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Improving student achievement: An urban success story

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Improving student achievement: An urban success story

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Content IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT: AN URBAN SUCCESS STORY
by
Debra Lynn Chima
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2004
Copyright 2004 Debra Lynn Chima
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UMI Number: 3145175
Copyright 2004 by
Chima, Debra Lynn
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My family and friends were tremendous sources of strength for me
throughout my studies. I want to express my deepest gratitude to my parents for their
love and assistance. It was through your unending support that I was able to achieve
my educational goals. Thank you for always believing in me. To my sister, Christy,
thank you for encouraging me, while keeping me grounded and focused. I appreciate
your friendship and wisdom. To Sherry, Amy, and Rebecca, you are all amazing
women. Each of you have taught me about life, love, and finding true happiness no
matter how difficult it can be in the moment. Thank you for being a part of my life.
I also want to thank Dr. Gothold, my dissertation committee chair, for his
leadership and counseling. His insights for urban education centered our discussions
and ultimately distilled many interests into one single topic to move our group
forward. Dr. Gothold was a valuable resource as a professor and a mentor in the field
of education.
It was a pleasure to work with the renowned Dr. Deal and Dr. Cohn. Dr. Deal
greatly inspired me to look at leadership and its influences differently. Dr. Cohn’s
contributions provided authentic feedback from an authority closely tied to the
school system. Additionally, the professors at the University of Southern California,
Rossier School Education were experts in their fields and it was an honor to leam
from them.
Lastly, to my cohort members, Jeanette, Mario, Tim, Steve, and Elyse- only
the few of you truly have known this experience. You challenged me to be better, to
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try harder, and to take risks. Your friendship and support will be cherished in my
heart forever. You are exceptional people that I respect and value as friends. Thank
you for sharing your spirit with me.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................ii
Abstract.................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY..........................................................1
Background of the Problem...................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 5
Purpose of the Study................................................................................................11
Research Questions..................................................................................................11
Hypothesis................................................................................................................12
Significance of the Problem.....................................................................................12
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................13
Organization of the Study........................................................................................18
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE..................................................19
Introduction..............................................................................................................19
The Accountability Movement...............................................................................20
The national accountability movement. 20
The accountability movement in California. 23
The accountability movement’s impact on schools’ practices and cultures. 26
Leadership Practices Impacting Student Achievement.......................................... 31
Shared decision making organizational structures. 32
Instructional leadership. 34
Vision. 35
Educational Programs That Support Student Achievement................................... 36
Collaboration. 37
Standards-based instruction. 38
Professional development. 39
School Culture........................................................................................................ 41
Building a learning community. 41
Teacher motivation. 42
Trust. 43
Communication. 45
Conclusions............................................................................................................ 46
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................49
Introduction............................................................................................................ 49
Research Questions................................................................................................ 49
Research Design.....................................................................................................50
Validity. 51
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Assumptions. 53
Limitations. 53
Delimitations. 53
Population and Sample.......................................................................................... 54
Instrumentation...................................................................................................... 57
Survey. 58
Interviews. 59
Observations. 63
Documentation Review. 65
Data Collection...................................................................................................... 68
Data Analysis......................................................................................................... 69
Conclusion............................................................................................................. 70
CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS..................................................................................... 71
Leadership Practices.............................................................................................. 75
It takes time. 77
Distributed leadership. 80
Building leadership capacity. 82
High expectations. 83
Educational Programs............................................................................................ 85
Systematic instruction. 86
Commitment to success. 88
Support for the instructional program. 89
Consistency. 92
School Culture....................................................................................................... 93
Collective responsibility. 94
Share everything. 96
A sense of family. 98
Trust. 101
Creating meaning. 102
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION................................................................................105
Conclusions...........................................................................................................113
Recommendations.................................................................................................116
References.............................................................................................................120
Appendix...............................................................................................................126
A. Leadership Survey......................................................................................127
B. Interview Questions....................................................................................128
C. Observation Template................................................................................129
D. Document Review......................................................................................130
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ABSTRACT
The Accountability movement in the United States and California has put
tremendous pressure on schools and school leaders to demonstrate increased student
achievement. Regardless of where schools begin their climb to reach the golden 800 mark on
the Academic Performance Index (API), all schools are held to the same standard of
achievement. Urban schools drastically vaiy in socioeconomic and cultural diversity
compared to suburban schools. Urban schools must deal with fewer resources, both material
and human. Urban schools frequently have low parental participation. Yet despite these
barriers, urban schools are still held to the same standard more affluent schools need only
moderately stretch to achieve.
There exists a small population of urban schools where students of lower
socioeconomic backgrounds and minority cultures are achieving leaps and bounds
academically. The purpose of this study is to use a case study approach to get under the skin
of one school making noteworthy increases in student achievement. It is the researcher’s
purpose to glean significant information about the organizational and cultural structure of the
school to add to literature in the educational community.
This study will benefit urban schools through the next ten to fifteen years. If urban
school leaders knew specific practices, programs and cultural aspects that positively
impacted student achievement, similar efforts could be replicated in other urban schools. If
urban school leaders could put into place proven successful practices, programs and cultures,
student achievement could increase on a wide scale basis. If student achievement increased,
the public would become supportive of the public school system and contribute to its
successes. Lastly, these positive changes would lessen the pressures on school leaders, thus
making the position more attractive to others who may be considering going
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into education. This would create a surplus of qualified candidates for administrator
positions, ultimately leading to high student achievement levels across the nation.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Urban schools across the United States are seen by the public as having to
make up for too many environmental barriers to allow for high student performance.
While many urban schools can positively influence student achievement, some urban
schools exceed their expectations according to Academic Performance Index data
(CDE, 2003). The API is California’s system of measuring the yearly academic
performance in public schools. Schools are given scores based on state determined
criteria, on a scale of 200 to 1000. The California Department of Education has set
800 as the target achievement score for all schools (CDE, 1999). Evidence depicts
there are schools in these high poverty and high minority areas that educate poor and
minority students to high levels of academic performance (Ali & Jerald, 2001).
Through a rich investigation of case studies of thriving urban schools with
established trends of high student achievement, implications can be gleaned for
similar demographic schools unable to attain such success.
Since the inception of the accountability movement in the United States,
public schools and school leaders have been scrutinized by a number of interest
groups with varying concerns. Parents and community members have concerns about
the declining student performance trends, especially in urban areas; businesses have
been disturbed by the quality of workers being produced by the public school
system; and political groups have been troubled by where the nation lies in global
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competition arenas. As a result of these many interests about the inadequacy of
public education, school leaders have been forced to prioritize instructional decisions
to demonstrate marked increases of student performance.
The public push for increased student achievement and school accountability
is creating a sense of urgency for leaders to directly impact all aspects of teaching
and learning at the school site (Copland, 2001; King, 1998; Neuman, 2000). Due to
the increasing pressures on educational leaders to meet higher standards, it is
important to examine leadership practices, programs, and aspects of school culture
that have been found in past research as being effective in increasing academic
success.
Background of the Problem
The demands of high standards and accountability have affected the way
public schools across the United States conduct the business of educating students
unlike any other time in history. Educational accountability has changed nearly
everything in education and has mandated school leaders to increase student
achievement in educational systems where many students traditionally fail to meet
established standards (Bottoms & O’Neil, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 1999). The
pressure of public scrutiny to improve the academic success of students causes urban
school leaders to make decisions about curriculum, resources, and personnel that
affect the teaching and learning processes.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 was the
genesis of the accountability movement in the United States. The ESEA focused on
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supporting the education of the nation’s most disadvantaged students to close the
achievement gap and became the impetus of the standards based reform movement
in public schools (EdSource, 2002). The standards based reform movement initially
set out to establish challenging academic standards, align policies such as testing and
benchmarks for learning, and restructuring educational governance (Massed, Kirst &
Hoppe, 1997). The intent of the ESEA was to establish more local control in making
decisions with the belief that when responsibility is placed closest to the most
important activity of the enterprise, schools will work better; however, this
movement in fact shifted educational policy making from the local level to greater
state control (EdSource, 2003; McNeil, 2000; Tirozzi, 2003).
Educational accountability today is focused on ensuring all students master
core academic content (Anagnostopoulos, 2003). The No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) o f2001 supports educational accountability by applying strict sanctions for
ongoing failure and focusing schools on racial and subgroup success to close the
achievement gap (DeBray, 2003). Under the NCLB Act, states are required to
establish academic standards, test every student’s progress, and demonstrate
quantifiable results according to Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). States, districts,
and schools that improve achievement are rewarded, while failure leads to sanctions
(Amrein & Berliner, 2002). Although the act inherently embodies the goal of
improving student achievement, it remains to be seen whether a federally monitored
program will be able to ensure academic success (Sousa, 2003).
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California state accountability runs parallel to the federal government. The
legislation is for the most part a result of federal guidelines and the movement
toward standards based reform. In April 1999, California legislators passed their
version of a high stakes, incentives based accountability system, the Public Schools
Accountability Act (PSAA) into state law. PSAA provided a process for publicly
ranking schools by the Academic Performance Index (API), with schools receiving
serious consequences for continued poor performance (CDE, 1999; CDE 2003;
EdSource 2003).
Today, API is calculated solely on public school performance on the new
standardized tests, the California Achievement Test (CAT6) and the California
Standards Tests (CST). This current system of accountability completely ignores any
other possible measures of student performance. The scope of API is narrow, does
not look to the future, disregards school culture, and fails to focus on the needs and
issues closest to the point of contact, the students (DuFour, 2002; Elmore, 2002;
McNeil, 2000). The California Department of Education is hopeful of implementing
other measures to include in future API reporting, such as the California High School
Exit Exam (CAHSEE), graduation rates, and attendance rates (CDE, 2003). The use
of multiple measures of student performance would alleviate some pressure on
schools from focusing on high stakes testing, and allow educators and policy makers
to provide a quality educational experience for all students (Holdskom, 2001).
Statewide, high stakes accountability systems have proven problematic in
many respects. The impact on urban schools can be difficult, causing leadership and
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governance practices to focus strictly on improving the performance of significant
subgroups of students in these schools. By meeting the needs of specific subgroups
of students, schools can improve their API ranking, regardless of whether all
students’ needs are being met or not. The high stakes testing movement has had a
disproportionately negative impact on students from racial minority and low
socioeconomic backgrounds who are typically underperforming. High stakes testing
has also illustrated the achievement gap between wealthy and poor districts. Students
of wealthy districts typically have a multitude of resources available to them that
students in poorer districts do not (Amrein & Berliner, 2002; EdSource, 2003).
Despite these barriers, a growing body of research is recognizing that all children can
achieve at high levels when the right combination of tools and strategies are
employed, regardless of racial or socioeconomic background (Ali & Jerald, 2001;
Carter, 2000; Eisner, 2003; Resnick, 1996).
Statement of the Problem
Traditionally, students in urban schools have not performed well
academically. However, some urban schools excel beyond their expectations.
Research has identified several factors commonly attributed to positively impacting
student achievement; however less is known about the combination of leadership
structures, instructional programs and school culture that can be linked to urban
schools exceeding performance expectations (Darling-Hammond, 1999; Ragland,
Clubine, Constable, & Smith, 2002; Reeves, 2000). This study examined one urban
school that outperformed its expectations over a period of years in spite of
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environmental barriers to learn if and how success can be transferred to other urban
schools.
Since the late 1980s, there has been a national push for schools to be held
accountable in the eyes of the public. During that decade, the public was interested in
making sure it got the most bang for each buck spent in every arena, including
education (EdSource, 2001). To determine the effectiveness of schools, the concept
of national standards for all schools was introduced. The public felt if all students in
all schools were held to know the same standard amount of knowledge when the
graduated, our country would prosper domestically and internationally. The public
also wanted reassurance that schools receiving thousands of dollars in funding from
the government were using money appropriately (EdSource, 2001).
The school accountability movement came into the national forefront at the
Education Summit in 1989 with then-President George Bush and the creation of the
National Education Goals Panel (NEGP) (Marzano and Kendall, 1997; Allen, 1994).
The NEGP was established to build a national consensus for education improvement
and report on the progress of schools toward achieving the National Education
Goals. The six (and later two additional goals) delineated by Congress included
school readiness, school completion rates, demonstrated student achievement and
citizenship, access for ongoing teacher education and professional development,
American students will become the first in the world in math and science
achievement, adult literacy and lifelong learning will increase, all schools will
become safe and drug-free, and finally parental participation and involvement will
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increase. The NEGP were also to review the voluntary national content standards and
their certification by the states (Marzano & Kendall, 1997; Allen, 1994).
States were then charged with developing concrete academic standards to
which their schools would aspire to reach. Along with content standards came
statewide testing of schools to determine school and student progress (Resnick,
2001). To ensure local schools would focus on demonstrating their abilities, state
funding became tied to yearly improvement on state assessments; monies were
distributed to schools that showed growth in test scores, and not to schools that
remained constant or declined in achievement scores (Resnick, 2001).
After being revisited by the NEGP in 1994, school leaders had a clearer
picture of how their schools’ performance would be measured. The national
measurement tool from then on would be the individual states’ commitment toward
achieving the national education goals (Marzano & Kendall, 1997). Californian
schools would also be ranked against other schools in the state as a whole, and also
against those of similar size and demographic composition as established by PSAA.
The Californian ranking system score, or Academic Performance Index (API), for
each school would be published statewide by the media, and included in the annual
School Accountability Report Card (SARC) for each school. The SARC was to be
readily available for the public to view at the individual school and annually
distributed to the community.
The pressure facing principals to answer the public accountability demands
has grown astronomically over the past ten to twenty years. As leaders of educational
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institutions, leaders must have a thorough knowledge base of the curriculum,
educational standards for each grade level at the school, and effective teaching
strategies (Rallis & Goldring, 2000). Leaders conduct ongoing analyses of classroom
instruction to build leadership capacity among the teachers at the site. Ultimately,
school leaders want to run schools where teachers are having continual conversations
about instruction to improve student learning outcomes. As professionals, good
teachers regularly seek to enhance their skills. It is this behavior school leaders work
to replicate amongst the entire staff.
One modem trend found in school leaders’ activities is to examine and
interpret student achievement data (Cross and Rice, 2000) to demonstrate patterns of
instruction to teachers. By using objective data that school rankings are determined
by, school leaders attempt to identify aspects of quality instruction that lead to
improved student achievement. Successful school leaders will motivate teachers
through providing teachers relevant data and the opportunity to collaborate (Cross &
Rice, 2000).
School leaders have always been viewed as operational managers. In fact,
school leaders originally only dealt with issues related to the successful operation of
the school facilities in the early 1900s (Bennis & Goldsmith, 1997). Primarily men,
who knew business methods, applied efficiency theories to education. Continuing
and adding to this mindset, school leaders have maintained efficiency while also
focusing on improving instruction (Rallis and Goldring, 2000). Although managing
is an important aspect of running a public school, school leaders will experience
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difficulty if that is their primary area of expertise. School improvement hinges upon
the school leader’s ability to wear multiple hats, and interchange them as
circumstances require. However, the instructional leadership has taken center-stage
in today’s era of high stakes testing and accountability (Rallis & Goldring, 2000).
Today’s school leaders must have knowledge of a vast amount of curriculum.
School leaders must understand the standards of accountability to which schools
strive to achieve. School leaders must establish a positive school culture for students,
parents and teachers. School leaders must collaboratively and strategically plan and
work toward the school vision. And most importantly school leaders must
continuously focus on increasing student achievement (Lambert, 2002). Specific
leadership practices have dramatic impact on the effectiveness of leaders to
accomplish all of these goals.
Administrators must be prepared to handle the needs of the school they are
placed in; otherwise the placement of the administrator will be a mismatch and the
school site will suffer culturally and academically (Holtkamp, 2002; Mohr &
Dichter, 2001). Each local school site faces its own unique challenges. Placing the
right individual in the setting is crucial for improving the academic achievement of
its students. The site principal must understand the external climate in the
community, the internal politics involved at the school site and district, and where
the school fits in the grand scheme of society (Rallis & Goldring, 2000).
Urban administrators must consider the above factors, in addition to keeping
the familial, cultural, and economic situations of their students in mind. Successful
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urban school leaders find different ways of conducting business (Thompson, 2003;
Powell, 2000). Successful urban school leaders address their students’ cultural and
socioeconomic status, but do not make excuses for it (Obiakor, 2000). Obiakor
(2000) surmised good instruction happens when teachers feel supported by the
administration to teach their students in any and all ways necessary to build essential
knowledge connections. It is when students of color and/or poverty can relate to the
learning context that achievement increases. Good teachers respond and embrace
cultural diversity to create comfortable learning opportunities for their students.
Good school leaders must work to develop such a trusting environment, despite the
external and internal pressures, where good teaching can indeed occur. In these
instances, good teaching translates into improved student achievement, and urban
schools exceed their expectations (Obiakor, 2000).
To develop a positive, trusting school climate, a school leader must have a
collaborative nature. School leaders must be able to develop solid interpersonal
relationships with district officials, teachers, community members, parents and
students to access resources and support of the educational program (Thompson,
2003; Harris, Smith, and Hale, 2002; Rallis & Goldring, 2000; Williams & Portin,
1997). Also, successful school leaders generate an openness that stimulates honest
dialogue and encourages risk-taking in a high trust environment. These traits have
been cited as what has led many schools from good to great institutions and to
overcome environmental barriers associated with demographic or socioeconomic
status (Harris, Smith, & Hale, 2002; Collins, 2001).
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Successful school leaders excel in developing a positive and trusting school
climate (Montgomery & Growe, 2003; Harris, Smith, & Hale, 2002; Rallis &
Goldring, 2000). Their ability to sustain a positive school culture, collaborate and
plan school-wide activities, and maintain a focus on student achievement is difficult
to acquire, much less master (Lambert, 2002). The leader’s background and skills
are paramount to their ability to accomplish these goals. Many veteran leaders in
education have autocratic styles, but the new breed of administrators possesses
various leadership styles who can apply them in multiple situations (Wagner, 2001).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine what leadership practices,
programs and cultural factors positively impact student achievement in urban schools
which have exceeded academic expectations. The study used a case study approach
to examine specific schools that have exceeded their academic expectations in spite
of challenges associated with poverty and high minority student populations.
Research Questions
This study specifically focused on answering the following questions:
1. What programs are in place in schools, which have exceeded
academic expectations?
2. What leadership practices are in place in schools, which have
exceeded academic expectations?
3. What is the school culture in schools, which have exceeded academic
expectations?
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Hypotheses
1. There are definable leadership practices that impact student
achievement.
2. Specific programs at the school contribute to student achievement,
while others contribute to non-academic successes.
3. The leader has a significant effect on the school climate and culture
which influences student achievement.
Significance of the Problem
All children are able to achieve high levels of academic performance;
however leaders of urban schools face great challenges in their settings. How school
leaders they respond to those unique challenges produces varied results in student
achievement. An important reason for this study is to identify characteristics and
implementation of leadership practices to support high student achievement. This
study will contribute to the existing research in education by providing insight to
combinations of leadership practices, programs, and culture for urban schools that
have proven to make positive impact on student achievement.
The culture and feel of an urban school has been said to be a reflection of the
school leadership. School leaders greatly influence the way the school community
works, interacts, and ultimately achieves. Leaders need to know how to work with
the school community to introduce and implement strategies for continuous student
improvement through a variety of methods (Lambert, 2002; Neuman & Simmons,
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2000). By identifying effective leadership practices and their strategic
implementation, educators can enhance student performance.
Results of this study will benefit schools through the next ten to fifteen years.
School leaders are faced with increasing responsibilities by the public to improve
student achievement levels and the school experience for its youngsters. As student
performance increases, the public would become supportive of the public school
system and contribute to its successes. Lastly, these positive changes would lessen
the pressures on administrators, thus making the position more attractive to others
who may be considering going into education.
Definition of Terms
A Nation at Risk is defined as the document developed by the National
Commission on Excellence in Education. Published in 1983, it established the need
for high-stakes testing, the end of holding students accountable to minimum
competency standards, and the hope for an increase in the nation’s achievement
levels world-wide.
Adequate Yearly Progress is defined as the requirement for all public
schools to meet set criteria as established by the No Child Left Behind Act, signed
into federal law in January 2002. First, public schools must meet percent proficient
achievement levels of English Language Arts and Math Annual Measurable
Objectives. Second, public schools must demonstrate a 95% participation rate in the
testing process. Third, schools must meet their API targets. Lastly, public high
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schools must demonstrate an increase of one-tenth of one percent per year until a
100% graduation rate is achieved.
API is defined as California’s Academic Performance Index. The API is a
score on a scale of 200 to 1000 that annually measure the academic performance and
progress of individual schools in California. Originally, the API rank only included
school scores on the statewide achievement test. As years passed, other factors have
been added to the formula to determine ranking (such as socioeconomic level of the
students, parents’ education levels, etc.). On an interim basis, the state has set 800 as
the API score that school should strive to meet.
The California Standards Test is defined as the state assessment that
measures how well students are doing in relation to the state content standards.
Student scores are reported as performance levels. The five performance levels in
Advanced (exceeds the state standards), Proficient (meets the state standards), Basic
(approaching state standards), Below Basic (below state standards), and Far Below
Basic (well below state standards).
Content standards are defined as the knowledge students should have and
be able to apply by the end of each grade level in each subject.
The Education Summit refers to a national gathering of policymakers,
educators, and government officials in 1989. The Education Summit was the event
that sparked the national school accountability movement. Six national goals were
developed for all children to reach by the year 2000. They included goals of school
readiness; school completion; student achievement and citizenship; teacher education
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and professional development; math and science; adult literacy and lifelong learning;
safe, disciplined, and alcohol and drug-free schools; and parental participation.
Effective leadership practices are defined as those practices that have been
found to yield high student achievement in numerous research studies.
Low student performance is defined as student achievement scores on the
California Achievement Test, Sixth Edition, below the 50th percentile. Low student
performance on the California Standards Test is Basic, Below Basic, or Far Below
Basic.
The NEGP is defined as the National Education Goals Panel. The NEGP was
established in 1989 as a result of the discussion at the national Education Summit
held by then-President Bush. The NEGP, a bipartisan body, was to build a national
consensus for education improvement; report on the progress of schools toward
achieving the National Education Goals established at the 1989 Education Summit;
and review the voluntary national content standards and their certification by the
states.
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, signed into law in 2002 was the
national reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.
NCLB established eight national goals for closing the achievement gap. States were
mandated to develop standards and measures of student performance by which all
schools would be assessed and held accountable for meeting.
SARC is defined as School Accountability Report Card. Every school in
California must publish a public document describing the location of the school, its
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student population, teacher information, programs offered, and achievement levels
reached on statewide assessments.
Shared decision-making is defined as the process in which the leader
cultivates collective knowledge of stakeholders of the school site, to take
responsibility for both the successes and failures of decisions made regarding the
direction of the school.
Similar schools rank is defined as a comparison of each school with 100
other schools with similar demographic characteristics. Each set of 100 schools is
ranked by API score from one (lowest) to ten (highest) to indicate how well the
school performed compared to schools most like it.
Stakeholders are defined as any individual that has an interest in the
direction of the school site. This includes parents, students, teachers, classified
workers (such as custodians or secretaries), administrators, and members of the
community who may or may not have school age children.
The Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) program is defined as
the assessment system for students in grades 2 through 11. Testing is conducted
annually in various subjects. The current STAR program includes the California
Standards Tests (CST) in English Language Arts and Mathematics in grades 2
through 11, and Science and History-Social Science in grades 9 through 11; and the
California Achievement Test, Sixth Edition (CAT/6), which tests Reading,
Language, Mathematics in grades 2 through 11, Spelling in grades 2 through 8, and
Science and History-Social Science in grades 9 through 11.
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Standards-based instruction is defined as instruction designed by teachers
and administrators to help students achieve state content standards. Lessons may
scaffold knowledge to bring students up to standards, but students might not achieve
standard until a later time.
Statewide rank is defined as schools receiving an API score are ranked in
ten categories of equal size (deciles) from one (lowest) to ten (highest), according to
type of school (elementary, middle or high school).
Student achievement is defined as high performance levels based on
Academic Performance Index (API) as established by the California Department of
Education in 1999.
Target growth for a school is 5% of the distance between base API and 800.
Actual growth is the number of API points a school gained between its base and
growth years. Schools that reach their annual targets are eligible for monetary
awards. Schools that do not meet their targets and have a statewide API rank of one
to five are eligible to participate in the Immediate Intervention/Underperforming
Schools Program (II/USP), which provides resources to schools to improve their
academic achievement.
Urban schools are defined as those schools that have a high percentage of
minority and low socioeconomic background students. Urban schools typically have
a high percentage of transience of students and staff.
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Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study has presented the introduction, the statement of the
problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to be answered, the research
hypotheses, the significance of the study, and the definitions of terms.
Chapter 2 is a review of relevant literature. It addresses the following topics:
The accountability movement, leadership practices impacting student achievement,
educational programs that support student achievement, and school culture.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including the research
design; population and sampling procedure; and the instruments and their selection
or development, together with information on validity and reliability. Each of these
sections concludes with a rationale, including strengths and limitations of the design
elements. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for data collection and the
plan for data analysis.
Chapter 4 presents the results of the study. Chapter 5 discusses and analyzes
the results, culminating in conclusions and recommendations.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
School leaders have always been responsible for ensuring high student
achievement. Since the inception of the Accountability Movement in the mid-
Twentieth Century, this responsibility has been made extremely public. School
leaders hold their breath each year in the early Fall as standardized achievement
scores are published, hoping and praying their schools achieved the infamous API
and AYP growth targets. Schools that achieve their goals are praised for academic
excellence, while those that do not await District and State officials to help examine
school records in the name of planning for future success.
Accountability itself is not a bad thing. Schools should strive improve student
achievement every year, and schools that continue to not demonstrate improvement
should be examined. However, school success should not be narrowly measured by
standardized achievement scores. Improving student achievement is a complicated
task and is done over time. Research has proven many factors contribute to academic
achievements that are not strictly instructional. Specific leadership practices,
educational programs, and positive school culture have been linked to increased
student achievement in schools. The establishment and connection of these three
elements has proven to directly and positively impact student achievement.
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The purpose of this literature review is to examine the evolution of the
accountability movement in the United States and California and its impact on urban
school leaders. Further, this literature review will bring to light leadership practices,
educational programs, and school culture positively influencing student achievement
today. The goal of this review is to identify specific elements and combinations
thereof that have led to increased student achievement in urban schools.
If specific leadership practices, educational programs and aspects of positive
school culture can be identified, other urban school leaders will be able to glean
information to use in reorganizing or fine tuning their schools. Being able to
replicate some or all elements proven to help raise student achievement will allow
urban schools to improve their standardized testing scores. By improving urban
schools’ scores, more students will graduate from high school and college. As the
public watches urban schools graduate more students, public opinion of education
will improve as will the nation’s standing internationally.
The Accountability Movement.
The national accountability movement.
The accountability movement in American education has been in the
forefront of education discussions for over fifteen years; however its beginnings date
back to the Fifties and Sixties. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik I into space to
orbit the earth and served a heavy blow to American ingenuity (Amrein and Berliner,
2002). The next year, President Eisenhower oversaw the development of NASA and
delineated specific goals for Americans to catch up to the Soviets and ultimately
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surpass them in the Space Race. These national political goals had clear implications
for American education (Amrein & Berliner, 2002).
Americans did not want to accept they were behind the Soviets in any arena,
much less education (Amrein & Berliner, 2002). But that was the logical conclusion
the public came to in the aftermath of Sputnik. How could the American education
system not be inferior to the Soviet’s education system if they were first in space?
The quality and rigor of education in America came under scrutiny, sparking
discussions about how to quantifiably improve American schools (Amrein &
Berliner, 2002; Allen, 1994). Although no laws were formally established yet, the
conversation regarding school accountability did not disappear (Resnick, 2002).
Through the Sixties and Seventies, equality and equity of access became a
priority for education. The racial tensions in the nation demanded a shift in focus to
ensure every child in America had the same opportunities to learn and succeed in
school. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 solidified this access
through grants to provide children of low-income families the resources and
supplemental services necessary for them to succeed in school (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2002). This Act became the basis for future legislation.
In 1981, Secretary of Education T.H. Bell established the National
Commission on Excellence in Education to examine the status of the American
education system, domestically and internationally. His decision was based on the
perception by the American public that something was “remiss in our educational
system.” In 1983, the Commission’s publication of A Nation at Risk: The Imperative
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for Educational Reform officially began the national Accountability Movement in
America.
Under the Reagan administration, A Nation at Risk called out for the public
to hold schools accountable for educating all of its young citizens to a higher
standard (Rudalevige, 2003; Marzano and Kendall, 2000). The Commission
identified a “rising tide of mediocrity” whereby other nations were exceeding
America in the world of education. To address this climate of acceptable mediocrity,
the recommendations by the Commission included all students must be given the
same access to a challenging curriculum and then held to the same high standards of
performance. This was the first nationally stated solution to the general feeling of
uneasiness over public education. All schools, from elementary to college, should
demand their students meet higher common standards (Rudalevige, 2003; Resnick,
2002).
The reforms outlined in A Nation at Risk were financially supported by the
local and state governments, and to a lesser degree the federal government. The
federal government was responsible for assisting students that were educationally
disadvantaged. The check on the financial investments by the government agencies
came through standardized tests of achievement to be given at transition periods of
schooling. These tests were a part of the state and local assessment systems already
in place. Review of the standardized achievement tests was not yet mentioned. In
1989, George Bush called an Education Summit in Charlottesville, Virginia with the
nation’s governors to develop national education goals (Rudalevige, 2003).
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By 1994, Goals 2000: Educate America Act officially set forth eight national
education goals for schools to meet by the year 2000. The National Education Goal
Panel (NEGP) was established at that time to monitor the nation’s progress toward
these goals, as well as the National Education Standards and Improvement Council
to oversee development of voluntary state standards and assessments to mirror the
nation’s eight education goals. The NEGP was significant in the national
Accountability movement because it demonstrated a united political agenda to
improve the American education system, and it set forth periodic review of school
performance. Finally, the concept of Adequate Yearly Progress was presented, but
was not detailed in its requirements (Rudalevige, 2003).
The states were then given the charge to voluntarily develop their own state
standards for content and performance areas (Rudalevige, 2003; Massell, Kirst, and
Hoppe, 1997). Many of the content standards produced were complicated, weak, and
cumbersome at best (Marzano & Kendall, 2000). There was confusion over the
necessity for performance standards in addition to content standards, and what
assessments should be utilized to measure student achievement. Further, there were
no penalties for states who did not comply with the voluntary request or if states
lowered their expectations (Rudalevige, 2003; Marzano & Kendall, 2000).
The accountability movement in California.
California has enacted several accountability laws to oversee the progress of
its schools. In 1988, the state Department of Education passed the School
Accountability Report Card law (Education Code 33126) as a way of publicly
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announcing the condition California schools. This law provided the public with
detailed information of programs in place, credentials of the teaching staff, student
demographic information, and a variety of other items related to the productivity of
individual schools (EdSource, 2003). Then in 1997, California began its
development and adoption of content standards in the areas of language arts, math,
history/social science, science, and visual and performing arts (EdSource, 2003).
In 1999, California passed the Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA) to
specifically delineating how student achievement would be measured in the state and
school performance monitored (EdSource, 2003). The linchpin of this Act was the
establishment of the Academic Performance Index (API). The API would be the
objective measuring tool for all public schools in the state of California Schools
would receive yearly scores for their academic progress, comparisons to similar
schools in the state, and results widely publicized. If schools met growth targets set
by the State Board of Education, monetary awards would follow. If they did not,
schools would be identified for possible interventions and ultimately taken over by
state agencies if student performance did not improve for a period of years
(Rudalevige, 2003).
That same year, California enacted the California High School Exit Exam
(CAHSEE). The exam was developed to align with the California state content
standards and be the measuring tool for a minimum standard body of knowledge that
all students would held accountable for in order to graduate (EdSource, 2003). The
class o f2004 is scheduled to be the first official round of students expected to pass
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the test to receive a high school diploma. The CAHSEE has been the source of
heated debate in schools and among communities. Issues of fairness and equity have
been raised in districts with high populations of minority and/or socioeconomic
disadvantaged students. As a result, the “requirement for graduation” may be
postponed or lifted entirely in the future (EdSource, 2003).
The federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 reauthorized the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and is now what drives
educational reform in California (Rudalevige, 2003). NCLB set forth specific federal
goals for the states to implement. States were mandated to ensure all students be
taught by highly qualified teachers by the 2005-2006 school year; all students will be
proficient in reading and math by the year 2014; English learners will be proficient
in English; all students will learn in a safe and drug free school; and all students will
graduate high school.
The federal law’s foundation required every state to develop and implement a
system of measurable accountability. Further, NCLB defined the Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP) by identifying a starting point percentage (Education Trust, 2003).
This was either the percentage of students proficient in a single subgroup, or the
percentage of students proficient in the school at the 20th percentile in the state. A
school will make Adequate Yearly Progress if the school and all of its subgroups
meet the target growth rates for the school and state in Language Arts and Math. If
schools do not meet AYP, the school must offer supplemental services to students
(i.e. after school tutoring). If schools do not make Adequate Yearly Progress over a
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period of years, they must reorganize basic structures and plans in the school. This
was the first time that schools would in fact be sanctioned for not achieving their
growth targets (Education Trust, 2003).
Funding for No Child Left Behind efforts was provided by the federal
government and largely tied to Title I provisions (EdSource, 2003). Under Title I,
schools must address the needs of students living in poverty. California’s
accountability and assessments systems closely align with No Child Left Behind
focus areas, with the exception of ensuring highly qualified teachers are instructing
at schools receiving Title I funds. This area is California’s weakest area. The state
has traditionally experienced disproportionate numbers of less than highly qualified
teachers in urban and poverty stricken schools (EdSource, 2003).
California passed the High Priority Schools Grant Program (HPSG) in 2001,
piggybacking on the national No Child Left Behind Act. The HPSG program
identified schools that were not making adequate yearly progress and schools within
the state of California with the lowest API scores. These schools were selected to
participate in state funded staff development and training programs to specifically
design and implement an improvement plan. If these schools did not demonstrate
improvement, they were at risk for further state interventions (EdSource, 2003).
The accountability movement’ s impact on schools ’practices and cultures.
The accountability movement has affected the way districts and schools are
run and the way teachers teach (Murphy, 2002; Neuman and Simmons, 2000).
School leaders are being held to higher standards for their schools and as individuals
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(EdSource, 2000). Urban school leaders are especially under the gun. The support of
the federal government in Title I funds under the No Child Left Behind law comes
with severe sanctions and interventions should school fail to improve (EdSource,
2000). The pressures to demonstrate performance growth have led some states to
offer administrators accountability contracts (Bushweller, 1999). These contracts are
designed as performance-pay packages, where the school leader receives a bonus for
reaching or exceeding their growth target. By the same token, these performance-pay
contracts make firing administrators easy if they do not demonstrate performance
(Bushweller, 1999).
In an attempt to define the roles of school leaders in the era of accountability,
representatives from twenty-four states formed the Interstate School Leaders
Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) (Jackson and Kelley, 2002). This group developed
and published the ISLLC Standards for School Leaders in November of 1996. These
national standards highlighted the areas school leaders must now attend to in moving
their organizations toward high student achievement. They incorporate focus on
building a vision of learning, a positive and nurturing culture, ensuring the
management of the school supports the learning environment, collaborating with all
facets of the school community, acting with integrity and fairness, and finally
understanding the larger political and cultural context in which the school exists
(Jackson & Kelley, 2002; Murphy, 2002). The ISLLC standards have become the
basis for preparation for principals, superintendents, curriculum directors, and
supervisors across the nation. Further, the ISLLC standards have provided a common
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language for administrators to have meaningful discussions with colleagues about
the challenges and accomplishments facing today’s school leaders (Jackson &
Kelley, 2002).
School leaders in effective schools have relied on distributed leadership
configurations to create a positive school community where the management of the
school supports a focus on student learning (Murphy, 2002; Cross, 2000). Principals
must be the instructional leader at the school and help build a core of teachers that
can take key, active roles in managing the school. These teachers have a solid
understanding of content standards and can design assessments to ascertain what
students know. This core of teachers facilitates reflective instructional discussion
with their peers and is seen as a leadership team in the school community (Murphy,
2002; Cross, 2000). The leadership team of teachers will also pick up many of the
managerial duties not necessary of the principal’s direct attention. Their interaction
to develop a collegial team focused on instruction and attending to managerial
activities to better the school promotes a positive community of learners striving to
improve all areas (Quinn, 2002).
By creating capacity within the teaching ranks at the school, the school leader
is available to act as an instructional leader for the school (Cross, 2000). This
requires the school leader to look at the instructional program at the school, identify
priorities, and design professional development for the staff accordingly (Quinn,
2002). This intentional focus on instruction and time devoted to improving the
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instructional program at the school sets the tone for the rest of the staff, leading to
improved student achievement.
For the staff to commit to what the leader is trying to do, they must recognize
the leader’s abilities and knowledge. Without having a comprehension knowledge of
content standards for all grade levels at the school and the learning process for
students, teachers will be reluctant to commit to the leader’s ideas (Quinn, 2002;
Goldberg, 2001).
Additionally, the school leader must be able to work well with assessment
data (Cross, 2000). Teachers must utilize the information at their fingertips about
their students’ achievement. Often teachers have not had experience in
disaggregating data and are not comfortable basing curricular decisions on data. It is
the responsibility of the principal to show teachers the benefits of using data to guide
their instruction and how it is imperative to use in identifying instructional strengths
and weaknesses based on standards (Cross, 2000). This work with school data allows
the principal to focus teachers’ efforts and improve specific areas of instruction.
To further the instructional agenda, the school leader must recognize and
actively support those teachers who implement strategies offered through the
professional development designed by the principal (Cross, 2000). By highlighting
teachers who base their lessons on standards, follow up with appropriate
assessments, and continually push their students to perform to rigorous standards, the
principal clearly communicates to the staff that teaching to state standards is
important and expected.
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All of these areas that have been affected by the accountability movement in
education are even more poignant in urban schools. According to EdSource in
October 2001, California’s urban schools are overpopulated and highly diverse. Over
six million of the nation’s students are educated in California and with an average
growth rate of 2%, the states urban schools will continue to face overcrowding.
Additionally, twenty-five percent of California students live in poverty and twenty-
five percent are English learners; both groups require special instruction techniques
and support systems to compete with non-disadvantaged students (EdSource, 2001).
As a result of the situation in California, finding an adequate supply of highly
qualified teachers is difficult at best.
Large, urban districts face the accountability movement with trepidation. The
primary focus of API and Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) are test results centered
on high academic standards (McRobbie, 1998). Because urban schools have more of
a challenge than the average suburban school, the state has become proactive in
identifying schools that may need assistance to minimize affects of further neglect.
Leaders of urban schools face intense pressure to turn their schools around. The
threat of takeover for non-performance has created a shortage of qualified,
courageous administrators (Jackson & Kelley, 2002; McRobbie, 1998).
There are some urban schools that demonstrate not only growth, but
supercede expectations. These schools share common traits within their school
structures, programs, and culture. Not all high performing urban schools are set up
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the same way, although similarities exist in the basic fabric of the organization and
internal climate that may have significant implications for other urban schools.
Leadership Practices Impacting Student Achievement
Good administrators today are found few and far between. The
responsibilities of the position are expounding endlessly (King, 2002). Pleasing
parents and the public while meeting governmental mandates is both challenging and
complicated (Ferrandino, 2001). Administrators must be prepared to handle the
needs of the school they are placed in; otherwise the placement of the administrator
will be a mismatch and the school site will suffer culturally and academically
(Holtkamp, 2002; Mohr and Dichter, 2001). The site principal must understand the
external climate in the community, the internal politics involved at the school site
and district, and where the school fits in the grand scheme of society (Rallis and
Goldring, 2000).
As we move further into the new millennium, the look of schools has
changed. No longer are schools homogeneous, one-size fits all institutions. Rather
schools are diverse in demographics, student readiness to learn, and curriculum being
implemented in the classrooms (Snyder, 2002; Tirozzi, 2001). Today’s classrooms
must address the needs of all students, from all backgrounds, and be supported by the
administration if they are to ensure student success (Tirozzi, 2001). School
administrators must be instructional leaders and advocate for continuous
improvement irregardless of the students’ starting points.
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School leaders are expected to show marked increases in students’
achievement levels via standardized testing (King, 2002). Standardized test results
demonstrate the administrator’s ability to run the school and the teachers’ abilities to
teach. Administrators must achieve growth targets in the face of decreasing financial
resources, parental and community pressures, larger and more diverse student
populations, and low teacher morale (King, 2002). However, there are identifiable
leadership practices that have proven to support high levels of student achievement
and academic improvements.
Leadership practices are both formal and informal actions that school leaders
can implement to impact student achievement at their schools. The formal leadership
practices noteworthy of affecting student achievement establish structures within the
school to emphasize shared leadership and develop a focus on instruction.
Informally, leaders further influence student performance by including stakeholders
of the school community in the development of a shared vision. Through a
collaborative effort with stakeholders, the school leader invites stakeholders to take
ownership in the direction of the school and the progress of its students. Being able
to move the school to incorporate structural, organizational, and cultural aspects
proven to be effective is key to increased student achievement in urban school
settings.
Shared decision making organizational structures.
In the era of accountability, today’s leaders must acknowledge the need for a
shared decision making organizational structure to have long-term success (King,
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2002). King points out that leadership must become a priority and a responsibility for
the whole school community, rather than rest solely on the shoulders of the
individual principal (2002). Distributive leadership is a formal leadership practice
that creates opportunities for a wide spectrum of people to utilize their talents for
improving the instruction, the coordination, the internal structures, and
communication between stakeholders of the school; and it is in those conditions
where new leaders are recognized for their contributions, acknowledged, and become
more committed to doing what is best for students (King, 2002; Uchiyama and Wolf,
2002).
This formal structure of shared governance creates collegial connections
bound by a shared focus on improving student achievement (Uchiyama & Wolf,
2002). Teachers want to feel their voices are valued and heard by administrators. By
creating a shared decision making structure at the school, the principal conveys a
team mentality to all. This in turn positively impacts teacher, parent, and student
motivation because they are all part of the decision making process (Blase and Blase,
1999).
Along with the practice of hearing die voices of others, the school leader
must empower others to take initiative to improve student achievement (Blase &
Blase, 1999). If training or workshops will build up the skills of those involved in
decision making roles, the school leader must support that effort. The principal must
also convey to key role players that their actions will impact the students, and as
such the responsibility for shared governance structures is profound. Finally, the
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school leader must allow for mistakes and learning experiences. Not all ideas will
bloom, however creating a safe environment for teachers to explore new ways of
helping students will re-establish teachers’ commitment to instruction and collegial
spirit (Blase & Blase, 1999).
Instructional leadership.
King describes instructional leadership as “anything that leaders do to
improve teaching and learning in their schools” (2002). Individual leaders must tailor
their efforts to the unique needs for their school community. If the school is already
performing well, the leader must encourage continued improvement and challenges.
If the school is in a high crime area, the leader must instill a safe environment while
improving instruction. Whatever the context, the leader must take the lead in
improving the school (King, 2002).
The primary focus for instructional leadership is to create an environment
where learning occurs and is deeply valued (DuFour, 2002; King, 2002; Fink and
Resnick, 2001). School leaders must develop “nested learning communities” where
the focus on continually improving instruction is of paramount importance, under the
guidance of the principal. Therefore, the school leader must lead the way for the staff
by being on the cutting edge of content knowledge and pedagogical concepts (Rallis
& Goldring, 2000). This culture of learning must be supported by appropriate and
timely professional development for the staff. By creating this center for learning for
the adults at the school, the students learning will continue to improve because it is
the focus of the adult learning that is taking place (Fink & Resnick, 2001).
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An area that has developed as part of instructional leadership that is a direct
consequence of the accountability movement is the emphasis placed on data analysis
(King, 2002). Periodic assessments of students’ abilities must inform teachers and
the site administration as to what the teachers need assistance in for developing their
skills, which ultimately translates to improvements in student achievement (DuFour,
2002). The attention to what the data trends illustrate regarding student abilities must
drive the conversations teachers have with each other and the school leader regarding
instruction. And it is the responsibility of the school leader to promote this way of
thinking about and using data (King, 2002).
Vision.
The administrator’s vision greatly influences the direction of the school site
(Scoolis, 1998). As such, it is imperative administrators explicitly develop the
institution’s vision with many stakeholder groups, communicate their vision
effectively, and ensure is intertwined throughout the daily activities of the school
(Fawcett, Brobeck, Andrews, & Walker, 2001; Scoolis, 1998; Bennis and Goldsmith,
1997). The vision of a school should reflect the values, passions, and purpose of the
students, staff, parents, and community (Scoolis, 1998; Bennis & Goldsmith, 1997).
Scoolis (1998) says visions must motivate people to a goal which may go unrealized,
but is possible to achieve.
The school administrator must take the lead in examining and re-examining
the school vision, and then be able to articulate it well (Scoolis, 1998). The school
leader should ensure all members of the school community can understand it, can
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relate it to others, and integrate it daily (Bennis & Goldsmith, 1997). Indeed, the
school leader must shift their focus away from managerial priorities to becoming a
facilitator and guide in the teaching and learning process (Tirozzi, 2001).
Effective school leaders distribute decision-making responsibilities, are the
instructional leaders at their school sites and develop a shared vision for the school
with its stakeholders. Effective school leaders put into place timely and valuable
professional development to create an instructional focus at the school. Effective
school leaders establish a culture of collegial relationships characterized by mutual
respect, create a trusting environment where teachers can take risks with improving
their instruction and knowledge, solid communication with all stakeholders, and
foster a community of learning within the school. By strategically utilizing formal
and informal leadership practices, leaders make student achievement the basis for all
decisions, interactions, and efforts. Improving student achievement becomes a
collective responsibility and celebrated together once it is achieved.
Educational Programs That Support Student Achievement
The programs in place at an educational institution must be aligned,
purposeful, clear, and incorporate high expectations for everyone. In a 1999 study
completed by the United States Department of Education on urban schools,
successful urban schools shared a collective responsibility for high levels of student
achievement and ongoing growth (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). All efforts
were centered on improving student outcomes and teaching skills. School leaders
established a community of committed individuals through structured time for
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collaboration, focus on standards-based instruction, professional development, and
increased parental involvement. The combination of comprehensive efforts and
adherence to a shared vision brought about systemic reform and positive results for
students (U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
Collaboration.
Research overwhelmingly links high levels of student achievement to the
collaborative efforts of teachers (DuFour, 2002; King, 2002; Obiakor, 2000; U.S.
Department of Education, 1999). Collaboration puts many minds to work with a
single focus, leading to efforts done in concert to achieve the focus. In successful
schools, that focus is increased student achievement (Johnson, 2000; Obiakor, 2000).
Further, successful urban schools hold a steadfast belief that all children can achieve
high levels of performance (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). This high
expectation of students is widespread through the school community, and resources
are allocated to overcome environmental barriers associated with urban students
(EdSource, 2000).
In addition to having high expectations for all students, collaborative
educational teams rely on data to drive instructional decisions (Elmore, 2002;
Johnson, 2000; King, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Teams must
examine student work and assessment data in a timely manner. Immediate response
and feedback for both teachers and students allows modifications to the instructional
program to take place and improvements to be made. Data months after the fact do
not help teachers guide their instruction according to the students’ needs. School
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leaders must work with teachers to evaluate common assessments. By participating
in the collaborative process, the school leader validates and emphasizes the
importance of the activity (DuFour, 2002).
Standards-based instruction.
Today’s accountability system in California centers around content standards
for all subjects. Schools’ Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and whether they meet
their Academic Performance Index (API) targets determines funding levels for
schools and the amount of pressure schools will endure from district officials. In
essence, if a school reaches its State determined targets reflects upon the capabilities
of the school leader. However, beyond the accountability movement pressures faced
by school leaders, student achievement is measured as a function of how much they
know in relation to State standards. Student knowledge is measured through district
and state assessments, which reflect the content standards. Therefore, it is in the best
interest of the students for teachers to plan standards-based instruction. And it is in
the best interest of the school leader to provide time and structured activities for
teachers to improve their knowledge and expertise in working with the standards
(U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
It is imperative school leaders ensure what is going on in the classroom
corresponds to what students are expected to know according to standards (Sirotnik,
1999). This is standards-based instruction. Additionally, school leaders must allocate
time and resources for work to be done by teachers and administrators to grapple
with the standards and plan (Sirotnik, 1999; U.S. Department of Education, 1999).
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Professional development.
In order for leaders to effectively use the valuable professionals working for
them, leaders must provide structured, timely, worthwhile professional development
as part of the school culture and support its overall formal learning community focus
(King, 2002; Fink & Resnick, 2001; Tirozzi, 2001). Effective professional
development is directly related to issues of instruction and learning, and must occur
on a regular, ongoing basis (King, 2002). Intellectual conversations between
professionals must be prompted at first, but will naturally lead into informal teaching
discussions because teachers will have a new mindset based on improving the
instructional program for the students (Fink & Resnick, 2001).
The extent to how much the school leader should be involved in the
professional development of the teachers has been subject to debate over the last few
years. Because the demands on the principal are so great, there is little time left to
participate in activities that are not of paramount importance. It is widely believed
that the value of quality professional development to the school leader cannot be
minimized (Barkley, Bottoms, Feagin, and Clark, 2001; Fink & Resnick, 2001).
However, the value of direct participation of the principal has been questioned.
According to Fink and Resnick, the school principal cannot be an all-knowing
individual, expert in every aspect of instruction and curriculum (2001). Therefore,
school leaders must create a culture of learning for the teachers to become the
experts and share that knowledge with their colleagues, but allow the teachers to take
the lead. As teachers improve their skills, the shared skills will transfer into better
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instruction and overall increases in student achievement without much involvement
by the principal. The principal must only be able to identify the key factors in
effective instructional practices; the content and specifics should be left to the
teachers (Fink & Resnick, 2001).
The other theory regarding professional development is that promoting
professional development is not enough (Barkley et al, 2001). If the principal is not
leading the professional development sessions for the teachers, the principal should
attend the sessions provided by outside contractors to support the teachers’ learning
and encourage the learning community culture (Barkley et al, 2001). By the school
leader attending the professional development sessions with the teachers, it conveys
to all that learning how to improve the teaching craft is everyone’s responsibility and
is expected (Wagner, 2001).
Although the debate of the degree of involvement of the school leader on the
professional development of teachers, one thing is quite clear: teachers need focused
guidance to improve instruction. This guidance must be designed by the principal to
meet the specific needs of the students and staff. School leaders, like the teachers, are
now accountable themselves to standards. One of the standards developed by the
Council of Chief State School Officers, Leaders Licensure Consortium for school
site principals involves building and nurturing an environment focused on student
learning and professional growth for its staff (1996). As school leaders have become
more and more accountable to the public, the impetus placed on quality professional
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development has risen. Thus, it is in the best interest of school leaders to participate
and guide the formal instructional focus at the school.
School Culture
School culture is an informal element of school structure, but impacts the
school, students and staff unlike anything else. It is through the culture of an
organization that employees express “This is the way we do things around here”
(Deal and Kennedy, 1982). It is what newcomers feel as they enter an institution.
School culture is unique at every site and changes with each principal’s leadership
style. Yet it is undeniable that school culture directly impacts the school’s overall
effectiveness and productivity (Deal and Peterson, 1999). It provides structure and
focus for classroom instruction as well as incorporating new people into its
community (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Bolman and Deal, 1997). Establishing a positive
school culture could be the most important informal leadership practice for an
administrator because the culture affects what occurs in the classroom, the staff
lounge, on the playground, and exchanges between adults (Fink & Resnick, 2001;
Mohr & Dichter, 2001; Deal & Peterson, 1999).
Building a learning community.
Positive school cultures promote professionalism among teachers,
collaboration for instructional excellence, mutual cooperation and support, and a
high focus on student achievement (King, 2002; Mohr & Dichter, 2001; Louis,
Marks, and Kruse, 1996; Newmann and Wehlage, 1995). Emphasizing the
importance of the “learning community” for all individuals at the school site will
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lead to student achievement growth by virtue of high expectations for all, and
making student achievement the highest priority (King, 2002; Fink & Resnick,
2001).
It is the site administrator that must take on the formal advocate role for
developing the professional practices which create the learning community at the
school (Mohr & Dichter, 2001). Mohr and Dichter offer the site leader must promote
an environment where teacher collaboration and collective responsibility to the
success of the students is paramount (2001). Administrators must provide teachers
the structured time and opportunity to take an active part in the ongoing growth of
their individual classrooms and the institution as a whole (King, 2002; Lambert,
2002; Quinn, 2002; Mohr & Dichter, 2001).
Teacher motivation.
When teachers are motivated and learning, student achievement increases
(King, 2002; Fink & Resnick, 2001). In order to motivate teachers, school
administrators must attend to the school’s culture by specifically creating an
environment that supports the immense responsibilities placed on teachers. By
attending to their needs, the school leader informally conveys to teachers what they
do is important, and classroom instructional excellence is the first priority at the
school (Deal & Peterson, 1999).
This can be difficult if the site administrator is new to the school, or if the
current administrator alters their expectations (Mohr & Dichter, 2001). Mohr &
Dichter found when implementing change, teachers will undoubtedly be resistant,
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and it is up to the leader to guide them into acquiring new skills and procedures that
will support the new ideals (2001). However, a leader can get caught in a power
struggle with the teachers at the site if change is imposed upon them forcibly (Mohr
& Dichter, 2001).
Trust.
Building and sustaining relationships between administrators and school
employees is vital to the long-term success of the school. It is the responsibility of
the site administrator to ensure all individuals feel valued and respected every day
(Wagner, 2001). When teachers feel the culture in the school promotes a safe
environment that encourages risk-taking for the betterment of student achievement,
teachers will tackle challenges they have in the past avoided (Mohr & Dichter,
2001). Teachers want to make a positive difference in the lives of their students and
will rise to the occasion if given the opportunity and the support to conquer the
insurmountable (Lambert, 2002; DuFour, 2001).
Administrators must work diligently to develop a trusting relationship with
their teachers and staff. Administrators must provide teachers and staff members the
opportunity to stretch beyond their comfort zone and know they will be supported
even if they do not succeed (Sokolow, 2002; Mohr & Dichter, 2001). Too often,
administrator proffer they believe in the individuals that work for them, but find it
extremely difficult to relinquish control over important projects (Jacobs and Langley,
2002). Dangling autonomy over a project that is significant to students’ achievement,
and then rescinding the decision making power creates animosity and distrust
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between the administrator and those involved in the project. Alternatively, formally
providing teachers the opportunity, authority, and accountability for key decisions at
the school inspires deeper dialogue between colleagues to improve the quality of
instruction (Lambert, 2002).
As teachers begin to feel more comfortable with the support they are given by
the administration, they will start to work as teams and increasingly collaborate
(Wagner, 2001). Wagner (2001) also believes teachers will take ownership for their
continued instructional improvement as they discuss student performance and
outcomes, begin to visit one another’s classes, and providing each other with healthy,
constructive feedback regarding instructional practices. This kind of peer dialogue
will ultimately lead to increased student achievement levels, according to Wagner
(2001), and drive the instructional focus of the school.
To develop a positive, trusting school climate, a school leader must have a
collaborative nature. School leaders must be able to develop solid interpersonal
relationships with district officials, teachers, community members, parents and
students to access resources and support of the educational program (Thompson,
2003; Hams, Smith, and Hale, 2002; Rallis & Goldring, 2000). Also, successful
school leaders generate an openness that stimulates honest dialogue and encourages
risk-taking in a high trust environment. These traits have been cited as what has led
many schools from good to great institutions and to overcome environmental barriers
associated with demographic or socioeconomic status (Harris, Smith, & Hale, 2002;
Collins, 2001).
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Communication.
Successful administrators are able to communicate effectively with a variety
of audiences (Domenech, 2002). In the era of accountability, administrators are
constantly bombarded by multiple stakeholder groups interested in the decisions
administrators have made, what the outcomes were, and how they affect the special
interests of the stakeholders (Domenech, 2002; Wagner, 2001). Therefore, leaders
must be able to persuade and tailor information for specific purposes that align with
the vision for the school (Domenech, 2002).
Public school administrators are constantly in the public eye, and must be
effective speakers (Domenech, 2002). Domenech (2002) stresses the importance for
leaders to be able to control and utilize gestures and body movement to being adept
at debate tactics when speaking in public forums. Of equal consequence for
administrators, is possessing knowledge of the audience. Also, knowing the school
community gives the administrator an understanding of prior experiences individuals
base opinions on, and how to guide the community to support what is trying to be
achieved. Last, being proactive in developing a professional relationship with the
media will generate more positive press coverage than if an administrator is
continually taking a defensive stance with reporters (Domenech, 2002).
Teachers need to trust their administrators and have opportunities to
participate in the decisions concerning the direction of the school through a shared
leadership governance structure. Many administrators proffer the significance of
including stakeholders in the decisions of a school; however have difficulty in
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adhering to teachers’ recommendations. In turn, teachers have difficulty trusting the
administrators if they do not stick by their word. Trusting professional relationships
lead the way for innovations and risk-taking. These are behaviors administrators
want to encourage to focus on instructional improvement. By taking a risk with their
instruction, teachers become energized and committed to the success of their
students. Therefore, administrators must nurture the relationships with teachers and
include them on a regular basis in decisions. This will aide in developing trust
between the administrator and the teachers.
Conclusions
The accountability movement in the United States has greatly impacted the
way schools are run and the decisions that are made. Urban school leaders must
adapt to changing government mandates, the scrutiny of the public, varied student
ability levels, and the challenges of meeting the needs of a diverse student
population. Identifiable leadership practices proven to be successful include shared
decision making organizational structures within schools, the school leader operating
as an instructional leader, and developing a cohesive vision with valued stakeholders.
These activities facilitated and encouraged by the school leader can significantly and
positively affect student performance.
Educational programs have also proven noteworthy in school reform
movements to improve student achievement. Teachers require structured time to
collaborate about their profession. It is during this intentional time together where
ideas are shared and instruction centered on standards takes shape and flourishes.
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School leaders must acknowledge and respect the time of teachers to promote this
kind of work at schools. To further the knowledge and skills of the teachers, the
school leader must oversee relevant, timely professional development. Incorporating
the teachers’ needs and desires for professional development furthers their interest
and enhances their work. The ongoing support of the school leader engenders
professionalism in the school, translating to a focus on student achievement.
Finally, the culture of a school reflects its leadership and has significant
impact on student achievement. Teachers need to trust administrators and have
opportunities to participate in the decisions concerning the direction of the school.
Many school leaders proffer the significance of including stakeholders in the
decisions of a school; however have difficulty in adhering to stakeholder
recommendations. Trusting professional relationships lead the way for innovations
and risk-taking. These are behaviors leaders want to encourage. By taking a risk with
instruction, teachers become energized and committed to the success of their
students. Therefore, school leaders must nurture relationships with teachers and
include them in decision-making.
When a school benefits from an alignment of leadership practices,
educational programs, and a positive school culture that marked student increases
emerge. All three factors are essential and interrelated in their influence on student
achievement. This study will examine a successful urban school to cultivate a rich
story from which other urban schools can learn and apply in new situations. This
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study will add to the discussion about what works in urban schools and provide
three-dimensional look into how urban students are succeeding in schools.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
In order to identify leadership practices in Californian urban schools which
have exceeded their expectations, a case study approach will provide the most
comprehensive data. The case study method tells a story of a specific school that has
consistently exceeded its Academic Performance Index in California. Case studies
extract information from multiple sources, both written and verbal, to uncover the
uniqueness about the setting being studied (O’Connor, 2002; Bassey, 1999).
This study included data collection techniques to gather information
regarding the school culture, programs in place, staff preparation and ongoing
development, and demographic information about the students and staff. There are
several ways this sort of information can be gathered, however using a variety of
methods will allow the study to have the greatest depth and establish reliability of
findings through triangulation of data analysis (O’Connor, 2002).
Research Questions
This study specifically focused on answering the following questions:
1. What programs are in place in schools, which have exceeded academic
expectations?
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2. What leadership practices are in place in schools, which have exceeded
academic expectations?
3. What is the school culture in schools, which have exceeded academic
expectations?
Research Design
In order to identify leadership practices in Californian urban schools which
have exceeded their expectations, a qualitative research design will provide the most
comprehensive data. Specifically, this qualitative case study tells the story of a
specific school that has consistently exceeded its Academic Performance Index in
California. A qualitative case study allows for storytelling and use of a common
language approach to evaluation (Merriam, 1998). The case study extracted
information in natural settings from multiple sources to retrieve thick descriptions of
the students, staff and leadership (Bassey, 1999; O’Connor, 2002).
This study developed a complete picture of a school exceeding its API
expectations and included data collection techniques to gather information regarding
the school culture, programs in place, staff preparation and ongoing development,
and demographic information about the students and staff. There were several ways
this sort of information can be gathered, however using a variety of methods allowed
the study to have the greatest depth and established reliability of findings through
triangulation of data analysis (O’Connor, 2002).
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Validity.
Utilizing the case study approach for the qualitative research design produced
questions of internal and external validity. Issues concerning internal validity with
the study included maturation and experimenter bias. The maturation of subjects
involved in the study may have influenced their perceptions of the leaders at the
school sites. Teachers at the beginning versus the end of the school year might have
had differing perceptions regarding their administrator. Many teachers experience a
renewal of energy and optimism at the start of the school year. This could have
tainted their views regarding the school leader’s effectiveness and personal
characteristics that influence the student achievement at the school.
Experimenter bias could have also affected the internal validity of the case
study. The experimenter may have conscious or unconscious beliefs regarding the
leadership style of the administrator that participated in this study, as well as
personal beliefs regarding the necessary leadership characteristics that move schools
from ordinary institutions to extraordinary institutions. The basis of case study was
on what the researcher found interesting, which could influence the conclusions of
the research findings. The experimenter is also familiar with the ideas of Bolman and
Deal, and could have influenced the results of the study to support the authors of the
leadership assessment tool.
The internal and external validity questions raised were mitigated by the
empirical data provided by the researcher concerning the specific characteristics of
the school studied. Findings from qualitative research designs are generally
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applicable to schools of similar characteristics as the case study school. It was the
responsibility of the researcher to provide the critical information objective readers
require to make informed decisions about the applicability of the study to their own
situations. Simultaneously, it is the responsibility of the reader to ensure the
environmental factors existing in the case study are like their own (Anderson, Herr,
andNihlen, 1994).
The selection of the school itself calls into question the generalizability, and
as such the external validity, of the research findings (Anderson, Herr, & Nihlen,
1994). The case method approach is contextual. It emphasizes what is presenting
questions in daily practice and looks to solve them through some treatment
(Anderson, Herr, & Nihlen, 1994). In this case, the treatment was the individual
school leader selected to lead the school. The principal selected was chosen by the
Superintendent and Board of Education based on criteria specific to that institution.
Another principal possessing an alternate leadership style may or may not have
produced similar student achievement results. As such, the leadership style of the
selected school leader was unique to the setting of the school, its demographics,
community values, and the attitudes of its staff. Indeed, generalizing the findings
from the study compromised some of its validity; however, in California the nature
of urban public school issues are similar regardless of the exact school community
aspects.
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Assumptions.
The assumptions made around the study were that all responses given in
interviews and surveys were provided freely and with a degree of honesty. The
school studied already demonstrated its ability via Academic Performance Index
scores to accomplish high student achievement. It was assumed that using the API
was a valid measure of student achievement and scores were not manipulated. It was
assumed effective leadership practices were reflected in Bolman and Deal’s Four
Frames (Bolman & Deal, 1997). Finally, it was assumed for the purposes of this
study that the school had a structured framework of programs and aspects of a
positive school culture that supported student achievement.
Limitations.
The study was conducted in only one school and therefore results may not
generalize to other urban schools. The study was limited to the rate of return of
surveys distributed and may not have reflected the feelings, ideas, and input of the
entire school population. The selection of the school studied was limited to a pool of
schools that have performed well on the Academic Performance Index over the last
three years. The study was limited to a brief time period and may not have reflected
the long-term characteristics of the school.
Delimitations.
The study was delimited through an in-depth analysis of an individual school
that met set student achievement criteria determined by the researcher. The study
was delimited by the range of subjects contacted, including school administration,
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certificated personnel, classified personnel, and parents of students at the school. The
study was also delimited by the instrumentation developed by the researcher
designed to focus on the areas of leadership practices, programs in place at the
school, and its culture.
Population and Sample
The Los Angeles Unified School District is located in the central part of Los
Angeles County. The Los Angeles Unified School District serves more than 110,000
students from pre-Kindergarten through grade twelve. Approximately one-half of the
Los Angeles students are English Language Learners, and over 40% of the students
qualify for Title I assistance, as evidenced by the data gathered from the Stanford
Achievement Test, Ninth Edition (SAT 9), in 2002.
According to the SAT 9 results from 2002, the majority of the students in the
Los Angeles Unified School District are classified as under-performing compared to
the national normed test data. To address the needs of the under-performing students,
the Los Angeles Unified School District has attempted to develop their own
administrators from within the Los Angeles system when possible, who have
experience working with Los Angeles schools, but also have recruited outside the
District to find qualified administrators. This study was conducted to determine what
impact the principal’s leadership style had on the selected school.
The Los Angeles Unified School District was divided into sections or eleven
“Local Districts” to create smaller learning communities and improve the efficiency
of school administration. Local District H served densely populated East Los
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Angeles and parts of South Central Los Angeles with one special education center,
fifteen children centers, one primary center, thirty-seven elementary schools, seven
middle schools, five continuation high schools, three high schools, one occupational
center, and three community adult schools. The families in Local District H were
primarily Hispanic, both long-standing families and new immigrants from Mexico
and Central America. Over 82% of the students served participated in the federal free
and reduced lunch program, and approximately 60% of the students in Local District
H were designated as English Learners. This English Learner percentage was the
highest percentage of all the local districts in Los Angeles Unified. Local District H
was supervised by the Local District Superintendent, Rowena Lagrosa.
The selected school was an elementary school in the Los Angeles Unified
School District, Local District H. The elementary school was a Kindergarten through
grade six school, where 512 students were enrolled on a single track calendar. The
average class size for grades 1st through 3rd was 18.7 students. The average class size
or grades 4th through 6th was 28.8 students. The elementary school was the only
elementary school in Local District H to retain their sixth grade students at the
elementary site, making it a Kindergarten through sixth grade school. All other
elementary schools were Kindergarten through fifth grade and sent their sixth grade
students to the middle schools.
The elementary school served a homogeneous student population. 99% of the
students at the elementary school were of Hispanic origin, 0.4% of the students were
Asian-American, and 0.6% of the students were White (not Hispanic). 74% of the
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elementary school students were identified as English Learners and 100% of the
students qualified as participants in the federal free or reduced lunch program.
The elementary school students came from the neighborhood, where the
many of families lived in apartment complexes or single family dwellings within the
community. The elementary school in seat attendance percentage was 95.96% for the
2001-2002 school year, a slight decrease from the previous school year of 96%
(2000-2001).
The average parent education level was 1.93 on a scale of 1 to 5. Parent
education level 1 represented the parent responding did not graduate high school.
Parent education level 5 represented the parent responding attended graduate school.
With an average of 1.93, the majority of the elementary school parents did not
complete high school.
The student achievement scores for the elementary school were noteworthy.
Out of the 512 students enrolled at Marianna Avenue, 334 students were tested in
2001-2002. The 334 students tested represented 99% of all 2n d through 6th grade
students at the school. Marianna recorded a score of 713 on the 2003 Academic
Performance Index (API). This was an increase of 93 points as compared to the
previous year. In 2002, Marianna recorded a score of 609 on the API, illustrating a
49 point growth rate over 2001. In 2001, Marianna recorded a score of 523, an
increase of 25 points. The elementary school has made Adequate Yearly Progress
(AYP) for the last three years as well. Additionally, Marianna placed in decile 2 of
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elementary schools statewide in 2001-2001 and in decile 7 when compared to one
hundred similar schools in the state of California.
On the California Standards Test, the elementary school averaged 12.2%
students in grades 2 through 6 who scored at the Proficient or Advanced levels in
English Language Arts. This was an increase of 4.8% from the previous year (2000-
2001). In the Math section of the California Standards Test, an average of 20% of
Marianna students in grades 2 through 6 scored at the Proficient or Advanced levels.
California Standards Test for Math test data was not available for the 2000-2001
school year.
The elementary school employed 30 teachers in the 2001-2002 school year.
23 teachers were folly credentialed, 5 teachers were emergency credentialed
(includes District Internship, University Internship, Pre-Interns, and Emergency
Permits). Additionally, 14 teachers possessed bilingual certification, 5 teachers had
District A-level fluency, and 7 were certified in English Language Development.
The elementary school provided multiple ways of empowerment for teachers,
staff, parents, and community members. Teachers or staff members were elected to
or voluntarily participated as Grade Level/Department Chairs, members of the
School Advisory Council, the Bilingual/Bicultural Council, and the Shared Decision
Making Council.
Instrumentation
A variety of data collection instruments was utilized throughout this study to
enhance the validity of findings through triangulation (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994;
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Gall, Gall & Borg, 2003). The researcher utilized several instruments in gathering
data and included a survey, interview protocols, observations, and review of
available documents. All instruments were constructed by the parallel dissertation
group, Dr. Stuart E. Gothold and Dr. Terrence E. Deal, guided by current literature,
and addressed the research questions of the study.
Observations were conducted over a period of three months of visitations to
the elementary school, January through March 2004. Observations were conducted at
staff meetings, lunch time in the student and faculty cafeterias, classrooms, computer
lab, auditorium, offices, playgrounds, and activities on the exterior of the school
buildings. Observations were conducted between the times of 7:00 a.m. and 6:00
p.m. The researcher was given permission to observe any part of the school with the
caveat by the principal of not writing down notes until outside of classrooms. The
researcher recorded observations through note-taking of activities and interactions.
Survey.
A survey was the initial data collection method for the case study (See
Appendix A). The survey was distributed to staff members at a faculty meeting with
a brief explanation of the case study. The introduction set the tone for the staff
members to complete the survey with the frame of reference being the
distinctiveness of their school’s successes. At the same time, it provided the
researcher the opportunity to begin the observation process and develop relationships
with the staff. The staff surveys were turned in to the main office secretary within
one week.
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The survey provided a wide range of contacts with people involved with the
school in a short amount of time. Survey questions were open-ended, providing for
the person completing the survey to go as in depth with their answers as they chose.
The open-ended structure of the survey also illuminated areas to discuss with
individuals during the subsequent interview process.
The survey information was used by the researcher to identify trends in the
perceptions of the school staff. The researcher used information gathered to structure
interview questions to flush out ambiguous subjects when there appears to be
conflicting views. Finally, the surveys pointed the researcher in the direction of those
individuals who are willing to discuss aspects of the school in a case study setting.
Interviews.
The most noted data collection technique for qualitative studies was the
interview process (O’Connor, 2002; Bassey, 1999). Interviews provided a deep
knowledge through the insights of people within the setting being studied, as well as
the underlying expectations and unwritten rules that exist in the school’s culture
(Deal & Peterson, 1999). Interviewees had various frames of reference that play into
their perceptions of the existing culture and structures within the school. As a result,
the interviewer had to establish a sense of trust with interviewees to gain a complete
picture of the setting (O’Connor, 2002; Bassey, 1999; Deal & Peterson, 1999).
The researcher had to take into account mitigating factors that could have
influenced interview responses when determining what gleaned information from the
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interview meant for the study (Deal & Peterson, 1999). To aid in analysis, the
researcher took written notes of interviews (Bassey, 1999).
Interviews were structured in two ways: as focus groups and individually.
Both techniques are useful to the researcher in the case study approach (O’Connor,
2002). Focus groups allowed the researcher to quickly see intra group dynamics,
begin to develop trust with the staff members, understand some aspects of school
culture, observe how conflict was handled, and gather information to specifically
designed questions. Individual interviews, on the other hand, provided insight into
what is going on with specific individuals, the story behind the story, including
perceptions regarding culture and organizational structure they may not have been
stated in front of their peers (O’Connor, 2002; Deal & Peterson, 1999).
Specifically, at the selected school site, key individuals (both formal and
informal players) were interviewed to get under the skin of the organization (Bolman
& Deal, 1997). The researcher began by interviewing the most identifiable formal
player, the principal, to get an overall feel of the institution. The researcher asked the
principal about the leadership structure at the school, the programs in place, and to
describe the culture of the school. The researcher anticipated the principal describing
the school’s strengths in detail. The researcher also asked about the school’s informal
leaders within the teaching staff and support personnel on campus to get an idea who
she viewed as internal leaders at the school. Finally, the researcher asked the
principal about any other people or organizations that provide assistance to the
school.
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The researcher interviewed the main office secretary and head
custodian/plant manager. These two individuals were informal, but key players in a
position to observe many things at the school. They were an invaluable resource to
the researcher in conducting the study of the school culture. The secretary and head
custodian interacted with all staff members daily, both on a formal and informal
basis. The leader, the teachers and the other staff members came to them with
problems, as well as to share stories and successes. Parents and students came to
them with questions and problems to solve or to find the answer to. They saw how
the principal and teachers interacted with students and parents. The secretary and
head custodian knew the culture of the school like the back of their hands. And, they
were also able to provide the researcher with the names of additional people to talk
to as the researcher observed the culture and the inter-workings of the school.
Teachers were another important source of information as the researcher
examined the culture of the school, the programs at the school, and the leadership
practices that were in place. The insights of the teachers illuminated the priorities of
the leader and what was attended to by the teachers and staff. What the teachers
perceived as important was a direct consequence on what the principal spent time
discussing, recognizing both formally and informally, and supporting. Priorities may
have been a result from district pressures associated with accountability and test
scores; it might have been something completely unique to the school, or both.
Regardless of the source of inspiration for the principal, what she highlighted as
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important effected the culture of the school, the teachers’ motivation, and students’
achievement levels.
The researcher sought out specific formal leaders, namely the teachers that
participated on the school’s Leadership Team. The Leadership Team teachers
worked directly with the principal and community members on shared leadership
councils. They were privy to the principal’s leadership style both inside and outside
the organization. Additionally, the Leadership Team teachers were considered the up
and coming leaders for the larger organization, the school district. The Leadership
Team teachers were looking to move up the ladder of position in the district to
eventually become school leaders of their own schools. They provided a different
perspective on the principal’s actions and priorities than the classroom teacher that
wished to remain in the classroom.
The researcher also interviewed informal teacher leaders. This group of
teachers may or may not have been veterans of the school, but possessed an
enormous amount of power. Their support or opposition dramatically affected the
implementation of ideas put forth by the principal.
Finally, the researcher interviewed other stakeholders in the school
community. Parents, students and community members had a special perspective on
the school’s priorities. Their views were primarily based on student performance.
These stakeholders looked at individual student reports (their children) as well as the
entire school’s achievement reports. The school’s report was published as the School
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Accountability Report Card, the local newspapers usually carried them, and it was
accessible via the Internet.
Observations.
Although interviews are traditionally the most common form of data
collection for qualitative studies, the power of observation should not be minimized
(O’Connor, 2002; Bolman & Deal, 1997). Formal and informal observations
revealed the true culture of the organization being studied- what was valued, what
was not, who were the leaders, and who were not. There could have been differences
in what people told a researcher, and what they did not. It was only through
observations in natural context that unique characteristics and traits of the
organization came to light and the real story unfolded (O’Connor, 2002; Bassey,
1999; Silverman, 1997).
Like the interview process, people being observed reacted to people being
interviewed (Bassey, 1999; Silverman, 1997). That is, people under observation may
or may not be acting as if they would without being observed. Therefore, it was
essential the observer set the context for the subjects prior to observing, made every
attempt to establish a sense of trust, and maintained just the right amount of distance
to the subjects (Bassey, 1999; Silverman, 1997). The researcher carefully examined
what was being observed as facts, under the cultural context it existed in.
Subcultures and microcultures develop and endure within larger school
cultures (Silverman, 1997). Subcultures and microcultures at the school were the
groups teachers naturally separate themselves into during meetings, social
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gatherings, etc. Subcultures and microcultures impact the environment and were
addressed included in the study. The observer was somewhat impaired by his/her
objectivity. What occurred at the school setting was unique to its culture and only a
person familiar with the cultural undertones could have a nativist perspective
(Silverman, 1997). Therefore, it was imperative to compare information obtained
during observations with interviews and observations (Silverman, 1997).
To fully comprehend the cultural aspects of a school, the researcher made
several observations over time (Bassey, 1999; Bolman & Deal, 1997; Silverman,
1997). The researcher/observer became part of the culture temporarily to make sense
of prior observations, interviews conducted and documents reviewed. It was when
the multiple experiences were put together that the true cultural puzzle took shape
(Bassey, 1999; Silverman, 1997).
Observations were conducted at specifically determined time frames and
areas in the school (Bolman & Deal, 1997; Deal & Peterson, 1999). Teachers travel
patterns to, from, and during the school day revealed commitment levels of the
teachers. Where and with whom teachers ate lunch with illustrated the collegial spirit
present at the school site. The frequency and type of special activities planned for the
students demonstrated the importance placed on creating meaning and a sense of
community amongst the students, families and staff. By conducting numerous
observations, the nuances of the culture were identified and could be retold by the
researcher (Bassey, 1999; Bolman & Deal, 1997; Silverman, 1997).
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Documentation review.
Reviewing documentation in an educational qualitative case study further
clarified elements of a school that are of importance. Reviewing the School
Accountability Report Card, the Single School Plan, audits that have been
conducted, staff resources (including the Teacher Handbook), organizational charts,
minutes of meetings, parent newsletters, and other artifacts from school events
enhanced the story of the school and highlighted areas for further research (Bassey,
1999; Silverman, 1997).
Looking at what was in written form at the school site confirmed and/or
contradicted what was spoken by the administration. Documents set forth in written
form what is expected of employees, what the school perceives of itself and projects
to the community (Silverman, 1997). This form of collective representation set the
tone for interaction between staff members, parents, students and community
members. Thus, by examining the documentation at the school and then returning to
the observational fieldwork and conducting further interviews, the researcher’s story
of the organization became richer and thicker (Silverman, 1997).
The School Accountability Report Card and the Single School Plan provided
the researcher with in depth information about the school. The SARC and the School
Plan are revised annually and published in accordance with accountability laws for
the public. Both documents contained information regarding school facts. Some of
this information included student demographics, school safety, attendance, class size,
suspensions, and expulsions.
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Both documents also contained information about student achievement.
Student achievement information included student performance levels on the
California Standards Test, the California Achievement Test, 6th edition, or Stanford
Achievement Test, 9th edition, Academic Performance Index results, and locally
developed assessments by districts. The SARC included information about teacher
credentialing status for the school, the composition of the school staff, an overview
of professional development, teacher salary, and an overview of basic expenditure
categories and services for the school. The Single School Plan contained information
about categorical programs, including the budget allocations to support the programs
in place at the school.
These documents provided the public and the researcher an in depth picture
into the school, its students, its teachers’ experience and knowledge, and its
programs. They were extremely useful to the researcher as a basis in becoming
familiar with the school. If a school did not perform well on some or all of the
achievement measurements, there is enormous pressure to improve from all levels.
As a result of this unspoken and spoken pressure, the culture can be affected.
Alternatively, if a school performed well, the leader, teachers, and students
welcome visitors and create a positive environment. This positive environment lends
itself to increased teacher collaboration and higher student achievement levels
(Barkley et al, 2001). Schools that perform well on accountability measurements are
not affected by the same pressures as underachieving schools. This does not
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however, mean high achieving schools can relax. On the other hand, these schools
must demonstrate student improvement as well.
The teacher information from the SARC described the leader’s value placed
on teacher quality and success in teacher retention. The SARC had information
regarding teachers’ credentialing and certification. The percentage of teachers not
fully credentialed were either new to teaching or continuing to work toward a
credential. These teachers, still taking classes, do not possess the same skills as fully
credentialed staff members. School leaders, districts, and the state are all working to
fully credentialed staffs as per the No Child Left Behind Act (2001).
Hand in hand with the information regarding the teachers’ credentialing and
certification status is the section of the SARC on professional development provided
for the staff. The emphasis placed on professional development illustrated the
leader’s interest in aiding the teachers’ proficiency and skills in education. The
extent to which the leader supported the learning of his staff members affected the
skill of instruction the children received in class, ultimately affecting student
achievement levels.
The school and individual classroom results from the standardized testing
were another significant element of information for the researcher. It provided
context to observe the content of staff meetings and professional development. Areas
of testing where the majority of the school did not perform well, how that is handled
by the administration and the teachers defined their frame of reference for school
improvement.
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Meeting minutes were a useful source of information. Meeting minutes
depicted what was viewed as important to the teachers involved. The leader may
have formally presented new instructional strategies to the teachers in a staff
meeting, but it is only if a discussion of those instructional strategies followed in
smaller settings was it truly deemed worthy of the teachers’ time. Therefore, finding
out what the teachers were concerned about informally, illustrated whether the
priorities of the leader matched the priorities of the teachers.
Data Collection
The principal of the elementary school agreed to release the information
collected to the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education, for
the purposes of this study. The survey used with the staff was distributed February
10,2004 and was initially collected February 17, 2004. Reminder notices were
distributed to the mailboxes of all staff members and posted in the main office to
complete and turn in the study by February 20,2004. The researcher made a final
pick up of surveys on February 20,2004.
Interviews were conducted over a period of three months, January through
March 2004. Interviews were conducted with the informed consent of all
participants. Interviewees were approached to participate through recommendation
of interview candidates by the principal. The principal was familiar with the staff and
provided guidance in approaching participants who would be willing. Staff members
were also given the opportunity to volunteer to be interviewed by the researcher by
approaching the researcher on their own or by contacting the researcher by
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telephone. Interviews were conducted through set times and informally. Interviews
lasted between five and twenty minutes.
Data Analysis
The data analysis conducted by the researcher involved triangulation of data
collected. The goal in the data analysis was to identify cause and effect explanations
for phenomenon found at the school site. Significant phenomenon included elements
of the leadership practices, educational programs and school culture which positively
influenced student achievement. These elements were identified through
documentation review, survey, interviews and observations. Specifically, the
researcher was looking for details that were imperative for student success. It was the
existence of particular, identifiable characteristics of the study school that were to
add to the educational community at large.
Significant phenomenon was identified by their repeated nature during
interviews and observations. For example, the methodology instruments were
constructed to facilitate thoughtful reflection by the participants on what makes a
significant, positive difference for the students in their school. Answers to the
interview and survey questions were compared against the researcher’s observations
and documentation review to determine the reliability of the participants’ statements.
If statements could be verified through triangulation of data analysis, the content of
those statements would be considered to be relevant phenomenon positively
affecting student achievement and meaningful for the researcher’s findings.
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Conclusion
Telling the story of an individual school involves interviewing key people,
observing the school staff in their natural context, and extensively reviewing the
documents pertaining to school operations, development of staff members and its
students. Through this process of triangulation, a clear picture will emerge of the
culture of the school and its valued priorities. The true story of the school will unfold
with each visit to the site and interaction with stakeholders. What is uncovered about
a school exceeding its expectations can assist others schools still working toward
reaching their set academic targets. By learning from schools that are successful,
other school leaders can emulate structures and processes that support student
learning and achievement.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
It was a typical day for Professional Development at school. The dismissal
bell rang, the teachers, followed by excited children in line with backpacks in tow,
began pouring out of the classrooms and headed to the playground area. Parents
lovingly greeted their little ones who recounted the day’s activities without taking a
breath. The teachers acknowledged the parents before they departed and spoke
briefly with a few moms and dads.
Inside the Main Office parents and teachers asked for extra copies of the
latest newsletter from the principal and checked upcoming dates for parent
involvement activities. Meanwhile, the teachers drifted toward room 1, a classroom
converted into a Professional Development meeting room for both teachers and
parents. Within ten minutes of the bell ringing, the teachers were seated by grade
level telling stories of amusing things the children had done that day and sharing
score reports from the latest math assessment. The first topic on the agenda was not
applicable to the Kindergarten, 1st grade, and Special Education teachers, so they had
been given time to plan together or work in their rooms.
The principal was not present yet; however the Title I Coordinator began by
describing to the teachers the packed agenda for the meeting. Side conversations
ended quickly as the coordinator introduced the Literacy Coach and a lead teacher
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who were going to discuss the upcoming reading assessment. The lead teacher had
been to a District meeting about the reading assessment and brought back to the
teachers answers to a list of Frequently Asked Questions compiled by District
teachers. The lead teacher read through pertinent information, offering his personal
perceptions of reasons behind policies set by the District. The lead teacher
encouraged discussion of potential difficulties arising with the assessment. He
acknowledged that although they (the teachers) may not agree with the reasoning or
decisions made by the District, they were professional and would act in accordance
with the District’s policies and expectations.
There was a discussion that emerged considering their grading policies in
relation to the reading assessment. There was a trend that teachers within the school
graded more strictly than teachers from other schools in the local and central
districts. As such, the grades given to sample student work papers at the school were
lower than what the same papers had received by a pool of District representative
teachers. The lead teacher attributed the discrepancy to the high standards the
teachers at this school held for the students. Further, they should continue to do so
because the achievement levels for the students were a tribute to their capabilities if
held to high standards, even if the rest of the District’s schools continued with lower
standards for their students. The teachers unanimously concurred.
The teachers next received information from a different teacher who had
attended specialized training for teaching English learners, followed by a brief
discussion regarding the upcoming math assessments led by the Math Coach. About
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ten minutes later, the teachers were given the rest of the professional development
time to work. The teachers worked in grade levels or individually to finish scoring
their math assessments and discuss their score reports. During the work time, the
Literacy Coach, Title I Coordinator, and Math Coach circulated the room answering
questions and clarifying for the teachers.
The principal came in at the end of the informational section of the
professional development. She sat down with the upper grade teachers to get an
update of what they were working on and a summary of how those teachers’ classes
had performed on the math assessment. The teachers reported their scores to the
principal and asked for her opinion and suggestions as to ensure the students
continue to improve. The principal provided some feedback, but structured the
discussion around what the grade level teachers thought would be their next steps in
light of the data being analyzed.
The principal had been handling a student situation for the teacher presenting
the information about the reading assessments to the teachers. The student did not
want to go home with her father. The teacher had gone to the principal for guidance,
who took over the situation for the teacher, sending him on to finish his preparations
for the Professional Development session. The principal met with the student and
father to assess the circumstances. After talking to the child, the principal decided it
was in the best interest of the child to call for the police to come speak with the
father. The principal did not want to become entangled in a custody dispute. The
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father was upset with the principal, but she held her ground about involving the
police in the best interests of the child.
After completing the math score reports, the teachers were free to leave for
the day. Many teachers lingered, continuing their discussions from earlier or thinking
through activities to extend student learning opportunities. The Literacy and Math
Coaches continued to work and discuss curriculum with individuals and small groups
of teachers. The principal circulated throughout the room, connecting with everyone
remaining. The principal solicited feedback from the teachers she spoke to regarding
the Professional Development time. The teachers responded positively to the time
allocated for working on their math assessments and looking at their score reports.
The teachers also were appreciative of the information provided to them about the
upcoming reading assessments. They told the principal it helped them in planning
their instruction and they felt prepared to give the assessment.
Throughout the course of this study, some themes emerged from the data that
were illustrated during the Professional Development day. First, the principal of the
school was guided the instructional program of the school and monitored its
progress. She was an instructional leader for the teachers, she encouraged and
expected shared decision making responsibilities, and she developed people to build
the overall capacity and strength of the school. Second, the instructional programs
were aligned with each other and focused. The teachers worked hard together to
ensure their instruction met the needs of all children. The principal and teachers held
students to high expectations and took ownership for the successes and shortcomings
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of the students’ achievement. Finally, the culture of the school was supportive and
referred to as familial. Teachers knew each other professionally and personally.
Many staff members came from within the community and their own children
attended the school. These identifiable themes when put together translated into
consistent, significant increases in student achievement for urban students.
Leadership Practices.
The principal of the elementary school had a hard-nosed reputation in the
Local District. Other principals as well as District personnel saw her as a person that
would do “whatever necessary” to increase student achievement at her school,
whether the teachers liked it or not. The teachers at her school tempered there
descriptions to “tough,” and “demanding of excellence.” The teachers felt the
principal expected them to “conform to her ways unless they had ample evidence
they should try an alternative to her way.”
The principal indeed had a structural feeling about her. The principal’s office
was lined with bookcases filled with binders on every subject she needed to know
about from the “Single School Plan” to “Teachers’ Schedules” to “Parent
Involvement.” The Master Calendar for the school was posted above the binders,
with neat and color coded commitments written for each month. The principal’s desk
was large and rectangular with the principal’s chair on one side, two chairs for
visitors on the other. A few photos of children and student work samples were
displayed on top of her filing cabinets.
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During the first interview, the principal discussed the logistics of the school,
the programs, the teachers, students and parents. Her demeanor was business-like
and she occasionally paused to shout out commands to the office manager and the
custodian over the radio. However, during subsequent interviews and interactions,
the principal’s demeanor softened considerably. She frequently inquired as to the
progress of the study and asked if there was anything she could do to help. This
softening confirmed the teachers’ perception of the principal. They believed her
“hard exterior was her way of getting everything done that she needs to for the
success of the children; however she was really not as tough as she appeared to be.”
And, as an upper grade teacher noted, “the principal’s drive for academic excellence
had really pushed the entire staff to hold their students to high standards of
achievement that the students have lived up to.”
The principal did several things to organize her school to become a high
achieving urban school. Through both formal and informal leadership practices, the
school became a reflection of the principal’s ideals and dedication. The principal
focused on identifying key people to distribute leadership responsibilities. By
utilizing the leaders within the school to handle many of the organizational details,
the principal could keep a global perspective for the school. The principal trusted her
support personnel to provide quality professional development for the teachers and to
support those teachers who needed extra help.
The principal also believed in developing people within the school; some in
defined leadership roles and others that had not yet seized an opportunity. The
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principal actively encouraged staff members who demonstrated “spark” in the way
they completed things or related to people to take more personal risks that would
simultaneously help the school. She then acknowledged those individuals for
developing skills and utilized them to the benefit of the school.
The principal was viewed by her staff as an instructional leader. She visited
classrooms on a daily basis and commented on the high quality work being done and
talked with the students about meeting the State standards. She expected teachers to
become education experts, and understood learning was a continuous process. The
principal expected her support staff to orchestrate quality training that would help
teachers hone their skills and increase their knowledge. The teachers were expected
to use what they learned in their classrooms to foster increased student achievement.
The principal expected the students to live up to the high expectations their teachers
held for them.
Finally, the principal had high expectations for the parents. Parents were
expected to knowingly participate in their child’s education by participating in parent
training, family nights, and to talk with their children and teachers about their child’s
progress to meet State standards. The principal was a firm believer that if you hold
people accountable for accomplishing great things, they will rise to meet those
expectations.
It Takes Time.
The principal of the school had been at the site for over eleven years. She has
worked hard to shape the school and the people in it. By her own account, the
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principal attributed part of the school’s success to the people she has hired and the
few she let go. Of the thirty staff members, only five were not hired by the principal.
The principal identified part of what made her school successful was “hiring the right
people and [she] had a knack for it.”
When interviewing candidates, the principal focused on an individual’s
energy, intelligence, and willingness to learn. Interviews were commonly low-key
and more of an exchange about what the person did in their free time and what they
felt passionate about. The principal stated she relied on her “intuitiveness” about
people. She felt by providing an avenue for candidates to talk about what interests
them during an interview, she could determine if they were “a good fit for the
school.” The principal “did not rely heavily on a candidate’s knowledge of teaching
because that information was primarily book knowledge.” She was more interested
in the kind of person the candidate was as a whole. The principal felt a candidate’s
personality and goals were more important to ascertain in predicting success and
longevity at the school.
Instructionally, the principal focused on implementation of programs proven
to help students achieve. The elementary school implemented Open Court four years
ago and the teachers felt it has provided them a succinct structure for instruction.
Through the years, the Literacy Coach and Bilingual Coordinator have organized
professional development and training for teachers to enhance their skills and
expertise in teaching the Open Court program to their student population. The
principal attended many training sessions herself to become proficient in the reading
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program. During her daily classroom visits, the principal observed the
implementation process for Open Court to assess the teachers’ abilities to deliver the
instruction. When the principal believed a teacher needed guidance or assistance, she
connected the Literacy Coach at the school to work with the teacher. By providing
the assistance through the Literacy Coach, the principal conveyed the importance of
improving the teacher’s skills, rather than focus on the evaluative nature of the
principal’s role.
The school adopted the America’s Choice program in the 2002-2003 school
year. This reform program was implemented throughout the Local District for one
year. The America’s Choice program was subsequently dropped by the Local
District; however the principal had seen increases in student achievement which she
believed was tied to elements of the America’s Choice program. Therefore, she
decided to keep key elements of the reform program intact at the school.
Specifically, the principal kept the Million Word Campaign, the Book of the Month,
and the Writers’ Workshop components from the America’s Choice program. The
principal felt these “components of the America’s Choice program had proven
beneficial to students and therefore important to the success of the school,”
regardless of whether the America’s Choice program was retained by the Local
District. Teachers were then expected to continue the three programs components,
and the principal highlighted the dedicated bulletin boards to the Million Word
Campaign, the Book of the Month, and the Writers’ Workshop in every classroom at
the school during school tours and Learning Walks with the staff.
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The Writers’ Workshop program was greatly emphasized for the 2004-2005
school year. The teachers that had focused on Writers’ Workshop the previous two
years had seen drastic increases in student achievement. Teachers believed that
because the students had regular, intensive discussions as part of Writers’ Workshop,
in conjunction with daily practice in writing, their language skills and vocabulary
increased. The students’ improvements in language and vocabulary positively
influenced their reading comprehension and standardized achievement performance.
When the teachers analyzed their performance data with their instructional
emphases, the writing and reading connection became clear leading to a school-wide
focus the current school year.
Distributed Leadership.
The principal of the elementary school also structured the organization to
distribute leadership responsibilities. Teachers, staff, parents and community
members regularly participated on decision making bodies that oversaw budgetary
issues and planning processes instrumental to the daily operations of the school. The
Local School Leadership Team addressed staff development, the school master
calendar planning, and other issues needing consensus from stakeholders. For
instance, the school had traditionally celebrated Cesar Chavez Day, Dia de la
Muerta, and Cinco de Mayo. At one of the Local School Leadership meetings, a
member brought up combining the celebrations into a Latin Festival. The rationale
offered was to “lessen the time spent preparing for these events, that took away
instructional time and focus from the teachers.” The Local School Leadership
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member offered that although the individual events were important to the community
and culture of the school’s families, the goal of the school was to educate children.
As a result of discussion and consensus of the team, the school changed the master
calendar and its traditions to support the instructional focus and collective
responsibility felt by the stakeholders. The decision was supported by the teachers.
Another way distributed leadership was evidenced at the school was through
Learning Walks. Learning Walks were a District activity the principal participated in
at the Local District level with other elementary principals. The intent of Learning
Walks was to illuminate and share school successes across the District and provided
feedback for the principal regarding the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional
programs. The principal brought this idea back to her site staff and implemented
within the school. The principal had the Learning Walks led by Literacy Coach and
Math Coach to lessen the evaluative pressure for the teachers. The principal “trusted
the coaches to handle the responsibility.” Teachers visited one another’s classrooms
six times throughout the year to look at English Language Arts and Math, although
the two subjects were not done concurrently.
The decision to bring Learning Walks to the site level was not required by
District. The principal and teachers already shared ideas within their grade level on a
regular basis through grade level meetings, professional development time, and
informal teacher meetings. Establishing set times for teachers to identify curricular
links across many grade levels provided a holistic view and “collective perspective
for teachers which they previously lacked.” The coaches ensured all teachers had the
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opportunity to participate effectively and have their voice heard by their colleagues
by splitting them into primary and upper grade level groups to create intimate
groups.
The Learning Walks were led by the Literacy and Math Coaches,
respectively by subject. Teachers shared out their observations for the visited
classrooms while the coaches recorded their responses and helped facilitate
discussion. The teachers noted evidence for their observations. At the conclusion of
the Learning Walks, the coaches led the teachers through a dialogue for “Next
Steps.” The Next Steps activity “pulled what they had seen together and developed
recommendations as primary and upper grade teams for future work,” as noted by
the Literacy Coach. Their frame was centered on what the teachers saw, and how
they could continue to improve their instruction to help raise student achievement
levels. The concentration of the Learning Walks mirrored the Writers’ Workshop
drive at the school. The attention of the teachers was to identify what was working,
supported by evidence, and to replicate that success in all classes.
Building Leadership Capacity.
The principal was known throughout the Local District and within the school
for identifying quality people. The Bilingual Coordinator stated her principal “gave
people opportunities to learn and shine, and supporting them when they decided to
take a promotion.” The principal was an expert at picking out people in the
classroom to help them learn new leadership skills they could later employ at the
site.
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For example, the Title I/Bilingual Coordinator began as a teacher assistant at
the school. The principal saw her ability for working with children and encouraged
her to become credentialed as a teacher. The woman completed the teacher
credentialing program and was hired by the principal to work at the school. After
spending six years in the classroom, the principal gave her the opportunity to take on
the Title I/Bilingual Coordinator position. Three years later, the coordinator was
ready to become an assistant principal and the principal helped point her in the right
direction. Prior to the coordinator’s departure, the principal discussed with her who
would be her successor for the coordinator position. The principal did not hold ill
will for the loss of the coordinator at the school because the principal believed she
had “many other capable people to fill the void.” And by working for a principal
who was committed to the development of other people, the Bilingual/Title I
Coordinator “could discuss [her] future replacement with the principal because she
too began to look at people’s strengths that they could bring to a leadership role.”
High Expectations.
As a result of the hard work done by the teachers, the principal had great trust
and expectations in her teachers to provide quality instruction for the students.
During professional development time, grade levels were allowed to work in their
rooms if the topic was not applicable to their grade level. For example, Special
Education, Kindergarten and First grade students are not assessed in the same
manner as grades two through six. Therefore, the principal gave “those teachers time
to work on whatever they needed to while the other teachers discussed upcoming
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assessments.” The principal had “no doubt the excused teachers were working.”
They were not checked in on, and when it was time for them to join the rest of the
staff, they were right on time and came in without disruption.
The same high expectation regarding instruction by the principal carried over
to the teachers’ credentialing status and professional growth. Twenty-six of the thirty
teachers at the school had clear credential status, and fifteen had their Bilingual
Cultural Language and Acquisition Development (BCLAD) or Cultural Language
and Acquisition Development (CLAD) certificates. The BCLAD and CLAD
certificates were the state certificates for working with Limited English Proficient
students. In East Los Angeles, the BCLAD and CLAD allowed teachers to provide
all groups of students at the school the best possible instruction.
The teachers also held themselves accountable for becoming “instructional
experts.” Not only did they know their grade level curriculum, teachers extended
their own learning to understanding the needs of a diverse student population and the
learning process. Teachers studied the works of Linda Darling-Hammond in depth
and actively discussed the implications for their students. Teachers brought articles
and books on educational topics to share with their grade level colleagues and the
teaching staff at large. Conversations were oriented “away from an individual
teacher’s students to a collective responsibility for the school’s students.” Teachers
deliberated effective instructional strategies and theories of learning, and came to
consensus on what they would implement to engender the best results for their
students.
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In concert with the school’s collective focus on instruction and learning,
teachers worked toward aligning all programs and resources at the school to support
those efforts. Out of classroom support staff redefined their roles to give assistance
to teachers in all forms- modeling techniques, providing materials, etc. to ensure
instruction could be at its best. Teacher assistants were provided for all classrooms at
least three hours per day. It became paramount for all elements of the school to be
working toward the same outcome of high student achievement.
Educational Programs.
The educational programs at the elementary school supported high standards
and expectations for all students. The curriculum at the school was aligned to State
standards in all areas, and teachers followed a District pacing plan for reading and
math. The Bilingual Coordinator provided staff development for the teachers on
addressing the needs of English Learners using the English Language Development
(ELD) standards of California and creating a portfolio for students to demonstrate
mastery of ELD content.
Professional Development time was designed by teachers to address the
needs of the students as they arose and to increase teachers’ expertise in the
curricular programs at the school. Discussions regarding student achievement
centered on current student work samples to provide teachers a timely avenue for
their conversations with colleagues, parents and the students themselves. Teachers
were willing and comfortable with sharing their students’ work samples with each
other in the pursuit of higher student achievement. Student work was shared with the
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students and parents to create “accountable talk” with the families. Accountable talk
was dialogue facilitated by the teacher to focus the students and parents on the
importance of using the language of the State standards for assessing student
performance. It gave the families and the teachers a common language to use for
discussion and to develop action plans to help increase student proficiency levels.
Systematic Instruction.
The Open Court reading program was implemented at the school four years
ago. The Los Angeles Unified School District adopted the program because it was
research-based and had proven successful in other large urban districts in the United
States. The Open Court program stirred debate amongst teachers due to its highly
uniform delivery method of instruction. At the elementary school for the study, there
were a moderate percentage of teachers skeptical of its implementation because they
were content with the former reading program. The principal assured the teachers of
the benefits of Open Court for the students and they all went to training.
As part of the Open Court program, all students were assessed every six
weeks. The assessments were broken into sub-groups of concepts and measured the
mastery level of the students. Teachers were able to use this information to reflect on
their instruction and expertise of the Open Court implementation. How well students
performed on common assessments determined whether teachers needed to revisit
concepts or not. Teachers shared with one another strategies for instruction and
lessons that were successful for their students. These “polished stones” were passed
amongst the grade level teachers to improve student achievement on the whole.
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Teachers whose students did not score as well on the common Open Court
assessments were eager to try a different strategy that had proven successful for a
colleague. Teachers were secure and open about their own learning as teachers. The
teachers viewed one another as valuable resources where “the best ideas [were] the
ones shared, not stolen.”
Teachers also participated in ongoing training for the curricular programs
utilized at the school. The principal and instructional coaches designed the trainings
and meetings to support the teacher’s instructional needs in all content areas. For
example, the teachers were not clear as to the structure of a new Math assessment
and its implications for their instruction. Therefore, the next Professional
Development time was used to walk the teachers through the assessment and what
information could be gleaned by the teachers to reflect on their instruction. The Math
coach emphasized the importance of having all the teachers on “the same page”
before they conducted the assessment. “By having a uniform vision of the goals for
the math assessment, being a measuring tool for their instruction, the teachers would
be able to have meaningful conversations about the assessment.”
The teachers met regularly to analyze student data from District and program
assessments as well as teacher created assessments. The teachers met together to
determine areas of strength and weakness of the students, and to collaborate on
effective instructional strategies they could share. The teachers also discussed the
value they found in creating rubrics as grade level teams. By creating rubrics in their
grade level teams, they could “express to the students what they would be measured
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on prior to the assessments. The rubrics were based on the State standards and gave
the students the knowledge of what they were expected to know and be able to do in
relation to those standards.” Teachers then met with the students with the rubrics
after conducting the assessments to discuss where the student excelled and where the
student needed to continue to improve to meet standards.
Commitment to Success.
Along with timely professional development, teachers did whatever they
could above and beyond their job responsibilities to help the overall instructional
program. The principal noted that her “teachers consistently stayed late into the
evening to finish work, rather than leave it until the next day, even on a Friday.” She
said she felt “very thankful to have such a hard working staff.” Planning occurred by
grade level teams in and outside of the school grounds. It was not unusual to have
grade level teams meeting at teachers’ homes on weekends.
Teachers also took it upon themselves to write grants for the betterment of
the school. One teacher worked in conjunction with a team of teachers to write a
Reading First grant. The Reading First grant was awarded and brought in $400,000
to the school in resources. The teachers were able to purchase equipment and
materials to support the instructional program and student achievement. Teachers
were able to attend conferences and participated in additional professional
development activities.
Each teacher received four new computers in their classrooms through the
funding as well. The computers were equipped with Microsoft and educational
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support programs and made it possible for the majority of student work in the upper
grades to be produced using word processing and publishing programs. All efforts
made possible through the Reading First grant funds supported student mastery of
five key early reading skills mirrored in the Open Court reading program: phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension.
The lead grant writing teacher did not receive any materials above and
beyond what the other teachers received, even though he did the brunt of the
paperwork. The teachers were proud of the accomplishment for their school and
informally celebrated the achievement in the honor of the lead teacher. When the
Reading First grant was awarded, the staff celebrated the achievement in his honor.
Support for the Instructional Program.
The school supported the instructional program through enrichment and
intervention programs. Enrichment and intervention programs were designed to
perpetuate and reinforce literacy and math skill development. Students participated
on a voluntary basis for intervention programs; however some families were
recruited to participate if their children were identified as below basic proficiency or
far below basic proficiency on standardized assessments.
The school had a unique enrichment program for the students. The school
developed an Arts Cadre of teachers to focus on building curricular connections to
Visual and Performing Arts (VAPA) classes. The students participated in dance,
painting, music, and drawing classes on a rotating basis at five week intervals. The
students were led by real world artists who donated their time to work with students
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at the elementary school. The Arts Cadre of teachers met on a quarterly basis with
the artists working with the students to inform the artists of the curriculum content
for the students and a broad overview of the standards they were learning. The artists
included the Visual and Performing Arts standards in the lessons for the students and
established connections for them to the content areas.
Students also participated in computer classes to enrich the academic
program. Teachers brought their classes to the computer lab on campus once a week
or biweekly, depending on teacher preference and need. The computer teacher
emphasized the connection between reading and writing for students. The students
worked on vocabulary and writing tone, as well as developing computer skills.
Computer skills the students acquired included Word Processing and presentation
formats. The students produced final work products from Writers’ Workshop and
various group projects for Social Studies, Science and Math.
Intervention classes were held before and after school for students struggling
with skill development in reading and math. The classroom teachers were
compensated for the work with the intervention students through the Reading First
grant. Students participated three days per week throughout the year. Classes were
held in the school’s library and were at a ten students to one teacher ratio in the
2002-2003 school year. During the 2003-2004 school year, funding levels were cut,
which increased the student to teacher ration to 20:1. As a consequence of the
increased student to teacher ratio, fewer teachers were able to participate and the
classes did not produce the same results for student achievement.
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The school had used Open Court as their reading program and curriculum
since 1998. However, the Local School Leadership, led by the principal, continued to
examine supplemental materials to assist the skill development of the high
population of English Learners at the school. The High Point program was utilized in
the central and local districts by many middle schools to help English Learners.
Since the elementary school retained its sixth grade students, an anomaly in the
organization of the District, the Local School Leadership Team felt the High Point
program could benefit their sixth grade students. After researching the program and
talking with other administrators who had purchased the program, the principal
decided to bring the High Point program to the school. Teachers were trained in the
materials and teaching strategies and the principal purchased all of the program
components. The Local District contacted the principal and told her if the school
wanted to use the High Point program with the school’s sixth grade classes, it was
fine with the Local District; however if they chose to implement High Point, it was a
complete reading program and the sixth grade teachers could not use Open Court
simultaneously. Because the school had experienced such noteworthy success with
Open Court, the principal did not think twice about shelving the High Point
materials, despite the expended funds.
At few weeks after the decision not to implement the High Point program, the
principal donated the High Point materials to the neighboring middle school using
the total program with their English as Second Language students. The middle
school was grateful for the donation, but anticipated the elementary principal would
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look for a return favor in the future. The elementary principal’s reputation in the
District among the other administrators reflected her drive toward excellence and her
“quid-pro-quo” disposition.
Consistency.
As a reflection of the principal’s drive toward excellence, all classrooms at
the school had certain structures and elements the same. The principal’s belief was
there were identifiable traits within the school that could be linked to the students’
increased academic performance. Among these identifiable traits were the school-
wide concentration on the Book of the Month, Writer’s Workshop and the Million
Word Campaign. While these concepts originated with the Local District’s adoption
of America’s Choice, the principal kept these programmatic elements in place after
the District pulled out of the contract with America’s Choice. Her thought was these
programs were instrumental in developing a commonality among teachers and
students that provided an avenue for educational dialogue throughout the school and
its families. The teachers concurred with the principal’s ideas and continued to
implement them the subsequent school year. And, the principal believed that
although individual teachers could adapt the programmatic elements according to
their needs and personality styles, every teacher would participate in the school-wide
foci.
A tour of the classrooms with the principal at the school proved this to be
true. Teachers had displays for Book of the Month, Writer’s Workshop and Million
Word Campaign. The displays reflected varying degrees of emphasis for the school-
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wide foci, but all classrooms incorporated them to some extent. The principal
pointed out and discussed the influence of each program on student achievement and
highlighted their positive impact by noting student work samples as evidence. “The
teachers’ work with the students’ writing has been just outstanding,” the principal
said.
The student work samples for Writer’s Workshop was the most important
school-wide emphasis for the 2003-2004 school year. The Writer’s Workshop time
allocation in every classroom was a sacred time devoted to improving the writing
skills of the students. It was the main topic of grade level discussions and
professional development time. Teachers were committed to “get everything they
could out of the students” with their writing. The student samples on display in the
second grade classes contained three paragraph and essay writing. Students utilized a
variety of sentence structures and vocabulary words. The sixth grade writing samples
were multi-paragraph, multi-page writing pieces with the finished products produced
using a word processing program on the classroom computers. Additionally, the
upper grade classrooms included clip art and pictures downloaded from the Internet
to support their ideas. The Writer’s Workshop program was a focal point in the
school for all and a fulfilled expectation of the principal.
School Culture.
When interviewing the staff at the elementary school, the first thing said by
nearly every person interviewed about why their school has experienced such
remarkable high student achievement levels was that “every person at the school
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from the principal to the teachers to the classified and custodial staff worked
extremely hard.” The next attribute cited for their success was the sharing nature of
the teachers. Finally, the teachers pointed to the expertise of their “benevolent
dictator,” the principal. Although the teachers felt the principal was strict, they
believed she was a good instructional leader who knew what worked. Through these
encompassing characteristics of the school, their culture was supportive,
collaborative, and challenging.
Collective Responsibility.
The principal established a tone at the school for teachers to be serious about
their work. Professional development was structured to assist teachers in any way
necessary for them to implement high quality instruction in their classrooms. She
expected professional development to be researched based and timely for the
teachers. The principal charged the Local School Leadership team to continually
looking for proven strategies and ideas to bring back to the site for discussion and
possible implementation. Education journal articles and books by known authors in
the education field were frequently the topic of conversation for meetings and
professional development time. The principal and stakeholders were committed to
providing their students the best possible instruction available.
The principal herself kept abreast of the latest research in the educational
community. She recently enrolled in a doctoral program and supported many
teachers through continuing educational programs for their self improvement. She
engaged people in conversation about what was best for the students using their
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professional expertise as a foundation. As a reflection of the staffs drive to
becoming instructional experts, five of the thirty teachers at the elementary school
have received the National Board Certificated Teacher status.
This standard of high expectations for the principal, teachers and support
staff in turn carried over to the parents and community. The principal and teachers
conveyed to the parents they expected them to participate effectively in the education
of their children. The Literacy and Math Coaches, along with the Bilingual and Title
I Coordinator regularly met with parents to teach them authentic strategies used daily
in their children’s classrooms. For instance, the Literacy Coach orchestrated a parent
training for the Open Court reading program. Parents came during the school day to
meet with the Literacy Coach to learn strategies the teachers used with the students
to help them learn to read and comprehend. The parents were given materials to take
home to use with their children that directly mirrored what they had in the classroom.
The focus for the parent training was that the education of students is a collective
responsibility and if the parents wanted their children to be successful, they could
help by contributing at home in an educated way.
The parents appreciated and responded to the level of expectation with which
they were treated. The parents felt by having the coaches teach them actual strategies
used in the classroom, they were confident in what they were doing at home. In
previous parent meetings, they had been told to read with their children on a nightly
basis; however they were unsure about how that was actually supposed to look like
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at home. The structured nature of the trainings since the implementation of the Open
Court reading program gave them discrete tools to use with their children.
The principal also encouraged parents and volunteers to enroll in teacher
credentialing and paraprofessional courses. Using her knack for identifying quality
people, the principal approached parents and volunteers that worked effectively with
the students to join the staff at the school. These people were able to develop skills
they had not pursued while the principal increased the capacity of the people
associated with the school. Many of the teachers began as teaching assistants and
completed their student teaching requirements at the school. These teachers
pointedly cited the principal’s influence as instrumental in their lives.
Share Everything.
The teachers at the elementary school shared with each other. They shared
ideas, resources, and supplies. They shared stories about students, their challenges,
and successes. They shared their personal lives. Whatever the need, someone
provided. They trusted one another implicitly.
The sharing and trusting nature of the staff was evidenced through an
interview with a new teacher at the school. It was the first teaching position for the
new teacher. Although she had never taught before, the veteran teachers at the
school viewed her as capable because she had been hired by the principal. The
principal’s standards for teachers were high and as such, the teachers trusted her
judgment. This given confidence in the new teacher’s abilities “pushed [her] to work
harder to live up to the expectations everyone had for [her].”
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During the new teacher’s first weeks at the school, the coaches worked with
her to set up her classroom and to help get her acclimated to the school. The coaches
chatted with the new teacher while they were setting up the classroom, intentionally
providing pertinent information for her. This approach to inducting the new teacher
allowed the coaches to keep an eye on the new teacher and engender her trust.
The grade level teachers also worked with the new teacher in planning and
designing lessons. The grade level teachers met with the new teacher as a group
numerous times and dropped by her room during the first weeks of school to help
with any difficulties that arose. Because the academic programs at the school were
structured to ensure all students received the same information regardless of what
classroom they were in, the new teacher was able to plan with her colleagues and
they showed her what to do. The teachers were given latitude within the overriding
program structure; however keeping in step with the grade level cohorts was
essential for the school’s success. The grade level team continually checked in on the
new teacher and gave her options for extending the students’ learning to enhance the
structured lessons.
The high level of expectation to be in step with the grade level teachers
flowed into cross grade level discussions about student achievement. Grade level
groups of teachers met with the grade levels above and below their own to relay
information about where the instruction was strong, and where the teachers needed to
focus. This cross level dialogue minimized the time spent at the beginning of the
school year reviewing concepts that were not covered the previous year. By
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establishing the necessary skills for the students on a regular basis, the teachers
purposefully maximized the instructional time.
In that same tone, teachers collaborated about their instruction on a weekly
basis. The teachers had time set aside through their professional development
schedule to work and plan together, but the teachers decided it was not always
enough. Therefore, grade level teams met for planning beyond their required time via
their contract. Grade levels met during their lunch breaks, after school and on
weekends to talk through instructional units and plan lessons. The teachers felt by
collaborating, the students received the best instruction because they worked
together.
A Sense o f Family.
The closeness of the staff at the school was demonstrated by the way the
people spoke to each other, what they spoke about, and how they spoke of others
during interviews. They likened their closeness to a family. They enjoyed one
another and spent a great deal of time together. One teacher said she “could not
imagine ever leaving the school because [she] would miss the relationships” she had
built with her coworkers, in addition to believing “their closeness had made [her] a
better teacher.”
The teachers ate together in two shifts every day in the small lunch room
adjacent to the student cafeteria. The primary grade teachers ate from 11:30 a.m. to
12:15 p.m., while the upper grade teacher ate from 12:00 p.m. to 12:45 p.m. This
daily forty-five minute lunch period allowed for the teachers to develop strong bonds
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that affected their professional and social regard for each other. The teachers said
they often worked on instructional issues while they ate; but they also were able to
get to know each other as individuals. Many teachers spent personal time together,
outside of school.
Their professed closeness was observed in the lunch room. The teachers
drifted into the lunch room in twos and threes, but they all sat at one round table. As
teachers came in, they pulled more and more chairs over, as they scooted around to
make room for everyone. One teacher had brought a new brand of potato chips she
had discovered and homemade dip for everyone to try. The bag sat in the middle of
the table while they all reached in. The teachers listened to the latest student stories
told by a second grade teacher. Side conversations developed and dispelled, although
even the teachers who had side conversations came back to the group discussion to
contribute their thoughts. The teachers cited the lunch time interaction as critical to
the development of their friendships and closeness.
The familial air among the staff members reflected onto the students. Many
teachers at the school “looped” with their students. “Looping” refers to when a
teacher continues onto the next grade level with the same set of students from the
previous year. For example, a teacher would teach the same group of students for
both second and third grades. The teachers at the school felt looping with the
students extended their relationships with the students and families in the same
fashion as the relationships they had developed with their coworkers. Looping
allowed teachers to “minimize the start up time at the beginning of the year with the
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students because they were already familiar with [the teacher’s] classroom
management and instructional strategies.” The teacher was able to “dive right into
content” and they had relationships with the students’ families already established
that supported student learning.
Finally, looping provided the students with consistency in instruction. The
teacher knew how to differentiate curriculum for the particular group of students
based on the needs and strengths of the students already ascertained from the
previous year’s work. It was through these continuous relationships that instructional
time was maximized and student achievement was positively impacted by looping.
The familial feeling was also illustrated with the Teacher Assistants and
Educational Aides. Many of the people employed as Teacher Assistants and
Educational Aides came from the local community and had children that attended the
school at some point in time. These people primarily began as volunteers, later to be
hired by the principal because of their abilities to work with children. These people
had a vested interest in the success of the school and the children. As a result, they
were committed to intensely working with students who needed extra time with a
one-on-one adult or in small groups.
During recent budget cuts, the Local School Leadership Team looked at
possibly cutting the number of teacher assistants and educational aides to reduce the
expenditures for the school. The Local School Leadership Team did not want to cut
the positions because the teacher assistants and educational aides had been employed
or volunteered at the school for decades. The Local School Leadership Team viewed
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them as family members of the school, and therefore did not cut the numbers of
assistants and aides. The budget problem was discussed informally among the
teacher assistants and educational aides. Because of their strong vested interest in the
success of the school, a small group of the aides decided to take an early retirement
in order to reduce the school budget expenditures without having to fire anyone.
Trust.
All staff members interviewed discussed the deep level of trust they felt at the
school. The established trust was attributed to many things. First, the teachers said
because their staff was so small, they knew everyone. With only thirty teachers
employed at the school, their grade level and school-wide professional development
meetings were small enough for everyone to contribute and be heard.
Second, the teacher turnover rate was very low. The average length of
employment at the school for the teachers was ten years. This allowed for deep
relationships to develop professionally and personally. It also provided expertise of
knowledge among the teachers that spurred intelligent dialogue between colleagues.
The longevity of teacher tenure at the school was attributed to the principal’s hiring
talents as well. Twenty-five of thirty teachers had been hired by the current principal
and therefore, reflected the ideals of the principal and the majority of the staff.
Third, the teachers felt they had input in the direction of the school. The
teachers joked about their principal being the “benevolent dictator,” but they
tempered that label. Teachers felt the principal had definite ideas of what and how
they should be doing things in the classroom, and would present her thoughts as
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guidelines for the teachers; however they also felt that if they had just cause for
doing something another way, they could go to her to present their case. They felt the
principal was fair and if they could justify an alternative method, nine times out of
ten she would allow them to do the alternative. And, they felt this was they way the
principal showed her trust in them.
The teachers felt the high level of trust at the school made risk-taking
acceptable for them. Teachers felt they could try a new grade level or orchestrate a
special activity for the school, and if it did not work out the way anticipated the
principal would not hold it against them. Rather she would acknowledge them for
stretching their wings professionally. If something new was tried and successful, the
principal gave credit to the teacher who organized it. The principal was open about
sharing responsibility, accountability, and credit where credit was due.
Professional development time, grade level meetings, and lunch time
discussions provided avenues to air out conflicts. Teachers felt comfortable enough
and trusted each other enough to disagree. Whether it was trying a new bell schedule
or a new instructional strategy for the reading program, the teachers shared their
thoughts and opinions without caution. The teachers said they knew even if they
disagreed, it was ok to say so, because everyone’s opinions were valued at the school
and taken into consideration.
Creating Meaning.
Finally, the culture of the elementary school promoted celebrations of
achievement. Bear Awards were given monthly to students demonstrating high
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academic accomplishments and significant improvements. The Bear Awards were
given by the principal during the monthly assembly where parents and family
members watched and took photographs. The principal recognized the students’
achievements and encouraged them to continue on their path toward academic
excellence.
Students participated in Science Fairs. There were two separate Science Fairs
during the 2003-2004 school year. The primary grades held a Science Family Night,
with parents visiting as many different classes as they chose. The upper grade classes
held a more structured Science Fair in the auditorium. The students and families for
both events were given passports that were stamped as they visited the exhibits.
Students that visited all the exhibits during the Science events were given a
certificate signed by the principal.
Career Day was another special event for the elementary school. Career Day
served two purposes for the school. First, the event made the students think about
their futures and they could accomplish their goals. Second, it provided an avenue to
bring the families and community members into the school to share with the
students. Adults from numerous professions came to speak to the children and
encourage them to stay in school to achieve their dreams. The students learned about
the prerequisites for many jobs, and the adults from the community were able to
contribute to the education of its students. It was an annual, positive experience for
the school and community.
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The school created a Latin Festival celebration in 2004. Prior to the current
school year, the principal and School Leadership Team coordinated many events
celebrating the heritage and history of the Hispanic culture. 99.2% of the student
population is of Hispanic descent, and therefore celebrating the Hispanic culture was
of great importance to the students and their families. The Local School Leadership
Team met in the fall of 2003 to discuss the merger of the many independent events
into one larger Latin Festival. The reason for this move was to decrease the time
spent preparing to participate in the events for the teachers and students. The Local
School Leadership Team felt that because the teachers have such a large quantity of
instruction to fit in, they would prefer to reduce the number of extra-curricular events
the teachers were obligated to participate in. Although there were some members of
the Local School Leadership who preferred to have the events remain distinct, the
ultimate decision was to promote the instructional program and align the extra
curricular activities to reflect the school’s focus.
Lastly, Family Game Night was an established annual event for the
elementary school. Family Game Night was developed by the support staff to show
families how to positively interact with their children through learning games. The
school’s support staff provided the materials for the families to make game boards
and pieces that supported reading and math skills for the children. The event
centered on the idea that a child’s education needed the family’s involvement and
support to derive the most value and benefit possible.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This study was designed to unravel the story behind the success of an urban
elementary school. The typical urban school in today’s era of accountability has
struggled with environmental barriers associated with low socio-economic and
minority populations, and has precluded continuous high student achievement.
Identifying the key attributes and characteristics positively impacting student
achievement in a high achieving urban school can have significant implications for
establishing discrete leadership practices, educational programs and aspects of
school culture in other urban schools to promote increased student achievement.
The national accountability movement has been driven by the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and its reauthorization of the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001. According to its specifications, public schools must demonstrate
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) through measurable progress of their students on
standardized assessments. The ultimate goal of the No Child Left Behind Act was to
ensure all students in the United States will reach a proficient level of knowledge in
reading and math by the year 2014. Although ensuring minimum proficiency for the
nation’s students has been noted as a worthy goal, the measurement tool of
standardized testing has received criticism.
In California, the policymakers reflected the national drive for accountability
by passing the Public School Accountability Act in 1999. Under this law, all
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California public schools were to be measured by the Academic Performance Index
(API). Schools were solely measured on a scale of 200 to 1000, by their students’
achievement levels on the standardized test, California Achievement Test, 6th edition
and prior to that the Stanford Achievement Test, 9th edition. The goal was to move
all schools to the proficient level of 800 by the year 2014 to be in compliance with
the federal No Child Left Behind Act.
Measuring student achievement by a single annual test has been criticized as
limiting to the validity of the results gathered. By basing the success of a school by
how well its students perform on standardized achievement tests inherently discounts
progress demonstrated by mainstream urban schools that begin at lower starting
points than most suburban schools. The average suburban student comes to school
with a multitude of environmental and socio-economical advantages that urban
students do not. These advantages typically translated into scores in the 700 range on
the API for suburban schools, while the average urban school scores somewhere in
the neighborhood of 500. Urban schools by their very nature must work their
students and teachers harder to produce the same results found organically in their
counterparts. Because of this disparity in environmental barriers affecting student
achievement and success scores, critics of the API accountability measure suggest
other attributes of school progress should be incorporated as well.
While there has been discussion to modify the API calculation to reflect a
variety of measures, currently achievement is based solely on standardized
achievement tests in California. Despite the limitations associated with the API,
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some urban schools have demonstrated they too can achieve. It is in this handful of
urban schools, making it in spite of the typical environmental barriers, that the
mystery lies and merits study. In particular, this study examined through a case study
approach one urban elementary school that has met and exceeded their API
expectations over three consecutive years and 100% of the student population
qualifies for the national free or reduced lunch program.
The qualitative case study approach was chosen for this study to provide an
insider’s look at an urban elementary school succeeding, despite the odds against
them. The case study solicited in-depth, vivid answers to the questions guiding the
study. To find out how and why the urban elementary school was successful, three
research questions were developed to uncover the story:
1. What programs are in place in schools, which have exceeded
academic expectations?
2. What leadership practices are in place in schools, which have
exceeded academic expectations?
3. What is the school culture in schools, which have exceeded
academic expectations?
Information was gathered during the course of the study in a variety of
methods. Teachers, classified staff members, administrators, and parents of the
elementary school were given an open-ended survey that was created by doctoral
candidates under the leadership of Dr. Stuart E. Gothold to obtain information
relating to the research questions. Numerous interviews and observations were
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conducted by the researcher. Interviews were conducted with administrators, support
personnel, teachers, classified staff, and parents. Interview questions and
observations were guided by a templates created by the same group of doctoral
candidates working with Dr. Gothold. Finally, the researcher gathered school
documents that contained information pertinent to the study, such as the Single
School Plan for Student Achievement, the School Accountability Report Card,
minutes from various meetings, etc. By conducting a survey, interviews,
observations, and reviewing school documents, the researcher increased the validity
of the findings through the process of triangulation of measures.
The findings of the study revealed significant elements of the leadership
practices, educational programs, and culture of the school that have positively
impacted student achievement at the urban elementary school. It was the interaction
of all three elements that created a school-wide focus on high expectations, focused
instruction, and creating meaningful relationships among the staff members,
students, and families. This interaction produced significant student achievement
gains on California’s Academic Performance Index for a period of three years. The
urban elementary school’s results were worthy of examination for this study.
The principal of the elementary school clearly demonstrated her structural
nature. She distributed leadership responsibilities to her key staff members, and held
them to high standards. The principal commonly barked out commands to the Office
Manager, secretaries, custodial and support staff and expected them to respond
immediately. The principal approached her teachers in a similar manner. She
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conveyed her expectations to them, and she required compliance. However, the
teachers and staff members tempered their generalities about their leader and felt she
was receptive to new ideas if reasonably sound. The teachers were confident in her
support and felt she challenged them to do their best. The principal’s structural
nature was effective with the teachers because they believed in her knowledge and
judgment. They witnessed continuous increases in student achievement under her
leadership and worked hard to please her.
One commonly cited disadvantage to structural leaders is their unwillingness
to listen to others. Structural leaders typically view their ideas as best and suggested
alternatives as a challenge to their leadership. The principal at the elementary school
for this study however, embraced new ideas and supported people who were risk
takers. For instance, the principal supported her teacher who wrote the computer
grant with assistance from out of classroom personnel and verbal encouragement in
front of the rest of the staff. By supporting that teacher, the principal conveyed to the
rest of the staff that she championed and valued individual risk taking.
Another leadership attribute displayed by the principal, normally at odds with
a structural leadership frame, was her interest in developing leadership capacity. The
principal was continuously on the look out for people who had something to offer to
benefit the school. She encouraged all levels of stakeholders, from parents and
volunteers to her assistant principal. She provided avenues for them to hone their
skills, develop professionally, and supported them in promotions. The principal
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believed there was a multitude of people qualified to take a leadership role, if they
were just given the chance and nurtured along the way.
The principal’s interest in developing individuals reflected her belief that
teachers should strive to be instructional experts. She entrusted her coaches and
Bilingual/Title I Coordinator to organize quality professional development for the
teachers. By releasing that responsibility to her support personnel, the principal
signaled to the teachers that she trusted their professionalism and knowledge to lead
the teachers. The teachers in turn validated the principal’s trust by actively
responding during professional development meetings and trainings, which led to
their improved skills and knowledge of teaching.
The principal knew the importance of hiring the right people. In order to
work well with the school’s staff, the principal knew every person she hired had to
“fit.” During her eleven year tenure at the school, twenty-five out of thirty teachers
were hired by the current principal. As a result, the teachers she hired displayed a
like temperament and professional drive to her own. The teachers hired by the
principal demonstrated loyalty and respect for their leader, which translated into
them putting in extra effort to validate her hiring decisions to the stakeholders at the
school. The teaching staff also believed in the principal’s abilities to hire quality
people. Teachers extended themselves to support new teachers during their first few
months, but held high expectations new teachers would pull their own weight
quickly.
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The aligned instructional programs played a significant role in generating
high student achievement levels. In particular, the Open Court reading program made
a distinctive difference for the urban elementary school. Prior to its adoption, the
school had used a whole language based program that allowed teachers to use their
own discretion as to what aspects of instruction to emphasize. The prior program led
to disconnected instruction across grade levels and the school. Quality of instruction
varied and student achievement levels along with it. When Open Court was adopted,
it gave the school a uniform focus and common language to use regarding student
work. In addition, the Open Court program required a support coach that could
monitor implementation and provide assistance to teachers having difficulties to
ensure effective program implementation.
The consistency of instruction and focus provided the teachers avenues to
ensure all students’ needs were being met through differentiation. Teachers worked
together and shared their “polished stones” to further increase student achievement.
Through developing common rubrics and using the language of the State standards
with students and parents, a substantial knowledge base was established throughout
the school. All stakeholders were privy to what the students were expected to know
and be able to do by the end of each grade level, and the State standard aligned
assessments delineated where students were successful and needed to improve.
The supplemental programs in the school supported the core instructional
program. All students participated in the Visual and Performing Arts classes that
extended their learning opportunities. The Arts Cadre at the school worked in
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conjunction with the art teachers to incorporate content standards in the arts lessons,
and how the arts standards could be extended into classroom activities. The computer
classes enhanced Writers’ Workshop and connected content areas to the writing
process.
Teachers had a deep commitment to the success of all students. Professional
development time and grade level meetings focused on “our students” instead of an
individual teacher’s students. The collective responsibility produced cross grade
level dialogue and long-term planning. Teachers looped with classes of students to
minimi/e the normal lost instructional time at the beginning of the school year and
maximize their relationships and influence with students and families. By creating
lasting relationships, teachers became personally invested in their students’
achievement and made positive impacts on the children.
The urban elementary school had a strong sense of family. In the teachers’
lunch room, the classrooms, the parent meetings, and in the offices, the people
related to one another in a close, comfortable manner. Greetings were warm and
genuine. Help was extended no matter what the task. Teachers stayed late, parents
called often, and students tried.
From every angle, increased student achievement was foremost in the minds
of all. Through the academic programs, the intentional professional development
designed by teachers and the support of a strong leader, the school held high
expectations for performance. Teachers collaborated to constantly improve their
teaching and analyze their instruction to better support the needs of the students. The
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principal encouraged everyone to try new things and learn more. The principal
modeled this philosophy, acknowledged and rewarded people that took risks. The
culture was for all stakeholders to learn more to benefit themselves and ultimately
the service they provided to the students.
Relationships among staff members were familial, strong and enduring. Their
close ties enhanced their collaborative efforts for increased student achievement.
Specific, intentional leadership practices shaped instruction, the organization of the
school, and its culture to continually improve all stakeholders. These aspects made
the school culture caring and supportive, and positively impacted student
achievement for urban children.
Conclusions
During the course of the study, information was gathered to ascertain what
made this urban elementary school successful, when so many others have failed.
Specific leadership practices, the educational programs in place at the school and the
internal school culture were analyzed to determine their impact on student
achievement and the validity of this study’s hypotheses. The study began with three
hypotheses:
1. There are definable leadership practices that impact student
achievement.
2. Specific programs at the school contribute to student achievement,
while others contribute to non-academic successes.
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3. The leader has a significant effect on the school climate and culture
which influences student achievement.
While most of the data obtained supported the hypotheses, it was not clear
whether the school’s programs contributed to non-academic successes outright.
Alternatively, all core and supplemental programs at the school focused on the
students meeting State standards in the content areas. The programs were not
designed to build non-academic success for the students, but rather the programs
were intended to establish multiple connections for the students across academic
disciplines and the arts. The intervention, arts program, and computer classes
provided additional links for students to access the core curriculum. They were not
perceived as academically superfluous. The following conclusions patterned after the
research questions were supported by the literature and the data collected from the
study:
1. A structural leadership style is effective with staff members if they
believe the leader is open to new ideas.
2. Distributing responsibilities builds the leadership capacity at the school.
3. Building leadership capacity improves teachers’ skills and abilities.
4. Increasing teachers’ knowledge and skills positively impacts the quality
of professional development and ultimately classroom instruction.
5. The leader’s ability to hire people that “fit” the needs of their institution is
critical for their induction and success at the school.
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6. School-wide implementation of reform strategies must be consistent and
focused.
7. Teacher collaboration improves the quality of instruction and solidifies
expectations across grade levels.
8. Supplemental and intervention programs are valuable opportunities to
reinforce concepts and build cognitive connections for students.
9. Staffs demonstrating high expectations and commitment to the success of
their students bring about hard work by students and families to meet
those expectations.
10. Making high student achievement a collective responsibility
(administrators, teachers, staff, parents, and students) focuses efforts on
school-wide goals that lead to success.
11. Teachers sharing best practices improves the culture and quality of
instruction overall.
12. Establishing a sense of family among staff members develops trusting
relationships where accomplishments are celebrated and conflict can be
resolved without residual effects.
13. Small staff size at the school site contributes to the development of
familial relationships and teacher collaboration.
14. Familial relationships assist in teacher collaboration to improve
instruction, assessment, and common expectations for student
achievement.
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15. Creating meaning for student achievement and cultural values provides
purpose for stakeholders and re-energizes their commitment to the work.
16. Urban school leaders would benefit from embracing the impact of school
culture on the teachers’ commitment levels, effectiveness of collaboration
and ultimately student achievement.
Recommendations
The findings and conclusions from this study have significant implications
for future studies and practical application for today’s educational leaders. This study
determined there is significant positive impact from leadership practices, educational
programs and school culture on student achievement; however there was no
conclusive evidence as to their impact as individual elements. The following
research is needed to ascertain the independent influences of leadership practices,
educational programs, and school culture on student achievement and to what degree
the environmental setting is pertinent to these attributes:
1. Additional studies should be conducted to validate the positive impact
found of leadership practices, educational programs, and school
culture on student achievement levels in urban schools.
2. More research should be conducted in schools of varying sizes to
determine the effect of school and staff size on how leadership
practices, educational programs, and school culture interrelates and
influences student achievement.
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3. Studies should be conducted to examine the effects of leadership
practices, educational programs, and school culture in suburban and
rural schools to determine contextual impact.
4. Focused studies should be conducted on the effects of leadership
practices, educational programs and school culture as independent
variables on student achievement.
For educational leaders presently working in school settings, this study has
illuminated recommendations for the way leaders go about business:
1. Individual schools have contextual settings and cultures to which
leaders must tailor their reform efforts to meet the unique needs of
students and staff.
2. Distributing leadership responsibilities develops the capacity within
the school, lessens the pressures for the site leader, and positively
contributes to the overall school culture.
3. Leaders must be acutely aware of the school culture when making
hiring decisions. Candidates must “fit” with the school to be
successful.
4. School leaders should be knowledgeable about the interrelationship
between leadership practices, educational programs and school
culture and their influence on student achievement to maximize their
reform efforts.
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5. Smallness matters. Teachers need to feel their voices are heard and
they are an integral part of the decision-making process at the school
to be truly invested in student achievement outcomes. If the school
size is large, leaders should find avenues for smaller communities
within the larger institution to maximize teacher involvement.
6. Professional development must be personalized to reflect the needs of
the teachers. Professional development must focus on improved
instructional strategies and finding commonality in teaching,
assessments, and expectations for students.
The current state of accountability in the United States has compelled public
school leaders to evaluate the effectiveness of their current instructional programs,
organizational structure, and to make changes where necessary to generate higher
levels of student achievement. Public schools in California must demonstrate
consistent increases according to the Academic Performance Index in order to
maintain autonomous decision-making. Schools in urban areas have not traditionally
performed well on standardized tests based on a number of environmental barriers
that impact student achievement levels. There are, however, some urban schools that
have proven successful according to API rankings. These schools have demonstrated
high student achievement levels in spite of their barriers and have been worthy of
study.
The school leader of the urban elementary school examined in this study was
able to organize her school in implement effective instructional programs school-
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wide. Through her leadership practices and the collaborative efforts of her teachers, a
culture of high expectations for student achievement developed and was reinforced
by administrators, teachers, parents and students. This collective effort focused on
high student achievement positively influenced the students’ performance, which
ultimately resulted in the success of the school.
Although every school is unique in its setting and population, it is clear from
the literature and the data gathered at the study school that specific leadership
practices, educational programs and school culture significantly impact the
achievement level of the students. To meet the public challenges of accountability, it
would serve school leaders to appreciate their value in supporting student
achievement and school success. Urban school leaders should embrace what has
proven beneficial in this study and others like it to replicate efforts in new settings.
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APPENDIX
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Leadership Survey
1. What programs at this school do you feel contribute to high student achievement?
2. Are there any barriers hindering your school’s progress? If so, has your school
overcome them?
3. What opportunities are there for staff members to participate in decision-making
that affect student achievement?
4. What are some of the characteristics that make your school unique?
5. What does your leader do that makes your school successful?
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Interview Questions
Questions Evidence by
Human
Resources
Symbolic Political Structural
♦Why is this school successful?
♦What do you do that is
special?
♦What are your specific
challenges in your job, how do
overcome the challenges, and
what type o f support do you
receive?
♦Who do you view as school
leaders and why?
What does communication look
like between faculty and staff?
Between school and parents?
How do you deal with conflict?
How is conflict between
students dealt with? Between
faculty?
How do you address the needs
of all students?
How are people in the school
recognized for
accomplishments?
How is the new teacher oriented
to the school?
To what degree are staff/parents
involved in the budget?
How do you see the money
being spent in the school?
What programs are in place?
How are they implemented? To
down/up/ Enrichment? Reaction
o f the faculty and staff?
To what degree is the school a
village?
How do you see accountability
in the school?
Why are students achieving?
Describe a typical student in the
school.
How are decisions made?
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Observation Template
Purpose of function/activity
Location
Date/ Time
(beginning and ending)
Participants
Description of physical environment
Weather conditions
Visible supervision
Dress of participants
Behavior/Demeanor of participants
Interaction between teachers,
student, administrators, parents
What happens when the bell rings?
What kinds of things will you look
for during your next visit?
What else will you need to gather?
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Document Review
a WASC Report / PQR Report / CCR Report
□ School Plan
a School Accountability Report Card (SARC)
a School Handbook / School Rules / Student Orientation Packet
a School Activities Calendar
a Any available budgets
Additional documents that might be useful:
a SAT 9 / CAT 6 school assessment reports
a CAHSEE assessment reports
□ Master Schedule
a Mission Statement / School Vision
a Discipline Records / Discipline Matrix / Discipline Procedures
a PTS A Handbook
a Department Chair minutes (High School)
□ Safe Schools Report
□ Teacher credentialing data
a School Bulletins
a Principals/School Newsletter
□ School Flyers / Marketing tools
a Parent Night flyers
□ ASB By-laws / Constitutions
a Use of facility calendar
a Graduation / Promotion / Retention Reports
a School Site Council minutes
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Asset Metadata

Creator Chima, Debra Lynn (author)

Core Title Improving student achievement: An urban success story

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee chair), Cohn, Carl (committee member), Deal, Terrence (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-660737

Unique identifier UC11340370

Identifier 3145175.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-660737 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3145175.pdf

Dmrecord 660737

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Chima, Debra Lynn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA