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A comparison of public and private governance in new teacher induction practices

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A comparison of public and private governance in new teacher induction practices

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Content A COMPARISON OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE GOVERNANCE IN NEW
TEACHER INDUCTION PRACTICES
by
Kirsten Suzanne Schaefer
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2003
Copyright 2003 Kirsten Suzanne Schaefer
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UMI Number: 3116782
Copyright 2003 by
Schaefer, Kirsten Suzanne
All rights reserved.
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University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation written by
H iratsn S\)Z ^ yxv& ScVi3£-fer~
under the discretion of h C f Dissertation Committee,
and approved by all members of the Committee, has
been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the
Rossier School of Education in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Date
Dissertation/Committee
Chairperson
M
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DEDICATION
To those who have supported me throughout this journey...
my family, my friends and of course Dr. Dahlem.
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iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I extend my sincere thanks to my committee members: Chairperson, Dr.
Guilbert Hentschke; Dr. Stu Gothold; and Dr. Carl Cohn, for their invaluable
support and encouragement in completing this research project. I want to thank my
professors for sharing their knowledge with me and helping me grow as an
administrator and as an instructional leader.
I want to thank Dr. John Dahlem for encouraging me to take this journey.
He constantly pushed me and kept me on track. He read what must have felt like
hundreds of papers and provided endless emotional support. The road has been
difficult, but having John as a mentor and friend throughout this process, has made
this accomplishment possible.
I will forever be grateful for the support of my family and friends. To my
parents, Kenneth and Suzanne, who raised me with the confidence to know that I
could accomplish anything that I put my mind to. They offered support and
encouragement, especially during those tough times. To my brothers, Todd and
Brad, who were surprised that I decided to take this journey, but always knew I
would make it to the end. To my friends, who understood the magnitude of this
undertaking and always cheered me on. The person I am today is a result of having
a loving family and amazing friends.
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iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. iii
List of Tables........................................................................................................... vi
Abstract..................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1
Background for the Study.......................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem........................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Study.................................................................................. 4
Theoretical Framework.............................................................................. 4
Research Questions..................................................................................... 6
Scope of the Study...................................................................................... 7
Significance of the Study........................................................................... 7
Assumptions................................................................................................. 8
Limitations................................................................................................... 8
Definition of Terms..................................................................................... 9
Summary...................................................................................................... 10
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................................ 11
Introduction........................................................................................................ 11
Alternatives to Public Education.................................................................... 11
Charter Schools........................................................................................... 17
Home Schooling.......................................................................................... 19
Educational Management Organizations (EMO’s)................................. 20
Vouchers...................................................................................................... 22
Private Schools............................................................................................ 24
Governance Models.......................................................................................... 25
Reforms in Education....................................................................................... 27
California Public Schools.......................................................................... 29
Private Schools............................................................................................ 35
New Teacher Induction..................................................................................... 36
BTSA (Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment)................................. 45
Private School Support Systems...................................................................... 49
Summary............................................................................................................. 52
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES............................ 53
Research Approach........................................................................................... 53
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V
Research Design................................................................................................. 54
Schools Included in the Study.......................................................................... 54
Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 57
Structured Interview.................................................................................... 59
Procedures........................................................................................................... 60
Data Collection.................................................................................................. 60
Data Analysis..................................................................................................... 62
Summary............................................................................................................. 63
4. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA........................................ 65
Description of the Sample................................................................................ 65
Construction of the Rating Scales ............................................................ 67
Summary of Questionnaire Results................................................................ 69
Structured Interview.......................................................................................... 70
Governance................................................................................................. 71
Mentoring..................................................................................................... 75
Logistics and Time Commitments ................................................... 78
Summary of Structured Interviews................................................................. 81
Addressing the Research Questions............................ 83
5. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS
ANDRECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................ 88
Summary of the Findings................................................................................. 88
Conclusion......................................................................................................... 91
Demographics............................................................................................ 91
Discussion.......................................................................................................... 92
Impact of Governance on New Teacher Induction....................................... 93
Implications........................................................................................................ 93
Recommendations for Future Research.......................................................... 94
REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 96
APPENDICES.............................................................................................................. 105
A. Questionnaire................................................................................................ 105
B. Structured Interview Questions.................................................................. 108
C. Consent To Participate................................................................................ 110
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v i
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Demographic Background Characteristics for Schools........................ 55
2. Questionnaire Results.............................................................................. 68
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ABSTRACT
THE PROBLEM. Student achievement on standardized tests and other state
mandated assessments is below an acceptable level. The lack of adequate teachers
in the classroom is one of the root causes of this problem. The high turnover rate of
teachers leads to a shortage of qualified teachers. New teacher induction programs
have been developed as a way to retain quality teachers. A variety of alternatives to
traditional public education through the use of different governance models have
developed over the years. Many of these governance alternatives have provided
viable alternatives to the traditional public school system.
The purpose of this study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. The connection between governance and new
teacher induction was also explored.
METHOD. A public high school and a private high school in Orange
County were used in the study. A questionnaire was developed to elicit new
teachers’ perceptions about the new teacher induction program. Structured
interviews were conducted with new teachers, mentor teachers and administrators to
learn about the new teacher induction program and to find out the role governance
played in the program.
RESULTS. The results indicated that governance plays a role in the way
new teacher induction programs are implemented in the public school and the
private school. The degree of funding and the spiritual foundation of the school
impacted the governance of the school and as a result, how new teacher induction
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v iii
was carried out. The strengths and weaknesses of the mentoring aspect of the
programs depended upon the governance. The logistics and time commitment of the
new teacher induction programs varied depending upon the governance structure of
the school. The influence of state funding of the public school program and the
spiritual base of the parochial school were factors that had the greatest impact on the
governance of the schools and how their new teacher induction programs were
conducted.
The state funding that the public school received to run their new teacher
induction program provided a very structured program that paid stipends to mentors,
provided monies for supplies, substitutes and conferences and provided some
incredible speakers. In order to account for the use of the state money, there are
regular meetings and a lot of paperwork required. The private school had a spiritual
element that drove the program and the reasons for participating in the program as a
mentor. The lack of funding did not allow for any stipend or time off for the mentor
teachers to fulfill their responsibilities and in many cases the mentoring aspect fell
apart.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background for the Study
A major problem in education today is low student achievement on
standardized tests and other state mandated assessments. Students have often been
placed in classrooms with inadequate teachers or poorly prepared teachers, which
unfortunately created an environment for these low scores. By comparing governance
issues in public and private schools, I explored successful solutions to the teacher
induction problem and attempted to see how they differed based on the form of
governance. New teacher induction, or the support that is given to new teachers at a
school site, was the avenue that was used to examine differences in governance. A
variety of alternatives to traditional public education through the use of different
governance models have developed over the years. Many of these governance
alternatives have provided viable alternatives to the traditional public school system.
This study looked at how these differences in governance impacted the practice of new
teacher induction.
Statement of the Problem
The problem in American education today is that students were not performing
as well as expected. In the document A Nation A t Risk, based on an eighteen-month
study, it was found that 13 percent of 17 year-olds in the United States could be
considered functionally illiterate (A Nation At Risk, 1983). Much of the blame for
poor student achievement is based on poor teachers and inadequate teacher
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preparation. Recent studies conducted by the United States Department of Education’s
National Center for Education Statistics shows that math scores for eighth graders
have not gone up over the last decade and science performance is not improving
(America’s Annual Progress Report on Education, 2002). Many reform movements
have been implemented to improve education. A current, major reform movement
centers around school choice and creating options for parents and alternatives to the
standard public school education.
One factor that impacts student performance is that our system of governance
often places poorly prepared teachers in the classroom. All schools need qualified
teachers, but finding them is difficult. Differential teacher effectiveness is a strong
determinant of differences in student learning (Sanders and Rivers, 1996). Every
school has some form of training or induction for new teachers although induction
practices vary in comprehensiveness. When teachers go into teaching, they are often
left to “sink or swim”. Many teachers do not make it and leave the teaching
profession. According to the Department of Education (McCarren, 2000), 22 percent
of new teachers across the nation leave the profession within the first three years and
the teacher dropout rate climbs up to 50 percent after the first five years. These rates
are highest in urban school settings in low-income areas. Schools with over 50
percent of their students on free/reduced lunch had a turnover rate of 10 percent
compared to 8 percent in schools with a lower proportion of low-income students
(Felter, 1997). When teachers leave the profession, the pool of qualified applicants
diminishes and often people with little or no formal teacher training are hired to be
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3
teachers. New teachers enter the teaching profession without much experience and
frequently with little support. New teachers are often given the same responsibilities
as veteran teachers. New teachers lack the experience in balancing lesson planning,
classroom management, school paperwork and additional teaching duties. New
teachers require some form of support as part of their induction into the field of
teaching. National data shows that three years after completing a teacher preparation
program, only four out of ten people who completed the program are teaching
(National Commission, 1996). Developing mentor relationships with more
experienced teachers can provide information about the school culture, teaching
advice, encouragement and support. New teachers are twice as likely to stay in the
teaching profession after three years if they have been involved in a mentoring
program (Olson, 2000).
Student performance is greatly affected by the quality of the teachers. Quality
is defined by measures including years of education, years of teaching experience,
measures of subject matter and teaching knowledge, certification status, and teaching
behaviors in the classroom (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Students with lower quality
teachers experience a disadvantage since student learning is a function of teacher
quality (Shulman, 1987). Investments in teacher knowledge and skills produce greater
student achievement than any other use of education dollars (National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future, 1996). High quality teacher preparation and
professional development opportunities make a difference in student achievement
(Cohen and Hill, 1997). It has been found that a teacher’s education, ability
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experience, along with small schools and low student to teacher rations are all
positively connected to student achievement (Hedges, Laine and Greenwald, 1994).
Research shows that students achieve at much higher levels when they are
taught by teachers who have a deep knowledge of subject matter and strong
preparation for teaching (Monk, 1994). Students achieve at higher levels and are less
likely to drop out when they are taught by teachers with certification in their teaching
field, by those with master’s degrees or enrolled in graduate studies, and by those with
greater preparation in methods of teaching (Council on School Performance, 1997). In
a study of the factors affecting student achievement, it was found that 49 percent is
home and family factors, including parent education, income, language background,
race and location, 43 percent is teacher qualifications, including licensing,
examination scores and experience, and 8 percent is class size (Ferguson, 1991).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. The study compared the differences in new teacher
induction practices in the public and private educational sectors. The connection
between governance and new teacher induction was explored.
Theoretical Framework of the Study
Governance differences influence schooling practices. Through an in-depth
look at new teacher induction practices at a public and private school, the impact of
governance on teaching practices was explored. New teachers are frequently put into
a situation without much support, where they are responsible for the same duties as a
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5
veteran teacher. Many times the teaching assignments and classroom assignments are
far worse than those of more tenured teachers. Public schools are often placed in the
position of hiring someone at the last minute due to unexpected growth or new
curricular needs. The teaching assignment may be in a subject matter area with a
limited number of qualified teaching candidates such as science or math, or it may be
a mixed assignment with a number of preparations in a variety of instructional areas.
Public schools provide educational opportunities for all students, which means that
each classroom is filled with students of all ability levels and varying interest in
school. Classroom management can be very difficult due to the diverse student
population. The size of public schools can make a new teacher feel lost in a sea of
teachers. Public schools do have the benefit of resources in the form of available
funding for substitutes for professional development. The number of educators in the
public schools provide a large pool of people to mentor new teachers in the same
discipline.
The BTSA program does have some limitations. To begin, with the current
teacher turnover rate, as many as 30 percent of faculty in a district could be involved
in induction (Humphrey, et. al., 2000). This leads to concern about the number of
experienced teachers that are willing and able to serve as support providers (Shields,
et. al., 2000). Between internship programs, BTSA, pre-internship programs and
student teaching, California needs more than 50,000 experienced teachers each year to
mentor these new teachers and teacher candidates (McKibbin, 2001). Concern about
the size of the program could lead to a dilution of how it was intended, with each
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support provider taking on too many beginning teachers and/or support providers
working at different sites from the beginning teachers.
The major goal of new teacher induction is to provide support to new teachers
during their transition into the role as a teacher. Induction programs can range from
very limited, where a new teacher is given their keys and a map to their classroom, to
very comprehensive with regular mentor support and professional development.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formed in order to address the issues
and concerns resulting from the theoretical framework. The research questions were
answered based on the results of questionnaires, looking at documents and structured
interviews.
1. How is new teacher induction undertaken in public school A?
2. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in public
school A?
3. How is new teacher induction undertaken in private school B?
4. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in private
school B?
5. How does new teacher induction as practiced in public school A differ from new
teacher induction as practiced in private school B?
6. Do the principle forces that tend to shape public school A differ from private
school B? What are they?
7. Are any of those differences possibly attributable to differences in governance?
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Scope of the Study
This study was a qualitative case study that looked at a school in the public
sector and a school in the private sector. Both schools came from an urban setting
with a large population. The purpose of looking at schools in two different
governance sectors was to see what, if anything, was done differently and if any found
differences could be attributable to differences in the governance of schools. A
questionnaire was developed and pilot tested with two public school administrators
and one private school administrator, that elicited teachers perceptions about new
teacher induction at their site. Documents were reviewed to identify the scope of new
teacher induction that was in place. Additionally, individual interviews were
conducted to gain more in-depth knowledge about new teacher induction at the site
and governance issues.
The data collected in this research project will benefit schools and school
districts as they develop and implement policies regarding new teacher support on
their campuses. Data was collected through the use of a researcher-developed
questionnaire, individual interviews and a review of related documents.
Significance of the Study
This study can serve as a valuable tool, which provides information for
understanding the dynamics of new teacher support in a public and private school. The
study contributes to the educational community by looking at a public and private
school and showing the impact of their new teacher support programs on teacher
effectiveness and longevity in the field of education. Looking at the public and private
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sectors allows sharing between the sectors, those templates that have been successful.
The study explored the new teacher’s thoughts about the programs as to how
worthwhile they were. The information will enable schools and districts to create
effective new teacher support programs to aid in the retention of quality teachers. This
study has served as an impetus for schools to review and, when necessary, revise
existing new teacher support programs to make them as effective as possible.
Assumptions
Within this study, it has been assumed that:
• A single school can be representative of all schools with the same governance
structure.
• New teacher induction is a representative example of all schooling practices.
• Administrators and teachers who were interviewed and respond to the
questionnaire were sufficiently knowledgeable of new teacher induction
practices.
Limitations
• The following represents limitations of this study:
• The study was limited to one county in California.
• The study was limited to one traditional public high school and one private
school.
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Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:
Administrator: The principal (chief executive officer of an individual school) or an
assistant to the principal.
Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA): A program developed to offer
beginning teachers support and induction.
Credential: A state issued certificate that verifies that a teacher preparation program
has been completed through a college or university.
Emergency Permit/Credential: A temporary permit that allows a person to teach
without having a credential. An emergency credential holder must complete a
minimum number of credits to remain in the classroom on an emergency permit.
Governance: The decision-making processes in the administration of an organization.
New Teacher Induction: A system of providing induction and help to teachers that are
new to the profession.
Private School: A school that charges tuition and is not directly supported by
government funding. This includes parochial schools which have their foundation in
religion.
Public School: A school that is funded by government monies and provides education
free of charge to the students that live in the attendance area.
Support Provider: A veteran teacher who is assigned to serve as a mentor to a new
teacher in the BTSA program.
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Summary
Schools face a growing need to hire quality teachers. The number of qualified
teacher candidates is not increasing with the increased need. Low test scores reflect
the lack of quality teachers in the classroom. Many people who complete a
credentialing program do not go into education, and of those that do go into education,
many leave the profession within five years. New teachers need to be supported so
that they can become quality teachers and remain in the teaching profession. A variety
of educational governance alternatives have been established in addition to the
traditional public schools. Both traditional public schools and the alternative
governance models need to hire and support quality teachers to improve the
achievement of our youth. This study examined the effectiveness of new teacher
support programs in the public and private sector. This study specifically explored the
new teacher support practices in a public and a private school in Orange County. This
study will serve as a tool to find the best practices for new teacher support that can be
replicated in the public and private sectors. It has also served to compare public and
private governance.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. Additionally, the study looked at possible
connections between governance and new teacher induction. This section presents a
literature review on the history of alternative forms of education, governance models,
reforms in education, public and private schools, new teacher induction, and the
support models used at both the public and private school in California. To complete
the literature review for this study, several resources were investigated.
Alternatives to Public Education
Public education has gone through a number of reforms since its inception in
the early 1800’s. When schools were first established, the country school was formed
which was a decentralized system. The country schools were controlled by the
community. Money was pooled together to pay for the teacher and the facility and
the school became the focus of life outside of the home (Tyack, 1974). The teacher
was expected to conform to the ways of the community. When industrialization
began, a push to centralize schools and create the “one best system” developed
(Tyack, 1974). This system was based on the corporate model with a hierarchy and a
chain of command with the experts at the top. The rationale was that the problem with
the schools was that the local people who wanted to run the schools did not know what
was best for them (Tyack, 1974). In the 1960’s a push began for decentralization once
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again. This was a time period when public education became increasingly fragmented
and politicized (Cookson, 1994). In the early 1960’s, economist Milton Friedman
argued for marketplace accountability in public education (Cookson, 1994). His ideas
did not gain prominence until many years later. The election of Ronald Regan paved
the way for school choice reform in education. The 1983 publication of A Nation At
Risk, helped create a lack of faith in the public education system. The report stated
that the poor quality of America’s schools posed a threat to the welfare of the country
(Tyack, et. al, 2001). This document suggested longer school days, longer school
years and more homework, more school-business partnerships and better quality
teachers. Reagan’s plan to improve education was to increase competition and
parental choice and local control.
George Bush came into office in 1989 and continued the educational reform
movement and proposed the “G.I. Bill Opportunity Scholarships for Children”. He
advocated for school choice and competition in education (Cookson, 1994). The
innovative educational program, Goals 2000, began in 1989, and continued into the
Clinton administration. Goals 2000 created eight goals to be met by the year 2000.
The goals were built around school readiness, school completion, student achievement
and citizenship, teacher education and professional development, mathematics and
science, adult literacy and lifelong learning, safe, disciplined and alcohol and drug free
schools and parental participation (Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 1994).
President Clinton’s recommendations included ending social promotion, turning
around or shutting down the worst performing schools, holding states and school
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13
districts responsible for the quality of their teachers, empowering parents with more
information and choices, adopting and implementing discipline codes and building
more classrooms, due to decaying schools and to help decrease class size (Good and
Braden, 2000).
At the 1996 National Education Summit, recommendations were made for
enhanced technology and higher standards in the public schools (Good and Braden,
2000). In January of 2002, President George W. Bush signed No Child Left Behind
into law. This latest legislation addresses four basic principles (No Child Left Behind,
2002):
1. Accountability for Results - students will be tested on the standards and within
twelve years, all students must perform at a proficient level.
2. Increased Flexibility and Local Control - schools will have greater input into
using federal education monies.
3. Expanded Options for Parents - parents may transfer their child from a failing
school to a performing public or charter school with transportation provided,
monies may be used for after school services and summer school programs and
more money will be available for charter schools.
4. Emphasis on Teaching Methods That Have Been Proven to Work- proven
effective reading programs will be used and teacher quality will be promoted
through training and recruitment.
The support for this legislation has had bipartisan support. In fact, a recent
study that surveyed state legislators in all states found education to be the most
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important political issue (Wildavsky, 1999). Democrats generally support charter
schools while Republicans generally support voucher plans.
In a report from the National Commission of Governing America’s Schools, it
was found that the nation’s expectations of public education have changed to reflect
the belief that all students should be expected to achieve at high levels. This feeling is
reflected in Bush’s No Child Left Behind. The move to standards-based education has
shifted the focus of policymakers and the public to the schools and districts that fail
children (Governing America’s Schools: Changing the Rules, 1999). A successful
school is considered to be one that embodies the following (Governing America’s
Schools: Changing the Rules, 1999):
1. a clear focus on academic learning in a climate of high expectations;
2. a safe and orderly school environment;
3. high standards for teachers, coupled with ongoing professional development
activities;
4. collegial decision-making and a supportive professional environment organized
around a common mission;
5. a partnership with parents and others in the community in support of students’
high achievement;
6. accountability for student performance.
The majority of our nation’s children are educated in the public school system
with only about ten percent in the private sector (http://www.nces.ed.gov). The
current controversy in education focuses on the quality of schools, who will control
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public education and how to best design schooling in the 21st century (Good and
Braden, 2000). The media has been a huge critic of the public school system since the
1950’s and has pushed for school choice. The low grades given to public schools have
been mainly media-induced. People are quite pleased with their neighborhood
schools, but learn about the public schools of the nation through the media (Good and
Braden, 2000). Critics tend to agree that too much money is going to nonacademic
programs and supervision and not enough money is going to support classroom
teachers (Good and Braden, 2000). The idea is that providing more choices instead of
the “one size fits all” model will improve education. The business community has
come on board with complaints about the educational system. Business leaders claim
that the poor education of our youth has impacted their businesses (Good and Braden,
2000). A number of school-business partnerships have been created since the
publication of A Nation At Risk. Business support of education has increased
financially as well from $850 million in support in 1985 to $4.25 billion in support in
1994 (Holmes, 1999).
Public education has seen a series of reform movements to “fix” the problems
in education. The major reform idea of the 1960’s and early 1970’s was the
individualized program, where students moved along at their own pace. This was
followed in the 1970’s with a more humanistic approach to education that included
open-space schools where students had more input into what was studied. During this
time, a number of elective courses were added to the curriculum, and many claimed
that the standards were lowered (Braden and Good, 2000). In the 1980’s and 1990’s, a
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push for academic standards began. The reform movement of today centers around
school choice and creating options for parents and alternatives to the standard public
school education.
Magnet schools are selective and academically demanding public schools that
offer special curricular themes and instructional methods that differ from the
traditional public schools (Farmer and Farmer, 2000). They may exist as their own
school or be a school within a school. They are often given extra resources and
develop a specific mission to attract students who would not normally attend that
school. The magnet school concept came about in the 1970’s to promote peaceful
racial integration and to create innovative schools (Metz, 1986). In 1975, federal
courts approved magnet schools as a method of desegregation (Goldring and Smrekar,
2000). The hope was that middle-class White families would send their students to
inner-city schools with magnet programs that would in turn create desegregation by
bringing the White students in instead of bussing the minority students out. Magnet
schools are typically established in large urban school districts, and most are in low
socioeconomic districts (Levine, 1997). Some magnet schools use a selection process
for admission although most enroll students through a lottery or first-come first-served
basis.
In the mid-1980’s, public school systems were encouraged to restructure their
current organizational arrangements to improve their academic performance (Ogawa,
1994). Districts were encouraged to defer decision-making authority to the local
school sites where principals, teachers and parents could make decisions ranging from
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17
budget to instructional programs (Hill and Bonan, 1991). The hope was that shared
decision-making along with increased site autonomy would motivate and empower
teachers to search for innovative solutions and be strongly supportive of the
implementation of them (Mintrop et. al., 2001). The people most knowledgeable
about the specific site issues would be the ones to make decisions about what to do.
The problem with this reform movement was that it was difficult to get teachers and
parents who were willing to commit to the time commitment of site-based governance.
Another problem was determining who had the final power, responsibility and
accountability for the decisions that were made. By the mid-1990’s educational
reform had shifted away from the sites and back to the government with high stakes
accountability systems.
Charter Schools
Charter schools are schools created by parents, teachers or for-profit or
nonprofit organizations. Charter schools are free from some of the state regulations
that regular public schools must adhere to. They must follow state laws regarding
health and safety and special education. The state gives each charter school money for
each student enrolled in a charter school. Charter schools are based on the principles
of competition and choice (Poetter and Knight-Abowitz, 2001). The intended
outcome is to improve traditional public education by offering alternatives in the form
of charter schools. These schools have more flexibility in spending, hiring and
curriculum (Good and Braden, 2000). The charter schools are expected to improve
student achievement. Charter schools are generally smaller than public schools, enroll
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students outside of the district, serve all grade levels in nontraditional groupings and
have high parent participation rates (Good and Braden, 2000).
Four general criteria inherent to all charter laws are that the school must
produce satisfactory academic progress by its students on state or district tests or a
similar measure, they must meet nonacademic goals set forth in the charter, they must
provide evidence that public funds are being used responsibly, and they must comply
with all laws and regulations that are not waived for charter schools (Manno, 1999).
Currently there are 2,431 charter schools in 34 states and Washington, D.C., that serve
580,000 students (Charter School Highlights and Statistics, 2002). Three other states
have charter legislation, but have not opened up any charter schools. Charter schools
are growing, with a more than forty percent increase during the past two years (Center
for Education Reform, 2001). Financial support from the U.S. Department of
Education for charter schools has grown from $6 million in 1995 to $100 million in
1999 (Watkins, 1999).
Charter schools are usually converted preexisting public schools but can also
be a brand new startup school. Founders of charter schools generally fall into three
categories including educators wanting reform, parents who are dissatisfied with the
public school system or for-profit or nonprofit organizations (Manno and others,
1998). The motivation behind starting a charter school is generally to try an
alternative educational vision, to serve a special-needs population or to gain autonomy
(Bowman, 2000). Charter schools began in 1991 in Minnesota to expand public
school choice and to improve the system. The charter school laws vary from state to
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state and can be strong or weak. Strong law states give freedom from union contracts,
allow multiple charter granting agencies and allocate good per-pupil funding levels.
California is a strong charter law state, but does not have any state influence over
curricula besides revoking the charter and there is no state control over daily
operations (Green and McCall, 1998). Depending on the study, different findings can
be made regarding the type of students that charter schools provide service to. If the
study is taken to consider all charter schools together and compare them to all public
schools, the results are far different than when the study compares charter and public
schools in the same area. In a national report, it was found that charters are more
racially diverse, serve more economically disadvantaged students and serve a lower
proportion of special education and limited English proficient students than public
schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). Charter schools tend to have a lower
student/teacher ratio, but experience a higher teacher turnover rate, have more part-
time and inexperienced teachers and more teachers without certification (Keller,
2001).
Home Schooling
Home schooling is an educational program where parents educate their
children at home. In the late 1960’s, there were approximately 10,000 - 15,000
children home-schooled in the United States (Lines, 1995). The number of students
who are home-schooled has been growing at a rate of 7-15% per year and includes 1.3
- 1 .7 million students (National Home Education Research Institute, 1999). Four out
of five home-schooled students only did home schooling, while one out of five were
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enrolled in public or private schools part time (Home Schooling in the United States,
1999). A greater percentage of home-schooled students compared to non-home
schooled students were white in 1999 (Home Schooling in the United States, 1999).
The income level of the families of home-schooled children did not differ from that of
non-home-schooled students, but the parent education level was higher (Home
Schooling in the United States, 1999). Parent’s reasons for home schooling fall into
five categories including educational philosophy, a child’s special needs, school
climate, family lifestyle/parenting philosophy and religion and ethics (Lange and Liu,
1999). By 1986, all fifty states had approved some form of home schooling (Dailey,
1999). The requirements for home school parents and standardized testing in each
state vary. Home schooling came about with the Seventh Day Adventists and
Mormons wanting to keep their younger children at home and with the Amish who
wanted their older children to leam through community living (Lines, 1995).
Educational Management Organizations (EMO’s)
Educational Management Organization’s (EMO’s) are for-profit firms that
seek to earn profits by providing administrative and educational services to schools
(Plank, Arsen and Sykes, 2000). The premise behind EMO’s is that they can improve
instruction for less and make a profit (Furtwengler, 1998). Their rationale is that
private firms have made a profit in education for years through textbook sales and
standardized testing, the pursuit of profits is how most of society works and they
believe that the public sector has failed to provide a satisfactory standard of education
for many of our students, especially poor and minority students in urban school
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districts (Plank, Arsen and Sykes, 2000). EMO’s make a profit by reducing labor
costs through cuts in employment or compensation, by not participating in the
retirement system, providing less support services, hiring younger teachers and having
larger class sizes. They also provide fewer services or make parents pay for services
such as transportation, lunch, sports and extracurricular activities (Plank, Arsen and
Sykes, 2000). EMO’s are frequently found in the elementary schools because they are
less expensive to run than secondary schools. They limit the enrollment of students
that are more expensive to educate such as special education and limited English
proficient students (Plank, Arsen and Sykes, 2000).
EMO’s have jumped into the marketplace to provide charter schools with the
administrative support that traditional public schools get from the district. They now
control about ten percent of the charter schools in the United States (Furtwengler,
1998). In Michigan, they operate an incredible seventy percent. Two leading
companies in the media in the EMO business are the Edison Project and the TesseracT
Group, inc. (formerly Educational Alternatives, Inc.). In 2001, Edison operated 136
public schools serving over 75,000 students in 53 cities and 22 states (Gewertz, 2000).
Edison has been awarded some lucrative contracts in Michigan, Pennsylvania and
Philadelphia, but has had troubles with some of its contracts in Boston, New York and
San Francisco. According to Edison’s November 14, 2001 financial report, they have
lost more than $233.5 million since its inception (Miner, 2002). TesseracT Group,
Inc. began in 1991 has had difficulties and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection
(Walsh, 2000). Most EMO’s are operating in the red.
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Vouchers
Vouchers provide public money for selected families to pay for or offset the
costs of private school tuition (Poetter and Knight-Abowitz, 2001). Voucher plans
believe that with less governmental control they can use resources more imaginatively
and efficiently (Good and Braden, 2000). Milton Friedman first brought up the idea of
vouchers in the early 1960’s as a way to improve educational efficiency. In the Regan
administration an increasing interest in less governmental control led to interest in
privatization of the public school system. Currently 11 percent of American children
attend private schools and 85 percent of private schools are associated with a religion
(Applebome, 1999). Vouchers began in 1990 in Wisconsin (Peterson, 2002). In 1995,
Ohio passed a law providing financial assistance to families residing in school districts
taken over by the state. This law, the Pilot Project Scholarship Program, provided
tuition aid for K-8 students attending a private or public school of choice and provided
tutorial services for students who chose to remain in the public schools (Wells, 1999).
In 1999, Florida passed the first statewide voucher plan that allowed students in the
poorest schools to attend private schools with the use of a voucher (Good and Braden,
2000). In 1998, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that the use of public funds to
support private parochial schools was not unconstitutional since the money went to
parents, not the schools (Good and Braden, 2000). When the voucher issue came up
in 2000 in California and Michigan the initiative lost by a huge margin. In September,
2002, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Zelman v. Simmons-Harris that the
school voucher program in Cleveland, Ohio did not violate the constitution regarding
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“establishment” of religion (Peterson, 2002). After this ruling, President Bush issued
an endorsement of vouchers and stated that the ruling was as significant as Brown v.
Board o f Education (Peterson, 2002).
Obstacles to implementation of vouchers include transportation issues and
monitoring. Vouchers were designed to aid poor students in underperforming schools,
but often the issue of transportation makes it impossible for these students to take
advantage of the vouchers. The oversight of the money has become an issue as well.
In Ohio, vouchers have frequently served students who were already attending private
institutions, instead of targeting students in the poor performing schools (Fine, 2001).
In order for the voucher plan to be effective in reaching its goals, a number of salient
issues must be addressed. Voucher amount and availability are an issue as well as
selection of recipients, dissemination of information, engagement of non-choosers,
racial/ethnic balance, provisions for special-needs students and transportation
(Adelsheimer, 1999).
A number of privately funded voucher plans exist to create opportunities for
children from low-income families. These private vouchers are funded by businesses,
private foundations and individual donors (Meyerson, 1999). The first program
emerged in 1991 in Indiana. This program, the Golden Rule Program, was established
by the Educational Choice Charitable Trust. The scholarships were made available for
less affluent families and covered partial tuition (Meyerson, 1999). By 1999, this
program awarded scholarships to 1,700 children in Indiana with 4,200 on a waiting list
(Meyerson, 1999). This program has been duplicated in a number of cities in the
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United States. The Children’s Scholarship Fund is the nation’s largest private school
scholarship program (Fuller and others, 1999). They financed 40,000 four-year
scholarships for the 1999-2000 school year (Fuller and others, 1999).
Private Schools
The courts have been ruling for government aid for private schools in small
ways for a number of years. In 1968, the court ruled that the government could supply
nonreligious textbooks to private parochial school students (Schulte, 2002). In 1986,
the court approved of a student using a state vocational scholarship to attend a
religious institution to become a pastor. In 1993, the court ruled that federal money
may be used to pay sign-language interpreters for deaf students at private schools
(Schulte, 2002). Government money does assist private schools in the form of state
aid for busing, books, auxiliary services and special federal programs for disabled and
disadvantaged children (Center on Education Policy, 1999).
Private schools differ from traditional public schools in a number of ways.
They do not have to administer the same standardized tests that the public schools
must administer. They may hire teachers that are not college educated. They are not
subject to open-meeting or open-records laws and they are not required to provide data
on suspensions, expulsions, drop-out rates, teacher certification, salaries, benefits, or
the education of bilingual and special-education students (Kennedy, 2001). Private
schools choose to accept the students that they want, often times this excludes students
who are more expensive to teach such as limited English proficient students and
special-education students. Tax credits are a way to decrease the cost of a private
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school education. Tax credits or deductions have been brought up since the late
1960’s but have not received much support until recently. The Bush Administration’s
budget plan for 2003 calls for a federal income tax credit of up to $2,500 for families
who want to transfer their children out of poor performing public schools (Robelen
and Walsh, 2002). Minnesota has had tax credits up to $2,000 per family to pay for
educational expenses (excluding private-school tuition) since 1997 (Johnston, 1997).
The educational system has cycled through a number of reforms over the past
forty years. In many cases, the reforms are cyclical. They are tried out, do not meet
expectations, and then a number of years later they are revived with a slight twist and
touted as something new. The expansion of governance alternatives is a major
alteration in K-12 education due to the number of alternatives and their growth rate.
The education system has offered the private school alternative almost since the
beginning of the American educational system, but this alternative was reserved for
the wealthy. The alternatives of today offer alternatives to traditional public schooling
for students from all income levels. No Child Left Behind offers the options of using
educational management organizations as well as turning public schools into charter
schools if a public school does not meet their average yearly progress for seven years.
This law demonstrates the belief of the government that these governance alternatives
in education are viable options for improving schools that are not performing.
Governance Models
For the purpose of this study, the term “governance” refers to the decision
making processes in the administration of an organization. This pertains to who
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makes decisions and in what manner. The “who” is everyone from federal
government to the parents. The “what” can refer to anything from standards to
supervision to supplemental programs offered at the school (Starr L., 1999).
Differences in governance are often due to the reliance upon certain funding sources
or the mission of the organization. Public schools must follow federal, state and local
laws in educating children. These laws usually include specifics about funding,
program development and curriculum (Thorp and James, 2002). Private schools make
their own rules. They are funded independently and do not have to follow federal,
state or local education laws or regulations. They can ran things as they want as long
as it is acceptable to the parents, the board of directors and the major donors (Thorp
and James, 2002).
The governance differences between public and private schools related to cost,
admissions, curriculum, teachers, students, special needs and class size can be great.
Public schools may not charge tuition and are funded through federal, state and local
taxes. Private schools charge tuition. They do not receive tax revenues, but instead
are funded through tuition, fundraising, donations and private grants. Public schools
must admit all students including students with special needs. Programs must exist to
meet the educational needs of special education students. Private schools can be
selective in their admission. They are not obligated to accept every child, and many
do not admit students with special education needs, although there are some programs
designed specifically for special needs children. As a result, most private schools do
not have special education programs (Thorp and James, 2002). The public school is
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mandated by the state to teach specific curriculum and in many states learning is
measured through standardized tests. Private schools have flexibility in designing
their curriculum. Public schools look to hire teachers with a teaching credential or at
the very least, people working towards a credential. Private school teachers are not
required to have a credential. Frequently class size at the high school level is larger in
the public schools compared to private schools (Thorp and James, 2002).
Differences in governances can be seen when looking at the organizational
structure of the school. Public schools are run by a Board of Trustees, while private
schools are frequently run by a Board of Directors. The mission and vision of a school
may also reflect the differences in the way they are governed.
Reforms in Education
On January 8, 2002, President Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act into
law. This law is a reform plan for education that requires major changes in the current
system. It calls for greater accountability for results, increased flexibility and local
control, expanded options for parents and an emphasis on teaching methods that have
been proven to work (No Child Left Behind, 2002). States are required to create
standards, which all students should know and then must test them on their knowledge
of the standards. Within twelve years, all students must perform at a proficient level
under their states standards. Results of the tests will be published in annual state and
district report cards for all interested parties to see. The reports will sort data by
gender, migrant status, racial and ethnic minority groups, students with disabilities,
students who are economically disadvantaged and students who have limited English
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proficiency (No Child Left Behind, 2002). Schools must show progress for all
students or consequences will result. If schools fail to make adequate yearly progress
with their disadvantaged students, they will first receive assistance and then corrective
action if progress is not made. This new legislation will allow states to have more
input in the spending of federal monies for education. Money must be spent on
research-based programs that have been proven to help most children to learn. Monies
have been targeted for reading education as well as promoting teacher quality through
training and recruitment. The No Child Left Behind Act provides more parent choice
by allowing parents with a child enrolled in a failing school to transfer their child to a
better performing public school or public charter school (No Child Left Behind, 2002).
If a school does not meet its academic growth target for two consecutive years, parents
have the right to transfer their child to a successful public school, including a charter
school and the district must pay for transportation (No Child Left Behind, 2002).
Parents have a right to have supplemental education services for their child in a school
failing for three consecutive years at the expense of the school district. The
supplemental education services include tutoring, after school services and summer
school programs (No Child Left Behind, 2002). Schools who are successful will be
rewarded. If a school is designated by the state as “persistently dangerous” by having
a gun-free schools violation or a violent criminal offense and the school has expelled
students for major offenses including assault or battery upon a school employee,
brandishing a knife, causing serious physical injury, hate violence, having a firearm or
explosives, robbery, selling a controlled substance or sexual assault for three
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consecutive years, parents have the right to request a transfer to another safer public
school (No Child Left Behind, 2002). The expulsion rates for these offenses must
exceed approximately one percent of the number of enrolled students. Federal money
will be made available to state and local communities who want to establish charter
schools.
This legislation also requires all teachers to be “highly qualified” by the 2005-
06 school year. Studies have shown that the most important factor affecting student
academic gain was the effect of the teacher (Sanders, W. L. and Rivers, J. C., 1996).
Educators in their first years of teaching were most likely to cite a lack of support as
their reason for leaving the profession (Southern Regional Education Board, 2002).
Supporting new, qualified teachers and retaining veteran teachers will be very
important in reaching this goal of No Child Left Behind.
California Public Schools
In the past decade, California has made numerous efforts to improve their
public schools. Class size reduction, professional development for teachers, new
statewide academic content standards and student testing with public reporting and
accountability measures have been sanctioned to make California schools more
successful (California Report Card, 2001). California struggles with a variety of
factors that impact student achievement. Childcare, poverty, health care, hunger,
prenatal care and teen pregnancy all affect a student’s ability to learn. In 1999, 56,577
teens gave birth and 1.7 million children live in families who are considered poor.
1.85 million children lack health insurance. Foster homes serviced 102,000 children
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in 2000, and one out of six foster children live in California. Over 660,000 children
were reported abused or neglected in 2000 (California Report Card, 2001). During the
2000-01 school year, 46.8 percent of California students qualified for the free/reduced
lunch program (California Student Achievement, 2002). The population of limited
English proficient students in California stood at 25 percent in the 2000-01 school year
(California Student Achievement, 2002). The students of California are more diverse
than anywhere else. The student population has increased 1.1 million over the past
decade to nearly 7 million students. Locally, Orange County enrolls the second largest
number of students in the state (Who Are California’s Students, 2002).
In a typical California public school, more than 25 percent of the students
come from families with incomes below the poverty line, at least 20 percent speak a
first language other than English, nearly half are racial/ethnic “minorities” and about
10 percent have learning disabilities (Darling-Hammond, 2001). These students are
held to the same graduation requirements and starting with the graduating class of
2004, all will be required to pass the California High School Exit Exam. The diverse
student population poses a challenge for teachers. Teachers must be very
knowledgeable in their subject area and possess the teaching skills to respond to
diverse students needs.
Stanford Achievement Test - Ninth Edition, a standardized norm-referenced
test, shows some disturbing results. Just over one-third of 10th and 11th grade students
scored at or above the 50th percentile in reading in 2001 (The California Master Plan
for Education, 2002). Less than half of 10th and 11th grade students scored at or above
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the 50th percentile in math in 2001 (The California Master Plan for Education, 2002).
On the English Language Arts standards-based test, 31 percent of 10th graders and 29
percent of 11th graders earned proficient or advanced scores (The California Master
Plan for Education, 2002).
Graduation rates are of great concern in California. The national average of
18-24 year olds with a high school diploma was close to 85.3 percent, while California
averaged 78.9 percent (US Department of Education, 1999). Latino students have the
highest dropout rate of any ethnic group. Of students entering high school in 1996,
56.9 percent of Latino students graduated, 57.8 percent of black students, 86.3 percent
of Asian students and 77.6 percent of White students graduated (California State
Department of Education, Demographic Reports, 2001).
Increases in enrollment along with class size reduction and teacher retirements
have increased the demand for teachers in California. We will need to increase the
numbers of teachers by about 6,000 teachers each year if we are going to place a
qualified teacher in every classroom (McKibbin, 2001). Class size reduction began in
1996 to reduce class sizes in grades K-3. The Class Size Reduction program offered
$650 to school districts for each primary grade student in a classroom where the
student to teacher ratio did not exceed 20 to 1. This initiative was offered midsummer,
which required districts to rush to hire teachers to accommodate the new classrooms
that would have to be created. This caused a need for nearly 20,000 additional
teachers, which equals an 8 percent increase in the teaching workforce (Felter, 1997).
Historically, schools that serve low-income students have a more difficult time hiring
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and retaining highly qualified teachers (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Class Size
Reduction made it possible for qualified teachers to be more selective about where
they would teach and left low-income schools having to hire less qualified teachers
(Lewis, 1997). With an increased number of openings in higher income areas, the
qualified teachers in low-income schools could find new positions and leave the low-
income schools. Schools with the greatest concentrations of low-income and minority
students have four to five times as many unqualified teachers as the more affluent
schools serving predominantly White populations (Darling-Hammond, 2001). The
concern is that the gap between low-income, minority students and middle-class White
students will widen with the difference in the qualifications of the teachers that the
schools are able to hire. In the late 1990’s, California employed more under qualified
teachers that any other state and California ranked 45th or lower among all states in
reading and math achievement, class sizes, staff-pupil rations, libraries and many other
school resources (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999).
By 2007, projected enrollments are supposed to increase by 20 percent in
California (Darling-Hammond, 2001). The teacher supply is limited. The California
Research Bureau’s review of the data shows that 5 percent of teachers leave the
profession each year and 30-50 percent of beginning teachers leave the profession
each year. Approximately one-third of current teachers will retire in the next ten years
(Legislative Analyst’s Office, 1999).
California issues emergency credentials to people in areas where there is a
shortage of teachers. These emergency permits are often issued in special education,
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bilingual education, mathematics and science (Felter, 1997). Emergency permits are
renewed when needed which equates to approximately 60 percent of California
emergency permit holders are on renewed permits (Felter, 1997). In a recent poll
sponsored by the Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning, 87 percent of
Californians cite “ensuring a well-qualified teacher in every classroom” as very
important for improving student achievement and “putting a qualified teacher in every
classroom” scores higher than any other reform idea (Haskelhom and Harris, 2001).
In more than 20 percent of California schools, more than 20 percent of the teachers are
under-qualified. The majority of these schools are high-poverty with a high number of
minority and English learners (Shields, et. al., 1999).
During the 2000-01 school year, California had more than 49,000 under
qualified teachers. A staggering 34,670 were working on emergency permits while
3,348 were on waivers and had not passed the California Basic Educational Skills
Test. Nearly 6,400 teachers were hired as interns and 5,200 had pre-intern credentials
(Office of Educational Demographics, 2001). Ten percent of all California secondary
teachers are underqualified, and those numbers are 14 percent in mathematics and
physical science and 12 percent in life science (Shields, et. al., 2001). At least 20
percent of the teachers in schools in the lowest decile of the 2000 Academic
Performance Index possess only emergency permits (California Teachers Association,
2000). In some districts, half of the teachers have emergency permits or waivers
rather than credentials for their assignments (California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing, 2001). The percentage of teachers completing the teaching credential
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preparation before entering teaching dropped from 78 percent in 1991-1992 to 52
percent in 1998-1999 (Shields, et. al., 2000).
In an effort to find teachers to fill the teacher shortage in California, reforms
have been made to reduce the time spent in teacher education and allow students in the
program to teach before completing the program. These new teachers often miss out
on student teaching, which is a vital part of the pre-service experience (Shields, et. al.,
1999). People who enter teaching without completing a teacher education program
feel much less prepared and many regret skipping out on the pre-service training
(Shields, et. al., 1999).
California created The California Master Plan for Education that was published
in 2002. This documents the central vision for a coherent educational system based on
learner needs and outcomes. The Master Plan states that every students would be
entitled to a fully qualified teacher, clear academic standards, intervention when
necessary to allow successful transition into the next levels of education and into the
workforce, supplementary educational services when needed, high-quality learning
materials and resources, counseling and academic advising, attend school in a clean,
modern and safe environment and be provided with sufficient information regarding
educational, economic, social, and political options to be able to make informed
choices for his or her future (The California Master Plan for Education, 2002). The
Master Plan calls for hiring only properly credentialed teachers. They suggest getting
rid of the emergency permit usage by implementing the pre-intemship program until
that too can be phased out.
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Governance and oversight in California public schools can get quite confusing.
California has four state-level oversight entities, which overlap in their areas of
responsibility. The Governor appoints the members of the State Board of Education
and creates the budget that shows the educational priorities. The Governor is usually
the final decision-maker when there are differences in opinion about educational
policy through line-item veto power (The California Master Plan for Education, 2002).
The State Board of Education is the policy setting body with little ability to ensure its
policies are implemented (The California Master Plan for Education, 2002). The
Superintendent of Public Instruction manages the California Department of Education
staff, and although this person has little policy-setting power, they influence policy
through its implementation (The California Master Plan for Education, 2002). The
Secretary of Education position was created in 1991 and deal with program
administration and policy interpretation (The California Master Plan for Education,
2002). In addition there are county offices of education that have a county
superintendent of schools and a county board of education. The county level approves
annual budgets of school districts and provide support and technical service and help
serve as mediator in appeals cases with districts (The California Master Plan for
Education, 2002).
Private Schools
Private schools are generally smaller than public high schools and therefore,
support during new teacher induction may not be as structured as it is in the public
schools. Public schools have to follow district and state mandates. Public schools
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frequently have the resources to provide a structured teacher induction program while
private schools do not. Smaller working environments lead to greater collegiality.
Private parochial schools also have the spiritual thread that permeates through all
aspects of the educational setting. Private schools can choose their students which can
result in a school setting easier to teach in with regard to class size, differentiated
instruction and classroom management. Public schools must take everyone in their
attendance area including students with special needs, English language learners,
students with low academics and students with behavior problems. Private school
teachers teach at the private school instead of the public school for a variety of reasons
including smaller class size, small school setting, spirituality and student clientele.
This choice to teach in a private school, usually for a lower salary can impact the drive
to seek help and make their career as a teacher a lifetime endeavor.
Private schools struggle with resources. There is not an available substitute
pool to provide professional development time. Each school site maybe so small that
there are not a large number of experienced teachers to draw from for support in
specific grade levels or subject areas.
New Teacher Induction
National data shows that three years after completing a teacher preparation
program, only four out of ten people who completed the program are teaching
(National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 1996). According to the
Department of Education (McCarren, 2000), 22 percent of new teachers across the
nation leave the profession within the first three years and the teacher dropout rate
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climbs up to 50 percent after the first five years. These rates are highest in urban
school settings in low-income areas. Schools with over 50 percent of their students on
free/reduced lunch had a turnover rate of 10 percent compared to 8 percent in schools
with a lower proportion of low-income students (Felter, 1997). It is also reported
(National Center for Education Statistics, 1999) that only 11 percent of public school
teachers are satisfied with their jobs. The reasons for leaving the teaching profession
are salary level, lack of career ladders, non-teaching assignments, class size, lack of
resources and the feeling of frustration and isolation with all of the deinands of
teaching (Morey, Bezuk and Chiero, 1997). In another survey, it was found that 17
percent of teachers who left within four years left involuntarily, another 12 percent to
take classes, 8 percent due to dissatisfaction with the profession, 17 percent to pursue
another career and 44 percent left for personal or family reasons (Boe, et. al., 1998).
Many teaching positions are filled with people who lack the teacher preparation that
impacts student achievement. Some teachers enter the field of education with little
formal training and are left to learn as they teach. In a study by the California
Commission on Teacher Credentialing, it was found that approximately 40 percent of
emergency-credentialed teachers in California leave the profession within one year.
Even though the school year is shorter in the United States than in many other
countries, teachers here teach more hours per day and year than elsewhere. In other
countries, much more time is given for class preparation and joint planning, collegial
work on curriculum and assessment development, one-on-one meetings with students,
parents and colleagues and learning through study groups, observation, research and
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demonstration lessons (Darling-Hammond, 1999). New teachers are frequently given
the same responsibilities or more difficult responsibilities than veteran teachers. There
is often a “sink-or-swim” attitude towards new teachers. By doing this to our
beginning teachers, we are promoting a cycle of teachers who cannot succeed and
students who are not learning. The assumption is that teaching is something that many
people are capable of doing with short workdays and summers off. The reality is that
a teacher on average spends more than 30 hours a week at school and another 12 hours
doing lesson plans, grading and doing other classroom related activities (Little et al,
1987). Teachers spend many hours during the summer planning for the next year,
attending workshops and taking classes. Teaching is intense. The average number of
stimuli that a teacher receives and delivers in one hour is about 600 (McKibbin, 1974).
In his study of a number of professions, the only profession that had more stimuli per
hour was an air traffic controller. These new teachers lack the experience in balancing
lesson planning, classroom management, school paperwork and additional teaching
duties. Opportunities must exist for planning, teaching reflecting and applying
knowledge.
Teachers consider collegiality the most valuable source of professional
stimulation (Yee, 1986). Therefore, we must offer new and veteran teachers alike the
opportunity to get together with their colleagues to improve their teaching and provide
support to each other.
A teacher shortage currently exists, especially in the areas of science and
mathematics. This makes the teacher attrition rate all the more critical. Schools need
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39
to respond to this by offering incentives or by decreasing the standards to become a
teacher. In a study, it was found that mathematics teachers with certification teaching
algebra experienced five times greater test scores than non-certified teachers (Darling-
Hammond, 1985). It is estimated that during the next decade, 187,000 new teachers
will be required each year, which is equal to about 25 percent of college graduates,
however, only 5 percent of recent graduates want to become teachers (National Center
for Educational Statistics, 1996).
Student performance is greatly affected by the quality of the teachers. Students
with lower quality teachers experience a disadvantage since student learning is a
function of teacher quality (Shulman, 1987). Investments in teacher knowledge and
skills produce greater student achievement than any other use of education dollars
(National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 1996). High quality
teacher preparation and professional development opportunities make a difference in
student achievement (Cohen and Hill, 1997). It has been found that a teacher’s
education, ability and experience, along with small schools and low student to teacher
rations are all positively connected to student achievement (Hedges, Laine and
Greenwald, 1994). Research shows that students achieve at much higher levels when
they are taught by teachers who have a deep knowledge of subject matter and strong
preparation for teaching (Monk, 1994). Students achieve at higher levels and are less
likely to drop out when they are taught by teachers with certification in their teaching
field, by those with master’s degrees or enrolled in graduate studies, and by those with
greater preparation in methods of teaching (Council for School Performance, 1997).
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In a study of the factors affecting student achievement, it was found that 49 percent is
home and family factors, including parent education, income, language background,
race and location, 43 percent is teacher qualifications, including licensing,
examination scores and experience, and 8 percent is class size (Ferguson, 1991).
A number of policies have been enacted in order to increase the pool of
qualified teachers in the classroom. In 1988, Senate Bill 148 was enacted to look at
alternative models for supporting and assisting the professional induction of first and
second year teachers, and assessing their competence and performance in the
classroom (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 1992). A number of
pilot projects began and were evaluated. The outcomes of the studies of the pilot
projects and recommendations are reported in Success for Beginning Teachers: The
California New Teacher Project (1992). The finding showed that support for new
teachers led to instructional practices that improve students achievement, more
complex, challenging instructional activities, and a wider range of instructional
materials (Olebe, 2001). These teachers were more successful in motivating students
and setting high expectations for all students. The retention of minority teachers and
teachers in hard to staff schools increased (Olebe, 2001). Retention rates for the 3,000
beginning teachers were 91 percent after the first year and 87 percent after the second
year (Ward, Dianda and van Broekhuizen, 1992). This document became the basis for
Senate Bill 1422, which created the Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment
Program.
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41
In September 2001, new standards for teacher preparation programs were
required under Senate Bill 2042. This bill creates standards for what teachers must
know and do to receive a credential. It also mandates that school districts develop a
system for mentoring and assessing their teachers. In addition, this bill creates
multiple paths to earn a teaching credential. To earn a preliminary credential, new
teachers must pass a Teaching Performance Assessment that evaluates their ability to
teach in relation to the state academic content standards. To earn a clear credential,
teachers must complete an induction program aligned with the California Standards
for the Teaching Profession. The California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
has created Standards of Quality and Effectiveness for Professional Teacher Induction
Programs (March, 2002).
Foundational Standards for All Multiple Subject and Single Subject Professional
Teacher Induction Programs
Standard 1: Sponsorship, Administration, and Leadership
Standard 2: Resources
Standard 3: Professional Development Providers
Standard 4: Evaluation
Standard 5: Articulation with Professional Teacher Preparation Programs
Standard 6: Advice and Assistance
Standard 7: Coordination and Communication
Standard 8: Support Provider Selection and Assignment
Standard 9: Support Provider Professional Development
Implementation Standards for All Multiple Subject and Single Subject Professional
Teacher Induction Programs
A. Program Design
Standard 10: Program Design
Standard 11: Roles and Responsibilities of K-12 Schools
Standard 12: Professional Development Based on an Individual Induction Plan
Standard 13: Formative Assessment Systems
Standard 14: Completion of the Professional Teacher Induction Program
B. Teaching Curriculum to All Students in California Schools
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Standard 15: K-12 Core Academic Content and Subject Specific Pedagogy
Standard 16: Using Technology to Support Student Learning
C. Teaching All Students in California Schools
Standard 17: Supporting Equity, Diversity and Access to the Core Curriculum
Standard 18: Creating a Supportive and Healthy Environment for Student
Learning
Standard 19: Teaching English Learners
Standard 20: Teaching Special Populations
(California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2002)
Senate Bill 334 allows a retired teacher who returns to teaching for two years
to receive increased retirement benefits. Senate Bill 57 allows a teacher with six years
of experience in a private school to be hired in a public school without getting a
credential. The Cal Grant T Program provides tuition and fee payments for students to
attend full-time professional teacher preparation programs. After completing the
program, the new teacher must teach for one year in a low performing school for every
$2,000 of grant money they received. In 2000, Senate Bill 1643 was passed which
made beginning credentialed teacher salaries start at $34,000. Senate Bill 1666
created recruitment centers for the purpose of recruiting credentialed teachers for low
performing schools. Signing bonuses or housing subsidies, increased compensation
and improved working conditions may be offered with the funding. Bonuses for
National Board Certification are offered as a one-time $10,000 bonus. Teachers may
receive an additional $20,000 if they agree to teach in a low performing school for
four years. Graduate fellowships to help with living expenses and tuition deferment
are offered to individuals in approved teacher credentialing programs who agree to
teach at a low performing school for four years after they complete their credential.
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Assembly Bill 2879 allows for personal state income tax credit for
credentialed teachers. In 1999, Assembly Bill lx was passed. This is the Peer
Assistance and Review Program. Teachers can volunteer for the program or be
recommended to the program. The program provides peer assistance by a consulting
teacher. Assembly Bill 1114 was passed to provide one-time awards to California
teachers and other credentialed employees who work in underachieving schools that
show academic improvement. Professional Development Institutes were established
to provide professional development and stipends to teachers who participate and
complete the training. Assembly Bill 1620 established procedures for granting
California teaching credentials to out-of-state credential holders.
For new teachers to be successful in the classroom, they must possess a
number of teaching skills so that they are effective in the classroom. Professional
development and support for beginning teachers is essential to retain them in the
profession. The first category of skills includes organizing strategies. This includes
lesson planning, lesson design, time management, advance work and classroom
management (Freiberg, 2002). These are skills that are often not evident when
observing a veteran teacher because they have mastered these skills. New teachers
spend a lot of time on lesson planning since they are creating lessons for the first time
instead of simply refining them. Instructing strategies are the next set of skills. Most
new teachers are familiar with teacher-centered instruction, but have not mastered
student-centered instruction (Freiberg and Driscoll, 2000). Assessing strategies are
the third category. This involves assessing students learning as well as reflection upon
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44
their own teaching. Using multiple measures for assessment is difficult for beginning
teachers. Teachers are often on their own in a classroom without feedback from
others. Learning to reflect and get student feedback and videotape lessons are great
ways to assess teaching (Freiberg, 2002).
To ensure beginning teacher success, schools can plan professional
development opportunities that relate to immediate needs of teachers (i.e. computer
grading professional development a couple of weeks into school, but long before
progress reports are due). Summer academies can be created for new teachers to
prepare them for the start of school. Access to veteran teacher’s lesson plans can
make the burden of lesson planning less intense. Confidential help through the
internet or a question box to answer new teachers’ questions can make asking for help
less intimidating (Freiberg, 2002).
School administration is essential to the development of beginning teachers.
The school site must work hard to nurture new teachers in order to create a
professional learning environment and retain quality teachers. A number of
suggestions exist about how to go about this task (Davis and Bloom, 1998):
1. Remember what being a new teacher is all about.
2. Build assignments with new teachers in mind.
3. Provide new teachers with curriculum guidance and support.
4. Provide new teachers with systematic orientation.
5. Build a school culture that is collegial.
6. Support ongoing professional growth for new teachers.
7. Be clear about your expectations and perceptions.
8. Support your local BTSA program.
The benefits of successful new teacher induction programs include new and
veteran educators staying in their teaching position for a longer period of time, teacher
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45
effectiveness in the classroom, veteran teachers becoming happier with their jobs and
mentoring teachers often go on to have leadership roles in the district (Alliance for
Excellent Education, 2002). Challenges exist in the form of not having enough
teachers to serve as mentors, administrative problems in managing the programs, new
teachers assigned to the most difficult classes to teach and the lack of support for
alternatively trained or non-credentialed teachers Alliance for Excellent Education,
2002).
In order for new teacher induction programs to be successful, they must be
linked with a vision of good teaching, an understanding of teacher learning and
supported by a professional culture that collaborates (Feiman-Nemser, S., 1996).
Effective programs tend to include induction workshops before school begins,
professional development through systematic training over two or three years, strong
administrative support, mentoring by experienced teachers, modeling of effective
teaching during in-service training and mentoring, opportunities to visit demonstration
classrooms, assessment and feedback of new teachers based on goals that are aligned
with program standards, and rigorous and ongoing evaluation of the program by both
teachers and administrators (Wong, H. K., 2002).
BTSA (Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment)
Senate Bill 1422 led to the establishment of the Beginning Teacher Support
and Assessment (BTSA) Program. The bill was based on research that identified the
need to provide beginning teachers with induction support. The purpose of this
program is to provide new teacher development or induction. The hope is that with
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46
some support during those first couple of years, a greater number of new teachers will
remain in teaching. The BTSA program offers beginning teachers with ongoing
support from a more experienced colleague. It also includes assessments,
observations, journals and portfolios. The program began small in 1992, servicing less
than 25 percent of eligible beginning teachers (Olebe, 1999). Senate Bill 1422 was
passed in 1992 and a review board was developed in 1997. As a result of the great
reviews, the program was expanded. As of July, 1999, every first and second year
credentialed teacher in California could participate in the BTSA program. Senate Bill
2042 made completion of an induction program, a requirement for obtaining the clear
credential.
Retention rates for teachers involved in BTSA are promising. Surveys show
that 93 percent of first year teachers who complete BTSA stay in teaching after the
first year and 88 percent after two years (Fitch, 1999). In the year 2001, BTSA
provided support to 29,000 beginning teachers and was funded at $104.6 million. The
purposes of BTSA are (http//:www.btsa.ca.gov):
1. provide an effective transition into the teaching career for first and second year
teachers in California;
2. improve the educational performance of students through improved training,
information and assistance for new teachers;
3. enable beginning teachers to be effective in teaching students who are
4. culturally, linguistically, and academically diverse;
5. ensure the professional success and retention of new teachers;
6. ensure that a support provider provides intensive individualized support and
assistance to each participating beginning teacher;
7. improve the rigor and consistency of individual teacher performance
8. assessments and the usefulness of assessment results to teachers and decision
makers;
9. establish an effective, coherent system of performance assessments that are based
on the California Standards for the Teaching Profession;
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10. examine alternative ways in which the general public and the education
11. profession may be assured that new teachers who remain in teaching have
12. attained acceptable levels of professional competence;
13. ensure that an individual induction plan is in place for each participating
14. beginning teacher and is based on an ongoing assessment of the development of
the beginning teacher;
15. ensure continuous program improvement through ongoing research,
16. development and evaluation.
The California Formative Assessment and Support System for Teachers
(CFASST) is a structured, systematic formative assessment process for beginning
teachers and support providers that rests on two premises for quality teaching that
supports student achievement. The first is the California Standards for the Teaching
Profession, which provides a common language to talk about teaching. The second
aspect is a common set of scales to describe teaching practice at different levels
(Olebe, Jackson and Danielson, 1999). This system provides assessment for the sake
of improving teaching, not for formal evaluation. The beginning teacher and the
support provider look at teaching and student achievement through the use of formal
peer observations and structured inquiries. An Individualized Induction Plan helps
determine future professional development. During the first year, a teacher is
involved in ten activities that include planning development, analysis of instructional
activities, assessment of student work and the analysis of classroom practice that
includes observation by the support provider (Gitomer, 1999).
The BTSA program does have some limitations. To begin, with the current
teacher turnover rate, as many as 30 percent of faculty in a district could be involved
in induction (Humphrey, et. al., 2000). This leads to concern about the number of
experienced teachers that are willing and able to serve as support providers (Shields,
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48
et. al., 2000). Between internship programs, BTSA, pre-internship programs and
student teaching, California needs more than 50,000 experienced teachers each year to
mentor these new teachers and teacher candidates (McKibbin, 2001). Concern about
the size of the program could lead to a dilution of how it was intended, with each
support provider taking on too many beginning teachers and/or support providers
working at different sites from the beginning teachers.
A number of barriers exist that hinder the implementation of a successful new
teacher support program. The biggest problem is the cost of implementing the
program. In order to run the program effectively, new teacher supporters must be
compensated for their time and efforts. Support teachers need time out of their own
classroom to visit their beginning teachers. The problem with this is, quality, veteran
teachers frequently have substitute teachers teaching their classes while they are
assisting beginning teachers. Finding enough support teachers for all of the beginning
teachers is difficult. Many veteran teachers are not interested in the time commitment
that being a support teacher requires. This leads to a diluting of the quality of support
teachers. Ideally, the support teacher should be from the same school site as the
beginning teachers that they support. This is happening less frequently due to the
difficulty of finding qualified, interested support teachers.
In the district involved in the study, teachers involved in the BTSA program
have very specific coursework requirements. First year participating teachers must
cover 24 hours of training on critical reading and writing across the curriculum, 2
hours of CTAP assessment, 2 hours of training on the district’s e-mail system and
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49
computer program that shows student achievement based on test scores, 4 hours of
technology enhanced curriculum training and 2 hours of poverty training. Second year
participating teachers must complete 24 hours of standards performance assessment, 2
hours of special education and mainstreaming training, 4 hours of curriculum
mapping, and 4 hours of adolescent health and safety issues. They are required to
complete an additional 12 hours of workshops over two years that are connected to
their Individual Induction Plans.
Private School Support Systems
In order for a private school of this religious affiliation to exist, a lengthy
approval process takes place. Approval is required at the local, District and National
level, prior to application to Government Authorities for funding purposes. A local
area may plan commencement of a school as the result of the initiative of the local
congregation or a school may be proposed because of a planned mission of the church.
The national concerns include adequate and suitable resources to lead and staff
schools, the proclamation of the Gospel and confessional integrity. To make decisions
about whether to open another school, the national level will be aware of the number
of teachers in preparation, assess the average attrition rate of staff, and identify
potential principals. Once the national level decides to look at the feasibility of a new
school, the local level must create a committee to look at the theological basis for the
development the support of and relation to the ministry in the area, look at projected
enrollments and a five-year projection, look at financial viability through the five-year
projection, look at site and facilities, look at curriculum to be offered, consultation
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with the District Departments for Schools/Education and outline proposed ownership
and governance. The District Schools/Education Council must approve the project
(http//: dcs .lcms. org).
This type of religious school has been in existence since 1640. The reasons for
opening a school such as this are (http//:dcs.lcms.org):
1. to nurture faith;
2. to grow in grace and knowledge;
3. to teach the Word;
4. to communicate and establish Christian values;
5. to equip for Christian service;
6. to reach out with the Gospel to others.
The policy-based governance is a coherent framework of concepts and
principles that are internally consistent as well as powerful in dealing with whatever
practical situations arise. It is Lay governed and driven and staff operated and
managed (http//:dcs.lcms.org). The schools share Christ and do so formally in the
religion class. They also share Him all day long as an integrated part of every aspect
of the school day (http//:dcs.lcms.org). The school used in the study has a Board of
Directors, and Executive Director who has directors of financial services, operations,
American Leadership Institute and development report to them. There is a site
principal who has directors of athletics, guidance/registrar, campus ministries, students
services, admissions, technology services and faculty development report to them.
There is an assistant principal and academic advisors who oversee the faculty.
The mission statement of the school is:
“Private High School B endeavors to assist in the developmental process of
each student by:
1. Nurturing spiritual and emotional growth
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2. Equipping in knowledge and skills
3. Providing social and relational support and training
4. Promoting healthy physical development”
-Mission Statement of Private High School B
Under Title II, Part A of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, preparing,
training and recruiting high quality teachers and principals is addressed. The amount
of funding available for services to private school personnel requires equitable
participation of private school teachers and other education personnel to use funds for
professional development (No Child Left Behind Act, 2001). The site involved in the
study has a new teacher induction statement that states:
“Special support is given to new teachers in a Basic Training workshop before
the start of school, as well as in monthly meetings. Regular in-services train
the whole staff in a wide variety of topics. Teachers are engaged in team
building, mentoring, observing each other, attending professional conferences,
visiting other schools, and teaming with local universities and businesses.
Educators continue to grow together in weekly Bible study, prayer and
worship.”
Teacher Support Statement from Private School B
As of 2001, there were eighty high schools with this religious affiliation in the
United States. This accounts for 18,300 high school students attending this private
school affiliation. Over half of the students who attend the high schools are members
of the congregations who operate the schools. The funding for the high schools comes
from the congregation budget (10%), tuition/fees (68%) and third sources (22%). The
average high school has sixteen full time teachers with 288 students
(http://dcs.lcms.orgt
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Summary
Quality teachers are an integral aspect of a quality school and education.
Teacher retention rates have been a problem and finding qualified teachers has
become exceedingly more difficult. All schools have some form of teacher induction
in order to retain quality teachers in the profession. The types of new teacher
induction programs differ depending upon the governance structure of the school.
Public schools in California follow the BTSA model while private schools in the area
have developed their own new teacher induction program based on the needs of their
school.
With the increasing number of schooling options for young people today, it is
critical to offer a quality education in every type of educational governance setting.
New teacher induction helps to retain teachers and thus improve the quality of
education. Research in the area of new teacher induction in different governance
models can prove useful in comparing practices in order to create the best environment
to retain quality teachers.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
The purpose of this study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. The study compares the differences in new teacher
induction in the public and private educational sectors. The goal was to see if there
was a connection between governance and new teacher induction.
This chapter describes the research methodology and procedures, including the
research questions that were utilized in this study. This chapter also explains the
instrumentation, variables, demographics, data collection process and data analysis.
Research Approach
Alternatives to public education have been expanding. These alternative
governance models provide another way for young people to be educated. Public and
private schools have different decision-making processes in the administration of their
organization. Using new teacher induction as the avenue for looking at differences in
governance is the way the differences were explored in this study. Areas of finance,
governance and personnel have an impact on how programs are carried out. This
study seeks to determine if there is a difference in the way new teacher induction is
implemented based on the governance model. The study targeted two high schools in
Orange County, California. One school was a public high school and the other was a
private school.
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Research Design
This study was a case study involving a public high school and a private high
school. The structured interview and questionnaire were utilized to determine themes
in governance related to new teacher induction.
Schools Included in the Study
This study was conducted on two high schools in Orange County, California.
Both high schools educate students in grades 9-12. The two sites were selected due to
the communities that they serve. The private school drew 18 percent of its freshmen
population from Anaheim. The public school enrolls a large number of its students
from the local K-8 private schools. The private school is one of the larger private
schools in Orange County. The public school has a rigorous academic program
including a strong offering of Advanced Placement courses. The governance issue of
public schools is confined to specific school boundaries (the public school draws from
an area approximately one square mile around the school. The private school has the
benefit of unlimited boundaries.
Table 1 presents a description of the demographics and background
information about each of the school sites. The schools were selected due to their
similarities in ethnic groups served, socio-economic status and academic achievement.
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Table 1
Demographic Background
Characteristics for Schools
Public School Private Parochial School
Grade Levels Taught 9-12 9-12
Student Enrollment 1,974 999
Ethnic Origin
Caucasian 58.1% 87%
Hispanic 15.6% 5.9%
Asian 15.8% 3.5%
African American 4.8% .8%
Other 5.8% 2.8%
Free/Reduced Lunch 9.2% N/A
Tuition Aide Based on Income N/A 25%
SAT Scores 12000)
Verbal Scores 495 540
Math Scores 553 537
Number of Teachers 78 56
Location Cypress Orange
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The vision statement of Public High School A developed by staff, students and parents
states:
“Public High School A, fosters a positive learning environment which enables
students to achieve their potential. Opportunities are provided for the
development of skills in decision- making, communication, and critical
thinking. Students are guided toward fulfilling career paths and developing
positive self-discipline, responsible citizenship and an appreciation of cultural
diversity.”
The mission of the public school developed by all stakeholders and printed in the
student handbook is as follows:
“The district, a partnership of students, parents, staff and community, will
provide each student with a high quality educational program in a safe,
motivating learning environment that promotes: high academic achievement
based on a strong foundation of knowledge and skills, development of habits
and attitudes for a lifetime of learning, exploration and preparation in a broad
range of career and interest areas, and commitment to responsible citizenship.”
The public school’s belief statements developed by the Board of Education and
incorporated into Board policy states:
“1. We believe that public education is vital to the progress of our community
and our nation, that all children can learn, and that the student is the focal
point of all decisions, 2. We believe that education is a shared responsibility
where the student, the school, the home, and the community work together
toward common goals, 3. We believe in high standards of personal
performance for students and staff and individual accountability for decisions
and actions, 4. We believe in respect and appreciation of the commonality and
diversity of individuals and groups, 5. We believe that education should offer
each student multiple opportunities for success and fulfillment in both
curricular and extracurricular programs, 6. We believe in providing a safe and
secure environment for students and staff, which creates a positive atmosphere
and stimulates learning, and 7. We believe in the values that support ethical
decision-making, positive role modeling, and a commitment to
professionalism.”
The vision at the private school developed by the National Synod states:
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“To disciple young people for Jesus Christ within a high quality academic
setting. The school will provide a safe, caring environment for its students,
enabling each to develop to his/her potential while experiencing God’s love in
Jesus Christ.”
The mission statement of the private school found in the student handbook states:
“Private High School B endeavors to assist in the developmental process of
each student by: nurturing spiritual and emotional growth, equipping in
knowledge and skills, providing social and relational support and training, and
promoting healthy physical development.”
The belief of the school found in their parent handbook states;
“The community of Private High School B believes that God loves us through
the saving work of Jesus Christ. Helping young people experience this love
through all aspects of the school program is our purpose and focus. Private
High School B believes this experience will be the foundation of a meaningful
and successful life. On a daily basis students can grow in their knowledge and
understanding of God’s love for them. This intentional, spiritual development
in an exceptional, academic setting allows students to grow not only in
knowledge but also in wisdom. The faculty and staff are committed to
developing personal relationships with all students enabling each one to feel
loved and cared for as a member of the Private High School of Orange County
family.”
The public school falls under the state requirements of the Beginning Teacher
Support and Assessment (BTSA) Program. The district orchestrates this program and
the sites new teachers participate in the program as well as veteran teachers who serve
as mentors. The private school has created their own teacher induction program that is
run by the sites Director of Faculty Development. Both sites have a number of their
new and veteran teachers involved in their new teacher induction programs.
Instrumentation
The primary instruments in this study were a researcher-developed
questionnaire (Appendix A), structured interviews (Appendix B) and documents
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related to the new teacher induction programs. The questionnaire gleaned information
regarding the respondent’s perception about the new teacher induction they received
and the role of governance in the induction process. A Likert-type scale was utilized
on the questionnaire. A Likert scale asks an individual to respond to a series of
statements by indicating the extent of their agreement or disagreement with that
statement. Ordinarily, the responses to a number of items are summed to produce an
overall score. Demographic information was obtained through published documents
at each of the school sites. The structured interview was utilized to further identify
perceptions about the role of governance in new teacher induction and the components
of the program. Documents were reviewed that explained the new teacher induction
programs and the role of governance in the programs.
The questionnaire and interview questions were developed to address the
research questions, which include:
1. How is new teacher induction undertaken in public school A?
2. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in public
school A?
3. How is new teacher induction undertaken in private school B?
4. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in private
school B?
5. How does new teacher induction as practiced in public school A differ from new
teacher induction as practiced in private school B?
6. Do the principle forces that tend to shape public school A differ from private
school B? What are they?
7. Are any of those differences possibly attributable to differences in governance?
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59
The questionnaire was developed from information obtained in the literature
review. The first draft of the questionnaire was submitted to an expert panel
consisting of public and private high school principals and veteran teachers. Their
combined experiences provided the background necessary to be certain the survey
questions were thorough, comprehensive and pertinent to the role of governance in
new teacher induction. From their feedback, the necessary revisions were made and
the second draft was field tested by two principals and two veteran teachers at both
public and private school sites. In addition, the individuals field testing the
instruments were contacted to obtain feedback as to the length of time necessary to
complete the survey, the clarity of the questions, and any additional comments. The
questionnaire in final form and the transmittal letter was mailed to the new teachers at
each of the participating sites. Following the first mailing, a second request letter and
survey was mailed to those subjects not responding to the first.
Structured Interview
In addition to the questionnaire instrument, structured interview questions were
developed to collect data in greater depth, to serve as a follow up to the questionnaire,
and to clarify responses to the questionnaire. The structured interview questions were
reviewed by the expert panel. The questions were revised to align more clearly with
the role of governance in new teacher induction. After receiving the completed
questionnaires and studying the responses, interviews were scheduled and conducted
at the school sites. Using the critical incidents technique (Borg and Gall, 1989), major
themes were sought regarding the perceptions of new teachers, mentors and
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6 0
administrators relative to the study. The critical incidents technique is a set of
procedures for systematically identifying behaviors that contribute to the success or
failure of programs in specific situations (Flanagan, 1954).
Procedures
The two high schools included in the study are from Orange County,
California. The principals were contacted to see if they would be willing to participate
in the study. The principals’ names and telephone numbers were obtained from the
internet. The questionnaire (Appendix A) and consent form (Appendix C) were sent
to all involved in the study. Those not responding to the first survey mailed were sent
a thank you note that requested the return of the questionnaire if they had not returned
it. The questionnaires sent to individuals were color-coded to identify those returned
from the public school and those returned from the private school. All information
was anonymous and the participants were asked to respond to the questionnaire on an
individual basis, with no input from other stakeholders. The data from the
questionnaire was reviewed and interviews were scheduled with new teachers, veteran
teachers serving as mentors and the administrator in charge of new teachers at both
sites. The researcher worked with the administrator to set up interviews at the school
site. The researcher took notes and audio-taped the interviews to refer to later. All
participants were given the opportunity to review the findings of the study.
Data Collection
A questionnaire was administered to new teachers at a public and a private
high school. The questionnaire consisted of 16 questions that were responded to
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through a Likert-type scale. The questionnaire should have taken no more than 10
minutes to complete. Questionnaires were administered to first and second year
teachers at each of the sites. They were sent along with a stamped and addressed
envelope. The questionnaires for the private school were green and the questionnaires
for the public school were yellow. Interviews were conducted with teachers and
administrators. The interviews included 3 questions for new teachers and 6 questions
for veteran teachers and administrators. The interviews lasted between 15-20 minutes.
The administrator in charge of new teachers was interviewed. The administrator
provided a list of all first and second year teachers and a list of all veteran teachers
who serve as mentors. The teachers were contacted by phone at the school site and
interviews scheduled with those teachers who were willing. The interviews were
conducted at the teacher’s school site to make it most convenient for them. The site
administration provided an office for the interviews. One administrator from each site
as well as 4 new teachers and 4 veteran teachers from each site participated in the
interview process and responded to the questionnaire. Participation was voluntary.
The human subjects involved in the interviews and questionnaire did not identify
themselves and were not referred to by any identifying characteristics other than their
role as an administrator, new teacher or veteran teacher. The responses during the
interview were not be linked to specific teachers but used to represent public or private
school, new or veteran teachers responses to the questions. All of the questionnaire
and interview questions addressed new teacher induction and governance. The private
school was selected first. It is a private high school that caters to students in Orange
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6 2
County. The public school was selected based on matching the demographics of the
private school. The goal was to have two schools that were very similar outside of
their form of governance.
Data Analysis
The analysis of the questionnaires involved three stages: (1) scale
construction; (b) identifying critical incidents; and (3) addressing the research
questions. This section describes each of the analytic steps in detail.
The first stage is scale construction. The questionnaire (Appendix A) required
new teachers to provide their interpretations of the valuable aspects of the new teacher
induction program. The six possible responses to the questions followed a Likert-type
scale. Each response was given a numerical value from one to six (1 = strongly
disagree, 6 = strongly agree) since there were six response options. Since no items in
the questionnaire have reverse wording, a response of ‘strongly agree’ (6) always
indicated a positive reaction to the new teacher induction program, while a response of
‘strongly disagree’ (1) indicates the new teacher had a negative reaction to that aspect
of the new teacher induction program. The totals from the public school and the
private school were tallied and divided by the total number returned from each site.
The second stage of the analysis focused on identifying the critical incidents.
Questions that produced a very high or very low response were reviewed and follow
up was done during the structured interviews. The critical incidents centered around
governance, mentoring and the logistics and time commitment to the program. During
the structured interviews, these critical incident areas received a lot of comment. The
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transcription of the interviews from the audio-taped interviews of new teachers,
mentor teachers and administrators was reviewed with regard to the critical incidents
and were noted.
Stage three of the analysis addressed the seven research questions. Questions
one and three were the same question except for the different governance structure of
the site (public or private). Question two and four were also the same question except
for the different governance structure. Question five compared the new teacher
induction program at the two sites. Question six addressed the principle forces behind
the differences in the new teacher induction programs at each site. Question seven
looked at the possibility of those differences being related to governance. The critical
incidents of governance, mentoring and the logistics and time commitment proved to
be the base of the comparison and the reasons behind the differences appeared to be
related to the governance structure of the school.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. The researcher identified differences between the
programs at a public high school and a private high school based on governance. The
study included a public high school and a private high school in Orange County,
California who have new teacher induction programs. Data was obtained through the
use of a researcher-developed questionnaire and through structured interviews.
Documentation was also gathered from each site about the new teacher induction
program.
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Respondents in this study were instructed to answer the questions individually,
without input from other stakeholders. Responses to the questionnaire were in the
form of a Likert-type scale, using six possible choices. Eight to ten new teachers,
mentor teachers and administrators from each site were selected to participate in the
structured interview portion of the study.
This study utilized questionnaires and structured interviews to identify critical
incidents that impact the new teacher induction program at each of the sites.
Governance appeared to be at the root of many of the differences in the new teacher
induction programs. The results of the study will be reported in Chapter 4.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
This chapter reports results from the questionnaires and interviews. The
chapter consists of three major sections: (1) Description of the Sample; (2)
Construction of the Rating Scales; and (3) Addressing the Research Questions. The
chapter concludes with a summary of the data analysis. Questionnaires for new
teachers and interviews with new teachers, mentor teachers and administrators from a
public high school and a private high school in Orange County, California were used
in this study.
Description of the Sample
Questionnaires were sent to the new teachers at each site. Administration at
each site gave the names of first and second year teachers. The questionnaire, along
with the informed consent form and a self-addressed stamped envelope were mailed
out. The administrator at the private school and a mentor teacher at the public school
mentioned my study to the new teachers. Thirteen teachers were first or second year
teachers at the private school and received the questionnaire. Nine questionnaires
were returned from the private school. Twelve teachers were first or second year
teachers at the public school and ten returned the questionnaires. The only
identification of the questionnaires was the color of the questionnaire. The private
school questionnaires were green and the public school questionnaires were yellow.
The anonymous nature of the questionnaires made it impossible to know who had
returned the questionnaires and who had not. A follow up thank you note was sent,
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thanking those who did the questionnaire and asking those who had not done the
questionnaire to send it in. After the questionnaires were reviewed, interviews were
set up at each site with a sample of new teachers, mentor teachers and the
administrator in charge of new teacher induction. One of the mentor teachers at the
public school set up the interviews based on new teacher’s and veteran teacher’s
conference periods. The administrator in charge of faculty development at the private
school set up interviews with new teachers and then mentor teachers based on their
availability. The interviews were conducted in the faculty lounge at both sites. The
interviews were conducted one-on-one and notes were taken as well as audio-taping
the interviews. The informed consent form was reviewed and signed before each
interview.
Both schools teach to students in grades 9-12. The public school is about
twice the size of the private school, which is a typical ratio. Most private schools tend
to have smaller student populations compared to public schools. Both schools have
predominantly Caucasian student populations although the diversity at the public
school is greater. Both schools cater to students who are economically disadvantaged.
The public school calculates that by looking at students who qualify for free/reduced
lunch. The number could be lower than the actual number of students who may
qualify because it is up to the student and their family to fill out the paperwork for
this. When a student qualifies for free/reduced lunch they receive a free/reduced
breakfast and lunch and discounts on SAT tests and AP exams. The private school
offers tuition aide based on economic need. The amount of aide provided depends
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67
upon the degree of need. SAT scores were better in mathematics at the public school
and better in verbal at the private school. The number of teachers reflects the size of
the student body. The ratio of teachers to students at the private school is smaller.
Construction of Rating Scales
The research questions of this study were evaluated by giving number values
to each of the responses on the Likert-type scale. If a respondent marked ‘strongly
disagree’, it was assigned one point, ‘disagree’ received two points, ‘moderately
disagree’ received three points, ‘moderately agree’ received four points, ‘agree’
received five points and ‘strongly agree’ earned six points. Totals were tabulated from
the questionnaires returned and divided by the number of questionnaires returned from
each site. The questionnaires contained 16 questions. Table 2 reports the summary
statistics for each of the 16 questions.
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Table 2
Questionnaire Results
Question Public School Private School
1
2.
3.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .
9.
Involvement in new teacher induction has
improved my skills as an educator.
I feel that I get adequate support from
new teacher induction mentors.
I feel that I get adequate support from
administration.
I feel that adequate time has been given to
support me as a new teacher.
I feel that adequate monies have been spent to
support new teachers.
I feel that I have been given adequate
opportunities for professional development.
I feel that my school was committed to a quality
new teacher induction program.
I think that spirituality/school culture has aided
in supporting me as a new teacher.
I feel that school/district/state/ruling body
mandates have provided a comprehensive
teacher induction program.
10. If being involved in new teacher
induction were an option, I would have chosen
to participate.
11.1 feel that the demographics of my school have
made an impact on my teaching.
12.1 feel that accountability for student success has
had an impact on my support as a new teacher.
13.1 feel that I have had adequate parental support
as a new teacher.
14.1 feel that my assessment/evaluation as a new
teacher was beneficial for my improvement
15. My expectations for support as a new teacher
were met.
16. The availability of technology was important in
my new teacher induction.
4.7
5.2
5.0
5.2
5.0
5.8
5.0
4.7
4.7
4.5
5.5
5.2
5.0
5.5
5.0
5.5
5.3
5.3
5.7
5.7
5.7
4.7
6.0
6.0
4.3
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.0
5.3
5.3
5.0
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Summary of Questionnaire Results
The private school received a perfect score on the areas of feeling that the
school was committed to a quality new teacher induction program and the
spirituality/school culture has aided in supporting them as a new teacher. The school
made a commitment three years ago to take a teacher out of the classroom for part of
the day to create a new teacher induction program and has committed to making that
her full time position next year. The teachers were aware of this and felt that the new
teacher induction was a school priority. Spirituality was something that was addressed
in the structured interviews and came up as something important with nearly everyone
interviewed.
The public school scored the highest in offering professional development
opportunities. As a large school district, more resources are available at the district
level for professional development. The district has someone working full time to
organize and offer professional development. The professional development offerings
are easily accessed via the internet to check what is available and register to attend.
Both sites scored lower in the area of the school/district/state/ruling body
mandates providing a comprehensive teacher induction program. At the private
school, the new teachers wanted to have more opportunities to meet in the Lighthouse
Academy (they met six times a year) and would have liked a more comprehensive
mentor program. The public school teachers seemed to feel that some aspects of the
program were excellent, but other aspects were a waste of time. The inconsistency of
the quality of mentors was a problem that surfaced as well.
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The public school scored lowest on the question about choosing to participate
in the new teacher induction program if it were an option. The comment that came up
over and over again was the time commitment and some of the programs and
presentations that were not very helpful. Some felt the time that they put in with their
mentor was very valuable while others felt that their mentor did not follow up as much
as they expected. Some met very regularly with their mentor while others rarely saw
their mentor.
None of the questionnaire questions elicited responses that averaged below a
4.3, which was the ‘moderately agree’ response. Overall, both programs appear to
meet the needs of the teachers in their new teacher induction.
Structured Interview
A structured interview component was included in this study to identify
additional salient points relating to the impact of governance on new teacher
induction. The structured interview began with specific questions that were developed
to specifically deal with governance and induction. Additional questions were added
based on some of the results from the questionnaires to get more clarification.
Extremely high or low scores on the questionnaires led to the formation of the
additional questions. At the public school, four new teachers were interviewed as well
as three mentor teachers and the administrator who oversees new teacher induction.
At the private school, four new teachers were interviewed as well as three mentor
teachers and the administrator in charge of faculty development. The administrator in
charge of new teacher induction was also interviewed and they provided documents
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about the new teacher induction program at their site. The interview questions were
developed to get more information about new teacher induction and additional
questions were developed based on the findings and results of the questionnaire.
Using the critical incidents technique (Borg and Gall, 1989), major themes were
sought regarding the perceptions of new teachers, mentors and administrators relative
to the study. The critical incidents technique is a set of procedures for systematically
identifying behaviors that contribute to the success or failure of programs in specific
situations (Flanagan, 1954). The critical incidents centered on three specific areas:
governance; mentoring; and logistics and time commitment to the induction program.
Each of these areas are summarized with specific comments describing problem areas,
presenting potential solutions to those problems, and identifying proactive approaches
to preventing problems from developing in the future.
Governance
The issue of governance was very prevalent in the structured interviews. The
questionnaires did not reveal that it would be much of an issue, but through the
structured interviews, aspects of governance seemed to play a major role in new
teacher induction.
Through the public school interviews, funding was a crucial governance issue.
One new teacher stated, “Everyone buys into BTSA. We get plenty of release time,
seminars and special speakers.” Due to the funding provided by the state, the BTSA
program is able to pay for substitute teachers and exemplary speakers. A mentor
teacher stated, “The district BTSA program provides good training and a nice stipend
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for support providers.” The financial situation at the state level has also impacted the
program. One mentor teacher stated, “With the current budget crisis, we can’t send
out new teachers to conferences that would be valuable for them. One of teachers I
mentor had to take a personal day off work and pay to attend a conference.”
Due to the fact that BTSA receives state funding, the structure of the program
is very specific. The time commitment issue related to the governance of this program
was a significant issue. One new teacher stated, “You have a lot of paperwork. We
get shuffled to a lot of meetings that could have been handled with a memo instead.”
Another new teacher said, “I am glad that the induction program is almost over. The
time commitment and paperwork is too much.”
Due to the size of the program, a number of issues came up related to the
governance of the program:
“The program has become so large that the quality of support providers has
diminished. To provide enough support providers for all of the new teachers,
some people who become support providers are in it for the money and are not
exemplary teachers themselves.”
-mentor teacher
“The schools where the support providers come from is skewed. Some sites
have large numbers while other sites only have one or two. The people who
run the BTSA program seem to have a lot of support providers from the sites
where they taught. They may want to focus on recruiting support providers
from some of the less represented sites.When support providers are at the same
site as their beginning teacher, the mentoring aspect of the program works
much better.”
-mentor teacher
The BTSA program has a number of requirements mandated by the state
including meetings and paperwork. Compensation is provided for those involved in
the form of a stipend for the support provider, a budget to pay for materials or
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conferences for the beginning teachers, substitute days for the support provider and
the beginning teacher and professional development and training for support providers
and beginning teachers. The program is large which appears to have led to a diluting
of the pool of support providers and greater difficulty with accountability. Some
support providers put in a lot of time and meet with their beginning teachers regularly
while others seem to see each other only at the required meetings.
Through private school interviews, governance issues related to spirituality
surfaced:
“There is a blanket of concern for new teachers as human beings. Spirituality
is the most important. We are blessed by the efforts the staff take with us.
Time to pray together forms a powerful bond.”
-new teacher
“We have been recruited from universities across the United States with the
same religious background. Due to our religious background, we really value
relationships, which has helped to create a really close-knit group.”
-new teacher
“I think that our common belief system is important. The ministry is
important and our goal is united. Religion plays into our teaching a lot. Our
personal faith was addressed in the interview process. Our training taught us
how to bring the faith and religious mission of the school into the classroom.”
-new teacher
“The director of faculty development asks veteran teachers to be mentors and
they do it for the good of the school. The ministry gives us this mindset. We
believe spiritually that we need to do what is asked of us.”
-mentor teacher
The structure of the mentor program relied heavily on veteran teacher agreeing
to serve as a mentor out of kindness. They did not receive any compensation or
release time to serve in this capacity. One new teacher said, “The mentor relationships
vary. Some are very helpful and connected and some don’t do much.” Another new
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teacher said, “The mentors should have some kind of accountability and be
compensated for their efforts.” Surprisingly, with the religious connection that seems
so important, relationships proved to be an important aspect of the mentor program
working or not. One new teacher said, “Some people really did not get along with
their mentors.” A mentor teacher said, “There were personality conflicts with some
mentors and new teachers.” Since the mentors served in a volunteer capacity,
sometimes their responsibilities as a mentor were ignored. One mentor teacher said,
“We should have a definite time set aside to meet with new teachers and paperwork to
make sure that it is happening.” It seems that the ministry may not be enough for
mentors to carry out their duties as the director of faculty development would like.
One mentor teacher said, “It would be nice to have an extra period off to have more
time to serve as a mentor.” The director of faculty development said, “Our weakest
link is the mentor program. It is voluntary. I would like to have mentors have the
same lunch period as their new teachers and a free period.”
The religious base of the school appears to have a large impact on how and
why things are done. Since many of the teachers come from a college background
with the same religious base, the spirituality aspect is very important. This aspect
came up in a number of the responses to questions. Spirituality was used to explain
why the teachers at the school are so connected and why teachers agree to be mentors.
It was interesting that personality conflicts and not getting along were reasons given
for some mentor - new teacher relationships not being successful. It sounded as
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75
though teachers agreed to serve as mentors, but a number of them did not follow
through on the commitment.
Mentoring
The mentoring aspect came up frequently in both the public and private school
interviews as something that in some cases was very positive and in other cases was
extremely weak. No matter what setting the mentors were in, some were extremely
involved and put in a lot of time and effort into being a good mentor. In other cases
the mentors seemed to do very little.
Through public school interviews, mentoring issues came up repeatedly.
Many new teachers found the mentor relationship extremely positive. A new teacher
said, “I had a great support provider on campus who really cared and was helpful.”
Another new teacher said, “I have been mentored by people with lots of experience.”
Another new teacher stated, “My new teacher mentor, department chair and the BTSA
coordinator on campus were extremely supportive.”
In other situations, the mentoring aspect of BTSA did not always meet the
expectations of the new teachers. One new teacher said, “It would be really helpful to
have my support provider from my own site. I have had to seek out help on my own.”
The lack of a mentor at the site came up again and again. A mentor teacher said,
“The district needs to assign support providers to new teachers at the same site. They
need to recruit people from the less represented sites.” A mentor teacher said, “If the
support provider is on campus, it provides someone for the new teacher to go to.
There are not enough support providers from each site.” The variability in the help a
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76
mentor provides was shared by a mentor teacher who said, “There are some really
good support providers, but some take advantage of the system. There is not a lot of
accountability.” Another mentor teacher said, “I meet with my beginning teachers
about every other week for two hours. Other support providers rarely see their
beginning teachers.” The accountability issue is difficult because the new teacher
would have to report that they are not getting the same support as other new teachers.
One mentor teacher stated, “Beginning teachers would never say that their mentor is
not doing their job.”
It appears that in the public school district the program has become so large
that there is a lack of accountability and quality of mentors. Mentors record their
meetings with their beginning teachers, but the logs do not appear to reflect what is
always happening. Mentors seem to take on the position for different reasons. Some
appear to do it for the money and really do not have an interest in putting in the time
that they are asked to put in. Assigning mentors to new teachers at different sites was
a concern for the new teachers and the mentors alike. The program attempts to
provide year one teachers with a mentor on their site and year two teachers with a
mentor in their own discipline. The size of the district and the program makes keeping
mentor and new teachers teams from the same site difficult, if not impossible.
Through private school interviews, a number mentor issues surfaced. One new
teacher said, “Some new teachers were not supported as they wanted by their mentor.”
Some had very positive experiences. One new teacher said, “The mentor was the best
part. It was great to build a relationship with a person with experience who I felt
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77
comfortable going too. This was especially important at the beginning.” Another new
teacher said, “There are some bad mentors who are not observing their new teacher,
not encouraging them, contacting them or meeting their needs.” Another new teacher
said, “The mentor program lacked follow through. I had a brief relationship with my
mentor.” The selection of mentors did not appear to take into account the best mentor
for each new teacher. One new teacher said, “Some mentors had personality conflicts
with their new teachers.”
The time commitment of being a mentor was a concern that came up regularly.
One mentor stated, “Some problems are the time involved to be a mentor. Some new
teachers and mentors do not get along.” Another mentor said, “We need to have
definite time set aside for mentors to meet with new teachers and maybe some
paperwork to be sure that they are connecting.” A mentor said, “I met with my new
teacher once a week at the beginning, and then as needed.” Another mentor said, “It
would be nice to get a period off for the mentors. It would be good to have someone
directly in charge of the mentor program to provide organization and support.” The
administrator in charge of new teacher induction recognizes the problem with the
mentor problem and said, “Our weakest link is the mentor program. It is voluntary. I
would like to have mentors have the same lunch period as their new teachers and a
free period.”
The problem at the private school and the mentor program was that, like the
public school, there were both great mentors and those who did not follow through
with their role as mentor. This is a focus area for the school for next year. They have
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sent two teachers to a mentor conference and plan to make the mentor program more
formal. They will attempt to support the mentor program with scheduling common
lunches and one less teaching period and mentor training.
Logistics and Time Commitments
The public school had a number of issues regarding the logistics and time
commitments of the BTSA program. One new teacher said, “The Week of Welcome
was great but overwhelming. It gave me a sense of where I am going to be.” Another
new teacher said, “There is a lot of shuffling people to meetings when things could
have been handled with a memo.” The time commitment seemed to be a factor. One
new teacher put it perfectly, “You get out of the BTSA program as much as you are
willing to put into it.” Some new teachers felt that the time involved and required
events did not meet their needs. One new teacher said, “Ninety percent of the time the
stuff we learned at BTSA meetings did not relate or was not useful to me since I teach
severely handicapped students.” Others felt that the program was very beneficial.
One new teacher said, “They give us plenty of release time and have had some really
good seminars.” The time commitment was an issue. One new teacher said, “You
have to do a lot of paperwork. Too much reflection and not enough useful stuff.”
Another new teacher said, “I am glad the induction program is almost over. The time
and paperwork involved was too much.”
The mentors mentioned the issues of the time commitment and logistics during
the structured interviews. One mentor said, “I spend about 10 or more hours a month
working with my beginning teachers.” Another said, “One negative of the program is
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the time that you must put into it.” The training to be a mentor was mentioned by a
few of the mentor teachers. One said, “The summer training was great, but it would
be nice to have a refresher.” Another said, “It would be nice to be trained in the
summer and not be taken out of the classroom for training.” Time to meet with new
teachers was provided, but took mentor teachers out of their classes for the day. One
mentor teacher said, “The district provided substitutes so that we could meet with our
beginning teachers.” A mentor teacher said “Being involved in BTSA has made me a
better teacher by making me aware of the standards.” The same mentor was
concerned about the changes in the meetings based on complaints about the time that
must be put into the program. She said, “It seems like they rush the support provider
meetings due to complaints they have received. It seems as though they should stick
to the allotted time and make the meetings meaningful instead of trying to finish
early.”
One of the beginning teachers said it perfectly: “You get out of the BTSA
program as much as you are willing to put into it.” It seems that this is true for both
the beginning teachers and the support providers. Those who have invested the time
and taken the program seriously seem to have really grown from the process. Those
who go through the actions because they have to are frustrated with the time
commitment.
The private school viewed the logistics and time commitment in both positive
and negative ways.
“The training is spread throughout the year with the intensive before school
Basic Training followed by the Lighthouse Academy meetings six times a
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year. The Lighthouse Academy meetings always have structure and an
agenda, but there is always time to bring up issues. Lighthouse Academy is
something I look forward to. I found the Basic Training and Lighthouse
Academy more helpful than classes. It was hands on, real and usable”
-new teacher
“The Basic Training before school was something I sort of dreaded. It ended
up being amazing. Relationships with new teachers and some veteran teachers
are established in August and we are incorporated into the staff seamlessly.”
-new teacher
New teachers did not seem to find the time commitment to the program as a
burden. One stated, “The time that I have put in has been so valuable and not
busywork.” Another new teacher said, “It is nice to meet regularly with other first
year teachers and share that bond as first year teachers.”
“The induction program builds the faculty faster and provides a safe outlet for
new teachers who need to know about resources and how things are done. It
used to be a “sink or swim” situation before the faculty development position
was created.”
-mentor teacher
The administrator in charge of the program said the following, “This program
has allowed a connection for new teachers. They feel like they belong and have
ownership and pride in the school.” She also said, “This has really helped with
teacher retention. Since we began this program, the number of teachers we have
needed to hire each year has declined.” As for the future, the administrator says, ‘The
faculty development team continues to go to workshops, research and continue to
grow together.”
The mentor program came up again as something that needed more structure.
One new teacher said, “It would have been nice to have scheduled times to meet with
mentors and guidelines for the meetings.” A mentor teacher said, “The time involved
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81
as a mentor is difficult, especially if you do not get along with the new teacher.”
Another mentor teacher said, “It would be nice to only teach 5 periods instead of 6 if
you serve as a mentor.”
The new teacher induction program at the private school seems well received.
The time spent is seen as valuable and in fact, more meetings in the future are planned.
The mentor program has been weak and the mentors would like a period off so that
they can do a complete job mentoring. The administrator has been running this
program as well as teaching and coaching. She is looking forward to making this her
full-time focus next year and offering a period off for mentors.
Summary of Structured Interviews
Based on the findings of the questionnaire that was sent to new teachers,
several interview questions were developed to further identify critical incidents that
might explain differences between new teacher induction in the two governance
structures. Strengths and weaknesses of each program were extrapolated. The
structured interview process reinforced the differences that were based on governance
structure.
Based on the data collected through the use of the questionnaire and interview
questions, it was evident that the new teacher induction programs at the public and
private school do provide a valuable support system for new teachers. The critical
incidents related to governance, mentoring and time and logistics.
The governance issues surrounding the new teacher induction program have
an impact on how the program is implemented. The public school, due to state
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82
funding requires paperwork to show that the BTSA program is being followed
properly. This became a burden to many of the new teachers and mentors. The
private school, with its religious connection, saw the induction program as a way for
the school to do the right thing for new teachers and to provide the proper spiritual
connection to the school.
The mentor program at both sites met with conflicting responses based on the
role the mentor played. In some cases it was a very positive relationship. In other
instances, the mentor relationship with the new teacher was not very helpful. At the
public school, the quality of the mentors in the program has been diluted due to the
size of the program across the district. The private school calls on people to be
mentors without offering any compensation in the form of a stipend or a reduced
teaching schedule. This led to some mentors not being very involved with their new
teacher.
The time and logistics of the program was an issue at the public and private
schools. The public school required new teachers and mentors to attend mandatory
monthly meetings as well as fill out paperwork regularly. The structure of the
program does not allow for deviation from the order that topics are addressed. The
private school seemed to have very valuable training before school began and six
meetings during the school year. These aspects of the new teacher induction were
very successful. The mentor program had a number of weaknesses that meant that
some teachers ended up with a great mentoring experience while others were not
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83
mentored at all. A more structured mentor program with specific requirements for
meeting will be implemented next year.
Addressing the Research Questions
This section deals with the seven research questions described in the data
analysis plan.
1. How is new teacher induction undertaken in public school A?
2. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in public
school A?
3. How is new teacher induction undertaken in private school B?
4. What are the principle forces that tend to shape new teacher induction in private
school B?
5. How does new teacher induction as practiced in public school A differ from new
teacher induction as practiced in private school B?
6. Do the principle forces that tend to shape public school A differ fromprivate
school B? What are they?
7. Are any of those differences possibly attributable to differences in governance?
The first research question asked how new teacher induction was undertaken
in the public school. The results indicate that there is a structured program partially
funded by the state called BTSA (Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment). The
program involves pairing up a veteran teacher with two new teachers and taking on the
role of support provider. During year one, an attempt is made to have the new teacher
and support provider on the same campus. In year two the pairing is based on
academic area. Year one concentrates on classroom management, discipline,
organization, paperwork and creating the classroom environment. Year two focuses
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84
on lessons and the content standards. New teachers meet once a month at district
meetings and meet regularly with their support providers. Support providers go
through an intensive 60 hour training in the summer and meet once a month at district
meetings and meet regularly with their new teacher. The public school also has a New
Teacher Coach who meets with the new teachers at the site once a week to go over
site-specific issues and to form a connection with other new teachers on campus.
The second research question asked what the principle forces that shaped the
new teacher induction program were. The BTSA program is supported with state
funding. Due to the size of the district, the district decided to create its own program
based on the BTSA requirements. Two teachers who are not in the classroom and an
administrator are in charge of running the program. Stipends are provided to teachers
who serve as support providers and funding is available for conferences, substitutes
and supplies. BTSA is a requirement for all first and second year credentialed
teachers in the district regardless of their previous teaching experience.
The third research question asked how new teacher induction was undertaken
at the private school. The program at the private school is fairly new. The program
involves a number of aspects. The first involves the new teachers attending Basic
Training for three days before school starts. During Basic Training, new teachers are
given help planning their first day, learning organizational techniques, discipline
techniques and participate in role-playing. New teachers also attend the Lighthouse
Academy, which is held on faculty meeting days for ninety minutes before the faculty
meeting. These meetings take place six times a year. This academy covers standards,
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85
discipline, resource students, making positive connections with parents and any other
items that need to be addressed. This also provided a forum to ask questions and a
place for new teachers to connect. Veteran teachers were asked to mentor new
teachers. They were given a topic to cover each month with their new teacher.
During the first six weeks of school, the director of faculty development met with the
new teachers once a week at lunch to see how they were doing and to share upcoming
events.
The fourth research question asked what the principle forces were that shaped
new teacher induction at the private school. Three years ago the site had 21 new
teachers, two years ago there were 17 and a year ago there were 13. There are 56 full
time teachers, and to have turnover rates that require hiring so many new teachers each
year was not creating a close-knit school culture and a feeling of belonging. Next year
the site anticipates hiring two new teachers. The declining need to hire new teachers
has been attributed to the new teacher induction program that was implemented three
years ago. At the start, a teacher was assigned fewer teaching periods and asked to
start a new teacher induction program. She did research and attending trainings,
including the BTSA training used in the public schools. She created an action plan
based on research and the components of other programs that the Faculty
Development Team, made up of the principal the vice-principal and two teachers,
thought would work well at their site. Over the past three years, the program has been
developing into a very comprehensive program that is well-organized and structured.
The teacher in charge of the program will do this full time next year and will be
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86
relieved of her teaching and coaching responsibilities. The school feels that the
money spent to have her do this full time is well worth the investment in retaining
their new teachers.
The fifth research question asked how new teacher induction differed in the
public school compared to the private school. The public school system is able to
financially compensate teachers who serve as support providers. This is available
through state funding. The private school has recently made it a priority to shift some
of its funds to create this program as well as the position of the Director of Faculty
Development. The public school district due to its size has a program that is more
difficult to monitor and very paperwork intensive in order to have documentation that
the state funding is being spent properly. Even so, support providers have found
loopholes to doing their job as intended. The private school has the spirituality thread
that permeates everything that is done. This bond creates a nurturing environment for
new teachers to feel connected. Even with this bond, the role mentors play has varied
considerably. The private school has the benefit of revising and adapting their
program to what works best for them and are not confined by state mandates. The
small school environment where mentors and new teachers are on the same site will
make accountability for carrying out the mentor role easier to monitor. Once mentors
are compensated with a free period, administration will have an easier time holding
mentors responsible for following through. Both sites had very comprehensive
programs and the new teachers overall felt that the program was beneficial.
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The sixth research question asked if the principal forces that shape the new
teacher induction program are different in the public school and the private school.
The basis of the programs are the same, the need to retain teachers in the teaching
profession. The public school new teacher induction structure is based on state
requirements due to the funding they provide. The private school induction structure
is based on the sites needs and is altered when a better way is found. The private
school program was created after doing research and looking at the successful
programs currently in place in the private and public sector. The spirituality aspect of
the private school certainly plays a role in the success of their program.
The seventh research question asks if any of the differences are based on
governance. The differences are absolutely based on governance. The public school
received state funds to provide the BTSA program and it is run following state
mandates. The private school incorporates the spiritual aspect into their induction
program and made the decision to create the program based on the needs of the
specific site, specifically to decrease the turnover rate of teachers.
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88
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION,
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter is divided into five major sections. The first section presents a
summary of the study, including a brief statement of the problem and a short review of
the procedures employed in conducting the research. The second section contains
conclusions drawn from the research findings. The third section contains a discussion
of the findings of the study. The fourth section discusses the implications of the study.
Finally, the last section presents recommendations for further research.
Summary of the Findings
The purpose of the study was to compare public and private governance in
new teacher induction practices. The study compared the differences in new teacher
induction practices in the public and private educational sectors. The connection
between governance and new teacher induction was explored.
The primary instrument used was a researcher-developed questionnaire
measuring the impact of governance in new teacher induction. This questionnaire was
completed by first and second year teachers at both sites. In addition to the
questionnaire, structured interviews were utilized to further identify the impact of
governance in new teacher induction. Structured interviews were conducted with new
teachers, mentor teachers and the administrator in charge of new teachers at each site.
The critical incidences that were revealed from the questionnaires and
structured interviews centered around governance; mentoring; and logistics and time
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89
commitment. The governance impact at the public school was the funding available to
implement the program. Due to state funding, a large amount of paperwork is
required to verify that the funds are being spent properly. The private school’s
spiritual base provided the governance structure to the new teacher induction program.
The high rate of teacher turnover at the private school led to the implementation of the
new teacher induction program three years ago.
The success of the mentoring aspect of both programs was largely attributed to
the individuals selected to serve as mentors. The public school program has grown
very quickly which has required hiring more people to serve as mentors. This has
diluted the mentor pool in some cases. The private school does not offer any
compensation to mentors in the form of a stipend or time off from teaching. This has
led to some mentors not having the time to fulfill their mentor duties as requested.
The logistics and time commitment have been an area of contention at the
public school. A number of meetings are held throughout the year and a large amount
of paperwork is required. Some of the meetings and paperwork was considered a
waste of time by those involved in the BTSA program. The private school met less
frequently with the new teachers, but the time together was considered very valuable.
Scheduled time to meet with mentors would improve the mentor aspect of the
program.
The results indicated that new teacher induction is considered a priority in
both the public and private sector to aide in the retention of new teachers and to get
away from the “sink or swim” induction of the past. At both sites it appeared that new
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teachers and mentors got out of the program what they were willing to put into it. At
both sites the success of the mentoring aspect depended upon the people assigned to
mentor. At the public school, some people applied for the position for the stipend
more than the mentoring. At the private school, some mentors did not follow through
due to the lack of structure in the mentoring, the time commitment or the lack of
connection with the new teacher(s) who they were assigned. Most new teachers at
both sites found the induction experience to be very positive and felt connected to the
school after going through the process. Some teachers at both sites had taught
elsewhere before and were very impressed that a structured induction program was in
place. Spirituality came up in nearly every interview at the private school. The
spirituality was a tie that bonded the teachers together and they felt that it promoted
the caring connection with new teachers.
As a result of the structured interview process, more accountability with
regard to the mentors role with the new teachers was identified as the biggest problem
with both programs. The program in the public school is continuing to grow which
requires more mentor teachers. This could dilute the quality of the program. The
private school has seen an improvement in retention rates since the program began
three years ago. They have plans to improve the mentoring aspect of their program
and will likely need to rely on fewer people to serve as mentors as the retention rate
increases and the need to hire new teachers diminishes. The administrator in charge of
faculty development will be released from her teaching and coaching duties next year
so that she will have more time to invest in improving the mentoring program.
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91
Conclusion
The scope of the study was limited to one public high school and one private
high school in Orange County. The conclusions identified in this study were derived
from an analysis of data obtained from questionnaires distributed to new teachers and
from the results of the structured interviews that were conducted with new teachers,
mentor teachers and an administrator from each site. Following a discussion of the
demographic significance of the schools included in this study, the conclusions drawn
from this analysis are discussed in relationship to each of the research questions that
were formulated.
Demographics
Two high schools were selected for this study. One high school is a public
high school and the other site is a private high school. Both high schools are located
in Orange County. These sites were selected based on their similar demographic data,
test scores and the communities they serve. Questionnaires were mailed to the new
teachers at each site. The majority of the new teachers responded to the
questionnaire. New teachers, mentor teachers and the site administrator at each site
were contacted for structured interviews.
Demographic data was obtained from each site. This data included student
enrollment, ethnic origin of students, financial aide given to students, SAT test scores,
the number of teachers and the location. The public school was nearly double the size
of the private school, but the private school was one of the larger private schools in
Orange County. Smaller private schools are typical when compared to the size of
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92
public schools. Both sites had a predominantly Caucasian student population. The
public school had a limited number of students who take advantage of the
Free/Reduced Lunch program. The private school offers tuition aide to 25 percent of
its students based on need. The SAT scores were similar with the private school
scoring 45 points higher on the verbal scores and the public school scoring 16 points
higher on the math scores. The public school had 22 more teachers than the private
school. Both sites are located in Orange County. The public school is located in
Cypress and the private school is located in Orange. The private school has drawn
students from the private schools that filter into the public school district.
Discussion
This section provides a discussion of the findings of the research and the
structured interviews.
Research Design
This study utilized questionnaires and structured interviews, which resulted in
descriptive statistics about the new teacher induction programs at the public and
private school. The responses to the questionnaire, which used a Likert-type scale
were given numerical value to determine the areas that would require extra follow up
in the structured interview process due to lower or higher responses to the individual
questions.
It was interesting to listen to the rewarding aspects of being a teacher and the
concerns at the public and private schools. The public school teachers felt very
supported by the BTSA program, as a complete program, although they spoke of it as
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93
a program and not of the people. The private school teachers talked about the
individual in charge of their program and felt very personally connected to it. Public
school teachers appeared to be concerned about money and classroom issues such as
size and the diverse student population that the public school serves. The private
school teachers were very interested in being at a school that shared their religious
beliefs and the issue of money did not come up, even though they make substantially
less than the public school teachers.
Impact of Governance on New Teacher Induction
The relationship between new teacher induction and school governance was
addressed in this study. The purpose of the study was to compare public and private
governance in new teacher induction practices. To measure these perceptions, a
researcher-designed questionnaire was developed. Based on the results of the
questionnaire, structured interviews were conducted with new teachers, mentor
teachers and administrators. The role of governance was critical with regard to
funding available, requirements of the program and the spiritual element involved in
the new teacher induction.
Implications
The results of this study will contribute to future research on the impact of
governance on new teacher induction. This study can even serve as a springboard into
the investigation into the role of governance in other aspects of school administration.
The increase in need for qualified teachers makes research regarding new
teacher induction critical. Creating induction programs that keep teachers in the
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94
teaching profession, improve the learning environment for students. Putting teachers
into the classroom who have support from mentor teachers allows new teachers to
focus on their teaching and the classroom environment they have created. They are
put into a mindset of reflection and improving from day one instead of the “sink or
swim” mentality.
The public and private schools have a lot to learn from the structure of new
teacher induction at sites with different governance models. In this instance, the
private school looked at the new teacher induction program that took place in the
public schools and revised it to meet the specific needs of the school. The public
school could benefit from the site-based aspects of the new teacher induction program
at the private school that proved to be very effective and well-received by its teachers.
The influx of alternatives to public schooling has created an atmosphere where
all schooling models are looking for ways to improve and provide the best education
possible. The most critical component to a quality education is quality teachers. New
teacher induction creates a supportive environment for new teachers as well as
providing the valuable opportunity for veteran teachers to serve as mentors.
Recommendations for Future Research
The following recommendations for future research are based on the findings,
observations and conclusions gathered from this study:
1. Future research should include a replication of this study with a larger sample of
private schools in a wider geographical area.
2. Future research should include alternatives to public education such as educational
management organizations, charter schools, and magnet schools. Due to the
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schooling options available for students, it is critical to see that every schooling
alternative has qualified teachers who are supported in their position.
3. Future research should investigate other differences in school operation that are
affected by governance.
4. Future research should look at the long-term impact of being involved in a new
teacher induction program and how it affects teacher retention and quality of
instruction.
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APPENDIX A
Questionnaire
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106
Questionnaire
Instructions: The items below represent issues related to new teacher induction in
different governance settings. Please rate each statement on your level of agreement.
Strongly Disagree Moderately Moderately Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
1. Involvement in new teacher
induction has improved my
skills as an educator.
2. I feel that I get adequate
support from new teacher
induction mentors.
3. I feel that I get adequate
support from administration.
4. I feel that adequate time has
been given to support me as
a new teacher.
5. I feel that adequate monies
have been spent to support
new teachers.
6. I feel that I have been give
adequate opportunities for
professional development.
7. I feel that my school was
committed to a quality new
teacher induction program.
8. I think that spirituality/school
culture has aided in
supporting me as a new
teacher.
9. I feel that school/district/
state/ruling body mandates
have provided a comprehensive
teacher induction program.
10. If being involved in new
teacher induction were an
option, I would have chosen
to participate.
SURVEY CONTINUES ON THE BACK
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107
Strongly Disagree Moderately Moderately Agree Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
11.1 feel that the demographics
of my school have made an
impact on my teaching.
12.1 feel that accountability
for student success has had
an impact on my support as
a new teacher.
13.1 feel that I have had adequate
parental support as a new
teacher.
14.1 feel that my assessment/
evaluation as a new teacher
was beneficial for my
improvement.
15. My expectations for support
as a new teacher were met.
16. The availability of technology
was important in my new
teacher induction.
Thank you very much for your input regarding this survey. Please return this survey in
the enclosed addressed stamped envelope within 3 days.
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APPENDIX B
Structured Interview Questions
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109
Interview Questions
New Teachers
1. What was most beneficial to you as a beginning teacher relative to support?
2. What was your greatest need for support as a new teacher that was not met?
3. How has the governance structure at your school impacted your induction as a
new teacher?
Support Teachers/Administration
4. What form of support would you have liked to give your new teachers but
were unable to? Why?
5. What is your role in the support of new teachers?
6. How does the governance structure at your school impact new teacher
induction?
7. How is new teacher induction implemented at your school?
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APPENDIX C
Consent to Participate
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I l l
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
A Comparison of Public and Private Governance in New Teacher Induction
Practices
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Guilbert Hentschke,
Ed.D., professor and Kirsten Schaefer, student, from the Rossier School of Education
at the University of Southern California. The results of the study will be contributed
to a dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you
have been involved in your school site’s new teacher induction. Your participation is
voluntary.
Purpose of the Study
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn more
about how different governance models impact new teacher induction.
Procedures
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following
things:
You will be asked to respond to a questionnaire and/or participate in a one-on-one
interview. The questionnaire should take less than 10 minutes to complete. The
interviews will take place on your school site in a private setting. The interview
should take approximately 20 minutes.
Potential Risks and Discomforts
There are not any foreseeable risks, discomforts or inconveniences with participation
in the questionnaire or interview.
Potential Benefits to Subjects and/or to Society
The results of the study will benefit public and private schools by showing how
governance impacts new teacher induction.
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112
Payment for Participation
There will not be any form of compensation or payment for your time and input.
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law.
The interviews will be audio-taped. The student researcher will be the only person
with access to the audiotape. You have a right to review/edit the tape of your
interview. The data will be used in the dissertation without identifying who provided
the information. The tape will be erased after the dissertation has been defended.
Each interview and questionnaire will be coded with information regarding the
governance of the school (public or private) and the role of the person responding
(administrator, new teacher, veteran teacher). All data will be kept secure away from
the school sites involved in the study. All data will be destroyed upon completion of
the dissertation defense. When the results of the research are published or discussed in
conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity.
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also
refuse to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the study.
The investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which
warrant doing so.
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:
Confidentiality
Participation and Withdrawal
Identification of Investigators
Kirsten Schaefer Guilbert Hentschke, Ed.D.
USC Faculty Advisor
Rossier School of Education WPH 903C
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031
(213) 740-3491
ghentsch@usc.edu
USC Doctoral Student
1765 W. Cerritos Ave.
Anaheim, CA 92804
(714) 999-3709
schaefer k@auhsd.kl2.ca.us
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113
Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Bovard Administration Building, Room 300, Los Angeles, CA 90089-4019,
(213) 740-6709 or upirb@usc.edu.
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT, PARENT OR LEGAL
REPRESENTATIVE
I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to
my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of
this form.
I agree to be audio-taped during the interview. □
Name of Subject
Signature of Subject Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the subject or his/her legal representative, and
answered all of his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information
described in this document and freely consents to participate.
Name of Investigator
Signature of Investigator Date
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Asset Metadata

Creator Schaefer, Kirsten Suzanne (author)

Core Title A comparison of public and private governance in new teacher induction practices

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,Education, Secondary,Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Hentschke, Guilbert (committee chair), Cohn, Carl (committee member), Gothold, Stuart (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-650907

Unique identifier UC11340160

Identifier 3116782.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-650907 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3116782.pdf

Dmrecord 650907

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Schaefer, Kirsten Suzanne

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA