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Cross -cultural international adjustment of American undergraduate interns in Asia

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Cross -cultural international adjustment of American undergraduate interns in Asia

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Content CROSS-CULTURAL INTERNATIONAL ADJUSTMENT OF AMERICAN UNDERGRADUATE INTERNS IN ASIA by Janette Claire Brown A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION December 2004 Copyright 2004 Janette Claire Brown Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3155387 Copyright 2004 by Brown, Janette Claire All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3155387 Copyright 2005 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Dedication ii To my parents: You have provided love, encouragement, and support throughout my life. Thank you for making sure I had a good education and for giving me the confidence and freedom to pursue my goals and interests. To my husband, Kirk, and my children, Carianne and Kirk Jr.: Thank you for your support throughout the entire eight-year process. From beginning to end, there was never one complaint, just encouragement. Kirk: For all the nights you drove me home from USC, for your long-enduring patience with this incredible time commitment, and for supporting me every step along the way, thank you! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iii Acknowledgements I am sincerely grateful to Professor William Tierney, a fine scholar and teacher. He first peaked my interest in higher education and without his encouragement, I would have never applied to graduate school. Dr. Tierney’s outstanding research publications, remarkable array of professional colleagues, and superior work ethic, have steadily inspired me to strive for excellence. Thanks also to Professors Melora Sundt and Robert Rueda who provided knowledgeable guidance and support for this research and in other areas of my professional life. To Kirk Snyder, a supportive and creative author, entrepreneur, editor, life coach, and friend. To Buck Freeman, Ronnie Chan, and in particular, Dick Drobnick, thank you for providing me the opportunity to work on the grant-funded Asia internship program. A special thanks goes to Dick for his continued support and for providing many international opportunities that grew my interest in “all things international.” My sincere appreciation extends to those very special participants in the 2003 study, who through their enthusiasm and shared experiences, provided the inspiration and insight for this dissertation. All students gave generously of time and self. They Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. may be anonymous to the readers, but I will never forget them and will always be thankful for their candid and personal accounts. All are great individuals and it was a pleasure and privilege to work with them. Most especially, I offer a very special and sincere thank you to Janelle Herrick, who initially provided expert assistance for the Asia internship program. She is also an exceptionally skilled and insightful professional editor and true friend. Her selfless support, dedication, and encouragement throughout the process made all the difference in the quality of this project. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table o f Contents Dedication.............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................iii List of Figures......................................................................................................................ix Abstract...................................................................................................................................x Preface..................................................................................................................................xii Chapter One............................................................................................................................1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ...................................................................................2 Problem Statem ent.................................................................................................. 3 Purpose of Study..................................................................................................... 5 Problem Significance..............................................................................................7 Research Questions.................................................................................... 8 Assumptions............................................................................................................9 M ethodology.......................................................................................................... 10 Investigator Qualifications................................................................................... 11 Lim itations............................................................................................................. 12 Definition of T erm s.............................................................................................. 13 Organization of the Study..................................................................................... 16 Chapter Two - Literature R eview ................................................................................... 17 Introduction............................................................................................................ 17 Study Abroad H istory...........................................................................................18 Study Abroad Organizations and Program s......................................................20 Sojourner Adjustm ent.......................................................................................... 22 Psychological and Socio-cultural Adjustm ent..................................... 23 Coping Strategies..................................................................................... 25 Cross-cultural Adjustment Factors........................................................26 U Curve Stages........................................................................................ 28 Social Learning T heory....................................................................................... 29 Important Research on Study and Work A broad..............................................34 SAEP - Study Abroad Evaluation Project............................................36 Laubscher Study...................................................................................... 38 Sojourner Adjustment Research......................................................................... 39 Ward and Kennedy...................................................................................40 Selm er....................................................................................................... 42 Weiss..........................................................................................................49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vi Chapter Three — Research M ethod..................................................................................53 Introduction............................................................................................................. 53 Qualitative Framework.............................................................................54 Research D esign................................................................................................... 55 Data Sources..............................................................................................57 Site Selection.............................................................................................58 Sample Population.................................................................................... 60 Data Collection.......................................................................................................62 Outline of the Research procedures........................................................65 Data Analysis..........................................................................................................67 Data Trustworthiness.............................................................................................68 Limitations.............................................................................................................. 70 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 71 Chapter Four -- Findings................................................................................................... 73 Introduction............................................................................................................. 73 Background............................................................................................................ 75 Marie and Harris.................................................................................................... 79 Expectations Before Departure.............................................................................81 Goals and Motives.................................................................................... 82 Cultural Adjustment..................................................................................83 Cultural Distance..................................................................................... 83 Marie and Harris - Expectations............................................................. 85 The First Weeks......................................................................................................86 Cultural Adjustment..................................................................................86 Initial Internship Reactions...................................................................... 89 Daily Living Challenges.......................................................................... 91 Cultural Distance Revisited....................................................................92 Cross-cultural Coping Strategies............................................................ 93 Marie and Harris - Initial Adjustments.................................................. 94 Mid-way Through - Cultural Difference Revisited...........................................96 Social Customs and Values.....................................................................98 HCN Communication and Friendships................................................ 102 Climate and Food.................................................................................... 103 Housing and Clothing.............................................................................104 Marie and Harris - Cultural Difference Perspectives.........................106 The Final Weeks - Socio-cultural Adjustment.................................................108 Communication....................................................................................... 109 Interaction with HCNs............................................................................112 Food, Climate, and Transportation....................................................... 113 After the Asia Experience - Exit Interviews.................................................... 114 Internship Perceptions............................................................................116 Self-Realization and Future Career Plans............................................ 118 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vii Barriers to Adjustment...........................................................................120 Factors that Support Adjustment.......................................................... 123 International Adjustment: Group Consensus....................................................125 Adjustment Challenges...........................................................................128 Adjustment Strategies.............................................................................131 Self-Realization and Future Career Plans Revisited...........................133 Training Suggestions..............................................................................135 Surprises...................................................................................................136 Summary................................................................................................................137 Chapter 5 — Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations...................................140 Discussion............................................................................................................. 140 The Rationale...........................................................................................141 Linking Results with Previous Research............................................. 142 Cultural Distance........................................................................143 Previous International Experience........................................... 144 Cultural Knowledge................................................................... 144 HCN Interaction..........................................................................145 Personality Characteristics........................................................ 146 Coping Strategies........................................................................147 Social Learning Theory.............................................................148 Limitations............................................................................................... 150 Conclusions........................................................................................................... 153 Adjustment Barriers................................................................................ 153 Language Barrier.........................................................................153 Cultural Distance - Social Customs and Values...................................................... 154 Symptom-Focused Coping Strategies......................................156 Positive Adjustment Factors.................................................................. 156 Motives and Perceived Benefits............................................................157 Future Plans............................................................................................. 159 Unexpected Results................................................................................ 160 Recommendations................................................................................................ 162 Implications for Further Study...............................................................167 Bibliography...................................................................................................................... 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. viii Appendices Appendix A Pre-Intemship Interview Questions - Survey One........ 183 Appendix B Individual Email Interview — Survey Two................... 184 Appendix C Cultural Distance — Survey Three.................................. 185 Appendix D Socio-cultural Adjustment-- Survey Four.....................186 Appendix E Exit Interview - Fifth Communication............................187 Appendix F Exit Focus Group Questions..............................................188 Appendix G Student Intern Evaluation for Employers........................189 Appendix H Employer Evaluation by Student Intern........................... 191 Appendix I Informed Consent Form......................................................193 Appendix J Future Plans......................................................................... 199 Appendix K Expectations & Later Perceptions.....................................200 Appendix L Applicant Interview Questions......................................... 202 Appendix M Motivations Chart............................................................... 204 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ix List o f Figures Figure 2.0 Social Learning Theory Theoretical Constructs Addressing the Issues...............................................................................33 Figure 3.0 Internship Location & Internship Type.................................................. 59 Figure 3.1 Student Demographics.............................................................................. 61 Figure 3.2 Student Majors........................................................................................... 61 Figure 3.3 Email Surveys............................................................................................ 63 Figure 3.4 Codes for Classification............................................................................ 68 Figure 4.0 Student Intern Language Ability............................................................. 75 Figure 4.1 Student Demographic Comparisons........................................................76 Figure 4.2 Cultural Adjustment Factors....................................................................84 Figure 4.3 Early Perception of Cultural Differences...............................................85 Figure 4.4a Adjustment During the First Few Weeks...............................................87 Figure 4.4b First Weeks - Adjustment Comparisons................................................ 88 Figure 4.5 Early and Later Perceptions of Cultural Differences........................... 93 Figure 4.6 Cultural Differences Between the U.S. and Asia..................................97 Figure 4.7 Socio-cultural Adjustment - Last Few Weeks......................................110 Figure 4.8 Perceptions of the Asia Internship Experience.................................... 117 Figure 4.9 Self Realizations & Perceived Benefits.................................................119 Figure 5.0 Future Plans.............................................................................................. 159 Figure 5.1 Preparation Suggestions......................................................................... 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. X Abstract This study explores how American undergraduate interns from a large urban university cope with and adjust to cultural differences encountered during a two- month internship in Asia. The research investigates student perceptions and socio cultural factors that affect interns as they adjust to life and work abroad, and answers three questions: How do students approach problems encountered in a new culture? What strategies do they use to adjust? What can we do to help them adjust more successfully? Specifically, the research investigates the cross-cultural international adjustment of thirteen U.S. undergraduate interns who worked in Japan and Kuala Lumpur during the summer of 2003. It presents intern opinions of cross-cultural adjustment factors within the context of work and personal environments, chiefly targeting cultural distance, adjustment challenges, and coping strategies. This review observes socio-cultural and psychological adjustment from a qualitative constructivist perspective that employs extensive use of email surveys, open-ended questions, personal interviews, and focus groups to view the data within a Social Learning Theory framework. The study supports previous adjustment research highlighting the importance of foreign language skills. In addition, it confirms that HCN interaction, meaningful international experience, and cultural knowledge support successful international adjustment. Problem-focused coping strategies also proved to be the best approach for overcoming adjustment difficulties. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. xi While these results reflect earlier findings, three major themes surfaced that provided additional insight. The first theme suggests that students can successfully employ small amounts of symptom-focused coping strategies to adjust as long as they understand the negative consequences of using them too frequently. Second, interns overwhelmingly stated that an open-minded attitude was most important for successful adjustment. Third, making friends and interacting with HCNs before traveling abroad is difficult to do, but is well worth the effort if given the opportunity to do so, since the HCN relationship significantly improves cross-cultural knowledge, understanding, and adjustment. This review adds to adjustment research by investigating a non-academic international internship program in two Eastern cultures. It offers recommendations for future research and provides university administrators with information to facilitate international internship preparation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Preface “Clearly, we need to use education to advance tolerance and understanding. Perhaps more than ever, international understanding is essential to world peace understanding between faiths, between nations, between cultures. Today we know that just as no nation is immune to conflict or suffering, no nation can defend itself alone. We need each other as friends, as allies, as partners in the struggle for common values and common needs.” United Nations Secretary, General Kofi Anaan “Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness.” Mark Twain Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 Chapter 1 Introduction The American Council on Education has identified global competence as a fundamental challenge for higher education. Complex global interactions, once reserved for the diplomatic corps, are today the stuff of everyday business deals and cultural exchanges. If we expect students to navigate international waters, we need to give them an international education that meets the highest standards... (The Center for Global Education, 2002). Indeed, higher education has a responsibility to prepare students for living in a global society, and the current world instability emphasizes the importance of developing international knowledge and skills. Over the last several decades, the United States has experienced “a dangerous shortfall of individuals with global competence” (American Council on Education, 2002. p. 7). U.S. citizens are not well prepared for the international realities ahead, and the level of international knowledge and awareness in our country is declining (Hoffa & Pearson, 1997). This is a serious determent to professional and personal career opportunities, and most importantly, it weakens U.S. global positioning, economy, independence, and security (The Center for Global Education, 2002). International education must become a mainstay in our American university system if the U.S. expects to participate and compete in the highest levels of the global workplace. A global education must extend beyond language training and internationally focused academic coursework. Students need opportunities to experience foreign Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 cultures and work internationally if they are to contribute significantly to world affairs. International internships create the experiential learning opportunities that generate global knowledge and competence. They increase cultural understanding and language skills, promote acceptance of cultural diversity, and offer an understanding of international business, politics, and cultures while integrating academic knowledge with real life experience. Furthermore, international internship experiences offer students a distinct career advantage by creating more opportunities for students with experience in very diverse cultures such as Asia. Proving oneself in a non-Westem culture potentially increases the chances for successful international work opportunities and develops important cross-cultural skills necessary for becoming a global citizen. Background of the Problem For decades, most American students’ global experience primarily focused upon visiting and studying in Western European countries. This is very limiting for citizens who should be aware of international relations throughout the world. Since Asia is fast becoming a major international economic and technical power (American Council on Education, 2002), understanding this region is crucial for participation in global affairs. American familiarity with the unique cultures of Asia is severely lacking in comparison with Asians' familiarity with American culture. In fact, as of 2003, about 8,000 Americans studied in East and Southeast Asia, while there were over 240,000 students from East and Southeast Asia studying in the United States (Open Doors, 2003). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 According to a survey conducted in 2000 by the American Council on Education, commitment to internationalization at the university level remains low. Students and faculty show interest in international activities but most do not participate in international activities. Foreign language course enrollments remain static and students continue to be most interested in Western cultures. As participation increases in overseas studies, most select short-term experiences and few select extracurricular international activities (Siaya & Hayward 2003). American students with Eastern culture exposure have a distinct advantage over the majority of students who typically work and study in Western societies. Asian internship experience is valuable because of Asia’s rising world importance and the need to understand the great cultural differences between East and West. In addition, successful adjustment to such great cultural differences equips students with the skills and confidence to understand diverse cultures and work anywhere in the world. My research of cross-cultural adjustment provides insight into the ways students adjust and offers international program administrators ideas to enhance and promote successful internship experiences in Eastern cultures. Problem Statement Higher education institutions are justifiably concerned with the academic knowledge gained through study abroad experiences, but similarly they should take notice of the socio-cultural and psychological adjustment and experiential learning that takes place while living and working overseas. Academic knowledge gained from study abroad programs is quite different from the experiential learning that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 occurs when students live and intern abroad. In an internship experience, students gain cultural and business competence in an unstructured setting with very little guidance. This necessitates thinking and acting on one’s own without the benefit of a controlled academic environment, with no local support from university staff. Cross-cultural adjustment is crucial during an international internship, and it is even more significant when, years later, the intern chooses to work internationally. It is widely accepted that those in foreign assignments experience psychological strain, a sense of loss, rejection, confusion, surprise, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness (d’Ardenne & Mahtain, 1989). This is due to six major factors: the unfamiliar cultural environment, food, language, expectations, concepts of personal space, and the pervading Confucianism ideology that exists throughout many parts of Asia. The Confucianism philosophy pervades the workplace as subordinates defer to the boss, and superiors must show respect and obedience (Redding, 1990). Most Asian business culture stresses hierarchical principles and status differences that cause culture shock for Americans doing business in Asia for the first time. When workers cannot adjust, they become ineffective and costly failures for business, resulting in: absenteeism, lateness, inattention, neglect of basic duties, poor performance, substance abuse, and poor physical and mental health (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). Research has shown that even experienced managers leave their posts and return to the United States because they cannot successfully adjust (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). In fact, the chance of having a satisfying living abroad experience, if Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 left to luck, is about one in seven (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). It is essential then to consider the factors that contribute to successful international adjustment and that play such a significant role in job success and overall satisfaction with overseas experiences. Business studies have indicated that quality training and preparation can substantially help a sojourner adapt and feel competent (Selmer, 2002). Since there is little research available regarding the adjustment of undergraduate American interns who work in Asia, there is a need to study how they adjust, and provide recommendations for improved selection, training, and preparation of these young adult students. Accordingly, the focus of this study: • provides descriptions and perceptions of intern adjustment during the summer of 2003 • identifies factors that influenced cross-cultural adjustment • offers suggestions for improved student selection and preparation. Purpose of Study As globalization becomes increasingly important and Americans continue to lack international experience especially in non-Western cultures, it is imperative that university students begin early to gain experience working abroad in places other than Western Europe. Since Asia is a significant contributor to global affairs, understanding Eastern cultures is of growing significance. It is for this reason that this review is directed at Asia and the American interns who worked there in 2003. American undergraduate interns in Asia encounter substantial cultural differences. The Asian cultural environment is unfamiliar to most Western Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 expatriates and sojourners, and many find life and work frustrating (Selmer, 2001). It is crucial that interns prepare well before international departure so they can experience success and contribute to the future international workforce. This study aims to explore how American undergraduate interns from a large urban university cope with and adjust to cultural differences encountered during an eight to ten week internship in Asia. The research investigates student perceptions and socio-cultural factors that affect interns as they adjust to life and work abroad, and it seeks to answer three questions: how do students approach problems encountered in a new culture, what strategies do they use to adjust, and what can we do to help them adjust more successfully? This research review uses an exploratory approach that examines socio cultural adjustment and views the data using Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT). Based on both cognitive and behavioral theories, SLT describes how interns learn and are motivated to succeed in a new culture. Accordingly, this study explores individual intern adjustment within the context of both work and personal environments. SLT is also compatible with the study’s socio-cultural focus, therefore, through the examination of individual patterns of adjustment and coping rather than merely enumerating the cultural adjustment problems, this investigation contributes to adjustment research (Church, 1982). Overall, my dissertation: 1) provides an in-depth description and analysis of Asia interns’ cross-cultural adjustment experiences in Asia during the summer of 2003; 2) presents student perceptions of the most significant cross-cultural Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 adjustment factors; and 3) offers suggestions for student preparation and training so that interns may better prepare for entrance into the international workforce. From a practitioner’s standpoint, this research is important because it also intends to 1) provide additional information about student adjustment to enhance a specific grant-funded Asia internship program; 2) promote Asia internship programs at other universities by providing insight into the successful selection and preparation of American interns working abroad; 3) increase the body of cross-cultural adjustment knowledge therefore encouraging other researchers to conduct further related studies at their respective colleges universities; and 4) encourage appreciation for cultural diversity and knowledge. Problem Significance In most colleges and universities, few students choose to intern in non- Westem countries, and although significant information exists on the cross-cultural adjustment of business managers, very little research is available on the adjustment of young adults working in Asia for the first time. At the university where this research was conducted, the university’s strategic plan identifies Asia as an important region for developing academic research and business relationships. In support of this strategic plan, since 2001 the Asia internship program has supplied sixty-four undergraduate students with Asian business or government internship experience. The uniquely non-credit bearing internships have provided opportunities for students to apply academic knowledge in the workplace, conduct research, create friendships, and build relationships for future opportunities. Assisting interns to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 adjust well to their international internship experiences promotes the international vision and goals of the university. More importantly, when student interns successfully adjust and work abroad, they promote goodwill and open the door for international opportunities, not only for themselves, but also for the university and the United States at large. The research on cross-cultural adjustment of young adults working in Asia is almost nonexistent. Where research does exist, it centers on expatriate managers from many different countries. Therefore, as a result of this study, contributions to higher education might include: expanding the cross-cultural adjustment knowledge base by examining undergraduate interns working in Asia and providing insight into the selection and preparation of interns working internationally; b) furnishing academic institutions with knowledge and insight that might encourage and facilitate non-Western international program expansion, inspire financial support, and prompt others to conduct similar studies at their respective colleges and universities; c) promoting appreciation for cultural diversity, further developing cross-cultural understanding, and as a result, giving student interns an added advantage in their host country. Research Questions • What problems do student interns encounter and consider significant as they adjust to a new culture? • How do students approach these problems and what strategies do they use to adjust? • What do students think would help them adjust more successfully? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 Assumptions The research in this study relies upon several assumptions. First, psychological reactions to a new culture are interactions between personal and environmental factors. Psychological adjustment is not affected by cross-cultural training nor can it be easily predicted. Second, socio-cultural adjustment happens by reducing uncertainty through learning about a new environment, then changing oneself or the situation to create a better fit (Selmer, 1999). Third, Social Learning Theory addresses cognitive, social, behavioral, and environmental factors that come together to create exclusive contextual experiences. This perspective places emphasis on both the person and the environment thereby making the theory a good framework for studying cross-cultural adjustment. This study also assumes that: 1. The collected research is accurately chronicled and analyzed using a combination of personally written responses from the research participants and precisely transcribed individual interviews and focus groups. 2. The research participants have responded candidly, thoroughly, and to the best of their ability. 3. The results and recommendations of the study are applicable to the university’s Asia internship program and might provide relevant and useful information to other university international internship programs. 4. The data gathering has followed proper protocol and multiple qualitative research methods have been used to ensure validity. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 Methodology This investigative research examines American interns who participate in Asia summer internships. As this study is unique in its Asia focus, it is noteworthy that research is scarce concerning American undergraduate intern adjustment during short-term overseas internships. In addition, most study abroad adjustment research investigates an academic context with multinational student populations in non- Asian cultures. When internships are included in these research studies, the internships run concurrently with academic coursework. This is a completely different experience than cultural immersion in a purely work related context. During this study, student interns concentrated solely on work experiences and cultural life; they took no academic coursework. Qualitative methods are used for this investigation because the research examines only thirteen interns as they adjust to Asian culture. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), the strength of a qualitative study that aims to explore a problem or describe a setting, a process, a social group, or a pattern of interaction, will rest with its validity. An in-depth description showing the complexities of processes and interactions can be so entrenched with data derived from the setting that it cannot help but be valid (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The qualitative aspects of this research allow the reader to view the cross-cultural adjustment from the students’ perspective within the personal context of their experiences. Exploratory in nature, the research employs detailed description to portray individual contextual stories and draw Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 conclusions based on similarities uncovered during the coding and interpretation processes. The research participants were not trained to observe and report, but were instructed to respond candidly throughout the research collection process. Both positive and negative responses were encouraged, and students were free to respond on any subject. The combination of structured interviews, unstructured participant responses, and focus groups provide varied contextual data and present a more complete picture of the adjustment process. Interpretational analysis is the central approach for data analysis, however some elements of reflective analysis will allow the researcher to use intuition and personal judgment for a more inclusive and unique research picture (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). In addition, employment of the hermeneutic circle (alternately viewing the data’s individual segments, then viewing the data as a complete whole) fosters a deeper understanding of the results (Gall, et. al, 1996). A hermeneutic perspective introduces the researcher and clarifies the expertise and prejudice brought to the study. Investigator Qualifications The researcher holds a M.Ed. degree and is the Associate Director of Experiential Learning at a large urban university in the western United States. Working in career and internship services since 1995, she established an Experiential Learning Office in 1999, and assisted in the creation of an Asia internship program in 2001. She has managed the program since its inception. In addition, she teaches a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 career theory class, and is the co-author of a 2001 and 2004 benchmarking survey of internship and co-op professionals in higher education. The researcher’s understanding of career theory, experiential learning, and internships, coupled with her experience as an Asia internship program manager provided a distinct benefit for this study. The strength of the research design includes her in-depth knowledge of the Asia internship program and personal knowledge of sixty-four students’ Asia internship experiences since 2001. Trust and a rapport exist between the student interns and the researcher that allows for more personal and candid responses. Limitations This study examined only thirteen students from an Asia internship program at a large urban research university in the western United States. The limitations of the study include: a small population sample, the different maturity levels of the young adults in the research sample, the competitiveness of the fellowship program, and the bias of the researcher who runs that program. In some ways, the study participants were homogeneous, as they were all confident individuals with good academic records that could afford to work unpaid throughout the summer, and all were accomplished undergraduates interested in Asian culture. The grant-funded Asia internship program is unique to the interns’ university, and the internship sites were predetermined by off-campus, international directors from the university. The inability of the researcher to visit the internship locations and observe the adaptation process first hand also limited a thorough knowledge and understanding of the cultural setting. In addition, during the summer of 2003, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 world experienced an outbreak of the SARS virus. Due to this outbreak, several students withdrew from the Asia internship program, and 75% of the remaining participants were rerouted from their desired internships in Chinese speaking countries to Japan and Kuala Lumpur. In several cases, students did not have a chance to prepare for this switch to an unexpected new culture. This set of circumstances may limit the study’s applicability to other national university programs. Definition of Terms A number of academic disciplines such as anthropology, business, education, psychology, and sociology, discuss and study various forms of adjustment. As there is no universal adjustment term, this dissertation adopts Colleen Ward’s adjustment definition as “being culturally competent within a host country” (1992). Both sojourner and expatriate adjustment research explain overseas adjustment and provide important insight for this study. The expression “sojourner” in adjustment research refers to individuals in a foreign country whose goals and motives are more specific, and whose length of stay in a new culture is shorter than immigrants or refugees (Fumham, 1988). This study categorizes interns as sojourners. The term “expatriates” describes individuals who take up residence in a foreign country for any length of time and for any purpose (Fumham, 1988), therefore interns can also be classified as expatriates. Since interns work and study for short-term assignments, they are not considered immigrants or refugees. The following definitions provide clarification regarding the adjustment of interns living abroad. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 ■ Adjustment: used interchangeably with adaptation and acculturation. Implies being culturally competent within a host country (Ward, 1992). ■ Cultural distance: a traveler’s opinion of how similar or dissimilar the home culture is from the host country (Weiss, 1998). ■ Cultural fit: the ability to fit in or navigate various aspects of the host culture or country (Weiss, 1998). ■ Cultural knowledge: information an individual has about a particular country’s norms, customs, arts, institutions, etc. ■ Culture: the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought shaping behavior and consciousness within a human society from generation to generation (Miraglia, Law, & Collins, 1999). ■ Experiential education: the process of actively engaging students in an experience that will have real consequences. Students make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of others. Students also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, new attitudes, and new theories or ways of thinking (Kraft & Sakofs, 1988). ■ Expatriate: individuals who take up residence in a foreign country for any length of time and for any purpose (Fumham, 1988). ■ Home country: the country in which an individual is a permanent resident. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 ■ Home culture: the culture of the country in which an individual is a permanent resident. ■ Host country: the country in which the traveler or sojourner is visiting or living. ■ Host-country nationals (HCNs), or host nationals: permanent residents of the country in which a traveler or sojourner is visiting or residing (Weiss, 1998). ■ Internship: a position held within an established organization while completing a college degree and performing job tasks similar in nature and level to those carried out by college graduates employed in the relevant field of study (Taylor, 1984). ■ Psychological adjustment: feelings of satisfaction and well-being (Ward, 1991). ■ Overseas: abroad, foreign countries. ■ SLT: Social Learning Theory. SLT implies that all learning phenomena from direct experience occur on a vicarious basis by observing other people's behavior and its consequences for them. ■ Socio-cultural adjustment: acquired social skills, an understanding of social norms, and the ability to get along with host nationals (Ward, 1991). ■ Sojourner: a temporary resident, a stranger, or traveler who dwells in or visits a place for a time (Webster, 1998). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 ■ Traditional age for college students: between the ages of eighteen to twenty-four. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 of this study presents the introduction, background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and significance of the study. The last half of the chapter discusses the study’s methodology, the investigator’s qualifications, study limitations, research assumptions, and the definition of terms. In Chapter 2, a two-part literature review is presented. The first section reviews study abroad history and programs, and gives an overview of sojourner adjustment research and Social Learning Theory. Part 2 highlights selected study abroad and sojourner adjustment research. Chapter 3 discusses the research design and presents the research tools. It describes the methodology used in the study, including a description of the research population, the data collection procedures, and the methods of data analysis. Chapter 4 presents the results of the research. Chapter 5 discusses and analyzes the results, and offers conclusions and recommendations for the future. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 Chapter 2 Literature Review Introduction As American students venture abroad for internships, they often encounter unfamiliar and unknown cultures. For most, their temporary living and working situations require a certain amount of adjustment. This study centers upon the socio cultural adjustment that occurs when interns enter into new Asian cultures and work environments, and identifies important factors that influence that adjustment. Although internships are not central components of study abroad programs, they have evolved from the study abroad experience and are a natural progression and enhancement of academic programs where students can apply academic knowledge in a real-world work setting. In Chapter 2, the first section briefly explores study abroad history, organizations, and programs. Next, it explains sojourner adjustment research and includes psychological and socio-cultural adjustment, coping strategies, adjustment factors, and U Curve adjustment stages. The end of the first section describes Social Learning Theory and the theoretical constructs that provide the framework for examining specific cross-cultural adjustment variables presented in this dissertation. Chapter two’s second section discusses significant study abroad and sojourner adjustment research as it applies to overseas internship adjustment. It begins with two important study abroad research projects, and ends with selected Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 sojourner adjustment research studies from Ward and Kennedy (1996), Selmer (1999, 2001), and Weiss (1998). Study Abroad History Study abroad programs typically take three forms: American university sponsored exchange with foreign universities, American students enrolled in foreign universities, and international work or internships that require concurrent coursework and are credit bearing. Most statistics and historical data consider only the first two types of study abroad, and there is little documented research solely related to internships abroad or experiential learning outside the classroom. The concept of international study goes back as far as the 1700’s when wealthy families considered study abroad as part of a well-rounded education. Study abroad as we know it today was not institutionalized into American higher education until just after World War I, when Americans began to feel the need for understanding other nations and their cultures. The first study abroad model in the 1920s sponsored year-long programs known as “junior year abroad" for learning language and culture (Hoffa, 2002). After World War II, America’s isolationist perspective lessened (Kelman & Ezekiel, 1970), and as Americans assisted in rebuilding war-damaged countries, the government began to provide modest international support programs in colleges and universities. Due to the lack of Americans with experience in non-European languages and foreign affairs, the Carnegie Corporation and the Rockefeller Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 Foundation were first to support higher education programs in non-European locations (Bum, 1980). By 1970, an estimated 20,000 U.S. students participated in study abroad programs each year, and with the advent of hostels, inexpensive air travel, and a strong U.S. dollar, many more Americans began to travel (Hoffa, 2002). By 1979, the President's Commission on Foreign Language in International Studies worried over the poor language learning rates in high schools and colleges and the lack of international experts. A renewed interest in internationalization grew in the 1980's due to concerns about science, technology, natural resources, preventing war, and curbing inflation. The creation of the National Security Education Program in 1991 demonstrates new federal commitments to international education. The program supports study abroad for undergraduates, international and language study for graduate students, and institutional projects that emphasize languages and countries critical to U.S. security. The funding continues to be insufficient however, and Congress reduced the original trust fund of $150 million to approximately $38 million (Engberg & Green, 2002). President Clinton's Memorandum on International Education (1999) committed the federal government to support international education, but there were no funds to carry out the government’s international goals. In 2001, the U.S. Congress resolved that the U.S. “should establish an international education policy to further national security, foreign policy, and economic competitiveness, and promote mutual understanding and cooperation Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 among nations.” To this end, they suggested that the U.S. should significantly increase participation in study and internships abroad by United States students (107th CONGRESS, 1st Session, 2001). Although many agree that higher education should emphasize and provide more internationally centered opportunities, American universities continue to narrowly focus on study abroad efforts. Although study abroad is more popular than in past years, the data on campus internationalization are not encouraging. Presently, only about 3 percent of American students study abroad for academic credit (Hoffa & Pearson, 1997, p. 374). Asian language enrollment in particular makes up only 6 percent of all languages taken. Students take only minimum amounts of internationally focused coursework, if at all, and the percentage of four-year institutions with language degree requirements declined from 89 percent in 1965 to 68 percent in 1995 (Engberg & Green, 2001). According to Open Doors (2003), Europe continues to be the most popular region for U.S. students pursuing education abroad (63% of total students reported studying in Europe), yet Asia has significantly increased its numbers of U.S. study abroad students. In 2001/02, U.S. study abroad students in China and Japan increased to 4.4% of the total study abroad population. Most American students who studied abroad in 2001/02 (91%) did so for one semester or less (Open Doors, 2003). Study Abroad Organizations & Programs Two organizations stand out in the study abroad field: the Institute of International Education (HE) and NAFSA, the Association of International Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 Educators (originally named the National Association of Foreign Student Advisors). IIE is a nonprofit international organization founded in 1919 that designs and implements over two hundred fellowships, training, and technical assistance programs for sponsors such as government agencies, corporations, foundations, universities, and international organizations that direct international exchange (Institute of International Education, 2002). Established in 1948, NAFSA's original purpose was to support foreign student advisers. Through its expanding vision, NAFSA now promotes all fields of international education at the post secondary level. SECUSSA is NAFSA’s Section on U.S. Students Abroad. Established in 1971, SECUSSA now assists all U.S. students who go abroad for any kind of international experience, rather than servicing only U.S. study abroad students as it had in the past (NAFSA, Association of International Educators, 2002). The Fulbright Program, managed by the IIE, is a significant contributor to the study abroad arena (Engberg & Green, 2002). The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the U.S. Department of State sponsor this program, established in 1946 under legislation introduced by former Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas. The Fulbright Program confers about 4,500 new grants each year to students, professors, and researchers who teach and study worldwide. Over the years, approximately 94,000 of the 250,000 Fulbright Fellows have come from the United States. Congressional appropriation and foreign governments fund the Fulbright Program (U. S. Department of State, 2002). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 Today, the length of time students take to study abroad has decreased. A 2003 Open Doors study shows that most students continue to study abroad for shorter sojourns, with more than 50% of U.S. undergraduates and masters degree students selecting summer, January term, internships, and other short-term programs instead of academic year or semester programs. Europe (with 100,668 students reported) continues to be the most popular region for U.S. students pursuing education abroad, Asia was up to 10,901 students for 2001-2002 (Open Doors, 2003). Students continue to travel to European destinations instead of Asia and elsewhere. In fact, the gap between European and Asian study programs has widened as China and Japan experienced a drop in the number of U.S. study abroad students in 2002 (Open Doors, 2002). Sojourner Adjustment Most individuals develop adjustment coping strategies that enable them to manage life experiences within their own societies. When immersed in a different culture, they must learn new strategies in order to adjust to a new society (Rieger, 1984). Adjustment research crosses many academic disciplines and investigates within several different contexts. There are many research articles written on sojourner and expatriate cultural adjustment, and for many years, acculturation, adaptation, and adjustment were almost interchangeable terms (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). The next sections present four major themes within the sojourner adjustment research: psychological and socio-cultural adjustment, coping strategies, cross- cultural adjustment factors, and U Curve adjustment stages. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 Psychological and Socio-cultural Adjustment Psychological and socio-cultural adjustments are important for successful work abroad and the term “adjustment” implies an active participation in the adaptation process. This is achieved by reducing uncertainty through learning and understanding about a new environment and its’ requirements, then changing oneself or the situation to create a better fit. When there is a good fit, there is successful adjustment (Selmer, 1999). Ward and colleagues have attempted to consolidate acculturation literature and sojourner research by making a distinction between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation during cross-cultural transitions, and earlier research supports the distinction between the two theoretical approaches to acculturation (Searle & Ward, 1990, Ward & Kennedy 1992, Ward & Searle, 1991). Psychological adjustment refers to a general sense of well-being. This means feeling reasonably happy all things considered, being able to enjoy one’s day-to-day activities, and the ability to face up to one’s problems (Selmer, 1999). Psychological adaptation also refers to stress, coping, and mood states. This includes depression, anxiety, tension, and fatigue. Personality, life changes, social support variables, extroversion, locus of control, loneliness, and degrees of life changes predict these feelings (Selmer, 1999). Psychological adaptation is usually measured by readjustment rating scales and range of relationship satisfaction measures (Armes & Ward, 1989; Searle & Ward, 1990; Stone, Feinstein & Ward, 1990: Ward & Kennedy, 1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 Socio-cultural adaptation refers to social skills and the ability to fit in and negotiate aspects of the host culture. Cognitive factors and social skill acquisition affect socio-cultural adaptation and it is measured by the amount of difficulty experienced managing everyday social situations in the host culture (Ward & Kennedy, 1996) and is associated with the feeling that one can manage effectively in a new environment (Selmer, 1999). Within this adjustment, three components are important to a sojourner’s success: adjusting to work demands, adjusting to interaction with HCNs, and adjusting to the non-work environment (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddu, 1991). Ten significant factors are also important to successful socio-cultural adjustment: pre-departure training, previous international experience, individual self-efficacy, relational and perceptual skills, characteristics of the sojourner’s job, social support, logistical help, organizational socialization processes, culture novelty, and family adjustment (Black, et. al, 1991). All factors affect student interns abroad except family adjustment since families do not travel abroad with interns. To summarize, psychological adaptation refers to the sojourner’s overall feelings of well-being while socio-cultural adaptation describes the ability to “fit in” or negotiate the aspects of the host culture. Through the research of stress and coping and social skills, these two adjustment domains are interrelated but are predicted by different types of variables (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). While there is a definite relationship between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation, the extent of the relationship varies based on the socio-cultural context. It is generally expected Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 that the greater the sojourner’s ability and opportunity for integration into the host culture, the stronger the association between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation. Ward and Kennedy (1996) suggest further study on the relationship significance between the two domains as it is affected not only by sojourners’ desire, ability, or opportunity for integration, but also by the host culture’s reception of foreigners. The acculturation literature attempts to predict cross-cultural adjustment, but the outcome variables are so diverse that there is no consensus on what contributes to cross-cultural coping and adaptation. There is one important predictor of socio cultural adaptation however, and that is cultural distance (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). This is the amount of cultural dissimilarity encountered between the sojourner and the host culture. Ward and Kennedy confirm the significance of cultural distance in their research that supports previous studies by Babiker, Cox, and Miller (1980) and Fumham and Bochner (1982). Sojourners who make large transitions experience greater socio-cultural adjustment problems (Selmer, 1999). Coping Strategies Coping strategy research in cross-cultural transition points to problem- focused coping as the most effective method for adapting to new cultures (Selmer, 1999). This strategy promotes changing the environment or oneself in order solve problems. The least effective coping strategy is symptom-focused which results in escapism and retreat. Adjustment requires active learning and understanding about a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 new environment in order to integrate well and reduce anxiety in cross-cultural situations. Selmer (1999) recognized the important effects of coping strategies on international adjustment. Over the past twenty years, researchers suggested that problem-focused coping might be more effective than symptom-focused coping for people who change jobs and for those expatriates working overseas (Selmer, 1999). Although expatriates do not always volunteer to go abroad as sojourners do, their coping strategies are applicable to interns working abroad. For example, when interns actively attempt to discover ways to learn and contribute to internship projects, the result is usually collaboration and the production of beneficial learning projects that add value to the work place (problem-focused coping). When an intern engages in psychological withdrawal by wishing to return home and only connects with fellow interns and expatriates instead of integrating with the host culture, this can have a negative effect (symptom-focused coping). Problem-focused coping implies tolerance and patience, responsible problem solving, and social involvement with host country nationals. Symptom-focused coping is a more negative approach that results in parent country escapism and expatriate refuge (Selmer, 1999). Cross-cultural Adjustment Factors Various academic disciplines have identified over twenty-four different factors as indices of cross-cultural adjustment (Ward, 1992; Weissman, 1987; Church, 1982; Bochner, 1982; Brislin, 1981; Furnham and Bochner, 1986). Most of the factors fall into three general categories: demographic, contextual, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 personality (Weiss, 1998). As this study is socio-cultural in nature, it will consider only demographic and contextual characteristics. Typically, demographic characteristics play an important part in many research studies, however there is no agreement as to which factors significantly affect cross-cultural adjustment (Church, 1982). In this dissertation, the student demographic factors of age, socioeconomic level, and educational level are similar; therefore, this study will not compare them. Previous research investigated demographics of gender, ethnicity, language proficiency, and past overseas experience. The research does not provide conclusive evidence that these demographics have either positive or negative influences upon overseas adjustment, except past overseas experience, which indicated a positive influence (Ward, 1992). Several studies also suggest that depth, intimacy, perception, and similarity of the overseas cultural experience contribute to positive cross-cultural adjustment, not the length of time abroad or the mere fact that one has traveled overseas (Weiss, 1998; Dunbar, 1992; Bochner, 1972). This study examines the contextual factors of cultural distance and contact with host country nationals (HCNs). The phrase “cultural distance” created by Adrian Fumham and Stephen Bochner (1982) describes a sojourner’s perception of the difference between his or her home culture and the new host culture. In related research, the term “novelty” describes cultural distance (Black, 1988; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985: Torbiom, 1982). As the perception of distance between cultures increases, the adjustment difficulty tends to increase (Fumham & Bochner, 1982). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 Greater cultural distance also explains increased difficulty in learning social skills to manage new cultural situations and form relationships with HCNs (Babiker et al., 1980). Cultural fit draws on a sojourner’s cognitive ability to learn new social skills to “fit in” to the new host culture and measures the amount of difficulty a sojourner experiences in everyday life (Ward, 1991; Fumham & Bochner, 1982). It is generally accepted that cultural knowledge supports cross-cultural adjustment and there are several studies that indicate a positive relationship between prior international education and adjustment (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Befus, 1988; Black, 1991; Brislin, 1981; Julius, 1992). Adjustment research stresses the importance of sojourner interaction with HCNs. In fact, HCN interaction is a “crucial and decisive” factor in cross-cultural adjustment (Weiss, 1998). Since sojourners are hesitant to introduce themselves to HCN's and because housing options, friendship patterns and organization affiliations tend to group sojourners with their home country peers, sojourners have less chance to develop relationships with HCNs. This isolates them and obstructs efforts to learn the language, values, and customs of the host country (Church, 1982). U Curve Adjustment Stages It is noteworthy to acknowledge U Curve Theory since it was one of the first theories to identify sojourner adjustment as a series of stages (Lysgaard, 1955). This theory is more a means to describe progression toward adjustment rather than a theoretical framework (Weiss, 1998), therefore I do not employ it as a framework for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 this study. U Curve Theory describes phases of adjustment rather than explain how and why people adjust (Black & Mendenhall, 1991). U Curve Theory illustrates the sojourner progression through four stages of adjustment. The stages can provide useful insight for individuals preparing for international work, as it explains typical reactions to the adjustment process. The first stage, or honeymoon stage, describes how sojourners are interested and excited by their new cultural experiences. This stage may last from a few days up to several months depending upon the length of stay and the number of misunderstandings or difficulties experienced in the new culture. This initial infatuation stage is followed by the next stage that includes a period of disillusionment or “culture shock.” In this second phase, the sojourner experiences negative attitudes towards the host country and people when differences in daily living cause difficult adjustment. The third stage illustrates increasing cultural adjustment to the new culture as the sojourner improves language skills and the ability to function more easily in the new culture, and the final stage is the mastery stage, where the sojourner has increased his or her ability to perform well in the host culture (Black & Mendenhall, 1991). Social Learning Theory Rather than viewing adjustment through a U Curve perspective, Fumham and Bochner recommend that research should use theoretical models that center on social learning and social skill development (1986). My investigative review follows this recommendation and frames the research using a social learning perspective. In the social learning view, people are neither solely driven by inner forces nor are they Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 buffeted by environmental stimuli. To be more precise, psychological functioning can be explained in terms of a continuous interaction of personal and environmental factors. Within this approach, symbolic, vicarious, and self-regulatory processes assume a prominent role (Bandura, 1977). Almost all learning phenomena from direct experience occur on a vicarious basis by observing other people's behavior and its consequences for them. The capacity to learn by observation “enables people to acquire large, integrated patterns of behavior, without having to form them gradually by tedious trial and error” (Bandura, 1977, p. 11). Social Learning Theory (SLT) combines both cognitive and behavioral theories (Swenson, 1980) and presents four major elements that explain learning and behavior: attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives (Bandura, 1977). Incentives play a major part in affecting new behaviors since behaviors result through positive reinforcement. In addition, SLT emphasizes that learning takes place through observation followed by mental rehearsal or through behavior modeling. This process describes adjustment steps taken by new sojourners experiencing a new culture. The incentive to fit in and comfortably manage daily living tasks motivates the sojourner to concentrate and observe as HCNs go about daily life duties. The sojourner then mentally rehearses and attempts to reproduce the action by modeling HCN behavior. For the most part, practicing HCN behavior leads to eventual adaptation to the host culture. From a social learning perspective, sojourners in a new culture will attempt to model new behaviors but may sometimes exhibit inappropriate actions due to the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 differences between the two cultures. When inappropriate behaviors result in negative feedback, sojourners may feel frustration, anxiety, and a sense of disorientation (Fumham & Bochner, 1986). Sometimes positive feelings can result despite inappropriate behaviors and negative consequences (Church, 1982). This is because sojourners, due to cultural differences, may be unaware that they are behaving inappropriately or that they are the recipients of negative reinforcement. Sojourners may also ignore negative feedback in their desire to preserve their self esteem (Bandura, 1977). Cultural distance plays a large part in social learning. It determines how much attention a person pays to new behaviors (Black, 1988). The greater the difference in cultural similarity between the home culture and the host culture, the more likely a sojourner will view the host culture negatively, and therefore will pay less attention to behaviors modeled by host nationals. This increases the chance of inappropriate sojourner behavior in the new culture. As cultural distance increases, it is also more difficult to understand and model appropriate behavior in the new culture (Torbiorn, 1982). Social Learning Theory can also explain cultural fit. As a sojourner adjusts to a new culture, what were once troublesome and inconvenient situations eventually become acceptable conditions as the sojourner successfully develops new, effective skills (Bandura, 1977). Thus, the goal and incentive to fit into the host culture and feel comfortable managing daily life is accomplished through observation, retention, and reproducing learned behaviors. In turn, sojourners may also be rewarded for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 their efforts when HCNs appreciate those efforts and accept the sojourners as friends and colleagues. To reiterate, within the cross-cultural context, Social Learning Theory helps describe how student interns observe, learn, and adjust to cultures. The theory encompasses cognitive, social, behavioral, and environmental factors that uniquely combine to create exclusive contextual experiences for each individual. In addition, the social learning perspective places emphasis on both the person and the environment and considers how sojourners adjust to the host culture through contact with HCNs and through training. From this researcher’s perspective, the social learning outlook provides the best framework for viewing internship experiences and cross-cultural adjustment. It not only explains adjustment processes but also helps describe the motives behind thoughts and actions that occur during cross-cultural adjustment. Figure 2.0 illustrates the SLT learning constructs as they relate to the major influential adjustment variables presented in this review. Variables in the chart were selected based on previous adjustment research recommendations and outcomes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 Figure 2.0 Social Learning Theory Theoretical Constructs Addressing the Issues Variables Attention Retention Reproduction Incentives Previous O verseas Experience Receives exposure to countries and cultures Remembers & understands previously observed behaviors & apples to new context Uses social skills gained from previous cultural experience Interested in different aspects of culture. Wants to know more Perceived Cultural Distance Notices differences between cultures Learns to accept and live with differences Reevaluates cultural distance perception Interested in different aspects of culture. Wants to know more Perceived Cultural Fit Encounters difficulties due to cultural differences Observes HCN and experienced expats to learn different cultural norms for better living Tries out new cultural behaviors to minimize or eliminate difficulties Wants to develop a comfortable living level for completing daily tasks Cultural Knowledge Receives mandatory training for the internship program <or> Member of an Asian family that expects child to learn culture Learns cultural facts that create expectations and create interest Uses knowledge to guide behavior and monitor cultural perceptions Cultural interest, desire to fit in, and wish to create a comfort zone for living & working abroad <or> Must meet family expectations Internship Observes fellow employees model appropriate behavior & skills Models behavior, asks questions, continues to observe appropriate behavior Produces projects, uses new social and other work skills to be a productive member of the staff Desire for work experience and skill development for future career opportunities Contact with HCNs Meets HCN, tries to communicate, observes behavior, asks questions Emulates behavior learned from new acquaintance and tries to learn more through communication Interacts with HCN, practices newly learned language and social skills Wishes to fit in, create a social life, make friends, create networking contacts for future Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 Figure 2.0 Continued Social Learning Theory Theoretical Constructs Addressing the Issues Variables i Attention Retention Reproduction Incentives Asian or Non- Asian Ethnicity Remembers what was taught in the home. Notices reaction of others to the way they look. Views new culture through lens of familial experience Uses knowledge to guide behavior and monitor cultural perceptions Reacts to others’ assumptions of that they are expected to know and understand Expectations Awareness of potential opportunities and problems Views new culture with expectations in mind Readjusts expectations during and after cultural experience Desire to reach personal and professional goals I * Adapted from Weiss (1998) I Important Research on Study and Work Abroad Study abroad and experiential education literature rarely examine international internships, and those that do include other forms of experiential education such as volunteering, teaching, and work abroad (Nolting, Johnson, & Matherly, 2004). The research also centers on outcomes and seldom addresses student adjustment issues (Hannigan, 2001). Although study abroad research differs from research on international internships, many of the goals and outcomes are the same (Steinberg, 2002), and previous findings generally agree that the benefits of international internships, work, volunteering, and teaching appear similar to study abroad benefits (Nolting, et. al., 2004). In fact, the results of several large-scale surveys conducted by the Institute for the International Education of Students (IES) reported that students who participated in international internships perceived greater gains in foreign language skills, knowledge of the culture, work-related knowledge, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 and personal knowledge than those who simply studied abroad (Steinberg, 2002). In addition, a study of IES alumni over the past fifty years indicated that field placements (internships) appeared to have more significant and measurable long term impacts than study abroad (Steinberg, 2002). Earlier studies also identify perceived work abroad benefits. For example, an Antioch alumni research study indicated that “the more a program overseas encourages involvement with the host culture in a variety of roles, with that of worker in the society very important among them, the more we can expect to find enduring [changes in] attitudes and behavior” (Abrams, 1979, pp. 184-185). There is not a single coherent discipline that encompasses study abroad research and it is viewed from a variety of perspectives including anthropology, education, psychology, and sociology (Weaver, 2001). Important research literature on study abroad (Brislin, 1981; Church, 1982; Klineberg, 1981; Klineberg & Hull, 1979; Sell, 1983; Spaulding & Flack, 1976; Weaver, Martin, Bum, Useem, & Carlson, 1987; Yachimowicz, 1987) has not been systematic and few investigations use longitudinal, quazi-experimental designs (Carlson, Bum, Useem, & Yachimowicz, 1990, p. xvii). To date, most study abroad research reports are quantitative studies that attempt to measure the impact of study abroad upon students’ academic and personal development. The next two sections discuss two study abroad research studies that provide relevant background for my adjustment research. The Study Abroad Evaluation Project consolidates and clarifies study Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 abroad experience (Carlson, et al., 1990) while the Laubscher (1994) study deepens the understanding of student experiences outside of the classroom. SAEP - Study Abroad Evaluation Project Rarely has study abroad research tried to separate overseas experience into academic and non-academic development. Furthermore, there is no consistent research available on pedagogical methods that impact academic and non-academic education abroad. Most research efforts appeared unorganized and disjointed until the Study Abroad Evaluation Project (SAEP) began in 1982 (Laubscher, 1994). The SAEP began partly as a follow-up to the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies (1980a, 1980b). Many consider the SAEP a landmark in its comprehensiveness and empirical findings (Carlson, et al., 1990) since it conducted comprehensive, systematic research needed to provide future guidance for the study abroad field. The SAEP study population was drawn from universities with study abroad programs similar to European institutions, and the student population participated in year-long study abroad programs that began autumn 1984. Students came from the University of California, Berkley (UC), the University of Colorado (CU), the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (UMass), and Kalamazoo College and they studied at universities in France, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), the United Kingdom (UK), or Sweden. In the SAEP project, a nonequivalent control group design used sophomores who elected to remain in the United States and met the study abroad criteria. This nonequivalent group allowed researchers to assess the same type of subject Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 population over time, provided control over maturational effects, and provided comparisons between groups of specific interest (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). SAEP research instruments consisted of: an institutional profile, a departmental profile, a study abroad program profile, student questionnaires, and a long-term student profile. To minimize inaccurate retrospective recall (Eagley & Himmelfarb, 1978), and the inaccuracy of attitudes and perspectives regarding change (Zajonc, 1980), the questionnaires included a pre and posttest design to gather a more accurate picture of the abroad experience. Limitations to the Study Abroad Evaluation Project concern its broad application to the entire field of study abroad by U.S. students (and European students). U.S. participating institutions were selected for the SAEP upon the basis of identified similarities with other European institutions. Relevance of the findings may not necessarily apply to institutions that do not share those identified similarities. In addition, there are many differences in study abroad program characteristics; consequently, this research may not be widely applicable to institutions with different characteristics (Carlson, et al., 1990). In the SAEP, it was not feasible to use multimethod, multitrait approaches due to the scope and diversity of the investigation, however language proficiency assessments took place (Carlson, et al., 1990). Another concern in this sojourner research is that the research population may reflect an inaccurate stereotypical view of the host culture. Carlson, et al. suggest that researchers should exercise caution when interpreting the interview data. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 Laubscher Study Michael Laubscher published a respected study on “Student Perceptions of the Role of Out-of-Class Experiences in Education Abroad” in 1994. In a case study approach, Laubscher interviewed 30 Penn State students, returning from Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East, during the fall semester of 1990 (Laubscher, 1994). His study targeted the processes of study abroad rather than focusing on outcomes. This is important because study abroad research generally portrays outcomes of “world mindedness, tolerance for ambiguity, independence, self-esteem, and empathy for other groups,” but research has been inconclusive in connecting those outcomes directly to the education abroad endeavor (Laubscher, 1994, p. 117). Laubscher’s ethnographic review identified categories of activity that form the basis of the experiential component (1994). His study also sought to distinguish which activities positively influenced cross-cultural learning. Three categories surfaced from his research on learning activities: participant observation, personal interaction, and travel. Laubscher drew conclusions about the role of out-of class experiences and made recommendations for program administrators to integrate out- of-class experiences with learning objectives (1994). Laubscher followed an “embedded case study design” (Yin, 1984, p.44) to increase the study’s external validity. He also acknowledged that a simple survey cannot address the main issues of out-of-class experiences and therefore conducted personal interviews using open-ended questions to understand student perceptions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Laubscher used Burnett's (1974) idea that learning another culture is similar to conducting ethnographic research and employed the term informants to describe his student interviewees. Thick description based on these informant interviews formed the structure of his study. Laubscher (1994) performed a taxonomic analysis of the interview data using Spradley’s (1980) means/end semantic relationship to produce categories of salient learning activity. His research suggested that students abroad gain more from out-of-class learning experiences if there are opportunities for participant observation and personal interaction. Previous travel experience did not demonstrate any measurable results. Laubscher noted that students must also have the necessary skills to take advantage of these out-of-class learning experiences (Laubscher, 1994). A limitation in the study shows an assumption that developmental and experiential models of learning operate during the semester or year abroad. These were premises, not hypotheses, and therefore the interviews did not focus on appraising their validity (Laubscher, 1994). However, the data did provide indirect evidence that supports the use of these learning models. Another weakness was that the study population came from very diverse backgrounds; therefore, it was impossible to determine to what extent prior experience in educational background affected the students’ ability to recognize cross-cultural differences. Sojourner Adjustment Research Most sojourner adjustment studies have investigated two major populations: older experienced multinational business managers with families and traditional age Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 multinational university interns. Although these populations do not exclusively represent American interns working in Asia, the research still provides good insight for the cross-cultural adjustment of American interns. This section presents three areas of pertinent research that provide information for international internship adjustment. First, I discuss Ward and Kennedy’s (1996) psychological and socio cultural adjustment of students in New Zealand. Next, Selmer’s (1999, 2001) research on coping strategy measurements of expatriate managers in China is presented. Lastly, Weiss’ (1998) research examines the adjustment of American interns in Australia. Each of the three segments concludes with specifics that compare relevant aspects of my research. Ward and Kennedy Ward and colleagues clarified and consolidated the acculturation literature and sojourner research by distinguishing between psychological and socio-cultural adaptation during cross-cultural transitions (Searle & Ward, 1990, Ward & Kennedy 1992, Ward & Searle, 1991). Psychological adaptation refers to feelings of well being, while socio-cultural adaptation associates with the ability to fit into the host culture. Ward and Kennedy’s research consisted of three sojourner studies about Malaysian and Singaporean university students who traveled to New Zealand. Ward and Kennedy used questionnaires to measure psychological and socio-cultural adjustment in the studies, and the participation was voluntary and anonymous. The first study, with a 74 to 76% return rate, relied on a questionnaire distributed by research assistants to Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 Zealand. The second study, with a 51% return rate, sent questionnaires through the mail. The last study used both research assistant distributed questionnaires and those sent by post. Out of twenty-two students, fourteen (63.6%) completed the pre departure questionnaire and the subsequent six month and twelve month interval questionnaires. Cronbach Alphas confirmed the internal consistency of the instruments (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). As they predicted, sojourners who made a large transition experienced greater socio-cultural adjustment problems; there was no evidence that distinguished the groups in terms of psychological adjustment (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). Ward and colleagues maintained that 1) The level of psychological and socio-cultural adjustment during cross-cultural transition varies over groups, 2) The relationship between the two adjustment domains varies according to the groups and contexts, and 3) The cultural dimensions of the adjustment follow different patterns over time (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). The weaknesses of the study may not be easily resolved in further studies because the research population is composed of adolescents and young adults who are at different maturation stages and who react according to their emotional and social maturity levels. In addition, life changes and mood disturbances are not considered, and the length of time abroad may also be a factor. The length of stay in the Singapore/New Zealand study was between thirty- two and thirty-three months, therefore the negative psychological reaction to cultural adjustment may have improved over such a long duration. Lastly, the students who Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 choose to go abroad tend to have characteristics more favorable to successful adaptation. This study acknowledges that research participants will experience large cultural transitions due to the great difference between Eastern and Western cultures and assumes that Ward and Kennedy’s findings are correct. Great cultural differences provide an opportunity to study greater socio-cultural adjustment problems as compared with students who remain in Western cultures. In addition, Ward and Kennedy’s data indicates that the research participants will experience varying levels of adjustment due to differing maturity levels. Different contexts and perspectives might also cause cultural differences in adjustment levels as well. Ward and Kennedy employed questionnaires at various times throughout a full year examining a student population that studied abroad for almost three years. My research looks at interns working for eight to ten weeks, and studies their adjustment before, during, and after the internship experience covering an eleven- month period. The research process makes use of email, rather than conventional mail, to collect a series four open-ended questionnaires. This process does not allow for anonymity but provides a means to collect more data, maintain a deeper understanding of each student, and increase the student response rate. Selmer Selmer (1999) measured the psychological and socio-cultural adjustment and coping strategies of expatriates working in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) using Goldberg’s General Health Questionnaire. The respondents reported how they Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 had been feeling over several weeks. Selmer also measured socio-cultural adjustment using Black and Stephen’s (1989) questionnaire. This study measured adjustment to work demands, life outside of work, and interactions with HCNs. Three problem-focused strategies and two symptom-focused strategies were measured. The sample population consisted of one hundred-fifty Western expatriate managers working in the PRC and participants averaged forty-two years of age. The majority were married males who had lived in the PRC for approximately 3.5 years. Thirty-eight percent were United States citizens and the rest were French, German, Australian, and British. Specific findings indicate that although most Western expatriates found China a very difficult place to work, they felt well adjusted. Americans adjusted as well as Europeans in this study. The research supports Selmer’s hypotheses that problem-focused strategies have a positive impact on international adjustment, while symptom-focused strategies can have a negative effect (1999). As predicted, tackling adjustment problems head-on by showing tolerance and patience, by getting socially involved with HCNs, and by taking responsibility to solve one’s own problems all contributed to adjustment in China. Avoiding problems by psychologically distancing oneself through fantasies about better times at home had a negative effect (Selmer, 1999). The surprising outcome from this research was Western expatriates’ success with cross-cultural adaptation in China. One reason indicated that Western sojourners were more readily accepted into the host culture compared to ethnic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Asians who were not HCNs. In the 2002 Selmer study, Chinese expatriates from Hong Kong were judged more harshly by the HCNs than non-Asian Western expatriates. This is because the Chinese expatriates did not act in a culturally accepted manner; therefore, they were viewed with contempt and treated with hostility. In contrast, the non-Asian Western expatriates were given the benefit of the doubt and HCNs appreciated even small attempts at Chinese customs (Selmer, 2002). Selmer (1999) admits that research about the effects of personality on cross- cultural adjustment is limited, but maintains that certain personality characteristics may promote the use of successful problem-focused rather than symptom-focused coping strategies. These positive personality traits and qualities include: extroversion, self-monitoring, autonomy, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, intellectual openness, sincerity, respect and empathy for others, collaboration, tolerance, patience, responsible problem solving, intellectual curiosity, cultural acceptance, flexibility, non-judgmental attitudes, and open-mindedness. Other variables that are important to successful adaptation abroad are: language skills, foreign experience, perceived social support, cognitive ability, career motivation, and cultural toughness (Selmer, 2001). Selmer (1999) recommends three issues for further study: 1) Test the effectiveness of training programs that teach problem-focused coping skills. 2) Study the process of coping and adjustment over an extended time period. 3) Research the effects of other problem and symptom-focused strategies such as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 palliative coping, confrontive coping, denial/distancing, self-blame, self-controlling, acceptance/resignation, and positive reinterpretation. Even with its’ limitations, the 1999 Selmer study provides five important recommendations for practice: 1) Promote interaction with HCNs (adjustment will be dependent upon openness to different cultural norms). 2) Do not let expatriates get discouraged in the early days of the assignment. It is important to help manage stress early on to avoid the discouragement that may interfere with problem-focused coping strategies. 3) Provide cross-cultural training before and after arrival in the foreign country. 4) Train expatriates to use problem-focused coping strategies and warn them about the potential detrimental effects of symptom-focused strategies. Expatriates should be encouraged to take responsibility for their own adjustment. 5) Make wise staffing selections. Certain personality traits may promote success. 6) Encourage expatriates to learn Chinese. Many Chinese nationals appreciate an expatriate’s willingness to speak Chinese no matter how proficient they become (Selmer, 1999). Selmers’ (1999) conclusions and recommendations are applicable for students interning in Asia and the administrators who prepare them. There are, however, limitations to her study. The research questions focus around a specific time in the expatriate experience. The study would be more accurate if was longitudinal. There were also uncontrolled influences such as the feelings of the families accompanying the expatriates, influences of consumer experiences on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 attitudes and the degree of acceptance of the expatriates by the HCNs within and outside of the work setting. Another study conducted by Selmer in 2001 examined Western business expatriates in China and the psychological barriers to their adjustment and coping. In this study, participants from the United States, France, Germany, Australia, and Great Britain took a survey that examined two sets of psychological barriers to adjustment and their relationship with problem-focused (approach/engagement) and symptom-focused (withdrawal/avoidance) coping. Selmer concluded that the first barrier to adjustment, perceived inability to adjust, was negatively related to problem-focused coping. The implication is that the more expatriates feel unable to adjust, the less they will try to change the situation or to solve the problem. The research showed no relationship between the perceived inabilities to adjust with symptom-focused coping. The second barrier to adjustment, unwillingness to adjust, maintained a negative relationship with only one problem-focused coping strategy: social involvement with HCNs. This same unwillingness to adjust was negatively correlated with the parent-country escapism of symptom-focused strategies (Selmer, 2001). In this study, the limitations were: a) The survey takers were experienced, high level, male professionals, b) The survey group was self-reporting, c) Not all possible coping strategies were covered in the. d) The survey implied that “more coping is better coping” and that was not an accurate evaluation of better coping capabilities (Selmer, 2001). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 Implications from Selmer’s 2001 study indicated that an intervention to motivate expatriates to change attitudes and behavior could be effective. In addition, Selmer recommended that firms pay more attention to the selection criteria during the hiring process. Selection criteria should include personality traits along with technical competence, motivational state, family situation, and language skills. Torbiom (1982) took this idea a step further when he claimed that expatriates should be idealistic or have a sense of purpose to be successful. He suggested that expatriates need a high level of enthusiasm and involvement, a willingness to make sacrifices, and a commitment to achieving a real understanding and acceptance of conditions in the host country. Selmer (2001) concluded with a call for future research on different countries, different coping strategies, using samples of varying levels of experienced and inexperienced expatriate staff, and utilizing a longitudinal design to lessen potential single-method variance problems. The important implications of Selmer’s research included: promoting HCN interaction, not allowing sojourners to be discouraged early in their work experience, providing cross-cultural training before and during the work assignment, training expatriates to use problem-focused coping strategies, staffing wisely, and encouraging expatriates to learn Chinese. There are many important implications in cultural adaptation and adjustment research but the amount of variables to consider, the omission of other variables, and the impact of cultural influences upon the data cause concern about the wide application of the results to other cultures. For example, Selmer’s research did not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 examine whether cultural origin influences preferences for (and the effectiveness of) coping strategies (2002). Nonetheless, the current research supports most previous cross-cultural adaptation and adjustment research conducted over the past twenty years (Selmer, 2002). Rather than studying specific problem-focused or symptom-focused coping strategies of older expatriates in China, my research allowed traditional age undergraduate students to respond freely to questions before, during and after internship experiences in Japan and Kuala Lumpur. Only after collecting the data did I identify coping strategies used by students in their cross-cultural adjustment. The results supported Selmer’s hypotheses that problem-focused strategies have a positive impact on international adjustment, while symptom-focused strategies can have a negative effect. My research also sought to discover if Asian American students in Japan, similar to Asian expatriate managers in China, were judged more harshly by the HCNs than are non-Asian Western expatriates. In addition, since Selmer gathered data during one short time frame, I collected data over a longer eleven-month period. Unlike Selmer, I did not assume that “more coping is better coping” (Selmer 2001) and documented the factors perceived by students as necessary for successful adjustment. My research aimed to understand the adjustment process and determine if Selmers’ recommendations might be applied to student intern selection and preparation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 Weiss Charla Weiss (1998) studied the adjustment of forty-three American interns from Boston University who worked and studied in Australia fourteen weeks. Using three surveys, three reaction forms, two group interviews, three classroom observations, and three case studies, she obtained data about student perceptions of cultural differences, negotiation of daily tasks, internship expectations, and understanding and knowledge of the Australian culture. Her findings indicated that students who initially perceived a small cultural difference between the two cultures experienced little difficulty and developed a sense of competence and satisfaction. The initial perception did not change during the entire stay. Those who felt that there was a great cultural difference tended to be more inflexible and magnified the differences rather than trying to fit in. Most students had no difficulty managing daily tasks, but those who were more aware of the cultural differences tended to complain about the bothersome aspects of the Australian culture. Acquiring cultural knowledge before the trip had a positive influence on students’ cultural adjustment. Those students whose internships met expectations had a more positive outlook on their Australian experience, and students with unmet expectations still appreciated the work experience and focused upon the positive aspects of the entire experience. Students with previous overseas experience adjusted easier than those who did not, and the female students noticed more cultural differences and were more interested in the culture than the male students. Initially, male students had more difficulty negotiating daily life than the female students (Weiss, 1998). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 Limitations of this study included the higher percentage of female participants (66%), the bias of the researcher, and the homogeneity between the two cultures. Weiss gathered and interpreted alone, and she strictly followed the Social Learning Theory components of attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives to frame her research. This led to missing information in data collection and review. Limitations in sample size and methods of measuring adjustment portrayed too narrow a view of adjustment. Using more dependent adjustment variables and having an outside party comment on individual adjustment would have provided more complete results. Additionally, the students self selected the abroad experience, indicating self-initiative, motivation, and social and financial capital; all of these are positive factors that contribute to successful cross-cultural adjustment. Although my study uses elements from Weiss’ study, in contrast, all research participants experienced a vast difference between cultures. My research also employed SLT as a framework but I was not bound by it; students openly expressed their views about what factors contributed to their adjustment. The research examined all of Weiss’ adjustment variables except cultural knowledge, which is impossible to measure. Instead, my research considered students’ Asian or non- Asian background. In addition, this review employed a third party to provide non biased data interpretation; and in lieu of on site observation, extensive use of email monitored adjustment at different times during and after the internship experience. Individual interviews and focus groups provided additional data. Similar to the Weiss study, the research participants self-selected the internship program and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 therefore had many qualities conducive to successful adjustment. Still, research on adjustment of vast cultural differences offered additional support for Weiss’ results and recommendations. To reiterate, SLT provides a reasonable framework from which to study cultural adjustment. From the social learning perspective, “psychological functioning is a continuous reciprocal interaction between personal, behavioral, and environmental determinants” (Bandura, 1977, p. 194). This process describes how student interns observe and learn about new cultures and practice appropriate cultural behavior. It also recognizes the individual’s ability and willingness to acquire new cultural behaviors through training and contact with HCNs. SLT acknowledges that observation and experience influence thought and actions, and that humans use symbols to represent, analyze, communicate, plan, create, imagine, and engage in action (Bandura, 1977). These symbols are the tools of cultural knowledge. As sojourners observe the tools in use, they determine for themselves how to behave suitably for their comfort and success, thus achieving cultural adjustment. Within the social learning framework, this study will consider both psychological and socio-cultural adaptation as students adjust to a new culture. Psychological adaptation involves stress and coping, while socio-cultural adaptation examines social and cultural learning. Since psychological adjustment is largely dependent upon personality, life changes, and social support factors, individuals cannot adequately prepare for psychological adjustment before an international assignment. Conversely, socio-cultural adaptation is primarily affected by cultural Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 knowledge, cultural identity, cultural distance, and amount of host contact abroad (Searle and Ward, 1990; Stone Feinstein and Ward, 1990; Ward and Kennedy, 1992, 1996); all are factors influenced by training and preparation. The socio-cultural approach to adjustment also suggests that an optimistic attitude, expectations, and perceptions are important variables in adjustment (Weiss, 1998). Cultural adjustment is integral to internship success and it enables interns to excel in a foreign setting. Well-adjusted interns are more successful; they tend to enjoy their work experience and are more likely to become flourishing members of the international workforce. This study should enlighten internship trainers as to the factors and characteristics that contribute to successful cross-cultural adjustment, thus advancing the goal of providing more globally competent, open minded and knowledgeable international participants. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 Chapter 3 Research Method Introduction This chapter describes the research design, data collection, and data analysis used to study the cross-cultural adjustment of thirteen undergraduate American interns who worked in Asia during the summer of 2003. Since there is little research that examines non-academic student internship experiences in Asia, this qualitative investigation provides an in-depth look into the adjustment that occurred while undergraduate American interns lived and worked in two Eastern cultures. The qualitative research approach provides a meaningful and detailed look at cross- cultural adjustment in specific contexts. The purpose of this investigation was to answer three questions: • What problems do student interns encounter and consider significant as they adjust to a new culture? • How do students approach these problems and what strategies do they use to adjust? • What do students think would help them adjust more successfully? The motivation and driving force behind this investigation was to improve the Asia internship experience for future interns. In this context, it was not desirable to hide my purpose for the study. Consequently, making my motives known provided a positive influence on the entire project (Tierney and Lincoln, 1997). A social constructivist view was taken in this study that emphasized the importance of developing a deep understanding of the overseas internship experience (Manning, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 1999) and incorporated the perspectives of the interns and the researcher. The study participants’ constructed knowledge came from socio-cultural learning within the social context of their experiences and through social interactions (Davis, 2002). Qualitative Framework Qualitative inquiry provided a method to secure a deep understanding of student adjustment (Manning, 1999). Furthermore, I assumed a qualitative view for three other significant reasons. First, my research sought to improve practice and offer ideas for application in the international internship field; similarly qualitative inquiry stresses genuineness as a measure of quality and sets the ethical standard that obligates researchers to put their findings to practical use (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Second, a qualitative view recognizes that both the researcher and participants jointly construct knowledge (Broido & Manning, 2002). This view accepts that all knowledge and meaningful reality is dependent upon human practices, constructed through interaction between humans and their world, and developed and transmitted in a social context (Crotty, 1998). Essentially then, the “truth is...what we agree it is” (Hatch, 1985, p. 161). “Some elements [of truth] are shared, but multiple realities exist and each are unique because they are constructed by people who experience the world from their own perspective” (Hatch, 2002, p. 15). From this perspective it is undesirable for researchers to remain distant and objective, and only through mutual collaboration do researchers and participants construct the subjective reality within the research (Mishler, 1986). This concept was important to my research, since I viewed numerous student-constructed realities Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 as a whole and individually while students interacted with me and with each other. In this sense, the knower and known were inseparable and all entities were in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping (Hatch, 2002). Third, from the qualitative perspective, "theory and practice inform one another in a mutually shaping manner. Neither precedes nor follows the other in a consistent one-way manner” (Broido & Manning, 2002, p. 436). My research employs a SLT framework but moves freely between the practical and theoretical. To clarify, in the qualitative view, the researcher respondent relationship is subjective, interactive, and interdependent. This perspective is most suitable for this study as it embraces three assumptions: 1) Reality is multiple, complex, and not easily quantifiable. 2) The values of the researcher, respondents, research site, and underlying theory cannot help but undergird all aspects of the research. 3) The research product (e.g., interpretations) is context specific (Broido, 2002, p. 236). The following sections within this chapter describe the study’s research design, data collection, and data analysis. In addition, I discuss the data trustworthiness and study limitations. Research Design In this study, I employed qualitative inquiry methods to understand adjustment as viewed by interns who were directly involved in summer internships in Asia (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Borg and Gall, 1989; Marshall and Rossman, 1995; Patton, 1998). The qualitative process helped me understand the worlds in which the interns lived and worked (Rubin and Rubin, 1995). Understanding the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 cross-cultural adjustment process was best accomplished within the context of students’ internship experience, and it was particularly important to study cross- cultural adjustment through direct communication with students while they were in Asia. This allowed the reader a glimpse of the process through the eyes of the actual participants (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994) which helped the reader understand more fully the hopes, expectations, concerns, disappointments, and successes of the intern participants. Few have researched international internship experiences of U.S. undergraduate students in Asia. The two most prevalent research studies included many students who were not U.S. citizens (Laubscher, 1994; Weiss, 1998). In addition, they studied students who concurrently worked and studied in Australia or in non-Asian countries for a period of fourteen weeks. My study specifically targets only U.S. citizens who worked in Asia; the student participants had no academic responsibilities during their eight to ten week internship period. Laubscher (1994) followed thirty Penn State students who studied and interned abroad in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East. His research provided insight into general adjustment but did not offer enough data on the specific Asia experience. In his study, it was impossible to determine how the demographics and experience of the students influenced the adjustment process. Weiss (1998) examined the adjustment of forty-three American interns from Boston University who worked and studied for fourteen weeks in Australia. Her research design used open-ended surveys, interviews, and observations, but she did Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 not have an outside party comment on individual adjustment, nor did she have the study participants review her results and provide feedback before publishing her research. In addition, the Australia location did not offer enough cultural differences to make the cross-cultural adjustment study very significant for student adjustment in vastly different cultural settings. Other research studies about individuals who work abroad have employed a quantitative approach that limits the understanding of various aspects of the overseas experience. Since there are no qualitative research studies that specifically examine American interns in Asia, I wanted to study critical themes that emerged by listening to interns individually as they explained their expectations, perceptions, and concerns. Additionally, the qualitative research process enabled me to simultaneously collect and analyze the data. This facilitated minor adjustments that incorporated emerging concepts, issues, themes, and categories to provide more insight and clarify the focus and objectives of the study (Merriam, 2002). Data Sources Data sources for this study consisted of open-ended one-on-one interviews, written responses to open-ended survey questions, and focus groups. Supplementary documents included application forms, evaluations, essays, journal entries, and student presentations. These sources supplied basic background information and helped “identify significant themes, problems, or gaps in [the] basic understanding” (Fetterman, 1998. p. 8). Intern participants responded to questions before, during, and after their internship experiences, either in person or by sending email responses. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 This combination of participant insight along with interviews and focus groups was a good way to use analytical tools and techniques from both social psychology and anthropology (Morgan, 1972). Standardized survey and interview questions permitted me to maintain a measure of consistency, yet the open-ended nature of the questions allowed for the expression of individual, unique, and personally meaningful thoughts. This process enabled themes to surface that were discussed later in the follow-up focus groups. The focus groups provided another data perspective, different from the interview data (Krueger, 1994); insights that could only be generated through group interaction. This yielded data that was less accessible than that found in one-on-one interviews (Morgan, 1997). Additional collected data from internet website responses and written participant feedback clarified themes and assisted in coding classification. The combination of individual interviews, written responses, and focus groups guaranteed that triangulation contributed to the data’s internal validity (Yin, 1994). Site Selection Convenience, access, and flexibility were three important elements that facilitated site selection. Since I had managed the Asia internship program for a number of years and had developed a relationship with the university’s international contacts, the prearranged internship sites were an obvious choice for the study. Students who volunteered for this study did so after their internship locations were assigned; therefore, the sites and locations were predetermined. Although I did not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 observe the student interns while they were working in Asia, I had direct access to the interns and the internship supervisors by email and phone; this contributed to a deeper understanding of the processes, multiple realities, and people in the study (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). There was one opportunity for a brief trip to Tokyo during the summer. During this time, I visited several internship sites, met supervisors, and had social interaction with several interns. No research was conducted at this time, however the experience served to deepen my understanding of the cultural context within the internship setting. The internship sites for the international internships consisted of government agencies and private industries located in Japan and Kuala Lumpur (Figure 3.0). Figure 3.0 Internship Location Aichi, Japan Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Nagoya, Japan Osaka, Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Tokyo,Japan Internship Type Engineering Firm Government Affiliated Educational Agency Government Affiliated Educational Agency Car Parts Manufacturer Research & Manufacturing Company Government Agency Government Trade Agency Human Resource Consulting Company International Bank Investment Banking Firm IT Consulting, Software Dev./Outsourcing Firm Public Relations Firm Real Estate-based Tax and Accounting Firm Originally, many of the students were scheduled to intern in several cities throughout Asia, however they interned in only two countries due to the SARS outbreak in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 2003. Each intern experienced different cultural events, work projects, and living situations depending on their internship placement. In Tokyo, interns had the support of an international university director. No other internship sites had local university support, therefore interns in other locations relied heavily on help from internship supervisors, the directors in Tokyo and Malaysia, and from university staff located in the United States. Sample Population This study targeted a select group of undergraduate American students from a large private research university who received summer fellowships to intern in Asia. The 2003 fellowships were highly competitive and provided stipends to live and work in unpaid internships for eight to ten weeks. All interns intended to work in Asia, however many did not intern in their selected Asian locations. Due to uncontrollable circumstances (the SARS outbreak), those students who had selected Chinese speaking cities were re-assigned to Japan, therefore seven study participants were forced to quickly learn about a new culture after having prepared for a Chinese cultural experience. This increased the stress level of going abroad and provided a unique opportunity to study the cross-cultural adjustment of students who did not have the typical cultural preparation and training. The intern participants ranged in age between nineteen and twenty-two years, and all could afford to work during the summer without earning a salary. All were U.S. citizens; six male and seven female students came from various ethnic backgrounds (Figure 3.1). The students in this study mainly worked in business- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 related internships and a few interned in government and education agencies. In some instances, the internships did not match the students’ chosen major. Every student was an accomplished undergraduate student with a GPA between 3.0 and 3.9 who was entering his or her third or fourth year of school during the fall of 2003. The students’ majors represented five different schools within the university, with the International Relations and Business schools demonstrating the highest representation (Figure 3.2). Of the eighteen students who interned in Asia in 2003, thirteen volunteered to participate in this study. Since I had developed and managed the Asia internship program for over two years, the selection of the students participating in this program offered easy access and allowed me to use my knowledge of all aspects of this program. In addition, I had direct personal connections with over sixty interns and could obtain quality advice and criticism from many past participants willing to improve the program. A sense of trust and general unity of purpose had developed during the summer internship experience. The participants understood my purpose aimed to Figure 3.2 Student Majors Major # of Students International Relations 6 Business 4 Policy, Planning, & Development 1 Print Journalism 1 Engineering 1 Figure 3.1 Student Demographics # of Students Female 7 Male 6 Chinese 1 Filipino 1 Japanese 1 Vietnamese 1 Caucasian 4 East Indian 2 African American 1 Mixed Asian/Caucasian 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 understand the process and improve the program for their benefit and for the benefit of future interns. They were also aware of my commitment to their general welfare. I protected their anonymity although no interns seemed to care if their names were divulged in the study. The volunteer interns received an honest verbal and written account of the intended uses for the research (Rubin and Rubin, 1995) in order to maintain high ethical standards. The Informed Consent Form (Appendix I) provided participants with the overall purpose of the study, ensured confidentiality, and discussed any possible risks and benefits that could result from participation in the research. Due to the nature of the study, there were no obvious risks of students being hurt emotionally, physically, or financially due to their participation in the research, and student participants had every opportunity to retract information or to ask that certain material not be used (Kvale, 1996). In addition, the student participants were aware that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Data Collection Written participant responses, individual interviews, and focus groups were the primary methods of data collection for this study. Since I was the program manager during this time, I had access to application forms, essays, evaluation forms, program videos, and journal entries during that year. The participants’ Informed Consent Forms allowed me access to all written and videotaped materials to provide additional insight and validity to the research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 Written participant responses consisted of a series of open-ended survey questions sent by email before, during, and after the internship experience (Figure 3.3). Email proved very advantageous to the study as this social research tool supplied timely communication within vastly different time zones around the world. It provided an immediate way to communicate with the interns and allowed me to Figure 3.3 Email Surveys _______________________Time Line__________ Content_____________________________ 1s t Before the internship Pre-Internship Expectations. Communication experience Previous International Experience. _________________________________ (Appendix A)_________________________ 2n d One to two weeks after Emphasis on Cultural Fit. Communication arrival Feelings about all aspects of adjustment, including internship & meeting HCNs. _______________________________ (Appendix B)_________________________ 3^ Three to four weeks Emphasis on Cultural Distance. Communication after arrival__________(Appendix C)_________________________ 4^ Five to six weeks after Emphasis on Socio-cultural Adjustment. Communication arrival Are they experiencing any difficulty? (Appendix D) keep track of responses and send reminders if the surveys were not completed. The email surveys contained a series of eight to ten open-ended questions and each communication focused on a slightly different area of adjustment. The surveys were non-coercive, encouraged anti-hierarchical dialogue (Boshier, 1990), and provided a way for interns to respond at their convenience. This encouraged students to respond candidly which yielded insightful data for the study. Cultural knowledge is considered an influential factor in students’ cross- cultural adjustment, but I did not test cultural knowledge in this study. Weiss (1998) created a test that attempted to measure her students’ cultural knowledge before Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 traveling to Australia, but this assessment failed to provide a good picture of the cultural knowledge necessary for successful cross-cultural adjustment. In my study, it was impossible to determine whether a student had sufficient cultural knowledge to adjust successfully; because of this dilemma, the participants’ perception of their own cultural knowledge became an element of this research. It was also unfeasible to determine what previous knowledge appeared useful since students went through unique cultural experiences as they worked abroad. Students were consequently encouraged to express opinions about their unique cultural knowledge as it applied to ease or difficulty of adjustment. Individual exit interviews were conducted with each participant after internship completion. The interviews ranged from forty-five minutes to one hour, and followed the protocol (Appendix E) that provided ten open-ended questions for participant response. While conducting the interviews, detailed notes were taken and the sessions were tape-recorded. After completing an interview, the tape was transcribed and the written document was added to the participant’s file. Each participant had a file folder with a signed copy of the Human Subject Research Form and printed transcripts from interviews along with other written data. Electronic files on each student were retained, as was a spreadsheet with important data that could be manipulated in various ways. This enabled me to view the data from different perspectives. Several weeks after completing the individual interviews, three follow-up focus groups tested the interview data for consistency and added extra insight and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 validity to the study. Each focus group used the protocol questions in Appendix F that provided the interns an opportunity to discuss, compare, and contrast their summer internship experiences with their peers. This allowed me to discover why certain issues were salient and understand what made them so important (Morgan, 1997). It also clarified the gap between what people say and what they do (Lankshear, 1993). Each group session lasted about one hour; the first group consisted of two students, the second had three students, and the third group contained seven students. Each focus group was conducted during the lunch hour where food was served. The focus groups not only provided a venue for students to respond to each other, but it allowed them to make additional comments that enhanced their original interview responses. This provided richness and depth to the research (Wilkinson, 1998). All interviews and focus groups were tape-recorded and transcribed, and all met in my office or in a nearby conference room. Both places were familiar and comfortable locations. Outline of the research procedures: 1. Sent out the research request (via email) and signed up volunteer research participants. 2. Sent out and collected (via email) pre-internship questions (Survey One, Appendix A). 3. Sent out and collected (via email) initial student assessment of early adjustment during the first weeks and after the start of the internship (Survey Two, Appendix B). 4. Sent out and collected (via email) cultural distance questions related to the third and fourth weeks of the internship experience (Survey Three, Appendix C). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 5. Sent out and collected (via email) socio-cultural adjustment questions related to the sixth or seventh week of the internship experience (Survey Four, Appendix D). 6. Sent out and collected (via email) the Student Intern Evaluation form from internship supervisors during the seventh week of the internship experience (Appendix G). Collected forms over the next month. 7. Sent out and collected (via email) Employer Evaluation form from the students during the eighth week of the internship experience (Appendix H). Collected after interns returned to the United States. 8. Began to input written data and start the coding process. Determined if any categories from applicable research became evident. Identified additional categories that became salient during the coding process (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). 9. Conducted individual exit interviews two to four weeks after the internship experience (Appendix E). Transcribed and coded responses. 10. Consolidated all data and reread. Goal: to understand phenomenon as experienced by the participants (Yin, 1989). 11. Independent third party consolidated and coded all four surveys. 12. Revised both sets of data and the category system. Recoded all segments. 13. Conducted exit focus groups five to ten weeks after the internship experience (Appendix F). Transcribed and coded responses. 14. Coded and interpreted data with a graduate assistant. Revised category system, and recoded all segments. 15. Continued with “constant comparison” (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) to sharpen and clarify the data until theoretical saturation (Glasser & Strauss, 1967). 16. Prepared results for participant correction and modification. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 17. Presented written conclusions to the participants. Collected revisions from the participants. 18. Prepared final research results. Sent results to participant interns for revision and feedback in order to validate and revise the research results. 19. Collected the revisions and incorporated into the dissertation. Data Analysis Social Learning Theory shaped the conceptual framework of this study, and the four components of attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives within the theory provided the context for studying specific cross-cultural variables that affected the students’ sense of competency in a foreign country. The components provided a way to determine if certain variables were important to the study (Figure 2.0). They also supplied a form of checks and balances to assess the meaning of the cross-cultural experience. Written research data was read and re-read, and subsequently general themes were identified (Crotty, 1998). Data was organized and categories were generated as the themes and patterns emerged (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). All data was coded, and as time progressed and other data was collected, I re-categorized and re coded the data as appropriate (Figure 3.4). Eventually, an outline of themes emerged and I organized them under each research question. Follow-up focus groups and participant feedback provided an opportunity to review and summarize specific information and to confirm my understanding of the collected data. Throughout these processes, a graduate student and staff colleague offered external perspectives to ensure that the data was accurate and unbiased. These processes provided the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 triangulation necessary to correct deficiencies in the interview data and supplied a system of checks and balances to increase the strength of the research (Marshall and Rossman, 1995; Patton, 1987). Figure 3.4 C o d e s for C la ssifica tio n Adjustment: feelings of competence & ease of day-to day living. ADJ Having little anxiety about living in Asia TRAV Previous travel experiences DIST Cultural Distance: differences magnified, surprising discoveries HCN HCN Interaction KNOW Cultural Knowledge: reference to previous knowledge of Asia and Asian ______ culture________________________________________________________ EXP Expectations PROB Problem-focused strategies SYMP Symptom-focused strategies ADD Additional stories, comments, examples outside of the research framework *Adapted from Weiss (1998) List o f Codes Data Trustworthiness Strategies for validity in this study included multiple research methods, several data sources, various data collection time frames, and two independent third party assistants to provide unbiased data interpretation. This is an example of the triangulation perspective presented by Miles and Huberman (1984): .. .triangulation is a state of mind. If you self-consciously set out to collect and double-check findings, using multiple sources and modes of evidence, the verification process will largely be built into the data-gathering process, and little more need be done than to report on one’s procedures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 Through the use of triangulation, my data organization, category generation, themes, and patterns became more clear and accurate (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). As a data collection approach, triangulation brought together several sources of data to help correct deficiencies from any single source and served as a system of checks and balances that increased the strength of my research (Patton, 1987). In varying degrees, I employed three out of four triangulation methods described by Denzin (1978): data triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation. Since I was the sole investigator in this study, the fourth method, investigator triangulation, was not employed. Nonetheless, two external third party associates provided unbiased data interpretation to enhance the validity of the research. Data triangulation criteria proposed by Patton (1987) and Denzin (1978) was significantly met during data collection since the process employed several sources of information under a variety of conditions and contexts. The study participants provided different perspectives on international adjustment as they varied in ethnicity, gender, amount of travel experience, language skills, academic majors, and internship locations. In addition, students responded to research questions at different periods before, during, and eleven months after their internship experience, thus providing time between responses to clarify perspectives. The students also provided written and oral feedback both privately and within group settings thus comparing what students said in public with what they stated in private. Data Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 triangulation also checked the consistency of what interns said over time, and compared the perspectives of students with different points of view (Patton, 1987). Theory triangulation was the second triangulation method used in the study. Although SLT was the major theory used in interpreting the data, I also considered the data from a coping strategy adjustment perspective. This allowed me to view the information from two completely different lenses. The SLT lens provided an overall picture of the entire learning process while the coping strategy adjustment perspective pinpointed detailed strategies that students used to overcome negative feelings when they encountered perceived adjustment problems. Finally, methodological triangulation provided validity and reliability (Merriam, 1988) using various forms of data collection. Through personal interviews, written survey question responses, focus groups, and participant consensus of written results, I verified the data that provided valuable insight into international adjustment. Complementary documents provided additional insight and included application forms, evaluations, essays, journal entries, and student presentations. A graduate assistant supported the researcher’s data coding and interpretation, and another colleague reviewed and questioned the results. In addition, to strengthen validity, student participants reviewed research results and provided feedback that was incorporated into the results and recommendations. Limitations The purpose of this study was to explore how thirteen undergraduate interns from a large private research university coped with and adjusted to cultural Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 differences encountered during a two-month internship in Asia. The main limitation in this research is transferability. The small sample of thirteen student interns participating in only one fellowship program at one university limits the applicability of the results to other types of programs and higher education institutions. Even so, the study can provide some useful and universal information for students interning abroad; therefore, the recommendations might also be of use to other universities. The demographics of the research participants were limiting as well, since all could afford to participate in an unpaid internship and each was an accomplished student with some work experience. The prestige of winning the competitive fellowship could also have positively affected the way in which the students perceived their internship experiences. A final limitation was the potential I had to influence the participant responses due to my affiliation with the Asia internship program. Every effort was made to create an unbiased situation, thus the use of an impartial graduate student and staff colleague to review my coding and research results. At the end of the data collection period, a final opportunity was provided for students to provide anonymous feedback on the research. This supplied another opportunity to establish validity for the study. Conclusion To reiterate, through a combination of individual interviews, open-ended survey questions, and focus groups, the researcher investigated the cross-cultural adjustment factors effecting student interns in Asia. Collected data focused on individual characteristics and situational variables that effected adjustment. In Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 addition to interviews and focus groups, interns provided feedback on interpreted data. A graduate assistant also provided non-biased data interpretations to add reliability and accuracy. Questions for the interviews and focus groups are included in Appendices A through F, and evaluation forms are provided in Appendices G and H. The Informed Consent Form is available in Appendix I. This chapter described the research design, data collection, and data analysis used to study the cross-cultural adjustment of American undergraduate interns who worked in Asia during the summer of 2003. The following chapter delves into the details of the research data and presents student interns’ perceptions of their cross- cultural adjustment made during and after their Asia internship experiences. Chapter Five draws conclusions from the research data and presents recommendations for future training of interns seeking to work abroad. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Chapter 4 Findings I have to make one comment that kept popping up in my mind as I read this chapter. The degree of candidness and honesty that you got out of us was entirely because you and Anthony created such a warm, welcoming environment for us. I am willing to put (a lot of) money on the fact that all of us trusted you completely. I really do feel that part of your chapter should include the quality of the interns' support base. You would have had much different responses from us if you and Anthony hadn't been as organized, confident, communicative, and wonderful as you were. Our experience was overwhelmingly positive. I don't think it could have happened without you guys in the wings (Marie). Introduction This study examined cultural adjustment from the perception of undergraduate student interns and identified successful coping strategies used in their adjustment. Through a combination of individual interviews, open-ended survey responses, and focus groups, I explored the cultural adjustment of students who interned in Asia and considered individual perceptions and situational variables that effected adjustment. Demographic factors included familial background (as it relates to Asian culture), language ability, and previous international experience. Situational factors consisted of cultural knowledge in association with a student’s perception of cultural distance, expectations, and interactions with HCNs. In addition to interviews, surveys, and focus groups, the interns also provided feedback on interpreted data to ensure the trustworthiness and accuracy of the data collection and interpretation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 My research considered student insight before, during, and after the Asia summer experience; therefore Chapter Four divides into several parts. Each section illustrates student perception as students progressed from pre-departure expectations through the reflection period after returning from Asia. The chapter begins with a Background section that introduces and describes the research and the research participants. The next segment, Expectations Before Departure, offers information gathered in the first survey before students left for Asia in summer 2003. Subsequently, The First Weeks presents student perceptions and reactions about the initial few weeks in Asia. Students portrayed the cultural differences between Asia and the United States in the next section entitled Mid-way Through, and the fourth and final survey addresses socio-cultural adjustment in the section entitled The Final Weeks. Students responded to adjustment topics in individual one-hour exit interviews in After the Asia Experience. The interviews occurred several weeks after the interns returned from Asia. The final section of Chapter Four, International Adjustment: Group Consensus, integrates all collected data with data from follow-up focus groups. This final section also identifies factors that influence cross-cultural adjustment as perceived through the eyes of the interns and clarifies these factors within the framework of Social Learning Theory. Chapter Five concludes the investigation with a summary of the results and recommendations for selection, preparation, and training of future international interns, and makes suggestion for future research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 Background The research participants consisted of thirteen student interns who had received Asia internship fellowships. They participated as members of a prestigious and highly competitive program for undergraduate students at a large private research university. The internship fellowships, established in 2001, received grant funding with the aim of exposing U.S. citizens to Asian business culture and promoting understanding between the U.S. and Asia. This grant-funded opportunity had no language requirements, and was open to all majors and all class levels except freshman. During the summer of 2003, eighteen students participated as Asia internship fellows and all eighteen students volunteered to participate in the research. Due to student time constraints and availability, thirteen interns formed the research core. Most participants chose to apply for the Asian internship program because they were motivated to obtain international work experience, increase cultural understanding, and determine if they desired to work abroad after graduation. In addition, students wanted to learn a specific Asian language or improve language ability (Figure 4.0). As mentioned earlier, due to the SARS outbreak in Asia, we reassigned students to Japan instead of their originally designated countries. The SARS outbreak did not affect two students who interned Figure 4.0 Student Intern Language Ability French German Korean Mandarin Cantonese Spanish Tamil Vietnamese # of Students Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 in Kuala Lumpur or four students originally appointed to Japan. This left seven students that needed new placements. Of the seven students, five students sought to work in Chinese speaking countries, and many were learning to speak Chinese. The other two students intended to work in Vietnam. All seven students were disappointed when reassigned to Japan, but they chose to continue with the Asia fellowship. Student demographics reflected similar university gender demographics with seven female students and six male students representing a slightly higher female population (Figure 4.1). The fellowship requirements allowed only sophomores, juniors, and seniors graduating in December to participate, therefore age and year in school differed from overall university student statistics. Interns fell between the ages of 19 and 22 with thirty-eight percent under the age of twenty-one. University statistics show sixty percent of the student population under the age of twenty-one. Sixty-two percent of Overall Study University Participants Females 50.10% 53.85% Males 49.90% 46.15% Junior 14.30% 61.54% Sophomore 11.80% 38.46% Asian/Pacific Islander 21.20% 46.15% White/Caucasian 47.50% 30.77% Half Asian/Caucasian 15.38% Black/African-American 6.50% 7.69% Letters, Arts, Sciences 36.50% 46.15% Business 22.90% 30.76% Engineering 11.30% 7.69% Communication 7.60% 7.69% Policy, Planning & Development 1.40% 7.69% 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 the participants maintained junior status while thirty-eight percent held sophomore status. The schools within the university were somewhat represented with the majority coming from International Relations within the College of Letters, Arts and Sciences (Figure 4.1). The interns represented different ethnic backgrounds. They consisted of four Asian Americans and four Caucasians; two identified as half Asian, two were East Indian, and one student was African-American. The eight students who were full or part Asian or East Indian felt that their heritage taught them about Asian culture, and assumed that their familial background would be helpful in their adjustment process. Although sixty-six percent of university students received financial aid during the 2002 and 2003 school year, only thirty-one percent of the research participants qualified for financial aid. In addition, all participants could afford to work unpaid throughout the summer indicating that most represented middle to upper income families. Research participants provided good insight into the adjustment process as eighty-five percent had not traveled to Asia and six students had never traveled abroad. Four students had lived abroad for a month or two in Europe, Australia, or India, but these international experiences consisted of study abroad or travel only, therefore no students had previous Asia work experience. One student, Marie, lived in two small towns in Japan for five years as a child, and lived in one large city, Osaka, while in high school. Upon graduation, she attended the research university located in the western United States. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 The Asia internship program provided one mandatory all-day cultural training session with a professional cross-cultural trainer who focused on understanding general Asian views, business protocol, and open-mindedness. Student pre-departure training was general in focus, presented minimal amounts of country specific information, and did not include language training. To learn more about a particular country, students met with Asia interns from previous years, spoke with international students who offered advice about their home country, and had a one-hour consultation with a professor experienced in the culture. In addition, all interns read travel books to prepare them for their international experience. This preparation took place before students were reassigned to Japan, therefore seven students focused on Chinese and Vietnamese subject matter throughout the preparation process. After the reassignment to Japan, students had only a few weeks to prepare for the change. Marie, having lived in Japan previously, also attempted to prepare the newly reassigned Japan interns. By the time students left for Asia, they had developed friendly relationships with each other and with the administrators that created a comfort level of peer and managerial support. Throughout the internships, students had the opportunity to contact one another using an Internet posting website created specifically for them to post topics for the entire group. Another section of this web site was set aside for mandatory weekly journal entries. My initial role included student selection, placement, and internship preparation. After the students departed for Asia, I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 provided support and encouragement via email, monitored the journal website, offered resources, and acted as an emergency contact. Marie and Harris Two students had uniquely different experiences during their two-month internship experience in Japan, yet they demonstrated typical adjustment problems and coping strategies identified in past adjustment research and reflected by the other student participants. I follow them throughout the research to provide more depth and investigative reference points for each section. The first student, Marie, had lived in rural Japan for six years during her junior high and high school years. She is half Chinese and half European and speaks fluent Japanese. Marie had fond memories of her experiences in rural Japan where she immersed herself in the beauty of the landscape, traditional cultural activities, and Japanese food. She looked forward to “fitting in” during her summer in Japan because she had lived there, and felt that the only differences she would encounter would be her appearance since she was half European. Marie chose to live with an HCN so she could experience a complete cultural immersion; she also lived a distance from the other Asia interns. Marie’s responses throughout the summer were strikingly different from the rest of the participants yet her perspective provided a valuable lens through which to examine the adjustment research. Although Marie’s employer appraised her work attributes, attitude, and job fit as “excellent”, Marie was disappointed, since she was not placed in an internship that matched her major and career interests. In addition, Japanese corporate culture and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 living in Tokyo presented far different experiences than the rural Japan she had fondly remembered from the past. Throughout the research, I refer to Marie so the reader can identify her as the only Japanese speaker with previous living experience in Japan. She was also one of the few students who selected Japan as her first choice for the 2003 summer internship experience. Her motives for choosing Japan included: gaining work experience for her future career, practicing her Japanese, and returning the country that she loved and where she considered working in the future. The second student, Harris, had no previous travel experience and, as a Vietnamese American, could speak no Japanese. The only engineering student in the program, Harris was also the only student sent alone to a rural Japanese community: I’m 4,000 miles away from home. I live alone in a studio the size of an acorn. The closest friend I have to me is 150 miles away. I have no calling card. I don’t know any Japanese numbers to call. My only companion is a 14” TV with 4 channels...in a language I don’t know. Harris was excited to learn about a new culture and his motive for selecting the Asia internship program was to experience a complete cultural immersion; he wanted to live among the locals and learn all that he could from a Japanese perspective. Although we matched Harris to a company related to his major and future career interests, this was not as important to him as a cultural experience. Harris expressed that he had a positive attitude with no preconceived expectations; he indicated no disappointments during his summer experience. Since Harris’ experience was completely different from the rest of the interns, his insight also provided a unique lens through which to view and balance the research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 Expectations before Departure Student expectations before the internship experience had the potential to greatly influence the students’ cultural adjustment and their impressions of the host country. If students set high expectations for their internship and cultural experience, there was a higher potential for them to be unhappy and disappointed with their overall experience (Paige, 1993). We presented this phenomenon to the students during orientation. Due to the uniqueness of the Asia internship program, administrators made no promises to match internship positions with a student’s major or future career. In addition, we cautioned students that most Asian organizations misunderstood the internship concept, therefore we instructed students to create original projects and determine how and when to present them to their respective internship supervisors. Since the hallmark of the program was student independence, self-sufficiency, and self-initiative, students were aware that they must rely upon themselves and prepare for challenges. The first survey attempted to understand expectations before students traveled abroad. It consisted of open-ended questions that addressed student demographics and focused on goals and expectations about cultural distance and adjustment (Appendix A). The following three segments describe student expectations before departure; they include: student goals and motives, speculations about future cultural adjustment, and perceptions about the cultural distance between Asian and American cultures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 Goals and Motives According to Social Learning Theory, students have distinct motives or incentives behind their expectations. The expectations listed in the Motivation chart (Appendix M) indicate student incentives for deciding to work in Asia. Student goals and motives to participate in an international internship fell into six categories: gaining business or government experience, learning and appreciating a new culture, future career opportunity, personal development, learning the language, and promoting future career decisions. Overall, most students expected to develop skills, experience, and cultural knowledge while making some progress towards future career plans. Student motives illustrate incentives to adjust, perform well, and learn about the culture and language of Japan and Kuala Lumpur. Student motivation closely aligned with university tradition and the university’s strategic plan that promotes globalization. In addition, the general student population traditionally demonstrated a high interest in securing quality jobs upon graduation and placed high value on internship experiences. In almost every case, the academic major of each intern encouraged international experience. Six students participated as International Relations majors, four as Business majors, and the remaining students planned to graduate with Engineering, Policy, Planning & Development, and Print Journalism degrees. This combination of placing value on global experience by both the university and individual academic units explains the high number of student participants who desired international work experience. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 Cultural Adjustment Although most students had no previous Asia experience, they predicted with surprising accuracy what would help or hinder their cultural adjustment before traveling abroad. Five students identified the two most important cross-cultural adjustment factors recognized by the adjustment research: past overseas experience (Ward, 1992), and most critically, HCN interaction (Weiss, 1998). They also acknowledged the importance of knowing the language and having an open-minded attitude. These are also crucial elements for promoting positive cultural adjustment (Selmer, 2001). The Cultural Adjustment Factors chart (Figure 4.2) shows all student predictions and designates the most popular comments with a to indicate the number of repeated responses. Most students considered Asian heritage, open mindedness, previous travel experience, and knowledge of the language as important cross-cultural adjustment factors. Two students accurately identified two negative adjustment factors: unrealistic expectations and interactions solely with Americans; both factors impede cross-cultural adjustment and are perfect examples of less effective negative symptom-focused coping strategies (Selmer, 1999). Overall, the students identified many important cross-cultural adjustment factors before they traveled abroad. Cultural Distance Previous research indicates that the greater the difference between the host and home cultures, the greater the potential for students to feel stress and alienation Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 when they adjust abroad (Bochner & Fumham, 1987). All students predicted great differences between United States and Asian cultures. They described the Help Hinder Knowledge from Asian parents *Hanging out with only American friends * Be open minded/curious v'v'VV Not “into” formality * Previous travel experience s s s "Unrealistic expectations * Know the language s s * Meet locals & make friends s Research & read ahead s s Keep busy/get involved in job ss Be adaptable Accept culture Cultural training identified by previous Grown up in diverse city research as significant to the adjustment process Have no expectations Have a room mate Take active role in integrating myself Keep a positive attitude Know myself & my skills Organizational Behavior class Respect for elder's, living & dead Stay physically in shape, run differences in exact terms such as “Asians value family, group-work, and personal honor much more than Americans,” or “Americans are focused on individuality and personal gain.” The Early Perception o f Cultural Differences chart (Figure 4.3) illustrates student predictions about cultural differences between Asia and the United States and shows the number of times students mentioned the same theme. Most students responded with general predictions based on what they read or heard, not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 from direct experience, and the responses portrayed views of differences in customs, values, Asian philosophy, and lifestyle. Marie and Harris - Expectations Marie expected to return to Japan and experience the Japanese culture she had known in younger years. Her main goal was to gain work experience for the future: “In terms of goals, I simply want to polish as much of my Japanese as possible, be as useful to [my company] as possible, and create contacts for the future.” Harris also mentioned gaining work experience and possibly working abroad in his future career, but emphasized his desire for a cultural experience: I am planning to immerse myself in the Japanese culture. I am going to try to stray away from everything I am used to and try not let my American lifestyle and customs be a barrier in learning how to live like a Japanese person. Both Marie and Harris’s business-related goals closely aligned with the majority of the students; the only difference between Marie and Harris and the rest of the students was a stronger desire for complete cultural immersion. While Harris and the other students predicted distinct cultural differences between Asia and the United States, Marie felt that the cultural differences would be minimal; the only difference would be her physical appearance, since she was half Asian. “I’ll fit in fine I think, but even though I may be culturally assimilated, I’ll Response # of Students Group Oriented vs. Individuality 3 Different Customs & Tradition 2 Religion Different 2 Different Values & Lifestyle 2 Confucian vs. Democratic 1 More Reserved & Polite 1 More ResDect for PeoDle 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 still stick out like a sore thumb physically, which will always create a little bit of a barrier”. Marie chose to live with an HCN roommate because she wanted to live on the outskirts of Tokyo and immerse herself in Japanese culture. She identified previous experience in Japan and her Asian heritage as two factors that that might help her adjust. Harris identified respect for elders from his Asian heritage as a helpful adjustment factor. He also had a great desire for a complete cultural experience. The First Weeks This segment describes the first few weeks of adjustment and presents results from Survey Two (Appendix B). First, I describe the initial student reactions at the beginning of the Asia experience. A discussion of early internship reactions follows, and a third section presents daily living challenges. Fourth, I revisit perceived cultural differences between the United States and Asia and subsequently offer student opinions on cross-cultural coping strategies. The segment concludes with a comparison between Marie and Harris and the rest of the research group. Cultural Adjustment After the students had settled into new internships and had worked for a few weeks, Survey Two clarified feelings about cultural adjustment. The survey unobtrusively allowed students to write as much or as little as they wished, but also measured how strongly they felt about different aspects of adjustment. Students ranked the intensity of their reactions. A score of “5” indicated the strongest reaction to the question or comment, while a score of “ 1” indicated the least reaction. Once Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 students ranked the intensity of their opinions, they explained the “why” behind their answers (Figure 4.4a). Figure 4.4a - Adjustment During the First Few W eeks Response Intensity Learning to No Anxiety Cope Gradually Adjusting Fascinated by the Culture The majority of the students were fascinated and optimistic about the new culture. Students in Kuala Lumpur reacted the most enthusiastically about their first few weeks, but overall, students expressed comments such as “interesting; optimistic; I love trying the food and meeting new people; everyone is making me feel comfortable; I am so fascinated by everything.” Although the majority of students were more interested in expressing their fascination with the new culture, seventy-five percent expressed a gradual adjustment to the new culture. Figure 4.4b compares the intensity of student reactions to questions about cultural fascination, gradual adaptation, anxiety, and coping. Students adjusted quickly due to constant question asking, helpful HCNs, and careful observation that led to a better understanding of Asian culture, slang, and transportation system. This demonstrated again the importance of interacting with Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 Figure 4.4b First Weeks - Adjustment Comparisons Greatest Difficulty Fascinated -- . — Gradual Adaptation No Anxiety Coping is Tiring HCNs don't say no! 5 NA NA NA Long work days 5 NA NA NA Language barrier 5 NA NA NA None 5 5 5 NA Crowded places, lack of personal space. 5 5 3 2 Can't walk & eat at the same time 5 4 3 1 Lack of personal space 5 5 2 2 HCNs don't understand vegetarianism 4 5 NA NA Understanding levels of speaking 4 2 NA 1 Gets stared at 4 3 4 1 Gender differences 4 5 3 2 Chop sticks 4 4 3 2 5= Highest Reaction 1 = Least Amount of Reaction HCNs (Weiss, 1998) and, as explained by SLT (Figure 2.0), demonstrated that motivation to adjust impelled students to observe HCNs and copy appropriate behavior. I remember feeling a little uncomfortable...I had a general understanding of their culture, but what I’ve learned about in books just doesn’t cut it in ‘real life’. For example, just by watching, I learned that I should stand on the left side and walk on the right side when taking escalators...Also, at first the subways were very intimidating, but after about a week, I didn’t give them a second thought. The majority of the research participants’ claimed that most interaction with HCN's took place with co-workers who provided a great resource for adjustment and learning the culture. Interns went out to lunch, dinner, and drinks; they shopped and otherwise connected socially with HCNs. Only two students had difficulty Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 interacting with HCNs during the first few weeks. A female student in Kuala Lumpur, due to her isolated housing situation in the first two weeks, could not effectively meet and socialize with HCN's. Another intern did not fit well in the male-dominated corporate culture of Japan, nor could she speak Japanese. She roomed with an American intern and socialized with other American interns. For these two women, the adjustment process proved more lengthy and difficult. Initial Internship Reactions The internship experience was crucial to overall adjustment since the students spent most of their time working. There is typically an adjustment period in every new work situation, regardless of location. However, in Asia, internships are not widely understood. Therefore, with the exception of students working in U.S. government and American organizations, interns experienced challenges related to cultural norms in addition to typical adjustments to new work environments. We encouraged all students to work hard, expect challenges, and make the best of their internship experiences. Each student had a unique internship in a different organization or department, and every student had a distinct cultural and professional experience. Although most students worked eight to fifteen hours per day and some encountered difficult situations, no student considered withdrawing from the internship program. Eight interns participated in internships that were a good match for their academic major and career goals, while the remaining five students experienced extra challenges due to their placement in organizations that did Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 not fit their academic major or career interests. This was an added challenge in addition to the burden of cultural adjustment. As is typical of most new work environments, it takes time to understand office nuances, procedures, protocols, and expectations. New employees may also encounter difficulties arising from conflicts with supervisors or office politics. For the most part, Asia internship supervisors made determined efforts to provide quality internship experiences, but in a few instances, interns encountered work place challenges in addition to cultural adjustment. Student comments during the first few weeks of the internship experience included typical reactions to new work situations regardless of location: • [I work in] an unorganized office • My supervisor was not able to clearly define my role • Responsibility was given to me right away • I ’ m learning a lot • I work very long hours • The tasks were beyond my level • It’ s challenging • There is lots of administrative work • It’ s going well but there’ s not enough responsibility • I mostly do office slave work • [I have an] interesting project • I have supportive supervisors Starting at the lowest level and working long hours are common traditions in Japanese companies. Although students received warnings about these customs, they were surprised once they encountered them. Of the thirteen interns, two performed manual labor tasks, several had repetitive administrative tasks, and most experienced long work hours. Every student however, completed at least one substantial internship project over the eight-week internship period, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 approximately fifty percent of the interns proactively created their own internship projects. Eleven of the thirteen interns experienced some disappointment and challenges at work, yet most sustained positive attitudes and explored ways to create interesting projects and network with professionals. This positive attitude prevailed due to student character, personality, and realistic expectations. We selected students for the fellowships based upon characteristics of maturity, flexibility, open- mindedness, professionalism, and sincerity. Before their selection, we advised applicants to expect major challenges in Asia. Since students expected to encounter difficulties, this placed responsibility on the students to create positive internship experiences. Daily Living Challenges Many students found it difficult to communicate and conduct daily living tasks since they lacked language skills. Due to the desire to communicate, understand, and participate without offending the HCNs, students wished they had learned the language and understood codes of behavior before leaving for Asia. Additional concerns included wanting to know more about business manners, table manners, social taboos, and how HCNs perceived foreigners. When asked about the cultural factors that caused problems with daily living, a number of unique responses surfaced. Students mentioned simple difficulties such as using chopsticks, trying to explain vegetarianism at restaurants, knowing which side of the street to walk on, getting stared at, and dealing with a lack of personal Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 space. The more complex issues included: confusion with how HCNs viewed women in Japan and Kuala Lumpur, understanding when an HCN actually meant “no”, and understanding the different ways of addressing people based upon age, experience, and level of importance. In the early stages of the Asia experience, most students perceived these difficulties or problems to be minor. Later, communication difficulties caused more distress as the interns tried to develop deeper relationships that required more developed language skills. Cultural Distance Revisited A few weeks into the Asia experience, students revisited the question concerning the major differences between the United States and Asia. This time, the students responded with opinions based upon personal experience. The core responses discussed “respectful, polite, subdued, and extremely helpful” HCNs. In addition, students commented on: formality, how women were treated, the long work hours, the humidity and heat, how Japanese women placed importance on high fashion, how men stayed away from home so much, the safety of the streets, and how Japanese people never really say “no” but merely ignore the issue or say they will think about it. One observing intern discussed the long work hours: "Asians work longer, but not as productively to make the end product perfect; U.S. workers are faster but more risks are taken and more mistakes are made." Figure 4.5 compares the student perceptions of cultural differences before starting the internship experience and after the first few weeks of experience. Comments made before the Asia experience portray objective and broad opinions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 based upon conjecture. Student opinions became more personal and detailed after working in Asia and experiencing daily life, and the responses directly related to personal experiences and observations. As the student interactions with HCNs increased, students were surprised at the helpfulness of HCN friends, business associates, and even HCN strangers on the street. Because of these friendly interactions, students became more interested in understanding HCN friends and business associates on a deeper level. It is noteworthy that eight remarks related to personal interactions with the HCNs, since building relationships with HCNs is most Figure 4.5 Early and Later Perceptions of Cultural Differences # of Response ________Students Response_________ # of Students Group Oriented vs. Individuality 3 More Reserved & Polite 5 Different Customs & Tradition 2 Go out of their way to help you 3 Religion Different 2 Long Work Hours 2 Different Values & Lifestyle 2 Treatment of Women 2 Confucian vs. Democratic 1 Different Values & Lifestyle / Men gone a lot 2 More Reserved & Polite 1 Weather more Hot & Humid 2 More Respect for People 1 Women Place much Importance on Fashion 1 Different Levels of Addressing People 1 important to cultural adjustment (Weiss, 1998). Cross-cultural Coping Strategies Most interns adjusted very well during this early point in the Asia experience and four students expressed no negative adjustment feelings whatsoever. Ten Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 students identified negative feelings and expressed their methods for improving the negative mind-set. Each of the ten responses were unique: • Be open-minded • Go out to see and learn new things • Laugh at myself • Consider things from a Japanese perspective • Remember it is not my place to judge because I am a foreigner • It's only a 2 month experience- make most of it • Write in my journal • Vent with other American interns • Talk with Expat and American friends • Listen to American music; bought some American movies The first seven responses indicated that the students used problem-focused coping strategies, the most effective method for adapting to new cultures (Selmer, 1999). Problem-focused strategies promote changing the environment or oneself in order to solve problems. As evidenced by the last three responses, the remaining three students used symptom-focused strategies resulting in escapism and retreat to American ways of life. This is the least effective method for adjusting to a new culture (Selmer, 1999). Symptom-focused strategies isolate and promote unproductive feelings of negativity and American superiority. The most effective adjustment approaches integrate problem-focused coping strategies, good interaction with HCNs, and an attitude that “no culture is better than another culture” (Selmer, 1999). Marie and Harris - Initial Adjustments Both Marie and Harris expressed genuine fascination with Japan and neither experienced anxiety during the first weeks. They gradually adjusted to the culture, experienced some frustration, and interacted closely with HCN’s. Harris Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 experienced the language barrier more uniquely than the other students because he lived alone and worked in a traditional Japanese firm. Everybody that I have met over here has made me feel very comfortable...Talking to them and learning from them has greatly help ease the transition to Japanese culture and also ease the “culture shock”...The only frustrating aspect of Japanese living is not being able to communicate in Japanese. I welcome and adapt to every other aspect of day-to-day life. I find many things fascinating and am willing to try anything the culture has to offer. But, as far as the language barrier, it has been very difficult at times, to ask for something or just have a conversation. Most students experienced only mild frustration during the first half of the internship experience and no one discussed frustration except Marie. Even though Marie could speak fluent Japanese and had lived in Japan, the HCNs treated her like an outsider because she looked foreign. Marie's work colleagues completely accepted her however, and she appreciated this acceptance. Marie was also experiencing a great difference between rural Japan and the crowded city of Tokyo. She had an internship in a company that did not match her internship or career interests, yet she still maintained a positive attitude. My internship experience has been overwhelming, but I guess in a good way. Most of my work is with computers, databases, and websites. If I’m not working on computer/data-related stuff, I’m faced with accounting procedures, numbers, and tax work - none of which is in my background, so everything I do I’m learning from square one. I like it, though. Anything to make me a more rounded person! Harris worked in an engineering company. As an engineering student, the engineering internship appeared a good fit, but Harris found the internship tasks too advanced. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 [The] Corporation as a whole has been much more than what I hoped for. I have made many friends. I have enjoyed learning about the company, how it operates and about its products. [It] is an awesome company. However, the tasks that I was doing were a little beyond my expertise. My education has taught me the bare minimum to accomplish the tasks, but I did not know enough to finish the jobs very well. Marie and Harris experienced different challenges, yet both employed problem-focused coping strategies when negative feelings surfaced. Marie stated: “I go out. If I’m seeing and learning new things, I don’t have time to think about negative issues, and the new experiences usually put me into a better m ood...” Harris responded: “I kept telling myself that I am only here for two months. I can either take the opportunity to experience it or have no opportunity to do so again.” No matter what challenges arose, and despite their vastly different circumstances, both Marie and Harris engaged in the same problem-focused coping strategies exercised by the majority of the research participants. Mid-way Through - Cultural Distance Revisited Mid-way through the Asia experience, I wanted to determine if the students’ early opinions of cultural differences had changed. Therefore, after several weeks in Asia, students revisited the topic of cultural differences between the United States and Asia in Survey Three (Appendix C). Previously, students created their own topics of cultural difference when responding to questions in the first two surveys; this time, students ranked the amount of difference among twelve cultural difference factors most commonly discussed in cultural adjustment research (Weiss, 1998). In earlier responses, students identified cultural differences related to social customs Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 and values (Figure 4.4a). After more experience abroad, I expected students to emphasize other cultural distance factors when presented with a long list of factors from which to select. Surprisingly, even when presented with twelve cultural distance topics, students demonstrated again that social customs and values represented the most different o f all twelve cultural factors (Figure 4.6). Values Social Customs Food Climate/ Weather Housing Pace of Life Politics/ Law Cultural activities Entertainment Clothing/ Style of Dress Friendships with HCNs Communication nuances Figure 4.6 Cultural Differences Between the U.S. and Asia _________ i / ■ 1 No Difference 2 Slightly Different 4 Very Different 3 Moderately Different 5 Extremely Different Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 As the students ranked twelve cultural living factors in Survey Three, they described the cultural context of their summer experiences. In addition, they provided detailed accounts of Asia as it differed from university life in the Western United States. A rank of “1” indicated no difference between Asia and the United States, whereas an assessment of “5” indicated an extreme difference (Figure 4.6). Only students who acknowledged large differences expressed their opinions in detailed description. The following selections present a summary of the most important cultural difference responses within specific cultural contexts that provide insight into life and work abroad. Social Customs and Values Students identified social customs as the most different of all cultural distance categories presented in Survey Three. I think that because of our cultural differences, it was hard to tell what people really meant when you were talking to them...It was mainly the cultural barrier that caused me to feel a little insecure about making friends. The student comments ranged from light-hearted remarks about walking on the left side of the sidewalk, to more subtle yet significant observations. For example, a student discussed the customs of bowing, obligation, and gift giving that new sojourners rarely understand. Interactions among people are different in terms of bowing and the obligation people feel to each other, such as having to join your colleagues for drinking after work. There is a lot of debt and obligation in the social customs, a lot more than in the U.S. Gift giving is a huge part of this. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. For most students, day-to-day living experiences caused their opinions of cultural customs and values to change only superficially. Once students developed relationships with work colleagues or other HCNs, their understanding of social customs, values, and beliefs evolved to a deeper level. Using the SLT lens, early student motivations and incentives remained consistent, but became more complex as time progressed. Initially, students tried hard to adjust because they were interested in a new culture, desired international work experience, wanted to fit in, and wished to reach personal and professional goals. Students had the same motives after several weeks of internship experience, but they began to view their work from a slightly different perspective. It later became more important to consider their feelings about future work abroad. They viewed all experiences from this career perspective which influenced subsequent decisions and actions, and slightly altered their original motivations for adjustment. Asian values influence social customs and the values category in Survey Three evoked strong responses from seven of eleven student respondents in Japan. Those who did not respond worked in American or international companies. Students mentioned several times that the Japanese valued the group more than the individual, and placed a high Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 value on conformity. Students also pointed out that teamwork and consensus played a great part at work. The Japanese seem to value conformity and the group mentality much more. Nobody leaves the office until our whole group finishes; we all go out together for dinner after work, and decisions are made with the whole group weighing in. They [the Japanese] seem to value teamwork much more than independence (i.e. they consult one another first before making even the simplest decisions like giving a customer a napkin.) Three students observed the value placed on work over family, but another two students discussed the importance of family; therefore there appeared to be differences of opinion about family importance. Everyone always seemed to know their place within the company, and acted accordingly...for example, if there was a choice of having to fire a guy who worked fairly well but had no family, or a guy who was a little less efficient that the first guy but had a family, they would fire the guy with no family. However, the US would have probably fired the second guy... Japanese life revolves around one's job/career. It is common to see ‘salary men’ out with their co-workers late into the night, leaving you wondering, "When are these guys going to go home to their wives and children?" Focusing on the future, several students discussed concerns about future careers in Japan. The issues arose based on their family values and the concern that working in Japan would limit time spent with family members. Several students mentioned their desire to work in Japan at the beginning of their professional career, but when ready to settle down with a family, they preferred a home base in the United States coupled with international travel. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 Values and social customs also encompassed the country’s political and legal make up, but most students did not discuss politics and law because they thought the topic out of their realm of experience. Superficially, two students observed the lack of law enforcement on the streets and the interesting methods of traffic enforcement. Both comments describe the cultural context of Japan. Perhaps the most notable difference in laws that I can notice is the drinking age (18). Also, I don’t see many cops patrolling the streets. Knowing that Japanese laws are very strict, I definitely try to keep out of anything even remotely resembling trouble. I rented a car last week, and I noticed that even though the Japanese are very proper and strict about laws, they break driving laws more than us in the U.S....On the other hand, nobody seems to honk here... There are also speed cameras on the expressways that take pictures of cars that speed and send the ticket automatically... Students provided cultural context and social customs insight when they discussed the pace of life in Japan and Kuala Lumpur. Nine students felt there was a moderate to great difference between the pace of life in Asia and that of the United States. Japanese are extremely punctual. If the train is scheduled to come in at 9:13, it's coming at 9:13. In America, you are allowed about a 5-minute margin of error, and no one seems to care one way or another. I personally like the idea of people, transportation, etc being on time because it helps you plan your day. On the other hand, I think the emphasis of being on time in Japan reveals how organized every aspect of your life has to be there. There is practically no room for a margin of error. The long work hours in Japan also dominated student responses. Students worked eight to fifteen hours per day and although they adjusted to the long hours, they again had second thoughts about this type of pace for future work. Most did not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 mind the hours since they wanted the work experience. In addition, the internship was short term and students had no family responsibilities to concern them. To recap, cultural difference issues concerning social customs and values remained consistent with earlier comments. The added weeks of experience revealed the students’ progression from superficial adjustment issues to more complex observations based upon deeper motives addressing future career choices. In addition, the students’ initial interaction with the polite and friendly HCNs evolved into deeper relationships at work and in daily living settings. HCN Communication and Friendships Communication and interacting with HCNs remained the two most important recurring adjustment themes throughout the entire study. Both themes produce a similar premise: when communication is difficult, creating bonds with HCNs is also difficult. Because interaction with HCNs is very important to socio-cultural adjustment (Selmer 1999), a language barrier that inhibits HCN interaction hinders socio-cultural adjustment. Although both communication and interaction with HCNs ranked lower on the cultural distance scale (Figure 4.5), the similarity of ten detailed written reactions on these themes stressed their importance. The following are just a few responses from the students: I think that the biggest thing is the language barrier. Most people are extremely helpful and friendly and we somehow find a way to communicate, but often times it is difficult. I think the language barrier is a big hindrance to making local friends. When I’m in a group, I find myself isolated as everybody else talks amongst themselves in Japanese. They Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 don’t mean to isolate me; it’s just natural for them to speak in their native language. It was...often...hard to approach locals and start asking them questions because I didn't know the language...If I knew the language, I would say that [the Japanese are] generally more approachable than people in the US. Since I learned Japanese in a classroom setting, I only learned the formal, polite way, which works fine with bosses, but sounds awkward with friends. The Malaysian English or “Manglish” is very different from the English we speak here! Sometimes I have difficulty understanding everything that they are saying to me. Regardless of whether a student could speak Japanese or Malaysian, communication and interaction with HCNs remained somewhat difficult in certain situations. Although the students adjusted successfully, improved language skills would have substantially increased the students’ Asia experience. Climate and Food In Survey Three, weather and food were the second most discussed categories after customs and values. Students responded negatively to the weather and positively to the food. Although the students eventually adjusted to the weather, several believed the hot, humid, and rainy weather was much different than the western United States, and most students reported that they were uncomfortable walking long distances in this weather. The food, however, evoked positive responses from all students. Every student but one indicated that the food was either very different or extremely different in Asia as compared to the United States, however every student indicated that they enjoyed the food. "Different is not a good Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 word to describe it. New and interesting is better.” Several students enjoyed discussing the differences in the food: the smaller portions, the spiciness, the noodle houses, and the proliferation of American food chains. "The food is very different in a good sense! And I mean real Japanese food...not the Californized sushi rolls with the ubiquitous slice of avocado.” Overall, the students were enthusiastically positive over the differences in the food and enjoyed trying new things. Both students in Kuala Lumpur enjoyed the variety of diverse and culturally different dishes so prevalent in Malaysia. Housing and Clothing All of the students in Japan, except Harris who lived alone, shared small Japanese apartments with roommates. Students in Kuala Lumpur lived with host families. Over half the students categorized their accommodations as very different or extremely different from those in the United States. Of those students who did not see much of a difference, one lived with an American host in Kuala Lumpur, and the other two had small but nice accommodations. They acknowledged the cramped quarters but they did not seem bothered by them. “A little smaller than what I’ve gotten used to in the US, but not a problem at all. ” The most significant and frequent comments on the accommodation issue involved the small, tight quarters. "Japan’s living conditions are very cramped. They try to be very efficient with space. For example, the sink is included inside the shower.” The men had more difficulty with the space than the women. This was mainly due to their larger size. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 This is quite different from what I was used to. First off, the bathroom and the assorted doorways are a little too short for me, so occasionally I hit my head on the top of the bathroom doorframe if I’m not careful. I don’t have a typical mattress - instead I have a futon, which is quite different from our version of the futon... basically I sleep on the futon on the ground...the rooms here are obviously not built for taller people, but on the other hand, some of the stuff like the futons are more comfortable. Clothing and style of dress was the last category in Survey Three, and as expected, the female students were more interested in making comments on this topic. Five female students felt that style of dress was very different in Asia as compared to the United States. The male students noticed only moderate differences and were not as interested in the topic. Some students made interesting observations as to the differences in dress. [Kuala Lumpur] is full of people wearing all kinds of different clothing. The Muslim women wear head coverings and “kabayas” or “korongs” which are long flowing and colorful dresses. There are many Indian women who also wear the traditional Punjabi or sari clothing. Nonetheless, many in the business world wear standard dress that could be similar to an American workplace. In the work atmosphere, it seems that Japanese nationals are afraid of colors! All the men looked identical with their suits and ties, and all the women often wear knee-length skirts. In addition, their color range consisted of black, gray, brown, and white. Clothing is very westernized, especially among the younger generation. Very rarely do I see someone in traditional dress, and usually it’s on Sunday when everyone goes to temple. I also notice that the Japanese are very brand conscious when it comes to clothes, especially women and teenage girls, who seem to spend a fortune on their wardrobes (judging from the prices in the local department stores). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 Housing and clothing issues provided interesting and colorful topics for discussion, but they did not pose any significant adjustment problems for the students. The remaining factors addressed in the third survey did not provide any additional important data. The differences in entertainment and activities in Asia, although culturally different from those in United States, did not offer meaningful student responses other than naming events and types of cultural activities. Marie and Harris - Cultural Differences Perspectives Marie and Harris, although enjoying uniquely different experiences from the other interns, ranked the cultural distance factors similarly to the other students. Harris acknowledged basic differences in social customs and accepted those differences with few comments. He mentioned the double standard between men and women; it bothered him that women were more subservient, yet he tried not to pass judgment or have negative feelings about this. Marie also pointed out the double standard and discussed the treatment of women. It seems that women are still “background staff,” in many cases. The men make the more official calls and conduct the primary business...[I’m] continually surprised and frustrated at the lack of enforcement preventing...the continuous harassment cases on crowded trains, men openly reading pornographic manga in public, and women saying or doing nothing about it! Marie also viewed social customs and values on a deeper level than Harris or the other interns, and she experienced negative feelings about certain issues. She also possessed a natural tendency to compare her Tokyo experience with her past experience in rural Japan. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 The same conformity of Japanese society that bothered me when I was living here bothers me now. Also, Tokyo is a weird place - it’s Japanese, but then again, not really. There is so much of the rest of the world there, but it’s all kind of half-heartedly muted by the Japanese culture. It’s an uncomfortable mix that I can’t quite figure out. Communication and developing friendships with HCNs did not pose problems for Marie since she was fluent in Japanese and had developed close relationships with her business colleagues. Harris experienced only moderate difficulties due to his lack of language speaking ability. Since he immersed himself in the culture and lived completely on his own, making friends was his only means of successful adjustment. This encouraged Harris to fill his free time with new HCN friends. Harris maximized his cultural experience and professed a great benefit from HCN relationships. Additionally, Harris enjoyed a more positive experience because he had no expectations, was non-judgmental, and open-minded. Marie found herself in a unique situation. Her memories and previous experience did not prepare her for work or the international city of Tokyo. She thought with her language ability and previous experience, she would blend well into the Japanese culture. Marie discovered that HCNs viewed her as a foreigner despite her language skills and cultural knowledge: [My] foreign face always colored my relationships...(some people would befriend me to practice their English or learn more about America)...Luckily, my coworkers and I formed friendships that felt like real, solid relationships - like our backgrounds didn’t matter. I loved that and was grateful for their acceptance. In addition, Marie’s internship did not match with her major or career interests. She observed the treatment of women in the workplace and wondered if in the future, she Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 would be able to make her way in the Japanese business culture. Yet, with all these concerns, Marie still enjoyed her job and the entire summer abroad experience. She still plans to work abroad, but is now more hesitant to make Japan her home for more than a few years. Although Marie and Harris experienced vastly different cultural contexts than other interns, their incentives and motivations evolved in the same manner as the others. They began the internship experience with motives to learn more about the culture, acquire work experience, and achieve personal and professional goals. Similar to the other interns, Marie and Harris’ motives shifted to a more refined focus: deciding how they would fit into a future full time work experience in Asia. Both Marie and Harris intended to work in the United States after starting a family; this opinion matched the majority of others who considered living and working abroad only in the early part of their careers. The Final Weeks - Socio-cultural Adjustment Two major themes from earlier surveys: language/communication and interaction with HCNs, emerged again when ten students discussed socio-cultural adjustment in the fourth and final survey (Appendix D). By this time, students had experienced almost two months of living and working in Asia, therefore most had solved nearly all adjustment problems. Figure 4.7 illustrates student opinion during the final weeks concerning difficulties encountered with eleven common adjustment factors. O f all the factors, only understanding the language posed a real problem for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 non-Japanese speakers in Japan. In Kuala Lumpur, students encountered few language problems. After almost two months in Asia, all students lived independently without difficulty and were accustomed to the pace of life. Most understood and had participated in popular Asian pastimes and felt comfortable at the office. The following sections highlight the socio-cultural adjustment factors that posed some difficulty for the interns. They provide additional insight into the cultural context during the last weeks of the internship experience and offer student descriptions of notable socio-cultural adjustment factors. Communication The language barrier issue surfaced again, and was the most significant of all adjustment factors addressed in the fourth survey (Figure 4.7). Students documented this by stating that they had the most difficulty with two communication factors in the survey: “understanding the language” and “making yourself understood.” Eight students experienced great to extreme difficulty with the language. This is not surprising since seven students planned to work in Chinese or Vietnamese speaking countries over the summer. The short preparation period before placement in Japan did not allow the interns to learn enough Japanese language skills to feel comfortable. The students referred to their language difficulties many times during and after the internship experience. What follows are excerpts from Survey Four addressing the language issue. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Figure 4.7 Sociocultural Adjustment Last Few Weeks Understanding the Language Making Yourself Understood Making friends Transportation Climate Shopping Understanding Popular Asian Pasttimes Understanding Office Culture Local food Pace of Life Living Independently *1 1 1 2 . K ’ M m 0 0.5 1 1.5 2.5 1 = no difficulty 2 = slight difficulty 3 = moderate difficulty 4 = great difficulty 5 = extreme difficulty 3.5 The language barrier causes my conversation to be either basic or non-existent. I do not understand any Japanese except for a few words here and there. Hand gestures and physical communication helps however. Sometimes, I'm surprised that I know what people are talking about just from the way they are moving around (Harris). I have taken some classes at the embassy and learned a little just to barely get by in cabs and restaurants. Other than that, I have absolutely no idea what is being said. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l I picked up a handful of useful phrases, but beyond that, I didn't know what people were saying. I imagine that my stay would have been quite different if I spoke Japanese, but I still had a good time. Only three students had slight difficulty with the verbal communication. Of the three, two students spoke Japanese fluently or semi-fluently, and one worked in Kuala Lumpur where HCNs spoke English. Seven students had difficulty making themselves understood and had various comments to make about how they addressed this difficulty. I often have to draw diagrams when explaining a situation to my boss and co-workers. I also have to make sure to use simple words and to talk slowly... I have found that you just need to be patient if you're not understood right away. It's sometimes difficult when trying to communicate my ideas. For the most part, I'll get my point across with some of the Japanese that I picked up and a lot of pointing and pantomiming. Other students chose to describe how and why they were frustrated as they tried to communicate their ideas to others. It becomes very frustrating to make myself understood. Even though I'm feeling frustrated I still have to keep a smile on my face as not to seem like a mean person. At first, it was so difficult to communicate, even though I studied Japanese a year ago. I expected that they would be able to understand some English, but many of them could not because you need to say English words with a Japanese accent...I remember using the phrase, “I don't understand" in Japanese often. However, as time went on I became more accustomed to common phrases, and the pace at which they spoke (they used to speak WAY too fast for me to catch anything), I began communicating a lot better. I had no capacity to express any complex thoughts or requests. Consequently, I never tried to express myself beyond my limited vocabulary. By the end of the stay, I had given up the idea of making myself understood to anyone beyond my roommate. What Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 was funny was that my roommate and I would speak to each other like the other didn't speak English. For instance, instead of saying, “Where’s your computer?” I’d say, “No computer?" Or even, “Computer?” As noted in Figure 4.7, “understanding the language” and “making yourself understood,” emphasized communication difficulties. Above all, students mentioned language and communication as the most important factors in cross-cultural adjustment. Interaction with HCNs Making friends with HCNs surfaced as an important adjustment issue. This supports adjustment research stressing HCN interaction as critical to cross-cultural adjustment (Weiss, 1998). Seven students encountered moderate to great difficulty making Asian friends, and students maintained that the language barrier remained the chief reason for difficulty creating HCN friendships. Students also worked long hours and tended to spend free hours with other American interns; these situations hindered HCN friendship development. “Because I was surrounded by people much older than me, it was difficult to meet people my age who were Japanese.” Some interns sought out friendships after work, but the friendships tended to be on a more superficial level. “I also met other Japanese people at places like bars, club, and restaurants...” Students who made HCN friends experienced Japanese culture on a deeper level thus expanding cultural knowledge and appreciation. I made tons of Japanese friends and went out with them to eat, sightsee, and just hang out. It was great because I had a Japanese perspective on a lot of things, and I learned all those little details that I wouldn’t have understood if I spent most of my time with other American friends (Harris). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 Two students in Kuala Lumpur spent time with HCNs and both students traveled with HCN friends or work associates. One student lived as a local with an HCN family. This experience inspired her to pursue working for the Peace Corps after graduation. This is a prime example of the positive influence of associating with HCNs and successful adjustment. Food, Climate, and Transportation As time progressed, daily living tasks became easier to manage as students became accustomed to the food, climate, and modes of transportation. Students exemplified socio-cultural learning as they observed, tasted, and enjoyed the new food choices in Asia. Transportation caused the most difficulty for students, but food did not cause much frustration since all students enjoyed Asian cuisine. Although two of the ten students were vegetarian, all ten reported no difficulty or slight difficulty with the local food. Only one student indicated that he had great difficulty with traditional foods, but he eventually adjusted. The climate in Asia posed some trouble for the students during the summer as the heat and humidity made getting to work uncomfortable, but most students indicated that they became used to it. Over half the students had moderate to great difficulty with the transportation system. I'm just barely starting to get used to the subway system here. At first it can be very overwhelming, but once you get used to it, it's like clockwork. The combination of no English maps with a population of non- English-speakers makes travel for the non-Japanese speaker Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 extremely difficult. It was a gamble to travel about spontaneously, so I rarely did. It was sort of a bummer no to be able to go around town without prior preparation, but I still went to many places. If I wanted to go to a new locale, I asked my co-workers for detailed directions. Not being used to public transportation, I first had some difficulty figuring out where to go because signs were in Kanji characters, which I can’t really read.. .1 just ask the station attendant... The incentive to see new places and just get to work motivated students to observe, learn, and practice using the transportation system, and over seventy percent of the students felt that they had mastered the transportation system by the end of their internship experience. After the Asia Experience - Exit Interviews Following the students’ return from Asia and after they had been home for a month, every student participated in a one-on-one confidential exit interview (Appendix E). Each student answered the same set of open-ended questions, and the interviews lasted between 45 and 70 minutes. Students understood that by now, the university considered the Asia internship program successful and their responses would not affect the program outcome. Consequently, I encouraged students to criticize any aspect of the internship program and make suggestions to improve the process for future interns. The students appeared happy to discuss the Asia experience at length, since they encountered indifference from friends and family Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 after the initial excitement of their return had diminished. They welcomed conversation with someone who would listen with interest and knowledge about their summer internship experience. The exit interviews allowed students to look back on their experiences in Asia and clarify their thoughts and opinions. After returning to the United States, they had a different perspective from which to respond. I wanted to determine if the students still held the same opinions and perceptions after their return, and the exit interview data allowed me to revisit and verify previous responses gathered during the internship experience. I described the purpose of the interview: to understand the adjustment process and improve the internship program for future interns. The participants gladly contributed both positive and negative comments about their experiences abroad and provided substantial support for the themes and opinions voiced throughout the internship experience. During the interviews, students discussed their internships and described how the experience influenced future career plans. They discussed attributes, attitudes, skills, and experience that contributed to international adjustment. They also highlighted obstacles that hindered adjustment, and provided ideas to improve future training and preparation for the international work experience. The following four segments summarize important exit interview themes and presents them by category: internship perceptions, self-realization and career plans, barriers to adjustment, and factors that support adjustment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 Internship Perceptions Internships played an important part in the adjustment process, therefore I asked students if their internship met, exceeded, or fell short of their expectations (Figure 4.8). Ninety-two percent of the students felt that their internships exceeded or met expectations; only one student felt that the internship fell short of her expectations. Figure 4.8 presents the student viewpoints during the early internship stages and again after internship completion. It indicates internship expectations and illustrates how student opinion evolved after the internship. The internships that did not completely exceed expectations directly resulted from office politics, an inexperienced supervisor, or a poor fit between the student’s interests and the job duties. These are typical work situations regardless of location. Students understood this and all tried to make the best of any negative situations. During the internship, when encountering disappointments, students typically asked for more work, tried to create new projects, or networked with other colleagues in the office to improve the learning experience. The trend in most offices was to delegate regular full-time employee work to the interns or train the interns as if they were new full-time hires. After the internship experience, most interns had a good understanding of full time work in a foreign country and all demonstrated a new level of confidence and competence. The students’ positive internship experiences contributed significantly to their successful cross-cultural adjustment. In cases where the internships were less than desirable, the students tended to have good cultural experiences outside of the office environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 Figure 4.8 Perceptions of the Asia Internship Experience During the Internship _________ After the Internship The First Few Weeks Did the internship meet your expectations? One Month after Return to U.S. Good so far, given responsibility quickly Exceeded 1 didn't have huge expectations. Rarely boring. Learning a lot about financial markets & real work application Exceeded Didn't know much about finance. My boss taught me corporate culture. Good exposure. Company is non-Japanese. Wanted more of a cultural experience at work. Exceeded Had low expectations due to SARS. Turned out great! Hours lot longer/amt of responsibility is heavy. It's shocking, 1 love always being busy- I’m doing actual marketing-chance to learn-be creative-perfect for my interests & studies. Exceeded So surprised. Best internship 1 ever had. Surprised at hours. Worked until 9 to 10 PM then went out with clients. Good experience, rational and supportive supervisors, interesting project. Exceeded Benefited my major. Good projects. Independent work. Forecasted trends. Love the company, tasks are a little beyond my level of expertise. Exceeded Long hours, everything was an adjustment. Good experience! (Harris) Challenging but lots of administrative work. Exceeded I had to be proactive to get the most out of it. Overwhelming at first. I took the initiative to tell my supervisor what I wanted to do. Going well, but could handle more responsibility. Exceeded I gained a lot from it. Going to meetings with chief officers. Witnessed company negotiating process & differences in business cultures. Can't get this experience anywhere else. Beginning work was manual, getting better. Met in most places, exceeded in some. I provided quality control and customer service. Overwhelming- in a good way, 1 don't have background knowledge in this field. Exceeded and fell short People are incredible! Interesting but not a good match for my maior. (Marie) "Office slave work". Doing some marketing now. Met Little disappointed. Mostly admin work. Made my own way. Work wasn't well coordinated or organized. Fell Short Lack of work. Office politics. Hierarchy. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 Both Marie and Harris had positive internship experiences but for very different reasons. Marie stated that her internship both exceeded and fell short of her expectations. This was due to her placement in a company that did not match with her major or career interests. Marie however, enjoyed the relationships developed at work and appreciated acceptance and appreciation from new friends and colleagues. Although Marie did not appear Japanese, her business colleagues accepted her unconditionally. Harris’s internship exceeded expectations because he developed intellectually, personally, and culturally. Since he could not speak Japanese, Harris had to rely upon HCNs for everything. HCNs befriended and included him in social and business activities, thus Harris accomplished his goal for complete cultural immersion. Self Realization and Future Career Plans Students perceived that they had gained many intangible benefits from work abroad. The feelings of confidence, competence, and flexibility that prevailed in every interview demonstrated evidence of these benefits (Figure 4.9). Students appeared surprised at the amount of confidence gained and they verbalized the overwhelming nature of the abroad experience. Ninety-two percent of the students felt that their job opportunities had improved and many had stories of pending job opportunities or offers of future employment resulting from their summer internship abroad. Eighty-five percent of the students planned to work abroad while they were young, then establish a home base in the United States and travel abroad as part of their work. Only two students thought they might live abroad permanently, but all Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 mentioned interest in future internationally-focused career opportunities. The enthusiasm regarding the perceived benefits associated with the Asia experience influenced the adjustment responses in the individual exit interviews. The positive benefits minimized the adjustment difficulties encountered while the students were abroad. Since students reached their original goals for working abroad, the Figure 4.9 Self Realizations & Perceived Benefits am more open- minded than I I can handle and juggle a lot of things. Grown . . t • so much. Can do more thought. Trying how g5 to5i l anyw horointhewodd and survive. More adventuresome now. Always like to do new things Know I can be on my own. Confidence level high, but I over estimated my “Japaneseness” (Marie). own. I was a minority. More capable than I thought. W e are more capable^ . . . .. ... . ^ Opened my eyes to try than we think we are. r ... ~ „ • ^ t ^ ut u ■ new things. Came in Comfortable being w.th ope9 mjnd Hgd comp e e y on my p ^ g effor{ ma|< e friends (Harris). I'm flexible. I didn't consider Asia before college. I can go anywhere! I'm more flexible than thought. More flexible and open minded. I can handle it! Forced to be proactive and more independent. Forced out of my comfort zone. Swallow pride and not be afraid. Humbling experience. I didn't know I was capable. Able and willing and have the energy to learn more and go places Didn’t have too much trouble adjusting. People took me seriously. More confident. Learned to be more patient & appreciative with international students. adjustment difficulties seemed a small price to pay for future career benefits. The Asia internship experience definitely influenced future career plans. Due to their internship experience and regardless of internship location, students clarified career goals. In every instance, students gained an understanding of workplace Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 interactions and developed skills and confidence. They changed their original ideas about specific jobs and future work abroad. For example, one student arrived in Tokyo thinking she would only work in a career focused upon entertainment marketing. After her internship experience working in a technical company, she realized that she enjoyed marketing no matter what the industry. Another example shows four students who originally thought they would work in other countries throughout their careers. After their internships in Asia, all four students changed their original opinion. They now desire to work abroad during the early part of their careers (Appendix J). Later, after establishing families, they prefer a home base in the United States and merely travel abroad as part of their job descriptions. In this research group, two students desired to work in various locations around the world, two students were open to internationally focused jobs but wished to remain in United States, and the remaining three students were open to working abroad at some point in their career. Since the students adjusted successfully, they felt confident that they could work abroad in the future. Through this experience, students also learned that they enjoyed working abroad and would like to do so again. This positive response to work abroad directly relates to successful socio-cultural adjustment. Barriers to Adjustment As suggested in the last surveys and supported in the individual interviews, the largest obstacle to adjustment was the language barrier. Every student but one discussed some kind of difficulty involving communication. Japanese speaking students encountered problems with understanding business-related terms, speed of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 speech, slang terms, different accents, or varying forms of formal and informal speech. Even for a student in Kuala Lumpur, although the office staff and clients spoke English, the “Manglish” style of English caused some communication difficulties. This made it difficult to interact with the HCNs, make close friends, and discuss issues on a deeper level. Students still enjoyed HCN friendships, but for the most part, increased language skills would have improved HCN relationships. Issues surrounding office traditions concerned eight students as they discussed dilemmas with office politics, hierarchical office structure, and the treatment of women. Offices worldwide experience such office mores, however the prevalence of a strict hierarchical office structure and the subservient nature of female staff are more common in Asian societies (Redding, 1990). Four students, both male and female, voiced concern over the treatment of women in Japan. In two cases, this one issue caused two Asian American women to reconsider working in Japan for extended time-periods in the future. One of these interns was Marie. Since both interns were Asian women with American backgrounds, they did not act in a culturally accepted and expected manner, therefore they may have experienced a certain level of resistance by some HCNs. In contrast, HCNs gave non-Asian Americans the benefit of the doubt; HCNs appreciated even the smallest attempts at Asian customs (Selmer, 2002) and expectations were lower for them. This phenomenon may explain why Marie and one other female intern experienced a barrier in the Japanese work environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 Another significant adjustment barrier was seven students’ predisposition to spend most free time with other American interns. This made it difficult to develop relationships with HCNs and encouraged students to use negative symptom-focused adjustment strategies rather than positive problem-focused strategies (Selmer, 1999). Instead of learning more about the culture by interacting with HCNs during the weekends, sixty-two percent of the students socialized almost exclusively with other American interns during their stay in Japan. Because of this, their depth of cultural understanding was compromised, as they tended to engage in American escapism rather than immersing themselves in Japanese culture. Oppositely, one intern in Kuala Lumpur lived with a HCN family. In this situation, she enthusiastically participated in every aspect of Malaysian culture. As a result, she desires to join the Peace Corps. As well, Harris had no contact with other American interns and spent all of his time with HCNs. He experienced Japanese culture at a deeper level and is enthusiastic about further international work experiences. After a few weeks living in Asia, cultural adjustment problems related to transportation and securing Japanese currency became insignificant. Five students mentioned problems securing money from ATM machines upon arriving in Japan, but this problem was soon rectified. Transportation was another noteworthy concern for eleven students as the lack of English signs, maps, and directions caused confusion. Students mastered this challenge in a few weeks. Training by HCNs or expatriates before departure and during the first week of arrival could have alleviated the difficulties with ATM machines and transportation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 Factors that Support Adjustment Students responded freely with significant ideas about successful cross- cultural adjustment, and their suggestions to promote positive adjustment fell into three separate categories: taking action, skills/experience, and personal characteristics/attitudes (Appendix K). In the work setting, over half the students emphasized the importance of taking action by working hard, quickly, and efficiently. They also emphasized the importance of punctuality, having a willingness to work long hours, making the extra effort to complete assigned duties, and taking on more responsibility. In social contexts, seventy percent of the interns stressed taking action by trying to learn the language and customs through constant question asking and communication. Two students maintained that socializing with American interns contributed to successful cross-cultural adjustment, while four students enthusiastically promoted the importance of developing relationships with HCNs as the key to their successful adjustment. The students who developed close personal relationships with HCNs appeared to be more culturally assimilated than all other interns because they demonstrated more enthusiasm and understanding of Asian culture. This supports Weiss’ premise that HCN interaction is very important to cross-cultural adjustment (1998). Previous skills and experience also helped students adjust. As expected, the three Japanese-speaking students mentioned language skills as most important for adjustment. Additional skills for job success included good academic preparation, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 research, and public speaking skills. Four students maintained that previous work experience and travel experience contributed to both cultural and work adjustment. I studied abroad last summer in Spain, and I think that experience helped me. In that situation I was forced to adjust to a new culture and a different language in a homestay environment. This summer I had to do the same in KL. In addition, I have traveled a lot, so I am very open to new cultures and ideas. Also, I love learning about global issues, cultures and ideas (I major in IR) so I traveled to Malaysia with great enthusiasm and an open mind. My previous experiences through studying abroad, and also through personal travel was a major part of my adjustment in the program. By having extensive travel experience before, I knew what to expect not only in terms of cultural shock and customs, but was also prepared for adjusting to a different lifestyle, as I had previously lived in a foreign country for an extended period of time. In addition, my previous travel to Japan was also key in my adjustment during the program. According to earlier adjustment research, language skills (Selmer, 1999) and previous travel experience (Ward, 1992) contribute significantly to cross-cultural adjustment. Finally, every student suggested at least one or two personal characteristics or attitudes that contributed to their cross-cultural adjustment (Appendix K). Seventy percent of the students thought having an open mind and an accepting attitude were most important for cross-cultural adjustment. By far, students stressed these attitudes along with curiosity as most important to their adjustment success. Other ways of thinking included a willingness to learn, having no expectations, and respecting others. Additionally, students described the personal characteristics of flexibility, persistence, even-temperedness, friendliness, diplomacy, and responsibility as key factors for international adjustment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 Research about the effects of personality on cross-cultural adjustment is limited, but Selmer (1999) maintains that certain personality characteristics may promote the use of successful problem-focused rather than symptom-focused coping strategies. These positive personality traits and qualities include: extroversion, self monitoring, autonomy, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, intellectual openness, sincerity, respect and empathy for others, collaboration, tolerance, patience, responsible problem solving, intellectual curiosity, cultural acceptance, flexibility, non-judgmental attitudes, and open-mindedness. Other variables that are important to successful adaptation abroad are: language skills, foreign experience, perceived social support, cognitive ability, career motivation, and cultural toughness (Selmer, 2001). Without previous knowledge of the research, the participants demonstrated and suggested positive adjustment factors that support Selmer’s cross-cultural adjustment research. International Adjustment: Group Consensus Focus groups conducted three months after the Asia summer internships provided broad and interactive reflections on the entire cross-cultural adjustment experience. After collecting individual responses through survey questions and interviews, three focus groups clarified the extensive data and supplied the critical distance necessary to confirm or refute previously collected data. This helped to bridge the “gap” between what people say and what they do (Lankshear, 1993), and offered a way to triangulate the data and provide further evidence of trustworthiness. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 The students responded to many topics and questions previously addressed in individual interviews and surveys, but this time participants clarified opinions and developed ideas within a group context (Appendix F). The groups either reached a consensus on certain topics or individuals presented unique and valuable perspectives encouraged by group members. In each of the three focus groups, students answered the same set of questions and provided insight created through interaction as other topics emerged for discussion (Morgan, 1997). Three focus groups conducted in December 2003 included twelve out of the original thirteen participants. I employed focus groups to re-examine and discuss many adjustment issues uncovered during the course of collecting research. Based on the intern responses, I added one supplementary question on homesickness because it is part of the natural adjustment process. The additional responses added insight to the adjustment process and cross-cultural coping strategies. The first focus group consisted of two female students and one Asian American male student. Marie participated in this group and identified herself as Chinese American; the other female student identified as Caucasian. In this group, only Marie spoke fluent Japanese. All three students worked in Tokyo in private organizations. Two of the three students had career interests related to their internships and Marie’s internship did not fit with her interests and skill sets. The second focus group included Harris and consisted of only two Asian American male students who worked in Tokyo and Nagoya respectively. Neither student could speak Japanese and both worked in large private corporations. Both Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 students’ internships matched well to their academic major, interest, and skills. Harris worked in Nagoya in a Japanese company and was completely isolated from other American interns. His experience was total immersion in a small rural Japanese town and he spent all of his time with HCNs. The intern in Tokyo worked for an American corporation and he spent much of his time with other American interns. The third focus group was composed of seven students, six female students and one male student; three female students were Caucasian, the other three were Asian American, and one male student was African-American. Only one Asian American student in this group could speak Japanese semi-fluently. Two of the female students worked in Kuala Lumpur, two female students worked in Osaka, and the remaining three students worked in Tokyo. Four of the students worked in private companies, two students worked in a non-governmental organization, and one student worked in a government internship. The following pages present a consolidation of student reactions from all three focus groups. This section presents the most significant themes that surfaced in the groups. The themes include: adjustment challenges, helpful adjustment strategies, self-realization and future career plans, and suggestions for training. The focus group data supports previously gathered data from individual student responses during and immediately after the Asia internship experience. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Adjustment Challenges Due to the great cultural difference between United States Asia, students were overwhelmed when they first arrived in Asia. An entire new culture presented itself, and in order to understand it, the students believed they needed to first observe before reacting. From a social learning perspective, sojourners in a new culture attempt to model new behaviors through observation followed by mental rehearsal and behavior modeling (Bandura, 1977). Observation was the first step the interns took to adjust to the new Asian culture. The incentives for observation included motivations to fit in, understand how to work in a foreign country, make friends, and reach personal and professional goals. Without language proficiency and due to the difference in cultures, seven students found it tiring to repeatedly try to “figure things out”, therefore once they discovered something, such as finding a local store or eating place, they returned to that same place because it was easier. They all agreed that once they found a comfort zone, they would repeat the same process. They also felt comfortable spending time with fellow American interns rather than venturing out with new HCN friends. When asked, every student admitted that not making new friends and venturing out of their comfort zone hindered their adjustment. If I had it to do all over again, I would have taken people from work out with us and would have taken more risks... I would have made more of an effort to meet people in our apartment complex the first day or two. After time goes by, you get lazy, tired, or intimidated to go out and meet people... It's almost like there is a window of opportunity to meet people. You should force yourself to go out and meet people early on. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 According to the adjustment research, the greater the cultural distance or perceived difference between the home culture and the new culture, the more difficult it becomes to adjust (Fumham & Bochner, 1982). The student participants perceived a great cultural difference between the United States and Asia, and therefore sometimes fell back on what was most comfortable, such as remaining with American friends and revisiting familiar places rather than assertively making new HCN friends and venturing out to new places. As the research suggests, interacting with the HCNs is most important to adjustment; secondly, knowing the language is also a major adjustment factor (Weiss, 1998; Selmer, 1999). Since only three students could speak Japanese, the other students described the language barrier as a major disadvantage in their adjustment. Seven non-Japanese speakers in Japan also acknowledged difficulties making friends with HCNs due to the language barrier (Selmer, 2001) and the cultural differences (Babiker et al., 1980). Individual students suggested other adjustment challenges specific to personal contexts. A few familiar themes surfaced, such as difficulty with ATM machines and confusion with the subway system in Japan. Several other unique challenges arose as well. One student lived in an isolated and substandard hostel in Kuala Lumpur for two weeks; another student encountered office politics that hindered her options for securing responsible internship projects. One more student experienced loneliness due to a remote living situation, and another who was an only child, needed a few weeks to adjust to living on his own. All are typical examples of adjustment to living abroad or starting work in any new location. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 The next adjustment challenge is a phenomenon described by Selmer (1999) in adjustment research; an Asian American student had high expectations placed upon her because she looked Japanese even though she had no experience with Japanese culture. In Asian culture, when Asians do not act in a culturally accepted manner, HCNs may view them with contempt and treat them with hostility (Selmer, 2002). In this student’s case, instead of hostility, she felt pressure to know more than her Western looking American counterparts, and her supervisor assumed she would understand cultural norms and meet traditional work standards and expectations. This student also observed that women in her company did not hold positions in upper management. Other students also mentioned the double standard for women during individual interviews. Over sixty percent of the students experienced mild and most indicated they did not feel homesick until the very end of the Asia experience. By this time, the students had become tired, many friends were leaving Asia, “the novelty had worn off,” and they were ready to go home. When you’re really busy, you don't have time to be homesick. When I didn't have too much to do and started to feel homesick, I went for a walk. Once you lose the motivation to get out and go do something that's when you get homesick. After awhile all my friends went home; I'd seen everything that I wanted to see so I was ready to go home. Three students who felt homesick during the internship kept busy, visited new places on the weekend, and commiserated with fellow American interns. They purposely used a combination of problem-focused and symptom-focused strategies to adjust to homesickness. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 Adjustment Strategies All focus groups agreed that the most helpful adjustment strategy for any negative thoughts was keeping busy. This was one of many positive problem- focused coping strategies used by the students. They concurred that it was important to plan and schedule fun things to do because “it gives you something to look forward to.” Students suggested different ways to stay busy, such as traveling, keeping a small notebook with suggestions of things to see and do, taking work home to finish, and making a list of things to do after reading The Lonely Planet (Rowthome, 2004). Two symptom-focused coping strategies surfaced during the discussions: talking with expatriates about first encounters with Asian culture, and sympathizing and spending time with American interns. Without knowing the words to describe symptom-focused coping strategies, students understood the negative connotation associated with these strategies. I worked with foreigners in my office and it helped to talk to them about their first experiences when they came to Japan. I know it's not very PC, but we would laugh and joke about some of the situations and it helped to talk out our frustrations. Marie especially noticed a negative result from spending too much time with other American interns. She sincerely valued her close personal relationships with coworkers and other HCNs, and when asked, gave advice for future interns: I can't stress enough the importance of weaning yourself off of your [American] travel mates. It's one thing to stick together for a bit and keep in touch when you're trying to figure out how to pay your rent, withdraw money, or learn how to throw out your Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 trash. It's another thing entirely to spend every night, weekend, and holiday together...Go out with your coworkers! You're there to experience the people, the society, and the culture of the host country! Don't wrap yourself in the same people, society, and culture that you already know. What's the point? Most students talked about and used many problem-focused coping strategies. Problem-focused strategies approach adjustment problems head-on by showing tolerance and patience, by getting socially involved with HCNs, and by taking responsibility to solve one’s own problems rather than distancing oneself through escapism about better times at home (Selmer, 1999). In focus group discussions, students spoke about open mindedness, positive attitudes, and a sense of adventure when tackling adjustment challenges. They also discussed the benefits of associating with HCNs. What helped me adapt was my commitment to be a part of the culture, not some outsider who observes it, but someone who actually tries to practice it. Every chance I got to exercise some aspect of the Japanese culture, I would do it. I think that you should go out and meet as many people as you can... get different perspectives. I made a point to get to know the landlord, a little seventy-year-old lady, the grocer at the local store, and the lady who washed our windows every morning. Don't rule anyone out (Marie). Over half the students stressed the importance of making friends with HCNs and developing relationships with a boss, coworker, or host family member. Students who interacted with HCNs reached deeper levels of knowledge and understanding unsurpassed by any other source. Harris, in particular, had experienced close relationships with HCNs: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 Make friends with the locals. Then the cultural differences won’t seem so harsh. The cultural differences don’t seem so threatening in an atmosphere of friends. It is more personal and you can identify with them. Sometimes I had the inside scoop because my HCN friends told me the unusual details that you don’t read about in the travel books. That helped a lot. Two students could not say enough about the contributions HCNs made to their positive international experiences. In these instances, an HCN boss and host family made sure the interns learned a great deal about Asian culture and traditions. Another two students pointed out the importance of assistance provided by the university1 s international office director who offered cultural and logistical help to every student in Tokyo and Osaka. These examples of support illustrate significant factors for successful socio-cultural adjustment (Black, et. al, 1991). Self-Realization and Future Career Plans Revisited All students accomplished most if not all of their original goals, thus proving correct previous incentives for working abroad. The foremost motivations for interning abroad included acquiring work experience, cultural knowledge, and skills for personal development and future career opportunities. Seventy percent of the students agreed that their future career plans had changed in varying degrees after their summer in Asia, and in every case, students recognized that they had gained valuable experience and clarified visions for the future (Appendix J). Students perceived that increased confidence and self-sufficiency stood out as the most surprising and valuable attributes gained over the summer, and they emphasized that they now “could handle anything.” All students declared future plans to travel abroad. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 When the interns first returned, over half planned to work internationally as a result of their Asia internship experience, but the majority wanted a home base in the United States after working abroad early in their career. I always wanted to live in Asia. I like it there, but being a foreign woman in Japan is not a fun thing to do. I don’t think I want to do that full tim e.... I would like to go back and forth and do projects rather than live abroad full time. I don’t know if I am one of those people who can work abroad all the time. (Marie) I think now that I would like to work abroad at a young age, but settle down when I am older and just travel for business... I thought I wanted to move every three years, but now I want to have a home base but be involved in the international sector, just not relocate so often. I had no intention to leave the U.S. I now understand how globalization works and it takes a global person to participate. There are so many more opportunities. The U.S. is not the whole world. I plan to do business in other countries, and it is not as intimidating as before. I never thought I would succeed in another country. I learned if you have an accepting attitude, you can succeed. The overall confidence and competence demonstrated by all participants suggests successful international adjustment. Furthermore, the large number of students who originally intended to work abroad in the future is another indication of adjustment. Nine months after returning from Asia, the number of students with international future plans had decreased somewhat (Appendix J), but the students still maintained their openness to work abroad if the opportunity presented itself. Lastly, the students felt they had accomplished the goals they set for working abroad resulting in increased confidence to pursue new job opportunities. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 Training Suggestions All three focus groups enthusiastically contributed ideas for future cross- cultural training, and based on international experience, students identified five important training topics to prepare future international interns. In keeping with repeated themes throughout this review, suggested training topics included: language training, HCN and other peer support, cultural and business research, safety and logistics, and attitude and psychological preparation. The students correctly identified many important training components, and inadvertently recognized both culture-general (attitude and psychological preparation) and culture-specific content training (language, logistics, etc.). According to Paige (1993), although most trainees prefer culture-specific training, understanding one's self awareness and appreciating cultural influences in general terms is essentially more important than specific cultural information. This supports other research suggesting that any previous meaningful and insightful overseas cultural experience contributes to positive cross-cultural adjustment (Weiss, 1998; Dunbar, 1992; Bochner, 1972). When individuals experience meaningful abroad experiences, their general frame of mind and accepting attitude promotes adjustment in any international location. In addition to the training topics, students emphasized the importance of proper intern selection. They also acknowledged that part of the abroad experience is simply “figuring it out on your own.” You really have to be there, some things you can’t get out of books... You can’t train someone how to adapt. Even if you know Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 the cultural differences you don’t know if you are going to like it until you get there.. .and having a good attitude is not trainable...I think that there are so many personal factors that come into play that that you don’t have control over... Since most personality characteristics and traits are not trainable, selection of interns is important. Students who usually possess the characteristics and attitudes necessary for good adjustment are typically the same individuals who apply for international programs. The interns participated in a unique, unstructured Asia internship program that relied upon self-sufficient, adventurous, proactive, open- minded, competent, and confident students. They agreed to work alone in any number of Asian countries. This unique opportunity automatically eliminated inflexible, narrow-minded, withdrawn, and dependent students. Many focus group participants pointed out the importance of selecting the right types of students for the Asia internship program. They emphasized that future interns should be dedicated, mature, have goals, and possess patience, flexibility, a strong work ethic, non-judgmental attitudes, initiative, and open mindedness. Selmer (1999) included all these traits and added a few more to her list of necessary personality traits for the selection process: extroversion, self-monitoring, autonomy, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, intellectual openness, sincerity, respect and empathy for others, collaboration, tolerance, responsible problem solving, and intellectual curiosity. Surprises Although I employed an open-ended data collection approach that allowed for unique and individual responses, surprisingly, the data produced results similar to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 previous adjustment research. While the results reflected previous findings, several small trends surfaced that provided extra insight and added depth to the research results. These trends included: 1. Participant interns successfully employed small amounts of symptom-focused coping strategies in their adjustment. 2. Ninety-two percent of the participants stressed open-mindedness as the most important attitude of all. 3. Participants suggested that HCNs meet with and help prepare future interns before they travel abroad. 4. The double standard for women distressed most interns, and this one issue might prevent four women from future lengthy international work assignments. These four issues will be discussed further in Chapter Five. Summary This chapter examined the cross-cultural adjustment of thirteen undergraduate student interns who offered individual perspectives and opinions before, during, and after their internship experience. The interns expressed their views alone and in groups, both orally and in written form. They also provided feedback on written interpreted data nine months and eleven months after their Asia experiences ensuring the trustworthiness and accuracy of data collection and interpretation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 Various sections throughout Chapter Four illustrated student perceptions as students progressed from pre-departure expectations and incentives to the reflection period after returning to the United States. The research highlighted Marie and Harris, two interns who encountered vastly different cultural experiences compared with the other interns. Marie possessed language skills and had previous Japanese living experience; Harris lived alone and relied entirely on HCNs for all aspects of daily life and work adjustment. Regardless of the differences, both Marie and Harris employed the same cross-cultural coping strategies as the other interns. In addition, many of their opinions, perceptions, and reflections upon the cultural differences between the United States and Asia were remarkably similar to each other and to the other interns. The study results support previous adjustment research. In addition, the social learning perspective clarified international adjustment as the students progressed through the steps of attention, retention, and reproduction, based on their motives and incentives. Typical incentives for working in Asia included the development of personal and professional cross-cultural skills for future career opportunities. These incentives motivated students to observe, practice, and reproduce what they learned in order to adjust. Students experienced great cultural differences between the United States and Asia, therefore the research provided good data regarding adjustment issues and cross-cultural coping strategies. In support of the adjustment research, two major adjustment themes surfaced: the importance of language skills and developing relationships with HCNs. As well, the majority of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 the students largely employed problem-focused coping strategies. This promoted their successful adjustment and further supported research conducted by Selmer (1999). The chapter concluded with helpful suggestions for future training and emphasized that proper selection of students is imperative for successful international adjustment. Furthermore, it addressed limitations and bias, and presented four small themes that offered additional adjustment insight. This review concludes with Chapter Five. The chapter provides a summary of the results and makes suggestions for future research. In addition, the last chapter presents recommendations for the selection and preparation of future international interns. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations Discussion This study aimed to examine the international cross-cultural adjustment of American undergraduate students who interned in Asia. The research intended to comprehend student perceptions of adjustment and provide ideas to improve the intern selection and preparation processes. To address these objectives I asked three basic questions: 1) What problems do student interns encounter and consider significant as they adjust to a new culture? 2) How do students approach these problems and what strategies do they use to adjust? 3) What do students think would help them adjust more successfully? My review analyzed the opinions and perceptions of thirteen interns as they adjusted throughout an Asia internship program during the summer of 2003. Since most adjustment research examines international business managers or study abroad students in European countries, my investigation sought to extend previous research to include interns working in Asia. This was accomplished by investigating U.S. students who, rather than studying abroad in Europe, worked abroad in Japan and Kuala Lumpur. The research employed a combination of diverse, open-ended, qualitative data gathering methods, including considerable use of internet collection techniques designed to provide new insight into the adjustment experience. Exploratory in nature, my research allowed students the freedom to openly expand upon articulated thoughts in their own words as they described various adjustment Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 topics. Student responses guided the research path based on personal and contextual experience. Overall, this dissertation: 1) provided a description of intern adjustment during the summer of 2003; 2) identified factors that influenced cross-cultural adjustment; and 3) offered suggestions for improved student preparation and training. The Rationale Very few undergraduate college students choose to intern in Asian countries, therefore research about their cross-cultural adjustment is rare. Since Asia is rapidly becoming a major economic and technical world power, (American Council on Education, 2002), understanding Asian culture is crucial for future participation in international affairs. American students with Eastern culture exposure have distinct advantages over students who typically work and study in Western societies. Since they experience and adjust to immense cultural differences, these students are better equipped to work anywhere in the world, and their international experience improves academic and employment opportunities. Most importantly, experience in Asia increases global understanding and promotes mutual tolerance, justice, and cooperation. From a socio-cultural perspective, my study sought to make three contributions to higher education. First, it presented additional knowledge about student adjustment within a specific grant-funded Asia internship program with the intent of improving the program. Second, the results aimed to help promote Asia internship programs at other universities and provide insight into successful selection Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 and preparation of U.S. interns working abroad. Lastly, since research on cross- cultural adjustment of young adults working in Asia is scarce, the study intended to expand the cross-cultural adjustment knowledge base and prompt researchers in this field to conduct similar studies at their respective colleges and universities. A byproduct of the research is furthering appreciation for cultural diversity and understanding. Linking Results with Previous Research In cross-cultural adjustment research, Hanisch and Hulin discovered that even experienced managers leave their jobs and return to the United States because they cannot successfully adjust (1990). In addition, they also concur that the chance of having a satisfying living abroad experience, if left to luck, is about one in seven. The concern over international adjustment is well founded and this has encouraged researchers to investigate the cross-cultural coping strategies of experienced sojourners in business as well as students who study abroad. Adjustment literature has revealed several factors that contribute to cross- cultural adjustment. Although the factors originate from studies concerning older business managers (Selmer, 1999, 2002) or students who have studied abroad (Laubscher, 1994; Ward & Kennedy, 1996; Weiss, 1998), the results correlate with my research on undergraduate students who interned, but did not study abroad. As socio-cultural adaptation is largely influenced by cultural distance, previous international experience, cultural knowledge, and HCN interaction (Searle & Ward, 1990; Feinstein & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1992, 1996), the following Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 143 segments briefly present these and other prominent adjustment factors significant to my study. In the following segments, I briefly describe past adjustment research, and then present dissertation results as they relate to past studies. Cultural Distance In adjustment literature, cultural distance surfaced as significant to cross- cultural coping and adaptation (Ward & Kennedy, 1996). As the perception of distance or differences between cultures increase, adjustment difficulty tends to increase (Fumham & Bochner, 1982) and sojourners experience greater socio cultural adjustment problems (Selmer, 1999). As cultural distance increases, it is also more difficult to understand and model appropriate behavior in the new culture (Torbiom, 1982). Additionally, greater cultural differences explain problems forming relationships with HCNs (Babiker et. al., 1980). While transitioning between American and Asian cultures, all participant interns acknowledged great cultural differences between Eastern and Western cultures. This student perspective of great cultural differences provided a good context for examining student adjustment. Initially, students encountered differences and difficulties with language, transportation, currency, housing, and expectations. After a few weeks, many of the daily living challenges became minor and only differences in language, culture, and values posed significant challenges for the interns. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 Previous International Experience Normally, demographics are crucial ingredients in research studies; however there is no decisive proof that demographics have either positive or negative influences on international adjustment except for past overseas experience that demonstrated a positive influence (Ward, 1992). Several studies suggest that depth, intimacy, perception, and similarity of previous overseas cultural experience contribute to positive cross-cultural adjustment, rather than the length of time abroad or merely overseas travel (Weiss, 1998; Dunbar, 1992; Bochner, 1972). In my research population, fifty-four percent of the student participants had one overseas experience lasting a month or more, but only one student had previous experience in Japan. The remaining students had no international experience. Those that felt comfortable because of previous travel experience appeared to have had an easier time adjusting. Those students with no travel experience relied heavily upon American students with previous experience and language ability, or they depended upon HCNs for assistance. Cultural Knowledge The research literature recognizes that cultural knowledge supports cross- cultural adjustment, and several studies point to a positive relationship between previous international education and adjustment (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Befits, 1988; Black, 1991; Brislin, 1981; Julius, 1992). The Weiss study (1998) also concurs that formerly acquired cultural knowledge positively influences student adjustment. It is not possible to identify the exact type or extent of cultural Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 knowledge necessary to promote adjustment, yet evidence contends that a substantial comprehension of everyday cultural norms and having practical international travel experience are important aspects of cultural knowledge. In this study, professed cultural knowledge had positive consequences for the research participants. Students with previous travel experience or who had acquired cultural knowledge from family traditions, friends, or from other means, initially felt more confident and adjusted. HCN Interaction Most adjustment research emphasizes the significance of socializing with HCNs. Weiss specifically maintains that HCN interaction is a “crucial and decisive” factor in cross-cultural adjustment (1998). When sojourners have little chance to develop relationships with HCNs, they become isolated; this obstructs efforts to learn the language, values, and customs of the host country (Church, 1982). When HCNs welcome sojourners into the host culture, cross-cultural adjustment becomes more successful. This happens most frequently when sojourners are non-Asian because HCNs expect less of them and any attempt at speaking the language or understanding the customs are appreciated (Selmer, 2002). HCNs sometimes judge Asian sojourners more harshly than non-Asian Western sojourners because they do not act in a culturally accepted or expected manner (Selmer, 1999). In this review, students who had established close relationships with HCNs appeared to experience the host culture on a deeper level, which facilitated their adjustment. In addition, most non-Asian interns mentioned feeling surprised by HCN acceptance and willingness to help. Conversely, some Asian-American interns Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 encountered situations where HCNs expected them to know the language and understand the local customs. Most of the time, HCNs eventually accepted the interns and greeted them hospitably. Occasionally the Asian-American interns perceived a barrier of suspicion, doubt, or indifference when among HCNs. Personality Characteristics Although this review did not examine personality traits, interns emphasized the importance of certain personality traits and attitudes as they responded to questions throughout the data collection process. The Asia internship program’s selection process purposefully aimed to select students with positive traits and attitudes the administrators considered necessary for successful adjustment. Research about the effects of personality on cross-cultural adjustment is limited, but certain personality characteristics may promote successful problem-focused adjustment strategies (Selmer, 1999). The personality characteristics and qualities important to successful adjustment include: extroversion self-monitoring autonomy agreeableness conscientiousness emotional stability respect and empathy collaboration tolerance patience intellectual openness sincerity responsible problem solving intellectual curiosity cultural acceptance flexibility non-judgmental attitudes open-mindedness (Selmer, 2001) Idealism, enthusiasm, a sense of purpose, a willingness to make sacrifices, and a commitment to real understanding are also necessary attitudes for successful adjustment (Selmer, 1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 Surprisingly, without prompting or providing a selection of characteristics from which to choose, every intern participant except one mentioned open- mindedness as essential to successful adjustment (Appendix K). Students never referred to cross-cultural training as a significant adjustment factor; on the contrary, nearly all the students indicated that an individual’s attitude and personality characteristics were most important for successful international adjustment. In addition to open-mindedness, participants also indicated that willingness to learn, taking initiative, flexibility, non-judgmental attitudes, patience and sociability were important attributes that contributed to successful adjustment. Additional studies on personality traits would provide a significant contribution to current adjustment research. Coping Strategies For over twenty years, researchers have suggested that problem-focused coping is more helpful than symptom-focused coping for international personnel (Selmer, 1999). Problem-focused coping involves a positive attitude, open- mindedness and tolerance, responsible problem solving, and social participation with HCNs; symptom-focused coping is more negatively associated with escapism and retreating to familiar things (Selmer, 1999). All study participants engaged in both problem-focused coping and symptom-focused coping, but overall, the students generally remained positive in their approach to any adjustment problems. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 Slightly over half of the students employed negative, symptom-focused coping strategies, however, most approached the negativity of American escapism in a more positive way. I used these [American] activities to help me assimilate rather than to reduce homesickness. For example, whenever I went to a restaurant like Denny's or listened to American music, I included my Japanese colleagues in the activity. So not only did I reduce homesickness, but I improved rapport with my Japanese hosts at the same time. Some students wisely acknowledged that “escaping” too often was not a good idea. I found that with all the stimulation and new experiences and sights, it becomes overwhelming and can tire you out. By taking time alone with something familiar, you are able to breathe more comfortably and feel more at ease with your adjustments. Just don't do it so often or you become homesick! No specific student demographics nor previous international experience or lack thereof predicted the use of symptom-focused coping strategies employed by over half the students. In fact, four students who relied most heavily upon American escapism included two Asian-American students, one male, and one female who spoke Japanese, and two non-Asian female students. One non-Asian student worked in Kuala Lumpur where English was spoken. A prevailing positive and open-minded attitude proved to be the overriding factor that promoted overall successful adjustment by the participant interns. Social Learning Theory Two major purposes of internship experience are social learning and social skill development. Since Social Learning Theory offers a theoretical framework that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 centers on both functions (Bochner, 1986), SLT was the best choice for the study’s framework. My research explored individual cross-cultural adjustment within the context of both work and personal environments. In this cross-cultural Asian setting, SLT provided a discriminating lens from which to view student interns as they observed, learned, and adjusted to new cultures, and it offered ways to understand and describe the adjustment process. Social Learning Theory also complimented the study’s constructivist perspectives, and through the examination of personal contexts and perceptions rather than merely itemizing cultural adjustment problems, this investigation contributed to the adjustment research (Church, 1982). SLT acknowledges the combination of cognitive, social, behavioral, and environmental factors that contribute to each unique contextual experience for every student intern (Swenson, 1980), and it places emphasis on both the student and the environment within personal contexts. Using the SLT framework presented in Chapter Two (Figure 2.0), the four major elements of attention, retention, reproduction, and incentives explain interns’ cross-cultural learning and behavior (Bandura, 1977) and clarify the students’ incentives within each of the major adjustment variables. Incentives emerged as powerful motivations for successful adjustment in this study, and they played a major part in affecting new behaviors. Almost all learning from direct experience occurs by observing other people's behavior and its consequences for them. The students modeled new behaviors to feel comfortable in the host culture, gain cultural knowledge, and acquire international work experience Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 for future career opportunities. These incentives proved influential in persuading students to adjust successfully in the new culture. Not only did students attain immediate satisfaction from their adjustment efforts, but also the perceived benefits of successful adjustment continued throughout the internship period and persisted long after the students returned to the United States. This was demonstrated by comments from participants made nine months after returning from Asia. The students indicated perceived benefits of increased confidence, competence, open- mindedness, risk-taking, independence, flexibility, enthusiasm, patience, and cultural appreciation (Figure 4.9). Limitations This investigation is limited in several ways related to the population sample, my role as an administrator, and special circumstances related to student placement. First, the population sample was small and included only thirteen students from a highly competitive Asia internship program at one university. The sample population included diverse academic majors, reasonably balanced male and female representation, different ethnicities, and differing travel experiences. All students were academically accomplished, had previous work experience, and all could afford to work unpaid throughout the summer. In addition, the program administrators screened the participants based on flexibility, interest, open-mindedness, and other positive personal characteristics and attitudes. We made no promises about appropriate academic fit between internships and student majors or career goals and we advised students to expect many adjustment challenges. This ensured a high Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 possibility of successful adjustment. The specific nature of the internship program, student demographics, and the nature and size of the university might limit the transferability of research results, however others can replicate this inquiry to assess student perceptions and successful adjustment within respective internship programs. Second, my role as researcher and program administrator indicated a possible bias on my part. There was also concern that students may not have freely provided accurate feedback due to my position as program administrator. It was my responsibility to manage the students’ preparation and monitor their progress while they worked in Asia. I also had direct access to Asian internship supervisors. Students might have felt obligated to provide only positive feedback during the data collection process even though they were encouraged to provide the negative aspects of the experience. No apparent consequences existed discourage negative feedback and students appeared willing to please since they appreciated the opportunity to work in Asia. To limit my bias and ensure that students did not feel threatened or feel the need to offer only positive feedback, I stressed the importance of gathering both negative and positive data. I also emphasized that study responses would not affect them or the program in any way. Furthermore, to present accurate contextual data, this review employed direct quotes from the students whenever possible and an outside third party provided unbiased coding support for the collected data. A third party also collected anonymous student opinions eleven months after the internship experience that allowed participants to provide any disapproving or embarrassing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 feedback. To insure data accuracy, at the end of the study, several student participants read the results and provided comments and advice. All responses from the last sets of data collection and feedback supported prior results. My administrative role also limited my ability to comprehensively monitor the internship sites and directly observe the adaptation process. This prevented a detailed first-hand knowledge and understanding of the cultural setting. In spite of this situation, a four-day summer business trip to Tokyo offered a brief view of one intern’s apartment and provided short visits to three internship sites. To a limited extent, this improved my understanding of the Japanese work environment. Finally, special circumstances arising from the war in Iraq and the outbreak of the SARS virus in 2003 caused many students to withdraw from the Asia internship program one month before departure. This unique situation rerouted seven remaining participants from their desired internships in Chinese and Vietnamese-speaking economies to Japan and Kuala Lumpur. In seven cases, students had little chance to prepare for this change to an unexpected new culture. This set of circumstances offers another explanation for the high rate of successful student adjustment as the caliber of students who chose to remain in the program despite the challenges demonstrates an attitude of significant risk-taking and flexibility. This situation also created an interesting context from which to view and collect data on students with little or no international experience and minimal preparation and training. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 Conclusions In this section, I present conclusions and interpretations from the findings as they relate to the three initial research questions: 1. What problems do student interns encounter and consider significant as they adjust to a new culture? 2. How do students approach these problems and what strategies do they use to adjust? 3. What do students think would help them adjust more successfully? The conclusions highlight adjustment barriers, positive adjustment factors, student motives, perceived benefits, future plans, and unexpected results. The study concludes with recommendations for intern selection and preparation intended for both students and administrators who participate in similar international internship programs. Adjustment Barriers Supporting the adjustment research, students identified the language barrier, vast cultural differences, and negative symptom-focused coping strategies as the foremost obstacles in their adjustment. The following sections describe these three major adjustment barriers in more detail. Language Barrier Two major themes surfaced throughout the study: the importance of language communication and interaction with the HCNs. The language barrier posed the most difficulty for intern participants and language difficulties limited HCN interaction. Every student but one discussed some kind of difficulty involving language and communication. Only three students could speak Japanese, therefore Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 the rest of the students in Japan encountered difficulties with daily living tasks, transportation, and making friends with HCNs. Students still enjoyed HCN friendships although increased language skills would have enhanced HCN associations. Furthermore, because of the great cultural differences between the two cultures, there were fewer chances of thoroughly understanding the content and context of communication exchanges. In Kuala Lumpur, in spite of the cultural differences, most HCNs spoke English; this facilitated understanding and adjustment. Overall, students stressed the importance of learning as much language and cultural facts as possible before working abroad. Cultural Distance - Social Customs and Values The greater the cultural distance or perceived difference between the home culture and the new culture, the more difficult it becomes to adjust (Furnham and Bochner, 1982). Before leaving for Asia, student participants’ perceived great cultural differences between Asia and the United States. This opinion prevailed throughout their internship experience. Initially, students imagined that social customs and values might present the greatest differences between the two cultures. After many weeks of internship experience in Asia, students chose from a list of twelve cultural difference selections, yet they still indicated that social customs and values were the most significant differences between Asia and the United States. In Japan, three social customs and values concerned the interns: hierarchical work structures, long work hours, and the treatment of women. In Kuala Lumpur, only the treatment of women was a point of interest. As students began to view their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 internships as knowledge-gathering tools for future career decisions, many wondered how well they would fit into a future full-time Asian work environment. In addition, some students began to realize that spending time with family was important to them. This insight occurred as students observed a number of traditional Asian families where the men spent vast amounts of time away from home and women tended to be subservient to the men. Four students, both male and female, voiced concern over the treatment of women in Japan, and in two situations this caused two Asian American women to reconsider working in Japan for extended periods of time. At the end of the internship experience, ten out of thirteen students expressed a desire for internationally focused future careers, and two students considered living abroad permanently. Eighty-five percent of the students determined that they would prefer short-term rather than long-term positions abroad due to these issues. Another cultural distance factor that caused an adjustment barrier for Asian American interns concerned Japanese HCN expectations. When non-Asian American interns tried to speak Japanese or practice Japanese customs, HCNs appreciated and complimented their efforts. In contrast, some HCNs had higher expectations for Asian American interns and some expected the interns to speak Japanese, understand social traditions, and practice them. Occasionally when Asian American interns did not understand, HCNs had either negative or indifferent responses to them. This attitude periodically somewhat hindered Asian American interns’ adjustment (Selmer, 2002). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 Symptom-Focused Coping Strategies A noteworthy adjustment barrier concerned seven students’ inclination to spend most free time with other American interns. They relied on the most comfortable activities, such as socializing with American friends and revisiting familiar places rather than energetically making new HCN friends and visiting new places. This made it more challenging to interact with HCNs and promoted negative symptom-focused adjustment strategies rather than positive problem-focused strategies (Selmer, 1999). Sixty-two percent of the students in Japan associated almost exclusively with other American interns after business hours. This compromised cultural learning and understanding, as they engaged in American escapism rather than becoming immersed in the Japanese culture. Without knowing the words to describe symptom-focused coping strategies, students acknowledged the negative connotation associated with American escapism. Most interns who enthusiastically participated with HCNs gained a substantial cultural understanding advantage. In addition, they were more inclined to express a desire for future international work experiences. Positive Adjustment Factors With no previous knowledge of the research, the participants identified positive adjustment factors in support of most cross-cultural adjustment research and provided several important suggestions for successful adjustment. Seventy percent of the interns stressed the importance of learning the language and customs, and promoted constant and consistent communication with coworkers and HCNs. Many Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 advocated being proactive at work and identified the merits of previously developed work skills. They also mentioned past travel and work experience, personality characteristics, and a positive attitude as important adjustment factors. Most students talked about and used many problem-focused coping strategies that approached adjustment problems with patience and tolerance, through HCN involvement, and by taking responsibility for solving their own problems (Selmer, 1999). Keeping busy was one of many positive problem-focused coping strategies used by the students for overcoming boredom or homesickness. Over half the students stressed the importance of making friends with HCNs and developing relationships with a boss, coworker, or host family member. Students who interacted with HCNs reached a level of knowledge and understanding unmatched by any other source. Nine months after returning from Asia, ninety-two percent of the students identified having an open mind and an accepting attitude as most important for cross- cultural adjustment (Appendix K). The overwhelmingly high percent of similar answers is surprising since the responses resulted from individual subjective reactions to open-ended questions. Additionally, students described personal characteristics of flexibility, persistence, even-temperedness, friendliness, diplomacy, and responsibility as key factors for international adjustment. Motives and Perceived Benefits Although not the purpose or promise of the Asia internship program, students learned more about themselves and they developed maturity, confidence, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 competence while interning in Asia. Since students perceived these as valuable personal benefits, the Asia internship program continues to be successful. The major motivations for students included gaining work experience, learning the culture, developing language skills, and increasing future career opportunities. Initially, students also identified self-discovery and personal challenge as reasons for working abroad. These motives inspired students to observe, practice, and imitate others so they could successfully adjust and perform well in their respective internships. All students achieved most if not all of their original goals and as a result they responded with various positive terms and phrases to describe their experience abroad: “grateful, happy, valuable experience, overwhelming, appreciate the opportunity, best summer ever.” Increased confidence and self-reliance emerged as the most important perceived benefits gained over the summer. Students emphasized they “could handle anything” after their Asia experience. The overall confidence and competence discussed by all students implied successful international adjustment. Moreover, another indication of successful adjustment was the large number of students who planned to work internationally. All participants expressed satisfaction with their accomplished goals and four students responded with stories of internationally focused opportunities influenced by their Asia internship. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 Future Plans Due to their Asia internship experience, students gained an understanding of workplace interactions that increased their confidence regarding future international 1 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 Graduated Gained contacts for future auto industry in Asia. Will work, and then get an MBA to work in auto industry. Graduated Grad School: International Relations. Later, NGO promoting human rights & democracy & participate as a global citizen. Graduated Maersk Sealand International Shipping Education. After 2 yrs. will go on to international trade operations or sales. Had two jobs secured through Asia experience. Graduated News America Marketing in Connecticut. Offered a job in Japan. Declined due to lack of Japanese speaking skills. In School Will work in aerospace field while finishing a masters degree. In School Solidified my decision to join the Peace Corps. In School Studying in Hong Kong in Fall Go to grad school & now wish to work in Asia or work with Asian clientele. Summer Internship Work 4 to 5 years, then masters and PhD: Education, Pacific Rim, Cultural studies. Summer Internship California Secretary of State Grad School: International Relations. Later: private sector international trade. Study abroad in fall. Summer Internship Goldman Sachs - San Francisco Hopefully work full-time for Goldman after graduation. Summer Internship Local investment bank Career in an investment bank after graduation, then qet my MBA. Summer Internship Marcus & Millichap International level real estate after December graduation. work. Seventy percent of the students agreed that their future career plans had changed in varying degrees after their summer in Asia. In every case, students stated that they had gained valuable experience and clarified their visions for future careers (Appendix J). Eleven months after returning from Asia, two-thirds of twelve Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 responding interns projected internationally focused future plans (Figure 5.0). Six students modified previous career plans based on newly acquired knowledge about Asian business practices and selected career fields. These students intended to consider international work early in their careers, but later expected to work in the United States and travel internationally. Since all students accomplished their original goals for working abroad and perceived many intangible benefits, the adjustment difficulties appeared minimized in light of the perceived benefits. Unexpected Results Although I employed an exploratory, open-ended data collection approach that yielded unique responses to guide the study, the data still produced results that supported previous adjustment research. In addition to collecting group data, I monitored two interns who not only came from vastly different backgrounds and levels of international experience, but they also encountered work and living conditions quite different from the other interns. Marie had language skills and previous living experience in Japan. She resided on the outskirts of Tokyo with an HCN roommate away from other American interns and she worked in an internship unsuited to her career interests. Harris on the other hand, had no language skills or travel experience. He lived alone in an isolated small town far from Tokyo. Harris had an appropriately matched engineering internship and relied completely on HCNs for all aspects of daily life and work adjustment. Surprisingly, regardless of all differences, both Marie and Harris employed the same cross-cultural coping strategies as the other interns. In addition, many of their opinions, perceptions, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 reflections upon the cultural differences between the United States and Asia were remarkably similar to each other and to the other interns. While these results reflected earlier findings, four themes surfaced that provided additional insight. The first theme suggests that students can successfully employ small amounts of symptom-focused coping strategies in their adjustment as long as they are aware of the consequences of using them too frequently. American escapism when used infrequently and in small amounts can be an effective tool to reduce homesickness, create a comfort zone, and establish a context from which to study the new culture. American escapism should not be used in a negative way that devalues the host culture or in a manner that elevates American culture over the host culture. Students who escaped into American ways chose to listen to American music, view American videos, eat American food, or socialize with American interns. As stated previously, spending too much time with other American interns had a negative effect on their cross-cultural adjustment. The second theme surfaced without prompting and without providing any descriptive adjectives from which to select. Student participants overwhelmingly stated that having an open-minded attitude was most important for successful adjustment. In fact, over seventy percent specifically employed the phrase, “open- minded”; and combined with similar terms, ninety-two percent of the interns identified this accepting attitude as the most important aspect of their adjustment. Adjustment research describes this and many other personality characteristics as vital Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 for international adjustment, but nowhere does it place open-mindedness as the prominent personality trait. Adjustment research emphasizes the importance of HCN interaction, but the third theme described by student participants suggests that we take HCN contact a step further by encouraging interns to begin HCN interaction before traveling abroad. At many universities, this would be impossible, but it is feasible at this research university since it enrolls high numbers of international students each year. Establishing friendships in the United States, then continuing the relationship abroad could provide substantial benefits to both groups. The last theme concerned the double standard for women. The inferior treatment of women distressed most interns, and this one issue could prevent four female interns from future long-term international work assignments. Kuala Lumpur did not pose much of a problem regarding this issue, except for the prevalent catcalls on the street. However, in Japan, students frequently made comments about the treatment of women. Interestingly enough, students identified long work hours and time spent away from family as somewhat concerning but those became acceptable social norms. The treatment of women however, was acknowledged as an unacceptable problem. Recommendations Individually, interns described what they thought contributed most to international adjustment. Their responses provided suggestions for several Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 preparation topics: language training, HCN and other peer support, cultural and business research, safety and logistics, and attitude and psychological preparation (Figure 5.1). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 Figure 5.1 Preparation Suggestions LANGUAGE TRAINING Know basic language terms. Provide 1 or 2 language classes. Understand formal, informal, and slang. Learn some appropriate business terminology. PEER SUPPORT Before departure, have Asian nationals meet interns and help train. Meet HCNs for lunches and dinners to establish relationships. HCN SUPPO RT Meet HCNs during the summer in their home country! BEFO RE DEPARTURE! Have past Asia interns come back to train & keep in touch via email. Have past interns show photos of common signs & places. RESEARCH Read books and research Internet sites on: culture, geopolitical, economic factors, political leaders of Asia. Find news articles about the company where you will be working. Read the news translation paper on line about current events. Read previous Asia interns' on-line journals. SAFETY & LOGISTICS Know all safety and logistics procedures in case of emergency. Keep a SOS card and emergency information card. Health & safety trainers are helpful. Arrive a few days before internship to adjust to daily living. Get help with ATM, housing, maps, & store locations. Prepare a budget and keep extra local currency. Have information available on VISA & security clearance paperwork. ATTITUDE & PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION Discuss student expectations ahead of time. You might not like your internship, but know it will work out. Psych yourself up for the challenge. Be open-minded, resourceful, able to problem solve. You cannot judge people in their own country. Have a positive attitude and be friendly. The value is in the experience and you can learn from it. Be willing to try new things, foods, and go places. Don't let people’s first impressions of you deter you. Be able to talk with people, don't be too shy. Take initiative. Be a selfstarter, proactive, independent. Have a good work ethic. Be prepared to work long hours. Be accepting, it's not bad, just different. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165 Without prior knowledge, students accurately identified many important training components discussed in cross-cultural training literature. In fact, they acknowledged both culture-general (attitude and psychological preparation) and culture-specific content training (language, safety, logistics, etc.). Although it is commonly thought that culturally specific instruction is most useful, self-awareness and valuing general cultural influences is more beneficial for international adjustment (Paige, 1993). Curiously, only two students thought the general cross- cultural training they received prior to departure was helpful. Another two students felt that the general training was not helpful at all. The remaining students never mentioned training when asked: “What was helpful to your adjustment?” The explanations for these attitudes are twofold: either the training was not very helpful or interns did not comprehend that culture-general training is helpful and did not realize the benefits of positively changed attitudes due to this training. The second explanation is more logical based on this research. As stated previously, all student participants identified open-mindedness as the key to successful adjustment and this was the prevalent theme presented in the interns’ culture-general training workshop. Consequently, it is recommended that universities employ a generally focused cross- cultural training workshop for students who plan to work abroad. Over seventy percent of the participants emphasized that much of the adjustment process requires “figuring it out on your own.” To successfully do this involves a positive, mature, and flexible attitude. Since most personality characteristics and attitudes are inherent, student participants emphasized the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 166 importance a meticulous intern selection process. Students stressed that interns should be dedicated, mature, have goals, and possess patience, flexibility, a strong work ethic, non-judgmental attitudes, initiative, and open-mindedness. In addition to these characteristics, Selmer (1999) identified additional essential personality traits to consider when selecting interns: extroversion conscientiousness collaboration self-monitoring emotional stability tolerance autonomy intellectual openness responsible problem agreeableness sincerity solving respect and empathy intellectual curiosity To facilitate a quality selection process based on these characteristics, a set of applicant interview questions (Appendix L) is included in this document. Many of the students’ suggestions in Figure 5.1 are common practices with students preparing for study and work abroad, and most international programs stress the importance of learning the language before departure. It is not common however, to have programs that match interns with HCNs or with interns from the previous year. Although this practice requires time, effort, and dedication on the part of the program administrators, it is well worth the effort. The few students who managed to connect with HCNs in past years expressed a greater appreciation for the developed friendships and touted the depth of understanding gained by having an HCN friend help them discover a new culture. In one instance, a residence advisor during the school year became an Asia summer intern. She received help from an HCN who was a resident in her dorm during the previous school year. While in Asia Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 over the summer, the HCN became a guide, mentor, and close friend. The intern’s Asia experience was exceptional because of her relationship with her HCN friend. Implications fo r Future Study Few studies exist that examine the adjustment of American undergraduate students who intern in Asia. This review explored the adjustment of thirteen students from one university over a two-month period. Further studies of this nature could lead to additional findings that may enlighten better practices. My suggestions for further research are threefold. First, I suggest a multi-year study to determine the long-term benefits of interning in Asia. A multi-year study would revisit perceptions of cross-cultural adjustment and obtain opinions on how to better prepare students for internships abroad. Increasing the number of student participants would also provide a more broad and diverse research base. Second, this investigation explored only one international internship program at one university. Future research would benefit by conducting studies in other types of institutional settings such as liberal arts colleges and large public universities. Expanding the study to other internship locations beyond Japan and Kuala Lumpur would also provide a better understanding of cross-cultural adjustment in Chinese and other Asian economies. Finally, this research would benefit significantly if conducted concurrently by internship professionals deeply involved in international internship programs. Longitudinal studies conducted simultaneously during the internship process would provide a comprehensive view of international adjustment issues. In addition, when Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 possible, conducting the research in Asia at the internship site locations would also greatly enhance contextual understanding of cross-cultural adjustment. Throughout this review, it was my intent to promote international internships and provide ideas for improving intern selection and preparation. 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The psychology o f the Chinese people. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 Yin, R. (1984). Case study research'. Design and methods. (2n d ed.) Newberry Park, CA:Sage. Zajonc, R. B. Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 1980, 35 (2), 151-175. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A 183 Pre-Internship Interview Questions - Survey One Format: Individual email responses or one-on-one interviews Date: Internship Location: Type of Internship Position: 1. Have you ever participated in an overseas student exchange program or internship through a school, religious organization, or local/state/national government agency? 2. If yes, what country, how old were you, what type of program was it, and how long did you stay? 3. How do you think American culture is different or similar to Asian culture? 4. What are your expectations & goals for your summer internship? 5. Are you of Asian heritage? Do you think your ethnic background will help or hinder you? Why or why not? 6 . What factors in your background or experiences might help you adjust to Asian culture while you are overseas? 7. What strategies do you plan to use to help you adjust to your Asian experience? 8 . What do you expect to gain from working as an intern in Asia? 9. Do you expect to be homesick? 10. Do you feel that you have sufficient knowledge of the culture? Why or why not? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 Appendix B Individual Email Interview -- Survey Two Format: open-ended questions sent one to two weeks after arrival in destination country. 1. Which o f the following group o f statements best describes how you feel now? Please select an appropriate response. Note the intensity o f your response (1 = least amount o f reaction to 5 = most amount o f reaction). Once you select your response, then answer: “Why?” Fascinated by the new culture and excited about all the new and interesting “sights and sounds.” Experiencing a fascination, elation, and optimism about Asia, your host country, and the native population. Learning how to “cope” with Asia is tiring. Feeling a little disillusioned and frustrated with living in Asia on a day-to-day basic level. Experiencing a gradual adaptation to the new culture, learning how to appropriately behave according to the cultural norms o f Asia. Seem to have a better understanding o f the Asian accent and slang, can get around using local transportation. Feeling absolutely no anxiety about what and how to do things and all new customs are understood, accepted, and enjoyed. Other feelings (please be specific). 2. How do you feel about your internship experience so far? Are you doing what you hoped to be doing? 3. Have you made any Asian friends? 4. If yes, how did you meet them? What do you do together? 4. If no, what do you think has prohibited you from developing friendships with Asian Nationals? 5. Now that you are in Asia, what do you perceive to be the greatest difference between Asia and the United States? 7. What cultural information do you wish you had learned about before you traveled abroad? (In other words, what could have really helped you out if you had known about it beforehand?) 8. What Asian cultural nuance has caused you the greatest difficulty? 9. What strategies do you use to cope with any negative feelings? *Modified version o f Social Situation Survey from Furnham & Bochner (1982). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 185 Appendix C Cultural Distance Individual Email Review — Survey Three Format: open-ended questions sent three to four weeks after arrival in destination country. Please respond to each item by placing a number: 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 on the line after each statement. Scale of how your experience in Asia differs from your life in the United States. 1 = no different 4 = very different 2 = slightly different 5 = extreme| different 3 = moderately diiierent For each item that you labeled four or five please explain what the difference is and if you think the difference is positive or negative. Climate/Weather Pace of life Food Recreational activities, entertainment Forming friendships with the local nationals Accommodations/Residence Politics/laws Social customs Communication nuances (slang, style, etc.) Values Cultural activities Clothing/Style of dress *Modified version of Cultural Distance Survey from Furnham & Bochner (1982) and Ward and Kennedy (1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 186 Appendix D Socio-cultural Adjustment Email Review — Survey Four Format: open-ended questions sent five weeks after arrival in destination country. Please indicate how much difficulty you are experiencing in each of these areas. Use the following 1 to 5 scale: 1 = no difficulty 4 = great difficulty 2 = slight difficulty 5 = extreme difficult 3 = moderate difficulty Mark your answers with a 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 to the right of each item. Please read each item carefully and give your immediate response. For each item that you labeled 3, 4, or 5, please explain which items have been difficult and how each difficulty has or has not affected your stay in Asia. Making friends with Asians your own age. Getting used to the local food. Using the transportation system train, buses, etc. Getting used to the climate. Making yourself understood. Getting used to the pace of life. Going shopping. Dealing with someone who is angry, annoyed, or aggressive. Understanding office culture and humor. Understanding the language. Living independently. Understanding popular Asian pass times. *Modified version o f Cultural Adjustment Survey from Weiss (1998). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix E 187 D ate:__________________ Internship Location:_ ID#_________________ Exit Interview -- Fifth Communication Format: Individual exit interviews after completion of Asian internship experience, responses recorded. 1. Has your internship met, exceeded, or fallen short of your expectations? Please elaborate. 2. Have your future career plans changed in any way? What do you plan to do? 3. Would you consider an international job assignment once you graduate and become established in your career? Why or why not? 4. What have you learned about yourself in terms of your ability and interest in living and working outside of the United States? Any surprises? 5. What prior training or preparation has helped you the most? What was least useful? 6 . What qualities that you possess, were particularly helpful in your internship? 7. Did your Asian or non-Asian heritage help or hinder you? Why or why not? 8. What were the biggest problems or challenges you encountered? What helped you adjust? 9. Can you speak the native language? If so, to what degree and how did knowledge of the language facilitate your adjustment? 10. Overall, how were you treated by the host country nationals and how much contact did you have with them? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 188 Appendix F Exit Focus Group Format: Focus group after completion of Asian internship experience, responses recorded. 1. What were the biggest challenges or adjustments you encountered? 2. What helped you adjust? 3. What hindered your adjustment? 4. Have your future career plans changed in any way? 5. Based on your experiences in the past two months, would you consider and international job assignment once you graduate and become established in your career? 6 . What have you learned about yourself in terms of your ability and interest in living and working outside of the United States? Any surprises? 7. What prior training or preparation has helped you the most and what was least useful? 8 . Put yourself in the position of an administrator. What would you do to prepare future interns for this experience? 9. In your opinion, what are the important factors that assist in adjustment to a new culture? 10. What factors negatively affect adjustment? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 189 Appendix G Experiential Learning Office STUDENT INTERN EVALUATION This form is to help you evaluate your intern at the end o f the internship period. To set clear expectations fo r the internship, please look at this form with your intern at the beginning o f the internship so that your intern will understand how to provide your office with good work. Company/Organization: Supervisor: Student Name: (Please Print) Please evaluate your student intern, using the following scale: 1 2 3 4 5 N/O (1 - Poor, 5 - Excellent or N/A - Not Applicable) INTERN'S GENERAL JOB PERFORMANCE: Dependable Positive Attitude_____________ Work Quality Follows Directions_______________ Fits in to the office culture Punctual others Understands Office T asks Polite customs ____ INTERN SKILLS: Writing Oral Communication____ Creativity Professionalism____ Analytical A bility Basic Computer Programs STUDENT’S OVERALL PERFORMANCE: Please comment on the overall performance o f your student intern. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Attendance____ Productive____ Works well with Understands Initiative____ Independence____ Interpersonal Skills____ 190 Please explain how the intern adjusted to the office culture. In what areas do you feel the student could improve? Would you recommend this student for another internship or job? Was the student well prepared academically? How could the intern have been more prepared? As a supervisor, do you have any comments about the Internship Program? Would you be willing to accept another intern? If so, how may we contact you? Signature, Intern Supervisor Date Print, Intern Supervisor THANK YOU FOR COMPLETING THIS FORM Please return to: icbrown@usc.edu Or Fax to Experiential Learning Office FAX: (213) 740-9755 Career Planning & Placement Center - Experiential Learning Office Interview Center, STUB-I, Los Angeles, CA 90089-4897 http://careers.usc.edu (213) 740-9108 jcbrown@usc.edu Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix H Experiential Learning Office 191 EMPLOYER EVALUATION by STUDENT INTERN Date(s) o f Internship: Company/Organization: Internship Supervisor: Phone: Fax: Email Address: 1. How many hours per week did you work? 2. Are the hours you worked what you expected? 3. What were your main functions and tasks? 4. With whom did you work? (Briefly describe your work situation and whether you worked with others or mostly by yourself. 5. What were their positions? (E.g. supervisor, director, reporter, legislative assistant, other interns, etc.) 6. How were you treated? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 192 7. What were the strong points o f your internship? (Quality, what you learned, etc.) 8. What were the weak points o f your internship? 9. Would you recommend this internship to other students? Why or why not? 10. How can your supervisor and/or internship organization make the internship experience better for the next intern? 11. What skills would other students need for this internship? (Please be candid here, so that other students can benefit from your experience.) 12. How should the next intern prepare for this internship? 13. Is there anything that the Experiential Learning office can do to improve the internship experience? (Please explain) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 Appendix I Informed Consent Form University o f Southern California Career Planning & Placement Center Experiential Learning Office INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH “ Adjustment o f American University Interns in Asia” USC Freeman Fellows Internship Program You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Janette Brown, Associate Director of Experiential Learning at the USC Career Planning & Placement Center. The Principal Investigator is Dr. William Tierney, and the Co- Principal Investigator is Janette Brown, also a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. The information collected may be used for a doctoral thesis or a publication to promote grant-funded internships abroad. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are one of the Freeman interns who is now participating in or has previously participated in the USC Freeman Fellows Internship Program. A total of 10 to 20 subjects will be selected from the Freeman Fellows Internship Program to participate. Your participation is voluntary. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research project is designed to identify factors that influence student adjustment during an internship experience abroad. More specifically, the research seeks to discover how American university interns cope with cultural differences encountered during an 8 to 10 week internship in Asia. The study should enlighten Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 194 administrators who prepare and train college interns for future overseas work experiences. The questions that will be studied are: 1. How does cultural distance influence a student’s overseas experience? 2. How does cultural fit influence a student’s overseas experience? 3. How does cultural knowledge affect a student’s development of a sense of being culturally competent or adjusted? 4. What impact did the student’s expectations of the internship experience have on the student’s sense of competence? 5. How does previous overseas travel experience influence a student’s adjustment? 6 . Do female students differ from male students in their perception of cultural distance? in their perception of cultural fit? 7. Do Asian American students differ from non Asian American students in their perception of cultural distance? in their perception of cultural fit? 8 . Are there indications that certain types of training can alleviate adaptation problems? PROCEDURES If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following things: • Allow Janette Brown to collect, document and edit the email messages and internet journal postings that will be and have been sent and received by you between 2001 and 2004. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 195 • Permit Janette to collect, document and edit essays and paragraphs that have been submitted by you. • Authorize Janette to collect, document and edit information gathered from your participation in panel discussions, focus groups, interviews, and news articles. • Upon collection of all data, you will be asked to read, edit and approve any information that will be published. • You may spend a cumulative amount of your time (up to 12 hours over the course of a year) involved in focus groups, interviews, panels, email responses, and giving written corrective feedback. Your participation on panels and other events will be on a voluntary basis throughout the fall, winter and spring of 2003 through 2004. POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS Possible inconveniences or discomforts: • Contact from other students interested in the Freeman Program might impose upon your time. • Events could conflict with school and other activities and may take time away from study. • If you do not closely edit your information, you may not feel that your views are correctly represented in the published document. • You may consider the use of email responses in the research as an invasion of privacy. POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY You will not directly benefit as a result of your participation in the study. You may be widely recognized as a Freeman Fellow Scholar and thus you may receive some notoriety. You may also have the benefit of professional networking contacts that will help you in the future. The accomplishment of participating in this program may provide more job and educational opportunities in the future. Students may benefit by your stories and may become Freeman Fellows or possibly travel abroad because of this information. USC may also secure additional grant Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 196 funds to send more students to Asia for internships. In addition, trainers may receive information that will help them prepare future interns for work abroad. PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION You will not be compensated for participating in this research project. CONFIDENTIALITY Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law. The data, including files, photographs, videos, and audio-tape recordings, will be kept in a locked office in the Career Planning & Placement Center. Online internet journal entries (FORUMS) will be password protected and access will only be given to USC Freeman Fellow interns. Computer email and attachments will be located on a password-protected computer accessed only by Janette. The information collected for the study will be stored for up to 7 years after the study is completed and then will be destroyed. Questionnaire responses will be coded. For case study information, you will have the option of remaining anonymous or of using your name. When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity unless you agree. If photographs, or audio-tape recordings of you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be protected or disguised. You have the right to review and edit the tapes and transcripts before the dissertation is submitted. Only Janette and a graduate assistant working on the project will have access to the transcripts and tapes. PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any questions you do not want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so. IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the Principal Investigator and Faculty Sponsor, Professor William G. Tierney, Wilbur-Kieffer Professor of Higher Education & Director Center for Higher Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 197 Education Policy Analysis, WPH 701, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90026-0031, (213)-740-7218 (wgtiern@usc.edu). You may also contact the Co-Principal Investigator and doctoral candidate, Janette Brown, Associate Director, Experiential Learning Office, Freeman Fellows Internship Program Manager, USC Career Planning & Placement Center, University of Southern California, STU B -l, Los Angeles, CA 90089-4897, (jcbrown@usc.edu). (213)-740-9108. RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu. EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECT’S BILL OF RIGHTS FOR PSYCHOSOCIAL STUDIES Any person who is requested to consent to participate as a subject in a research study involving a psychosocial study, has the right to: 1. Be informed of the nature and purpose of the study. 2. Be given an explanation of the procedures to be followed in the study. 3. Be given a description of any attendant discomforts and risks reasonably to be expected from your participation in the study. 4. Be given an explanation of any benefits reasonably to be expected from your participation in the study. 5. Be given a disclosure of any appropriate alternatives that might be advantageous to you, and their relative risks and benefits. 6 . Be informed of avenues of resources, if any, available to you after the study procedure if complications should arise. 7. Be given an opportunity to ask any questions concerning the study or the procedures involved. 8. Be instructed that consent to participate in the study may be withdrawn at any time, and that you may discontinue participation in the study without prejudice. 9. Be given a copy of this form and the signed and dated written study consent form. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 198 10. Be given the opportunity to decide to consent or not to consent to participate in the study without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, coercion, or undue influence on your decision. SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this form and have signed this Consent Form in the presence of the Investigator after all of my questions have been answered. Name of Subject Signature of Subject Date SIGNATURE OF INVEST1GATOR I have explained the research to the subject or his/her legal representative, and answered all of his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to participate. Name of Investigator Signature of Investigator Date (must be the same as I agree to be audio taped I do not agree to be audio taped subject’s) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 199 A ppendix J Future Plans S tu dent Profile Future Plans B efore th e In ternsh ip E xperience Future Plans 1 Mo. After In ternsh ip E xperience Current Plans 9 Mo. After In ternsh ip E xperience Future Plans 11 Mo. After In tern sh ip E xperience Caucasian / Fem ale / Kuala Lum pur M aybe Peace Corps For sure, Peace Corps! Finish school, th en Peace Corps. Peace Corps! Caucasian / Fem ale / w orked in Kuala Lum pur Foreign S ervice, but not rig h t a fte r g rad u ation In te rn a tio n a l tra d e , teach English abroad or Fulbright G rad u atin g . Finishing up internship w ith D e p a rtm e n t of C o m m erce M aersk Sealand In te rn a tio n a l Shipping Education. In 2 yrs. intern atio n al tra d e . Jobs secured through Asia experien ce! E. In d ian / M ale / Ja p a n ese Speaker Auto industry Auto industry but now m ore focused on Japan G rad u atin g . In te rvie w in g fo r consulting, finance, or M IS . G ained contacts fo r fu tu re au to industry. W ork, th en g e t MBA to w ork in au to industry. Asian / M ale / w orked in Japan In v e s tm e n t banking in London In v e s tm e n t banking S u m m e r internship (S F) G oldm an Sachs H opefully full tim e w ith G oldm an a fte r g rad u ation H alf Asian / Fem ale / Japan Earn a JD degree Get a combination J D/MBA degree & work abroad 4 yrs S tu dy in Hong Kong n ext fall G rad school. W ish to w o rk in Asia o r w ork w ith Asian clien tele Caucasian / Fem ale / w orked in Japan E n terta in m e n t m arketing Any kind of m a rk etin g , possibly abroad G rad u atin g . News Am erica M arketin g in C onnecticut O ffered a jo b in Japan. Declined due to lack of Japanese speaking skills Caucasian / Fem ale / w orked in Japan In te rn a tio n a l jou rn alism Foreign reporting G rad u atin g . Looking fo r fellow ships G rad school IR . L ater, NGO h um an rights, d em o cracy, p articip ate as a global citizen Harris / Asian M ale / Japan No Plans W o rk overseas Finish school & D e ce m b er qrad W o rk in aerospace, m asters d eq ree Asian / M ale / w orked in Japan Finance industry M aybe open own real estate business Local su m m er in v es tm en t bank internship In v e s tm e n t Bank a fte r g rad u ation th en MBA M arie: H alf Asian / Fem ale / Jap an ese S peaker M arketing in Japan Asia in plans, but d o n 't w an t to live in Japan. C larified m y path. In te rvie w in g fo r su m m e r internships W o rk 4 to 5 years, th en m asters and PhD: E ducation, Pacific Rim , C ultural studies or co m p arative lite ra tu re African A m erican / M ale / w orked in Japan Foreign S ervice Econom ics in CA g o v ern m e n t o r in p rivate global strate g y C alif. S ec re tary o f S ta te internship & possibly study abroad G rad school in In te rn a tio n a l R elations. P rivate secto r in inti. T rad e and dip lom atic issues Asian / Fem ale / Ja p a n ese Speaker A dvertising & M arketing fo r W illiam s W orldw ide W o rk abroad M arcus & M illichap internship Real es ta te , on an in tern atio n al level a fte r D e ce m b er g rad u ation *Light shading indicates international focus Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix K -Expectations & Later Perceptions Profile Previous Travel Incentives Ethnicity Predictions # of Cultural Differences Adjustment Factor Predictions Coping Strategy Predictions First Perceptions o f Internship Suggestions for Future Interns After the Experience Caucasian / Female / worked in Kuala Lumpur No 1 .Culture 2.Work Experience 1 look foreign that might be helpful. 1 don’t know about Asian culture or language. Adjusting will be a great challenge. KeeD an ooen mind + positive attitude-no expectations, prepare mentally. V ery fascinated, -e-®-® internship isn't well coordinated or organized. Meet locals. Keep a journal. Schedule your time. Take time alone for favorite American things, but not too much! Caucasian / Female / worked in Kuala Lumpur 2 Mo. Spain 1 .Culture 2.Work Experience 3.Future Career 4.Challenge my ideas Will be a greater challenge to me than someone with Asian heritage. 6 Very open to new cultures. ODen mind. No knowledge of Asian languages- adjusting will be great challenge. Ask lots of questions, read about the culture before 1 leave for my internship. Get help from other intern. V ery fascinated / gradually adapting. internship good so far, given responsibility quickly. Have ooen mind. Do research on culture & current events. Don't be shy, ask lots of questions! Be flexible, enthusiastic for culture. Have energy. E. Indian / M ale/ worked in Japan/ Japanese Speaker 2 mo. Australia 1 .Culture 2.Work Experience 3.Practice language 4.Future career East Indian heritage, somewhat similar cultural traits to Japan. 5 Previous travel will help, but 1 might have created expectations. Realize my experience may not be the same as previous experiences. Som ew hat Fascinated. •»■*>■ *> Manual labor at first, but internship is getting better. Study etiquette & common Dhrases. Have a "blank slate" attitude to aDDreciate differences and similarities. Asian / Male / worked in Japan No 1 .Culture 2,Work Experience 3.Self Discovery South Vietnamese, will help. 1 understand Asian culture. 2 Knowledge from Asian parents will help, American friends will hinder. Keep busy. V ery fascinated / gradually adapting. Learning a lot about financial m arkets & real Go out with HCNs, make friends, take the initiative, go out, research the culture. 200 Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. Appendix K -Expectations & Later Perceptions (cont.) Profile Previous Travel incentives Ethnicity Predictions # of Cultural Differences Cited Adjustment Factor Predictions Coping Strategy Predictions First P ercep tion s o f In tern sh ip Suggestions for Future Interns After the Experience Asian / M ale/ worked in Japan No 1 .Culture 2.lnvestment Banking 3.Self Disnnvftrv Filipino, will help with assimilation. 5 1 have an. oDennessto new things. Will take an active role in integrating myself. V ery fascinated. -*>-*>■ *> C hallenging, lots of ad m in is tra tiv e w ork. Network, Go out with your co workers after work hours, go out and see the sights. W O R K HARD! Assimilate. Marie: Half Asian / Female / worked in Japan /Japanese Speaker Lived in Japan for 7 years 1.Work Experience 2.Culture 3.Language Skills 4.Future Career Half- Chinese will help me adjust & 1 speak Japanese. 3 My personal experience with the culture will help, my arrogance might hinder. Be ODen- minded. intellectually curious. V ery fascinated / g rad u ally ad apting / No an xie ty. O ve rw h e lm in g - in a good w ay, no understanding o f this Leam language phrases. Research popular culture & business practices. Read translated newspapers. Bring a map of the city. African American / M a le / worked in Japan 1 mo. Europe 1.Work Experience 2.Challenge 3.Govemmen t& Trade Fxnfirifinr.fi African- American. Will be a challenge. 5 1 have grown up in a diverse city. Meet lots of people & make friends. S o m ew h at Fascinated / grad u ally ad apting / L ittle an xiety. Going w ell, could handle m ore responsibility. Have an ooen mind & strona willingness to leam. Come few days eady to get settled. Be proactive at work. Meet many people. Asian / Female / worked in Japan / Japanese Speaker No 1 .Culture 2.Language Skills 3.Work Experience 4.Future Career Japanese & Korean, some might assume 1 know culture b/c of my appearance. 2 1 can read & speak language. Be ODen- m inded. make sure people know 1 am American so 1 don't offend them. S o m ew h at Fascinated / g rad u ally ad ap tin g . "Office slave w ork" in beginning, som e m arketin g now . Research, learn a fe w KEY phrases, ta lk to HCNs o r experienced tra v e le rs ab o u t behaviors, $ , phone cards, en viro n m e n t, etc. ro o APPLICANT: INTERVIEWER Appendix L 202 Interview Questions Asia Internship Fellowship Applicants 1. In a few short sentences tell us: How would your friends describe you? ( Your Professors? Your employer?) 2. What are your reasons for applying for the Asia Internship Fellowship? (Why do you think this program is appropriate for you)? (Demonstrate real interest in Asia). 3. Explain how your course work has prepared you for an internship in Asia. 4. Describe skills and work experiences that demonstrate your ability to work successfully abroad. 5. Unanticipated situations, both good and bad, will be a part of your experience. How do you plan to deal with unexpected events and conditions? (Flexibility) 6. Give us an example of a difficult situation you faced and the steps you took to resolve the challenge or conflict. (Problem Solving/Resourcefulness) 7. What do you do for fun? 8. Why should we choose you over the other candidates? 9. In one to two words, describe your work ethic. 10. Do you have any experience with cross-cultural communication 8i sensitivity? If so, please explain. 11. What are your career goals upon graduation and how might this internship in Asia affect your plans? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 203 12. If we were not able to accommodate your top three location choices. would you be willing to go elsewhere? If so, where would you be willing to go? Are there any places where you will not go? Rating Scale: A. B. C, D, F / 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 Rating Notes Sincerity/Attitude Articulated Interest Personality/ Communication Skills Flexibility/ Open-mindedness/ Maturity Skills/Job Experience Professionalism Total Language Ability Class/Grad Date Additional Notes: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 204 Appendix IM Motivations Internship Expectations Student Comments Absorb all I can about Japanese business practices Gain greater knowledge of how business & international trade works in government Greater understanding of investment banking Learn about doing business in Asia Learn about government Business/Government Experience Learn about how other Americans function in Asian business and how they interact Learn how a business works in another country Learn how businesses function Learn more about business practices Learn more about marketing Learn the difference in work environments, be adaptable Expand professional & communication skills Work experience Gain appreciation for culture Immerse in culture Learn a lot about the Japanese culture Learn about culture Cultural Learning & Learn about Japanese culture Appreciation Learn as much as possible about the culture and people Learn more about the Japanese culture People and culture Pick up a good deal of technigues and formalities Take in everything the culture and customs have to offer Apply to my future career Contacts for the future Future Career Opportunity Create a bond with my employer for the future Create contacts for the future Understand business culture for future Understand future associates Broaden my horizons, self discovery Challenge Personal Development Expand and challenge my ideas about the world Learn about myself More international exposure Not be afraid of the different lifestyle Learn the language better Learn the Language Polish as much of my Japanese as possible Practice the language Future Career Decision Decide if living and working abroad is something I would like to pursue in the future Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brown, Janette Claire (author)

Core Title Cross -cultural international adjustment of American undergraduate interns in Asia

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Tierney, William G. (committee chair), Rueda, Robert (committee member), Sundt, Melora (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-565613

Unique identifier UC11340432

Identifier 3155387.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-565613 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3155387.pdf

Dmrecord 565613

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Brown, Janette Claire

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA