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Color and daylighting: Towards a theory of bounced color and dynamic daylighting

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Color and daylighting: Towards a theory of bounced color and dynamic daylighting

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Content COLO R AND DAYLIGHTING: TO W ARDS A THEORY O F
B O UNCED COLO R AND DYNAM IC DAYLIGHTING
by
Mark Jonathan H ulnm e
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SC H O O L OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
M A STER OF BUILDING S C IE N C E
May 2003
Copyright 2003 Mark Jonathan Hulme
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UMI Number: 1417924
Copyright 2003 by
Hulme, Mark Jonathan
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y P A RK
LOS A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This thesis, written by
.M A f:± h JgHA--r>iAK3 _ _ __
under the direction of h.XL....Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean of The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
D a t e J L ____M j l9. I? ® .? -
THESIS COMMITTEE
j V. / ^^SChatrnw*
/
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li
Acknowledgements
1 would like to thank the following:
The members of my Thesis Committee, for their service, guidance and
encouragement.
My fellow students and peers with and from whom I have learned so much.
My parents for their dedication to their family, and particularly my Mother.
for her encouragement of my interest in architecture.
My wife for her love, patience and genuine interest.
Almighty God for his patience, direction, love and undeserved blessings.
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iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables iv
List of Figures viii
Abstract X
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 : The Physics of Light and Color Vision 3
Chapter II: The Psychology of Vision and Color 24
Chapter III: Solar Design 39
Chapter IV: Experiment Design 47
Chapter V: Testing Data 56
Chapter VI: Analysis 6t Conclusions 97
References 105
Suggested Reading 107
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tv
List of Tables
Table 1: Test 1A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 60
21. No Color.
Table 2; Test 1A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21, 6 1
No Color.
Table 3: Test 2A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 62
21. Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 4: Test 2A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21. 63
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 5: Test 1 B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 64
21. No Color.
Table 6: Test 1 B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21. 65
No Color.
Table 7: Test 3A - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 66
21. Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 8: Test 3A - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21. 67
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am fit 4 pm, Orange 10
am to 2 pm.
Table 9: Test 1C - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, 68
December 21. No Color.
Table 10: Test 1C - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, June 69
21. No Color.
Table 11: Test 4A ■ Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, 70
December 21. Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am S t
4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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Table 12: Test 4A - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, June
21. Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 13: Test 2B - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December
21. Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 14: Test 2B - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10
am to 2 pm.
Table 15: Test 3B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December
21. Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 16: Test 3B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am
to 2 pm.
Table 17: Test 2C - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December
21. Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue
Winter.
Table 18: Test 2C - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
Table 19: Test 3C - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December
21. Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue
Winter.
Table 20: Test 3C - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
Table 21: Test 2D - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December
21. Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange
Winter.
Table 22: Test 2D - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
v
7 1
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
8 1
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VI
Table 23: Test 3D - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December
21. Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange
Winter.
Table 24: Test 3D - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
Table 25: Test 4A - Direct Apparatus, December 21. No Color.
Table 26: Test 4A - Direct Apparatus, June 21. No Color.
Table 27: Test 5A - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Daily Color
Shift - Winter: Blue 8 am S t 4 pm, Orange 10 am
to 2 pm. Summer: Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue
10 am to 2 pm.
Table 28: Test 5A - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Blue 8 am S t 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
Summer: Orange 8 am S t 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
Table 29: Test 5B - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Orange 8 am S t 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
Summer: Blue 8 am S t 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
Table 30: Test 5B - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Orange 8 am S t 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2pm.
Summer: Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
Table 31: Test 5C - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Seasonal Color
Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
Table 32: Test 5C - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Seasonal Color Shift -
Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
Table 33: Test 5D - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Seasonal Color
Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
Table 34: Test 5D - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Seasonal Color Shift -
Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
9 1
92
93
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vii
Table 35: Test 5E - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Hourly Color 94
Shift - Winter: 8 am Yellow, 10 am Blue, 12 pm
Red, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Yellow. Summer: 8 am Red,
10 am Blue, 12 pm Yellow, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Red.
Table 36: Test 5E - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Hourly Color Shift - 95
Winter: 8 am Yellow, 10 am Blue, 12 pm Red, 2
pm Blue, 4 pm Yellow. Summer: 8 am Red, 10 am
Blue, 12 pm Yellow, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Red.
Table 37: Test 6 - Camera properties. 96
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viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum, showing wavelengths 4
in nanometers
Figure 2: Newton's color circle 5
Figure 3: Light’ s path from source to perception 6
Figure 4: Cone spectral sensitivity 7
Figure 5: R od vs. cone predominant vision 8
Figure 6: Munsell color solid 10
Figure 7: LG N responses 16
Figure 8: Retinal Structure 17
Figure 9: CIE Chromaticity Chart 19
Figure 10: Black Body Locus (CIE Chromaticity Chart) 20
Figure 11: Correlated Color Temperature chart 22
Figure 12: Darkness adaptation 27
Figure 13: Appearance of sources after adaptation 28
Figure 14: Brightness and duration of afterimages 30
Figure 15: Chevreul illusion 32
Figure 16: Mach bands 32
Figure 17: Effect of illuminance on choice of path 39
Figure 18: Blevins High School, Blevins, A K 45
Figure 19; Interior, Chapel of St. Ignatius 46
Figure 20: Interior, Chapel of St. Ignatius 46
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ix
Figure 21: Typical model test configurations: Specular Bounce 56
Design at left, Direct Sunlight Apparatus at right.
Figure 22: Rosco gels used 57
Figure 23: North/South section through monitor, showing winter 58
and summer sun angles.
Figure 24: Monitor Plan showing reflector system. Winter angles are 59
dotted, spring and summer angles are shown solid. Hatched area
represents the monitor/skylight position.
Figure 25: Monitor plan showing winter section of reflector system 59
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Abstract
x
Lighting is arguably one of the most sublime and essential elements
available to the architectural designer. 1 believe that it is possible,
through passive architectural solar design, to increase and emphasize the
natural variation in daylight’s color, seasonally and daily, providing
inexpensive opportunities for significant place-making in retail
environments. In addition to reviewing the current literature on vision,
color perception and solar design, this thesis attempts to demonstrate
these place-making opportunities with the design, testing and analysis of a
passive system to color and bounce sunlight into a modeled space.
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1
Color and Daylighting: Towards a Theory of
Bounced Color and Dynamic Daylight
Lighting is arguably one of the most powerful design elements
available to the architect, capable of transforming the mundane in
architecture to the sublime. Lighting design for office and retail space
typically ranges in price, scope, and quality across a wide spectrum, but it
is a rare project that skillfully engages the sun to take advantage of natural
lighting. It is the hope of this research to prove that natural lighting can
be cost effective in these types of spaces.
Furthermore, the color of light has been proven to have certain
demonstrable effects on mood and human behavior. Interior designers
often use a varied palette of colors of light and surfaces to create or
emphasize certain types of mood environments. A s the color of
sunlight/daylight varies both daily and annually, this project examines the
feasibility and usefulness of utilizing the dynamic motion of the sun to
create a changing colored internal environment, by washing interior spaces
and surfaces with a daily cycle of naturally available colored light.
Hypothesis - It is possible, through passive architectural solar design,
to increase and emphasize the natural variation in daylight’s color,
seasonally and daily, providing inexpensive opportunities for significant
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place-making in retail environments. In addition to reviewing the current
literature on the topic, I plan to demonstrate these place-making
opportunities with the design, testing and analysis of a passive system to
color and bounce sunlight into a modeled space.
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Chapter I: The Physics of Light and Color Vision
3
Though light and color are elements with which each of u s has
everyday contact, they prove difficult to quantify and their properties
seem to vary widely. In fact, it is the interpretation thereof wherein lies
the variance. To pursue a lighting study of this kind, it is vital to define
terms and clarify the tools of the process.
Light is a form of radiant energy, and behaves (for the purposes of
this study) as a wave1 . Visible light occupies a very small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths between 400 and 800
nanometers (nm). Below this level one finds such forms of radiant energy
as cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, and ultraviolet light. A s wavelengths
of energy increase above that which the human eye can interpret as visible
light, there exist such forms of energy as infrared, television and radio
waves, and electric power (see Figure 1).
The exact wavelength of a particular light source corresponds to a
particular color, a condition of all monochromatic colors. Violet and blue
1 The currently accepted Duality Theory developed by de Broglie and awarded the Nobel Prize in
1929, states that at differing wavelengths, light can behave as either a wave or a particle. Though
certainly proven and interesting developments in Quantum Physics, these issues are outside the scope
o f this study. The wave definition w ill suffice to describe color and vision for this study.
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4
Figure 1: Electromagnetic spectrum, showing wavelengths in nanometers.
(Entwistle, p. 140)
occupy the 400 - 500 (nm) range, while oranges and reds round out the top
of the visible light spectrum at between 700 and 800 nm. These ranges
exist due to the fact that every person’s perceptive abilities vary, though
most human eyes do not perceive colors outside these ranges.
Sir Isaac Newton was one of the first to split up “white” light into its
constituent spectral range by means of a glass prism. Since energy of
differing wavelengths is refracted slightly differently, white light splits into
the familiar colors of the rainbow. Newton recognized seven distinct
shades of color, though red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
certainly do not cover all the bases. Their identification and their
subsequent importing into a circular description (Figure 2) are arguably a
product of Newton’s perception, which was certainly influenced by his
environs, culture, and upbringing.
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5
Light from the sun (our main source of natural light on earth) is
considered to be white light (possessing no particular color). The sun’s
light is, however, “full spectrum”, meaning that the energy leaves the
Orange
Rid,
Bine
Figure 2: Newton's color circle (Committee, 1963, p. 37)
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sun on all the wavelengths in the visible spectrum. In fact, no colors or
wavelengths are missing in the sun’s energy output, though the balance of
all wavelengths is not even, but contains a higher proportion of reds and
oranges than other colors. Sunlight is filtered through the atmosphere,
reflects off objects, is then received by the eye, and an image is focused
on the retina which is subsequently interpreted by the brain (see Figure 3).
This process of vision is first influenced by the nature of the light and the
physics of its interaction with the environment before it reaches the eye.
Once the image is sent to the brain, the process becomes largely an
« W T « 5 ,-
' u/.
» $ » # » me strtwwBsrrc*
Figure 3: Light’ s path from source to perception (Erhardt, 1977, p. 78).
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7
interpretive one, which will be dealt with in the section on psychological
factors and influences.
Light enters the pupil of the healthy eye and is focused on the
retina, the rear surface of the eye. The retina is partially composed of two
main types of light-sensitive cells: rods and cones, named for their cellular
structure. R ods are sensitive to brightness or overall light energy level,
while cones are the cells which interpret color information. There are
three types of cones, each sensitive to a different portion of the spectrum
(tristimulus theory). There is a considerable degree of overlap, but it is
the interaction of these types of cells which allows the human eye to
accept such a wide array of color and brightness information (see Figure 4).
600
Wavelength, nm
400 500 700
Figure 4: Cone spectral sensitivity, "adjusted for their relative number
present in the retina." (Kuehni, 1997, p. 36).
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8
Spectral. Luminous Efficiency
i O O
80
4 Q
20
0
.400 ,600
Wavelength Micrometers
Figure 5: R od vs. cone predominant vision (Erhardt, 1977, p. 85)
Cones are more concentrated near the center of the retina, allowing for
more concentrated interpretation of color information in direct view and
bright light. R ods are spread a little more evenly across the retina, and are
more prevalent around the perimeter of the retina than cones. This allows
better overall perception in low light situations (see Figure 5). This also
accounts for one’s increased peripheral vision in darkened environments.
Color is a property of objects to selectively absorb and reflect light.
Objects are considered to “be” the color of light they reflect. A granny
smith apple reflects most light in the green portion of the spectrum, and is
thus thought of as being a green apple. In fact, the apple’s skin absorbs
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9
most light wavelengths which are not green, and reflects the
predominantly green balanced light to be picked up by the eye of the
viewer. It is important to note that, under sources which are not full
spectrum, objects can appear differently colored. If the specific
wavelength/color of light is not present in the source, it cannot be
reflected back to the eye of the viewer.
Object color is generally described as being composed of three
characteristics:
“Hue is the main qualitative factor that leads u s to describe a color
as green or red. Saturation is the percentage of hue in a color....
Brightness is the perception of intensity of the apparent difference
from black. All three factors combined are called chroma.” (Palmer,
1994, p. 90)
The human eye can recognize approximately 150 (Walter, 1992, p. 2) to
175 (Palmer, 1994, p. 90) distinct hues. In concert with the other factors,
though, “some researches have estimated that a person with normal vision
can distinguish 17,000 different chromaticities” (combinations of hue,
saturation and brightness values) (Palmer, 1994, p. 91).
Many systems and models exist for the consistent categorization and
description of color. Most models are simple geometric shapes and platonic
solids, dividing variations of colors into predetermined sets, 6,10, 12, etc,
the various numbers into which the model is divided being chosen at the
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10
whim of the inventor. The Munsell color solid (Figure 6) was developed by
the artist Albert Munsell in 1912, and took as its base experiments with a
wide range of viewers, dividing up the various levels of hue, saturation and
Figure 6: Munsell color solid (Kuehni, 1997, Plate D).
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1 1
brightness according to the perception of the study group. The resultant
solid is no longer regular, since, according to the study, more shades of
yellow could be identified than, for example, blue. The Munsell system,
though it distinguishes itself from others, deals with paint and ink rather
than light, and is therefore not particularly useful for this study. Similarly,
most systems of color mixing utilized by artists deal with the mixing of red,
yellow and blue pigments as primary colors, and achieve other
chromaticities by mixing these primaries. The resulting harmonies,
blendings and color juxtapositions do not coincide with the science of the
eye’s function, and are therefore learned, not inherited operations.
In 1831, English physicist David Brewster demonstrated (De Grandis,
1986, p. 17) that red-purple, yellow and blue-turquoise were the three
colors “that could be mixed to form the seven colors Newton had identified
in the spectrum” (Helms, 1991, p. 47). Known today as cyan, magenta,
and yellow, these primary colors are those most commercial paint and ink
printing processes use, subtractively mixing colors (CM YK process)2.
Individual colors of light falling on a color print are absorbed by the ink,
2 The “K” in CMYK stands for blacK ink, which is included in most commercial printing applications
because it is more cost effective to use less expensive black ink than to combine more expensive cyan,
magenta and yellow ink to create black each time a print job requires it. In addition, black ink can be
formulated to produce a much more saturated area o f inking than can be achieved by mixing the other
three ink colors.
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12
bouncing only what is not absorbed back to the viewer. A n increase in the
amount of colored inks and pigments increases the colors subtracted from
the light bounced off an object. When these three colors are mixed in ink,
all (or nearly all) light is absorbed by the ink, and the object appears black.
This process is referred to as subtractive mixing. When mixing light, one
engages in additive, rather than subtractive mixing. Instead of subtracting
wavelengths from a given source, one adds light of different colors
(wavelengths) together to produce other mixed colors.
The exact nature of light’s "primary” colors appears to be quite
different than that of ink and paint. In 1802, English physician Thomas
Young (1773-1818) postulated that there are three different kinds of cones
(tristimulus theory), each “tuned” to be most sensitive to three color: red,
green, and blue, as seen in see Figure 4 (Kuehni, 1997, p 36, 134-5). Later
expanded around 1860 by Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1809-
1877), the Young-Helmholtz theory is currently argued as the most correct
view of vision structure.
Physiological testing shows that as long as one has at least some
amount of each of light’s three primaries, one can mix then to produce
what the eye sees as white light (the absence of color information). This
can also be achieved by mixing a primary and it’s opposite secondary (the
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13
mix of the other two primaries). For example, mixing red, blue and green
light in the correct proportion will produce white light. Mixing red and
cyan (itself a mixture of blue and green light) will produce the same effect,
though the proportions will necessarily be different (roughly two parts cyan
light to one part red light).
The tristimulus theory referenced above is the most widely accepted
theory of vision structure, though there have been and remain some
difficulties with it. While Polyak’s research (1941) demonstrated that the
cones are virtually identical at the microscopic level (Committee, 1963, p.
91), subsequent study has shown differently. “The chemical substance in
the rod cells responsible for vision signals based on the absorption of light
quanta is well known. It is called retinal.” (Kuehni, 1997, p. 33) When a
rod absorbs light, a pigment in the rod called rhodopsin3 , which is retinal
attached to a protein molecule (opsin), becomes transparent and bleached
of its typical purple color, setting off a series of electrochemical responses
in the nerve cells to which the rod is attached. This signal travels down
the optic nerve and is interpreted in the brain. Cones, on the other hand,
seem to use the same chemical dye, retinal, though there are three
different types of the opsin protein molecules to which it is attached: “the
3 Rhodopsin is also called retinene and/or visual purple.
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14
three chemical substances involved ... [are] sometimes named cyanolabe,
chlorolabe, and erythrolabe.” (Kuehni, 1997, p. 33)
If one carefully examines the responses of these three pigments
(Figure 4), they are tuned somewhat differently than proposed by Young-
Helmholtz: the cyanolabe pigmented “blue” cone response is most
pronounced at 419 nm (in the violet portion of the spectrum). Similarly,
the “red” cone (utilizing erythrolabe) responds strongly to 559 nm, in the
yellow-green area of the visual spectrum. Only the “green” cone
(chlorolabe pigment) rings true, tuned to 531 nm, in the green zone.
(Oberkircher, 2000, p. 2) If nothing else, these findings show the currently
accepted CIE models (RGB) to be at least “probably simplistic” in their
explanation of the functional relationships between cones (Kuehni, 1997, p.
38).
Among the competing theories of vision and light’s primary colors is
the opponent color theory of German physiologist Ewald Hering (1834-
1918). Hering evaluated color vision as consisting of oppositions of colors -
Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, and Black/White. In Hering’s theory,
black/white levels are received by the rods, leaving 4 primary colors for
the cones to decipher. The four colors chosen as primaries in this theory
are “easily understood by our lack of terms for ‘reddish - green’ or ‘bluish -
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15
yellow’.” (Oberkircher, 2001, p. 3) The retinal cells (rods and cones)
receive light information and transmit it to the brain through the ganglion
(nerve) cells in a series of on/off electrical impulses. All other hues and
shades are perceived in the brain as mixtures and blends of the strength of
the on/off signals of these six oppositions. The optic nerves terminate
deep in the brain in two structures within the thalamus: the left and right
lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN) (Mather, 2001). There have been found to
be “six types of cells. ..in the retinal cortical centers [LGNs] upon which the
incitement of the light stimulus produces opposite effects” (De Grandis,
1986, p. 75). Figure 7 shows the responses of the six (LGN) cell types,
indicating their opposite spectral spikes and nearly equal unstimulated
responses (horizontal dashed lines).
In addition, to further complicate the matter, there is a significant
amount of interactivity and interconnectivity between the ganglion cells,
some being connected to several cones. The ganglion cells connected to
the violet (blue) cones are connected to multiple cones, while the ganglia
connected to the green and red (yellow-green) cones are connected to
individual cones (Oberkircher, 2000, p. 3). There also exists in the retina a
layer of horizontal cells and a layer of inner associative cells (amacrine
cells) which transmit information between different receptors (De Grandis,
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16
40
20
10
_J 0L_
700 400
oL_
400
600 700 500 600 500
1
40
+Y-B
w
*6 30
I
S
+B-Y
10 -
700 600 600 700 400 500 500 400
20
10 -
+W-Bk
+8k~W
_J 0 1 —
700 400 700 600 500 600 500 400
W avelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Figure 7: "Response of six cell types in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
to spectral light as represented by the average spike rates of the cells.”
(Kuehni, 1997, p. 37)
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17
1977, 73). Figure 8 begins to demonstrate some of the complexity of these
inter-cellular relationships. Not surprisingly, there are therefore several
“possibilities for functionally different pathways to the brain” (Committee,
1964, Plate 20a). Additionally, information from cones in both the right
and left eyes are mixed in each of the LGNs. Suffice it to say, science has
not yet completed its understanding of the eye, nor of the vision processes.
Rods and
C o n e s
p
Horizontal
Cells
Bipolar
Cells
Amacrine
Cells
Ganglion
Cells
| | | | ' Optic Nerve
Light
Figure 8: Retinal Structure (Kuehni, 1997, p. 29)
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18
A s Figure 3 shows, there are several complicating physical factors in
the physics of sight and the mechanics of color perception. The light
source is the first variable. While sunlight is full spectrum, the balance of
wavelengths present within it is not uniform. More energy of some
wavelengths is present than other wavelengths. It is balanced more to the
longwave (orange and red) end of the spectrum. A second complication is
the atmosphere through which the light passes. Light from the sun in early
morning or late afternoon is balanced much more towards the orange and
red portions of the spectrum. The preferential scattering of blue light
(Palmer, 1994, p. 86-7) by water vapor and particulate matter in the air
produces a mid-day light which is typically much bluer than early morning
light.4 These changes in the color balance of the source light inevitably
change the way objects look to the eye.
The most typical way which this “orangeness” or “blueness” of light
is measured is in terms of Kelvin temperature (°K). When a metal element
is heated, it begins to glow a particular color based on its temperature.
Tungsten has been accepted as the standard metal for use in approximating
4 Also called the Tyndall effect, Rayleigh’s law o f scattering states that “when heterogeneities o f a
transmitting medium have average dimensions somewhat smaller that the wavelength o f the incident
energy, the fraction o f the incident flux scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth power o f the
wavelength” (Committee, 1963, p. 380), or more succinctly: . .more short wavelengths are scattered
(by particles in the air] than long ones.” (Palmer, 1994, p. 86).
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19
Figure 9: CIE Chromaticity Chart (Minolta, 1994, p. 17)
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20
520
540
S10
,560
500
0,4
600 2854
620
V>®
> 700
0,2
470
0 0,2 0 , 1 ,8
Figure 10: Black Body Locus (CIE Chromaticity Chart) (De Grandis, 1986. p.
77)
the color balance of light5 . The color curve of tungsten being heated
approximates that of a blackbody (theoretical perfect radiator). This
curve, called the blackbody locus on the CIE6 Standard Chromaticity
diagram (Figures 9 and 10), is compared to a light source and a resulting
temperature designation is given in degrees Kelvin (°K). It is important to
5 The performance o f tungsten at temperatures up to its melting point, 3683.2 °K (Tungsten, 2002)
approximates the performance o f a black body (theoretical element which absorbs and reradiates
100% o f the energy incident upon it). The black body curve shown on the CIE Chromaticity Diagram
is a mathematic construct determined by the performance o f the black body object. Above the melting
point o f tungsten, other materials such as sodium have been shown to approximate the black body
curve.
6 The Commission Internationale d’Eclirage (CIE) is probably the most widely recognised standard
on color measurement. Basing it’s understanding on the RGB tristimulus theory, the CIE developed
the chromaticity diagram (Figures 9 and 10) as a functional tool to predict and understand color
mixing.
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21
note that the spectrum of light in this mix is still complete (missing no
wavelengths), but its balance of wavelengths is shifted either to the long or
short end of the spectrum. Daylight in temperate latitudes is found to be
at approximately 5,000°K, a slightly blue-shifted value. A s time progresses
to late afternoon, sunlight shifts to the 2,000°K range, more yellow and
orange.
With the introduction of artificial light sources, the subject takes on
another layer of complexity. Incandescent lighting is typically produced by
an electrified and therefore glowing coiled coil of tungsten wire inside a
glass envelope (typical A19 lamp or bulb). A s discussed earlier, tungsten
emits light dependent on its temperature, and the color balance of the
light emitted will change as the current provided to the lamp (usually by
means of a dimmer). Lower current produce a more orange balanced light,
while higher voltages and temperatures create a more “white” light. It is
possible to get a more desirable whiter color from a lamp, but overdriving
it in this way will result in early and spectacular failure. Since the light-
emitting material used in incandescent lamps is tungsten, the color
temperature performance of the lamp follows the black body curve quite
closely.
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22
Fluorescent lamps do not produce full spectrum light. They emit
light a s a byproduct of energizing a cloud of gas within a glass tube. This
gas, when properly energized, emits electrons, which, in turn, excite the
phosphors coating the inside of the lamp tube. It is this phosphorescent
coating which emits visible light, and it is the combination of available
phosphors which determine the quality of the light emitted. In the early
history of fluorescent lamp manufacture, phosphors were primarily
available in the blue-emitting range. A s they did not include many red-
emitting phosphors, human skin (which is slightly transparent), and the
§50®
5II0S
Daylight Metal Halide
>5,566K
Cool-White Fluorescent
4,263K
Std. Clear (V tete! Halide
4,O 0O K
Warm |3K) Metai Halide
3,200K
Halogen
3,000K
Standard Incandescent
2,70OK
High-Pressure Sodium
2,26{JfC
Figure 11: Correlated Color Temperature chart (Fehrman, 2000, Figure C -
7).
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23
lively blood coursing through it, was not illuminated with the appropriate
wavelengths of light, and looked sickly. Current state of the art has
produced lamps with a better spectral coverage, some with a C R I of in
excess of 95, meaning that approximately 95 percent of the colors in the
spectrum are represented in the output of the lamp. A s each lamp will
perform differently under differing operating conditions (voltage, dimming,
ballast type and temperature of the lamp, C R I is correlated to individual
color temperatures. It is possible that a lamp would get different C R I
ratings at different operating correlated color temperatures (CCTs) near
the black body curve.
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Chapter II: The Psychology of Vision and Color
24
Up to this point, the discussion has focused on the physics of light
and color vision. It is almost impossible, however, to completely divorce
the physics and the psychology of light and color, for without the
interpreter’s brain and mind, there would be no discussion whatsoever.
Perception is only partially physics. A s we see in our everyday lives, each
person’s perception of what they see is slightly different, and it is that
variety of experience that requires further scrutiny.
Once the light/color information is received at the eye and
transmitted down the optic nerve, the almost infinite variability of
perception comes into play. What one person understands to be “green” or
“greenish” will almost certainly be slightly different from what another
might think, even if the two subjects be as closely related as possible. The
point at which a light source or object chances from yellow to orange will
be identified slightly differently by two observers. “If one says ‘red’ (the
name of a color) and there are 50 people listening, it can be expected that
there will be 50 different reds in their minds...[all] very different” (Albers,
1975, in Cheung, 1994). Notwithstanding physical dysfunction of the
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25
mechanisms involved, fathers perceive different gradations of color than
sons, Englishmen from the French.
That said, there are certain defects and variations in the function of
the vision systems that require discussion. Some form of color blindness
(anomalous trichromatism) strikes approximately 4 to 6 percent of the
male population, and only 0.2 percent of females. Anomalous color vision
appears to occur due to the malfunction of one or more of the cone types,
and is demonstrated by the inability to distinguish most commonly, red or
green (daltonism). Achromatopsia, or total inability to distinguish any
color, is extremely rare. Interestingly, under low lighting conditions, all
humans are typically achromatopsiaic, as the cones require a minimum
level of light to distinguish color.
Some individuals demonstrate an unusual co-stimulation of the
senses referred to as synesthesia, whereby viewing certain colors reliably
stimulates the taste of a certain food, or the “hearing” of a sound. Some
subjects also experience these effects in reverse, where upon hearing a
particular sound, may describe it as “red” or “yellowish” by virtue of the
fact that the sound causes them to “see” the color. Rather than
hallucinations, it is more likely that these are unusual electrical
interactivity between portions of the brain usually involved in interpreting
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26
the input to the individual senses. These effects “may result from a
trained habit of analogy-making s o strongly conditioned that it actually
stimulates the analogous sense” (Palmer, 1994, p. 105). Though this
condition is rare, it can be shown that for most people “loud noises, as well
a s strong odors and tastes, tend to raise the sensitivity to red. Low-
pitched sounds tend to make colors appear to deepen.... Also, a loud sound
seems to decrease the sensitivity of rods and increase the sensitivity of
cones.” (Palmer, 1994, p. 105) The reasons for these findings are yet
unclear.
The normal eye and mind rather rapidly become adapted to the
light/color stimulus incident upon them. Upon entrance from a bright
environment into a darkened one, the eye begins to adjust almost
immediately. Figure 12 show s that cones typically adjust to their
maximum sensitivity within 10 minutes, while rods need between 45 to 60
minutes (Palmer, 1994, p. 70). After 30 minutes, “sensitivity is 1,000 to
100,000 times greater than it was at the beginning of the adaptation
period.” (Palmer, 1994, p. 70) However, the typical person can interpret a
much wider range of brightness levels at higher illumination levels than at
low ones. While driving at night, an oncoming car’s headlights might be a
significant source of glare, while during the day the very same lights will
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27
hardly be noticed. There is also an illumination level below which all items
will be seen as black. Called the black point, this level shifts a s the overall
illumination levels change. The typical viewer will also adapt to a
standardized internal white level, as “in a field of vision, the brightest
nonselective reflecting surface that is not a light source will appear white.”
(Palmer, 1994, p. 69)
Adaptation does not only occur with brightness levels, but with color
also. The mind will soon become accustomed to a light source of any color
and consider it to be white (Figure 13). After one becomes acclimatized to
reading under an incandescent lamp of about 3000°K, one no longer thinks
of the lamp as yellowish, but white. If one was to then walk outside under
a clear sky where the balance of the daylight is closer to 6000°K or 8000°K,
10 30 4 0 S O 0
Time in O sik Win)
Figure 12: Darkness adaptation (Palmer, 1994, p. 70)
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28
2 s s s K m m smm
Figure 13: Appearance of sources after adaptation to (a) 2856 K; (b) 4000
K ; and (c) 6500 K (Walter, 1992, p. 20)
the light would at first appear much more blue, but, again, the eyes would
eventually adjust.
A more rapid though temporary adaptation of the eyes is that of
color fatigue. This physical effect occurs when the colors of an image
projected on the retina begin to tire the cones. Colors will appear to
change in an image as cones tire at different rates. If one holds his/her
position and stares at a colored image or scene, and then changes his/her
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29
view to a neutral background, one will usually be able to perceive an
afterimage of the first scene, though colored differently. The “red” cone,
having become adapted to seeing red, w ill tire, and when unstimulated,
w ill instead send back a negative overcompensatory signal, which is seen as
a cyan stimulus. Similarly, other colors will become adapted, often in only
a matter of several seconds. The hue yellow tires the receptors most
quickly7 , followed by blues, and then the colors in the center of the
spectrum. Exposure to bright white light seems to dull color
responsiveness across the spectrum. The length of time the afterimage
persists depends on the brightness of the original stimulus (Figure 14). A s
the cones readjust, “the afterimages for a white stimulus pass through a
series of hues: blue-green, indigo, violet-pink, and dark orange. Then the
afterimage will appear darker than the surroundings.” (Palmer 1994, p. 76)
All in all, “the result of adaptation is that despite considerable changes in
intensity and quality of the illuminating light the effect on the perceived
colors of objects is small or negligible.” (Kuehni, 1997, p. 43)
7 It is interesting to note that yellow tires the cones the fastest, and the “red” erythrolabe-utilizing
cone is that which is most quickly exhausted and slowest to recover. The “red” cone, as previously
mentioned, has its greatest responsiveness squarely in the yellow area o f the spectrum.
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It is also the case that the belief of the mind exerts an extremely
strong influence on the perception of object color, an effect called color
constancy. Having become accustomed to a lemon being yellow, one will
103
90
80
§ 70
} «
I “
o
10
15
0 1 2 3 4
Exposure (Seconds)
Figure 14: “The effect of brightness on the duration of an afterimage”
(Palmer, 1994, p. 77)
expect that to be the case. “Particularly if we know that the illuminant is
colored, we continue to ascribe the predetermined hue to the object,
regardless of the data the eye receives.” (Palmer, 1994, p. 98) Under
changing lighting conditions, though the lemon may in fact reflect orange
light, the mind will continue to believe that the lemon remains yellow.
Yet another unexpected affect of the mind on color perception is
color relativity. Both the apparent brightness and shade of a color’s
appearance depends on its surrounding context. The educational
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3 1
experiments of Josef Albers (1975) were some of the first and most
exhaustive to demonstrate these effects. If a small swatch of tan color
surrounded by a field of blue is compared to a small swatch of the same
tan surrounded by a field of light gray, the tan in the blue will appear both
lighter and more yellow than the other identical tan swatch surrounded by
the light gray. The mind interprets color by means of distinguishing
difference. The eye does not in fact remain still when viewing a scene, but
twitches back a forth across the border of areas of color or tone,
continuing to discern the differences. The mind will interpret the
brightness of a swatch according to its surroundings: if they be dark, the
inner swatch will be perceived as lighter than actually the case.
Perception adds the opposite brightness value of the surround to the
internal swatch. In the case mentioned above, a lighter perceptual value is
mixed in with the tan swatch due to its darker blue surround. In addition,
perception adds the opposite color value of the surround, in this case
blue’s complementary yellow value is added to the tan inner swatch.
Though colors may be identical, their surroundings can and do change the
way they are perceived. Figure 15 demonstrates the Chevreul illusion -
though the individual swatches of ink are of uniform tone across their
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32
width, they appear to be gradients from darker (left) to light (right). The
darker neighbor makes each right edge appear lighter, and conversely, the
Figure 15: Chevreul illusion (after Kuehni 1997, Figure 4.2)
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33
Figure 16: Mach bands (after Kuehni 1997, Figure 4.3)
lighter neighbor makes each left edge appear lighter. The uniformity of
each swatch can be shown by covering its adjacent neighbors. Figure 16
shows the appearance of Mach bands: the left and right panels are uniform
in tone, the center panel is a uniform gradient from left tone to right tone.
The eye/mind perceives lighter and darker bands between each panel,
creating an edge where there is none.
Not all colors are a part of the visible spectrum. Though this seems
an odd assertion, some colors can only be created by mixing8 . Variations of
the color commonly referred to as magenta are not monochromatic, and do
not occur naturally in the spectrum, except by mixing red from the top of
the visible spectrum with certain blues from the shortwave portion of the
spectrum. Magenta and purple images are often blurry, as the eye has
difficulty focusing both short (blue) and long (red) light waves on the
retina. With the artificial creation of the color circle, Newton joined red
to violet and perpetuated a system of color harmony which arguably does
not exist in nature. It may be that magenta inks are not in fact magenta,
but both red and violet.
8 “Negative blue” is a conceptual construct used in television and computer monitors.
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34
Some colors have been demonstrated to appear more distant than
others. Walls painted in the blues and greens are typically judged to be
further away than walls painted in the reds, yellows and oranges. This may
be a result of the eye having to focus the longwave radiation (blues) at a
greater distance than the shorter waves (reds). For similar reasons and as
explained above, magenta objects confuse the eye, and often appear fuzzy
or blurry around the edges. The eye has difficulty working simultaneously
at both ends of the visible spectrum. However, the apparent distance of
colors may also result from cultural conditioning. A 1976 study (Fame)
from the University of Bologna, Italy, indicated that "the operative factor
in advancing and receding colors appears to be the contrast between the
colors and their backgrounds, rather than the colors themselves."
(Fehrman, 2000, p. 9).
Most people typically ascribe certain feelings, moods, and even
physiological effects to specific colors. Red is often thought of as the most
active, vibrant, warm and attention-getting color, demonstrated by its
association with heat, passion, and danger. Blue is thought to be calming,
sedative, peaceful, demonstrated by the peaceful nature of water, the sky
and the ocean. These effects are not cross-cultural, rather they are than
learned responses, conditioned from early childhood. Red’s association
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35
with danger probably stems from our natural shock at the lo s s and even
sight of blood and fire, and water can at times be anything but peaceful.
Blue is often associated with depression and solitude, though to “have the
blues” in French is to have “the cockroach.” Language has a strong effect
on color perception, as “ before the 16t h century there was no [English]
word for ‘pink’ or ‘orange,’ both were considered variants on red. In
Macbeth the word ‘guilded’ is used to signify the application of blood:
gold, too, was thought to be a shade of red.” (Willis, 2002)
Culture plays an unarguable role in the interpretation of color and
moods associated therewith. Western brides wear white to a wedding to
symbolize purity, and the Japanese custom of red vestments would
certainly not be similarly associated with this trait. Black is a morbid color
in western thought, though Buddhist monks’ saffron yellow robes connote
death in that culture. In many studies, Americans prefer blue to other
colors, though Spaniards in similar studies chose white. French subjects
found purple most stimulating, Americans typically identify red as having
these properties. (Fehrman, 2000, p.8-9)
Most color studies researching color preference since the 1950s have
grossly oversimplified the incompletely understood process of vision, and
have not considered the tremendous complexity of the vision/perception
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36
process. Even the “three psychological dimensions of color - hue... value...
and saturation... were rarely controlled in experiments” (Fehrman, 2000, p.
79). Indeed, it has been shown that the brightness of the illumination in
the testing room and the saturation level of the color have more to do with
the preference of color than the hue. Even the size and shape of the color
swatch presented changed the results. “People often liked small samples
of yellow and orange, but found large amounts of the colors unpleasant.”
(Fehrman, 2000, p. 70) Furthermore, color preference changes with time:
“When office workers were asked to select the color they preferred every
15 minutes over the course of 5 to 40 hours...individuats did not prefer one
color every time.” (Fehrman, 2000, p. 81)
In an interesting juxtaposition of the supposed calming effect of
blue, it was found that a group of men’s strength decreased when their
field of vision was filled with pink. Blue restored their strength. This
probably occurs as a result of male/female conditioning at a early age, but
it occurs nonetheless. In an attempt to make inmates more docile, a
holding cell in the Santa Clara County Jail in S an Jose, CA was painted pink.
Incoming prisoners would remain in this cell for 15 to 20 minutes while
paperwork was being processed, and the color did seem to work,
decreasing criminal recidivism and violence. However, similar studies on
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37
animals found these calming effects to be temporary, even causing
cannibalistic behavior. This was borne out when one prisoner was
unintentionally left in the pink holding cell for longer than usual, grew
increasingly agitated and after almost four hours, “he went completely
berserk, trying to destroy the cell and himself.” (Fehrman, 2000, p. 13)
The calming effect of pink was later discovered to last only about 30
minutes in human tests. Though we may see certain effects, the
complexity of the various responses to them is not understood.
A 1966 study by Kearny demonstrated color preference varying with
the temperature of the test room. When subjects felt warm, they
preferred “cool” colors (blues); when they felt cool, they preferred
“warm” colors (reds and oranges). However, contrary to what might be
expected, Green and Bell (1980) showed that this effect cannot be
reversed: “placing people in colored environments does not affect their
subjective impression of ambient temperature” (Helms 1991, p. 144).
Though some claim differently, studies which support the warming or
cooling effect of environmental colors are often either simplistic or
extrapolate results further than is supportable. Preference for a color does
not equate with feeling warmer or cooler because of an environmental
color.
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38
Though the effects and associations of color with mood may not be
as a direct and universal result of viewing the color in question, some
effects can probably be expected to occur reliably within appropriate
contexts, and can be designed into an architectural space.
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39
Chapter III: Solar Design
s
Humans are generally phototropic, that is, they tend to be drawn to
light. Brighter areas in one’s field of view attract more attention than
darker areas. Darker areas may be investigated later, but that is usually
subsequent to examining that to which the eye is first drawn. Circulation
and path of travel are two of the most common processes in buildings
affected or even dictated by lighting design. Taylor and Sucov (1974)
(Figure 17) found that, given the choice between turning left and right
when entering a room, patrons typically went toward the side which was lit
more brightly. However, even when the left side was illuminated 100
times more brightly than the right, a full quarter of the subjects still chose
to turn toward the dark side of the room. (Helms, 1991, p. 148) Other
forces are at work, though lighting certainly plays an important role.
?5% ^injr=^> 2 5 % | 3 3 % < = |jU ^ > 67%
[ P > m
Left side illuminance 1 0 0 times Equal illuminance Right side illuminance 100 times
greater than right side greater than left side
Figure 17: Effect of illuminance on choice of path (Helms, 1991, p.148)
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40
Humans also have a physical need for sunlight. Plants create the
food they need through photosynthesis, a process which requires insolation
to begin. The human body similarly manufactures the small but essential
quantity of Vitamin D it needs to function properly when the skin is
exposed to solar radiation. Currently, Vitamin D is also artificially
synthesized and added to most milk to ensure that a sufficient dosage is
available.
S A D , Seasonal Affective Disorder is a health difficulty which strikes
approximately 2% of the Northern European Populace with severe
symptoms, while approximately 1 0 % of the populace in a more mild
fashion, and is 4 times as prevalent among women as men (Helms 1991, p.
142). Its causes were only realized in the early 1980s. While the disorder is
not yet fully understood, it is generally acknowledged to be caused by a
lack of exposure to bright light. It commonly lasts from September until
April, worsening in the darker months. Instances of the disease increase
with distance from the equator, with the notable exception of areas where
there is snow on the ground. It is more often found in higher latitudes,
where the change in sunlight availability swings more drastically
throughout the year. It is a form of depression, typically mild to moderate,
but the disorder can have a rather debilitating effect on those who suffer
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41
from it. Symptoms include sleep disruption, overeating, depression,
irritability, avoiding social interaction, loss of libido, lethargy, lowered
resistance to infection, jo in t or gastrointestinal problems, and behavioral
problems, especially in younger sufferers. Prior to the early 1980s, this
mood disorder was typically treated symptomatically, or in more serious
cases, with drug therapy. More recently, the therapy for this disorder
involves exposure to specific light levels:
At least 2500 lux ...is needed, which is 5 times brighter than a well lit
office (a normal living room might be as low as 100lux); brighter
lights up to 10,000 lux work quicker (sic). Contrary to the old belief
the light does not need to be special daylight, colour matching or
'full spectrum’ light; simply changing the lamps in a room to these
special types will not produce sufficient light. (Outside In, 2002)
Humans have a need for sunlight, not just for their health, but also for
increased quality of life.
The Wal-Mart Corporation performed a series of investigative
experiments regarding the connection of light and color to retail sales.
Though the experiments were not exactly scientific or controlled, they do
offer some interesting evidence: Lawrence, Kansas' new “Eco-Mart”, as it
was dubbed, was outfitted with skylights over one half of the store. Sales
of all merchandise was tracked for six months, after which inventory
placement was reversed for six months. Sales of merchandise displayed
under the skylit half of the store was significantly higher in both test cases,
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42
regardless of the type of merchandise. Exact figures are not available for
fear of revealing trade secrets and extinguishing a competitive market
advantage (McQuillen, 1998).
A similar, though much more controlled study showed similar results.
A Southern California retail chain was evaluated, some stores were skylit
and some were lit artificially. “All other things being equal, an average
non-skylighted store in the chain would be likely to have a 40 percent (+/-
seven percent) higher sales with the addition of skylights.” (Erwine, 2000,
p. 100) Similar results have been demonstrated from standardized test
results in a school setting. Capistrano School students in daylit classrooms
progressed 20-26 percent faster over the course of a school year than
classmates in windowless classrooms. Interestingly, for the same students,
uncontrolled direct sunlight into the classroom seems to produce a -21
percent decrease in scores for reading. (Erwine, 2000, p. 105-6)
Most controlled scientific daylighting studies attempt to measure its
benefits in terms of productivity, units produced per hour, worker speed,
and the like. In accordance with what has become known as the
Hawthorne effect, it is often found that a simple change of the
environment has more to do with increased in productivity than the
specifics of that change. Offices are painted white, productivity is
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43
measured, one month later the office is painted red, productivity
increases, one month later the office is painted blue, productivity
increases, and so forth. If the office is then painted white again,
productivity will increase. If lighting changes are made, productivity will
usually increase, whether brightness is increased or decreased. If office
workers are being given questionnaires and tests, productivity will increase
because it is expected to. Furthermore, these increases in productivity are
typically shown to be temporary. If changes to the environment are not
continued, productivity will usually decrease to original levels.
One additional problem with studies focusing on productivity is its
complexity. If one only measures units produced per hour, one does not
take into account the possible increases in absenteeism, worker
unhappiness, poor morale. A change which seems to increase productivity
can cause other negative effects, which in themselves can negate or even
countermand any positive effects: “increased production cannot be taken
to mean increased efficiency unless it can be demonstrated that the cost of
work has not increased proportionately” (Bitterman, 1948, p. 908, in
Helms, 1991, p. 153). On the other hand, if simple changes in lighting can
decrease the rates of absenteeism, increase worker morale and decrease
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44
visual fatigue on the job, the resultant changes in employee economics can
be large.
Most examples of solar design and daylighting do not involve color.
Many early human civilizations, particularly agrarian ones, maintained
strong ties to the heavens, usually through religion. Both Mayan cities and
the monuments of Egyptian pharaohs were strongly oriented toward the
sun and stars. More recently, the work of Arkansas architect James
Lambeth, FAIA. Though many of his designs focus more on the energy
savings possible through solar design, he has created several more
aesthetic effects through the use of holographic films (Figure 18). Most of
these examples, however, appear on the exterior of his buildings. One of
the most interesting uses of bounced colored sunlight in recent
architecture is the chapel of St. Ignatius on the campus of Seattle
University by Steven Holl. Utilizing a system of sunlight bouncing off a
colored interior wall placed in front of a clear window, the wash of gentle
color effects is heightened by a contrasting colored art glass “lens” (Figures
19-20). The color effects produced by this system vary in position as the
day progresses, however, the walls are painted a single color, and throw
only that color on the adjacent wall. The performance of the system is
also not tuned to cast a similar intensity of effect throughout the day.
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45
Figure 18: Blevins High School, Blevins, AK. (Lambeth, 1993, p. 115)
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Figure 19: Interior, Chapel of St. Ignatius (Seattle University, 2002. slide
30/40)
Figure 20: Interior, Chapel of St Ignatius (Seattle University, 2002, slide
33/40)
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Chapter IV: Experiment Design
47
The item to design, then, is a mechanical device/system which has
the ability to both bounce and change the color of direct sunlight as it
enters a space. The main object is to attempt to increase the daily
variation of the color of sunlight. There are of course, several design
possibilities.
A. Passive or active - for the purposes of this study, the design will
be for a passive system. Active systems are typically computer-controlled
to accurately remain directed toward the sun. Active control of a
mechanical nature would require more than the study is capable of for this
initial study. Passive devices can be quite sophisticated, provided the site
location and appropriate solar angles are designed for correctly. There
also exists currently significantly more background data for passive
systems. Additionally, the initial cost9 of such a system would be a primary
factor in bringing such a design to fruition in the marketplace, whether as a
part of initial construction or as a retrofit application.
B . Operable or static - The system will be designed with a minimum
of operable parts, and will be as simple as possible. Passive systems can
9 For further discussion of cost issues, see D. McQuillen, 1998.
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48
have operable mechanisms to increase their efficiency and capabilities, but
without a systematic literature of the simplest color bouncing systems,
such design is beyond the scope of this study.
The system can also be designed to only throw light into a space at
particular times of the day or year, or it can be allowed to adapt to the
changing position of the sun in order to cast a constant pattern or area of
color. The goal of this study is to present a retail environment with a s
varied an indoor experience as possible. Single events are typically more
prevalent in custom homes and museums, where history can have perhaps
greater significance than more transitory retail environments. This is not
to say that certain retail environments could not benefit from a tie in to
historical events and the reinforcement thereof by solar design means. I
would certainly like to see this type of design become more prevalent.
Hopefully this study can serve to show inexpensive ways of achieving
similar effects.
C. Reflective system - Again, several options present themselves.
Specular reflectors such as mirrors offer the highest light levels, but also
permit more heat gain to enter the designed space. Specular reflectors
can bounce white light to a separate coloring system, color can be integral
to the mirror, or light can be colored before ever reaching the mirror.
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With specular reflectors, the control of direct light beams and placement
of patterns on receiving wall is specific and can be focused. Specular
reflectors are a possible source of glare, and should be shielded to prevent
discomfort to the occupants. Direct sunlight in great quantities, whether
colored or not, is arguably more likely to produce more adverse effects
than positive ones (Erwine, 2000, p. 106).
A matte colored surface would bounce and color light in a diffuse
manner. Color is more evenly distributed, though its path and final
location are significantly more difficult to control. The colored light
produced cannot be easily focused, but diffused light will not transmit as
much heat as direct sunlight allowed into a space. If factors such as heat
gain are not anticipated in the design of such a system, the value of the
color system to a retailer could be negated by other unanticipated effects
(McQuillen, 1998).
D. Light Coloring system - Again, several feasible options present
themselves:
1. Colored Fluid - One of the first methods documented for
achieving colored illumination in a theatrical setting was developed by the
16t h century Italian architect and painter Serlio. (Mitchell, 2002, 47) He
used candles placed behind transparent containers filled with colored
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liquid for different atmospheric effects. It is possible that he additionally
placed a highly polished barber’s basin behind the candle, in effect
creating an elementary spotlight, by which he could have achieved some
directionality for his colored light. (Williams, 1999) A similar system of
colored water could be used to filter light, but might prove more weighty
and expensive than other alternatives.
2. Gel Media - Once commonly made out of gelatin and commonly
thought to be cellophane, colored “gels” are most prevalent in the theater
and television industry, and are constructed from deep-dyed polyester.
Color is integral to the material, not just lacquered on the surface. The
coloring of the light is achieved by subtracting a specific range of
wavelengths from a light source. The wavelengths absorbed are converted
into heat, resulting in the eventual disintegration and compromising of the
gel media. Other similar gels exist to filter infrared portions of the
spectrum, allowing heat gain to be dissipated before the light reaches the
coloring media, increasing its life.
3. Dichroic Glass - Various chemicals, minerals and trace rare earth
elements are vacuum-deposited onto the surface of a piece of glass. The
combination of elements in the coating and the thickness thereof
determines the wavelengths reflected and transmitted by the dichroic glass
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51
piece. The glass used Is usually Pyrex, specially formulated and treated to
withstand the heat of the artificial lamp source near which it is typically
placed within a lighting fixture. The angle of incidence determines the
color transmitted. A range of hues can therefore be transmitted, and
these can be mixed with several dichroic filters.
4. Prismatic Media - Colors can be separated from full spectrum
white light by passing the light through a clear prism (glass, plastic, water)
which refracts the light’s various wavelength at different rates. Difficult to
control in a passive system, prisms would cast a rainbow effect into a
space, not a single color. Prismatic effects can also be achieved at night
with incandescent lights instead of sunlight, increasing the useable hours of
the color bouncing system (Figure 20).
5. Holographic window film - Spectral colors can be separated from
white light and cast in a variety of angles, depending on the structural
composition and orientation of the holographic film. A usually proprietary
plastic is etched at an almost microscopic level to create what are
essentially thousands of prisms on a flat surface. This film is then applied
to the glass, or more commonly, inserted in the airspace between the two
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52
panes of an insulated glazing unit.1 0 This is a long-lasting but expensive
method of coloring sunlight.
6. “Oil Slick” or Soap bubble - For a more dynamic colored pattern
on the receiving surface, an oily or soapy liquid reflecting media could be
employed. These two media both reflect and refract light, thus negating
the need for two separate reflective and coloring systems. Their
effectiveness at reflecting whatever light is directed at them might wash
out any intended effects.
E. Receiving surface - The surface that receives the colored light
information is critical, and there exist at least the following options:
1. Wall (Vertical) or Ceiling (Horizontal) - Walls are more often a
part of one’s visual panorama than ceilings; design attention is perhaps
therefore more appropriate for walls than ceilings. However, ceilings are
perhaps an appropriate part of this study, in that the design is to provide
both dynamic visual interest and set the mood in a space. Uniform or
simple color washes on a ceiling spread a “mood” over a space.
2. Matte or gloss - A matte surface is preferable for this study, as a
gloss surface has the possibility of subsequent reflection of light, i.e.
becoming a source of glare. This brings up the subject of texture, which is
1 0 http://www/thinkingiiditmglv.coin/spectraiite/
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theorized to be a significant part of perception, even of color vision. The
studies of the relationship between texture and perception are few, and
often mired in the trap of voodoo ergonomics. Without further scientific
testing, the effects of texture on perception are not yet well understood.
3. Color - White will “accept” any color wash, but may continue to
be perceived as white if the contrast between colors in the field of view is
too low or not provided. A uniformly colored surface reacts will differently
under different wavelength illumination, and the color on the wall may
overpower any subtle effects from the color bouncing system. A two
colored system would suffer the same difficulties, and the filtered colored
light may not pick up all the colors in the wall. While a multicolored
pattern would possibly suffer under colored illumination, one might be
interested in the changing nature of a painted wall as different frequencies
are emphasized. For example, if a red portion of the wall were to be
illuminated with the color complementary to red (Green), the portion
would not appear red to the human eye. It would instead appear a dirty
brown or gray. A multicolored receiving surface could be an interesting
study or art piece, though outside the scope of this study.
F. Pattern reflected - A choice of color patterns exists for
projection/bouncing onto the interior surface: a solid color wash, a simple
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54
2 or 3 color block or bar pattern, a more complex intersecting colored ray
pattern, a “gobo” cutout pattern or corporate logo, among others. All but
the most simple of these patterns would require a specular reflector and
some sort of focusing system for accurate translation and correct
interpretation of the pattern, limiting many of the simpler options already
presented.
G. Focusing system - Depending on the nature of the pattern one
wishes to project onto the wall, focusing may or may not be necessary.
Focusing in this definition will include not only lenses but also shutters,
barndoors, dowsers, and the like.
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H. Color(s) to bounce - Choice of color is based on several factors,
and should take into account the ways in which vision and perception
occur. Yellow is the most fatiguing color, Greens near 540 nm wavelength
are the most visible to the human eye. Emotional responses to color
(although probably culturally conditioned) might also be a design strategy,
within an appropriate context.
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Chapter V: Testing Data
The model tested was a 24’ by 30’ room, ceiling at 14’, with an 8*
square skylight centered on the long axis of the room, 3.5’ away from the
shorter North (target) wall. An 8’ square monitor was placed directly over
the skylight, and was open on the West, East, and South sides (Figure 21).
The monitor was additionally varied by the placement of an angled insert
Figure 21: Typical model test configurations: Specular Bounce Design at
left, Direct Sunlight Apparatus at right.
extending from the upper southern edge of the monitor 2’ down into the
space.
Color bouncing was achieved by two means: Initial diffuse matte
surfaces used to bounce sunlight produced negligible effects. A revised
system was comprised of spectral mirror surfaces, over which was laid two
colors of Rosco brand cinematic gel. The colors chosen were R osco #318 -
Mayan S u n and R osco #360 - Clearwater (Figure 22). The two gel colors
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were chosen not just for their color, but for their identical transmissivity
values (52%).
Figure 22: R osco gels used
The reflector area was designed to bounce incoming sunlight up onto
the underside of the monitor throughout the year, and was designed for
34°N Latitude (Figure 23). Sections were taken along each sun angle at
each hour of the day for summer and winter solstices, and Spring/Fall
Equinox values. Figures 24 and 25 show their translation to the roof
surface. Digital photographs were taken for December 21st and July 21st
configurations at two-hour intervals through a port on the South wall, and
remain unretouched. Photos for these model tests are shown in Tables 1
through 24.
#318 #360
m m £8* m
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Figure 23: North/South section through monitor, showing winter and
summer sun angles.
A secondary set of test photographs was devised to test an opposite
method of allowing colored sunlight into a space - using a system of colored
windows to allow direct, not bounced, colored sunlight into the space. The
resulting sculpture was designed to allow only one window’s contribution of
direct light into the space at the hours for which it was designed. June
21st, 9 am sunlight entering other windows than the 9 am summer window
is prevented from entering the room space by means of baffles and shields.
Photos for these tests appear in Tables 25-36.
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Figure 24: Monitor Plan showing reflector system. Winter angles are
dotted, spring and summer angles are shown solid. Hatched area
represents the monitor/skylight position.
Figure 25: Monitor plan showing winter section of reflector system
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Model Photograph
Table 1: Test 1A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 21. No
Color.
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61
Model Photograph
Table 2: Test 1A ■ Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21. No
Color.
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62
■ B ill
Model Photograph
Table 3: Test 2A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 21.
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am S t 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 4: Test 2A - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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64
10 a.m
2 p.m. 4 p.m. Model Photograph
Table 5: Test 1 B • Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 21. No
Color.
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65
I H H i
Model Photograph
Table 6: Test 1 B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21. No
Color.
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66
10 a.m
Model Photograph
Table 7: Test 3A - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 21.
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am S t 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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12 p.m. 8 a.m. 10 a.m.
2 p.m. 4 p.m. Model Photograph
Table 8: Test 3A - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21,
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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68
Model Photograph
Table 9: Test 1C - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, December 21.
No Color.
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IP S fillS I^
Model Photograph
Table 10: Test 1 C - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, June 21. No
Color.
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70
10 a.m
Model Photograph
Table 11: Test 4A - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, December
21.
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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7 1
Model Photograph
Table 12: Test 4A - Specular Reflector, Angled Insert Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 13: Test 2B - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am 8t 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 14: Test 2B - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 15: Test 3 B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 16: Test 3B - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Daily Color Shift - Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 17: Test 2C - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 18: Test 2C - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 19: Test 3C - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 20: Test 3C - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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2 p.m. 4 p.m. Model Photograph
Table 21: Test 2D - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, December 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
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8 1
Model Photograph
Table 22: Test 2D - Specular Reflector, Standard Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 23: Test 3D - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, December 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 24: Test 3D - Specular Reflector, Overhang Monitor, June 21.
Seasonal Color Shift - Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 25: Test 4A - Direct Apparatus, December 21. No Color.
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85
Model Photograph
Table 26: Test 4A - Direct Apparatus, June 21. No Color.
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8 a.m. 10 a.m.
I. .J .1 U J I IU .J I I 1 J 1 I IU 1 J I 1 . ULJJMJIUIIl ----- r - If.... , , ........ I-,,,,,,
12 p.m.
Model Photograph
Table 27: Test 5A - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Blue 8 am fit 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
Summer: Orange 8 am E t 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 28: Test 5A - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
Summer: Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 29: Test 5 B - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2pm.
Summer: Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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89
Model Photograph
Table 30: Test 5B - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Daily Color Shift -
Winter: Orange 8 am & 4 pm, Blue 10 am to 2pm.
Summer: Blue 8 am & 4 pm, Orange 10 am to 2 pm.
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Model Photograph
Table 31: Test 5C - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Seasonal Color Shift -
Blue Summer, Orange Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 32: Test 5C - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Seasonal Color Shift - Blue
Summer, Orange Winter.
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Model Photograph
Table 33: Test 5D - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Seasonal Color Shift -
Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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93
Model Photograph
Table 34: Test 5D - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Seasonal Color Shift -
Orange Summer, Blue Winter.
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94
Model Photograph
Table 35: Test 5E - Direct Apparatus, December 21. Hourly Color Shift -
Winter: 8 am Yellow, 10 am Blue, 12 pm Red, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Yellow.
Summer: 8 am Red, 10 am Blue, 12 pm Yellow, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Red.
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Model Photograph
Table 36: Test 5E - Direct Apparatus, June 21. Hourly Color Shift -
Winter: 8 am Yellow, 10 am Blue, 12 pm Red, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Yellow.
Summer: 8 am Red, 10 am Blue, 12 pm Yellow, 2 pm Blue, 4 pm Red.
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96
Table 37: Test 6 - Camera properties.
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Chapter VI: Analysis & Conclusions
The results are much more varied that expected, but nevertheless
encouraging. Preliminary testing with matte reflecting panels in a similar
configuration to the specular system proved ineffectual. In general, it can
be concluded that the specular system is a fairly effective method of
transmitting colored light to the interior of the space. The direct sunlight
method, however, seems a much more powerful method than the
reflected/ bounced sunlight system.
In general, photographed results with the standard monitor are not
extremely powerful. Perhaps the main problem is that of trouble in
printing colored images. The images seen in all the tables are darker than
the photographs appear on a computer screen (printed ink versus light
emitted). In addition, the camera automatically neutralizes much of the
actual effect seen in the model by adjustment to a neutral gray. Table 37
demonstrates this camera effect. Though the camera is photographing the
same piece of white paper in each shot, when presented with only white
and a single color (b, c, e, & f), it neutralizes the white to a medium gray.
In the model shots, this has the effect of underexposing most of the shots,
dampening out the actual color effect. The 12 pm image taken in June is
one of the most striking examples of this dimming effect. In reality, the
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98
yellow gel is quite transparent and the interior of the space is significantly
brighter than the picture records.
Tables 1 and 2 show an even color tone in the daylighting of the
space. Color results in Table 3 are slightly more orange across all times
measured, with a very slight bluing of the 8 am and 4 pm photos. The
summer values in Table 4 show a much clearer orange effect, but the 8 am
and 4 pm images are nearly identical to corresponding uncolored images
(Table 2).
The addition of the overhang (designed to kill the majority of direct
light admitted into the space), shows a much stronger effect. Uncolored
values (Tables 5 and 6) are slightly darker than those in Tables 1 and 2, but
the elimination of the direct sunlight hotspot allows the camera to pick up
a much stronger diffuse bounced color effect. Allowing a hotspot of direct
sunlight into the space has the effect of “washing out” the color effect,
due to the increased overall brightness of the space. (This is an effect
which occurs with both the human eye and the camera).
It was hoped that the angled reflector within the monitor would
serve to bounce color more effectively down into the space by directing
more colored light down through the skylight. The results (Tables 1 1 and
12) are more varied in terms of contrasting areas of brightness, but hardly
a significant improvement over the standard monitor (Tables 3 and 4).
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99
Table 11 is perhaps an appropriate time to highlight one of the
curiosities of the research, an unusual blue artifact which shows up in
several of the tables as a glow below the opening (Table 11, December at 4
pm). The artifact seems to appear most strongly in the following tables:
Table 10, June between 10 am and 2 pm, Table 12, June at 12 pm, Table
13, December at all times measured, Table 23, December at all times
measured, and Table 24, at 8 am and 4 pm. Once attention is drawn to it,
the artifact can be seen in nearly all the specular reflection system tests.
The artifact appears in both June and December, with colored reflectors
and without (Table 10), with blue gel beside the opening (Tables 23 & 24)
and with orange gel surrounding it (Tables 12 & 13). I believe that what is
happening is a function of the eye and diffuse (not direct) skylight. When
diffuse skylight is allowed to enter the space (no overhang), and the overall
color of the image is tinted toward the orange portion of the spectrum, the
eye views the brighter spot of diffuse skylight as being more blue than it
actually is. This holds true even in Table 10, where there is no colored gel
used, as the camera has corrected the white formcore of the model’s
interior to a warm gray, resulting in a “cooler” and bluer bright spot.
What is interesting to note about the use of the standard monitor
(and to a lesser extent, the angled monitor) is that the effects are
variegated, demonstrating an almost random swirling patterning of colors
on the north wall. It is these images (among the first 10 or so tables) which
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100
many people have found most interesting. Perhaps the attraction to
pattern is a need of the eye - since the eye needs well-defined color
contrast to distinguish color most effectively, it is possible that the mind
might prefer patterned color to diffuse washes for this reason.
The indoor materials used (foamcore) are probably slightly too
reflective, the resultant glare in the camera lens and the eye of the viewer
may be washing out the effect of some of the color. Particularly in the
cases where direct sunlight is allowed into the space, the color effects
seem to be washed out by the extreme bright spot on the wall. A material
such as Strathmore board might prove less reflective.
The effect of daylight (as opposed to direct sunlight) appears to be
much stronger than anticipated at the outset of the research. In the
monitor system, daylight from various angles appears to be contributing
both general bluish colored light (as we know daylight to be), as well as
light bouncing off the gray roof and colored reflectors, up onto the monitor
and down into the space. This again has the effect of washing out the
color effects produced by the sunlight (increased brightness). It can also
muddy the colors, mixing them together in the space. In the direct
apparatus system, daylight’s contribution is seen particularly in the winter
photos, where daylight contributes summer window color to a different
winter color achieved by direct light (Table 29 - what should be blue is
mixed and muddy [10am to 2 pm]). While a black roof might have
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101
absorbed more stray daylight and prevented its entry into the space from
muddying the results, the heat gain from such a choice would likely be
extremely expensive.
The specular system also bounced the light after coloring at least
twice, diluting its effectiveness: one {or two) bounces of the monitor
ceiling and/or back wall, and an additional bounce off the viewed surface
of the room’s interior. Were the underside of the monitor more reflective
(even specular) the colored light might be stronger as it enters the space,
not diffused by the white monitor in its current configuration. A related
study might be to take photographs from directly underneath the skylight,
to determine the effectiveness of the first color bounce. A system more
similar to that at Holl’s Chapel of St. Ignatius (single bounce of colored
light) might prove more powerful, where the viewed surface is the second
bounce.
One other factor possibly contributing to unintended color mixing is
that even though the reflector systems were designed to throw one color of
light up to the underside of the reflector, they also need to be designed
not to throw the other colored light onto the back wall of the monitor.
The reflectors might in future be designed to incorporate some baffles or
wings which would shade the summer portion of the reflectors when only
winter light is desired. A study focusing on photographs from directly
underneath the skylight would also be of use in this instance.
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In all of the tests, the orange gel produces much more powerful
effects than does the blue. This occurs especially when the area of orange
gel is larger than the blue gel, but one sees muddying effects even when
that is not the case (Table 8). Though the two gels have the same
transmissivities (52%), the orange is a much more saturated color than the
blue. Were the blue to subtract significantly more than the orange, color
results might have been demonstrated more clearly, though brightness
levels in the interior of the space would have suffered.
Another reason for muddying can be seen in Tables 17 and 18. Due
to the overlap of the summer and winter paths shown in Figure 24, the
designer must decide which color to choose for the overlap section. In this
iteration, the summer color was preferred, but there is so little summer
colored area that the winter colored area mixes with the intended summer
effect. If one is to completely separate out summer and winter colored
light, it will probably be necessary to have at least one set of angled
reflectors to avoid such an overlap. Curved reflectors are also a possibility,
but might increase cost prohibitively.
Arguably some of the most visually interesting results are found in
Tables 35 and 36. Unintentionally, the thickness of the mirrored reflector
seems to be casting patterned reflections directly onto the wall. The
overall toning of the space is the greatest in these tables. Most visually
stimulating, however, is the pattern of contrast cast on the window. A
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103
further study might be to intentionally achieve these kinds of direct
pattern-casting effects. Heat gain, expense and the transitory nature of
fashion would probably need to be addressed in such a study. A passive
system can inexpensively cast patterns, but the research on how those
patterns may affect occupants of a space in the long term is limited, found
in the young and often dubious science of “Bionomics” and “Cognitive
Ergonomics”.
Tables 35 and 36 are perhaps most effective in showing that
variation can be achieved on an hourly basis, where color was different for
each window. The gels used in this test were not cinematic, and thus
there is no specific transmissivity information available. They are,
however, each much more saturated than the orange and blue gels used
elsewhere in the testing.
The color bouncing system has uses in retail - grocery markets with
existing skylights could benefit most easily from a retrofit application, but
bounced color from the system might interfere with interior color
schemes, or product displays and packaging. Research as to whether
specific colors increase sales or whether increased patterning of light and
color is more effective would be of great use to retailers. More advanced
color bouncing systems could easily serve any form of
retail/entertainment/gaming/themed space. Even outdoor venues could
benefit, extending the performance of the system into evening hours by
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the use of projection lighting to mimic sun angles. Artificial lighting of
such a system could allow for much shorter time between color changes,
and would help to prevent color adaptation. A system which references a
particular historical point or anniversary with a timed color event would
likely be more appropriate for residential and museum spaces.
Office interiors would hopefully be able to take advantage of a
system tested in this study, possibly increasing variation and liveliness in a
space, with possible correlated increases in worker morale and interest.
Before these kinds of effects can be statistically proven, more studies such
as this must be pursued. I continue to hope that architectural spaces will
increase in their connectivity to outside forces such as sun and daylight, for
our lives are richer when we do.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
R E F E R E N C E S
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Asset Metadata

Creator Hulme, Mark Jonathan (author)

Core Title Color and daylighting: Towards a theory of bounced color and dynamic daylighting

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Building Science / Master in Biomedical Sciences

Degree Program Building Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Architecture,OAI-PMH Harvest,physics, optics,psychology, behavioral

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-308155

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Legacy Identifier 1417924.pdf

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Rights Hulme, Mark Jonathan

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