2000), which found no statistically
significant relationship between the two variables. In this study, determination was
found to be a statistically significant predictor. This finding was consistent with the
findings of Adelman (2003) and Laanan (2000).
College Achievement: Credits Earned and Transfer Plans
This study found the number of credits earned was a statistically significant
predictor of degree aspirations. This finding was consistent with Adelman’s (2003)
study on earned credits and degree achievement. Unsurprisingly, transfer plans was the
strongest predictor of degree aspirations of LACCD students. Studies by Striplin
(2000b) and Towmsend (2001) yielded similar results in their studies on transfer and
access and transfer and articulation, respectively.
Parenthood and Degree Aspirations
The results of the TRUCCS dataset supported the conclusion that students who
were also parents had lower degree aspirations than urban community college students
who were not parents. Studies on parenthood and degree attainment had yielded similar
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80
findings (see Horn & Carroll, 1998; Kim, 2002; Medved & Heisler, 2002), with student
parents less likely than traditional—^non-parent—students to attain a degree. Medved
and Heisler related the results to extra, external interferences endemic to the student
parent population. The interference included caring for a sick child and the upheaval of
childcare problems that influenced student parents’ educational experiences.
This study found a significant interaction between gender of the student parent
and degree aspirations. When the sample was split and the regression run separately,
determination was found to be significantly important to mothers but not to fathers. In
addition, the most important variable for both mothers and fathers, plans to transfer,
explained twice as much of the variance of degree aspirations as their the next
significant variable, English ability.
This study also revealed a significant negative relationship between degree
aspirations and the number of children a student had. This meant the level of degree
aspirations fell slightly with each added child. And, for students who perceived their
primary role as a parent first (and student or worker second), they were significantly
more likely to have lower degree aspirations than students who perceived their primary
role as either student or worker. When the variable of self-perception as parent first was
split by gender of student parent, the result showed a significant difference in the
proportion of fathers having higher degree aspirations than mothers. For both results,
however, the magnitude of the differences in the means was very small and small,
respectively. This final result of mothers, who perceived themselves primarily as
parents first, having lower degree aspirations than fathers with the self-perception as a
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8 1
parent first was consistent with previous studies. Both McClelland (1990) and Sewell
and Hauser (1992) found women more likely than men to cease educational pursuits to
accept parenthood responsibilities.
Recommendatioiis
To the extent that these findings from the TRUCCS dataset are generalizable to
other community colleges, there are clear implications for administrators and faculty.
However, the data must be interpreted with caution. This study was not to suggest
degree-seeking adults postpone parenthood. Neither was the study intended to vilify
parenthood nor suggest faculty and administrators expect slighter achievements from
their student parents. Rather, the primary purpose of this study was to better understand
the degree aspiration patterns of community college student parents. The results
presented here find student parents—male and female—have lower degree aspirations
than their non-student parent counterparts. According to earlier fmdings, student parents
face obstacles traditional students do not face (see Medved & Heisler, 2002). Therefore,
the assumption would be that if the institution can successfully address problems
hindering student parents, then student parents’ degree aspirations could rise without
endangering student parents’ focus on their sons and daughters.
Insofar as counseling is approximately 2,000 students to 1 student advisor in the
LACCD, suggested policy change includes administrative efforts in appointing an
academic advisor specifically for counseling student parents. Helping student parents to
accommodate work schedules and family responsibilities may positively impact
students’ educational aspirations. A day care policy change may also be needed, but day
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82
care is not the final answer to student parents’ obstacles. Further research is needed to
examine the college experience, institutional intervention, and degree aspirations.
Another recommendation is to hold a “Brown Bag” series (whereas colleagues
bring their lunches to the meetings) to discuss the predictors of student parents’
educational aspirations. Administrators, faculty, and staff can enhance their
understanding of both the predictors of educational aspirations and of the significant
negative correlations of parenthood, number of children, self-perception as a parent
first, and mothers’ self-perception as a mother first to degree aspirations. In addition,
administrators, faculty, and staff can share information on particular obstacles that have
surfaced with student parents and how each complication was handled. Faculty who are
unaccustomed to accommodating for students can receive guidance on how to
communicate with student parents when the latter make known their sudden
interferences with school (such as having a sick child or a disruption in childcare). This
Brown Bag series could lead reluctant faculty to accommodate for student pai'ents by
offering alternate deadlines for projects and exams, without grade penalties. Efforts can
be made to assure faculty members that accommodation neither means inferior teaching
practices nor that the student is learning less information. Again, further research is
needed to see if accommodation has a significant effect on student parents’ degree
aspirations.
Ideally, a training session would be offered to student parents during new'
student orientations. The directives would include an acknowledgement of obstacles,
the importance of aspirations and goal-setting, assistance with quality advising and
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83
assistance with communicating one’s needs to faculty. Subsequently, a student parent
group could be formed on campus for student parents to share the nature of their
obstacles and the solutions that have worked. Membership in a school group can
increase student involvement and have a positive effect on attainment of degree
aspirations. The administration and faculty need to be open to resourceM policy
implications aimed to support the degree aspirations of student parents.
Recommendation for Further Research
The results of this study indicate that the predictors of students’ degree
aspirations vary by parenthood status and also by parents’ gender. Based on the
variables examined in this study, further investigation to better understand student
parents, both mothers and fathers, with plans to transfer should be conducted. Factors of
ethnicity should be examined. Additionally, research on the number of children and the
likelihood of completing college should be investigated to determine if significant
differences exist. A study examining the possible reasons why high school GPA was
more important to fathers than to mothers could be useful for planning community links
between local high schools and community colleges.
Future research in this area could examine institutional forces such as student
services that may be employed to better assist student parents in reaching their goals.
Research on the life stage development of children—preschool age, primary school age,
and secondary school age—and the effect on student parents’ educational experiences
could be beneficial for educational planning and aspirations studies. Future researchers
should also examine the generalizability of this study’s findings to other institutions.
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84
Limitations
A limitation of this study is that the question on the TRUCCS survey clarifying
parenthood status did not indicate whether the student parents were the custodial parents
(or step-parents) to their children or step-children. Having children living in the home
may present additional conflict with the educational experience and with educational
aspirations. Another limitation was that the findings were limited to students in one
urban district and may not be generalizable to other community college districts.
Finally, this study assumed that higher degree aspirations were preferred. However, it is
possible that many student parents were more inclined toward associate degrees or
certificates regardless of parent status.
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85
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Asset Metadata

Creator Douglas, Cathy Berman (author)

Core Title Community college students: The effect of parenthood and selected variables on degree -seeking aspirations

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, community college,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hagedorn, Linda Serra (committee chair), Sundt, Melora (committee member), Tierney, William G. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-509226

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Legacy Identifier 3140464.pdf

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Rights Douglas, Cathy Berman

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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