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Assessment of nursing college students' learning styles in Taiwan using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
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Assessment of nursing college students' learning styles in Taiwan using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
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Content
ASSESSMENT OF NURSING COLLEGE STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES
IN TAIWAN USING THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
By
Yuh-Shiow Li
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2003
Copyright 2003 Yuh-Shiow Li
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UMI Number: 3116740
Copyright 2003 by
Li, Yuh-Shiow
All rights reserved.
INFORMATION TO USERS
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®
UMI
UMI Microform 3116740
Copyright 2004 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
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University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation written by
Yuh-Shiow Li
under the discretion of h pr Dissertation Committee,
and approved by all members of the Committee, has
been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the
Rossier School of Education in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
D octor of Education
AUGUST 12. 2003
Dean
Dissertation Committee
/}
Chairperson
/
/
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DEDICATION
The attainment of the degree of Doctor of Education is dedicated to the memory of
my father, Shi-Tian Li, who always valued education and the belief in hard work, and
who would be proud that his youngest daughter successfully obtained a doctoral degree
in the United States.
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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
The author extends sincere appreciation to each member of the doctoral committee:
Dr. Melora Ann Sundt, Dr. Linda Serra Hagedom, and Dr. Wynne Ryser Waugaman for
their guidance, support, and patience throughout this endeavor. Particular recognition is
extended to Dr. Melora Ann Sundt, the chair and academic advisor, who provided
positive feedback, constructive suggestions and continuous support to pursue my
doctoral degree.
Immeasurable gratitude is expressed to my husband, Wen-Ke Luoh. He has always
shown understanding for my time and energy devoted to studying in the United Sates. I
thank him for his love, inspiration and assistance. To my mother-in-law, Man-Zi
LuohZheng, I express deep gratitude to her in providing care for my two children,
Yu-Quan Luoh and Jun-Ling Luoh, since I could not be in Taiwan to take care of them.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to my mother, Shu-Lan LiZhang and my elder
brother, Rui-Rong Li for their endless love, constant support and encouragement in
completing the dissertation.
A special thanks goes to the research librarian in Leavey Library, Shahla Bahavar,
for her patience, assistance and support. She was helpful in providing educational
information whenever I needed it. I also thank my dearest friend, Theresa Allen for her
continuous assistance. I am extremely grateful for her friendship and for her being a
mentor in my professional endeavors.
To my colleagues and students of the Chang-Gung Institute in Taiwan, I greatly
appreciate their assistance and participation. My successful completion of the doctoral
degree requirements is the result of the love, assistance and support extended to me from
the faculty, my family, colleagues and friends. There are not enough words to fully
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express my appreciation to the people who helped me in attaining the degree of Doctor of
Education. I am greatly in debt to these wonderful people in my life.
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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
DEDICATION................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................... x
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION....................................................................... 1
Background of the Study............................................................................ 3
Statement of the Problem........................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Study.................................................................................. 7
Significance of the Study........................................................................... 7
Research Questions.................................................................................... 8
Methodology............................................................................................. 9
Assumptions............................................................................................. 9
Limitations................................................................................................ 9
Delimitations............................................................................................. 10
Definitions of Terms................................................................................. 10
Learning Styles.................................................................................. 10
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator..................................................................... 10
Two-Year Associate Nursing Students.............................................. 12
Five-Year Associate Nursing Students.............................................. 12
Two-Year Baccalaureate Nursing Students....................................... 12
Organization of the Study.......................................................................... 13
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................... 14
Introduction............................................................................................. 14
Nursing Education System in Taiwan...................................................... 15
Importance of Learning Styles.................................................................. 18
Concepts of Learning Styles.................................................................... 19
Definitions of Learning Style.......................................................... 19
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Curry’s Model of Learning Style...................................................... 21
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.................................................................... 23
Development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.......................... 24
The Construct of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.......................... 26
Characteristics of Learners....................................................................... 27
Learning Styles and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator................................... 29
Learning Styles and Academic Achievement Using
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.............................................................. 33
Learning Styles and Gender...................................................................... 36
Research about Learning Styles................................................................ 37
Learning Styles and Non-Western Populations.......................................... 39
Educational Influences............................................................................... 41
Career Choice Influences........................................................................... 42
Cultural Influences..................................................................................... 44
Summary.................................................................................................. 45
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY................................................................... 47
Introduction............................................................................................... 47
Research Questions................................................................................... 47
Methodology............................................................................................. 48
Research Population.......................................................................... 48
Sample.............................................................................................. 49
Instrumentation......................................................................................... 49
MBTI National Norming Samples of Type....................................... 50
Reliability......................................................................................... 51
Validity.............................................................................................. 53
Research Procedure.................................................................................... 55
Data Analysis............................................................................................. 56
Summary...................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS...................... 59
Introduction................................................................................................ 59
Learning Styles across the Three Programs: Results
for Research Question One........................................................................ 60
Discussion of Research Question One....................................................... 66
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Age and Learning Style: Results for Research Question Two.................... 67
Discussion of Research Question Two....................................................... 71
Previous Nursing Education and Learning Style: Results
for Research Question Three...................................................................... 72
Discussion of Research Question Three.................................................... 72
Previous Nursing Work Experience and Learning Style: Results
for Research Question Four........................................................................ 73
Discussion of Research Question Four.........................................................74
Academic Performance and Learning Style: Results
for Research Question Five........................................................................ 75
Discussion of Research Question Five....................................................... 80
Analyses of Supplemental Data.................................................................. 82
Summary...................................................................................................... 83
CHAPTER V . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR
. NURSING EDUCATION, AND RECOMMUNDATATION 84
Summary of the Study................................................................................ 84
Conclusion................................................................................................. 86
Implications for Nursing Education.......................................................... 88
Faculty Development........................................................................ 88
Admissions and Recruitment of Nursing Students............................ 90
Recommendations..................................................................................... 91
Summary............................................. 93
REFERENCES................................................................................................. 94
APPENDICES
A. Permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc..................................................Ill
B. Permission from Chang-Gung Institute of Technology.............................. 113
C. Permission from Institutional Review Board.............................................115
D. Cover Letter for Participating Students.....................................................117
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E. The English Version of the Demographic Sheet, 119
F. The Chinese Version of the Demographic Sheet..................................... 121
G. The English Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form G
Self-Scorable (Revised Version)..............................................................123
H. The Chinese Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form G
Self-Scorable (Revised Version)................................................................127
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ix
LIST OF TABLES
1. Development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.................................................25
2. Percentage of Individual Remaining the Same on One to Four Categories
on Retest................................................................................................................52
3. The Summative Psychometric Rating of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 54
4. Nursing Subjects’ Participation Rate in Different Programs..................................60
5. Frequency Distribution of the Types among the Participating Nursing Students... 61
6. Pairs and Temperaments of the Participating Nursing Students.............................63
7. Distribution of Types for the Participating Nursing Students by Program Type... 65
8. Educational Level and Age of Nursing Students in Different Programs................68
9. Age of Students by Year in Two-Year ADN Program............................................69
10. Age of Students by Year in Five-Year ADN Program..........................................70
11. Age of Students by Year in Two-Year BSN Program..........................................70
12. Frequency Distribution of the Length of Nursing Work Experience in Months
among the Participating Nursing Students........................................................74
13. Distribution of Academic Performance among Different MBTI Types..............76
14. Distribution of Achievement between Different MBTI Types............................78
15. Participating Students’Academic Performance and MBTI Preferences 80
16. Frequency Distribution of the Level of Parents’ Education................................83
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X
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Nursing Education System in Taiwan................................................................16
2. Curry’s Model of Learning Style...................................................................... 21
3. Type of the Distribution....................................... 61
4. Distribution of Academic Performance among MBTI Types...........................77
5. Distribution of Achievement between Different MBTI Types..........................79
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xi
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to assess the learning style of students in a two-
year and five-year associate degree of nursing program, and a two-year baccalaureate
degree of nursing program in Taiwan. The Chinese version of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) form G is an instrument measuring individual preferences in four
dichotomous dimensions of Jungian theory: extraversion/introversion;
sensing/intuition; thinking/feeling; and judging/perceiving.
The study sample included 331 nursing students: 94 students in a two-year
associate degree of nursing (ADN) program, 189 students in a five-year ADN
program, and 48 students in a two-year baccalaureate degree of nursing (BSN)
program. The participation rate for completed MBTI questionnaires was 98% (n =
326). All subjects were female nursing students. Analyses of data revealed that the
most common learning styles were introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging (ISTJ)
and introversion, sensing, feeling, and judging (ISFJ) among Taiwanese nursing
students.
The findings of the study indicated that the SJs comprised 43.0% of the
participating nursing students. The SJ is a popular preference in nursing. No
significant differences in the learning style were found among the two-year and five-
year ADN programs, and the two-year BSN program. No significant relationships
were found between learning style and such variables as age, previous nursing
education, and length of previous nursing work experience. In this study, academic
performance was significantly related to learning style (p - .001, d f=15). The
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findings suggested that nursing students with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging
preferences had better grades than those with extrovert, intuitive, feeling, and
perceiving preferences. A large sample is recommended for further research.
The findings of this study can guide nursing educators in the design of
classroom and clinical instructional strategies to respond to individual needs in
learning. Clearly, nursing faculty needs to apply multiple teaching strategies to match
different types of learners. Awareness and understanding of individual differences
will be enhanced, so that the strengths of each type will be applied to benefit
educators and learners in order to achieve the highest level of learning.
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1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the practice of postsecondary teaching, the lecture is the predominant
pedagogical method. Lecturing involves the teacher in the presentation of “given”
knowledge. The instructor makes a “deposit” of theories, facts, and principles which
the learners accept as “received” knowledge about the subject or topic. While the
lecture may appear to be an efficient “delivery” method, research suggests it does not
stimulate critical thinking on the part of the learner (Freire, 1993). During the
learning process, persons cannot teach or learn knowledge well without critical
thinking. In Taiwan, critical thinking and decision making skills are essential to
respond to the conditions of rapid change in the nature of health care delivery and
practices. The development of these necessary skills requires different teaching and
learning strategies.
Students’ learning styles are a major factor to be considered in planning for
effective and’efficient learning (Childress, 2001). Research suggests that successful
teaching acknowledges the existence of individual differences in the teaching and
learning process and, when possible, tailors the style of instruction to the needs of the
learner (Rasmussen & Davidson-Shivers, 1998). One aspect of individual differences
is “cognitive learning style,” a concept that describes how an individual processes
stimuli (Irvine & York, 1995). “Capabilities” define how many and how well stimuli
are processed (Thompson & Crutchlow, 1993). According to Dunn, Given, Thomson,
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2
and Brunner (1997), “each person is unique, can learn, and has an individual learning
style” (p. 25). The research suggests that by identifying students’ learning styles,
instructors can improve students’ learning outcomes (Cano, 1999; Dunn, Griggs,
Olson, Gorman, & Beasley, 1995).
According to Reynolds (1995), “learning is a lifelong process that is enhanced
when individuals gain insight about their unique pattern of learning style
characteristics” (p. 319). If more attention is given to individuals’ different learning
styles, students will achieve more effective learning and practice. Therefore, it is
important to identify and match students’ learning styles with classroom delivery of
subject matter (Doolan & Honigsfeld, 2000). Dart, Burnett, Purdie, Boulton-Lewis,
Campbell, and Smith (2000) indicated two ways of helping teachers to facilitate
students’ search for meaningful learning. One is to insure that teaching strategies and
assessment methods are congruent with a student’s needs, which might require
teachers to change their opinions on teaching and learning. The other one is to
enhance learning through the creation of learning environments that students perceive
as safe, supportive and that foster helpful relationships.
Learning is an interactive process, the product of student and teacher activity
within a learning environment (Schatteman, Carette, Couder, & Fisendrath, 1997).
Unless students have opportunities to ask questions and make applications, they are
restricted in their ability to work through to personal, experiential meaning. “Mutual
dialogue with students reflecting on various dimensions of their learning will create
educationally purposeful experiences for students and help educators better
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understand diverse students’ experience” (King & Baxter Magolda, 1999, p.608).
Increased involvement in the course, through techniques such as group discussion,
has been shown to increase persistence and enhance problem solving skills (Vaughan,
1990). It also enlarges the learner’s capacity to formulate his/her own perspective and
to be more open to the perspectives of others (Paul, 1992). Perspective-taking is a
key skill in professions where the individual works as a member of a team. For
example, the nurse is a member of a team of health care providers.
Background of the Study
In Taiwan, the nursing workforce is being diminished by a high rate of attrition.
In 1998, there were over 100 thousand registered nurses, but no more than 60
thousand were employed in nursing jobs (Taiwan Nurses Association, 1998). The
main problem in nursing is that the work load is too heavy and most nurses are under
tremendous pressure from working. The mission of nursing education is to produce
qualified nurses with the requisite knowledge and skills. Nursing education, and its
ability to produce more nurses, is an important factor in solving the nursing shortage
in Taiwan.
In 1998, there were 16 vocational schools, 8 junior colleges, 16 colleges and
universities, 8 graduate schools, and one doctoral program that provide nursing
curricula in Taiwan (Taiwan Nurses Association, 1998). There were just five two-year
associate degree nursing programs in 1986. In 1996, there were twice as many
nursing programs in junior colleges in Taiwan. In addition, class size is increasing.
The proportion of older nursing students is increasing each year, especially in junior
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4
colleges of nursing, as registered nurses from diploma programs return to school for
more preparation. According to Hodges (1988) and Kocinski (1984), non-traditional
students have different learning needs than traditional students, because traditional
and non-traditional nursing students are differentiated by age, marital status, and
experience in higher education.
The nature of health care and nursing care is becoming more complex in the
domains of knowledge and technology. Therefore, the nursing educator-researcher
needs to identify way to leverage students’ preferences and style of learning to
produce the desired type and level of outcomes. The challenge to teachers is to be
aware of individual differences, which include not only the area of abilities and
background, but also the ways of knowing and individual learning, such as the
preferred style of learning. Nursing educators need to use multiple strategies to reach
the goals of learning.
In spite of larger enrollment, the nursing workforce is diminished by a high rate
of lost peoplepower. In an investigation of the supply of nursing power in Taiwan,
researchers studied a population of 12,151 nurses (Chen, Chao, Chiang, Chen, &
Chang, 1992). Of the 9,700 who could be reached, 2,821 responded to the
questionnaire. Results showed that most baccalaureate graduates worked primarily in
medical centers; junior college graduates worked primarily in medical centers and
regional hospitals; and more vocational school graduates worked in local regional
hospitals. In 1992 only 61% of the licensed nurses were known to be in nursing jobs
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5
at the end of four years. The main reasons for leaving nursing were irregular work
schedules, low salaries, and heavy work load.
On the basis of the rate of lost nursing peoplepower in recent years, nursing
educators and nursing researchers need to examine nursing students’ and graduates’
experiences, needs and stresses in order to design curricula to prepare competent and
confident nurses and hopefully reduce the shortage of nurses. In addition, data issued
by the Republic of China Department of Health in November 2000 showed that
51.4% of nurses were in the age range 20-30, making this the largest group; the
majority of nurses were single, at 66.5%. Compounding the shortage of nurses is the
cultural expectation that the young women will leave nursing to marry and care for
their families.
Paul (1992) wrote that knowledge is not something that can be given to a student
before she comprehends it. Knowledge is not simply the processing of information.
People need to understand the rational thought processes (Paul, 1992). That is, true
learning means knowing how to think critically rather than only recalling knowledge.
According to constructivist learning, teachers and students together “construct”
knowledge for practice; they convert facts by ascribing personal meaning to relevant
information and actively consider the meaning others attribute to the data (Baines &
Stanley, 2001). For this to happen, the instructor and students must assess what the
learners understand, and what information is to be applied (Doolan & Honigsfeld,
2000).
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6
According to Griggs, Griggs, Dunn, and Ingham’s review (1994), forty-seven
studies had been conducted on learning styles in the field of nursing. The
predominant subjects in these studies were undergraduate nursing students, and most
of the studies were conducted to increase the effectiveness of the teaching and
learning process. In Taiwan, few studies regarding learning styles had topics in health
professions; only one study had been done by using Kolb’s theory of experimental
learning in a junior college of nursing (Cheng, 1994).
Statement of the Problem
In Taiwan, public and health administrators are holding nursing educators
increasingly accountable for student learning. While this is a legitimate expectation,
there seems to be a lack of specific information about how students learn, which is
referred to as a student’s “learning style.” This lack of knowledge about learning style
makes maximizing students’ learning a difficult and elusive goal to achieve. Chinien
and Boutin (1993) found that some learners cannot accomplish a task simply because
they lack the information processing skills that a particular task demands of them.
Another source of learning failure may be the mismatch of instructional strategies and
cognitive styles of the learners (Chinien & Boutin, 1993). One of the explanations is
that students’ learning styles are not in harmony and even may be in conflict with the
instructional strategies.
For over ten years, nursing research has underscored the need for a curriculum
revolution, emphasizing innovative strategies which allow for the socialization of a
student as a colleague and professional (Butterfield, 1990). Teaching strategies,
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7
instructional techniques, and aids are evidence of the recognition that differences in
learning styles do exist (Kocinski, 1984). These approaches seem to be used most
successfully if educators apply knowledge of differences in learning styles to specific
individuals. Researchers suggest that nursing educators know that students learn
better if they are actively involved in the learning process (Alexander, Baldwin, &
McDaniel, 2002).
While learning styles have been heavily researched in the United States
(Alban-Metcalfe, 2002; Bums, Johnson, & Gable, 1998; Dunn & Stevenson, 1997;
Schurr, Henriksen, Alcom, & Dillard, 1992), little is known about Taiwanese
students’ learning styles, and even less about nursing students. Previous studies of
learning styles in Taiwan are limited to a few in general and professional education;
only one study had been done by using Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory in nursing
(Cheng, 1994).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify Taiwanese nursing students’ learning
style differences in order to improve the design of teaching strategies in Taiwan to
match the learner’s styles and achieve the highest level of learning.
Significance of the Study
In Taiwan, the shortage of nurses working in nursing positions is due to a variety
of reasons. Factors include a heavy work load, and stressful and fast paced conditions.
Moreover, working conditions such as evening, night, and weekend shifts, or the
exposure to contagious elements are cited as reasons that young people decide to
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leave nursing. While many of these conditions are beyond the control of nursing
preparation programs, these programs can increase the number of students enrolled to
produce more nurses. Also, nursing educators need to be concerned with more
realistic content delivered through different learning approaches. Improved nursing
education is critical for an improved quality of nursing, ultimately to promote
individual health. For the above reasons, an increase in admissions is a justified
strategy in answering to the problems of the nursing shortage. With increased
admissions will come a greater diversity of learners in the nursing classroom. Nursing
educators can contribute to reducing the nursing shortage through improved
instruction. The first step is understanding who is in the classroom and how their
needs vary.
Research Questions
1. What is the most common learning style of nursing students who are in a two-
year and five-year associate degree of nursing program, and a two-year
baccalaureate degree of nursing program in Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between age and leaning style in Taiwanese nursing
students?
3. Is there a relationship between previous nursing education and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
4. Is there a relationship between previous work experience in nursing and learning
style in Taiwanese nursing students?
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5. Is there a relationship between academic performance and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
Methodology
This was a descriptive and exploratory study. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) was used as the instrument to identify the nursing college students’ learning
styles in Taiwan. This study utilized measures with quantifiable coding to
operationalize variables and statistical procedures to analyze the data collected.
Assumptions
An assumption of this study is that learning styles can be identified by the MBTI.
Because most behavior is concerned with perception or with judgment, type
differences can be expected to occur across a very broad range of life events (Myers
& McCaulley, 1985). Another assumption is that an instrument such as the MBTI can
be used in a cross-cultural sample. This is based on the theory that psychological
types identify significant underlying patterns of functioning common to all people.
The publication of the 1985 Manual has seen rapid expansion of the use of
psychological type and of the MBTI in international and multicultural settings.
Limitations
A limitation of this study is the cultural difference that relates to translating the
meaning of word nuances in the MBTI instrument, while there is a cultural factor
which influences the cross-cultural translation of a language-based test. Another
limitation of this study is that the participants are from only one institution. The
findings of this study, therefore, might not necessarily be applicable to other
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10
populations. A further limitation is that there are no studies of learning styles using
the MBTI reported in the nursing journals in Taiwan nor other known health
professional studies with which to compare the findings of this study.
Delimitations
1. The study will confine itself to investigating the nursing students from a selected
institute.
2. Only full-time nursing students will be included in this study.
Definitions of Terms
Leaning Styles
Learning style is the way in which individuals begin to concentrate on, process,
internalize, and retain new and difficult information (Dunn & Dunn, 1999; Dunn,
Dunn, & Perrin, 1994). Learning styles are preferred patterns of mental functioning
including interests and attitudes that influence what a person will attend to in a
learning situation (Provost & Anchors, 1987).
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a forced-choice psychometric
instrument based on Jung’s mental typology. The MBTI is used to identify
individuals’ differences through a 93-item, self-administered, paper-and pencil
questionnaire. All 93 items on MBTI Form M are used for identifying four-letter type
(extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, judgment/perception),
and the estimated time for completing Form M is 15 to 25 minutes. Results show the
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11
respondent’s preferences on each of four pairs of opposite categories, which are
called dichotomies (Quenk, 2000).
Extraversion (E). “The attitude (orientation) identifies the direction and flow of
energy to the outer world” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 390).
Introversion (I). “The attitude (orientation) identifies the direction and flow of
attention and energy to the inner world” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer,
1998, p. 390).
Sensing (S). “The perceiving function is concerned with experiences available to
the senses” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 392).
Intuition (N). “Of the two opposite perceiving functions, the one is concerned
with meanings, relationships, patterns, and possibilities” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk,
& Hammer, 1998, p. 392).
Thinking (T). “Of the two opposite judging functions, the one by which
decisions are made by ordering choices in terms of logical cause-effect and objective
analysis of relevant information” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p.
393).
Feeling (F). “Of the two opposite judging functions, the one by which decisions
are made through ordering choices in terms of personal values” (Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 390).
Judgment (J). “A term refers to the process of making a decision or coming to a
conclusion” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 391). An individual
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12
prefers to use a judging function (Thinking or Feeling) rather than a perceiving
function (Sensing or Intuition) when dealing with the outside world.
Perception (P). “A term refers to the process of acquiring information” (Myers,
McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998, p. 391). An individual prefers to use a
perceiving function (Sensing or Intuition) when dealing with the outer world.
Two-Year Associate Nursing Students
Students enrolled in the two-year associate degree program have graduated from
a nursing vocational school. Students who have graduated from a vocational school
and passed the board exam may have years of working experience as registered
nurses. Two types of two-year programs exist in Taiwan - the daytime and evening
option programs. Students enrolled in the evening program need to spend three years
to complete their studies. Also, most students in the evening program are employed
during the day. Students in the daytime program can finish in two years.
Five-Year Associate Nursing Students
Students enrolled in this program have graduated from the secondary school.
Their entry age is usually 16 years old. Most of these students do not have work
experience and none have nursing working experience before entry.
Two-Year Baccalaureate Nursing Students
Students enrolled in this program have received an education in a two-year
associate degree of nursing program before entry. Their entry age is usually over 20
years old. Some students have work experience in nursing before enrollment.
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Organization of the Study
Chapter One of the study presents the introduction, the background of the study,
the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study,
the questions to be answered, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, the
definitions of terms, and the organization of the study.
Chapter Two is a review of literature. Chapter two contains a general review of
the literature on learning styles with a more specific examination of learning style
studies involving adults and nursing students.
Chapter Three presents the methodology used in the study, including a
description and rationale of the sample, the data collection procedures, a description
of instrument development and the methods of analysis of the data.
Chapter Four is a presentation and discussion of the findings.
Chapter Five summarizes the findings, draws conclusions, discusses the
implications for nursing education, and makes recommendations.
References and appendices are included in the present study.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to identify learning styles in order to improve the
design of teaching strategies to match learning styles and achieve the highest level of
learning among nursing college students in Taiwan. This chapter contains a general
review of the literature on learning styles, including some selected psychological
studies, beginning with those of Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, in 1923. Jung’s typology
was translated into English from the original German, first published in 1921.
Typology is a study of analysis or classification based on types or categories. In other
words, typology is defined as the study of types, as in a systematic classification
(Corsini, 1999). Jungian typology suggests that individuals have their own preferred
style of thinking about and processing information (Woods, 1993).
The review concludes with a summary of research findings which provides a
basis of agreement on learning styles. Specific studies involving learning styles of
adult learners, the effect of gender on learning styles, and learning styles of nursing
students are included in this review. Instruments and research studies are discussed in
relation to the concepts of the learning styles. Findings of studies in nursing research
are analyzed, with a discussion of issues in transcultural applications as a basis for the
design of the present study.
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Nursing Education System in Taiwan
The development of the advanced nursing practice is now booming in Taiwan.
There should be supplemental strategies to address problems arising from the nursing
shortage which is a crucial factor influencing the health system in Taiwan. Generally
speaking, there are three popular ways to become a nurse in Taiwan. Figure 1
describes the major pathways for becoming a nurse in Taiwan (Taiwan Nurses
Association, 2002).
In Taiwan, every student has the opportunity to enter junior high school which
is also named secondary school, after completing six years of elementary school.
After secondary school, students can choose to enter high school, a five-year
associate program, or go to vocational schools to study for three years to obtain a
diploma. After a two-year associate degree program, students can go to a two-year
post-junior college program to receive advanced study and receive a baccalaureate
degree while completing the two-year baccalaureate degree program.
In an elementary school, students’ ages range from 7 to 12 years old. In a junior
high school, students’ ages range from 13-15 years old. Liability education includes
elementary school which lasts for 6 years, and junior high school which lasts for 3
years in Taiwan. In a three-year vocational school, senior high school or five-year
associate degree of junior college, students’ entry age is usually 16 years old.
Students’ entry age is above 18 years old in a two-year associate degree of junior
college since they have graduated from a vocational school.
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General Education Technical and Vocational
System Education System
2-YR
Junior College
5-YR
Junior College
3-YR
Vocational School
3-YR
Senior High School
3-YR
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
6-YR
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Graduate School
D o cto ra l Program
Master Program
Graduate School
Doctoral Program (3-5YR)
Master Program (2-YR)
Poly Technology College
(B.S. Degree)
4-YR
Post tfocational
School Program
University & College
(B.S. Degree)
2-YR
Post Junior College
Program
Figure 1. Nursing education system in Taiwan.
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One path is to enter a university in order to receive a baccalaureate nursing
degree after graduating. Another is to receive an associate degree after completing a
five-year associate nursing program. The other way is to receive an associate degree
after completing a two-year associate nursing program, and these people have
previous nursing education before entering the two-year associate nursing program.
In 1998, there were 16 vocational schools, 8 junior colleges, 16 colleges and
universities, 8 graduate schools, and one doctoral program that provide nursing
curricula in Taiwan (Taiwan Nurses Association, 1998).
The purpose of each of these programs is to produce qualified nurses with the
requisite knowledge and skills. Nursing education is an important factor in solving
the nursing shortage in Taiwan. In reality, the nursing workforce is diminished by a
high rate of lost peoplepower. In 1998, there were over 100 thousand registered
nurses, but no more than 60 thousands registered nurses in nursing jobs (Taiwan
Nurses Association, 1998). The main reasons for quitting nursing were irregular
work schedules, unreasonable salaries, and heavy work load.
In current practice, it is helpful for educators to understand learning styles in
higher education; however researchers challenge the traditional instructional process
of lecture and discussion in college teaching by describing the theory, practice, and
research that support a wider variety of approaches to better accommodate the
leaming-style preferences of students (Dollar, 2001). Understanding learning styles
has the benefit of giving the students insight into their patterns for processing
information. Individuals can appreciate the fact that they do not have to become like
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one another, but can emphasize their strengths and work on their weaknesses
(Fladeland, 1995). Other benefits include an overall increase in student satisfaction
with their educational experiences (Emanuel & Potter, 1992), a reduced attrition rate
(Kalsbeek, 1986), and a more just educational system that recognizes the unique
abilities of each student regardless of gender or culture.
Importance of Learning Styles
Differentiating students’ learning styles is important in order to improve the
design of teaching strategies to match a learner’s style and attain better learning
outcomes (Doolan & Honigsfeld, 2000). Doolan and Honigsfeld’s (2000) indicated
that:
In 1995, a meta-analysis of forty-two experimental studies conducted with
theDunn and Dunn Learning Style model between 1980 and 1990 at thirteen
different universities revealed that matching students' learning style preferences
with methods and resources congruent with those preferences consistently
benefited achievement (Dunn, Griggs, Olson, Gorman, and Beasley 1995).
Furthermore, research based on the Dunn and Dunn model and conducted at
more than 115 universities shows that teaching people the way they leam
produces significant gains (Research on the Dunn and Dunn Model 2000).
Therefore, it seems not only prudent but imperative to match instruction with
students' learning style preferences, (p. 275-276)
Specifically, students may increase their chance of success in academics once
they are aware of their learning style. Kocinski (1984) stated that “providing students
with objective information concerning their learning style is one way they can know
themselves better in a way that is relevant to their lives as students” (p.8). Tier and
Roberts (1980) indicated that if students know their learning style they are better able
to select and attend to available learning opportunities that are most meaningful.
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Therefore, students potentially increase their learning achievement by knowing
themselves to succeed in academics.
Investigations have shown useful findings about the effect of environmental,
emotional, sociological, psychological, and cognitive preferences on the achievement
of students (Dunn & Debello, 1999). Researchers stated that an understanding of
learning styles is important for educators for two reasons: First, it can help the
teacher to broaden their teaching methods and curricula to accommodate more
students’ preferred styles (Neil, 1990). Moreover, when these accommodations are
made by teachers, students’ learning performance is strengthened (Matthew, 1991).
Concepts of Learning Styles
Definitions o f Learning Style
Individuals learn things in different ways, hence the emergence of various styles
of learning. The literature is replete with research regarding individuality in learning
styles. The learning style refers to the characteristics or usual strategies by which
students acquire knowledge, skills and understanding (More, 1987).
Learning style is a multi-dimensional concept. “Individuals’ learning styles are
composed of unique reactions to their environments, emotionality, sociological
preferences, physiological traits, and cognitive-psychological inclinations” (Dunn,
Gemake, Jalali, Zenhausem, Quinn, & Spiridakis, 1990, p. 69). Learning style is the
way in which individuals begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and retain
new and difficult information (Dunn & Dunn, 1999; Dunn, Dunn, & Perrin, 1994).
However, these styles are not permanent. Individuals change in the way they learn
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(Dunn & Grigg, 1995), as evolving maturation impacts one’s biologically determined
leaming-style preferences (Doolan & Honigsfeld, 2000). For example, Wilson and
Languis (1990) found that extraverts demonstrate less cortical arousal than do
introverts. There are differences in brain electrical activity patterns between
extraverts and introverts (Wilson & Languis, 1989). Also, developmental aspects
relate to how people learn but, more predictably, follow a recognizable pattern
(Doolan & Honigsfeld, 2000). These definitions reflect the different perspectives of
learning styles. For the purpose of this literature review, learning style refers to an
individual’s preferred mode of perceiving, processing, and using information (Dollar,
2001).
Some researchers believe a useful approach for understanding and describing
learning styles is to consider three areas which are cognitive, affective, and
physiological components (Cornett, 1983; Guild & Garger, 1985; Keefe, & Ferrell,
1990). Keefe (1979) indicated the various points of view and developed the
following definitions:
Learning styles are characteristic of cognitive, affective, and physiological
behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive,
interact with, and respond to the learning environment. Cognitive styles are
“information processing habits representing the learner’s typical mode of
perceiving, thinking, problem solving, and remembering.” The term, Affective
styles, refers to those motivational processes viewed as the learner’s typical
mode of arousing, directing, and sustaining behavior. Physiological styles are
biologically-based modes of response that are founded on sex-related
differences, personal nutrition and health, and accustomed reactions to the
physical environment (p. 4, 8, 11, & 15).
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Curry’ s Model o f Learning Style
Curry (1987) proposed a framework to differentiate the levels of meaning and
approaches to study each level. Various tools to measure the concepts can be
categorized according to these levels. Curry uses concentric circles to organize
learning style models in three levels. They are (a) instructional preference style, (b)
information processing style and (c) cognitive processing style. Figure 2 presents the
three levels of Curry’s learning style model.
Instructional Preference
Information Processing
Cognitive
Personality
Figure 2. Curry’s model of learning style.
At the outer level, the instructional preference focuses on an assessment of the
way people prefer to learn. An example is the individual’s choice for various aspects
of the learning environment, such as light and temperature. Learning Preferences
Inventory is an example of the environmental level of measurement (Dunn & Dunn,
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1999). Instructional preferences are the least stable style elements but can be used by
educators who want information to design specific teaching-learning situations for
learners.
The next level addresses differences in the intellectual approach people take to
assimilate information. An example is Kolb’s four learner types (converger, diverger,
assimilator, and accommodator), which is based on two primary dimensions of the
learner’s styles or ways of interacting with experience: concrete experience versus
abstract conceptualization, and reflective observation versus active experimentation.
The information processing differences that arise between these dimensions are more
stable (Kolb, 1985).
At the inner core of Curry’s framework, cognitive personality style approaches
examine an individual’s personality dimensions for adapting information. The level
interacts less directly with the environment and has more applicability to predict
behavior. The cognitive personality preferences are the most stable elements. An
example of this stability is the use of the Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)
instrument to test personality (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998).
Cognitive personality models measure pervasive and holistic dimensions of
personality which can be assessed by individuals’ perceptions.
Curry proposed that it is necessary to choose a model for assessing learning
style based on the use to which the information will be put; whether one is concerned
with modifying the learning environment to respond to instructional preferences, or
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using teaching-learning strategies that influence the ways people assimilate
information.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a forced-choice psychometric
which is based on Jung’s mental typology. The MBTI is used to identify preference
through a 93-item, self-administered, paper-and-pencil questionnaire. MBTI is
frequently used as a measure of learning styles (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, &
Hammer, 1998).
According to Quenk (2000), “A major reason for the popularity of the MBTI is
its relevance in many quite diverse areas - education, career development,
organizational behavior, group functioning and team development, psychotherapy
with individuals and couples and in multicultural settings” (p. 4). This psychometric
tool uses four dichotomous dimensions. The interaction of these four dimensions,
two pairs of which assess mental function preferences, and the other two pairs which
focus on the life orientation in which the mental functions are carried out, form the
core of the MBTI. These variables allow for sixteen different combinations of
learning styles in addition to the other combinations of the preferences into
temperaments or dominants (Keirsey, 1987). “The MBTI profile has been used
extensively in psychology, management, and education to assist in the understanding
of the differences in individuals’ approaches to life activities” (Wahl, 1992, p. 13).
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Development o f the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
A chronological listing of significant events in the history of the MBTI
development is stated in the following table (Quenk, 2000):
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Table 1
Development o f the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
1917 Katharine B riggs develops a w ay o f describing individual differences in
ways of achieving excellence.
1923 Jung’s Psychological Types is translated into English from the original
German, first published in 1921.
1923-1941 Briggs and Myers study Jung’s typology and observe its expression in the
behavior of individuals.
1942-1944 Myers writes and tests items using a small criterion group whose
preferences are clear to her. Forms A and B are created.
1944-1956 MBTI data collection of various samples, including medical and nursing
students.
1956 Educational Testing Service (ETS) publishes the MBTI as a research
instrument. It is available only to researchers.
1956-1962 Research continues, yielding MBTI Forms C through E.
1962 The first MBTI manual and MBTI Form F are published by ETS.
1962-1974 Researchers at several universities use the MBTI for various research
purposes. McCaulley collaborates with Myers to further test the MBTI,
and to create a data bank for storage of MBTI data.
1975 Consulting Psychologists Press becomes the publisher of MBTI Form F.
1978 Form G (126 items) replaces Form F (166 items) as the standard form of
the MBTI, based on a restandardization of the scales.
1980 Isabel Briggs Myers dies.
1985 The second edition of the MBTI manual is published, coauthored by
Myers and McCaulley.
1987-1989 Extended forms of the indicator, Forms J and K, are published.
1998 Form M (93items) replaces Form G as the standard form. The third
edition of the MBTI manual is published.
Note. Adapted from Essentials o f Myers-Briggs Type Indicator assessment (p.3-4),
by N. L. Quenk, 2000, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright 2000 by John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted with permission (see Appendix A).
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The Construct o f the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
There are four preferences that make up a type. The four preferences direct the
characteristic use of perception and judgment by individuals. The Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator instrument includes four separate dichotomies: Extraversion/Introversion,
Sensing/Intuition, Thinking/Feeling, and Judging/Perceiving. According to the MBTI
manual (1998), the four dichotomies are described as follows:
Extraversion and introversion are referred to as fundamental human attitudes or
orientations of energy, which are different from the layperson’s simplistic definitions
of sociability or shyness. In the extroverted attitude, energy mainly tends to flow out
to the people and objects in the environment. In contrast, in the introverted individual,
they tend to the inner world of experience and ideas.
The sensing/intuition dimension is designed to reflect an individual preference
between two opposite ways of perceiving. Sensing is a preference for perceiving
through observable and concrete facts, and immediate experience. It establishes
reality by the use of one or more of the five senses. On the other hand, intuition is a
preference for perceiving meaning, relationships, and possibilities. It favors
theoretical base.
The thinking/feeling preference refers to the mode of judgment. Thinking is a
preference for making judgments through impersonal and logical analysis with a
focus on objectivity. In contrast, feeling is a preference for making judgments based
on personal or social values with a focus on understanding and harmony.
The judging-perceiving dichotomy is an attitude toward dealing with the outer
world. The judging preference tends to have an orderly, planned and controlled life.
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On the other hand, the perceiving preference favors to live in a spontaneous way,
adapting and changing. Those who prefer judgment as opposed to perception are
likely to be better at organizing the events of their lives than they are at experiencing
and adapting to them.
In addition, the judging-perceiving dimension was included in the construct of
the MBTI by Isabel Myers and her mother, Katharine Briggs after Jungian typology
theory. In the judging-perceiving dimension, an individual who prefers judgment has
reported a preference for using a judgment function (thinking or feeling) to deal with
the outer world. In contrast, a person who favors perception has reported a
preference for using a perceptive function (sensing or intuition) in dealing with the
outside world.
Characteristics of Learners
In a synthesis of learning style studies whose subject were students in the
United States, researchers illustrated characteristics of learners comparing each
MBTI dichotomy with aspects of learning styles, brain patterns and information
processing (DiTiberio, 1996; Lawrence, 1984; Lawrence, 1993; Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). These studies have concluded the following:
The preference of extraversion tends to have active experimentation and
collaborative learning. Extroverts seem to like talking, discussion, and psychomotor
activity. They prefer to wok with groups, they also have low internal arousal of brain
electrical activity. In contrast, the preference of introversion favors reflective
observation, lectures, and abstract sequential learning. Introverts seem to like reading
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and verbal reasoning. They prefer to have time for internal processing and work
individually, they also have high internal arousal of brain electrical activity.
The sensing type of person is interested in actualities, relying on direct
observation and solid facts of experience whereas intuitive learners are primarily
interested in possibilities, relying on meaning and interrelationships. Sensing persons
learn best by moving step-by-step through a new experience, they are practical
learners who recall facts and perceive information by the five senses. They tend
toward being left hemisphere learners. In contrast, intuitive learners’ attention is
drawn most often to things that stimulate imagination and find their own way when
they encounter a new material. They tend toward being right hemisphere learners.
The thinking type of learner mainly rely on thinking to decide impersonally on
the basis of logical consequences whereas feeling types of learners primarily rely on
the basis of personal or social values. The thinking type of person prefers logical
organization and objective material to study. They tend to be left hemisphere learners
who highly prefer methodical study and serialist learning. Conversely, the feeling
type of learners tends to use a valuing process, weighing the importance of
alternatives to oneself and others. Feeling learners tend to be right hemisphere
learners who need personal rapport with teachers in a learning situation.
People with a judging attitude tend to be content with limited amounts of data
while making decisions, whereas perceptive types tend to have a “wait and see”
attitude. Learners with a judging attitude are drawn toward closure, wanting a clear
work plan to follow. They tend to be left hemisphere learners who are organized,
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favor prescribed tasks and dislike last-minute work. In contrast, people with a
perceiving attitude resist closure, wanting to have flexible plans and autonomy. They
tend to be right hemisphere learners who are spontaneous, like things loose and open
to change, have a tolerance of complexity and feel energized by last minute
pressures.
The MBTI is designed to measure a person’s Jungian typology elucidated by
Myers and Briggs. McCaulley, Natter and Myers (1996) have combined the major
functions of Jungian typology into four learning styles. IN means introversion and
intuition. This type of learner tends to be introspective and scholarly, interested
primarily in ideas, theories and depth of understanding. EN means extroversion and
intuition. This type of learner sees possibilities as challenges and prefers to explore
new patterns and relationships. IS means introversion and sensing. This type of
learner tends to be careful in testing ideas in order to see whether they are supported
by facts. ES means extroversion and sensing. This type of learner tends to be active
and realistic and learns best when useful applications are obvious and practical.
Learning Styles and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Most research related to learning style is concerned with exploring the
personality variables associated with various learning preferences. The notion of
learning style is an important component of Carl Gustav Jung’s (1921/1971) theory
of psychological type. Jungian theorists, including Myers (1962) and McCaulley
(1976), have been strong advocates of the notion that learning styles of individuals
are reflections of their types of personality. “Personality type makes a natural and
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predictable difference in learning styles and in student response to teaching methods.
Knowledge of type can explain why students do well with and enjoy a particular
teaching method while others are frustrated by it” (Myers, 1980, p. 147).
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used psychological test
developed by Katharine C. Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers. This measurement tool
adds to the value of understanding the personality types and mental preferences as
first put forth by Carl Gustav Jung and later refined by Katherine Briggs and her
daughter, Isabel Myers. This knowledge of self as applied to students can promote
adaptability in the teaching-learning process (Wahl, 1992).
According to Paul Thayer, head of the psychology department at North Carolina
State University, the test’s popularity is not hard to understand. “It is an
interesting instrument. The logic and description [of Jung’s types] are
straightforward and nonthreatening. The [feedback] makes you feel good about
yourself. It encourages you to feel you can be successful. It leads you to think
you know more about yourself and that you can kind of read others.” ... Thayer
observes, the MBTI is well-packaged and marketed, and it’s easy to use.
(Zemke, 1992, p. 44)
Keirsey and Bates’s (1984) book, Please understand me, was a further
refinement of Jung and Myers Briggs. They identified sixteen possible types using
the sixteen permutations of the four categories. In their analysis, the sensing versus
intuition characteristics are the areas in their assessment instrument directed toward
identifying the perception of an individual’s learning style (Knaak, 1983).
The MBTI has been extensively used and applied in institutions of higher
education. The MBTI is a useful tool designed to apply Jungian theory in order to
identify individual differences. Myers and McCaulley (1985) contended that though
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behavior may seem random, it is actually consistent and orderly when an individual
considers the difference in the way he/she prefers to use the own perception and
judgment. McCaulley also indicated that an assumption of the proponents of the
MBTI is that each individual develops his/her own mental capabilities in different
ways with different priorities. These ways of development lead to different habits of
the mind, motivation, and interest. A few studies on learning styles used Kolb’s
Learning Style Inventory (Kolb, 1984), however this instrument has a low test-retest
reliability (DeCoux, 1990; Sims, Veres, Watson, & Buckner, 1986), and questionable
construct validity (Highhouse & Doverspike, 1987; Sewall, 1986). In addition,
researchers stated that learning styles can be identified using the MBTI (Myers,
McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998).
The MBTI identifies individual differences in learning styles, providing a
rational structure for designing activities for learners that encourage their learning no
mater what style they prefer. “Jungian model suggest that people will be at their best
when they have effective command of their dominant function” (Myers, 1998, p. 37).
Claxton and Murrell (1987) conclude:
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator reveals a comprehensive portrait of the
learner (and the teacher). Students do better or poor on particular levels of
learning tasks as a function of type. The strengths and orientations of faculty
vary too as a function of type and some evidence indicates a striking mismatch
between faculty and students generally (p.20).
In addition, two pairs of the MBTI functions, sensing/intuition and
thinking/feeling, are significantly related to learning styles. The following discussion
address the important patterns related to learning styles of the MBTI function pairs,
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including the sensing-thinking, sensing-feeling, intuition-feeling, and
intuition-thinking preferences (Myers, 1998).
The preference of sensing-thinking is interested in facts which are useful,
practical information about everyday activities. The sensing-thinking individuals
learn best by doing and hands-on activities. They need precise and step-by-step
instructions. They also need to have logical and practical reasons for completing a
work.
The sensing-feeling people are interested in useful and practical information
about people and a friendly environment. They tend to learn best by doing, and
hand-on activities with others. The sensing-feeling learners also need precise and
step-by-step instructions. They favor frequent and friendly interaction in learning. An
approval is important for supporting their learning.
The intuition-feeling type is interested in new ideas about how to understand
people and metaphorical activities. The intuition-feeling people learn best by
imagining. They are creative in writing. They need general direction which
associated with freedom to complete their work in a creative way. They also need
frequent positive feedback to feel suppot from teachers.
The intuition-thinking learners are interested in theories and possibilities. They
tend to learn best by logical and impersonal analysis. They prefer an intellectual
challenge, and then to be allowed to solve problems. They are ingenious and
theoretical people who like to be treated with respect from teachers.
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The extroversion-introversion and judging-perceiving dimensions play an
important role in learning as well. The following description is related to learning
styles of the MBTI preferences.
Extroverted types learn by talking things out and interacting with others.
Introverted types need time, quiet, and space for internal processing.
Judging types want structure, an orderly schedule, a time frame, and closure on
one topic before going on to the next.
Perceiving types want flexibility, the opportunity to explore and to follow
interesting tangential information as it comes up. (Myers, 1998, p. 37)
Learning Styles and Academic Achievement Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
In the MBTI Manual (1998), the authors stated that studies of type and
academic achievement continue to increase, but the findings appear to be the same as
in earlier research. In other words, researchers indicated that a number of patterns are
found relating to academic achievement as follows: First, judging types have both
the higher average grades and IQ. On the other hand, perceiving types have lower
grades than expected for their level of IQ. This seems to indicate that the need for
closure and an organized approach to external events gets results. Moreover, it could
be that traditional testing and education system favor the judging preference. Also,
the predominant teacher type tends to be Judging. Similarly, the pattern seems to be
the same whether dealing with college freshmen (Pollard, 1988), undergraduates in
general (Woodruff & Clarke, 1993), or first-year medical students (Neral, 1989). In
addition, intuitive types consistently have higher mean IQ scores than Sensing types.
The three preferences that appear to contribute most to success on the grades and IQ
are Introversion, Intuition and Judging. Moreover, Schurr, Henriksen, Alcorn, and
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Dillard (1992) state that both education and nursing students draw a proportionately
high number of SJ types. People who prefer SJ types not only persist to graduation
but they also do well and populate their professions of choice.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has been used by Myers and Briggs (1962)
and McCaulley (1978) to predict success for health science professional students.
Using 7,226 nursing students in America, the sample included 70 licensed practical
nurses, 566 nursing graduate students, 2,074 baccalaureate nursing students, 3,171
diploma nursing students and 1,345 two-year nursing college students. McCaulley
described a sample grouping consisting of 58% extroverted, 60% sensing, 74%
feeling, and 61% judging types. The most common types in these nursing students
were ESFJ (extroverted, sensing, feeling, and judging), ISFJ (introverted, sensing,
feeling, and judging), and ENFP (extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving).
McCaulley also described that those in the baccalaureate nursing programs and
graduate programs had more of an aversion to extroversion, sensing, and feeling as a
means of learning than nursing students in associate degree and diploma programs.
According to a study conducted by the Tracking Retention and Academic Integration
by Learning Style project at St. Louis University (Provost & Anchors, 1987), nursing
students were most frequently found to be ESFP (13.4%), ENFP (19.5%), and ESFJ
types (13.4%). These findings support the idea that college freshmen who are nursing
majors are more extroverted, sensing, feeling, and judging than non-nursing majors.
According to Kalsbeek (1986), research supports Myers and McCaulley’s
findings that the Sensing-Intuitive scale has the strongest relationship with aptitude.
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Research indicated that the mean SAT score for a concrete active learner
(Extroverted-Sensing) was 932, much lower than 1,110 scored by the
abstract-reflective learner (Introverted-Intuitive). In addition, there is a significant
relationship between institutional culture and the student. Tinto (1993) indicated that
persistence in education is a function of a match between individuals, their
motivation and academic ability, and the institution’s academic and social
characteristics. He stated that the person-environment fit involves both social and
academic integration. “To a very real degree, our failure to make significant
improvement in learning and retention over the past several decades reflects the
regrettable fact that students experience has not led students to become actively
involved in learning (Tinto, 1993, p.211).” Similarly, research support that the better
the fit between the student and academic climate the better the chances for academic
success. An institution that focuses student assessment, academic counseling to meet
individual student needs and places priority on the teaching-learning process will
have a greater tendency to provide a better student-institution fit in order to increase
the retention.
According to Hodges’ (1988) investigation in nursing, including 62 student
nurses, 10 nurse teachers and 15 ward sisters, an important factor in persistence is the
learning environment. However, there were no significant different learning styles
among student nurses, nurse teachers and ward sisters.
In the learning theory described, stability and change in career paths is seen as
resulting from the interaction between internal personality dynamics and
external social forces. The most powerful development dynamic that emerges
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from this interaction is for there to be a closer and closer match between
self-characteristics and environmental demands. This match comes about in
two ways: (a) environments tend to change personal characteristics to fit them,
i.e. socialization, and (b) individuals tend to select environments that are
consistent with their personal characteristics, (p. 344)
Learning Styles and Gender
The literature suggests that there is a significant difference between gender and
learning styles. According to Fladeland (1995), “Gender mediates all aspects of life.
Education is no exception” (p. 28). Learning style assessments find that females
consistently prefer collaborative discussion, sharing experiences, and qualitative
methods (Baxter Margolda, 1989; Lam, 1980). In other words, females evidence
strength in verbal participation and socialibility. Moreover, Lowenthal (1988) stated
that females who completed the MBTI showed a greater tendency toward being
helpful and understanding of people. Males showed a preference for being analytical,
critical, logical, and more truthful than tactful. Lowenthal’s (1988) study determined
the MBTI for graduating students (42 males and 56 females), and faculty (34 males
and 7 females) at a school of pharmacy.
Additionally, the differences in learning styles between males and females
within a learning environment that has historically been structured for males
contribute to decreased achievement by females in higher education. Lowenthal and
Meth (1989) found that gender versus the Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT)
total score had a significant relationship because the average score for male
pharmacy students was 350.0 and for female pharmacy students was 260.5. Male
pharmacy students had statistically significant higher scores. Some research also
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indicated that males are presented to be more assertive and independent, and they
dominate classroom activities more often than females (Bardos, Naglieri, & Prewett,
1991; Nye, 1991).
Research about Learning Styles
A number of instruments and levels of learning styles have been explored in
studies, revealing a range of variables related to style. These provide comparable
concepts to assess and validate study findings. In a metaanalysis of learning styles,
Dunn, Dunn and Price (1981) found that the following conditions influence learning:
immediate environment (light, room temperature, and sound), sociological needs
(study in pairs, within a group or as an individual), and physical needs (perceptual,
food intake, and time of day). They also defend their work in learning styles, and
stated that the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) offered a reliable and practical
alternative for building a learning environment to satisfy the individuals’ learning
needs.
In 1990, Seild and Sauter stated that traditional and non-traditional nursing
students were differentiated by age, sex, marital status, and experience in higher
education. Their sample consisted of 129 undergraduate students, including 78
traditional students, less than 21 years old, who had no major intervening work
experience prior to the beginning of their nursing education; and 51 non-traditional
students, more than 21 years old, who had experienced interruptions in their
education, such as work experience and caring for dependents. Non-traditional
students had higher degree aspirations, with 69% looking forward to getting into the
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graduate program. Non-traditional students were more strongly characterized as
discovery learners (t = 2.88, d f - 27, p < .01), who prefer to encounter information in
a less structured pattern and who test their own perceptions and inductively organize
the information. Therefore, they required different teaching methods, such as group
discussions, case studies, role-play, and lectures with questions. Also, Messick and
associates (1976) suggested that younger people may be more responsive to mixtures
and mismatching because they are generally more malleable than older people.
The importance of identifying and interrelating learning needs, styles, and
strategies is apparent in these studies of nurses in their educational preparation and
professional practice. Wells and Higgs (1990) found no significant differences in
learning styles and the learning preferences of first and fourth semester baccalaureate
degree nursing students. In this study, learning preferences of nursing students were
determined by the Wells Learning Preference Survey. The two most predominant
learning styles were the concrete sequential and the abstract random. According to
Gregorc (1982), these two learning styles, the concrete sequential and the abstract
random, are on opposite poles in relation to perceiving and ordering information.
This study suggested that this information could form the basis for a more effective
student-faculty relationship and assist the educators in designing more effective
learning experiences for students.
In addition, Reynolds and Gerstein (1992) stated that Kolb’s learning style
model is based on the following characteristics: 1. Accommodators’ learning
processes are concrete experience (feeling) and active experimentation (doing). 2.
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Convergers’ learning processes are active experimentation (doing) and abstract
conceptualization (thinking). 3. Divergers’ learning processes are concrete
experience (feeling) and reflective observation (watching). 4. Assimilators’ learning
processes are reflective observation (watching) and abstract conceptualization
(thinking). They concluded that individuals are empowered as learners when they
receive insight into their unique patterns of learning style.
Research indicated that learners’ preferences for the visual (seeing) sensory
mode over the auditory (hearing) sensory mode is an example of a preferred learning
style characteristic. The preference for visual stimulation shows that the learners may
need to study and learn from techniques that provide visual representation of the
material being learned, such as graphs, charts, and drawings (Reynolds & Gerstein,
1992). From the report of the University of Southern California (USC), 46% of
nursing students were auditory learners and 62% of nursing students were visual
learners. These data were from the Nurse Entrance Test (NET) which was
administered in September and October of 2000 and 2001. Subjects consisted of 69
junior nursing students who had no previous nursing experience. According to
baccalaureate nursing programs nationwide in August 2001, 39% of learners were
auditory learners and 50% of learners were visual learners. These two results are
consistent with the researchers’ statement that learners prefer to use the visual
(seeing) sensory mode over the auditory (hearing) sensory mode.
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Learning Styles and Non-Western Populations
Learning is a complex process (Hodges, 1988). Research regarding learning
styles has long been studied in western settings. Considering the differences between
western and non-western cultures is necessary in order to understand individual
differences among the different multicultural groups. Also, Dunn (1993) stated that
certain ethnic or racial groups revealed different characteristics. The following
descriptions addressed significant differences among non-western cultures.
Dunn and Griggs (1990) stated that many populations included more or fewer
individuals with specific environmental, physiological, or social preferences than
others. For example, Chinese-Americans were more able to handle their assignments
independently. In contrast, Afro-Americans preferred to work with peers rather than
by themselves. Moreover, Chinese- Americans preferred to have a quiet learning
environment and formal structure while learning whereas Afro-Americans tended to
have sound, music and informal seating while learning (Dunn, 1993).
In addition, Lam (1998) stated that the learning style inventory has been used to
investigate the relationship of different learning styles and organizational
performance in a non-western sample of 95 salespersons of Chinese origin from
eight diverse organizations in Hong Kong. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 37
years (M = 21.6 years). The findings showed that salespersons tend to have an
accommodative learning style. The accommodative learners are intuitive
trial-and-error problem solvers who prefer to display social and interpersonal skills
that are essential for a salesperson.
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In a study of Chinese nursing educators’ learning styles in the People’s Republic
of China, the majority of Chinese nurses are not able to select the nursing profession
by choice, and do not have the option of leaving the nursing profession. Students
must be under 25 years old and single while enrolled in a nursing school. They are
not allowed to marry when they are students in a nursing school. Duff, Johnston, and
Laschinger (1992) stated that nursing faculty’s learning styles were more concrete
than abstract using Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory. Findings showed that the most
frequent learning style was diverger (67.6%) among the university nursing faculty.
Divergers have preferences of concrete experience and reflective observation. They
also favor concrete and people-oriented learning experiences. Results supported the
conclusion that concrete learning styles are common in the field of nursing.
Educational Influences
Many changes in the past decade may reduce gender differences in the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator measurement. The evolving role of women in today’s
society, with curricular experiences, life and other educational experiences may
remove gender differences on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Early
administrations of the MBTI found that females, even those who in their behavior
and attitudes indicated a clear reference for Thinking, had a greater tendency to give
certain Feeling responses than did males. The difference was ascribed either to the
possibility that certain Feeling responses were more socially desirable for females
than for males or the effect that social training had on females (Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk & Hammer, 1998). From those findings, research has focused primarily on
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role strain and stereotyping. There is a significant possibility that sex role stereotypes,
such as encouraging males into sciences and females into humanities, could override
cognitive styles. Stereotypes can have wide cultural variation, especially in the
traditional society.
As a result, variations among learners, such as gender and cultural influence,
need to be understood in terms of individual differences. In order to meet students’
learning needs, educators should be careful when using teaching strategies, so as not
to label students. In addition, it is not wise to assume that Jungian type theory can
account for all differences in human beings. It is important for people to respect the
unique ways of viewing and understanding the world. Therefore, educators need to
appreciate individual differences, and then apply multiple teaching methods for
improving learning in order to help students succeed in academics.
Career Choice Influences
The knowledge of the MBTI types is useful in understanding individuals’
preferred work environments, career choices, interests, values, satisfaction, and
development. Work environments are extended in a broad scope, which includes
tasks engaged in or avoided and the specific structure of the work setting. According
to Myers, McCaulley, Quenk and Hammer (1998), the work environment appears to
be more of a focus for the extraverted types than the introverted individuals. They
also described that “Type preferences are likely to affect activities as well as
environments that people find energizing and satisfying” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk,
& Hammer, 1998, p. 286). In the previous reviews of the MBTI for use in career
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counseling, the function pairs (sensing-feeling, sensing-thinking, intuition-feeling,
and intuition-thinking) play the largest role in occupational selection to influence
career choices. Moreover, feeling types identify more values as important than
thinking types. Furthermore, career decisiveness is related to judging. Also, sensing
and judging types often relate to a desire for security and stability, while intuition
and perceiving types often relate to a desire for creativity (Hammer, 1996).
There is no “right” type for any career choice (Hammer, 1993). People need to
be aware of individuals’ interests, motivation, satisfaction, and levels of stress in
working while making a career decision. According to Quenk and Albert (1975),
extraverted physicians preferred active involvement with the outer world of people
and objects. The feeling preference tended to have involvement with the people in
their lives and practices. Individuals with the thinking preference favored to
concentrate more on logical analysis and non-people aspects of work situation.
People with judging attitudes liked to maintain the boundaries in clinical practice
between their personal lives and their professional career. Also, in medical education,
students who chose family medicine tended to have sensing, feeling, and judging
preferences. Students who chose obstetrics-gynecology tended to be sensing,
thinking, and judging types. Students who chose psychiatry tended to have intuitive,
feeling, and perceiving preferences (Friedman & Slatt, 1988; McCaulley, 1981).
Moreover, previous studies indicated that the most common preference is the
sensing-judging type among nursing students (McCaulley, 1981; Provost & Anchors,
1987; Schurr, Henriksen, Alcorn, & Dillard, 1992; Wahl, 1992).
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Cultural Influences
In traditional society, Taiwanese students must take an entrance examination for
access to the university or other types of programs for nursing education. “Entrance
not only represents the initiation of the process of acquiring specific knowledge,
skills and attitudes, it also marks the beginning of the development of a specific life
style” (Duff, Johnston, & Laschinger, 1992, p. 230).
Asian students were subjects of Torkslson’s (1992) study, Torkelson found that
there were 35 International Teaching Assistants (ITAs) who participated in this study
at the University of Minnesota. The finding compared their responses with the
general population of Americans who have taken the survey. All the ITAs were from
Asian cultures and were temporarily in the United States for graduate study. The
results indicated that over 65 percent scored as introverted and more than 90 percent
preferred working with concepts and ideas rather than with people. In contrast,
McCaulley (1981) reported that over 50% of the United States college students were
of the extroverted type. An exploration of the Asian philosophy of education sheds
light on cultural differences with Americans.
A Confucian value present in Chinese culture is to be in harmony with the social
context. Self-determination and individual freedom are not emphasized as central
values of Chinese society (Hwee, 2001). Because filial piety persists as an important
value in the society, children are always taught to listen and obey what their parents
say. In addition, characteristic child-rearing practices are an integral component of
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the influences on cognitive styles. For example, child-rearing procedures stimulate
self-nonself segregation; that is, acts enhance self-identity.
The literature indicated that cultural values influence an individual’s ability to
develop and use type preference. For example, the ES preference is significantly in
the United States group (Hammer, 1996). Generally speaking, females’ preference of
the feeling dimension is always higher than males’ preference of the feeling function.
Lowenthal (1988) supported that females showed a greater tendency toward being
helpful and understanding of people. In addition, Hofstede (1991) distinguished
culture from those parts of human functioning that are genetic and common to all.
Also, Wilson and Languis (1989) found differences in brain electrical activity
patterns. Extraverts seek excitement in order to avoid underarousal whereas
introverts seek out peaceful pursuit in solitude tranquility. Further research is needed
to find that personality is biologically determined.
Summary
The importance of learning styles indicates that it is necessary to identify such
styles for improving learning outcomes. The concepts of learning styles using
Curry’s model and the development of the MBTI have been discussed. The areas of
studies reviewed only represent a sample of the vast research that has taken place
with the MBTI. It is apparent that there are many factors influencing the individual’s
cognitive style which in turn affects many dimensions of perception, information
processing, and interaction. Research suggests that learning styles need to be
considered in influencing academic achievement. Identification of learning styles and
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their related specific teaching strategies could help students process, organize,
interrelate, and apply concepts to novel situations. Emphasis on learning style studies
of adult learners, and more specifically, nursing college students, has been discussed.
Nursing is grounded in interpersonal dynamics with patients, families, and team
members. All sixteen types were found in the field of nursing, these students had a
tendency toward the sensing-judging preference. Career choice, educational and
cultural influences are also related to learning styles. This study investigated
relationships among nursing students’ learning styles and their ages, previous nursing
education, work experience in nursing and academic performance. Although
controversy exists about learning styles, there is more evidence that students benefit
from matching their learning styles with meeting their learning needs (Siplon, 1990).
As a nursing educator, he/she can apply the learning construct to assess and
differentially develop students’ learning styles in order to enhance learning outcomes.
Also, results of the study provided information to benefit students in understanding
themselves for increasing learning. The research design study and methodology are
presented in chapter three.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to better understand the different learning
styles among nursing students in order to develop appropriate teaching strategies for
improving learning. If a preferred learning style exists, is it common across students
in a five-year and two-year associate degree of nursing program, and a two-year
baccalaureate degree of nursing program? Further, the study examined whether there
is a significant relationship between learning style and academic performance. This
descriptive and exploratory study was designed to identify the nursing students’
learning style in an institute in Taiwan.
Research Questions
To carry out the purpose of this study, the following research questions are
stated to understand the relationship between external factors and measured learning
style. These external factors include previous nursing education and work experience.
The research questions that guided the study are:
1. What is the most common learning style of nursing students who are in a two-
year and five-year associate degree nursing program, and a two-year
baccalaureate degree of nursing program in Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between age and learning style in Taiwanese nursing
students?
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3. Is there a relationship between previous nursing education and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
4. Is there a relationship betw een previous work experience in nursing and learning
style in Taiwanese nursing students?
5. Is there a relationship between academic performance and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
Methodology
Research Population
The study population was all students enrolled in the two-year and five-year
associate degree of nursing programs and the two-year baccalaureate degree of
nursing program in an institute located in the north of Taiwan. The president of the
institute gave permission for data collection (see Appendix B).
There are approximately 2,000 nursing students in the two-year associate
degree of nursing program, and 5,000 nursing students in the five-year associate
degree of nursing program, and 50 nursing students in the two-year baccalaureate
degree of nursing program. On initial enrollment for the first semester, the total entry
population of the class is systematically assigned to class sections in such a way that
each section represents a cross section of the full range of scores on the entrance
examination. This means that each class is representative of the other sections in
terms of range of entry scores.
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Sample
The sample of nursing students was selected by random cluster sampling of a
class section of around 50 students from each grade level in the two programs o f one
institute. Nursing students in grade five were not included in this study because at the
time of data collection these students were away from the school in clinical practice
and preparing for their licensure exams. The total study sample consisted of
approximately 300 female nursing students: 100 students in the two-year associate
degree program and 200 students in the first four years of the five-year associate
program. Nursing students from classes chosen randomly were contacted in person to
participate in this study. In addition, subjects included 50 nursing students in the first
year of the two-year baccalaureate degree of nursing program.
Instrumentation
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was the instrument used to
measure students’ learning style in this study. The most current MBTI form, Form M
contains 93 forced choice items, and was published in English in 1998. However, it
was not available in the Chinese version for administering the MBTI to Taiwanese
students. The Chinese version will not be released until early to mid-year,
2003. Therefore, the researcher’s alternative way was to use the previous form-Form
G which includes 94 forced choice items. The research administered the MBTI
instrument to Taiwanese nursing students in January 2003. In addition, subjects were
asked to complete a one-page demographic survey to complement the MBTI.
Subjects completed the MBTI questionnaire in 15-25 minutes. All information
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disclosed in the demographics and the questionnaire was kept anonymous. Scoring of
the MBTI was completed by the researcher.
The M B T I is a questionnaire designed for group administration to determine
students’ learning styles. The MBTI instrument determines the individual status on
the four dichotomies (extroversion/introversion, intuition/sensing, thinking/feeling,
and perception/judgment) by using forced choice items. Previous research has
established that the MBTI is a reliable and valid instrument (Lawrence, 1986;
McCaulley, 1990; Rosenak & Shontz, 1988). “Persons from other cultures tested in
English have recognized and found the descriptions of their type quite useful”
(Myers & McCaulley, 1992, p. 6). Although the MBTI was originally developed in
America, it has been translated into other languages and used in such countries as
China, Japan, Korea, Canada, Australia, and Britain (Myers & McCaulley, 1992).
According to Myers (1998), “More than two million Indicators are administered
annually in the United States. The MBTI is also used internationally and had been
translated into more than 30 languages” (p. 5).
MBTI National Norming Samples o f Type
“In 1996 and 1997, Consulting Psychologists Press sponsored a national
normative sampling of MBTI results as part of the research for the new MBTI Form
M” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk & Hammer, 1998, p. 379). They concluded the
results of the weighted national sample reporting separately on African Americans
and Hispanics included within the larger national representative sample. At that time
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(1996-1997), Oxford Psychologists Press stated a similar normative sampling of
MBTI Form G results in the United Kingdom.
The most notable pattern in all the normative samples is the predominance of
ISJ and ESJ types, the four types that introvert their Sensing function. These four
types have occupied 44-52% of the people in each of the samples by using
Consulting Psychologists Press’s Form M Sample and Oxford Psychologists Press’s
Form G sample. (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk & Hammer, 1998).
Reliability
According to Myers and McCaulley (1985), on the four separate scales,
reliability ranged from .82 to .98 (on the El scale, r = .83; on the SN scale r = .82; on
the TF scale, r = .87; and on the JP scale, r = .98). These reliabilities compare more
than favorably to those reported for other MBTI test-retest reliability studies.
Researchers who evaluated the reliability of the MBTI using a test-retest design
indicated a range of .77 - .89 (Howes & Carskadon, 1979; Carskadon & Cook, 1982).
The range of resulting stability in the testing of medical students ranged from .45 -
.58 in this four-year study (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), although it was not tested in
nursing students from the previous studies. Carskadon (1977), Carlyn (1977),
Carlson (1985), and Sipps, Alexander, and Griedt (1985) studied the stability of the
type category scores. These studies concluded that college populations appear to
maintain somewhat stable scores over time with college women being the most
stable group. In another study by Williams, Williams, Xu, and Li (1992), the split-
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half reliabilities of the original Form G for Chinese female college students were
reported as ranging from .73 to .83. Moreover, research stated that:
Internal consistency and test-retest reliability have been reported for each
scale of the MBTI and vary somewhat depending on the nature of the sample
studied. Coefficient alpha results available for the largest and most general
sample of male and female adults (N=2,859) tested with Form M are .91 for
the E-I and T-F scales and .92 for the S-N and J-P scales. (Quenk, 2000, p. 22)
The following table states the test-retest reliabilities for available MBTI Form
M samples using the percentage of respondents who remained the same on one to
four categories on retest. When using Form M of the MBTI with students, utility
adults and Consulting Press employees, Quenk (2000) indicated that the employees
of the publisher were most consistent while college students were least consistent in
having all four categories the same. Furthermore, a meta-analysis of Form G,
resulted in acceptable outcomes, even for long intervals.
Table 2
Percentage o f Individual Remaining the Same on One to Four Categories on Retest
Sample Interval N 4
Number of Preferences
the Same at Retest
3 2 1 0
Form M
Students 4 weeks 116 55 93 97 100 0
Utility adults 4 weeks 258 66 91 99 100 0
Consulting 4 weeks 50 80 100
Psychologists Press
Form G
Meta-analysis >9 months 559 36 72 94 100 0
Meta-analysis <9 months 1,139 51 87 98 100 0
Note. From Essentials o f Myers-Briggs Type Indicator assessment (p. 81), by N. L.
Quenk, 2000, New York: Wiley & Sons, Inc. Copyright 2000 by Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reprinted with permission (see Appendix A).
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Validity
In a recent informal survey of private and public colleges and universities,
Provost and Anchors (1987) indicated that the respondents agreed that a major
strength of the MBTI instrument was its conceptualization of the whole person and
its theoretical base from which implications for practice can be derived.
Carlson (1989) supported the use of Jungian type assessment because
psychological validity makes parallels between descriptions of the individual from
the test and the individual’s own self-perception. Ware and Yokomoto (1985)
reported that 62% of their subjects indicated the MBTI type was similar to the
description stated in their study. Another study by Carskadon and Cook (1982)
resulted in 50% of those tested with answers of the type of description that was “very
true of me.”
In conclusion, the overall psychometric ratings were good for reliability and
strong for validity (Hickcox, 1995). According to Curry (1987), the following table
shows the summative psychometric rating of the MBTI. For the MBTI instrument,
the reliability test sample involved 91 medical students and 56 undergraduate
students. The predictive validity testing took place over 12 years involving 5,355
medical students. As a result, the MBTI is a useful instrument for this inquiry.
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Table 3
The Summative Psychometric Rating o f the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
54
Content
R eliability
Internal Temporal
V alidity
Construct Predictive
Forced choice Split half Test/retest Correlations Longitudinal
Self report Average Average with many study in which
4 scales = .86 =78 existing MBTI scores
(4 bipolar Range Range personality used to predict
concepts) = .80-.88 = .70-.83 tests specialty
1. Extraversion/ N= 91 N= 56 -16 PF choice and
Introversion Medical Undergraduates -OPI modes of
2. Sensing/ Students Span = 8 months OAIS practice
Intuition - Alport-Vernon (professional
3. Thinking/ Vemon-Lindzey activities,
Feeling - Rokeach board
4. Judgment/ - Watson-Glaser certification,
Perception - Cancer attitude professional
- Medical appointments,
preference
Scoring: Pattern of society
sum choices for each pole; correlation memberships,
determine direction and support urban or rural
strength of preference to constructs residence)
produce single preference N= 5,355
score medical students
Span
= 12 years
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Research Procedure
Nursing students were requested to complete the MBTI questionnaires which
included 94 forced-choice items in the Chinese version of MBTI Form G. Nursing
students were selected by using random cluster sampling. Cluster sampling is the
random selection of groups of a population rather than individual population
members. The researcher administered the MBTI to Taiwanese nursing students.
Subjects at a single institute located in the north of Taiwan were asked to complete
the MBTI. Demographic data collected for descriptive purposes included gender, age,
previous education, and months of work experience in nursing. The other data, such
as grade point average (GPA), for this study were gathered from the Office of
Academic Affairs and the Registrar computerized records. Individual students were
not identified.
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the president of the
institute (see Appendix B). For protection of human rights, the study was approved
by the University’s Institutional Review Board as free of rights violations (see
Appendix C). The researcher sent a letter to all the students in this institute (see
Appendix D). The letter introduced them to the general nature of the study, their role
in it, and included a request to participate.
The MBTI instrument was administrated to the students by the researcher in
January 2003. All subjects participated in the present study voluntarily and
anonymously. The researcher explained the MBTI instrument before the participants
completed the questionnaires. Scoring of the MBTI questionnaires was done by the
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56
researcher. The following procedures were followed in evaluating the data and
making recommendations (Wahl, 1992).
1. A ll M BTI form s w ere divided into one o f the 16 M BTI types.
2. The numbers of subjects in each full type category were presented using the Type
table.
3. Percentages were computed and displayed for each type.
4. The findings were also sorted into various other combinations and percentages
computed; these included the eight single function and attitude letters the four
temperaments, and the dominants. All were displayed on tables.
5. The most common occurring learning styles were identified.
6. The most common occurring learning styles, the suggested learning preferences
and teaching strategies for each were identified and displayed using multiple
literature sources.
7. Alternative teaching strategies and further research were discussed.
Data Analysis
After completing the MBTI, the questionnaires were scored by the researcher
using the official answer key. Computer analysis of the data was performed by an
IBM-PC using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 11.0).
Demographic data were presented to describe the sample, using frequencies,
percentages, ranges, means, standard deviations and modes. General statistical
techniques were used to analyze the data based on an alpha level of .05 as follows:
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57
1. What is the most common learning style of nursing students who are in a two-
year and five-year associate degree of nursing program, and a two-year
baccalaureate degree of nursing program in Taiwan?
Descriptive statistics and chi-square statistical analysis were used to answer this
question.
2. Is there a relationship between age and leaning style in Taiwanese nursing
students?
For this question, descriptive statistics, oneway analysis of variance and chi-square
statistical analysis were computed.
3. Is there a relationship between previous nursing education and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
Descriptive statistics and oneway analysis of variance were analyzed to answer this
question.
4. Is there a relationship between previous work experience in nursing and learning
style in Taiwanese nursing students?
The relationship between the total work experience in nursing and learning style was
analyzed by using oneway analysis of variance and chi-square statistical analysis as
the test statistics.
5. Is there a relationship between academic performance and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
Descriptive statistics, oneway analysis of variance and chi-square statistical analysis
were computed to answer this question.
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58
Summary
Using the Chinese version of the MBTI Form G as the instrument, a study of
students in a two-year and five-year ADN program, and a tw o-year BSN program in
Taiwan was completed. The MBTI is considered a highly reliable and valid
instrument. Cluster random sampling was used to select the study subjects from an
institute. Nursing students answered one demographic sheet. The relationship
between learning styles and selected variables, including age, previous nursing
education, the length of nursing work experience, and academic performance was
explored. The data were analyzed using chi-square, oneway analysis of variance, and
descriptive statistics. The results and discussions of these findings are presented in
chapter four.
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59
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
Introduction
A total of 331 nursing students participated in the study; 94 students in the
two-year associate degree of nursing (ADN) program, 189 students in the five-year
ADN program and 48 students in the two-year baccalaureate degree of nursing (BSN)
program. The participation rate for completed questionnaires was 98% (n = 326). All
subjects were females.
Table 4 presents the nursing subjects’ participation rate in different programs. In
the two-year ADN program, subjects included 46 students of the 280 first year
students (16.4 %) and 48 students among 280 second year students (17.1%). In the
five-year associate nursing program, subjects included 47 students of the 1,100 first
year students (4.2%), 47 students among 1,100 second year students (4.2%), 48
students of 1,113 third year students (4.3%), and 47 students among 983 fourth year
students (4.8%). (The fifth year students were involved in clinical practice in various
agencies.) In the two-year BSN program, subjects included 48 students of the 48 first
year students (100.0%). There were no second year students at that time because this
year was the first year to have students in the two-year BSN program. Data were
analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 11.0). The results
will be presented according to the research questions and discussed by comparing
them to other studies, and in terms of cultural differences.
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60
Table 4
Nursing Subjects ’Participation Rate in Different Programs
Type of program Two-year ADN Five-year ADN
N Total % N Total %
Education level
1s t grade 46 280 16.4 47 1,100 4.2
2n d grade 48 280 17.1 47 1,100 4.2
3rd grade 48 1,113 4.3
4th grade 47 983 4.8
Two-year BSN
N
48
Total %
48 100
Learning Styles across the Three Programs: Results for Research Question One
The result of research question one (“What is the most common learning style of
nursing students who are in a two-year and five-year ADN program, and a two-year
BSN program in Taiwan?”) indicated that the most common learning styles are ISTJ
and ISFJ for the total sample of the two-year and five-year ADN programs, and the
two-year BSN program in Taiwan. Table 5 and Figure 3 demonstrate that 14.5% (n =
48) of total subjects were ISTJ and 12.7% (n = 42) of total subjects were ISFJ.
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61
Table 5
Frequency Distribution of the Types among the Participating Nursing Students
Cumulative
Type Frequency Percent percent
ENFJ 1 1 3.3 3.3
ENFP 25 7.6 10.9
ENTJ 18 5.4 16.3
ENTP 18 5.4 21.8
ESFJ 22 6.6 28.4
ESFP 13 3.9 32.3
ESTJ 27 8.2 40.5
ESTP 1 1 3.3 43.8
INFJ 10 3.0 46.8
INFP 12 3.6 50.5
INTJ 16 4.8 55.3
INTP 15 4.5 59.8
ISFJ 42 12.7 72.5
ISFP 17 5.1 77.6
ISTJ 48 14.5 92.1
ISTP 18 5.4 97.6
Missin 5 1.5 99.1
g
3 .9 100.0
N/A
Total
331 100.0
Number o f Students
Figure 3. Type of the distribution
Note. T V = 331, N/A (Not Available) means that subjects did not finish the
Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) questionnaire completely. Missing data included
five subjects who did not participate in the survey.
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62
Pairs and temperaments are usually used in MBTI studies to demonstrate how
the combinations of any two letters among 16 types are manifested by subjects. The
pairs and temperaments of the Taiwanese female nursing students are listed in Table 6.
As can be seen, the SJs (43.0%), ISs (38.7%) IJs (35.9%), TJs (33.7%), and STs
(32.2%) are predominant among the total sample, whereas INs (16.4%), NJs (17.0%),
and NFs (18.0%) are found less frequently among the nursing students in the different
programs.
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Table 6
Pairs and Temperaments o f the Participating Nursing Students
IJ n= 116 (35.9% ) E 145 (44.9%)
IP n = 62 (19.2%)
EP n= 67 (20.7%) I 178 (55.1% )
EJ « = 78 (24.1%)
S 198 (61.3% )
ST n = 104 (32.2% )
SF n - 94 (29.1%) N 125 (38.7%)
NF n= 58 (18.0%)
NT n= 67 (20.7%) T 171 (52.9% )
SJ n = 139 (43.0% ) F 152 (47.1%)
SP n= 59 (18.3%)
NP n= 70 (21.7%) J 194 (60.1% )
NJ n = 55 (17.0%)
P 129 (39.9%)
TJ n = 109 (33.7% )
TP n= 62 (19.2%)
FP n= 67 (20.7%)
FJ
oo
I I
si
(26.3%)
IN n= 53 (16.4%)
EN n= 72 (22.3%)
IS n = 125 (38.7% )
ES n= 13 (22.6%)
ET n= 14 (22.9%)
EF n= 71 (22.0%)
IF n = 81 (25.1%)
IT n= 91 (30.0% )
Note. Bold represents the highest percentage among the participating students.
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Table 7 presents a comparison of the type distribution among the participating
nursing students in the two and five-year ADN programs, and the two-year BSN
program. In both the two-year ADN and BSN programs, the most common learning
style of nursing students is ISTJ (17.0% in the two-year ADN program and 22.9% in
the two-year BSN program). In the five-year ADN program, the most frequent
learning style is ISFJ (13.8%). At the .05 level of significance, chi-square was used to
examine the differences in 16 types among the two-year and five-year ADN programs
and the two-year BSN program. There were no statistically significant differences ( x
2 = 31.935, df= 30, p = .371) in learning styles among the two-year and five-year
ADN programs and the two-year BSN program in Taiwan.
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65
Table 7
Distribution of Types for the Participating Nursing Students by Program Type
Two-year ADN1
Five-year ADN2
Two-year BSN3
Two-year ADN1
Five-year ADN2
Two-year BSN3
Two-year ADN1
Five-year ADN2
Two-year BSN3
Two-year ADN1
Five-year ADN2
Two-year BSN3
Note. ■ = 1% of the sample. ln = 94 students in the two-year ADN program; 2 n= 189
students in the five-year ADN program; 3 « = 48 students in the two-year BSN
program. Missing data included 8 subjects who did not finish the MBTI questionnaire
completely and did not participate in the survey completely.
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
17.0% 10.6% 6.4% 3.2%
■■■
11.1%
■
13.8% 1.6% 5.3%
■
22.9%
■■■■
12.5% 2.1% 6.3%
■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■ ■■
■■■
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP
5.3% 5.3% 1.1% 5.3%
5.3% 4.8%
■
5.8% 4.8%
6.3% 6.3% 0.0% 2.1%
■■■■■■ ■■
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP
5.3% 3.2% 6.4% 6.4%
2.6%
■■■
3.7% 7.9% 6.3%
■ ■■
2.1%
■■■■
6.3%
■■■■■■■■
8.3%
■■■■■■
0.0%
■■
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ
6.4% 4.3% 4.3% 8.5%
■
■
■
r-j"
O ' "
■■■■
7.9%
■■■■
3.7%
■■■■■■■■■
4.8%
■■■■■■■
14.6%
■■■■■■■■
6.3%
■ ■■■
0.0% 2.1%
■■
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66
Discussion of Research Question One
In nursing institutes in Taiwan, the majority of students are females. All study
subjects were females. An important difference in the findings of this study is that
they contrast with the findings of American studies (McCaulley 1978; Myers, 1962;
Provost & Anchors, 1987). Research supports the idea that college freshmen who are
nursing majors are more ESFJ than non-nursing majors. However, the extroverted
type was not prevalent among Taiwanese nursing students. Although ESFJ and ISFJ
are the most common types in the second year of nursing students in the five-year
ADN program in Taiwan, the findings demonstrated that the extroverted type
constituted only 44.9% of the Taiwanese subjects (see Table 6), whereas McCaulley
(1981) reported that 58% of the United States nursing students were of the
extroverted type.
According to Moody’s study (1995), the model type for the Chinese group was
ISTJ (20%). In the present study, the most common type is also ISTJ in the two-year
ADN and BSN programs (17.0% and 22.9%). In addition, Moody compared his
Chinese-American sample to the study sample of mainland Chinese college students
(Williams, Williams, Qisheng, & Xuemei, 1992), and a study of types of Taiwanese
people, generally (Hwang & Chi-en, 1991), he found that the three samples
demonstrated similar patterns of prevalent presentation of TJ. The findings are also
similar to the present study (see Table 6). Moreover, “nurses are often classified as
combined Sensing and Judging type.” (Jain & Lall, 1996, p. 938) The SJs (43.0%) are
predominant among the total sample (N= 331). This study to evaluate the learning
styles of nursing college students has provided findings consistent with other studies
of Chinese people, but not other studies of the United States nursing students.
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The most common learning styles were ISTJ and ISFJ in the two-year ADN and
BSN programs in Taiwan. ISTJs are introverted and primarily rely on sensing for
purposes of perception and on thinking for purposes of judgment. These people are
mainly involved with the inner world of experiences and ideas. They also focus their
main interest on facts. They primarily make their decisions by impersonal analysis
with logical process of reasoning from cause to effect (Yao, 1993). ISFJs are
primarily toward the inner world of experiences and ideas. They tend to be
conservative, dedicated, and caring. They are conscientious and supportive people
who process of judging on personal or social values with a focus on understanding
and harmony (Mamchur, 1996).
Age and Learning Style: Results for Research Question Two
The analysis of the second research question (“Is there a relationship between
age and learning style in Taiwanese students?”) showed that there was no significant
relationship between age and learning style by using a oneway analysis of variance as
the test statistic. However, a significant difference (p = .014) between age and the
MBTI's intuition-sensing dimension was found by using chi-square as the test statistic.
There were 125 subjects who belong to the intuitive preference, while there were 198
nursing students who tend to the sensing dimension. No significant relationships were
found between age and the other MBTI subscales at the .05 level of significance.
Table 8 presents the educational level and the age of the 331 female subjects. No
students in the two-year ADN and BSN programs were under 18 years old while 63%
in the five-year program were under 18 years old.
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68
Table 8
Educational Level and Age o f Nursing Students in Different Programs
Type o f program Two-year ADN Five-year ADN Two -year BSN
N % N % N %
Education level
1st grade 46 48.94 47 24.87 48 100
2n d grade 48 51.06 47 24.87
3rd grade 48 25.40
4th grade 47 24.87
N % N % N %
Age
15 years 24 12.7
16 years 52 27.5
17 years 43 22.8
18 years 16 17.0 50 26.5
19 years 41 43.6 17 9.0
20 years 27 28.7 1 .5 7 14.6
21 years 4 4.3 13 27.1
22 years 4 4.3 20 41.7
23 years 0 .0 3 6.3
24 years 1 1.1 1 2.1
25 years 3 6.3
Missing 1 1.1 2 1.1 1 2.1
Total 94 100.0 189 100.0 48 100.0
In the two-year ADN program, subjects’ ages ranged from 18 to 24 years old,
because they had graduated from nursing vocational schools and a few students even
have nursing work experience before enrollment (see Table 9).
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69
Table 9
Age o f Students by Year in Two-Year ADN Program
1s t year 2n dyear
Age N % N %
18 years 16 34.8
19 years 22 47.8 19 39.6
20 years 4 8.7 23 47.9
21 years 1 2.2 3 6.3
22 years 1 2.2. 2 6.3
23 years 0 .0
24 years 1 2.2
Missing 1 2.2 0 .0
Mean 18.96 19.79
Standard Deviation (SD) 1.15 .82
In the five-year ADN program, the age of students in each grade level was: 15
and 16 years old for first year students, 16 and 17 years old for second year students,
17 to 19 years old for third year students, and 18 to 20 years old for fourth year
students (see Table 10). The nursing students’ average age was 17 years old in the
five-year ADN program.
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70
Table 10
Age o f Students by Year in Five-Year ADN Program
1s t year 2n dyear 3rdyear
4th
year
Age N % N % N % N %
15 years 24 51.1
16 years 23 48.9 29 61.7
17 years 18 38.3 25 52.1
18 years 20 41.7 30 63.8
19 years 2 4.2 15 31.9
20 years 1 2.1
Missing 0 .0 0 .0 1 2.1 1 2.1
Mean 15.49 16.38 17.51 18.37
SD .51 .49 .59 .53
In the two-year BSN program, the age of nursing students ranged from 20 to 25
years old, because some students had nursing work experience before enrollment (see
Table 11). No students were in the second year because the school was in its first year
of the two-year BSN program.
Table 1 1
Age o f Students by Year in Two-Year BSN Program
1s t year 2n d year
Age N % N %
20 years 7 14.6 Not available
21 years 13 27.1
22 years 20 41.7
23 years 3 6.3
24 years 1 2.1
25 years 3 6.3
Missing 1 2.1
Mean 21.72
SD 1.25
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Discussion of Research Question Two
In this study, the subjects’ mean age was 18.32, the median 18, the mode 18, and
the standard deviation 2.12 in the total sample (N = 331). There were 189
participating nursing students whose age ranges from 15 to 20 years old. Students in
the five-year ADN program were younger. Age has a restricted range which is from
15 to 25 years old in the two-year and five-year ADN programs, and the two-year
BSN programs. There was no significant difference between learning styles and age.
A possible explanation is that the participating nursing students are homogeneous
because their ages only range from 15 to 25 years old. Therefore, determining the
learning style of the student may be more helpful to the educator than knowing the
student’s age.
However, age is significantly related to the function of intuition-sensing at
the .05 level of significance. Older students have a tendency toward the sensing
dimension. The sensing type of student relies on facts, while the intuitive type of
student is characterized by his/her “grasp of possibilities” (Myers, McCaulley, Quenk,
& Hammer, 1998). According to Partridge’s (1983) review, the age of a learner is a
factor for the educator to determine whether or not to use matching instructional
strategies. Older learners may need more matching strategies, while younger students
often adapt more easily to ways that are different from their style preference.
Educators need to be concerned with students’ differences to develop support
services and educational strategies in order to satisfy students’ learning needs. Older
students may have difficulties in learning, such as an employee for a work and a
caregiver for dependents in a family. Clearly, age is a possible factor in influencing
learning. No matter what kind of students they are, consideration in students’ age
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72
differences is a suggestion for education planning and policies to increase students’
learning in order to achieve excellent performance in academics.
Previous Nursing Education and Learning Style:
Results for Research Question Three
The third research question (“Is there a relationship between previous nursing
education and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students?”) was analyzed by using
chi-square as the test statistic. There was no significant relationship ( x 2 - 16.444, df
= 15,p ~ .353) between previous nursing education and learning style at the .05 level
of significance in this study. There were 94 subjects who graduated from vocational
nursing school, 189 subjects who graduated from secondary school, and 48 students
who graduated from the two-year ADN program.
Discussion of Research Question Three
As discussed earlier, students in the two-year ADN program have received
previous vocational nursing education. Vocational nursing school in Taiwan is
comprised of three years of technical education following secondary school, which
prepares the graduate for a diploma and qualifies her for the licensing examination
and a registered nurse license.
Secondary school education, following six years of primary school is a
transitional period comparable to junior high or middle school in the United States
educational system. The emphasis is on general basic education.
Students in the two-year BSN program had received previous nursing education,
which is called the two-year ADN program. The two-year ADN program basically
provides nursing education in two years to offer the associate degree in Taiwan.
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73
The data indicate that regardless of previous nursing education, individual
learning style remained fairly stable. The findings do not suggest that learning styles
differ by previous nursing education and therefore the learning style is independent of
previous nursing education.
Previous Nursing Work Experience and Learning Style:
Results for Research Question Four
The analysis of research question number four, (“Is there a relationship between
previous work experience in nursing and learning style in Taiwanese students?”)
revealed a relationship between the length of prior work experience in nursing and
learning style. There were seven subjects (7.4%) who had work experience in nursing
in the two-year ADN program (n = 94). Only two subjects (1.1%) had previous
nursing experience in the five-year ADN program (n =189). There were 15 subjects
(31.3%) who had previous work experience in nursing before they entered the
two-year BSN program (n - 48). Table 12 presents the frequency distribution of the
length of nursing work experience in months among the participating nursing students.
There was no significant relationship between previous work experience in nursing
and learning style (p = .586) as shown by using one-way analysis of variance as the
test statistic.
However, there was a significant difference (% 2 ~ .130,/? = .020) between
nursing work experience and the MBTI's intuition-sensing dimension. There was also
a significant relationship ( % 2 = .148,/? = .008) between previous work experience in
nursing and the MBTI’s thinking-feeling dimension. No significant relationships were
found between nursing work experience and the other two MBTI subscales.
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74
Table 12
Frequency Distribution of the Length of Nursing Work Experience in Months among
the Participating Nursing Students
Months Frequency Percent Cumulative ]
.00 301 90.9 92.6
2.00 5 1.5 94.2
3.00 1 .3 94.5
4.00 1 .3 94.8
5.00 2 .6 95.4
6.00 1 .3 95.7
7.00 1 .3 96.0
10.00 1 .3 96.3
11.00 3 .9 97.2
12.00 2 .6 97.8
14.00 1 .3 98.2
18.00 1 .3 98.5
20.00 1 .3 98.8
24.00 2 .6 99.4
26.00 1 .3 99.7
36.00 1 .3 100.0
Total 325 98.2
Missing 6 1.8
Total 331 100.0
Discussion of Research Question Four
In this study, there was no significant relationship between previous nursing
work experience and learning style. One consideration which needs to be addressed is
that the number of subjects in the sample who had work experience in nursing was
very small (n =24). This conclusion, therefore, can be considered as a suggestion for
further study. More subjects are needed to analyze the relationship of previous work
experience in nursing and learning style.
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75
Academic Performance and Learning Style: Results for Research Question Five
The analysis of the fifth research question (“Is there a relationship between
academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students?”) showed
that there was a significant relationship between academic performance and learning
style {p = .001, d f=15) as shown by using one-way analysis of variance as the test
statistic. Table 13 and Figure 4 present the distribution of academic performance
among different MBTI Types. In addition, chi-square analyses showed that there were
significant differences between academic performance and subscales of N/S, T/F, and
J/P (p = .044,/? = .042, andp = .000). Findings also showed that there was a fairly
significant difference between achievement and J/P dimension. There was no
statistical significance between academic performance and E/I dimension. Table 14
and Figure 5 present the distribution of academic performance between different
MBTI types.
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76
Table 13
Distribution of Academic Performance among Different MBTI Types
Type N Mean SD
GPA
Minimum Maximum
ENFJ 1 1 74.59 6.38 65.27 84.55
ENFP 25 72.20 5.67 62.31 83.35
ENTJ 18 75.51 6.32 66.92 88.06
ENTP 18 73.77 4.45 67.18 83.87
ESFJ 48 77.17 5.22 65.55 84.46
ESFP 13 73.58 4.46 68.20 80.98
ESTJ 27 79.00 4.78 72.23 87.26
ESTP 1 1 71.86 11.08 53.38 88.20
INFJ 10 74.77 7.29 62.59 84.56
INFP 12 73.38 8.74 56.45 84.64
INTJ 16 80.21 4.87 72.56 88.92
INTP 15 75.04 6.98 61.27 86.42
ISFJ 42 77.03 6.59 62.10 89.66
ISFP 17 75.15 6.32 64.06 85.05
ISTJ 48 78.08 6.13 65.78 88.80
ISTP 18 75.09 8.83 56.42 86.60
Total 323 75.97 6.68 53.38 89.66
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77
Figure 4
Distribution of Academic Performance among MBTI Types
<
%
O
I
Type
O h
&
a. O h
H fe fa
£ £ 2 £ 2
Figure. 4 Distribution of academic performance among different
MBTI types.
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
68
66
<
C m
O
C*H
o
§
< u
5 c m
H H
£ 2 S o
I Maximum
i Minimum
Mean
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Table 14
Distribution o f Achievement between Different MBTI Types
Type
ENFJ
> 80.00
3
ENFP 2
ENTJ 4
ENTP 3
ESFJ 8
ESFP 1
ESTJ 12
ESTP 4
INFJ 2
INFP 3
INTJ 8
INTP 4
ISFJ 15
ISFP 4
ISTJ 19
ISTP 6
Missing 2
N/A
Total 100
GPA
70.00-79.99 <70.00
5 3
15 8
1 1 3
12 3
12 2
8 4
15 0
3 4
5 3
5 4
8 0
7 4
21 6
9 4
23 6
9 3
3
1 2
172 59
N %
1 1 3.3
25 7.6
18 5.4
18 5.4
22 6.6
13 3.9
27 8.2
1 1 3.3
10 3.0
12 3.6
16 4.8
15 4.5
42 12.7
17 5.1
48 14.5
18 5.4
5 1.5
3 .9
331 100
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79
2 5
20
t3 1 5
3
+ - »
0 0
< + H
0
& io
1
3
5 5
5
0 H
> 8 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 0 -7 9 .9 9
GPA
< 70.00
Figure 5. Distribution o f achievement between different MBTI types.
ENFJ
— *— ENFP
ENIJ
F.N T P
ESFJ
ESFP
— t —ESTJ
ESTP
___ iNFJ
INFP
INTJ
INTP
ISFJ
isfp
■ " ISTJ
1ST P
Table 15 compares nursing students’ academic performances with MBTI
preferences. The findings show that nursing students with introvert, sensing, thinking
and judging preferences had better scores than those with extrovert, intuitive, feeling,
and perceiving preferences on the cumulative averages. Overall nursing participants
with I, S, T, J preferences had better academic performance in this study.
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Table 15
Participating Students ’Academic Performance and MBTI Preferences
N Mean SD
GPA
Minimum Maximum
E 145 75.10 6.31 53.38 88.20
I 178 76.68 6.92 56.42 89.66
S* 198 76.72 6.71 53.38 89.66
N* 125 74.80 6.51 56.45 88.92
171 76.72 6.83 53.38 88.92
p*
152 75.14 6.44 56.45 89.66
J* 194 77.45 6.06 62.10 89.66
p*
129 73.76 6.99 53.88 88.20
Note. * There were significant differences between academic performance and
subscales of N/S, T/F, and J/P.
Discussion of Research Question Five
The findings appear to be the same as in earlier research: Judging types tend to
obtain higher academic performances than perceiving types (Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk, & Hammer, 1998). The Js are interested in getting decisions made while the
Ps tend to keep looking for additional information and alternatives in the process of
making a decision. Judging types prefer structure and closure, which are conducive to
commitment to academic goals. The findings support Schurr and Ruble’s (1988)
results that the J/P dimension is a strong predictor of college performance. In this
study, there was a significant relationship (p = .000) between academic performance
and the J/P dimension.
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Overall, the results appear to illustrate that nursing programs attract students
who are likely to be thinking and judging. From the literature review, the results are
noteworthy. The results indicate that individuals with similar interests tend to
gravitate toward certain professions. Although it is true that nursing programs attract
students of all psychological types, certain types are clearly more likely to be selected
into nursing programs around the country.
Obviously, people need to be concerned with the effect of many factors which
may include, but are not limited to, such things as similar interests actually leading to
similar choices of major, or a relationship between interests and performance such
that students choose the nursing program because they have performed well in similar
subjects in school. Research suggests that the majority of nursing students tend to
have the sensing preference (Provost & Anchors, 1987; Schurr, Henriksen, Alcom, &
Dillard, 1992; Wahl, 1992). These students may perform well in nursing, although the
previous studies stated that the intuitive individuals have better academic
achievement than the sensing people (Kalsbeek, 1986; Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, &
Hammer, 1998). Also, the preference of thinking/feeling predicts academic
performance; it is likely that the critical thinking skill involve objectivity over
personal values. As a result, the preference of thinking would perform better than the
preference of feeling in processing information (Kahn, Nauta, Gailbreath, Tipps, &
Chartrand, 2002). Therefore, it is not surprising that thinking and judging subjects
perform well on academic achievement among the participating nursing students in
this study.
Whereas previous research indicated the intuitive preference over the sensing
preference for success in science (Charlton, 1980; McCaulley, 1977; Schurr& Ruble,
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1986), the reverse was true for the intuitive-sensing dimension in this study. However,
the needs of the sensing types for practical and reality-oriented courses have been met
among the participating nursing students. Moreover, when S is combined with certain
other preferences, it seems to enhance academic achievement in nursing. From
Tharp’s (1992) study, the ranking for the top five was SJ>ST>IN>IJ>IS, when total
points are examined for combinations of two MBTI preferences. Therefore, S has a
positive influence on achievement when it is combined with J, T, or I. In addition,
one possible explanation is that more subjects belong to the sensing type (n =198,
61.3% in the total sample, see Table 6), which may be a factor that affects the results
in this study.
Analyses of Supplemental Data
Table 16 presents the level of parents’ education among the participating nursing
students in Taiwan. The most common educational level was high school or
vocational school (Male parents, n = 109, 32.9%; female parents, n =103, 31.1%)
among the total sample. There were no subjects whose mothers had received a
graduate degree. Only two subjects’ fathers had enrolled in a graduate program. In
addition, there were four female parents who had not entered primary school, while
only one subject’s father did not receive an education. Seven nursing students did not
know their fathers’ educational level, while two subjects did not know the level of
their mothers’ education. Missing data included 5 subjects who did not participate in
the survey. In the present study, one subject did not answer the level of her father’s
education.
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83
Table 16
Frequency Distribution o f the Level o f Parents ’Education
Level of education
Frequency Percent
Cumulative
percent
Dad Mom Dad Mom Dad Mom
None 1 4 .3 1.2 .3 1.2
Primary school 73 93 22.1 28.1 22.8 29.8
Secondary school 70 95 21.1 28.7 44.3 58.9
High school or vocational
school
109 103 32.9 31.1 77.8 90.5
Junior college 42 23 12.7 6.9 90.8 97.5
University or 4-year
college
21 6 6.3 1.8 97.2 99.4
Graduate school 2 0 .6 .0 97.8 99.4
Not known 7 2 2.1 .6 100.0 100.0
Total 325 326 98.2 98.5
Missing 6 5 1.8 1.5
Total 331 331 100.0 100.0
Summary
The research questions for the study identified the learning styles of nursing
students. The most common types of learning styles were ISTJ and ISFJ. No
significant differences existed in the three different programs. The majority of nursing
students had a tendency toward the sensing-judging preference. Age, previous nursing
education, and the length of previous nursing work experience were independent
factors; however, there was a relationship between learning styles and academic
performance. Chapter 5 presents a summary, conclusions, implications for nursing
education, and recommendations for future studies.
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84
CHAPTERV
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING EDUCATION,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of the Study
The purpose of this study was to assess the learning styles of a sample of 331
nursing college students, as measured by a Chinese version of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI, Form G). It also investigated if age, previous nursing education,
previous work experience in nursing, and academic performance were factors which
related to learning style. Efforts were made to investigate whether significant differences
existed in the learning style among students in the two-year and five-year programs. Five
research questions were addressed in the present study.
1 . What is the most common learning style of nursing students who are in a two-year
and five-year associate degree of nursing program, and a two-year baccalaureate
degree of nursing program in Taiwan?
2. Is there a relationship between age and learning style in Taiwanese nursing students?
3. Is there a relationship between previous nursing education and learning style in
Taiwanese nursing students?
4. Is there a relationship between previous work experience in nursing and learning style
in Taiwanese nursing students?
5. Is there a relationship between academic performance and learning style in Taiwanese
nursing students?
This was a descriptive and exploratory study. The instrument was the MBTI, for
which previous research indicates good reliability and strong validity (Hickcox, 1995). To
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85
briefly renew the major findings of this study: The most common types of learning styles
in this sample (N= 331) were ISTJ (n = 48, 14.5%) and ISFJ (n = 42, 12.7%). According
to McCaulley’s (1978) study of 7,226 nursing students in the United States, the most
common types of learning styles were ESFJ (18%), ISFJ (13%) and ENFP (11%). ISFJ
appears to be a common learning style for both Taiwanese and United States nursing
students. The SJ combination is also common among both Taiwanese and the United
States nurses, as 43% of the nurses in this study favored that combination and earlier
studies of U.S. nurses found a similar preference (McCaulley, 1981; Provost & Anchors,
1987; Schurr, Henriksen, Alcorn, & Dillard, 1992; Wahl, 1992).
Overall the style preferences did not vary by type of programs. One consideration is
that the sample should be larger in order to be more generalizable. Also, learning style did
not appear to vary by age. However, given the relatively narrow range of ages in this
population, a possible explanation is that the participating nursing students are
homogeneous. A broad range of ages should be included in future studies. Only one
dimension, the intuition-sensing preference, varied by age in this study. Older nursing
students tended to prefer the sensing function more than younger students. One
consideration is whether this difference could be a maturational or generational effect.
Future research could explore this question.
Similarly, there was no relationship between previous nursing education or length of
previous nursing work experience and learning style. In other words, subjects with years
of work experience in nursing preferred certain styles at rates similar to novice nurses.
This finding may lend support to the hypothesis that learning style may be an enduring
factor in an individual’s life, regardless of previous nursing education and length of work
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8 6
experience in nursing. However, a longitudinal study with a larger sample would be able
to address the question of type stability more directly.
There was a significant relationship between academic performance and learning
style. The findings suggest that learning style does positively influence academic
achievement in nursing college students. Furthermore, there were significant differences
between academic performance and subscales of N/S, F/T, and J/P. The findings also
suggest that nursing students with introvert, sensing, thinking and judging preferences
receive better grades than those with extrovert, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving
preferences.
Conclusions
Watson (1988) stated that the “information giver” has been a model of the way
nursing educators usually function. Nursing educators and administrators typically have
failed to identify learning styles as an important part of the cognitive and relational
assessment of nursing students and practitioners. By knowing the learning styles,
educators can identify learners’ strengths and weaknesses. In the nursing practice setting,
professional development can be strengthened according to learners’ needs.
While the majority of nursing students were the sensing type of learners (n = 198,
61.3%), a significant proportion had a preference for the intuitive dimension (n = 125,
38.7%). Nursing faculty needs to be aware that both preferences are operating within
classrooms. The intuitive learner prefers exploring ideas, patterns and theory, and learns
best by creative brainstorming and reflection. So nursing educators need to design a
variety of teaching strategies that provide intuitive students with plenty of opportunities to
invent, create and work independently (Mamchur, 1996).
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In this study, most students were the judging type. Nursing educators need to provide
clear structure, such as using syllabi and providing grading criteria. For the perceiving
type of students, learning options can be developed to match their learning style, such as
using an individual study plan. McCaulley (1981) indicated that the health field attracts
judging and feeling types. They were more equally divided in terms of E/I and N/S
dimensions. However, each type of individual could have an opportunity to enter the
nursing profession.
In fact, because nursing is a discipline in which clinical experience is as necessary as
the grasp of theoretical concepts, it is possible to increase the types of classroom activities
that better match the learning style of the practical learner. Although everybody has a
preferred style of learning, learners should be encouraged to practice new ways of
learning. The most successful learner processes information in many alternative ways
(Thompson & Crutchlow, 1993). As a result, a variety of teaching strategies will create a
match with most students and is needed in order to increase learning outcomes. In brief,
nursing faculty needs to apply multiple teaching strategies to match different types of
learners. This study can guide nursing educators in the design of classroom and clinical
instructional strategies to respond to individual needs in learning. Awareness and
understanding of individual differences will be enhanced, so that the strengths of each
type will be applied to benefit educators and learners. Therefore, educators need to create
an effective learning environment which provides appropriate teaching strategies to
correspond with the individual’ s different learning needs in order to reach the highest
level of learning.
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Implications for Practice
The goal of nursing education is to prepare future nurses in order to provide care for
people. This study described preferred learning styles of college students using the
Chinese version (Form G) of the MBTI in the field of nursing. The findings of this study
provide information that would enhance program design, service provision and learning
outcomes for nursing college students. This information can be used to modify modes of
delivery and participation, student assignments, structuring learning groups and other
methods to enhance learning. The author suggests two domains in which this information
could be applied: (a) faculty development; and (b) admissions/recruitment of nursing
students.
Faculty Development
Knowledge by nursing faculty of learning styles should encourage nursing educators
to have faculty development which includes collaborative learning to develop real and
effective educational strategies in order to enhance students’ learning through their
preferred learning styles. A traditional teaching method is the lecture format which is the
dominant method of educational strategies in Taiwan. Although the lecture is an
acceptable teaching strategy for students, it favors learners who prefer structure and
memorization - not surprisingly these are characteristics of SJ learners, the students who
earned significantly higher grades than the other types in this study.
This relationship suggests that students will do better when the teaching style
matches the strengths of their learning style. Indeed, Fairhurst and Fairhust (1995) found
distinct improvements in student performance when such a match occurred: The SJs learn
best through teacher-led question and answer, rote drill and recitation. The SPs efficiently
process information through demonstration with action, and results of hands-on work.
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89
The NFs comprehend greatest through small group discussions and one-on-one
interaction. The NTs prefer self-determined study and debates. Therefore, educators need
to be flexible in using multiple teaching methods to meet individual’s learning needs in
order to reach the highest level of learning. The findings from this study suggest that there
is a diversity of learners and learning styles in Taiwanese nursing programs. Therefore,
although the lecture is an acceptable teaching strategy for the students, additional teaching
strategies should be applied to promote learning.
The potential of learning style research lies not only in informing teaching practices
but also in helping instructors to think more critically about their roles and to become
more sensitive to individual differences that students bring to the classroom (Claxton &
Murrell, 1987). Nursing programs can continue teaching 27.2% of their students who
preferred ISTJ and ISFJ which were the most common types of learning style in this study,
or through faculty development, begin modulating their pedagogy to satisfy students’
learning needs. Identifying learning style preferences in the allied health professions
allows teachers to facilitate the growth of more students, not just the ones who respond to
lectures. It will require teachers to abandon the value judgments traditionally ascribed to
lecture versus more collaborative teaching approaches. Just as no learning style is “better”
than another, neither is one teaching style better. The effectiveness of a teaching approach
depends on who (what styles) is in the classroom.
Not many faculty are either familiar with or practiced in using alternative teaching
methods. Little formal instruction in teaching leaves most faculty replicating the style
with which they were taught. Therefore, the first recommendation is to for institutions to
offer many opportunities for faculty to learn about learning styles and the related teaching
delivery methods. For example, if the research suggests that SPs really like drama,
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90
debates, alternative assignments, and audiovisual aids; NFs tend to have discussions, peer
tutoring, creative writing and divergent thinking; and NTs favor debates, Socratic
questioning, independent study and divergent thinking, faculty development programs can
help instructors learn to use these approaches effectively and appropriately.
Admissions and Recruitment of Nursing Students
The second recommendation targets admissions and recruitment strategies. The
nursing shortage in Taiwan is reflective of a larger global shortage of nurses, compounded
by an aging population, a cultural expectation in Taiwan that young women will leave
nursing to marry and care for their family, and fewer students being attracted to nursing
preparation programs. Nursing programs have increasingly felt the pressure to increase
student retention.
There are many challenges in nursing education, such as recruitment. Nursing, like
other professions, is an essential part of society from which it has grown and continues to
evolve. Therefore, the future of nursing education needs to focus on a holistic view to
meet and adapt to students’ needs in order to maximize the level of learning for qualified
students. Also, the relationship between academic ability and success in nursing programs
is consistently supported by previous studies. Students with high GPAs were more likely
to persist in nursing programs.
An understanding of personality factors affecting persistence in higher education is
vital to improving retention efforts. Stress is a cause of attrition from nursing programs,
such as that caused by poor academic preparation and misperceptions regarding the rigor
of nursing education. Moreover, studies indicate that very few males enter into the field of
nursing because of a stigmatized role and stereotyping. Barriers to degree completion for
males include stress from lack of knowledge about role expectations and role conflicts,
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and lack of support. Therefore, increased efforts to maximize learning by teaching to
individual learning styles could reduce academic stress and improve retention in order to
attract, retain and graduate a more diverse student population.
Admission committees need to design an attractive program that provides
appropriate educational strategies to fit learners in order to enhance students’ success.
Administrators indicate the role of higher education is important in preparing nurses for a
changing health care and practice environment. Nursing educators are shown how to
teach students to market their practice, develop a business plan and deal with the issues
that affect advanced practice of nursing. Nursing educators also learn new strategies and
tools to improve advanced teaching skills. Consequently, nurses have high levels of
educational preparation that may have a beneficial impact on the outcomes of patients in
order to enhance the quality of peoples’ lives.
Recommendations
While the findings from this study add to the understanding of nursing students,
more research is needed. The author recommends pursuing the following issues:
1. Better evidence for the presence of common types among nursing students: Replicate
this study, with a larger sample in order to be more generalizable.
2. Stability of type: Researchers have found that more than three-fifths of learning style is
biological and less than one-fifth is developmental (Restak 1979; Thies 1979). If this is
true, to what extent can type be influenced either by maturation or environment? Future
studies could track nursing students’ learning styles using a longitudinal study to
determine the stability of learning styles.
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92
3. Validity and reliability: The validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indication (MBTI, Form G) needs to be tested in further
investigations.
4. Impact of clinical practice on learning: When implementing the MBTI among nursing
students in an institute, an assessment should be done of the fifth year students who are
in clinical practice agencies in order to find out whether different learning styles exist
in the fifth year students in a five-year associate degree of nursing program.
5. Gender and type among nursing students: There is no comparable group of male
nursing students to study gender differences for learning styles in this study.
Consequently, this may be a useful area for future research in the United States where
male registered nurses represent 5.4% of the total registered nurse population (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2000).
6. Cultural influence: Research asserts that learning styles of individuals are reflections of
their types of personality (Myers, 1980). In this study, the findings demonstrated that
the extroverted type constituted only 44.9% of the Taiwanese nursing students, whereas
McCaulley (1981) reported that 58% of the United States nursing students were of the
extroverted type. “E and I, consider the cultural or group norm; since American culture
emphasizes Extraversion, a borderline case is more likely to be Introverted” (Fairhurst
& Fairhurst, 1995, p. 145). In contrast to Chinese culture, Moody’s study (1995) found
that the model type for the Chinese group was ISTJ (20%). In other words, culture may
be a crucial aspect that influences how people learn. Studies can be done to compare
nursing students in associate nursing programs and baccalaureate nursing programs in
Taiwan and the United States for learning styles differences. In this study, nursing
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93
students tended toward the Sensing-Judging combination as did nursing college
students in the United States.
7. Effect of match: Better controlled studies that look at learning outcomes when
instructional style follows the recommendations from the research on learning style
would help us better understand whether the match between pedagogy and learning
style matters.
Summary
The goal of this study was to improve learning in order to increase retention and
students’ success in nursing. Educators need to consider the individual in learning to build
an effective curriculum. When utilizing information on the learning styles, it would be
important to understand that differences in 16 types are valuable and necessary, and that
all MBTI types are needed in the field of health care. Research indicates that a better
understanding of learning styles can be beneficial to both teachers and students. The
teacher should be aware of the learning styles present in the classroom and adjust the
presentations accordingly. The students can benefit by managing their learning more
efficiently (Bell, 1998). While the nursing shortage around the world involves more
variables than learning style, we are likely to lose fewer potential nurses if instruction can
be improved. The results of this study support increasing faculty understanding of
learning styles, as this understanding will be useful to both the students and the teachers
who will encounter each other in learning settings.
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Appendix A
Perm ission from John W iley & Sons, Inc.
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1 1 2
D ear M s. Li:
RE: Your November 13, 2002 request for permission to republish 2 Tables
(pages 3-4, 81)ffom Quenk, Essentials of Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Assessment [0471332399]. This material will appear in your forthcoming
dissertation.
1. Permission is granted for this use, except that if the material
appears in our work with credit to another source, you must also obtain
permission from the original source cited in our work.
2. Permitted use is limited to your edition described above, and does not
include the right to grant others permission to photocopy or otherwise
reproduce this material except for versions made for use by visually or
physically handicapped persons. Up to five copies of the published thesis
may be photocopied by a microfilm company.
3. Appropriate credit to our publication must appear on evexy copy of
your thesis, either on the first page of the quoted text, in a separate
acknowledgment page, or figure legend. The following components must be
included: Title, author(s) and /or editor(s), journal title (if applicable), Copyright
(year and owner). Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. This license is non-transferable. This license is for non-exclusive
English language print rights throughout the world. For translation
rights, please reapply for a license when you have plans to translate
your work into a specific language.
Sincerely,
Judith Spreitzer
Manager, Copyright and Permissions
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Appendix B
Permission from Chang-Gung Institute of Technology
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i n m m m
M f l l O T 33333 261 I t
C H A N G G U N G MSTOTOg JlCaROLOGY
261, WEN-HWA 1 ROADfKWELSHAN,
TAO-YUAN' 33333, TAIWAN, R.O.C.
TEL: (03)2118999
Oct. 5 2002
Dear Ms. Li, Yuh-Shiow:
You are permitted to do your research and survey in our institute.
If you need any help, please don’t hesitate to contact me.
Sincerely yours,
Rungtai Lin, Ph.D.
President
Chang Gung Institute o f Technology
Email: rtlin@cc.cgin.edu.t-w
rtlin@mail.cgu.edti.tw
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A ppendix C
Perm ission from Institutional R eview Board
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116
use
UNIVERSITY
OP SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
Office of the Provost
University Park
Institutional Review
Board (UPIR8)
University of
Southern California
kos Angeles,
California 90089-4019
Tel; 213 740 6709
Fax; 213 740 8919
e-mail:
upirb@usc.edu
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a
U niversity P a rk Institu tio n a l R ev iew B oard
MPA No. M-1299
Review of Research Involving Human Subjects
A P P R O V A L N O T I C E
Date: January 28,2003
Principal Investigator^'): Melora Sundt, Ph.D. / Yuh-Shiow Li
Project Title: Assessment of Nursing College Students’ Learning Styles in Taiwan
Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
USC UPIRB #02-12-204
The University Park Institutional Review Board has reviewed the information you
submitted pertaining to the above proposal at its meeting o f N/A and has:
S
Approved study Edjlc Psych SocWk Socio Bus Annen
Approved the Delegated Review 0 U D O D D
Approved the Claim of Exemption
Approved continuation
lApproved amendment
Jf Approved under the review by the chair; exemption: - 45 CFR 46.101 (b) (2)
(Approved by Chair with conditions on December 17,2002)
Conditions of Approval:
The Investigators must provide the following requested information prior to proceeding research (which
includes contacting, recruiting, and enrolling potential subjects):
Please note: This Claim of Exemption Approval Notice is valid for the life of the study
unless otherwise noted. An application for Continuing Review of a Claim of
Exemption is not necessary unless there are changes to the study. In which case, an
amendment to the original Claim of Exemption must be submitted to the UPIRB for
review and approval.
NOTE: The IRB must review all advertisements and/or recruiting materials. Serious adverse events,
amendments and/or changes in the protocol must he submitted to the UPIRB for approval. Changes may not
be implemented until you have received the Board’s approval. Exception: changes involving subjects’ safety
may be implemented prior to notification to the UPIRB.
ft*
Marlene S. Wagner, Ph.D., Chairperson
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Appendix D
Cover Letter for Participating Students
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118
Dear Students:
I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California in the United
States. Your cooperation in completing the attached ANONYMOUS questionnaire
will enable me to fulfill an important requirement for my doctoral degree. I would
be most grateful for your participation and I think you may enjoy it.
The purpose of this study is to identify the learning style of nursing students in
Taiwan. Learning style refers to an individual’s preferred mode of perceiving,
processing, and using information in learning situations.
Participation in this study will not entail any physical or psychological risks. Your
participation is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw from the questionnaire at
any time. Your completion and return of the questionnaire in the box provided is
your consent to participate. The questionnaire will take about 20 minutes to
complete and involves you supplying general demographic facts. Directions for
completion are given in the questionnaire.
Please do NOT put your name on any forms. All information disclosed in the
demographics and the questionnaire will be kept ANONYMOUS. Your responses
will NEVER be personally connected with you in any way. However, in order to
share the results with you, please place a code on the questionnaire. This code will
be known only to you and will be used to post the results which will be available
in the nursing office after the study is completed. An explanation of the learning
styles will also be available to you.
By completing this questionnaire, you will be contributing to the body of
knowledge concerning nursing education. The findings of this study can be used
by nursing educators to enhance the quality of nursing education in Taiwan.
THANKS FOR YOUR TIME AND PARTICIPATION.
Sincerely,
Yuh-Shiow Li
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Appendix E
The English Version of the Demographic Sheet
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1 2 0
C ode N u m b er:______________________
Age:_______ years old Gender: □ Male □ Female
Type of Nursing Program You Are Enrolled in:
□ 2-Year Associate Degree O 5-Year Associate Degree □ Post Junior College
Program
What College Year Are You Currently in: □ 1s t □ 2n d □ 3rd □ 4th
Previous Education Completed: (check ONE)
□ Junior High School □ Vocational School □ Junior College
□ Other _ _ _ _ _ _ (please specify)
Highest Level of Education Completed by Your Parents:
None
Father
□
Mother
□
6th Grade or Less
□ □
Junior High School
□ □
High School or Vocational School
□ □
Junior College
□ □
University
□ □
Graduate School
□ □
I do not know
□ □
Length of Total Previous Work Experience in Nursing:_______ Months
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Appendix F
The Chinese Version of the Demographic Sheet
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122
: □ - 3
□ □ m j - « l
m
m m r
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123
Appendix G
The English Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form G
Self-Scorable (Revised Version)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
124
«
DIRECTIONS
Do not open the booklet until you have read all the directions and answered all the questions.
There are no “right’ or “wrong” answers to these questions. Your answers will help show you how
you like to look at things and how you like to go about deciding things. Knowing your own
preferences and learning about other people’s can help you understand where your special strengths
are, what kinds of work you might enjoy, and how people with different preferences can relate to
each other and be valuable to society.
Read each question carefully and indicate your answer by making an “X ” in the appropriate box
next to the response you select. Do not think too long about any question. If you cannot decide how
to answer a question, skip it, and return to it later. If you make a mistake, do not erase but blacken
in the box marked in error.
Now, unless you have been instructed otherwise, turn the booklet over and begin answering the
questions.
Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 3803 E. Bayshore Road, Palo Alto, California 94303
Copyright © 1993 by Peter B. Myers and Katharine D. Myers. This copyrighted publication is not offered for sale; it is for
licensed use only, and then only by qualified professionals whose qualifications are on file with and have been accepted by
CPP. CPP reserves all rights beyond the limited scope of this license, including, without limitations, all rights under U.S. and
international copyright and trademark laws. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or media or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of CPP. This copyrighted publication may not be resold, sublicensed, exported,
redistributed, otherwise transferred, or used in any manner by any party other than the person or entity to whom it is
licensed for use by CPP; any violation of any of these restrictions may infringe CPP’s copyright under 17 U.S.C. § 106 (3),
and any such violation shall automatically terminate any license to use this publication.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and MBTI are registered trademarks of Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
Introduction to Type is a registered trademark of Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
Printed in the United States of America. 02 01 00 99 98 12 11 10 9
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC. ■ 3803 E. BAYSHORE ROAD, PALO ALTO, CA 94303 6865
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125
Part I. Which Answer Comes Closest to Telling How You Usually Feel or Act?
Make an “X" in the appropriate square.__________________
1. Are you usually
□ a “good mixer,”
or
□ rather quiet and reserved?
2. If you were a teacher would
you rather teach
□ fact courses,
or
□ courses involving theory?
3. Is it a higher compliment to be
called
□ a person of real feeling,
or
□ a consistently reasonable
person?
4. When you go somewhere for
the day, would you rather
□ plan what you will do and
when, or
□ just go?
5. Do you tend to have
□ deep friendships with a very
few people, or
□ broad friendships with many
different people?
6. Does following a schedule
□ appeal to you,
or
□ cram p you?
7. Do you usually get along better
with
□ imaginative people,
or
□ realistic people?
8. Is it harder for you to adapt to
□ routine,
or
□ constant change?
9. Do you think the people close
to you know how you feel
□ about most things,
or
□ only when you have had some
special reason to tell them?
10. Are you more careful about
□ people’ s rights,
or
□ their feelings?
11. When you are with a group of
people, would you usually
rather
□ join in the talk of the group, or
□ talk with one person at a time?
12. Do you admire more the people
who are
□ conventional enough never to
make themselves
conspicuous, or
□ too original and individual to
care whether they are
conspicuous or not?
13. Do you more often let
□ you r heart rule your head, or
□ your head rule your heart?
14. Do you prefer to
□ arrange dates, parties, etc.,
well in advance, or
□ be free to do whatever looks
like fun when the time comes?
15. Among your friends, are you
□ one of the last to hear what is
going on, or
□ full of news about everybody?
16. Does the idea of making a list
of what you should get done
over a weekend
□ appeal to you, or
□ leave you cold, or
□ positively depress you?
17. Would you rather have as a
friend
□ someone who is always
coming up with new ideas, or
□ someone who has both feet on
the ground?
18. Are you more successful
□ at dealing with the unexpected
and seeing quickly what
should be done, or
□ at following a carefully
worked out plan?
19. When you are in an
embarrassing spot, do you
usually
□ turn it into a joke, or
□ change the subject, or
□ days later, think of what you
should have said?
20. In a large group, do you more
often
□ introduce others, or
□ get introduced?
21. Would you rather be
considered
□ a practical person, or
□ an ingenious person?
22. Do you usually
□ value sentiment more than
logic, or
□ value logic more than
sentiment?
23. When it is settled well in
advance
that you will do a certain thing
at a certain time, do you find it
□ nice to be able to plan
accordingly, or
□ a little unpleasant to be tied
down?
24. Do you
□ find a lot to say only to certain
people or under certain
conditions, or
□ talk easily to almost anyone
for as long as you have to?
25. If you were asked on a
Saturday morning what you
were going to do that day,
would you
□ be able to tell pretty well, or
□ list twice too many things, or
□ have to wait and see?
26. In reading for pleasure, do you
□ enjoy odd or original ways of
saying things, or
□ like writers to say exactly what
they mean?
27. Do you
□ rather prefer to do things at the
last minute, or
□ find doing things at the last
minute hard on the nerves?
28. When you are at a party, do
you like to
□ help get things going, or
□ let the others have fun in their
own way?
Part II. Which Word in Each Pair Appeals to You More?
T hink what the- words mean, not how thcv look or how thcv sound.
29. | □ make
□ create
35. □ sensible
□ fascinating
41. | □ production
□ design
47. [ P concrete
P abstract
30. □ benefits
□ blessings
36. □ wary
□ trustful
42. , □ tolerate
□ forgive
48. | P firm-minded
P warm-hearted
3!. | □ scheduled
□ unplanned
37. □ systematic
□ spontaneous
43. □ systematic
P casual
49. P decision
P impulse
32. □ invent
□ build
38. □ spire
□ foundation
44. P theory
P experience
50. p symbol
□ sign
33. □ uncritical
□ critical
39. □ soft
□ hard
45. P compassion
P foresight
51. P peacemaker
□ judge
34. □ talkative
□ reserved
40. P lively
□ calm
46. P speak
P write
52. P sociable
Q detached
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126
Part III. Which Answer Conies Closest to Telling How You Usually Feci or Act?
53. Can the new people you meet
tell what you are interested in
□ right away,
or
I I only a fter th e y really get to
know you?
54. In doing something that many
other people do, does it appeal
to you more to
□ do it in the accepted way,
or
□ invent a way of your own?
55. Do you feel it is a worse fault to
be
□ unsympathetic,
or
□ unreasonable?
56. Do you think the having a daily
routine is
□ a comfortable way to get
things done, or,
□ painful event when necessary?
57. At parties, do you
□ sometimes get bored,
or
□ always have fun?
58. When you start a big project
that is due in a week, do you
□ take time to list the separate
things to be done and the
order of doing them, or
□ plunge in?
59. Do you think it more important
to be able
□ to see the possibilities in a
situation, or
□ to adjust to the facts as they
are?
60. When you think of some little
thing you should do or buy, do
you
□ often forget it till much later,
or
□ usually get it down on paper to
remind yourself, or
□ always carry through on it
without reminders?
61. Do you usually
□ show your feelings freely,
or
□ keep your feelings to yourself?
62. Would you rather
□ support the established
methods of doing good, or
I analyze what is still wrong and
attack unsolved problems?
63. Would you rather work under
someone who is
□ always kind,
or
□ always fair?
64. When something new starts to
be the fashion, are you usually
□ not much interested,
or
□ one of the first to try it?
65. In getting a job done, do you
depend on
□ starting early, so as to finish
with time to spare, or
□ the extra speed you develop at
the last minute?
66. In your way of living, do you
prefer to be
U original,
or
□ conventional?
[On this next question only, if two
answers are true, mark both. ]
67. In your daily work, do you
□ rather enjoy an emergency that
makes you work against time,
or
□ hate to work under pressure, or
□ usually plan your work so you
won’t need to work under
pressure?
68. Would you say you
□ get more enthusiastic about
things than the average
person, or
1 1 get less excited about things
than the average person?
69. Is it higher praise to say
someone has
□ common sense,
or
□ vision?
70. Do you feel it is a worse fault
□ not to have warm th enough,
or
□ to show too much warm th?
71. When you have a special job to
do, do you like to
□ organize it carefully before
you start, or
□ find out what is necessary as
you go along?
72. Are you
□ hard to get know,
or
□ easy to get to know?
73. Do you find the more routine
parts of your day
[J restful,
or
□ boring?
Part IV. Which Word in Each Pair Appeals to You More?
Think w hat the words mean, not how thcv look or how tlicv sound.
74. □ accept
□ change
80. □ known
□ unknown
86. □ facts
□ ideas
91. □ statement
□ concept
75. □ thinking
□ feeling
81. □ convincing
□ touching
87. □ determined
□ devoted
92. □ justice
□ mercy
76. □ punctual
□ ieisurely
82. □ perm anent
□ changing
88. □ orderly
□ easygoing
93. □ careful
□ quick
77. □ theory
□ certainty
83. □ figurative
□ literal
89. □ imaginative
□ m atter-of-fact
94. □ who
□ what
78. □agree
□discuss
84. □gentle
□firm
90. □sympathize
□analyze
79. □party
□theater
85. □hearty
□quiet
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127
Appendix H
The Chinese Version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form G
Self-Scorable (Revised Version)
R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
128
I B J M #
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Creator
Li, Yuh-Shiow
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Core Title
Assessment of nursing college students' learning styles in Taiwan using the Myers -Briggs Type Indicator
School
Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
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Education
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University of Southern California
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Tag
education, higher,health sciences, nursing,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
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Sundt, Melora (
committee chair
), Hagedorn, Linda Serra (
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