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Correlates of job satisfaction among school superintendents

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Correlates of job satisfaction among school superintendents

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Content CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION
AMONG SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS
by
Aleta Peters-Schinsky
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2001
Copyright 2001 Aleta Peters-Schinsky
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UMI Number: 3027765
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
Aleta Peters-Schinsky_______
under the direction of h Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
of Education in partial fulfillment o f the requirements for
the degree of
D octor o f Ed u c a tio n
March 21, 2001
Date
Dean
Dissertation ittee
urperson
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Aleta Peters-Schinsky Dr. Dennis Hocevar
■ CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONG SCHOOL
SUPERINTENDENTS
THE PROBLEM
This document examines the correlation between personal job satisfaction and stress
and district effectiveness, of California school superintendents and the superintendents’
perceptions o f how educational stakeholder’s view their performance as superintendents.
METHOD
The study focused on 112 California public school superintendents who returned a
one-page questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, t-test, chi-square, one-way ANOVA, and
Pearson correlation coefficients were used to analyze the data and answer the research
questions.
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
This study provided findings that offer new and useful information regarding
relationships between superintendency job variables.
Most participants reported a high level of job satisfaction, low levels o f stress, and
high levels of job performance.
Most participants did not intend to leave their position in the near future. There was a
significant relationship found regarding a much larger percentage of men (86.0%)
intending to leave their position in the near future compared to women (14.0%).
There were no significant relationships between the demographic factors of gender,
age, length of superintendency, number of years in the position, or type of district with
satisfaction, stress, and perceived success.
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There was a significant relationship between the number of students and stress, a
correlation between satisfaction and performance, and a correlation between satisfaction
and stress.
There were no correlations found between the intention to leave, school effectiveness,
and stress, but there is a correlation between intent to leave and satisfaction.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Future studies should expand the list of stress items to possibly increase the reliability
of the stress measure used in this study.
Future research will need to further explore more objective assessments of
performance.
Research needs to further explore the possibility that superintendents are leaving their
position unwillingly, and perhaps, qualitative research will yield a more detailed set of
findings with reference to intent to leave.
Future research needs to investigate current training in educational administration
and its correlation to job satisfaction.
Future studies will also need to further address other demographic variables for
example, the effects of ethnicity needs to be investigated.
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ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to dedicate this to my mother Mary and
my father Ron for teaching me the invaluable lesson to
recognize possibilities and for encouraging me to find
the sustenance my spirit longs for.
I would like to express my sincerest appreciation to
everyone involved in the completion of this project. I
especially want to thank my committee chairperson, Dr.
Dennis Hocevar, who has been my guiding light. I would
also like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Robert
Baker and Dr. Eva Long, who were gracious enough to serve
on this project.
I thank my partner Ron for encouraging me every step
of the way and for having the vision to know what my
heart ached for.
I would especially like to thank my two children
Mary and Erik who have patiently survived the many hours
Mom was away at class or locked up in the computer room.
I hope you are inspired by what can be done when it seems
impossible.
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To my sister Eleanor I give a profound thank you for
your many hours of commitment to improve this project.
, To my vice principal Elizabeth Martinez, I thank you
for your willingness to carry the entire load when I
needed you. Without your professional generosity, this
accomplishment would not have been possible.
To my dear friends Dr. Patricia Bales, Dr. Lori
Hoggard, and Dr. Chuck Lewis, USC alumni all, thank you
for being my cheerleaders and supporters, with a special
nod to Dr. Lewis who insisted that I see this window of
opportunity and wouldn't give up until I opened it.
Thank you to my classmate Deanna Brady, soon to be
Dr. Brady—this journey would not have been the same
without you.
I owe a debt of appreciation to Anaheim City School
District for modeling a commitment to learning and
supporting their educators by never thinking of
graduation as an end to learning.
Finally, I sincerely thank all the participants in
this study. It is through the time and effort of these
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iv
individuals, and all those like them, that there can be
educational research.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 11
LIST OF TABLES VI1
LIST OF HISTOGRAMS
IX
Chapter
1. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Delimitations of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Definitions of Key Terms
Introduction
School Superintendency
History and Statistics
Problems With Superintendency
Female and Minority Perspective
Why Choose Superintendency?
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction Characteristics
Attitudes
Personality-Job Fit
Leadership and Instrumental Workplace
Support
Job Stress
Job Stress Correlates
Superintendency Job Stress
Job Effectiveness
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
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V I
Chapter Page
Job Performance
Performance Factors
Superintendency Job Performance
Conclusion
METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES 75
4.
Introduction
Sample Population
Design of Study
Instrumentation
Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among
School Superintendents
Procedures for Data Collection
Data Analysis
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 8 6
Description of Sample
Research Questions
Summary of Findings
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 107
Summary
Statement of the Problem
Research Questions
Summary of Findings Related to Research
Questions
Selected Conclusions
Recommendations
Implications for Future Research
REFERENCES 125
APPENDIXES
A. Letter of Consent
B. Survey
132
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v ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Eaqe
1. Gender, Age, Years as a Superintendent, Years
in Position, Type of School District, and
Average Daily Attendance (ADA) 87
2. Descriptive Statistics: Satisfaction, Stress
and Performance Mean 90
3. Intent to Leave Position in Near Future (1-3
Years) 95
4a. Mean and Standard Deviation for Gender 96
4b. One-Way ANOVA Gender 97
5a. Mean and Standard Deviation for Age 97
5b. One-Way ANOVA Age 98
6a. Mean and Standard Deviation for Length as a
Superintendent 98
6b. One-Way ANOVA for Length as a Superintendent 99
7a. Mean and Standard Deviation for Years in
Present Position 99
7b. One-Way ANOVA Years in Present Position 100
8a. Mean and Standard Deviation for Type of
District 100
8b. One-Way ANOVA for Type of District 101
9a. Mean and Standard Deviation for ADA 101
9b. One-Way ANOVA ADA 102
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v iii
Table Page
10. Pearson Correlations: Satisfaction 103
11. T-Test for Equality of Means: Intent
to Leave 104
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IX
Page
92
93
94
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LIST OF HISTOGRAMS
Histogram
1. Satisfaction
2. Stress
3. Performance
1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
From the existing research, school superintendency
is a highly visible and public position that has been
scrutinized by the media, business leaders, elected
officials, and the public for several decades. Many
great men and women have left these chief executive
office positions upon the request of the school board
and, less frequently, from choice. For the most part,
what we know about the school superintendency today is
not positive. With the increasing complexity of the
superintendency, not only are the pools of candidates
for these jobs dwindling, but the tenure of a typical
superintendent is less than 7 years (Cuban, 1998).
By definition, the superintendent is the educational
leader and spokesperson for the school district. Most
school boards support effective leadership and authorize
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the superintendent to manage and implement policy,
focusing on a variety of tasks that include planning and
goal setting, curriculum and instruction, finances,
personnel,- facilities, community relations, state and
federal relations, transportation, and food management
service (Konnert & Augenstein, 1995).
The superintendency is a unique position in
education. It is a job that requires dealing with daily
conflictual, or potentially conflictual, situations. The
role of the superintendency is very stressful
(Goldstein, 1992). Many of the pressures superintendents
encounter include external forces from students,
teachers, interest and parent groups, social and
economic problems, and an increasing intervention from
federal, state, and local governments. Glass (1993)
says, "Working with.many groups of citizens, parents,
and staff who display adversarial stances is one of the
most difficult public challenges facing
superintendents." However, with all the negative effects
surrounding the superintendency, most superintendents
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3
believe their role warrants the strain (Goldstein,
1992) .
As in private industry, chief educational leaders
are deemed competent by the public, superiors, and staff
when the organization for which they are responsible
produces desired results. Superintendents are also
judged adversely when specific results are not attained.
However, many times their success or failures, and
length of tenure, often rest upon the performance of
those they supervise and direct. According to Glass
(1993), one must call on the best assistants and best
consultants available to successfully conduct the
multifaceted role of the superintendency. Unlike private
industry, educational institutions also have a teaching
function. Educational institutions are concerned with
the promotion of the knowledge, wisdom, understanding,
and intellectual capacity of pupils. The rights of
teachers and administrators often conflict; therefore,
it is critical that superintendents have a clear
conception of the constraints and ambiguities
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surrounding the exercise of authority in their schools
and of their faculties (Haller & Strike, 1986).
Unlike private industry chief executives,
superintendents spend an excessive amount of time
putting out small fires and pleasing a few disgruntled
stakeholders. In private industry, disgruntled employees
and consumers may not like the CEO's administrative
leadership; however, tangible results such as more
earnings, improved price share growth in profits, and
pleased shareholders are positive factors for the
private industry chief executive. This is not true of
the superintendency.
Statement of the Problem
The main research question is to identify the
unknown correlation between personal job satisfaction,
effectiveness, and stress of California school
superintendents and the superintendents' perceptions of
how educational stakeholders view their performance as
superintendents. Evidence has been cited that there is a
growing concern regarding the short life expectancy of a
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school superintendent's position. The superintendent's
role and function is one of the most difficult, and
demanding jobs in education today, yet implementing
change and orchestrating positive outcomes for youth are
of utmost importance.
The degree to which any superintendent is satisfied
with his or her job performance is probably a good
indicator of his/her ability to generate power and
influence in the position (Brown, 1973). School
organizations that have a rapid turnover of
superintendents also have superintendents working less
than their full capability. Stable and long-term
superintendents work more effectively than those
districts that have a high superintendence turnover.
Stable and long-term superintendents work more
effectively because they have the time to develop a good
feel for the community and establish goal setting with
the school board. Students, teachers, and communities
deserve stability for their schools. With the frequent
turnover of school superintendents, they're not getting
it (McKay & Grady, 1994).
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Purpose of the Study
The major purpose of this study is to ascertain if
there is a correlation between the superintendent's job
satisfaction and stress level and the superintendent's
perceived performance according to the school board,
management staff, teachers, and parents.
Research Questions
Demographic factors will be explored: type of
school district, length of service, student enrollment,
gender, and how many superintendent positions each has
held over a period of time. Questions posed by the study
will be analyzed, and findings will be reported
according to the research questions:
1. What is the level of job satisfaction, job
stress, and perceived job success of California school
superintendents?
2. What percentage of California superintendents
intends to leave their position in the near future?
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3. What demographic factors add to or detract from
California school superintendents' job satisfaction, job
stress, and perceived success?
4. Is there a correlation between the (a)
superintendents' level of job satisfaction and job
stress and the (b) self-perceived level of job
performance as measured by the board, management staff,
teachers, and community?
5. Is there a correlation between (a) intention to
leave and (b) job satisfaction, effectiveness, job
stress, and perceived job performance?
Delimitations of the Study
The following are delimitations to this study:
1. Superintendents surveyed will be delimited to
public schools in California.
2. The primary interest of this study will
encompass only four variables: job satisfaction,
effectiveness, stress, and perceived job performance.
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3. Performance is operationalized as a perception.
More objective measures of performance (e.g., test
scores) will not be included.
Limitations of the Study
The following are possible limitations to this
study:
1. The information collected in the surveys will be
based upon the self-perceptions of the superintendents
who answer the surveys and may not be representative of
superintendents who did not respond to the survey.
2. Since the instrument designed by the author is
expected to take 10 minutes, it is possible that some of
the variables may be measured with too few questions.
Definitions of Key Terms
Job performance: The proficiency with which people
perform activities that are formally recognized as part
of their jobs.
Job satisfaction: The fulfillment or gratification
of one's employment position.
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School district: An institution for the instruction
of children grades kindergarten through twelfth grade.
Superintendent: The chief executive officer of the
school system.
Tenure: Permanence of a position.
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10
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
This review of related literature addressed the
following areas relevant to the research topic: school
superintendency, with history and statistics, and
problems with superintendency; job satisfaction,
including job satisfaction characteristics, attitudes,
personality-job fit, and leadership and instrumental
workplace support; job stress, with job stress
correlates and superintendency job stress; job
effectiveness; job performance, to include performance
factors, and superintendency job performance; and
conclusion.
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School Super in-tendency
History and Statistics
Superintendency as a profession has been a focus for
scholars and practitioners for over 40 years, and this
focus has consisted of a view of the position in male
terms. During the postwar period, superintendents were
viewed as important symbols in the community, and by the
1950s and 1960s, the superintendent was seen as a
business executive. Principles of action were taken from
business, government, and military. Moral duties of the
superintendent included being not only the community
educational leader, but the minister of community
values. By the end of the 1960s, the scientific
management theory had taken over and brought with it
changes to the position from being one of a scholar-
educator to that of a businessman with the
superintendent at the top of a hierarchical
administration. The superintendent was expected to
manage growing districts with more specialized services
and curricular offerings--and do it in a cost- effective
manner (Grogan, 2000, pp. 117-119).
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The 1970s brought increased political conflict with
previous efforts to separate public education from
politics no longer in effect. During this time,
superintendents were appointed by members who shared
similar values, and when the board members changed, the
superintendent was removed as the new board took its
place. By the 1980s, the position demanded corporate
leadership skills and political maneuvering more than
educational knowledge and skill. By this time, interest
and research regarding the superintendent's role in the
education system began to come to the forefront. The
superintendent was viewed as a statesman, with the
notion of superintendent as male prevailing (Grogan,
2000, p. 121).
The U.S. public school superintendency is a gender-
stratified executive position and is stated to be the
most gender-stratified executive position in the
country. Men are 40 times more likely than women to be
in top leadership roles in schools. In 1992, the
percentage of superintendents that was women totaled
6.6%, which represented little change from 6.7% that
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occurred 40 years prior. This percentage is particularly
noteworthy since around three fourths of the educational
workforce is female (Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000,
pp. 44-45). During the years 1999-2000, around 13% of
superintendents were women (Brunner, 2000, p. 76).
Problems With Superintendency
In exploring the literature on school
superintendents, the information seemed to focus on how
school superintendents and school administrators needed
to satisfy everyone else, including all their major
constituencies of students, teachers, staff, and
community members. Research shows that it is a high-risk
job with large cities having difficulty filling the
position and tenures of school superintendents often
being short, fraught with controversy, and the source of
legal battles and civil settlements.
The current situation regarding school
superintendent satisfaction is well illustrated by a
report in U.S. News and World Report (Wildavsky, 2000)
that indicated that big cities are having an incredibly
difficult time finding qualified candidates who are
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willing to fill their positions. There are so many
problems and stresses associated with the job that a
labor shortage has been created at the top level. For
example, one school superintendent, Daniel Domenech,
lasted 1 day as chancellor of the New York City public
schools before Rudolph Giuliani insisted that the school
board force him to resign (Wildavsky). This is
indicative of the politics at all levels, not just in
the big cities.
Wildavsky (2000) stated that there are only a small
number of experienced big-city leaders to fill the new
openings and superintendents tend to move from position
to position. For example, Bill Rojas headed San
Francisco's schools until quitting due to controversy
and then taking a job as head of the Dallas schools with
a salary of $260,000 (more than any other
superintendent, nationally). Despite the controversy he
is experiencing in his Dallas position, Mr. Rojas is
also being considered for L.A. and New York jobs.
Comments from superintendents include the following:
"Everybody wants a piece of you," from Thomas Payzant, a
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30-year veteran, currently Boston superintendent; and
"Everybody wants a movie star" to instantly solve
problems, by Ramon Cortines, a 67-year-old who ran New
York City's schools from 1993 to 1995 and was currently
hired by the L.A. school board. The search has reached
as far as politicians bringing in retired generals for
the position in Washington, D.C., and Seattle. The mayor
has been put in charge in Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit,
and Boston (Wildavsky, p. 26).
This view of the situation is supported by a report
by Stewart Ain (2000) who noted that school
superintendents in general are at a premium, with many
systems served by interim superintendents or
superintendents who have come out of retirement in order
to fill needed roles. There are also increasing moves to
pull superintendents from the ranks of other
professions, such as the military. Sometimes this is
successful, as with John Stanford in Seattle, but in
other instances, the individual is inadequate to the
requirements of the job.
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There are many reasons for this lack of educational
leadership. For example, Ain (2000) quoted one woman as
noting that a lot of people do not want to go, into the
central administrative positions because they actually
are paid less than teachers but have much more
responsibility and pressure. Furthermore, unlike
teachers, they cannot acquire tenure and they are easily
fired. Everyone, including the assistant
superintendents, has access to tenure and job security
but the top person in leadership.
Yet another problem, apparently, is the education
cutbacks of the 1990s that left an insufficiency of mid
life teachers looking to move up the ladder into
administration. The result is drastic declines in the
number of applicants for each school superintendent
position, along with such roles as high school
principals and department chairpersons (Ain, 2000).
The position of school superintendent is not a
neutral one, but an ideological one. The school
superintendent sets the tone for the district, supports
specific philosophies and policies, and may back
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17
programs that a percentage of citizens in the district
find offensive or simply too expensive. Thus, school
superintendents may find their job tenure short and
often serve as lightning rods for community
controversies. They become symbols and often scapegoats,
replaced when communities or school boards cannot come
to agreement about district policy or direction (Ain,
2000).
For example, the school superintendent in Battle
Ground, Washington (its actual name), was fired less
than a month after a new school board was elected. He
had become a major campaign issue during the election,
during which candidates on one ticket had promised to
get rid of him if elected. This, presumably, was seen as
solving some of the problems of the school district that
were blamed on the superintendent's personality and
allegedly abrasive style (Clayton, 1997).
This situation illustrates some of the problems
related to job satisfaction for school superintendents.
They are identified with their districts, schools, and
programs to such an extent that any failures or problems
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18
within the district are frequently attributed to the
superintendent, whether fairly or unfairly. In the case
of the Battle Ground superintendent, public perceptions
of the district were perceived by school board members
to have declined during his tenure. Thus, they preferred
to buy out his contract for $160,000 rather than retain
him in office (Clayton, 1997). This is a huge sum for a
small school district and shows not only the political
nature of the school superintendency but its important
symbolic nature within the community.
The Battle Ground superintendent indicated that
several things clearly worked against anything like job
satisfaction. He noted that he did not ask for a larger
settlement or legally contest the settlement offer
because he did not want to work for someone who did not
want him. He wanted to work where he was wanted.
However, he said that it was unlikely that he would
apply for another school superintendent position because
of the stress of the job. He also noted that he had
feared for his life in the position, having received
anonymous threats in recent years (Clayton, 1997).
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While this might seem like an extreme situation,
unfortunately it is not. In terms of the usual measures
of job satisfaction, a sizable percentage of school
superintendent positions does not measure up. The
superintendent is under considerable stress, often
placed in a no-win situation in communities that have
more than one faction (Clayton, 1997).
The school superintendent of the Oregon public
schools reaffirmed that in a statement that Oregon
voters are expecting the impossible from schools,
teachers, and administrators by demanding excellence in
all ways without providing either support or resources.
Voters vote for tough standards but then do not provide
the support through the legislature or through levies to
make the job possible. Instead, they set up all involved
for failure ("Oregon Schools Chief," 1997).
In a broader overview of the school superintendent
situation, Cunningham and Carter (1997) engaged in a 5-
year Danforth Foundation School Administration
Fellowship Program that included 48 other school
superintendents. They noted that of the total of 50
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20
superintendents who entered the program, only 2 remained
on their jobs after the 5-year program had ended.
The reasons are many, of course, but for the most
part, the problem is the unremitting pressure and
conflict that school superintendents live with. It takes
a remarkable person to stick with the situation, with
very little reward either in support from constituencies
or in salaries (in comparison to responsibilities). As
Carter and Cunningham (1997) noted, the school
superintendent must walk an incredibly thin line, the
tightrope, among many different interest and pressure
groups. There are, as the authors put it, conflicting
expectations, multiple political agendas, and varying
ideas. The school superintendent must move through this
minefield without creating major enemies and distrust.
This seems an almost impossible task.
Oftentimes, Carter and Cunningham (1997) indicate,
the superintendency breaks down from the inside, as the
superintendent is no longer able to manage the multiple
pressures. This internal breakdown leads to a public
stance that opens the superintendent to dissatisfaction
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from all sides. At that moment, the pressure builds for
the superintendent to leave, and the usual response is
ending of .that tenure through resignation, firing, or
moving on to a different position. In some ways, it
seems like the school superintendent must remain a
moving target, changing districts early enough to avoid
being fired while still remaining a desirable commodity
to another district.
In her commentary on the Carter and Cunningham
(1997) book, Meek (1997) noted yet another problem. She
indicated that while administrators, including school
superintendents, have been excited by the ideas of
various thinkers like Peter Senge and the reform agenda,
their constituencies have not. Thus, there is a basic
discrepancy between what the interest groups want from
the schools and what the school superintendents believe
is necessary for the schools to be successful and the
students to thrive. In no way is everyone on the same
page here. This leads to dissatisfaction on both sides:
The public becomes dissatisfied because its multiple
agendas are not being addressed completely, and the
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school superintendents become dissatisfied because they
see that the agendas set before them are not going to
allow them to incorporate their visions of the new
directions that schools must take to be successful in
the future. It seems like an all-around losing
proposition. In the meantime, the students are caught in
the middle, with high expectations, conflicting demands,
and increasingly short resources.
Female and Minority Perspective
The female and minority perspective adds another
dimension to the problems experienced by the
superintendency position. For example, Grogan and Smith
(1998) found that female superintendents report that for
them, the most difficult situations to deal with include
decisions that must be made that involve staff members
and students. Decisions such as whether to terminate an
employee, expel a student, or to close a school were
stated as stressful. It was concluded that the ethic of
care was a primary guiding influence regarding these
types of decisions and that this feminine perspective
may not be as prominent with male superintendents. This
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possibility is further confirmed with the notion that
women have been traditionally responsible for childcare
and service activities that predispose them toward a
duty to care, and men are taught otherwise. Women''s
experiences as a mother further add to this tendency. An
example of this predicament includes an instance when a
female superintendent was faced with disciplining a
special education child, which led to the thought
process that these children require more than cursory
expulsion.
Tallerico (2000) further reports on the gaining of a
superintendency position by females or those of color.
The selection process includes the concept of gate-
keeping. The selection of superintendent, viewed from
this theory, includes a process that involves putting
the candidate through channels that include
subdivisions. Each section has an "in" or "out" decision
point. These sections are controlled by rules, and those
with power are forced to remain within a set of
principles guided by multiple forces. One of the guiding
forces is the integration of cultural forces or societal
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24
interests or norms that are imbedded within the
administration profession. For example, applicants may
self-nominate themselves to begin the process, and they
may then move along until they reach a gate-point where
the decision is "out," as with the female or the
minority.
Career mobility is another theory that is used to
explain the shortage of females or minorities within the
superintendent position. For this theory, access to the
superintendency would include factors that directly
affect the individual. These variables include
characteristics and behaviors found in the familial or
parental background, academic expectations and
education, work experience and socialization, and
individual initiative. Factors affecting career mobility
that are unique to females include sex-role conflicts
and gender bias, family responsibilities, and
interrupted labor market participation (Tallerico, pp.
19-22) .
The plight of Hispanic women seeking superintendency
is reported by Ortiz (2000) . In a study of 12 Hispanic
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female superintendents, findings showed that the
succession process was controlled by others who sought
to bring order and stability to a district with ethnic
representation. Of the increased percentage of female
superintendents, most are African American, and there
are around 25 to 30 Hispanic female school district
superintendents.
Ortiz states that succession is controlled. The
usual process of mobility includes that of from
classroom teacher to school site administrator, to
central office official, and then to superintendency.
Sponsored mobility tends to exclude appointment of
Hispanic women since most senior administrators are
white men who tend to sponsor those most like
themselves. Executive appointments that are linked to
personal contact tend to be limited to the individual's
networking system. White school superintendents tend to
be hired for white districts with a majority of white
students, and similarly African-American superintendents
use contacts in school districts with a majority of
African-American students and African-American school
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board members. For the sample of Hispanic
superintendents studied by Ortiz, most stated that their
appointment to the position was tied to, an individual
who knew them personally. When a school district is
faced with an increasing Hispanic population,
appointment of a Hispanic woman to superintendency is
more likely due to their special capacity to deal with
the population.
With this appointment comes a particular set of
problems. The Hispanic woman is viewed with skepticism
due to her gender and ethnicity. It is also feared that
she will act in favor of those of her own race.
Alternatively, some view the Hispanic woman as bringing
attributes that are unique to her gender and culture,
such as emotional energy that is useful to all involved.
They also possess a unique composite of skills,
knowledge, and attitudes due to personal and
professional experiences that may act to facilitate
change. However, it is also stated that these
characteristics become eroded as the Hispanic female
superintendent attempts to change relationships within
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27
the system, and this eventually may lead to her being
replaced (Ortiz, 2000, pp. 566-566).
Murtadha-Watts (2000) further reports on the plight
of a Latina superintendent and an African-American
female assistant superintendent. The author likens the
bringing in of a new superintendent to facilitate change
as being like a storm that affects all involved,
including parents, principals and teachers, board
members, and students. The two individuals mentioned
were hired to clean up and maintain stability in a large
urban school district in the Midwest.
Both were hired with the typical intent of ridding
the district of budget deficits as well as extraneous
employees and to help with the break from established
organizational structures. The environment that these
leaders entered into included urban teachers with lower
salaries and increased workloads, families and children
from culturally diverse backgrounds, and with respect to
the Midwest School Corporation discussed, nearly one
third of the children lived in poverty. This district
faced the projection of over $7 million budget deficits
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28
and a state-legislated reform measure that specifically
ordered an increase in achievement in the city schools.
Within the first year of implementation of this law, 90%
of the district's schools were put on academic probation
or a warning (Murtadha-Watts, 2000).
Dr. Diaz was hired, despite fears and concerns. She
described herself as "very social with a good sense of
humor" (Murtadha-Watts, 2000, p. 606). Others described
her as able to make the right decisions under intense
pressure, despite her political vulnerability. As she
began to make personnel cuts, tension rose with members
of the school board. Dr. Diaz was noted for facing race
issues, stating "I'm not a superintendent for one
culture. I'm a superintendent for children" (Murtadha-
Watts, p. 607) .
Dr. Watkins acted as assistant superintendent prior
to and after the resignation of Dr. Diaz. Others viewed
her as a leader with strengths to maintain stability and
improve schools. She had over 25 years' experience in
the district as a teacher, high school principal, and
assistant superintendent, and she used a different
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approach to leadership. She is reported as stating that
putting a leader on top to run things leads to robots
who only comply, while the alternative effort to
maximize the blessing of each individual results in
maximum efficiency. She also believed in a spiritual
leadership, turning her professional life over to God so
that she could be guided by a greater power. Dr. Watkins
is described as using her authority to meet with
principals and pull together all collaborators, which
led to the maintenance and support of stability in the
Midwest School Corporation (Murtadha-Watts, 2000, pp.
610-615).
Brunner and Peyton-Claire (2000) describe what an
African-American woman faces when aspiring to the
superintendency. Structural barriers that must be faced
include narrow perspectives, a lack of literature about
African-American female superintendents, and research
that is risky, as well as a risky curriculum. More fully
explained, the domination of educational administration
programs by white men leads to a narrow perspective that
excludes women of color. Further, any focus on this
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30
issue is considered "risky" since the research itself or
the curriculum would be devalued or questioned. Since
the percentage of superintendents that includes women of
color is small, research regarding this population is
scarce. Themes that arose from the literature acquired
indicated that women viewed their life experiences as
preparing them for leadership and yet due to white male
supremacy, their time in power was limited and turnover
was high. Difficulties with staying on the job were
encountered, but optimism was maintained. Life was
likened to a fishbowl, demanding a new public persona
(Brunner & Peyton-Claire, p. 532).
Kalbus (2000) describes the journey of an Asian-
American educator while attempting to obtain a
superintendency position. After completing a standard
application that was ranked by board members for
preferred eligibility, the candidate was ranked as
second in standing, and names were published in a local
newspaper with ranking order. Open, public interview of
the seven top-ranked applicants was then held.
Interviews were 1 hour, beginning at 8:00 A.M. and
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31
ending at 4:00 P.M. Without taking the time to review
personal characteristics, the members made their
decision. There was not even a short adjournment to
allow for deliberation. The applicant then describes
being called to the office of the outgoing county
superintendent, who reported that she had done the best
job during the interviews. The applicant then asked how
it was that she was not even considered. The reply was
as follows: "You know the framed picture of the county
superintendent that hangs on the wall in the board room?
They just could not see your face in the picture as
superintendent" (Kalbus, p. 552). When the applicant
asked when things would change, the reply was that the
time would only come when those in position were retired
or dead. This exemplifies the problems faced by a woman
of color.
Why Choose Superintendency?
Given all the problems, why would anyone want to be
a school superintendent anyway? Ain (2000) reported on
that, as well, noting that one man said that even though
the school superintendency is a heartache kind of job,
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he enjoyed the challenge. For him, it was an awesome,
demanding job, but that was a positive thing, not a
negative. Clearly, this is the case for many of the
retired superintendents who have come back to serve as
temporary superintendents. While part of their desire to
serve may be the need for salary or the quest to feel
participants in meaningful work again, it is also
obvious that many of them loved the work, thrived on the
challenge, and were able to deal with the obvious
disadvantages.
In summary, the profession of superintendency is a
male-dominated system that has changed over the years,
culminating in the demand for political and corporate
leadership skills more than educational knowledge and
skill. Problems with this position are numerous.
Research demonstrates that this is a high-risk,
stressful position that places all of the district
problems on the shoulders of the superintendent, as well
as the blame when solutions fail. In addition to high
expectations placed on the superintendent, the ability
to carry through on transactions is lacking, and as a
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33
result, the position demands that the superintendent
live with unremitting pressure and conflict. Thus,
turnover is high and cities are unable to fill positions
with qualified candidates. Females and minorities face
additional problems with discrimination and an overload
of culturally conflicting situations. Given all the
inherent problems of the position, some still do find
the work meaningful and satisfying enough to continue to
pursue it. Thus, the need for exploration of job
satisfaction correlates is indicated.
Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction Characteristics
The job satisfaction literature tends to indicate
that high job satisfaction is related to increased
morale, decreased absenteeism and turnover, and improved
employee relations. Some of the major variables that
determine job satisfaction include such things as
mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, good
working conditions, supportive managers, and supportive
colleagues (Katzell et al., 1992).
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In looking at the issue of mentally challenging
work, this is not a simple matter. Employees value work
that allows them to use their skills but do not value
challenging work that is beyond their skill level or is
not supported by management or resources. In other
words, these job satisfaction measures are interrelated.
For example, if an individual is provided with a
mentally challenging job that eliminates boredom but is
not given equitable rewards or supportive working
conditions, this leads to frustration, dissatisfaction,
and failure (Katzell et al., 1992).
Ducharme and Martin (2000) report on the effects of
a lack of job satisfaction to include psychological
distress, anxiety, depression, powerlessness,
alienation, and burnout. Stressful, unrewarding, and
unpleasant working conditions, oppression, role
overload, complexity, and physical discomfort all lead
to decreased job satisfaction. The authors investigate
the effects of social support in the workplace as a
buffer in unrewarding work conditions.
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Social support includes companionship and affective
nondirective support, as well as instrumental and
informational support. Studies have found a positive
association between supervisor or coworker support and
job satisfaction. It has also been found that although
friendliness and general supportiveness of coworkers is
valued, it does not always result in job satisfaction.
The current study included data from 2,505 full-time
employees. Results showed that both affective and
instrumental support were effective in increasing job
satisfaction and that both were influential regardless
of the amount of job stress a worker encountered. It was
concluded that social support is one of the strongest
predictors for job satisfaction and well-being (Ducharme
& Martin, 2000).
Finkelstein, Protolipac, and Kulas (2000) further
support the positive effects of social support on job
satisfaction. In their study of 111 subjects, 51 men and
60 women, findings showed that greater job satisfaction
was associated with social support. Research states that
activities such as after-work happy hour or off-the-job
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36
activities with coworkers and supervisors lead to higher
job satisfaction. The results of this study showed that
subjects with low-authoritarian attitudes showed more
job satisfaction than those with high-authoritarian
attitudes when participating in off-the-job activities
with supervisors.
Attitudes
Pollock, Whitbred, and Contractor (2000) report that
certain job characteristics affect job satisfaction.
Skill variety, task identity and significance, autonomy,
and feedback have been shown to be related to job
satisfaction. However, the individual's attitude or
perception of these objective characteristics also
affects job satisfaction. Further, it has been shown
that these perceptions are more predictive than
individual predispositions or their rational decision
making processes (Pollock et al.). Perceptions of other
variables, such as overqualification, is another factor
negatively related to job satisfaction (Johnson &
Johnson, 2000).
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According to Robbins (1996), job satisfaction is
essentially a general attitude that employees take
toward their job. Robbins indicated that this is based
primarily as the worker's view of the difference between
the amount of rewards they receive and the amount that
they should receive. These rewards are not limited to
salary but can include such things as the way employees
are treated and valued by management and the degree to
which the company takes their input into consideration.
Tang, Kim, and Tang (2000) further report that
attitudes toward money affect intrinsic job
satisfaction. Research has shown that turnover is a
concern in many positions, and one of the factors
involved in this phenomenon is the individual's money
ethic. It has also been found that individuals that are
positively disposed to life in general and to money but
are dissatisfied with their jobs are more likely to
quit. Thus, those with a more positive disposition are
more likely to change their lives to maintain this
status quo. Alternatively, those with a negative
disposition in general and a negative disposition toward
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38
money are less likely to quit their jobs, regardless bf
job dissatisfaction perceived.
Attitudes toward commitment and lying behavior are
also found to be variables related to job satisfaction
and turnover intentions. Sims (2000) interviewed 140
full-time employees and found that codes of ethics and
high expectations regarding lying behavior from
supervisors were related to intrapersonal role conflict,
intentions to quit, decreased commitment, and job
dissatisfaction.
Personality-Job Fit
There are still other considerations that lead to
improved job satisfaction. For example, Holland (1985)
developed what he termed a personality-job fit theory
that he felt underlay job satisfaction. In his theory,
the better the match between the individual's
personality and their job, the more likely they are to
be satisfied with their jobs and the less likely they
are to voluntarily leave their positions. For example,
he labeled one type of personality as realistic, with
congruent occupations involving physical activities that
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39
use skill, strength, and coordination. Thus, good job
fits would be mechanic, farmer, or carpenter. Another
type was investigative, with good job fits including
biologist and news reporter.
Henderson (2000) reports on a process of following
the personality's quest to insure career and job
satisfaction. For this study, 8 individuals were
interviewed to determine factors related to their work
satisfaction. Results showed that all subjects were
committed to following their own interests, demonstrated
personal competencies and strengths, and perceived their
work environments as characterized by freedom,
challenge, meaning, and a positive social atmosphere.
Leadership and Instrumental Workplace Support
Another measure of job satisfaction that seems
particularly relevant to the school superintendent
position is the relationship between centrality,
leadership, and satisfaction. According to Gortner et
al. (1989), centrality in communication and task
networks are linked to job satisfaction. In other words,
those who are leaders and have the most access to
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40
information are likely to be the most satisfied.
However, there are conditions to this, too. Thus,,
individuals can become overloaded with tasks and
information, lowering both performance and satisfaction.
Tobias (2000) reported results of a 1999 federal
employee survey considering job satisfaction. The survey
asked what factors have an impact on job satisfaction,
and 84% replied that reinvention was a priority, thus an
environment is sought that allows employees to thrive
and grow. In the private sector, a Gallup Poll linked
employee satisfaction and performance levels in 24
companies and 105,000 employees. The following questions
were predictors of high employee satisfaction and
productivity:
1. Do I know what is expected of me at
work?
2. Do I have the materials and equipment
I need to do my work right?
3. Do I have the opportunity to do what
I do best every day?
4. In the last 7 days, have I received
recognition or praise for good work?
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41
5. Does my supervisor, or someone at
work, seem to care about me as a person?
61 Is there someone at work who
encourages my development (p. 101)?
In summary, research shows that job satisfaction is
linked to increased morale and employee relations and
decreased absenteeism and turnover. Job dissatisfaction
leads to psychological distress, anxiety, depression,
powerlessness, alienation, burnout, and turnover. Social
support has been found to result in positive effects,
regardless of job stress factors. The attitude or
perception of the individual is a mediating factor
related to job satisfaction, and it is a more powerful
predictor of satisfaction. Fitting the personality to
the job is another factor found to be related to job
satisfaction. Leadership and instrumental workplace
support also affect job stress and satisfaction levels.
For example, a leader must have access to information,
adequate communication, and any other aspects that are
instrumental to carrying out the work activities in
order to avoid job stress. To further the understanding
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42
of job satisfaction, the exploration of job stress
factors is required.
Job Stress
Job Stress Correlates
Dollard, Winefield, Winefield, and deJonge (2000)
report of predictors of job strain and productivity. The
demand-control-support model was used to predict how
levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization
affect feelings of job dissatisfaction and personal
accomplishment. The authors state that research on an
international level continues in its attempt to reduce
human and economic costs of job stress. The job demand-
control model states that work stress originates in the
structural or organizational aspects of the work
environment as opposed to personal attributes or other
demographics. High demands, low control, and low support
from supervisors or other coworkers are considered the
highest risk factors for job stress that results in
psychological or physical problems.
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43
Reviews of this model include the argument that this
framework lacks an active-passive dimension. For
example, patterns of active coping behavior have been
found to affect other factors. Findings of the current
study demonstrated that high demands, low control, and
low support resulted in the lowest levels of job
satisfaction. The authors conclude that a major
implication from these findings is that reduction of
stress levels and increases in productivity could be
achieved through the increase of levels of control and
support and are not necessarily dependent on decreasing
work demands. It is also concluded that without these
increases in control and support, high levels of work
demands are considered a risk for the development of job
stress, and resulting problems (Dollard et al., 2000).
Gardiner and Tiggemann (1999) investigated gender
differences in leadership styles and resulting
relationships to job stress. The authors examined the
leadership style of 60 female and 60 male managers in
the mental health field. It was hypothesized that women
and men in male-dominated industries would not differ in
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interpersonal orientation and that female-dominated
industries would result in women being more
interpersonally oriented than men. Findings showed that
women reported more job pressure than men and women in
male-dominated industries reported even higher levels of
job pressure due to discrimination. Women in male-
dominated industries reported that they experienced more
stress when they attempted to use an interpersonally
oriented leadership style, and men in the same industry
reported less job stress using this style.
The typical masculine leader is viewed as
emphasizing achievement of goals, and the typical
feminine leader is viewed as emphasizing people and
relationships. Studies have shown that women in male-
dominated environments tend to adopt male styles to
maintain authority and position. Masculine leadership
styles are considered to be related to success more than
feminine leadership styles. Further, women are viewed as
a minority facing discrimination and stress due to
increased visibility and exaggeration of differences.
They are considered more visible in that they face more
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performance pressures and are under constant
observation. They are expected to perform better, and
they suffer from a loss of privacy. They are isolated
from the main formal and informal sources of support,
which also increases their stress levels. One study
reported that 50% of women in their sample listed
exclusion from male networking as the primary reason for
quitting. Overall, the authors conclude that it appears
that women experience more stress regardless of the
leadership style they use; if they use the masculine
style, they are labeled as abrasive and maladjusted, and
if they use the feminine style, they are considered
incapable and incompetent (Gardiner & Tiggemann, 1999).
Superintendency Job Stress
One of the variables that directly impacts upon job
satisfaction among school superintendents is the
perceived level and experienced impact of job-related
stress. Numerous studies have identified the
relationship between stress and job satisfaction among
members of this professional group. Cunningham and
Burdick (1999) surveyed 175 public school
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superintendents to determine why qualified 'applicants or
candidates are unwilling to apply for the job of school
superintendent. They found that while the tendency of
school boards to micromanage the school system was
identified as the main reason qualified candidates are
unwilling to apply for the top school job, the next two
most frequently cited reasons for failing to apply were
the stress inherent in the job and the time demands of
the job. Further, these researchers noted that a
correlation between "stress" as a negative aspect of the
job and such variables as the loss of personal privacy,
dwindling financial resources, loneliness, and a lack of
consensus about educational missions was identified by
survey participants.
Bluhm (1998) investigated efforts made by the
Vermont school governance system to reduce demands put
on superintendents that were perceived as increasing
their stress levels. These efforts included reducing
expectations that the superintendent would be available
for every board meeting, separating functions within the
supervisory office, and shifting some of the
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supervisor7 s responsibility to school ^'principals. Bluhm
also indicated that many school superintendents .
experience stress due to multiple and conflicting
constituency demands. Superintendents are accountable to
school boards, the general public, school principals,
and teachers unions. Each of these groups has a vested
interest in supervisory policy and decision making, and
satisfying the demands of these disparate groups can be
difficult if not impossible.
A study by Tallerico and Burstyn (1996) examined
gender differences with respect to perception of the
stress of supervision. Interviews with 20 former
superintendents, 2 superintendent search consultants, a
retired superintendent, and a practicing district
superintendent revealed systemic gender stratification
that relegated many women superintendents to
extraordinarily challenging work contexts. Results
revealed that women tend to occupy superintendencies in
the smallest and least cosmopolitan districts. These
districts have the fewest central office administrators,
declining student enrollments and financial resources,
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48
and the greatest vulnerability to lethal school board
conflict. Such variables, whether experienced by male or
female superintendents, results in more job-related
stress and lower levels of job satisfaction. Tallerico
and.Burstyn have suggested that as stress levels among
superintendents increase, for all but the rare
individual, job satisfaction tends to decline.
In a theoretical examination of stress factors
impacting upon school Superintendents, Gmelch (1996)
suggested that stress is unavoidable in the high-
profile, complex role undertaken by a school
superintendent. This researcher believes that it is
important to recognize that there are certain common
misconceptions about stress. Some of these
misconceptions are that stress is harmful and should be
avoided, that stress is associated with the higher
levels in an organization, and that stress is a male-
dominated phenomenon.
While recognizing the existence of a Superintendent
Stress Cycle, Gmelch (1996) contends that
superintendents can learn to control and reduce stress
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by identifying existing stress traps, understanding
perceived stress, and determining the optimum coping
response. Superintendents who experience prolonged,
excessive, and consequently damaging stress tend to be
individuals who lack self-confidence and who are unable
to manage some of the more complex aspects of their work
roles.
Johnson (1998) stated that although superintendents
hold the position of greatest administrative authority
in a school district, they are not able to bring about
school-level change simply by mandate. One very
significant and often overlooked source of
superintendents' stress and job dissatisfaction is that
the real power to effect or resist change resides in
classroom teachers and the principals who hire them.
Because superintendents depend upon these key actors to
implement policy and procedures at the local level,
conflict between principals and/or superintendents
invariably fosters heightened levels of stress. This
same researcher notes that superintendents who are
satisfied with their job and are able to either manage
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stress or reduce its effects are those who model the
kind of leadership they need to inspire in others. They
are effective communicators as well as effective leaders
who are able to articulate a vision for their school
districts and to motivate followers to pursue that
vision. Proactive as opposed to authoritarian
superintendents may consequently encounter fewer
problems that foster the onset or increase of stress.
They may also enjoy higher levels of job satisfaction
than their peers who lack these characteristics.
It should be readily apparent that any
administrative position in the school system involves a
major commitment of time, energy, and effort. Bernstein
(1999) identified some of the characteristics that
effective superintendents must possess if they are to be
successful in the role. A passion for education and a
desire to spread a vision are key ingredients, as is the
willingness to work more days and longer hours.
Satisfied superintendents reduce stress through
organized problem solving and by building teams of other
committed professionals whose efforts support the vision
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of the superintendent. Further, a superintendent must
have a thick skin and be able to think in a -future-
oriented manner. Superintendents must also recognize,
says Bernstein, that they hold positions that are
inherently political in nature. Political challenges to
their authority or their vision will be inevitable, and
these challenges must be resolved if stress is to be
reduced and job satisfaction is to be maintained.
A study by McCloud and McKenzie (1994) examined the
linkages between superintendent stress, job
satisfaction, and job descriptions. In their view, there
has historically been tension between a school board
that makes policy and the school superintendent who is
responsible for implementing that policy. However, in
many urban school districts where demands for
educational reform are apparently endemic, school
superintendents face unique challenges in attempting to
intervene between political pressure from school boards
and other constituencies and front-line educators. The
relationship between superintendents and their school
boards is as significant a relationship in this context
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as that between a superintendent.and principals as well
as teachers. Many contemporary urban superintendents ,
claim that their greatest source of stress is that ;
school boards "micromanage" and inappropriately
intervene in the administration of schools. McCloud and
McKenzie also maintain that school boards and
superintendents must engage in an ongoing dialogue about
their respective roles in policy-making and
administration. Superintendents' job satisfaction tends
to increase when they enjoy the support of their school
boards and to decrease when the reverse is true.
In summary, the literature has identified some of
the job stress correlates to include organizational
aspects such as high demands, low control, and low
support. It has been concluded that the reduction of
stress and the increase of productivity can be achieved
through the increase of levels of control and support.
Gender differences have been found with relation to job
stress. These include that the female faces additional
discrimination and performance pressures and that the
female is under constant observation. Job stress factors
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53
unique to the superintendency position are also noted,in
the literature. Again, the perception of the job stress
is noted as a moderating variable; however, the stress
inherent in the job as well as the time demands are also
listed as stress factors. Superintendents are expected
to resolve all district difficulties, with limited
management power, and spend a good deal of their time
dealing with political maneuvering among school boards,
the public, school principals, and teachers. These
stress factors are further related to job effectiveness.
Job Effectiveness
Effectiveness in the role of a school superintendent
relates to job satisfaction. Effective superintendents
who are respected and supported by both the school board
and the educational administrators and faculty whose
activities they supervise are likely to be satisfied
with their position. Over the course of the past several
decades, the powers and duties of the school
superintendent have changed dramatically. Dizney (1996)
has pointed out that superintendents function less as
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teachers of teachers and more as directors, producers,
and politicians. This requires that a superintendent
exhibit competency in several different roles in order
to be effective, leading to a perceived sense of
personal and professional satisfaction in the job.
The question of what makes an effective school
superintendent was addressed by Horine, Frazier, and
Edmister (1998). Participants in a study undertaken by
these authors were superintendents in 30 school
districts identified as innovators in the implementation
of continuous quality improvement practices and
principles. Using the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality
Award Education Pilot criteria, Horine et al. (1998)
found that district leadership practices among respected
superintendents tended to be strongest in such areas as
strategic planning, human resource development and
management, and leadership. The weaknesses exhibited by
these subjects were in the areas of information and
analysis, educational and business process management,
school performance results, student focus, and
student/stakeholder satisfaction. The authors suggest
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that effective school superintendents are those whose
leadership skills and planning abilities coalesce with
the selection of effective subordinates. : -
An insightful study:..of these issues was offered by
I anna-cone- (1996) , who examined the so-called
vulnerability thesis proposed by R. E. Callahan. In this
theory, it is proposed that vulnerability occurs when a
school superintendent operates as a scholar pressing for
educational excellence rather than as an administrator
managing the myriad tasks that he is assigned and for
which he is responsible. A widely accepted school of
thought holds that as a result of this vulnerability,
superintendents must also appear to be mobile. Many
school superintendents find themselves charged with
ineffectiveness by one or more of their constituents or
the stakeholders in the educational system. This charge
often posits that a superintendent "ought" to be able to
secure educational reform and overcome resistance to new
policies without significant conflict. When conflict in
the face of mandates for school reform or change erupts,
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56
the perception is often that the superintendent has been
ineffective (Iannacone).
Iannacone (1996) further suggests that when
superintendents encounter this kind of attitude, they
are likely to consider alternative employment
opportunities. A high level of turnover and a
correspondingly high level of mobility among school
superintendents suggest that externally perceived
effectiveness impacts directly upon job satisfaction and
increases mobility among this class of professionals.
Winters (2000) recently reported that the position
of big-city school superintendent is currently available
in 13 major U.S. cities— representing an unfolding
crisis in school leadership. This particular group of
school superintendents have become increasingly
disenchanted with their jobs because their
responsibilities have multiplied exponentially, their
authority has eroded, and their average tenure has
dropped to an average of less than 3 years. Winters also
claims that serving poor, under- performing schools in
an urban political environment has always required an
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unusual combination of self-confidence, a thick skin,
brass-knuckles management, and political deftness. In
point of fact, many school superintendents are arguing
that despite an increase in accountability, their
authority has been significantly reduced, thus
decreasing both their effectiveness and their job
satisfaction.
In the view of Cuban (1998), school superintendents
in United States public school systems face many
challenges. These include exerting limited authority to
make wide-reaching changes and bring about change while
ensuring organizational stability. Unfortunately, says
Cuban (1998), it is difficult to determine whether or
not what superintendents do has an impact upon their
school systems in general and on the key measure of
effectiveness used today. That measure is students'
academic performances. Superintendents are increasingly
held accountable for the test performance of the
students in their districts. They are considered
effective if student scores increase and are considered
ineffective if this does not occur. In other words,
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Cuban argues, school boards and politicians as well as
the general public are demanding that superintendents
find ways to achieve educational reform and resolve many
problems that the schools themselves are simply not
capable of resolving. The problem is particularly acute
in urban settings where schools often lack adequate
financial resources, familial support systems are
noticeably absent, and a disadvantaged minority
population constitutes the bulk of the student body. New
superintendents are generally brought into such
situations to effect systemic changes or implement
reforms, which may or not be supported at the level of
the urban school. Failure to achieve quick turnaround
can be interpreted as ineffectiveness, which Cuban
states is biased against superintendents.
Wimpelberg (1997) examined the influence of the
political environment on superintendents' effectiveness
and job satisfaction. It was his contention that
district-level leadership is poorly understood and that
the roles assigned to a superintendent are often ill-
defined. Although the superintendent is ultimately
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59
responsible for the translation of policy into practice,
the local school superintendent is often constrained (as
noted above) by several factors. Among these factors are
the willingness (indeed, even the ability) of principals
and teachers to implement mandated school change or
reform, the willingness of students and parents to
accept such changes, and the capacity of the planned
reforms to achieve desired ends and goals. Urban school
superintendents in particular face often impossible
challenges— managing the conflicting demands of
politicians, parents, and teachers and their unions,
resolving budgetary shortfalls and issues of equity and
fairness, and improving student achievement and
performance. Many school boards perhaps inadvertently
render superintendents ineffective and increase their
job dissatisfaction and willingness to relocate to a
more hospitable setting via micromanagement and failing
to take advantage of these professionals' expertise
(Wimpelberg).
When political and other conflicts result in the
polarization of the superintendent and the school board,
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60
or the superintendent and other key actors in the school
system, the ability of the superintendent to function is
clearly undermined. Turbowitz (2000) considers this to
be one of the more predictable problems associated with
managing large-scale school change. Problems can be said
to "come with the territory," but the often adversarial
relationships that damage superintendents' credibility
and limit their effectiveness also increase job
dissatisfaction levels. Turbowitz states that many
school board members and politicians (as well as parents
and other stakeholders) fail to understand the basic
structure of a school system or to recognize that change
is not accomplished quickly. When a superintendent is
pressured to produce "results" in short order, the stage
is set for failure. These are some of the ways in which
superintendents' effectiveness or (perceived) lack
thereof impacts on job satisfaction.
In summary, research points out that superintendency
job effectiveness is an outcome of job stress factors.
Superintendents tend to be most effective in areas such
as strategic planning, human resource development and
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61
management, and leadership. Least effective areas
include information and analysis, educational and
business process management, school performance results,
and student focus. Factors affecting.job effectiveness
are noted. The superintendent is in a vulnerable
position and is often faced with charges of
ineffectiveness; this attitude may lead to the seeking
of alternative employment opportunities. The prevalence
of this attitude and other political demands make it
difficult to determine exact measures of superintendency
job effectiveness. Additional investigation into job
performance factors facilitates this understanding.
Job Performance
Performance Factors
Domurad (1999) states that performance factors in
the private sector are having to respond to a rapidly
changing marketplace that includes a destroyed
hierarchy, new terms, collaborative problem-solving, and
the introduction of visionary missions. Individuals in
positions of authority, such as superintendency, are
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losing their jobs. The author suggests that one of the
factors that needs considering to improve this condition
is the breaking away from the attachment of performance
to the job and the creation of a symbiosis between
competency and the visionary mission. Thus, it is
theorized that when competency is based rigidly upon a
specific job, the human capacity to respond flexibly and
creatively to changing situations is lost, which yields
poor performance. This concept is particularly important
in the school superintendency position since it is
within an environment of constant upheaval.
Caligiuri and Day (2000) further point out the
importance of self-monitoring for effective job
performance. Research shows that the personality affects
performance and that those with high levels of self
monitoring are rated more favorably. It has been
suggested that high self-monitors would be more able to
adjust their behaviors to fit a situation, such as would
be required for superintendency. The distinction between
technical and contextual performance has been examined.
Previous research has shown that personality variables
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are more associated with contextual performance such as
effort and teamwork, as opposed to its relationship to
technical proficiency. The self-monitor personality is
more able to control for cognitive states. For the
current study it was hypothesized that low self-monitors
would perform better in contextual terms, since they are
less pragmatic and less inclined to define identity with
regard to a specific situation. Findings revealed that
the self-monitoring personality had differential effects
across performance and rater context; self-monitoring
was negatively correlated to contextual performance,
positively related to specific performance, and
unrelated to technical performance.
Richmond and McCroskey (2000) investigated the role
of immediacy behaviors in job effectiveness, which can
be applied to the superintendent-subordinate
relationships. Social psychology has described behavior
patterns of those who like someone or something, noting
that behaviors toward those liked include the immediacy
principle. In other words, nonverbal behavior is
exhibited that includes looking at someone, leaning
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64
toward them, touching or sitting close to them, or
smiling at them. Theory states that those participating
in nonverbal immediacy behaviors are more effective due
to the positive effect they generate. Thus, the search
to determine factors leading to effective
superintendency may consider this behavior.
Eylon and Bamberger (2000) report on empowerment
cognitions and acts with regard to their effect on
performance, with particular emphasis on gender factors.
The authors point out that empowerment is not easily
conceptualized as either a cognition or a social act.
However, research shows that disempowerment or any act
that weakens the self-efficacy of an employee results in
poor performance. Alternatively, empowerment, or a
strategy or practice that shares power with another,
leads to more productive performance. Further, it is
pointed out that the experience of empowerment is an
even more relevant factor. Variables that influence
empowerment include employee access to quality
information and trust and confidence expressed in
employees. Managerial empowerment acts are found to be
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65
directly related to self-efficacy, which increases
empowerment and performance. Empowerment results in
motivational and attitudinal consequences; empowered
employees have higher levels of concentration,
resiliency, and initiative, and are therefore more
effective in their job performance. Uncertainty and role
ambiguity have the opposite effect. Gender differences
influence the empowerment relationship. Females tend to
be more tolerant toward ambiguity than males do, and
men’s lowered tolerance for ambiguity has been found to
result in negative job performance. It has also been
found that the increased tolerance for ambiguity found
in women is based more on sex role and gender identity
than on sex. For example, studies have shown that this
tolerance is lower for androgynous or cross-sexed women
than it is for nonandrogynous females.
Team effectiveness and performance have been
investigated as well. Neuman, Wagner, and Christiansen
(1999) report on the personality composition of a team
and its relation to job performance. Personality traits
are found within the individual and the team as a whole.
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A five-factor model of personality traits is used to
explore relationships between the Big Five Traits and -
performance. These traits are extroversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability,
and openness to experience. Results of the current study
demonstrated that the average level of a given trait and
team personality diversity predicted unique variance in
job performance. For example,, extroversion and emotional
stability in team personality diversity were related to
team performance, and team personality elevation in
traits of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness
to experience were related to job performance.
In a further discussion of group and organizational
characteristics as opposed to individual
characteristics, effects of empowerment are investigated
by Koberg, Boss, Senjem, and Goodman (1999). For this
study, 612 professionals were interviewed, and findings
showed that although individual and group
characteristics influenced feelings of empowerment,
group and organizational variables accounted for a
larger variance in empowerment than individual
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67
variables/ For example, group effectiveness and worth
and leader approachability and position led to more
empowerment for all. Results also showed that increased
empowerment led to increased job satisfaction,
effectiveness, performance, and decreased propensity
toward leaving the position. The authors conclude that
although the sample may have not been representative of
all organizations, findings can be generalized.
Superintendency Job Performance
As in any career path, there is substantial
variation in how much satisfaction school
superintendents find in their jobs and how much in turn
this satisfaction is reflected in higher levels of
performance. Most of the previous research on school
superintendents focuses on how satisfied superintendents
are with their jobs rather than with how much better
they may do their jobs because of higher rates of job
satisfaction, but this paper examines what evidence
there is about a possible correlation between the two.
A number of different factors come into play in
assessing the connections between job satisfaction and
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job performance for school superintendents. One of the
key correlations may well be seen in terms of how much
autonomy a superintendent has. The higher the level of
autonomy, the happier in general the superintendent will
be, and both this satisfaction and the ability to use
autonomy to get programs implemented will tend to.
translate to higher job performance (Goodnough, 2000, p.
B6) .
In many cases, such a higher level of autonomy can
be linked to recent reform efforts that have taken place
across the United States over the last 2 decades. These
reform efforts in the 1980s and 1990s have been
characterized by an unprecedented effort to improve both
academic standards and equality of opportunity in public
schools, especially in high schools. Unlike reform
movements in the 1960s and 1970s, most recent
initiatives now come from states rather than from the
federal government. States often mandate curriculum and
testing programs whether local districts want them or
not (Goodnough, 2000).
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Some members of the school reform movement believe
that too little power exists at the local level. They
claim that teachers and schools can increase their
effectiveness only by having greater authority over such
fundamental matters as curriculum content, teaching
methods, and hiring of staff. Supporters of local
control over education often support the creation of
charter schools, which receive public funds but are free
from most restrictions on curriculum, teaching methods,
and staff. Other reformers contend that not all local
communities have the resources to provide quality
education. They argue that to meet goals of equity and
excellence, all local districts should meet high
educational standards and provide ample school budgets.
Superintendents in districts that have a high level of
local control (as well as, of course, large budgets!)
tend to be more satisfied with their jobs and more able
to put into effect improvements in their districts
(Winters, 2000, p. 70).
Conversely, in those districts where increased
local control has failed to give superintendents more
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70
autonomy and more authority, superintendents both suffer
from lower job satisfaction and from a reduced ability
to do their jobs well.
The job has got harder [when] an increase
in accountability for superintendents has
been accompanied by a reduction in their
authority. Ten years into the movement
toward academic standards, which most
schools' chiefs say they support, they are
getting their own report cards based on
how well their students perform on state
and national exams. At the same time, many
find they lack the power necessary to
raise scores (Winters, 2000, p. 70).
Another important element in considering possible
correlations between job satisfaction and job
performance for school superintendents is the race and
gender of the superintendents. Despite the high level of
diversity found among teaching corps, the ranks of
superintendency remain dominated by white men, with the
result at least in some cases that women and minorities
feel themselves to be isolated. This can lead to a lower
feeling of job satisfaction and may also contribute to
lower job performance; people who are feeling the stress
of being social pioneers face handicaps in performing
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71
their jobs, no matter how dedicated and talented they
may be (Bjork, 2000, p. 4) .
Although representation of women in all
levels of school administration has
increased over the past decade, patterns
of representation indicate that little
significant progress is being made at the
more senior positions of district
organizations, such as high school
principal, assistant and associate
superintendent, and superintendent ....
The U.S. Census Bureau has characterized
the superintendency as being the most
male-dominated executive position of any
profession in the United States (Bjork,
2000, p. 6).
Despite the fact that many superintendents do find
satisfaction in their jobs and as a result do an
excellent job in their position, the work remains for
many superintendents stressful. Stress, therefore, must
be considered as a significant factor that reduces the
ability of many superintendents to do their best work,
as suggested in this unsigned editorial in the Christian
Science Monitor.
Few jobs are more complex, more
important, and more thankless than that
of superintendent in a big-city
school ....
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72
The tenure for school superintendents
in major cities can be very short
indeed--often two or three years— while
the problems they face take years to
. solve-
The bureaucracy can be impenetrable,
school politics biting, and rewards
(though superintendent pay is rising)
marginal.
Increasingly, the job is being handed
over to noneducation professionals ....
To wish such nontraditional
superintendents well is not to disparage,
at all, the many professional educators
who ably steer big school districts. It's
simply to recognize that the task of
improving America's huge public education
enterprise needs all willing hands
(Christian Science Monitor, 2000, p. 10).
In summary, the literature points out that
performance factors need to be considered within a
rapidly changing environment. A new focus on the overall
mission rather than job performance is recommended.
Factors such as self-monitoring and immediacy behaviors
and empowerment cognitions and acts are also considered.
Team effectiveness and performance have been shown to be
a more predictive variable than individual
characteristics, which lends credence to the stress
reported by superintendents who suffer from a lack of
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73
team support. Research regarding superintendency job
performance points out the importance of autonomy and
the failure of local districts to grant superintendents
both authority and autonomy. This lack is exacerbated
for females and minorities. Thus, it is concluded that
although superintendents claim to find satisfaction in
their position, few jobs are more difficult, stressful,
or thankless.
Conclusion
Superintendency is a male-dominated system that now
demands political and corporate leadership skills more
than educational knowledge and skill. Research
demonstrates that this is a high-risk, stressful
position that places district problems, failures, and
blame on the shoulders of the superintendent. In
addition to high expectations placed on the
superintendent, the job instruments necessary to do the
job are lacking. Turnover is high, and cities are unable
to fill positions with qualified candidates. Females and
minorities face additional discrimination problems.
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Literature has identified job stress correlates to
include organizational aspects such as high demands, low
control, and low support. Superintendency job
effectiveness and performance are outcomes of the job
stress factors. The superintendent is in a vulnerable
position, faced with charges of ineffectiveness.
Since team characteristics have been shown to be a
more predictive variable than individual
characteristics, and superintendents suffer from a lack
of team support, this may also be an effectiveness
factor. It is concluded that superintendents lack
support, authority, and autonomy and suffer from job
stress and inability to be effective or produce
satisfactory performance; these factors decrease job
satisfaction and lead to job turnover.
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75
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
Since literature regarding school superintendency
reflects the need for research to determine
relationships between job satisfaction, effectiveness,
and stress of superintendents and perceived performance,
this research study was designed to investigate these
variables. A questionnaire was developed to survey the
California school superintendents, and resulting data
was statistically analyzed. This chapter presents a
detailed description of the methodology and procedures
used for this study. All participation in the study was
voluntary, and responses from participants were held in
confidence. The results are presented, displayed,
summarized, and discussed in chapters 4 and 5.
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76
Sample Population
The:study focused on 250 California public school
superintendents who were selected from the California
Public School Administrators'' Business Directory, 1999-
2000.
The subject pool was randomly selected from 84
California elementary, union, and unified school
districts across the state of California. A total of 112
superintendents voluntarily returned the survey, and
they were identified as the sample population. A
majority of the responding participants were male
(72.7%), and (27.3%) were female. The school districts
represented included 46.4% elementary schools, 13.4%
union schools, and 40.2% unified school districts.
Design of Study
Survey research, a nonexperimental design, was used
for this study. Although an experimental design allows
for the control over variables and threats to validity
and the nonexperimental design does not, both yield
empirical results. Empirical research includes the
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collection of data and the analysis of the data to
answer a research question or hypothesis. In this case,
as with the survey research design, a research question
is stated, the literature relevant to the topic is
reviewed, expected outcomes are predicted, data is
gathered and statistically analyzed, and conclusions are
drawn based on results. The survey design is a method
used to gather scientific information related to a
topic, such as how people feel toward an issue
(McBurney, 1994).
In this case, the questionnaire was used to
determine how superintendents rate their job
satisfaction, job stress, job effectiveness, and
perceived job performance. The research questionnaire
was designed to investigate these particular factors
related to the superintendent position. Closed-ended
questions were used for the questionnaire. Although
open-ended questions allow for subjects to answer
questions in a more complete manner and have the
potential to reveal additional information that may not
have been anticipated by the experimenter, these
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78
questions present coding problems since answers are
presented in a narrative form. This type of question is
also perceived as more demanding of the participants
(McBurney, 1994).
Closed-ended questions were chosen in this case
since they are easier to code and analyze and result in
less of a hardship for the participants. The
disadvantage of the closed-ended question is that it
presents only a small set of alternatives from which to
answer and findings from answers may be limited. With
this type of question, alternatives presented may be
ones that the respondent might never have presented on
their own, and questions may be misinterpreted.
Regardless of these limitations, the closed-ended
question was chosen for the research instrument since
the variables investigated were viewed as simple rather
than complex and the quantitative data yielded allowed
for its statistical analysis.
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79
Instrumentation
Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among School
Superintendents
The Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among School
Superintendents questionnaire, constructed by the
investigator, consists of three parts. Part I includes
demographic questions regarding gender, age, number of
years as a superintendent, number of years in present
position, intent of leaving present position,
description of school district, and current student
enrollment of school district.
Part II contains statements of attitudes, feelings,
and opinions about work-related matters. For this
section the participant chooses among five possible
statements ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly
Agree." Examples of questions are: "I gain great
satisfaction from the contributions that I make as a
superintendent," "I have a lack of concentration,
appetite, and I lose sleep worrying about things that
happen at work," and "I worry about how I am doing as a
superintendent and I don't think my work is valued."
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80
Part III contains performance questions as to how
the participant feels others would rate their
effectiveness as a superintendent. For this section the
participant chooses among five responses: "Excellent,"
"Good," "Average," "Poor," or "Inadequate." Examples of
questions include: How would the board rate you? How
would the parents rate you? How would the
administrative staff rate you?
Efforts were made when constructing this
questionnaire to address one single issue per item,
avoid bias, make alternatives clear, and maintain
awareness of the tendency for social desirability.
Addressing a single issue per question helped to keep
items unambiguous. Questions were written to avoid bias,
eliminating value judgments and words such as "should."1
The questions were made clear; for example, the question
was written in a manner that allowed the answer to be
mutually exclusive. "I am satisfied with my working
conditions" excludes the possibility that the question
might be stating the respondent is "not satisfied with
working conditions." Efforts to avoid social
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desirability included the wording of questions in such a
way as to; maintain social desirability.:
The Bikert scale, a rating scale, was chosen for
this questionnaire, since it allows for the measurement
of degree of agreement or disagreement. In this way, the
magnitude of the respondent's opinion was measured
rather than its direction only.
Procedures for Data Collection
All subjects were recruited on a volunteer basis
according to availability. This convenience sample was
chosen since there were appropriate subjects to choose
from locally. This sample is considered to be
representative of the population of school
superintendents, which allows for the generalization of
results to other similar school superintendents.
Subjects were chosen to participate in the study based
on their job titles. A mailing list of all California
school superintendents was retrieved from the California
School Board. All names from this list were mailed a
research packet.
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82
The research packets were mailed to the respondents
by the investigator. Subjects received a packet
containing a letter of consent and the research
questionnaire (Appendices A and B). Subjects willing to
participate were instructed to complete packet contents
and return them to the investigator by mail. The
experimenter then hand-scored the questionnaires and
computed the statistical results.
Subjects were informed that their participation was
voluntary, that they may withdraw from the study at any
time, and that confidentiality regarding the participant
and their employment location would be maintained.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and
distributions, were used to describe data and answer the
first research question: What is the level of job
satisfaction, job stress, and perceived job success of
California school superintendents? In this case the
frequencies and distributions were provided for each of
the three variables: job satisfaction, job stress, and
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83
perceived job success. Frequencies and distributions ;
were also used to describe data and answer the second
research question: What percentage of California
superintendents intends to leave their position in the
near future? In addition, a chi-square test was done to
answer this question as well.
For the third research question (Are there
differences in job satisfaction, job stress, and
perceived success due to the demographic variables of
gender, age group, number of years as a superintendent,
number of years in present position, description of
school district, and current student enrollment in
school district?), a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to statistically analyze data. ANOVA is
used to analyze variability and determine whether or not
population means could be equal. For the analysis of
this question, ANOVA was used to compare means in six
instances. Job satisfaction, job stress, and perceived
stress were compared with regard to gender, age group,
number of years as a superintendent, number of years in
present position, description of school district, and
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84
current, student enrollment in school district. Multiple
Comparisons Tukey Post Hoc tests were done as well.
The Pearson correlation coefficient, " r, " was used
to analyze the data and answer the fourth research
question that states the following: Is there a
correlation between the (a) superintendents' level of
job satisfaction and job stress and the (b) self
perceived level of job performance as measured by the
board, management staff, teachers, and community? A
correlation coefficient measures the linear relationship
between the variables. The Pearson correlation
coefficient, named after Karl Pearson, equals a value
between +1.00 and -1.00. When the number carries a plus
sign, it indicates a positive relationship, and when the
number has a minus sign, it indicates a negative
relationship. When the value of "r" is close to zero, it
indicates a weak or irregular relationship, with zero
equaling no relationship. The closer "r" is to the
number one, the stronger or more regular the
relationship, with one equaling a perfect relationship
(Witte, 1980). For this research question, job
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85
satisfaction was correlated with perceived job
performance, and job stress was correlated with
perceived job performance.
The t-test, which tests for equality of means, was
used to determine a difference between scores, to
analyze the data, and answer the fifth research question
that states the following: Is there a correlation
between the (a) intention to leave and (b) job
satisfaction, job effectiveness, job stress, and
perceived job performance? For this research question,
four statistical analyses were run, correlating (a)
intention to leave job with job satisfaction, (b)
intention to leave job with job effectiveness, (c)
intention to leave job with job stress, and (d)
intention to leave job with perceived job performance.
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86
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AMD DISCUSSION
This chapter describes the research findings of the
study as follows: The survey responses will provide data
yielding the superintendent's self-perceptions of their
districts' organizational effectiveness, job
performance, and their level of satisfaction and stress,
as it relates to the job itself. The responses will also
include district and superintendent characteristics and
the superintendents' intention to leave their present
position in the next 1-3 years.
Description of Sample
The sample population consisted of one hundred,
twelve school superintendents representing 52 elementary
schools, 15 union schools, and 45 unified schools. The
demographic responses from the sample are reflected in
the data collected and presented in Table 1.
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Table 1 ■
Gender, Age, Years as a Superintendent, Years in
Present Position, Type of School District, and Average
Daily Attendance (ADA)
Gender
Male 80 72.7%
Female 30 27.3%
110 100%
Age
35-41 1 .9%
42-49 14 12.6%
50 + 96 86.5%
111 100%
Length of Years as a Superintendent
2 or less 12 10.7%
3-7 39 34.8%
8-11 31 27.7%
12-15 11 9.8%
16+ 19 17.0%
112 100%
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88
Table 1 (cont.)
Years in Present Position
2 or less 29 26.1%
3-7 45 40.5%
8-11 23 20. 7%
12-15 8 7.2%
16+ 6 5.4%
111 100%
District Description of District
Elementary 52 46.4%
Union 15 13.4%
Unified 45 40.2%
112 100%
ADA Current Student Enrollment. of the District
1700 or Less 36 33. 3%
1720 to 6350 36 33. 3%
6400 or Higher 36 33.3%
108 100%
The majority of the participants in this study were
male 12.1%, with 27.3% female. Age groups for the sample
included .9% ages 35-41, 12.6% ages 42-49, 86.5% ages 50
and over.
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89
The number of years as a superintendent was 10.7%
at 2 years or less, 34.8% 3-7 years, 27.7% 8-11 years,
9.8% 12-15 years, and 17.0% at 16 years plus. A majority
of the superintendents sampled were fairly new in their
present position 40.5% 3-7 years, and 26.1% at 2 years
or less. Only 5.4% of the population sampled had been at
their present position for 16 plus years.
Data describing the average daily attendance of the
superintendents surveyed included 33.3% of the reporting
superintendents having an average daily attendance of
1700 or less in their district, 33.3% having 6350-1720,
and 33.3% having an average daily attendance of 6400 or
higher.
Research Questions
Participants reported on a Likert scale of 1 to 5,
with 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure,
4 = agree, 5 being the most positive and strongly
agreeing. The survey instrument assessed the
superintendents' self-perceptions of their schools'
organizational effectiveness with six items, alpha =
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90
.76, job performance with five items, alpha = .79, their
level of satisfaction with three items, alpha = .80, and
stress with two items, alpha = .57, as they relate to
the job itself. Results of the data analysis for
research questions 1 through 5 are presented below:
Research Question 1
What is the level of job satisfaction, job stress
and perceived job success of California school
superintendents?
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics: Satisfaction, Stress and
Performance Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation
Satisfaction 109 3.97 .72
Stress 111 2.08 .89
Performance 107 1.61 .50
Regarding levels of satisfaction, the largest number
of participants reported a score of 4 (19.6%), 3.75 was
reported for 12.5%, which was a cumulative percent of
40.4, and the mean score was 3.97, with a standard
deviation of .72. Thus, most participants reported high
levels of job satisfaction (Table 2 and Histogram 1).
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Levels of job.stress were reported, with the highest,
numbers being a score of 1.33 (19.6%) and a score of 2
(17.9%) with a cumulative percent of .64, a mean score of
2.08, and a standard deviation of .89 (Table 2 and
Histogram 2). Thus, most study participants reported
fairly low levels of job stress. Levels regarding job
performance ranged from 12.5% at a score of 1 to 17.9%
at a score of 2, which resulted in a cumulative percent
of 94.4, a mean score of 1.6, and a standard deviation
of .50 (Table 2 and Histogram 3). Thus, most
participants reported high levels of job performance.
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Histogram 1
Satisfaction
SAT IS FAC
40
>»
o
a
< D
z s
c r
a >
30-
20
10
Std. Dev = .72
Mean = 3.97
N = 109.00
2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
SATISFAC
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93
Histogram 2
Stress
STRESS
50 1 --------
40-
>.
o
c.
( U
3
O"
< D
30'
20.
1 0.
Std. Dev = .89
Mean = 2.08
N = 111.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
STR ESS
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94
Histogram 3
Performance
PERFORM
501-----— --
Std. Dev = .50
Mean = 1.61
N = 107.00
^ -gf " ‘ 11 '. 'Jt A nhmmmjjjjmiM y, I T
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
PERFO RM
Research Question 2
What percentage of California superintendents
intends to leave their position in the near future?
Regarding intent to leave, most participants
answered "no" 61.6%, and 38.4% answered "yes" (Table 3).
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95
Table 3
Intent to Leave Position in Near Future (1-3 years)
Frequency Percent
Yes 43 38.7%
No 68 61.3%
Interestingly, a chi-square test revealed that
there is a correlation between a greater amount of men
leaving the position in the near future than women
(.016) .
Research Question 3
What demographic factors add to or detract from the
California school superintendents' job satisfaction, job
stress, and perceived success?
There was no significant relationship between the
demographic factors (gender, age, length of
superintendency, number of years in position, or type of
district) with satisfaction, stress, and perceived
success (see Tables 4a-9b). There was a significant
relationship between number of students and stress
(.017). Thus, the higher the ADA, the stress goes up and
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96
satisfaction goes down; likewise, the lower the ADA, the
lower the stress resulting in higher satisfaction. A
Post Hoc Tukey indicates a significant difference at the
.05 level between an ADA of 1720 to 635 compared to an
ADA of 6400 or higher (.017).
Table 4a
Mean and Standard Deviation for Gender
N Mean Std.Deviation Std. Error
SATISFY 1.0 Male 80 4.1292 .8771 9.806E-0
Satisfaction 2.0 Female 30 4.2444 .7875 .1438
Total 110 4.1606 .8516 8.120E-02
PERFORM.
Performance 1.0 Male 80 4.3481 .5526 6.179E-02
2.0 Female 30 4.3783 .3226 5.890E-02
Total 110 4.3564 .4992 4.760E-02
Stress 1.0 Male 80 3.9329 .6473 7.237E-02
Stess Score 2.0 Female 30 4.0167 .8355 .1525
Total 110 3.9773 .8577 8.178E-02
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97
Table 4b
One-Way ANOVA Gender
Sum of df
Squares
Mean Square F Sig.
Satisfaction
Score
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.290 1
78.762 108
79.052 109
.290
.729
.398 .530
Stress
Score
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
.064 1
80.129 108
80.193 109
.064
.742
.086 .770
Perform
Score
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
.020 1
27.146 108
27.166 109
.020
.251
.079 .779
T a b l e 5 a
Mean and Standard Deviation for Age
SATISFY
Satisfaction
4.00 Under 50
5.00 50 +
Total
N Mean
15 4.0222
96 4.1840
111 4.1622
Std. Deviation
.8495
.8500
.8479
Std. Error
.2193
.0868
.0805
PERFORM 4.00 Under 50
5.00 50 +
Total
15 4.1733
96 4.3833
111 4.3550
.8102
.4283
.4972
.2092
.0437
.0474
STRESS
Stress Score
4.00 Under 50
5.0 50+
Total
15 3.6000
96 4.0313
111 3.9730
.8701
.8486
.8603
.2247
.0866
.0817
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98
Table 5b
One-Way ANOVA Age
Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Satisfaction Between Groups 340 1 .340 .470 .494
Score Within Groups 78.741 109 .722
Total 79.081 110
Performance Between Groups .572 1 .572 2.343 .129
Score Within Groups 26.618 109 .244
Total 27.190 110
Stress Between Groups 2.413 1 2.413 3.329 .071
Within Groups 79.006 109 .725
Total 81.419 110
Table 6a
Mean and Standard Deviation for Length as a Superintendent
SATISFY
PERFORM
STRESS
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
1.00 2 yrs. or
less
12 3.8333 .6742 .1946
2.00 3-7 yrs. 39 4.2564 .6742 .1946
3.00 8-11 yrs. 31 4.0860 .9850 .1769
4.0012-15 yrs. 11 3.9697 .8876 .2676
5.00 16+ yrs. 19 4.4561 .9442 .2166
Total 112 4.1696 .8478 .0801
1.00 2 yrs. or
less 12 4.1167 .4859 .1403
2.00 3-7 yrs. 39 4.4423 .3209 .0514
3.00 8-11 yrs. 31 4.4419 .2802 .0503
4.00 12-15yrs. 11 4.0773 .8122 .2449
5.00 16+ yrs. 19 4.3579 .7351 .1686
Total 112 4.3571 .4955 .0468
1.0 2 yrs. or
less 12 3.7083 .8649 .2497
2.0 3-7 yrs. 39 3.9487 .7504 .1202
3.0 8-11 yrs 31 4.0000 .8466 .1520
Total 112 3.9732 .8565 .0890
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99
SATISFY
PERFORM
STRESS
SATISFY
PERFORM
STRESS
Table 6b
One-Way ANOVA for Length as a Superintendent
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3.867 4 .967 1.363 .252
Within Groups, 75.910 107 .709
Total 79.777 111
Between Groups 2.061 4 .515 2.189 .075
Within Groups 25.188 107 .235
Total 27.249 111
Between Groups 4.721 4 1.180 1.647 .168
Within Groups 76.698 107 .717
Table 7a
Mean and Standard Deviation for Years in Present Position
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
1.00 2 yrs. or
less 29 4.1839 .7485 .1390
2.00 3-7 yrs. 45 4.2296 .7681 .1145
3.00 8-11 yrs. 23 4.1594 .9204 .1919
4.00 12 + yrs 14 4.038 1.1873 .3173
Total 111 4.1772 .8478 .0805
1.00 2yrs. or 29 4.3034 .3986 .0740
less
2.00 3-7 yrs. 45 4.4589 .3525 .0525
3.00 8-11 yrs. 23 4.3174 .6184 .1289
4.00 12 + yrs. 14 4.2179 .7863 .2102
Total 111 4.3586 .4975 .0472
1.00 2 yrs. or 29 3.7241 .9022 .9022
less
2.00 3-7 yrs. 45 4.1444 .7121 .1062
3.00 8-11 yrs. 23 4.0435 .7821 .1631
4.0012 + yrs. 14 3.7857 1.2044 .3219
Total 111 3.9685 .8589 .0815
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100
SATISFY
PERFORM
STRESS
SATISFY
PERFORM
STRESS
Table 7b
One-Way ANOVA Years in Present Position
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Gronps .462 3 .154 .209 .890
Within Groups 78.609 107 .735
Total 79.071 110
Between Groups .857 3 .286 1.160 .329
Within Groups 77.418 107 .724
Total 81.140 110
Between Groups 3.722 3 1.241 1.715 .168
Within Groups 77.418 107 .724
Total 81.140 110
Table 8a
Mean and Standard Deviation for Type of District
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
1.00
Elementary 52 4.0897 .7979 .1107
2.00 Union 15 4.1556 1.1399 .2943
3.00 Unified 45 4.2667 .8028 .1197
Total 112 4.1696 .8478 .0801
1.00
Elementary 52 4.4038 .3833 .0532
2.00 Union 15 4.4267 .2712 .0700
3.00 Unified 45 4.2800 .6444 .0961
Total 112 4.3571 .4955 .0468
1.00
Elementary 52 3.8173 .9130 .1266
2.00 Union 15 4.2000 .8619 .2225
3.00 Unified 45 4.0778 .7684 .1145
Total 112 3.9732 .8565 .0809
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101
Table 8b
One-Way ANOVA for Type of District
Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
SATISFY Between Groups .759 2 .379 .523 .594
Within Groups 79.018 109 .725
Total 79.777 111
PERFORM Between Groups .454 2 .227 .923 .400
Within Groups 26.796 109 .246
Total 27.249 111
STRESS Between Groups 2.527 2 1.264 1.746 .179
Within Groups 78.892 109 .724
Total 81.420 111
Table 9a
Mean and Standard Deviation for ADA
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
SATISFY 1.00 1700 or less 36 3.9815 .9359 .1560
2.00 1720 to 6350 36 4.0926 1.0004 .1667
3.00 6400 or higher 36 4.3889 .5071 .0845
Total 108 4.1543 .8531 .0821
PERFORM 1.001700 or less 36 4.3819 .4050 .0675
2.00 1720 to 6350 36 4.2778 .6998 .1166
3.00 6400 or higher 36 4.3944 .3079 .0513
Total 108 4.3514 .4976 .0479
STRESS 1.00 1700 or less 36 3.7639 .8659 .1443
2.00 1720 to 6350 36 3.8194 1.0566 .1761
3.00 6400 or higher 36 4.2917 .5123 .0854
Total 108 3.9583 .8677 .0835
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102
Table 9b
One-Way ANOVA ADA
SATISFY Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of d f Mean Square
Squares
3.193 2 1.597
74.679 105 .711
77.872 107
2.245 .111
F Sig.
PERFORM Between Groups .295 2 .148
Within Groups 26.202 105 .250
Total 26.497 107
.592 .555
STRESS Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
6.056
74.507
80.563
105
107
2 3.028
.710
4.267 .017
Research Question 4
Is there a correlation between the (a)
superintendents' level of job satisfaction and job
stress and the (b) self-perceived level of job
performance as measured by the board, management staff,
teachers, and community?
A Pearson Correlation demonstrated a correlation
coefficient (r) of .296 (p=.002) for the relationship
between satisfaction and performance. Additionally,
there was a significant correlation between satisfaction
and stress, (r) of .616 (p=000).
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Table 10
Pearson Correlations: Satisfaction
SATISFY PERFORM EFFECT STRESS
Satisfaction Performance Effectiveness Stress
Score Score :Score Score
SATISFACTION Pearson
Correlation 1.000 296 .534 .616
Satisfaction Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .000 .000
Score N 112 112 112 112
PERFORM Pearson .296 1.000 .266 .220
Performance Correlation
Score Sig. (2tailed) .002 .005 .020
N 112 112 112 112
EFFECT Pearson .534 266 1.000 .379
Effectiveness Correlation
Score Sig, (2tailed) .000 .005 .000
N 112 112 112 112
STRESS Pearson .616 .220 .379 1.000
Stress Correlation
Score Sig. (2tailed) .000 .020 .000
N 112 112 112 112
Research Question 5
Is there a correlation between (a) intention to
leave and (b) job satisfaction, effectiveness, job
stress, and perceived job performance?
A t-test for equality of means was used to
determine if a difference between scores would indicate
a correlation between superintendents' intent to leave
their position within the next 1-3 years with job
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104
satisfaction, school effectiveness, perceived
performance, and stress (Table 11). Results for this
study showed no difference between scores for the three
variables effectiveness, stress, and performance. There
was a significant relationship between satisfaction and
intention to leave t (109) = -2.79 (p=.006). Thus, the
more satisfied the more likely not to leave the position
in the near future.
Table 11
T-Test for Equality of Means: Intent to Leave
t df Sig. Mean
(2-tailed) Differences
EFFECT Equal -1.824 109 .071 -.2210
Effectiveness variances
Score assumed
SATISFY Equal -2.792 109 .006 -.4488
Satisfaction variances
Score assumed
PERFORM Equal -1.685 109 .095 -.1620
Performance variances
Score assumed
STRESS Equal -1.211 109 .228 -.2026
Stress variances
Score assumed
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105
Summary of Findings
1. Regarding levels of satisfaction, most
participants reported a high level of job satisfaction
(mean 3.97).
2. Most participants reported low levels of stress
(mean 2.08).
3. Most participants reported high levels of job
performance (mean 1.6).
4. Regarding intent to leave, most participants did
not intend to leave their position in the near future
(61.6% "no" and 38.4% "yes").
5. There was a significant relationship found
regarding a much larger percentage of men intending to
leave their position in the near future compared to
women (.016) .
6. There were no significant relationships between
the demographic factors of gender, age, length of
superintendency, number of years in position, or type of
district with satisfaction, stress, and perceived
success.
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106
7. There was a significant relationship between the
number of students and stress. The higher the ADA,
stress goes up and satisfaction goes down.
8. There is a correlation between satisfaction and
performance. The higher the satisfaction, the higher the
performance, with a correlation coefficient (r) .296
(P=.002) .
9. There is a correlation between satisfaction and
stress. The higher the satisfaction, the less stress
with a correlation coefficient (r) .616 (P=.000).
10. There were no correlations found between the
intention to leave, school effectiveness, and stress.
11. There is a correlation between the
superintendents' intent to leave their position in the
near future and satisfaction with a t (109) = -2.79
(p=.006). Thus, the more satisfaction, there was less
likelihood of leaving the position in the next 1-3
years.
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107
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Statement of the Problem
School superintendents play a vital role in the
education of the youth in this nation. How they feel
about their job and the level of satisfaction have a
crucial effect on the overall success of the educational
system under their care. The degree to which
superintendents are satisfied with their job performance
is probably a good indicator of their ability to
generate power and influence in the position (Brown,
1993). The general research objective was to demonstrate
empirically a quantitative description of the
correlation between personal job satisfaction,
effectiveness, and stress of California school
superintendents and the superintendents' perceptions of
how their performance is viewed by others.
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Research Questions
The specific research questions were the following:
1. What is the level of job satisfaction, job
stress, and perceived job success of California school
superintendents?
2. What percentage of California superintendents
intends to leave their position in the near future?
3. What demographic factors add to or detract from
California school superintendents' job satisfaction, job
stress, and perceived success?
4. Is there a correlation between the (a)
superintendents' level of job satisfaction and job
stress and the (b) self-perceived level of job
performance as measured by the board, management staff,
teachers, and community?
5. Is there a correlation between (a) intention to
leave and (b) job satisfaction, effectiveness, job
stress, and perceived job performance?
Summary of Findings Related to Research Questions
Research Question 1. The first research question
sought percentages of job satisfaction, stress, and
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109
performance. Regarding levels of satisfaction, results
showed that the largest percentage of subjects reported
a score of 4 out of 5; although only 19.6% reported this
score, it represented a cumulative percent of 40.4,
which means that 59.6% of the participants reported a
score of 4 or higher. Thus, most participants reported
higher levels of job satisfaction.
These findings are consistent with the research by
Ain (2000). This author reported that one man said that
even though the school superintendency is a heartache
kind of job, he enjoyed the challenge since it was an
awesome, demanding job, but that was a positive thing,
not a negative. Thus, it appears that some
superintendents find job satisfaction in this position.
Many of them loved the work, thrived on the challenge,
and were able to deal with the obvious disadvantages.
Regarding levels of stress, the highest numbers
reported were scores of 1.33 and 2, with a cumulative
percent of 64. Thus, most study participants reported
fairly low levels of job stress. These findings were not
consistent with the research, which reported the
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superintendency job to be very stressful. For example,
Wildavsky (2000) reports on stress-related comments from
superintendents: "Everybody wants a piece of you," from
Thomas Payzant, a 30-year veteran, currently Boston
superintendent, and "Everybody wants a movie star" to
instantly solve problems, by Ramon Cortines, a 67-year-
old who ran New York City's schools from 1993 to 1995
and was currently hired by the L.A. school board
(Wildavsky, p. 26).
The research provides many examples of
superintendency job stress. Cunningham and Burdick
(1999) surveyed 175 public school superintendents to
determine why qualified applicants are unwilling to
apply for the job of school superintendent. They found
that while the tendency of school boards to micromanage
the school system was identified as the main reason, the
next two most frequently cited reasons were the stress
inherent in the job and the time demands of the job.
Other stress factors noted were the loss of personal
privacy, dwindling financial resources, loneliness, and
a lack of consensus about educational missions.
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Bluhm (1998) reported on efforts to;reduce other
stress variables, such as expectations that the
superintendent would be available for every board
meeting, separating functions within the supervisory
office, and shifting some of the supervisor's
responsibility to school principals. Bluhm also stated
that many school superintendents experience stress due
to multiple and conflicting constituency,demands.
Superintendents are accountable to school boards, the
general public, school principals, and teachers unions,
with each group having their own interest in policy and
decision making.
Johnson (1998) stated that superintendents hold the
position of greatest administrative authority in a
school district but they are not able to bring about
school-level change simply by mandate. The fact that the
real power to effect or resist change resides in
classroom teachers and the principals who hire them
results in stress for the superintendent. Since
superintendents depend upon these key actors to
implement policy and procedures, conflict between
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112
principals and superintendents leads to increased levels
of stress.
Regarding levels of performance, results showed
that scores ranged from 12.5% for scores of 1 to 17.9%
for scores of 2, resulting in a cumulative percent of
94.4. Thus, most reported high levels of job
performance. This finding is not consistent with the
research. For example, the literature demonstrates that
the superintendency position is a high-risk, stressful
position that affects job satisfaction and performance.
Clayton (1997) reports on a situation that illustrates
some of the problems related to job satisfaction for
school superintendents. Superintendents are identified
with their districts, schools, and programs to such an
extent that any failures or problems within the district
are attributed to the superintendent. For example, in
one incident, the school superintendent was fired less
than a month after a new school board was elected since
he had become a major campaign issue during the
election. Public perceptions of the district were
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113
perceived by school board members to haye declined
during his tenure.
Research Question 2. The second research question
determined the percentage of superintendents intending
to leave their position. Results were that most
participants answered that they did not intend to leave
their position within the next three years (61.3%). A
chi-square test indicated a significant relationship
that a much greater percentage of males are going to
leave the position in the near future than female.
Previous studies showed that turnover for this position
is high and cities are unable to fill positions with
qualified candidates; however, it is not clear what
percent of superintendents intended to leave.
Considering that superintendents appear to go from one
position to the next, findings from this study may lead
to the future hypothesis that they do not "intend" to
leave.
Previous research includes findings by Wildavsky
(2000) who reported that big cities are having an
incredibly difficult time finding qualified candidates
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who are willing to fill their positions. The problems
and stresses associated with the job have created a
labor shortage. For example, one school superintendent,
Daniel Domenech, lasted 1 day as chancellor of the New
York City public schools before being asked to resign.
Wildavsky reported that there are only a small number of
experienced big-city leaders to fill the new openings
and superintendents tend to move from position to
position. For example, Bill Rojas headed San Francisco's
schools until quitting due to controversy and then
taking a job as head of the Dallas schools; despite the
controversy he is experiencing in his Dallas position,
Mr. Rojas is also being considered for L.A. and New York
j obs.
Ain (2000) further supports this predicament,
noting that school superintendents in general are at a
premium, with many systems served by interim
superintendents or superintendents who have come out of
retirement in order to fill needed roles.
Superintendents are also being pulled from the ranks of
other professions, such as the military.
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115
Cunningham and Carter (1997) report the results of
a 5-year Danforth Foundation School Administration
Fellowship Program that included 48 other school
superintendents. Findings showed that of the total of 50
superintendents who entered the program, only 2 remained
on their jobs after the 5-year program had ended.
Reasons for leaving included the pressure and conflict
that school superintendents live with.
Research Question 3. The third research question
demonstrated the relationship between demographic
factors and job satisfaction, stress, and performance
success. Results regarding gender were not significant.
These findings do not appear to be consistent with the
research. Previous studies showed that females face
additional discrimination problems that would contribute
to at least their stress and satisfaction levels.
For example, Grogan and Smith (1998) reported that
female superintendents stated that the job was
particularly stressful when having to deal with
decisions that must be made that involve staff members
and students. Decisions such as whether to terminate an
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116
employee or expel a student, or whether to close a
school, were stated as stressful.
Tallerico and Burstyn (1996) examined interviews
with 20 former superintendents, 2 superintendent search
consultants, a retired superintendent, and a practicing
district superintendent that revealed systemic gender
stratification that relegated many women superintendents
to extraordinarily challenging work contexts. Results
revealed that women tend to occupy superintendencies in
the smallest and least cosmopolitan districts. These
districts have the fewest central office administrators,
declining student enrollments and financial resources,
and the greatest vulnerability to lethal school board
conflict. Such variables, whether experienced by male or
female superintendents, result in more job-related
stress and lower levels of job satisfaction.
Ortiz (2000) reported further regarding the
particular set of problems that comes with any minority
superintendency appointment. For example, the Hispanic
woman is viewed with skepticism, due to her gender and
ethnicity, with fear that she will act in favor of those
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117
of her own kind. It was stated that personal
characteristics become eroded as the Hispanic female
superintendent attempts to change relationships within
the system, and this eventually may lead to her being
replaced.
Results regarding other demographic variables
showed that all relationships were not significant
except for the relationship between ADA and stress.
Research regarding these variables was not found;
therefore, the results of this study add unique findings
to the overall knowledge regarding possible factors
involved in the superintendency position.
Research Question 4. The fourth research question
sought the correlation between the level of job
satisfaction and job stress and job performance. There
was a significant correlation found between job
satisfaction and job stress, (r).616 (p=000). In
addition, there was a significant correlation found
between job satisfaction and performance, (r).220
(p=.020). Thus, when there is less stress, there were
higher ratings of satisfaction, and when there are
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118
higher ratings,of satisfaction, there are higher ratings
of self-perceived job performance. Previous studies
showed that both job satisfaction and job stress were
determinants of job performance.
Goodnough (2000) reports that in assessing the
connections between job satisfaction and job performance
for school superintendents, a key factor is how much
autonomy a superintendent has. The higher the level of
autonomy, the lower the stress level; the higher the
level of satisfaction, the higher the ability to get
programs implemented, which leads to increased job
performance.
Research Question 5. The fifth research question
sought to answer the question, Is there a correlation
between (a) intention to leave and (b) job satisfaction,
effectiveness, job stress, and perceived job
performance? There were no correlations found between
intention to leave, effectiveness, stress, and perceived
job performance. There was a significant correlation
between satisfaction and intention to leave, t(109) =
-2.79 (p=.006). Thus, the higher the satisfaction level,
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119
the more likely to stay in the position. This finding
was consistent with the literature regarding leaving the
job and satisfaction; however, analyses provided only
limited support regarding leaving the job and the other
three factors. Previous studies showed that
superintendency job turnover is a result of all four of
these factors.
For example, Iannacone (1996) reports that
superintendents find themselves charged with
ineffectiveness by one or more of their constituents or
the stakeholders in the educational system. This charge
often insists that a superintendent should be able to
secure educational reform and overcome resistance to new
policies without conflict. When conflict erupts, the
perception is often that the superintendent has been
ineffective; it is suggested that when a superintendent
encounters this kind of attitude, he or she is likely to
consider alternative employment opportunities. A high
level of turnover and a correspondingly high level of
mobility among school superintendents suggest that
externally perceived effectiveness impacts directly upon
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120
job satisfaction and increases mobility among this class
of professionals.
Further, Winters (2000) reported that the position
of big-city school superintendent is currently available
in 13 major U.S. cities. This is viewed as resulting
from this group of school superintendents becoming
increasingly disenchanted with their jobs because their
responsibilities have multiplied, their authority has
eroded, and their average tenure has dropped to an
average of less than 3 years. Winters also claims that
serving poor, under-performing schools in an urban
political environment has always required self-
confidence, a thick skin, brass-knuckles management, and
political deftness. Many school superintendents are
arguing that despite an increase in accountability,
their authority has been significantly reduced, which
has resulted in decreased effectiveness and job
satisfaction.
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121
Selected Conclusion's-
Most findings were consistent with and provided
additional support for the previous research.
A unique aspect of this study is one of the
demographic variables. Previous research did not reveal
information regarding number of students and their
relationships to satisfaction and stress. Thus, results
of this study provided new information regarding these
two variables.
Another unique finding of this study is the high
number of participants (61.3%) who did not intend to
leave their jobs. Although the research is plentiful
with descriptions of job stress and job turnover, the
intent to leave is implied and not supported. In fact,
it may be the opposite, since research does indicate
that superintendents tend to go from position to
position. Therefore, the results of this study support
the hypothesis prediction that most superintendents do
not intend to leave their position, despite levels of
stress.
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122
The third unique finding in this study is the
percentage within gender depicting that a much greater
percentage of male respondents indicated that they are
going to leave their present position in the near future
compared with female respondents.
It is also possible, though inconclusive, that this
study yielded new considerations regarding levels of
stress and performance for the superintendency. For
example, research indicates that this position is highly
stressful and that the problems and stress of the job
result in limited performance. Results of this study
demonstrate that in fact participants did not report
their jobs to be particularly stressful and they did not
report low levels of performance.
Recommendations
Implications for Future Research
The assumption that the stress and problems within
the job are leading to increased stress, with decreased
satisfaction and performance and high turnover, is
challenged by the results of this study. This study did
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provide results indicating that participants did not.
find the job to be as stressful as believed. Future
studies should expand the list of stress items to
possibly increase the reliability coefficient level.
Results also indicated that satisfaction levels and
performance levels were high and subjects did not intend
to leave their jobs. Future research will need to
further explore the possibility that superintendents are
leaving their position unwillingly, and, perhaps,
qualitative research will yield a more detailed set of
findings.
Future studies will also need to further address the
demographic variables mentioned in this study,
particularly the ones that yielded significant results.
The number of students was shown to be related to stress
and satisfaction, indicating the need for replication.
In addition, the effects of ethnicity need to be
investigated coupled with the unique finding that a
greater percentage of men intend to leave their position
in the near future compared to women. This study
provided findings that offer new and useful information
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124
regarding relationships between selected superintendency
job variables. ;
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125
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APPENDIX A
LETTER OF CONSENT
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133
copy
University of Southern; California
; . Rossier School oh Education
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Completion and return of the questionnaire will constitute
consent to participate in this research project.
Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among School Superintendents
You ; dre asked to participate in a, research study conducted by Dr.
Dennis Hocevar, faculty advisor, and Aleta Peters-Schinsky, doctoral
student, from the Rossier School of Education at the University of
Southern California. The results will be contributed to a
dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this
study because you are one of 250 California school district
superintendents who have been randomly selected.
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are
trying to learn more about job satisfaction for school
superintendents. There is such a shortage of candidates and tenure
of this crucial position of societal importance that the findings of
this study identifying variables related to job satisfaction are
vital to recruitment and retention strategies as well as important
to career implications for individuals interested in this
profession. In addition, the factors found to be associated with job
satisfaction in this study may assist people in determining his/her
compatibility with the position.
You will be asked to respond to a one-page survey which will take
approximately ten minutes of your time, which includes the time it
takes to return the self-addressed envelope.
There are no potential negative effects from this study.
This study may assist you in determining your compatibility with the
position of school superintendent.
You will not receive payment for participating in this survey.
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and
that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be
disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in
conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your
identity.
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134
Date of Preparation: 11/20/00
USC UPIRB# 00-12-348
The storage of the data collection will be maintained solely in the
personal possession of the researcher, Aleta Peters-Schinsky, USC
doctoral student, and data collection will be shredded after results
are recorded.
All information reported in the study will be reported in
tabulations, graphs, and generic terms. Any California school
superintendent will be referred to as Superintendent "A," for
example. Description of the district setting, or other individuals,
will be kept in general terms. All efforts will be made not to
reveal information which could clearly identify a district or
individual in this study.
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer
to be in this study, you may withdraw at any time without
consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any
questions you don't want to answer and still remain in the study.
The investigator may withdraw you from this research if
circumstances arise which warrant doing so.
If you have any questions or concerns about this research, please
feel free to contact Principal Investigator, Dr. Dennis Hocevar: USC
University Park Campus, Los Angeles, CA 90089 WPH, 600, Phone:
(213) 740-2368, or Secondary Investigator, Aleta Peters-Schinsky:
26161 Arcada Drive, Mission Viejo, CA 92691, Phone: (714) 517-8720.
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue
participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims,
rights, or remedies because of your participation in this research
study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research
subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost
for Research, Bovard Administration Building, Room 300, Los Angeles,
CA 90089-4019, (213) 740-6709 or upirb@usc.edu.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B
SURVEY
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136
COPY CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION AMONG SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS
PART Demographic Questions
1. Gender: Male Female
2. Age: 26 years or younger _27-34 35-41 42-49 50 and over
3. Years as a superintendent? ____2 years or less 3-7 8-11 12-15 16 +
4. Years in present position: 2yearsoriess 3-7 8-11 12-15 16 +
5. Do you intend to leave your present position in the near future (1 -3 years)? Yes No
6. Which o f the following best describes your school district? Elementary Union Unified
8. What is the current student enrollment of your school district? • ___________
PART II: This part contains statements of attitudes, feelings, and opinion about work-related matters. There are five
possible responses to each statement: I = Strongly Disagree. 2-Disagree. 3-Not Sure. 4=Agree. $= Strongly Agree.
For each statement circle the ONE response that best describes your attitudes, feelings, or opinions.
1. The entire district's community actively supports the district in achieving its vision and goals... 1 2 3 4 5
2. Teachers make decisions about all aspects of the school’s operations including the teaching
and learning process..................................................................................................................... 1 2 3 4
3. Students receive instruction which is based in current research and exemplary practice 1 2 3 4
4. Students are expected to be responsible and productive and to hold high expectations for
themselves..................................................................................................................................... 1 2 3 4
5 A wide range o f procedures for assessing student learning outcomes is clearly
described and accompanied by well-defined performance standards 1 2 3 4
6. A variety of evaluation reporting procedures are used to provide the district's community with
information supporting the continuous improvement of the district's programs....................... 1 2 3 4
7. A high-level, core curriculum is provided to all students 1 2 3 4
8. 1 gain great satisfaction from the contributions that I make as a superintendent 1 2 3 4
9 I become anxious, nervous and upset when a stakeholder disagrees with my decision............... 1 2 3 4
10. 1 am enthusiastic and optimistic about my work........................................................................ 1 2 3 4
11. I worry about how I am doing as a superintendent and I don’t think my work is valued 1 2 3 4
12. I am satisfied with my working conditions: contract, salary, duration and fringe benefits 1 2 3 4
13. I have a lack o f concentration, appetite and I lose sleep worrying about things that happen at work 1 2 3 4
14. lam inadequately compensated for my work and time................................................................ 1 2 3 4
PART III, Please respond to the following performance questions as to how you feel others would rate your
effectiveness as a superintendent I : Excellent. Good. Average. Poor or Inadequate
1 . How would the board rate you?................................................................................................... E G A P 1
2. How would the parents rate you?.................................................................................................. E G A P I
3. How would the administrative staff rate you?................................................................................ E G A P 1
4. How would the teachers rate you?................................................................................................. E G A P I
5. How would you rate yourself?....................................................................................................... E G A P I
6 How would you rate yourself in understanding the political dynamics required o f the job? E G A P 1
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Peters-Schinsky, Aleta Elaine (author)

Core Title Correlates of job satisfaction among school superintendents

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, industrial

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hocevar, Dennis (committee chair), Baker, Robert (committee member), Long, Eva (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-107775

Unique identifier UC11338341

Identifier 3027765.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-107775 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3027765.pdf

Dmrecord 107775

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Peters-Schinsky, Aleta Elaine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA