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Factors influencing minority parents to place their children in private schools

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Factors influencing minority parents to place their children in private schools

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Content NOTE TO USERS This reproduction is the best copy available. __ ® UMI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FACTORS INFLUENCING MINORITY PARENTS TO PLACE THEIR CHILDREN IN PRIVATE SCHOOLS ©2001 by Gwendolyn Gholson-Driver A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (EDUCATION) May 2001 Gwendolyn Gholson-Driver Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3027719 Copyright 2001 by Gholson-Driver, Gwendolyn All rights reserved. ___ ® UMI UMI Microform 3027719 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA School of Education Los Angeles, California 90089-0031 This dissertation, written by Gwendolyn Gholson-Driver______________ under the direction ofh Dissertation Committee, and approved by all members o f the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partialfulfillment of the requirementsfor the degree of D o c t o r o f E d u c a t io n iiLifbo^ Dean Dissertation Committee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements I wish to express my appreciation to my father and mother, Robert L. Ghol- son and Robbie Gholson, who taught me love and the concept of "you work hard and you pray and good thing will come to you." They modeled what they taught to all of their 13 children. They showed by example the concepts of determination, perseverance and drive. For that, I thank them! A special kindness, appreciation and love is extended to my best friend for the past 22 years, Josephine Sanders of Gary, Indiana. I wish to thank Dr. Edgar H. Williams and my committee who exemplified patience and understanding during this process. The educational challenges that were presented before me were extremely provocative while being a full-time em ployee. Dr. Williams support, and commitment as well as a very caring person car ried me through this program during personal crises. Appreciation is extended to both Dr. Vernon Broussard and Dr. Stuart Gothold for coming on board to support my finishing this program. I wish to thank my husband, Kyle D. Driver, as he endured some tough times. His support, patience and fortitude allowed me to continue on the stretch to successfully complete this program. He carries the correct name of Driver! He was the driving force, in my immediate environment, to keep me focused. I as well thank my sons, Robert and Erik and my daughter, Dawn for their continued en couragement and love to see me through this program. permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A sincere thank you, to all individuals who offered their support through continued encouragement, kind words, love. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements........................................................................................... ii List of Tables.................................................................................................... v List of Figures..................................................... vi Abstract............................................................................................................. ii Chapter 1. Introduction................................................................................... 1 2. Literature Review.......................................................................... 11 3. Methods and Procedures............................................................... 53 4. Results.............................................................................................. 67 5. Discussion ...................................................................................... 86 References......................................................................................................... 95 Appendices........................................................................................................ 102 A. Differences in Organizational Structure Between Public, Parochial and Independent Schools....................................... 103 B. Simplified Organization Structure: Public School Model 105 C. Diocesan School Model.................................................................. 107 D. Parish Model Consultative Education Board................................ 109 E. Independent School M odel............................................................ I l l F. Student's Reports of School Crime: 1989 and 1995................... 113 G. School Invitation Letter.................................................................. 118 H. Parent Letter.................................................................................... 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V Page I. Demographic Characteristics and Parent Questionnaire............... 122 J. Self-reported Demographic Characteristics........................................... 131 K. Listing ofLikert Scale Responses (Frequency and Agreement) to Survey Questions.............. 135 L. Respondents of Important Attributes in the Education of Their Child and Determining School Choice................................... 141 M. Summary of Variable Correlations................................................. 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vi List of Tables Table Page 1. Parameters of Outcome Measures................................................. 64 2. Other Self-Reported Demographic................................................ 72 3. Learning Program........................................................................... 75 4. Questions on Survey....................................................................... 74 5. Summary of Variable Correlation Coefficient............................... 80 6. Spearman Correlation Coefficient.................................................. 81 7. Recommendation for Public and Private Schools......................... 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vii List of Figures Figures Page 1. Factors That Influence Parents...................................................... 5 2. Three Radical Categories of Schools............................................ 19 3. Correlation Coefficients................................................................. 65 4. Ethnicity Self-Reported Chart....................................................... 69 5. Group I: Ethnicity.......................................... 69 6. Group II: Ethnicity........................................................................ 70 7. Group III: Ethnicity....................................................................... 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. viii Abstract The purpose of the study was to identify the different reasons parents, of African American and Hispanic decent, have enrolled their children in nonpublic school. There were five questions that focused on the qualitative study. Three nonpublic schools participated in the study. A survey was administered to 86 parent respondents. The survey consisted of several sections. The first section was self-reported demographic information, and questions related to family and own educational experiences. The second sec tion consisted of questions using the Likert Scale of Importance. There were four controlled variables and attributes related to factors influencing parents to place their children in nonpublic schools. The four controlled variables were (a) aca demic achievement, (b) school safety, (c) positive school culture, and (d) motiva tion/efficacy of teachers. The surveys were collected, data compiled and coded for computer analysis. The conceptual framework is key aspect in the study and fo cuses on key factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among them. The questions were designed and set up using the Parameters of Outcome Measure. The Spearman rho (p) Correlation Coefficient was used to measure the relationships between the variables and attributes. Frequency distribution was used to rank the variables. The written parental responses were designed to support the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ix Likert Survey, and allow a deeper investigation into specific reason parents en rolled their children in nonpublic. The results of the study shows little correlation's between self-reported demographic information and academic achievement of students. The correlation coefficient results found that the four variables: (a) academic achievement, (b) school safety, (c) school culture, and (d) teacher efficacy/ motivation were highly correlated to each other. The majority of subjects did not attend nonpublic school, however, parents' ranked academic achievement as number reason that influenced their decision to place children in nonpublic school. Parents made recommenda tions for improvement of both public and nonpublic schools. The significant result of this study was that the parents enrolled their children in private schools for the quality of education rather than religion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 Chapter 1 Introduction Public education is under attack for its failure to perform its perceived pri mary responsibility to produce a population of productive educated individuals pre pared to become successful citizens. Results of the education reform movement of the 1980s and 1990s are less than acceptable to many parents. Through the process of reform, however, the demand for educational choice within the public school sys tem has grown by leaps and bounds and is a philosophy embraced by many parents. Parents now demand more accountability for their children's education. Not only are they demanding choice within the public school system, they are investigat ing schools in the nonpublic sector. Families of African-American and Hispanic ori gin in particular, have taken a closer look at private school choices. There are sev eral reasons for this occurrence. Parents want their children to become literate and have a quality of life that is productive and functional, and contributive in their communities. The United States educational system is composed of the Public Educa tional System and the Private Educational System. Public education by definition is managed primarily by federal, state and local government and those agencies receive money through taxpayers. They control its democratic and administrative practices. The majority of children, most of whom participate in some form of school ing, attend public schools. Schools within the private educational system have either Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 a religious or other independent agency affiliation for the most part. Those con trolled by a church have a religious orientation/instructional aspect to the academic program. Independent schools on the other hand are quite diverse in their educa tional missions. Private schools are funded through annual tuition paid by families of the attending children. The developmental past of public education prompts us to review current heightened parental concern/focus on their children’s educational experiences. The experience of African-American families has been unique warranting close attention to the history of United States education. For years, they struggled for entry into the public school system through legal channels. Although the country moved for ward in defining equity, justice and multiculturalism, it has done a poor job of trans lating its objectives into improved educational achievement (Wells, 1988). Histori cal mistreatment of minority populations has contributed to the growth of an at high-risk group which ultimately translates into a considerable disadvantage in the educational system (Bempechat & Ginsburg, 1989). Traditionally, African-American families have preferred to have their chil dren educated in the public school system. Review of literature indicates the strife and struggles experienced over the years by African-Americans seeking educational opportunities for their children. They have not been content to accept and allow a poorer quality of education for their children. Currently, they are concerned about the lack of their children's achievement in pubic school. They are realizing that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 choices are available to their children for a better quality of education and prepara tion for a more successful future. Significance of the Problem When the National Commission on Excellence published "A Nation at Risk" in 1983, a responsive chord was struck in the educational community and through out our society. It concluded the nation is at risk because the fastest growing seg ments of the population, African-Americans and other minorities, are losing ground in the educational system which is supposed to provide all children with educational preparation and benefits that lead to economic opportunities, mobility and independ ence. William’s (1992) research found that almost 30% of the nations school popu lation are estimated to be at risk for failure. Demographic projections show a continual increase in those at risk for fail ure if the proper intervention is not instituted. Data on children in poverty correlate highly with data on children from African-American families; 1:3 African- Americans, compared to that of 1:10 Caucasians live below poverty line (“Black and White in America,” 1988). In addition, 90% of the children bom into poverty live in households headed by a female African-American or female Hispanic (Hodgkinson, 1985). The African-American population continues to make up 12% of the total population of this country. The incidence of African-American families at or below the poverty line is disproportionate to that of other ethnic groups. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 African-American and Hispanic children continue to be the most over represented ethnic/racial groups in special education programs and have a dispro portionately low number of children participating in the State of California’s Gifted and Talented Education Program. The selection process and criteria for entry into these programs are biased. They have limited space and minority students are de nied equal access/entry into the programs (Williams, 1992). Data on test scores in public education is shocking and disturbing. Families are becoming increasingly concerned and are focused on the issue of educational choice. In a survey conducted in 1991 of 800 registered California voters over 50% felt that their local government schools were doing a poor job, and 70% believed that governmental schools statewide were doing a poor job. Dissatisfaction was highest among African-American voters (Steinberg & David, 1991). Urban areas face many challenges as the 20th century comes to a close. Teachers and school administrators working large municipalities continue to have the daily responsibility of educating children who are disproportionately poor, usu ally minority, and too often labeled “disadvantaged” or “at risk.” The stakes are high, as historically education has been perceived as a vehicle for economic freedom for African-Americans and other minority populations. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to identity reasons parents, African-Americans and Hispanic especially, have enrolled their children in private schools at substantial cost when public education is free. The conceptual framework is key aspect of this study. Miles and Huberman (1994) state that a conceptual framework "explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied— the key factors, concepts, or variables and the presumed relationships among them" (Figure 1). School . Culture Safety Issues Academic Achievement Motivation Efficacy What factors influenced parents to place their child and/or children in private school? Figure 1. Factors That Influenced Parents Issues of school choice will be engaged through a survey technique. The study investigates the association between relevant subject characteristics and paren tal choice to enroll their children in private schools. Dependent variables used in the study are academic achievement (AA), safety issues (SI), school culture (SC), teacher expectations and efficacy (ME). Parental demographic and experiential factors included parent’s level of in come, parent’s education level, their history of attending a private school and their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 marital status. Research has shown each variable and demographic and experiential factor to influence educational choices made for children. The survey was developed as the result of the literature review and profes sional expertise. Questions stated below were established. Survey questions were developed in order to test for significant factors, which influence school choice. Findings reported here should be considered by both public and nonpublic schools in their effort to increase student achievement and promote parental involvement. Many previously documented significant associations between factors listed above, and other results/conclusions generated from this research can apply to communities throughout Los Angeles and the nation. Concerns listed above, trends, associations of variables and results generated from this study, should contribute to academic progress of public and nonpublic schools around the country. The research questions are as follows: 1. What demographic factors influence parents to choose nonpublic education for their children? 2. What factors of academic achievement are important for parents to choose to place their children in non-public schools? 3. What factors of safety concerns are most influential in placing chil dren in nonpublic schools? 4. What aspects of school culture are important for parents to choose nonpublic schools for their children? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 5. Do parents believe nonpublic schoolteachers are more focused on the instructional program than public school? Assumptions of the Study Research design, data gathering, data composition and analysis procedures are appropriate for subjects of the study. 1. The subjects are from the same South Central geographic location in metropolitan Los Angeles. 2. The grade levels chosen for the study are elementary K-6 grades. Limitations Limitations possibly effecting the validity and the extent to which the results of the study could be broadly applied include: 1. Subjects of the survey were from a small urban geographic area of Los Angeles. 2. Subjects of the survey were not from a broad demographic origin. 3. Subjects of the survey were only from Religious Schools. Definitions of Terms and Concepts Demography As defined in The American Heritage Dictionary Second Edition (1985), is the study of the characteristics of human populations as size, growth, density, distri bution and vital statistics. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 Academic Achievement Is the act of accomplishment or completion of studies successfully as defined by school standards and expectations. These studies pertain to liberal and conven tional rather than vocational and technical. Academic achievement occurs through quality-established standards and curriculum of the school and high standardized test scores and good grades of the students. Student success in school relates to being prepared to enter college, and depends on personal growth and development through school programs. Safety Issues Refer to an environment that is free from danger and dangerous incidents. Safe schools focus on discipline policies, good character, clear communication proc esses, freedom from weapons and violence and achieving mental as well as physical safety on campuses. The safety of students in school is closely correlated with aca demic achievement. School Cultures A positive organizational climate among staff and students of active learning and success. It is the perception that individuals are part of an organization. It is influenced and characterized by (a) parent participation, (b) clear expectations of parents, (c) good leadership and teamwork, (d) communication classes for students and staff, (e) positive school program participation, (f) teacher and student commit ment, and (g) clear vision. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Teacher Expectations Refers to teachers having a positive attitude toward high expectations for all students, as continuously learners and achievers of success. Teacher expectations influence the ways students behave in the classroom and how much they learn. Teacher Efficacy Refers to whether or not a teacher believes a student can perform and achieve academic success regardless of race, culture and/or economic status. This relates to the teacher’s own ability to effect a student’s learning. Teachers having a greater sense of efficacy produce high achievement gains in their students. Attribution As defined in this study, refers to characteristics attributing to academic achievement and the success of school organizations. The locus of control in a suc cessful school contributes to academic achievement and the success of the total school environment. At-risk Students At-risk students or the neglected majority has been defined in a report A Nation at Risk, released by the National Commission on Excellence in 1983. The at-risk group of students includes all grade levels and low socioeconomic back grounds and functionally deficient. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 Academic Freedom Refers to the liberty of African-Americans to pursue economic gain through educational knowledge and be free of bondage. School attendance provides educa tional benefits to individuals with greater economic advantages, of mobility and independence. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 Chapter 2 Literature Review Historically, school choice has impacted the educational structure. Today, parents making decisions about where and how their children will be educated is a trend. The choices are between public versus nonpublic/private. The history of the education system has rich and profound relevance to today’s trend of parents mak ing an educational choice. Historical Perspective Under the federal system, which funds public education, the three levels of government exist federal, state and local. Each has a voice in educational matters, although not necessarily a unified voice. Education, which is not mentioned in the federal constitution, has been significant and controversial in judiciary mat ters/issues. Federal judiciary education issues have been: (a) racial segregation of schools, (b) financing of schools, (c) due process for both students and teachers, and (d) the extent to which students and teachers may exercise their freedom of expres sion. Further, interpretation of the 14th Amendment of the Constitution had an un mistakable impact on educational policy making. State government has plenary power over public education. It operates, recognizing constitutional and statutory provisions, executive acts, state board of education policies, and actions of the State Superintendent. On occasion, this Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 design causes conflict and demise for local school educators who have issues within their local communities to resolve. The first law on compulsory education was enacted in the year 1642. Two hundred years later, Massachusetts adopted the first general compulsory attendance law, requiring American children between 6 and 14 years of age to attend school (van Geel, 1987 cited in Tyack, 1987). The children referred to were White Ameri cans. Presently, children of all races attend school. The majority attends public schools where policies are determined by state and local officials. Private schools are govemmentally regulated and home schooling is permissible in some circum stances (Levin, Kirp & Yudof, 1992). Most people are aware of compulsory laws and regulated private school laws. Less understood by the general population however are how school patterns came to be, their implications for students, the nature and scope of legitimate com munity and individual interest, and the statutory bases for the educational structure. The “Pierce Compromise” authored by Governor Pierce of Oregon challenged the laws on compulsory attendance of public schools, and established an educational governance debate which opened the doors to private education: Should the state have State Monopoly of education for all children? Do parents have a right to edu cate their children in a private school (Levin, Kirp & Yudof, 1992)? Ku Klux Klan members and the Oregon’s Scottish Rite Masons among oth ers the challenged compulsory attendance law in Oregon. Strong feelings against Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 many foreigners at the time, Catholics in particular, prompted a leading Klansman to state: “Somehow, these mongrel hordes must be Americanized; failing that, deposi tion is the only remedy.” An attempt was made to picture Catholics as members of an organization that conducted its worship services in a foreign language, was controlled by a foreigner called a Pope, and practiced secret rituals (LaMonte, 1996, p. 20). Prior to 1890, education determining the relevance of compulsory education was a challenge for many states. White Americans built a vast elementary education system, which attracted numbers of children. However, as schooling was increas ingly made compulsory, debate over compulsory laws heated on ideological grounds. Tyack and James (1987) describes this period of history as a “symbolic” stage. The movement had varied roots: Both phases of compulsory school attendance may be seen as part of significant shifts in the functions of families and the status of children and youth. Households in American industrial cities became more like units of consumption than of production. Advocates of compulsory schooling often argued that families, or at least some families, those of the poor and foreign bom, were failing to carry out their tradi tional functions of moral and vocational training. Immigrant children in crowded cities, reform complained, were leading disorderly lives, schooled by the street and their peers more than by Christian nurture in the home. Much of the drive for compulsory schooling reflected an animus against par ents considered incompetent to train their children. Often combining fear of social unrest with humanitarian zeal, re formers used the powers of the state to intervene in families Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 and to create alternative institutions of socialization. (As cited in Tyack, 1976, p. 355) Industrial Revolutions occurred in the United States and Europe, 1865-1910 during the time of the compulsory education struggles. Employment increased in the nation. Demographics changed with a wave of political immigration: discrimina tion against Chinese immigrants surfaced. Newly freed African slaves from the South, migrating North, created friction in the communities in America. The changing ethnic population created cultural influences which challenged and urbanized our communities. All the while compulsory education for White America continued throughout the States. Interestingly enough, the Southern states acquired compulsory schooling at a much slower rate than the North or West where population growth was occurring. In the Southern States, more pressing issues were related to the education of freed African slaves. A dual-school system, gener ally associated with Southern States, resulted from a 1896 Supreme Court decision which established the “separate but equal” doctrine regarding public facilities and services. Plessy v. Ferguson, established the legal basis for segregated public facili ties and services, and therefore ushered in the era of de jure segregation in America (LaMorte, 1996, pp. 284-285). Concerns, among others were poor facilities, lack of curriculum materials, the segregation and whether African-American children were prepared academically for a competitive society. The situation of inequity was profound and unconstitutional. It continued until it was found to be so by Brown v . Board o f Education Topeka, Supreme Court Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 of the United States, 1954, 347 U. S. 483, which brought about the desegregation of schools. It involved four states and addressed the issue of African-American children attending neighborhood schools in the communities in which they lived (LaMonte, 1996, p. 299). Following Brown v. Board o f Education Topeka, there were still inequities and it remained unlikely that African-American students had equal opportunities in education. Conditions in schools continued to be poor in the African-American communities and roadblocks continued to perpetuate and plague community growth. There was a lack of economic wealth, a lack of effective communication processes, and a shortage of skilled professional personnel to develop realistic stra tegic plans to be implemented and monitored. The struggle to educate children in urban communities continued to be extreme for African-Americans and other minor ity groups. Private schools continued to develop in other communities while African- Americans continued fighting for separate but equal public education. Pierce v . Society o f Sisters (1925) which compelled and regulated schools in the State of Oregon, was a landmark Supreme Court decision in which Justice McReynolds de livered the opinion of the court. The challenged Act, which became effective Sep tember 1, 1926, requires every parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge or custody of a child between 8 and 16 years to send him to a public school, for the period of time a public school shall be held during the current year. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. school must exist in the district where the child resides. It went on to state that fail ure to do so declares a misdemeanor (La Monte, 1996, p. 20). The Society of Sisters, the plaintiffs, organized in 1880, cared for orphans and educated and provided instruction for youth. They alleged that the enactment conflicted with the right of parents to choose schools where their children would receive appropriate mental and religious training, and the right of the child to influ ence the parents’ choice of a school. Further, it enacted the right of schools to en gage in a useful business or profession (school) and is accordingly repugnant to the Constitution (Levin, Kirp, & Yudof, 1992, p. 11). The Pierce decision is most often cited as authority for the proposition that parents do have the right to educate their children in private schools. It only ef fected the State of Oregon, and did not automatically affect similar laws in other states where individual state legislation action would be necessary to revoke similar laws. It identified parochial and private schools ability to satisfy the State’s de mands for educating children. Although, the Pierce decision allowed private school instruction, a year later the courts addressed the issue of state regulation: To what extent could the state regulate the private schools within the jurisdiction? This was Farrington v . Tokushige in 1927, Mr. Justice McReynolds delivered the opinion of the court. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 The case involved foreign language schools and teachers therein, opening in Hawaii to educate the high population of Japanese. Given the extent of the legal challenges surrounding compulsory schooling and state laws, the Pierce Compro mise left the state to reasonably regulate all schools. The state was left to inspect, supervise and examine their schools, teachers and pupils. The Compromise required certain studies plainly essential to the good citi zenship of its students, be taught. Nothing should be taught that was manifestly in imical to the public welfare (Levin, Kirp, & Yudof, 1992, pp. 20-21). Therefore, schools started developing into organizations systems. Organizational Institutions Educators have discerned school organizational structures, which include private and independent schools. Private schools are diverse in character as any comparable number of U. S. schools include church controlled schools, which gen erally have a religious orientation and/or instructional aspect to the academic pro gram, and independent schools, which schools are quite diverse in their educational mission. Organizational structure is an established hierarchical design, which defines the communication patterns and processing within the social environment. An or ganization is defined by its structure, channels of communication and authority, and order of the actions and the events that occur. It provides stability and predictabil ity. Schools have defined roles and responsibilities for school districts governance Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and personnel, which define and ensure proper lines of coordination, power, control and distribution of information in an orderly manner. One characteristic identified with school organizations is information going down the hierarchy in an authoritative manner as opposed to up a hierarchy of command. Information flows as directives, such as faculty and student codes, pro gram guidelines, state and district policy requirements, school board decisions, and new administrative procedures. The information flowing up is feedback-type such as (a) summaries of reports, (b) resource requests, (c) processing of evaluation for faculty and staff, (d) explanations of academic or discipline matters of special stu dents, and (e) curricular program documents and recommendations. Differences Between Three Distinct School Organizational Structures Public, private and independent schools have similarities and differences in governance, administration, philosophy, and how they function within the educa tional system. Differences between public, parochial and independent schools are shown in a graphic view (Figure 2). In the chart located in the Appendix (A), you will find differences presented in an organizational chart with identified characteristics. The models of organizational structure for each, located in Appendices B, C, D and E (Organizational Structure) identify the lines of authority, supervision of staff and show how they function. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 ml M m II! a i£ i A JR Parochial School Public School Independent School Figure 2. Three radical categories of schools. Differences between the school types exist in governance, the purpose, func tions, and responsibility of the school board. They include: (a) financial resources and management, (b) administrative power and positions, (c) planning, (d) philoso phy, (e) administrative duties, (f) communication styles established in the structure, (g) personnel processing, (h) conflict and due process procedures, and (i) parental involvement (Appendix A). The discussion below examines the differences in greater depth and detail. Another critical difference is that parents are required to participate in non public schools, whereas in public schools they are encouraged to participate a many roadblocks in the participation process, including lack of communication to and lack of expectations of parents. Parents generally perceive that public schools do not welcome them on campus. Public School Governance American public schools are free to all American citizens in all states and are governed within the democratic system. Elected officials, state statues and federal Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 constitutional laws set policy. They function of each of the 50 states. The general assembly of each state has jurisdictional authority for public schools within the state in accord with constitution and the court rulings. Public school boards of education have the power to levy taxes to support schools and have specific legal authority over the schools. Boards members gener ally have full responsibility for policy making and financial decisions of a school dis trict, unless the state intervenes and levies state receivership on the district for rea sons of poor financial management and negligence. Financial support for the system comes from the citizens through: (a) state and federal support, (b) tax levies, (c) special taxes, (d) county funding, (e) grant funding, (f) program contract funding, and (g) private donations. General funds are assessed by the Average Daily Attendance (ADA) of students. An equalization for mula is used to make sure schools are receiving equitable funding as defined by the courts. District Superintendents are hired by and are accountable to the elected Board of Education. He/she is the secretary of the elected board and chief negotia tor in negotiations with the unions, having responsibility is to carry out the adopted board policies and ensure the policies protect the district interest. Along with se lected cabinet members he/she develops the internal structure and implements the regulations and adopted policies. His/her responsibilities include being the spokes- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 person for the organization, supervising and directing staff and the general operation of the district including operation of the budget. He/she is relied upon to develop a process and establish direction for the de sign, implementation, and monitoring of a strategic plan. Set rules do not exist for organizing the planning process or who will be involved in the process, rather a process is adopted that is based on the superintendent’s leadership style. Private/Parochial School Governance The identities of private schools include: (a) parochial, (b) independent, (c) subject defined, (d) privately owned, (e) group owned, and (f) subject curriculum focused. The discussion below cites several parochial school designs within the Catholic church. Governance Board of Catholic Church School There are numerous differences in the purpose and function of public and private school boards. The governance and organizational structure of Catholic church schools is embedded in the governance of the church. Church governance is a ministry, which serves God by helping to maintain order to promote and protect rights and obligations necessary to carry out the mission Jesus gave to the church. Those who serve as ministers of governance, have a distinct and unique responsibil ity to see that the rights and duties of individuals are affirmed within the institution. The church community comes together to work with staffs of dioceses, parishes, and private schools to provide direction for education programs. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 Elementary and secondary Catholic school education programs operate within the structures of both ecclesiastical and civil law. The Canon Law, which was revised during the reign of Pope John II, prescribes only general norms in edu cation. Two principles are especially relevant: subsidiary and collaboration. The establishment of specific laws and rules are left for the local churches. The two levels of local governance are Diocesan and Parishes. The church assumes responsibility for the governance and decisions at the school site within the church. For example, if an educational decision must be made by the Parish, the Diocesan would not make the decision. If an educational decision concerning the Diocesan has to be made, the Diocesan must take the responsibility. Both the Parish and Diocesan function in the execution system (Provost, 1985). Provost (1985) identifies the Bishop’s role in education. The Bishop in Catholic schools assumes responsibility and authority in his Diocese. The Bishop sets the direction for education in his Diocese, and controls teachers of religion. The organizational structure of the Diocesan is shown in Appendix C. The Bishop is the only legislator, described as legislative, judicial, and executive in nature, and may not delegate his authority for any reason. Catholic schooling is considered a .professional activity which is provided in service to parents. Under dual direction of the hierarchy and the authorities in the school, most schools are Parish based and work directly with the local pastor who is responsible for the administrative team which is comprised of the pastor and the educational Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 administrate^s). The pastor who retains some administrative duties, is the employer of the administrative staff that hire, supervise, and evaluate. The administrator, au thority delegated in a contract or job description, is responsible for the operation of the educational program. The organizational model is shown in Appendix D. Models for educational programs differ between Parishes as do ways which they design educational governance. One example of a Parish governance board is shown in Appendix C. This is constituted by the religious congregation which owns the school. Governance is dived into two parts: (a) policy and (b) administration. Policy matters are the only responsibility of the board. It is not involved with ad ministration or administrative details of operations. It is composed of an administra tive team and other members. Board policy will be enforced as long as it does not conflict with the Dioce san policy. The board is consultative (Appendix D). It cannot act apart from the administrative team and cannot make decisions that are binding for the Parish’s edu cational program without approval from the administrative team. Therefore, the model for decision making is consensus. The pastor and principal must deliberate with the board on policy issues. The board has responsibility for mission statements, goals and future plans. The formulated policy gives general direction for administrative action. The board communicates with community groups, develops fund raising plans, and allocate Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 resources according to the budget. The board makes sure that the goals and plans are met as designed. Independent School Governance Independent schools do not operate under a centralized bureaucratic pres ence. Rather governance is self-selected, and therefore, exists as a self-perpetuating board of trustees who ultimately have full responsibility for governance, philosophy, resources, and programs. The organizational structure generally is a selected board, an administrator(s), teachers, and other staff. Some independent schools have advi sory boards, which consist of individuals with educational expertise and/or individu als that possess the skills and knowledge needed to achieve an academic and cultural focus in the organization. A sample board for the independent school is shown in Appendix E. Independent schools must abide by the state regulations. Some are privately owned, while others are established in conjunction with a nonprofit organization. They are fully responsible for their financial obligations, and therefore, charge tui tion and engage in fund raising and grant writing to support the operation of the school and the educational program. Independent schools have individual objectives and approaches, however, there are basic characteristics that are common to all schools. The National Asso ciation of Independent Schools (1984) lists five characteristics of independent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 schools which are (a) governance, (b) finance, (c) curriculum, (d) student selection, and (e) the faculty selection. The general population has a narrow and quite definite conception about nonpublic schools, which are any school not financed by public funded by taxpayer’s money and historically have been viewed as schools for the elite and wealthy. Many people believe only children of well-to-do White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs) need apply. The roster of graduates from nonpublic schools contributes to their reputa tion. Accomplished professionals, well-knowm statesman, literary figures such as Edward Albee, George Bush, John Irving, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, John Knowles, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. and Gore Vidal, are only a few of such distinguished graduates (Kane, 1991). Reading popular fiction and viewing films such as the acclaimed Dead Poets Society forms the image in the minds of the general population. The media has suc ceeded in giving these schools an aura of exclusivity and elitism more in keeping with the Edwardian world of “Masterpiece Theater” than with current reality. In African-American communities, attending a nonpublic school was not a viable option. Existing private schools only admitted Anglo - American, and there was scarcity of economic resources for African-Americans. However, a few non public schools developed in the African-American communities, primarily higher education schools. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 The discussion of school structure was intended to establish a foundation for further discussion on public and nonpublic schools, as government policy and American culture directly pertain to the topic, school choice. School Culture School organizational structures develop a unique school organizational cul ture. The American Heritage Dictionary defines organization as “something com prising elements with varied functions that contribute to the whole and to collective functions; a number of persons or groups having specific responsibilities and united for a particular purpose.” While the dictionary definition is somewhat simple, the concepts of organizational theory to understanding organizations and human behav ior are tremendously complex. Parents are interested in an intangible attitude that is generated through the feeling of productivity, growth and success on a school campus. Parents’ views of the school campus environment reflect their perception of the academic success of their children. Successful schools develop and exhibit a positive culture, which pro duces a climate of active learners, staff and students, pride, commitment, productiv ity, and general respect. They have strong leaders whose primary focus is to educate all which in volves (a) the evolution and development of adult citizens able to be responsible, (b) communicate effectively with others, (c) make good decisions, (d) provide for self Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 and family, (e) develop analytical and critical thinking skills, and (f) problem-solving methods that will allow efficient and effective direction on life’s journey. Kanter’s (1983) research leads her to believe that the culture of pride is widely found in organizations that are integrative, meaning they emphasize the wholeness of the enterprise; that actively consider the wider implications of things that they do; and that thrive on diversity and stimulate challenges to traditional prac tices. They tend to a large extent to be successful because their cultures foster a climate of success. In contrast, Kanter (1983) describes less successful organiza tions as being segmented, where members find it difficult even to discover what is going on beyond their sphere of operations much less problems that affect the whole organization. People are kept isolated and stratified in segmented organizations which are characterized as other than successful; they are kept away from the larger decisions, focused on a narrow piece of action directly pertaining to them, and find it difficult to take pride in the organization they know little about. “Culture can be defined as the shared philosophies, ideologies, values, as sumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes and norms that knit a community to gether.” A community is an organization—a school for example, and all of these interrelated qualities reveal agreement, implicit or explicit, among teachers, adminis trators, and other participants on how to approach decisions and problems: the way things are done around here (Kilmann, Saxton, & Serpa, 1985). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 Although organizational culture is defined by many, all appear to agree, or ganizational culture is the body of solutions to external and internal problems. Existing organizational culture has worked consistently for a group and is, therefore, taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think about, and feel in rela tion to those problems. It develops over a period of time and in the process of developing, acquires significantly deeper meaning. “Such solutions eventually come to be assumptions about the nature of reality, truth, time, space, human nature, human activity and hu man relationships—then they come to be taken for granted, and finally, drop out of awareness” (Schein, 1985). At the heart of most definitions of culture is the concept of learned pattern of unconscious or semiconscious thought re flected and reinforced by behavior, that silently and power fully shapes the experience of a people. This thought is or ganizational culture which provides stability, fosters cer tainty, solidifies order and predictability, and creates mean ing. (Deal, 1985) Parents from Concord High School in Massachusetts presented honors to teachers as a part of a planned process for school improvement. John Esty, head of the National Association of Independent Schools, and a parent of a Concord high school student remarked: “They often wonder what private schools have that public schools often lack. This is it!” Esty’s remark highlights a unique characteristic of private schools—their emphasis on symbolic aspects of human organizations. He Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 provides information and examples of how private schools create meaning by attending to cultural attributes (Deal, 1991). Baldridge, Victor and Deal (1975) study concluded unique private institu tions such as Reed, Swarthmore, or Antioch thrive through stature as “beloved insti tutions” with shared myth or saga, articulated by a visionary leader, maintained by a loyal cadre of followers, reinforced by distinctive practices, and supported by a loyal group of students and alumni. People are highly committed to these institutions be cause they stand for and have found meaning in their membership. Hanaway and Abromowitz (1986) compared management and cultural pat terns in private and public schools, finding that public secondary schools were more tightly managed than their counterparts. Public school principals spend far more time monitoring and evaluating the efforts of classroom teachers, whereas in private schools, commitment, involvement and cohesion were reported significantly higher. Although assumed to be loosely managed, public schools, tightly controlled through command and rule, whole private schools are closely knit through implicit mechanisms of social control. Hanaway and Abromowitz (1985) relate these differ ent patterns to student achievement finding management practices do not show a significant effect, while cultural linkages are effective. Organizational climate is the study of perceptions that individuals have regarding various aspects of the organizational culture/environment. Haplin and Croft (1962) compared and studied organizational climates, pioneered examining the attributes of leadership and group behaviors found in elementary schools. A major Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 tributes of leadership and group behaviors found in elementary schools. A major outcome of their research was the demonstration that by using the set of perceptions probed by questionnaire, organizational climate within the elementary school was systematically assessed. They asked teachers in a sample of schools to describe their perceptions of certain human interactions. Conclusions reached involved (a) the impact of the principal’s behavior in his/her official role in the hierarchy; (b) the ef fect of personality characteristics of individual teachers, and the school societies need for teachers in work groups; and (c) morale made a difference with teachers in the school. Prior to Haplan and Croft (1962), studies of school climate elicited informa tion from parents and teachers— rarely principals. Recent school climate studies have been directed towards students and parents. Organizational culture exerts powerful influence on the development of cli mate. While intangible, it is clear that it has influence on attitudes and feelings of participants. Kanter (1983) captures the impact of organizational culture and cli mate in studies comparing highly successful and less successful American corpora tions. High performing companies have a culture of pride and a climate of success. “There is emotional and value commitment between person and organization." Peo ple feel that they belong to a meaningful entity and can realize cherished values by their contributions. Coupled with the feeling of pride in belonging to a worthwhile organization and with a record of achievement and of being a member rather than Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 merely an employee, the confidence of the individual is bolstered. They are confi dent that the organization will be supportive of creative new practices and will con tinue to per-form well. The individual will be effective and successful in his/her own realm of work in the organization. Clubb (1988) found three powerful predictors of high student performance in public high schools: (a) autonomy (freedom from bureaucratic interference from higher levels), (b) teamwork (a sense of cohesion among the various constituencies within a school), and (c) parental involvement. In all of these areas, private schools have the advantage over public school contemporaries (Hanaway & Abromowitz, 1985). Bryk and Driscoll’s (1988) study comparing organizational features and out comes of public and private (independent and Catholic) schools concluded similarly. Private schools displayed significantly stronger communal ties among members who shared values and beliefs concerning what the school stood for, what should be learned, and what students should become. Distinct activities to bind people to each other and to traditions of the school existed and finally, there were echoes of caring. School culture can be developed in nonpublic or public school organizations. Successful school organizations promote a productive environment where expecta tions and standards are clearly defined and communicated to stakeholders: (a) par ents, (b) the immediate community, (c) school district leadership, (d) industry part nerships, and (e) student body. Teachers, parents, students, district personnel all Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 participate in the development and creation of vision, mission and goal development. Short-term strategic plan and long-term goals are developed and activities estab lished. Benchmarking and monitoring of progress is continuous. Extracurricular activities are planned to facilitate personnel growth and develop social awareness. Students have responsibilities for schoolwork and the school's organizational growth. Student counsels encouraged and developed, while a disciplinary student counsel and extracurricular student team support and enhance a school culture that produces academic success. Attributes of Successful Schools A successful school has an effective instructional program. The internal lo cus of control, which promotes personal responsibilities for the improvement of the performance of students, is generated within the school. Learned behaviors include hard work. Responsibility is taken by the students for learning and developing good work habits. Behavior is dramatically different than in schools where many excuses are made for children’s failures to learn: (a) too many governmental regulations, (b) no money, and (c) lack of parental support. An external locus of control credits outside resources, not an individual's motivations and achievements. Wigfield and Eccles (1992) insisted that the value of success to the individual influences achievement outcomes. Research presented by Maclver, Stipek, and Daniels (1991), indicates individuals are more likely to work harder when they are capable and have a reasonable chance of succeeding, than Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 when they see no hope of attaining the goal. Students who perceive themselves to be competent and have confidence often succeed. Students who expect to fail will fail because they put no effort into achieving the projected goal(s). A helpless orientation to learning is especially likely to develop in students with learning disabilities and attention deficit (Ayres, Cooley, & Dunn, 1990). A learned helplessness orientation is a tendency to avoid challenges and to cease trying when one experiences failure based on the belief that one can do little to improve (Diener, Carol, & Dweck, 1978; Dweck & Legget, 1988). Eccles, Jacobs, and Har old (1990) and Jussim and Eccles (1992) cited females exhibiting signs of learned helplessness in the subject of math. Parents and teachers believe that males have more abilities in math than females. Females successful with math are thought to do so through hard work. Hayman, Dweck, and Cain (1992) indicates that a 5- and 6-year-old child can be induced to become helpless if they are pointedly criticized for their mistakes as they attempt to master a task. Stipek (1984) concluded after reviewing many studies on the development of achievement motivation from early childhood to ado lescence that average children value academic achievement as they progress through school. ,However, their expectations for success and self-perceptions of compe tence decline, and their affect toward school becomes more negative. Many of the trends that Stipek describe become apparent during the junior high years. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 Eccles, Lord, and Midgley (1991), Stipek and Maclver (1989) show the de clines in achievement motivation may also be caused by educational practices and an accumulation of deficiency feedback in schools. Due to diminished cognitive skills and the effect of feedback provided by the school, some energetically confident youngsters turn into adolescents convinced of their lack of academic ability in cer tain subjects and are, consequently, less motivated to achieve. Peer pressure, a negative interference on student academic achievement motivation, may be espe cially acute among lower-income Afiican-American and Hispanic students, and may help explain why they often lag behind Anglo-American students in school achieve ment (Slaughter, Defoe, Makagawa, Takanishl, & Johnson, 1990; Tharp, 1989). Parenting style is also related to student academic achievement. Children positively encouraged and supported by parents as they perform homework and other school activities, are more likely to except new challenges and feel confident about master ing the task. Ginshung and Bronstein (1993) have found that parents can undermine a child’s school performance and intrinsic motivation to learn if they (a) are unin volved and offer little in the way of guidance, and/or (b) are highly controlling and exert negative behavior such as nagging continuously about homework, and (c) of fer bribes for good grades, and criticize bad grades. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 Lawrence Steinberg and his colleague’s (Steinberg, Dombusch, & Brown, 1992) note low-income African-Americans and Hispanics actively discourage aca demic achievement, whereas Anglo - Americans tend to value and encourage it. Effective schools where the locus of control is generated from within the school environment, have allowed many children with great challenges of lower- income backgrounds, to become successful and focused on accomplishment. Clark (1989), found even the most poverty stricken families or those with very poor liter acy skills, provided good early instruction to their children. They set aside time for learning and make opportunities for family activities and discussions. Similarly, Scot-Jones (1987) found that low-income minority parents who want to help their children with home learning in the early grades do so. Iglesias (1992) argues that parenting and parent involvement programs should be tailored to the individual needs of each family instead of forcing everyone to fit a single type of program. He states, “We need to ask families what they want, rather than providing them only those services which are immediately at our disposal.” Successful Schools and Changing Demographics Well’s (1988) research, demographic projections for the coming century pre dict dramatic increases minority school-age populations in the United States which census studies show is rapidly becoming a nation of people of color. There is a sig nificant growth in minority populations in virtually every region of the country. The problem is the United States has progressed in defining equality, justice, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 multiculturalism, but has done a poor job of translating this progress into improved educational achievement. The 1990 census shows increasing ethnic and racial diversity in this country, which supports Well’s (1988) report. During the 1980s, 500,000 legal immigrants a year accounted for one-fifth of our population growth, with another 200,000 illegal immigrants also joined the population each year (Waldrop & Exter, 1990). Hispanics have reached a population of 21 million, a 44% increase over 1980. Populations of other races also increased, however, the Asian population had the most significant increase during the 1980s at 65%. African-Americans continue to make up about 12% of the total population of this country. Caucasians have fallen from 86% to an 84% share of the total (Williams, 1992). By the year 2000, one-fourth to one-third of the United States population will be African-American, Hispanic and Asian (Allen & Turner, 1990; Feistritzer, 1987; Wehrly, 1988). In many of the larger urban counties and some nonmetropolitan counties, the shift has already occurred, with no single ethnic or racial group as a majority (Allen & Turner, 1990). With the incredible trend to urbanization and increasing minority popula tions, it is important to establish a perpetual cycle of success in educating all stu dents through educators challenging themselves to identify and implement effective educational strategies, challenging their belief system, motivating achievement and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 creating innovative programs focused on academic achievement which disregard ethnic, racial or socioeconomic differences. Lack of Academic Success in Minority Communities Hispanics are overrepresented in public school remedial programs, particu larly those for students with learning disabilities and are underrepresented in pro grams for the gifted and talented (China & Hughes, 1987). African-Americans are the most overrepresented ethnic group in all special education programs, making up to 54% of the Educable Mentally Retarded enrollment. African-Americans and His panics have been the most under-represented ethnic group in Gifted and Talented Programs established by State governments and implemented and supported by local districts applies for resources to implement and support the program in their school organizations (McLeskey, Waldron & Whomhoff, 1990). States have allowed local districts to establish the very selective criteria for entry into their programs. The application process and standards have been unat tainable for our minority children. Nearly 30% of the school population is estimated to be at risk of failure and demographic projections predict a dramatic increase in this group. However, concluding that underachievement in education and other so cioeconomic problems are racial characteristics is inaccurate and inappropriate (Williams, 1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) The report "A Nation at Risk" clearly signaled the recognition of educational reform on a national level, as an issue of national importance. Measuring students’ academic performance has been the purpose of the National Assessment of Educa tional Progress (NAEP) since its inception in 1969. Public and nonpublic school students have been assessed in various subject areas on a regular basis. It collects information relevant to background variables, interprets and assesses results and document the extent to which education reform has been implemented. The assess ment of academic achievement has been done in subgroups as well as in general for all students who participate. Trends in academic achievement in core curriculum areas over an extended period of time have been monitored by the NAEP (1996). Highlights of the report on student achievement over time follows: 1. Long-term trends in science and mathematics show declines in the 1970s and early 1980s, followed by modest increases. For example, the mathemat ics score averages of 17-year-olds declined from 1973 to 1982, then increased to a level in 1996 similar to the 1973 level. 2. Long-term trends in reading achievement show minimal changes across the assessment years. In 1996, the average reading score for 9-year-olds was higher than it was in 1971. Thirteen-year-olds showed moderate gains in reading achievement; in 1996, their average reading score was higher than that in 1971. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 There was an overall pattern of increase in reading scores for the 17-year-olds, but the 1996 average score was not significantly different than in 1971. 3. Many states have had increases in mathematics performance in recent years. Eighth graders in 27 out of 32 jurisdictions, participating in both the 1990 and 1996 assessment showed an increase in their average scale scores. 4. Despite these widespread increases in performance, large variations in state mathematics achievement persist. The proportion of eighth graders per forming at a basic or above level ranged from 36% in Mississippi to 77% in Maine and North Dakota and 78% in Iowa. 5. The mathematics and science achievement gap between White, African-American, and Hispanic students, has narrowed somewhat since the report. African-Americans and Hispanics in each of the age groups tested (9-, 13-, and 17- year-olds) tended to make larger gains than Whites during the period. Achievement gains of each of these major subgroups are larger than for the national population due to compositional changes in the student population where lower scoring sugroups represent greater share of the population in 1996 than in the earlier years. In addition to reviewing changes in student achievement since publication of A Nation at Risk, the NAEP identified three student behavior areas where a signifi cant change occurred since the report. First, a reduction in the student dropout rate occurred mostly during the 1980s, especially pronounced for African-Americans. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 Of the 300,000 to 500,000 students in Grades 10 through 12, left school each year without successfully completing high school during the last decade. Nearly 3.6 million 16-to-24-year-old youths were not enrolled in a high school pro gram and lacked a high school credential in October 1996, accounting for 11% of their age group of 32 million. Nevertheless, the 1996 dropout rate was three points lower than 14% in 1982. The dropout rate for Aftican-American youth during fell from 18% to 13% during the period. In contrast to the reduced dropout rate for African-Americans, the rate for Hispanics has not changed significantly since 1982. In 1996, 29% of 16- to 24-year- old Hispanics were not enrolled in school and had not completed high school, a per centage which includes young immigrants who came to the United States without high school credentials and never enrolled in U. S. schools and had a dropout rate of 44%, compared to a rate in 1982 of 17% first generation Hispanics bom in the United States. The second major significant improvement assessed is that continuing their education is increasingly one of the future hopes of high school seniors. In 1992, 69% of seniors hoped to graduate from college, compared with 39% in 1982; in 1992, 33% hoped to earn postgraduate degrees compared to 18% in 1982. The proportion of minority students aspiring to postgraduate degrees was the same, or higher, than for Whites. Over this time period, the percentage of high school gradu ates going to college rose from 51 to 65. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 The third significant was a recommendation to increase high school course requirements. Mathematics and science courses taken by high school graduates have increased with more students taking college bound classes in 1982 than in 1982. The number of graduates completing the “New Basics” curriculum, which is 4 years of English, 3 years of social science, 3 years of sciences, and 3 years of mathematics rose from 14% to 50%. Subgroup performance of African-American, Hispanic and White has varied in each core curricular area of study. There has been an increases for Whites, Afri can-Americans and Hispanic students at ages 9, 13 and 17 in science. Average scores increased by 14 points for White students from 1982 to 1996, 25 for African- American students, and 15 for Hispanic students. Gaps between White and African- American students narrowed between 1982 and 1990, but widened again in the 1990s, to 27 points in 1996 while the gap between White and Hispanic students re mained at 21 points in 1996. Changes in reading were minimal and not significant for any of the subgroups. The reading assessments in 1992 and 1994 of the NAEP were based on a framework developed through the National Assessment Governing Board’s (NAGB) consensus process, which is the nation’s report card reflecting the best cur rent thinking about what all children should know and be able to do. The frame work reflects state of art curricular emphasis and objectives and assessment design based on different sets of questions or task. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reading is defined in the framework as one of three general types of text and reading situations: (a) narrative text, reading for literary experience; (b) expository text, reading to be informed; and (c) document based reading to perform tasks. It also documents four ways readers respond to text: (a) initial understanding, (b) interpretation, (c) examination meaning, and (d) evaluation of the content and the author’s craft. The Reading Report Card showed no significant change in average perform ance among the national population of fourth or eighth graders from 1992 to 1994. However, there was a decline in the average reading performance of twelfth graders in all three assessed reading text types. Academic Achievement Literacy is a fundamental tool for student’s ability to succeed as citizens and carryout adult responsibilities. Sixty-four percent (64%) of fourth grade African- American students failed to meet the basic literacy standards in 1992 in contrast to 32% of White students. Other core subjects assessed were mathematics and sci ence. The results differed among states, some showing increases in some areas, however, there were no significant results. There was no improvement in the per formance of minority students during this period and a large performance gap per sisted. It is a major conclusion of this research that measures of children’s academic achievement are critical to parents and should be closely monitored. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 Teacher’s Belief That All Children Can Learn Another conclusion is that research indicates the central role of the teacher in molding successful students in the school classroom. Evidence exist showing teach ers’ beliefs in their abilities to instruct students may account for individual differ ences in effectiveness (Armor et al., 1976; Berman & McLaughlin, 1977; Brook- over, Flood, Schweitzer, & Wisenbaker, 1978; Brophy & Evertson, 1977). Researchers have recently been highly interested in the construct of teacher efficacy, teachers’ belief in their own ability to affect student learning (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Gibson & Dembo, 1984). A number of investigations have indicated that teachers who have a greater sense of efficacy produce higher achievement gains in their students. Dembo and Gibson (1984) believe that differences in teacher efficacy result from several environment factors. 1. Teachers properly trained in diversity of students in classroom. 2. Teachers supported by their principals. 3. Teachers developing collegial relationships with fellow teachers. 4. Teachers working cooperatively with parents (are more likely to de velop the belief that they can solve teaching problems and help students learn). Unfortunately, there are teachers who do not have these positive experiences who are unlikely to believe that they can help certain students learn. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Competence is a factor which influences the development of students’ moti vation to learn according to Brophy (1987). It is acquired through experience, stimulated most directly through modeling such as receiving communication of expectations, direct instruction or socialization by significant, especially parents and teachers. The home environment shapes positive learning attitudes; school climate and sound educational practices allow positive and consistent educational experi ences and high expectations. The essential role of teachers as active social agents capable of stimulating student motivation to learn must be perceived in the educational system, and it is important that in their instructional program they show students how the informa tion can be applied to real world experiences. Involving students in the process of teaching stimulates learning and understanding. Good and Brophy (1990, cited in Dembo, 1991) identified attributes that contribute to teacher’s success in socializing students: 1. Social attractiveness, good health and personal adjustment. 2. Ego strength, confidence and problem solving orientation. 3. Realistic perceptions of self and students. 4. Enjoying of students, being friendly but not overly friend. 5. Clarity about teacher roles. 6. Patience and determination. 7. Acceptance of individuals. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 8. Ability to state and act on firm but flexible limits clarify expectations (p. 179). Projection of positive expectations, attributes, and social labels to students may significantly impact fostering self-esteem and increase motivation to exhibit prosocial behaviors, if teachers focus on attributes outlined above and become a role model by focusing on skill development and exerting effort. An important goal is to establish classroom conditions where students learn that proper effort leads to suc cess. Students should be provided with short-term goals and strategies to acquire the skills to reach that goal and the importance of acquiring skill and competency with effort should be emphasized. Effort is a life skill of significance in the learning process. Research shows teachers do not treat all students the same and that certain treatment limits students’ opportunities in the classroom. They often have different interaction with different types of students, form judgements, which in most in stances affect their expectations and interactions with the students; these can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies where they determine the ways students are treated, influ ence how students behave in the classroom and how much they learn. High expec tations for students shape academic success. Brophy (1985, cited in Dembo, 1991) investigated how teachers may behave differently toward students. Some examples include: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 1. Less time toward low expectation students. 2. Give low expectation students the answer. 3. Call on someone else rather than trying to improve their responses by giving clues. 4. Rewarding inappropriate answers of low expectation student. 5. Criticizing them more often. 6. Praising them less frequently. 7. Fail to give feedback. 8. Pay less attention or give less interaction to low expectation students. 9. Calling on them less often. 10. Demanding less from them. 11. Briefer and less informative communication to them. 12. Less smiling and other supportive nonverbal indicators. 13. In grade tests and assignments of high expectation, students giving benefit of the doubt in borderline situations (pp. 309-310). Teachers can deal with exceptions by keeping a general focus on instruction as their main task, and by training themselves to observe students systematically with an eye toward their present progress and needs. They can maintain a generally appropriate orientation to the classroom, can reinforce it by learning to recognize and evaluate the attitudes and expectations that they form spontaneously in daily Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 interaction with students, and correct inaccuracies and use accurate information in planning individualized treatment (Good & Brophy, 1987). High expectations for student achievement appear to be related to patterns of attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that identify teachers and schools that maximize gains in student achievement (Brophy & Evertson, 1976). Brookover and others (1978) investigated variables in school climate that influenced achievement and found that teachers in high achieving schools, spent more time on instruction and demonstrated greater concern for and commitment to their student’s achievement. School Safety School safety is another important factor associated with student academic success. Safety issues include: (a) communication between students, (b) parents and staff; (c) clearly defined discipline policies, (d) victimization rates of students and staff on campus, (e) adequate teaching values and ethics, (f) policies regarding possession of drugs and weapons on campus, and (g) decrease in gang activity. School staffs and parents are justifiably concerned with these safety issues due to the serious consequences of incidents that occur on campuses. Students attend school at least the minimal State requirement six hours daily, 180 days of the school year. Compulsory school attendance laws require students to attend school. Parents and staff have concerns about a safe school en vironment. Schools should ensure a safe environment as the organization develops Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 a comprehensive discipline plan which must be implemented, monitored, and shared with all stakeholders. Discipline policies are created to maintain a caring orderly school environ ment which is secure and conducive to student achievement. It is imperative that all discipline policies and expectations are shared with all individuals and carried out effectively. It is the responsibility of the school leader to make sure the plans are instituted. The Board of Education adopts a discipline policy, the district administration issues the procedures for implementation, and the school principal is responsible for the communication of and implementation at the school site. Teachers must understand and proceed with execution of the policy as designed in the classroom. The policy should be in writing printed in the school teacher handbook, presented in parent meetings and student homeroom teachers’ classes and posted in each class room. Discipline policies should be reviewed on regular bases in the classrooms and in school assemblies. Everyone should have a clear understanding of the policy, procedure and implementation of the process. Criminal activity at school poses an obvious threat to the student safety re gardless of discipline policies and can act as a significant barrier to educational achievement and the success of students. Victimization data has been collected on student’s Reports of School Crime: 1989 and 1990 (Appendix F) in the 1995 School Crime Supplement (SCS), an enhancement to the National Crime Victimization Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 Survey (NCVS). This is an ongoing household survey gathers information on the criminal victimization ofhousehold member’s age 12 and older. The report covers items pertinent to school crime which include: (a) victimization, (b) drug availabil ity, (c) street gangs, and (d) guns at schools. It focuses on the percent of students who have been victimized one or more times. To put the 1995 SCS (about 49,000 households) estimates in context, data from the 1989 (47,000 households) SCS, are also represented in the report which presents the first published findings from the SCS to the NCVS in addition to find ings from a reanalysis of the 1989 SCS. Key findings include: 1. There was little or no change in the percentage of students reporting any violent or property victimization at school (14.5% versus 14.6%), or the per centage of students reporting property victimization at (12.2% versus 11.6%) be tween 1989 and 1995. 2. In 1989, most students, 63.2%, reported that marijuana, cocaine, crack, or uppers/downers were available at school (either easy or hard to obtain). The percentage increased somewhat to 63.3% in 1995. 3. The percentage of students reporting street gang presence at school nearly doubled between 1989 and 1995, increasing from 15.3% to 28.4%. 4. In 1995, a series of questions was asked about guns at school. Almost no students reported taking a gun to school, less than one-half of a percent, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 5.3% reported seeing another student with a gun at school, and 12.7% reported knowing another student who brought a gun on a school bus. One important finding that emerged from comparing estimates from the two time points was that more students were exposed to certain problems at school in 1995 than in 1989. The second key finding was the correlation of coexisting prob lems such as: (a) drug availability, (b) street gang presence, and (c) gun presence at schools along with related to student reports of having experienced violent victimi zation at school. Reports of having experienced violent victimization were higher: (a) among students who reported that drugs were available than among students who reported that they were not, (b) when street gangs were present than when they were not present, and (c) when students who reported seeing another student with a gun than when students had not seen another student with a gun. Demographic analysis of ethnicity, income, geographic location, and private versus public comparisons was also pertinent in the study: 1. Students in 1995 were much more likely to report that street gangs were present in their schools than were students in 1989 (28.4% versus 15.3%, Appendix F). 2. In 1995, Hispanic students were more likely than either White or Black students to report the existence of street gangs in their schools (49.5% versus 23.0% and 34.7%, respectively). A similar set of relationships existed in 1989 (Appendix F). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 3. In 1989 and 1995, students living in households with higher incomes were less likely to report that street gangs were present at school than were students in households with lower incomes (Appendix F). 4. Students in central cities were more likely to respond that there were street gangs at their schools (40.7%) than were suburban students (26.3%) or stu dents in non-metropolitan areas (19.9%) in 1995. Similar results occurred in 1989 (Appendix F). 5. Between 1889 and 1995, reports of gang presence increased in all three categories of student’s place of residence (Appendix F). 6. Students in public schools were more likely to report that street gangs were present at school than were students in private schools in both years. In 1995, 30.6% of students in public schools reported that street gangs were present compared to 6.8% in private schools. The 1989 percentages were 16.4% and 4.4%, respectively (Appendix F). Several important conclusions can be statistically drawn from the U. S. De partment of Justice, SCS of the NCVS, spring of 1989 and 1995, including: (a) in urban communities gang activity is more likely to occur, (b) minority groups are more likely to be involvement in gangs, and (c) gangs are more likely to exist in pub lic school than nonpublic. Stevens (1996) identifies 40 strategies for safer schools that depend on the following eight major key factors: (a) establishing clear behavior standards, (b) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 providing adequate adult presence and supervision, (c) enforcing rules fairly and consistently, (d) supervising closely and sanctioning offenders consistently, (e) culti vating parental support, (f) controlling campus access, (g) creating partnerships with outside agencies, and (g) believing one can make a difference. Conclusions of Literature Review This review of the literature has examined the historical perspective and development of the school systems in this country, traced the legal rulings and Supreme Court Decisions related to public and nonpublic schools, and further dis cussed the organizational structures of public and nonpublic schools and their differ ences and similarities. The information presented introduced the urbanization of our country’s population during the Industrial Revolution, discussed how the migration of immigrants and the freedom of African slaves impacted our communities, which be came impoverished and contained few skilled professionals and segregated schools. Through these events the struggle to educate children of color became ex treme. Public schools in low-income communities have continued to be of poor quality and private schools have been costly and continue to be costly, although not as exclusive and unavailable to the middle class as they once were. The review cites research that reflect important factors of academic success, including school culture, safety issues, teacher expectations and teacher efficacy, and academic achievement. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter 3 Methods and Procedures The survey instrument used for the research design is a qualitative research method. Methodology and procedures used in this study are described in detail as follows: (a) population under study, (b) data collection procedures, (c) data collection tool/survey instrument, (d) basis of questionnaire items, (e) statistical evaluation of data, and (f) limitation’s of the research. Survey Population and Selection Sample Criteria of Groups The study targeted parents and/or legal guardians of students in nonpublic schools. The subjects were drawn from three Christian elementary nonpublic schools located in Los Angeles County including: (a) a Catholic elementary school (Group I) located in West Los Angeles, (b) a Lutheran elementary school (Group II) located in South Central Los Angeles, and (c) a Christian Baptist elementary school (Group III) located in Inglewood. Each school has a different religious denomina tion; however, the denomination was not a criterion for selection, only that they all were Christian nonpublic. Several schools were asked, but declined to participate. Therefore, another selection criteria was that these schools were willing to partici pate in the study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 Geo graphic Description of the Population West Los Angeles included: (a) state-owned land, (b) portions of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, (c) coastline, (d) state beaches, (e) marinas, and (f) Los Angeles International Airport. According to "Profiles of Los Angeles County Service Planning Area Resources of Children, Youth, and Families" (1995) it is bordered the west by Ven ture County; the eastern border line runs south along Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Doheny Drive, the eastern border is Culver City, La Cienega Boulevard through the western Hills of Baldwin Hills and Ladera Heights to Imperial Highway; the north ern border line follows a number of roads beginning with MulhoUand Highway through state parklands up the western border ofTapanga State Park; the southern runs from Carrillo State Beach to El Segundo. It is the second lowest populated service planning areas in the county. It comprises 6% of the total county population of 572,000 which is 34,320. It has a high population of affluent residents and is less diverse than other areas in the county. Whites represent the majority of the population 65%, Hispanics 20%, Asians 11%, African-American about 6%, and American Indians 3%. The city of Inglewood was incorporated in 1989, is centrally located with re spect to many important commercial cites within the Los Angles Metropolitan area including the Los Angeles Airport. It is 12 miles south of downtown Los Angeles Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 and 7 miles west of the Pacific Ocean beaches. The population as of 1996 was 116,000. Its labor force is 53,450 with 47,530 persons employed. Fifty-two percent (52%) are employed in the service industry, 15% in the retail industry and the other 31% in other industries. African-Americans (41%) represent the majority of the population, Hispanics 30%, Whites 13%, Asian and Pacific Islander 14%, and Na tive American 2%. The median income was approximately $35,481 in 1994— the range was $13,000 to $85,000. South Central Los Angeles stretches from Washington Boulevard on the north to Artesia Boulevard on the south. The western boundary borders neighbor ing cities of Inglewood and Culver City. The area has been predominately African- American for decades, however, demographic shifts have made Hispanics the largest racial/ethnic group. The 1990 census data, state the population is 54% Hispanic, 40% African-American, 2% Asia Pacific and less than a point two percent (0.2%) Indian. Whites and other make up the remaining 3%. Almost one-third of the for eign-born residents have immigrated to the United States since 1985. The population which in 1994, numbered 967,271 approximately 10% of the county total, is relatively young with lower incomes. More than one-third of the population is under 17-years-old. Nearly seventy two percent (72%) of the house holds earn less than $35,000 per year. More than 37% earn less than $15, 000 and only 5% earn more than $75,000. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Description of Groups I. II. and III The Catholic school, which opened in 1959 in Culver City in West Los An geles. It was predominately White when it opened, however now it is largely His panic. Information provided by the Catholic Parish states of the enrolled students in 1997, there were 8 Filipinos, 10 Asians, 15 African-Americans, 10 Whites, and 206 Hispanics for a total of students is 249, which is 96% o f the school population. Thirty-five (35) of the 169 families which the school serves, are one parent families. There are 140 wage earners in the school population. The majority of the wage earners are self-employed: (a) gardeners, (b) office personnel, (c) domestic workers, and (d) some professionals. Students are from various geographic areas throughout Los Angeles and enrollment has been consistent for the past 10 years. The Baptist Christian school, located in Inglewood was established in 1970, follows the Baptist doctrinal that the Bible is the infallible, inspired Word of God and provides a Christian perspective of God interwoven with a sound academic program. The student population of 280 students, which is primarily African- American, are mostly from single parents families, approximately 65%. Wage earn ers in the families are self-employed, utility workers, law enforcement officers, health workers and some professionals. The Lutheran School located in the Crenshaw area of South Central Los Angeles, opened in 1953 with an Anglo-American student population. The student Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 population of one 117 students is 99% African-American, and 1% Hispanic. Sev enty-five percent (75%) are from single parent families. Grandmothers supervise and/or have legal guardianship of approximately one-third of the students. The ma jority of the wage earners are government and city workers. The school pursues Christian ideals, which seek to help children grow through having an understanding and awareness of God as the ruler of all Creation, per the school parent handbook. Procedures for Data Collection Determination of factors influencing parents and/or legal guardians in Afri can-American and Hispanic communities to enroll their children in and pay for non public schools, rather than free public schools, was the objective of the study (Ap pendix G). The researcher entry into the schools began with a letter of introduction to the Chief Executive Officers (CEO) and invitation to participate in the study. A follow-up telephone call and a visit to the school sites proceeded. Nine (9) schools were targeted as sample groups, each highly populated with African-American and Hispanic students. Six (6) schools declined to participate. The administrators of the three (3) schools had authority and volunteered their schools' participation. The principal acted as a liaison between the researcher and the parents. They chose to facilitate the research process, and extended an invi tation for parents to participate in the study. In each case, the administrator placed the item on the regularly scheduled parent meeting agenda. Parents were given the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 choice to participate in the study. Those who chose to participate became the sub jects for the study (Appendix H). Two hundred and thirty surveys (230) were left at the three (3) schools. Eighty-six (86) surveys, or 37% of the surveys, were distributed to parents and re turned. Group I returned 53 surveys, 21% of the total school population of 249 stu dents and 62% of the total sample group. Group II returned 20 surveys, 17% of the school population of 117 students and 23% of the total sample population. Group III returned 14, which is 5% of the school population o f280 students and 15% of the total sample population. The Survey Four elements, several of which were discussed by Professor D. A. de Vaus (1990) of Elbourne, Austria, were used in the development of the survey instrument. Manuel (1995) whom as well, analyzed the issues related to parents making deci sions to enroll their children in K-12 private schools. 1. Previous research. Findings on the topic of other researchers to fo cus the research and identity gaps. 2. The facts. Examination of documented numbers such as ages, rates, or incidents which provide description of a phenomenon, and/or offer clues to stimulate ideas about possible causal relationships. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 3. Hunches. Exploring personal ideas, impressions, beliefs, and experi ences, which are valuable, provided they are not limiting and are tested against the evidence. 4. Discussions: Interviews with knowledgeable people/associates who have a point of reference for the study, particularly parents from the communities. The survey, "School Choice for Minority Parents: Analysis of Issues" influ encing parents making decisions to enroll their child and/or children in nonpublic school is an hour long self-administered instrument (Appendix I). For purposes of the study, examination of the possible relationships between demographic/ ex periential factors and beliefs regarding the educational system influencing educa tional choice was conducted. The Design of the Survey Instrument The survey, School Choice for Minority Parents, was designed to collect in formation that would allow conclusions about the research questions documented in chapter 1. Research Question #1 "What demographic factors influence parents to choose nonpublic educa tion for their children? " The first three questions of the survey asked for general demographic information related to the parents' personal status: (a) age, (b) sex, (c) marital position, (d) educational level, and (e) household income. Questions 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 through 8 related to family/children and self-reported information about the parents education in public and nonpublic schools. Questions 11 and 12 parents were asked to rate the public school in their neighborhood and to rate their own K-12 educational experience. Questions 9 and 10 were open-ended, designed for spontaneous responses from subjects as to the how and why decisions were made to enroll their children in nonpublic schools. Question 14 parents were asked to rank the five attributes of any school in order of importance, using number one as priority. The ranking of importance of the five attributes includes: 1. Academic achievement. 2. Positive school culture. 3. School safety. 4. Teacher's belief that all children can learn. 5. High teacher expectations of children. The 60 questions which followed the demographic questions were using the Likert Scale of 1 to 4 measure with 4 being "strongly agree" and 1 being "strongly disagree." Likert Scale for Parent Questionnaire: 4 = Strongly Agree 3 = Agree 2 = Disagree 1 = Strongly Disagree Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Research Question #2 "What factors o f academic achievement are important for parents to choose to place their children in nonpublic schools?" The first 23 questions focused on issues related to academic success for students. A few of the many attributes identi fied in the questions were (a) state-of-art-equipment/materials, (b) good grades, (c) consistency in the learning process and requirements, (d) academic standards, (e) high standards, (f) extracurricular activities for personal growth, (g) on-going class room assessment, and (h) students being prepared to enter college. Research Question #3 "What factors o f safety concerns are most influential in placing children in nonpublic schools?" Questions 24 through 38 addressed specific school safety is sues such as weapons on campus, drugs, and threats of physical harm. Questions in this section asked about discipline policy, communication of the discipline process, and flow the of information. Questions 35 through 38 focused on ethical guidelines, good character and whether not the communication process is an considered impor tant factor for safe schools. Question 38 compares safety importance to academic achievement. Research Question #4 "What aspects o f school culture are important to parents decision to choose nonpublic schools for their children?” Questions 39 through 54 address issues found in the research related to development of a positive school culture such as: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 (a) parent participation, (b) the school communication process, (c) a clear school mission and vision, (d) expectations of students, and (e) a school culture which fos ters positive relationships between key stakeholders. Research Question #5 "Do parents believe nonpublic school teachers are more focused on the in structional program than public schoolteachers? " Six questions, 55 through 60 focus on the degree/level of teacher expectations for student learning, their attitudes, and whether it has an effect on student achievement, and their belief that all children can learn. Each of the five (5) research questions identified here were discussed in chapter 1 as a positive ingredient for a successful school. The research results will identify the importance of each and the correlation's of the 60 questions to each other and to the four elements of school composition as identified below. Discussion of Survey This researcher summarizes a school composition to be based on (a) aca demic achievement, (b) school safety, (c) school culture, and (d) motivation/efficacy of teachers. These categories are identified as dependent variables in the study and the attributes/questions in each category are independent variables. The Parameters of Outcome Measure Table I will identify the sum of questions that combined the four categories of dependent variables. Dependent variables are those variables that measure the effect of the independent variable. The correlation of the independent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 variable has been classified and measured through a summary of correlations that indicates predictability. The parent’s attitude toward (a) academic achievement, (b) safety, (c) school culture, and (d) motivation and efficacy were obtained from the questionnaire. "Pa rameters of Outcome Measures" (Table 1) establish the sum of all questions identi fied in the Likert scale of importance in four categories. 1. Academic Achievement (AA). 2. Safety Issues (SI). 3. School Culture (SC). 4. Motivation and Efficacy (ME). These four categories of the questionnaire are also referred to throughout the Results and Discussion (chapters 4 and 5) as "Attributes" and "Variables." The four areas of variables were each delineated into three categories: (a) the sum of all questions, (b) general questions regarding schools, and (c) judgement questions regarding public and private schools. General questions related to basic educational focus in each area. Judgment questions related to public versus private. The sum of all questions is self-defined. Figure 3 table identifies the number of questions used for each variable in the Spearman correlation coefficient study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Table 1. Parameters of Outcome Measures Q = 1-23 Academic Achievement Number of Questions aa-1 Sum of all questions 23 aa-2 General questions 15 aa-3 Judgement 8 Q = 25-40 Safety Issues Number of Questions si-1 Sum of all questions 16 si-2 General questions 13 si-3 Judgement questions 3 Q = 41-55 School Culture Number of Questions Sc-1 Sum of all questions 15 Sc-2 General questions 5 Sc-3 Judgement questions 10 Q = 56-61 Motivation and Efficacy Number of Questions Me-1 Sum of all questions 6 Me-2 General questions 3 Me-3 Judgement questions .3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 . 90 to 1.00 (-.90 to -1.00) - very high positive (negative) correlation .70 to .90 (-.70 to -.90) - high positive (negative) correlation . 50 to .70 (-.50 to -.70) - moderate positive (negative) correlation . 30 to .50 (-.30 to -.50) - low positive (negative) correlation . 00 to .30 (.00 to -.30) - little if any correlation Figure 3. Correlation Coefficients Statistical Methodology Spearman rho (g) correlation coefficient is a special case o f the Pearson r. Correlation coefficient is the measure of relationships between two is more vari ables. It is a number between - 1.0 and +1.0 that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables. The number of observations do not effect the value of the r. The scale of r of the correlation coefficient is ordinal with +. 80 indicates a high positive linear relationship and +. 40 indicate a lower positive linear relationship. Ordinal is a logical order to classify data.. Nominal simply categorizes. Categories are identified; numbers are assigned to the categories. Interpreting r in terms of variance provides not only a measure of the relationship between variables, but an index of the proportion of individual differences in one variable that can be associ ated with the individual differences in another variable. Interpretation of the results of the correlation coefficient (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs, 1994): Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 The correlation coefficient is also used to predict results from one variable to another variable. Analysis o f the "Summery of Variable Correlation's" (Appendix J) assesses and predicts conclusions on the 27 variables which were developed to cor relate demographic data and questions about academic achievement, safety issues, school culture and motivation, and teacher efficacy. Rank o f Attributes Hinkle, Wiersma, and Jurs (1994) define a frequency distribution as a tabula tion that indicates the number o f times a given score or group o f scores occurs. In the study, the frequency ranking refers to the number o f times the parents rated each variable. The most frequent ranking o f an attribute was used to assess the importance of attributes on a scale of "1" to "5," "1" being the top priority. The five ranked variables, mentioned above were (a) academic achievement, (b) positive school cul ture, (c) school safety, (d) teacher's belief that all children can learn, and (e) high teacher expectations of children. The probability of the rankings is highest for the most important school choice attribute being Academic Achievement and lowest for the second most im portant attribute being School Safety (Appendix L). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 Chapter 4 Results School choice for Minority Parents survey was administered to parent re spondents. The cover letter and survey instrument was hand carried to schools electing to participate in the study. Principals in each school administered the sur vey as part of their regular parent meeting. Surveys were collected, data compiled and coded for computer analysis. Analysis of Data Self-reported demographic information is presented both in narrative and chart forms. The data collected through School Choice for Minority Parent Survey was categorized in four groups of questions regarding (a) academic achievement, (b) school safety issues, (c) school culture, and (d) motivation and efficacy. A number of open-ended questions soliciting written answers were included. Self-Reported Demographics Three religious schools in the south central urban region of Los Angeles par ticipated in the study. The study was intended to encompass a broader sample of private school students in scope: private school type to include college preparatory schools; geographic and economic region to include suburban neighborhoods; eth nicity to include more nonminorities. The willingness of schools to participate or lack thereof changed, limited and ultimately focused the study to an ethnic, economic and geographic homogeneous Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 sample of religious school students whose parents lack confidence in urban public schools. A total of 86 surveys were distributed to parents, 86 parents responded. Demographic characteristics of respondents and their experiential factors, by school affiliation, are detailed in Appendix J. Statistical comparisons in proportion within each school are discussed briefly. Age The majority of parents who filled out survey were 75% female, 65% be tween the ages of 26 to 45 years of age. By a small margin more parents married than either divorced or single. Ethnicity There were 34 African-American, 37 Hispanic and 12 parents from various other races. The study focuses special interest on the important reasons for African- American and minority races interest in private schools despite the fact that we have free education (Figure 4). In Group I (Figure 5), 53 parents completed the survey. Of those parents 43 were female and 6 males. Forty two parents were married and 11 were from single parent households. Seventy two point six percent of the parents (72.6 %) were His- panic-Americans, 9.8% African-American, and 9% from other ethnic backgrounds. In Group II (Figure 6), 13 parents completed the survey. Of those parents 12 were female and one male. Six parents were married and seven were from single Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 14 % mAfrican American SSHispanic Ameri cans O O th er Figure 4. Ethnicity Self-Reported Chart G roup 1 18% 10 % 72% iAfrican American I Hispanic Americans □ Other Figure 5. Group 1: Ethnicity Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 Group II 0% 8% a African American ■ Hispanic Americans □ Other 92% Figure 6. Group II: Ethnicity parent households. There was no representation of Hispanic-Americans, 92.3% African-American, and 7.7% from other ethnic backgrounds. Group III (Figure 7), 20 parents completed the survey. Of those parents 15 were female and 5 males. Ten (10) parents were married and 10 were from single parent households. Eighty-nine point five percent (89.5%) were African-Americans, 10.5% were from other ethnic backgrounds and there was no Hispanic-American representation. Group III B African Am erican H Hispanic A m ericans □ O ther 89% Figure 7. Group III: Ethnicity Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Education. Household Income One-fourth of Group I respondents had very little education. It was the only school that showed parents who had not completed high school, and yet the only school with respondents who had completed postgraduate work. Twenty-seven percent (27%) of the parents did not complete high school. Seventy-three percent (73%) graduated high school, 51% attended college, 6% achieved graduate and postgraduate degrees. In Group II and III, all graduated high school: (a) 75% of Group II attended college, (b) 16.7% finishing graduate work, (c) 70% of Group 3 attended college, (d) 15% completed graduate work. Household income varied among the groups: (a) 52% of Group I parents had incomes less than $30,000, (b) 64% Group II had incomes of $30,000 to $50,000, (c) only 27% less than $30,000, (d) 40% of Group III parents had incomes between $30,000 and $50,000 annually, and (e) 30% with incomes above $50,000 annually. For more specific information refer to Appendix J. Groups II and III had higher percentages of households with incomes between $30,000 and $50,000 and lower percentages with incomes less that $30,000 than Group I. Group III had the highest percentage of parents who attended public school and those parents felt the most negative regarding public schools in their neighbor hoods. Only 15% of Group III parents rated their educations above average. The rating indicates their higher concerns with their educational experiences, based on their attendance of public schools. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2. Other Self-Reported Demographic 72 Question Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Parents who did not attend private school. 62.8 % 84.6 % 75% Parents who rated their own education as above the 50th percentile. 51.1 % 51.1 % 65. % Parents who rated the public schools in their neighborhoods below average. 51 % 84% 55% The majority of parents did not attend private schools themselves, attended public schools (Question 4). Sixty two point eight percent (62.8 %) of Group I par ents who completed the survey, did not attend private schools. However, 27% of these parents attended school only through eighth grade. Fifty-one percent (51%) of parents from Groups I and II, rated their own education (K-12) above average (Question 12). Again, 27% of Group I parents did not graduate from high school. Parents in all groups indicated concern for public schools in their neighbor hoods (Question 11): (a) 50% of Group I and II respondents were concerned, and (b) 84% of Group III parents indicated a strong concern about the public schools in their neighborhood. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 The majority of parents did not attend private schools, yet their children are attending private schools. They did not rate the public school system as high in standards and did not think highly of their own educational experiences. The statis tics indicate that parents have high expectations for their children and want im proved educational experiences for them. The self-reported demographics of household income indicate the parents are sacrificing their quality of life to provide private education for their children. Public education is free to student's K-12 grades, however, many parents who did not have the education that they expected, want their children to have an better edu cational experience and greater academic achievement than the urban public school is able to provide. Parents sacrifice for the improved quality of life of their children and their families, which is achieved through a good education. Academic Achievement Fifteen (15) general questions were designed to focus on academic achieve ment as it related to the respondent's belief in school success. Eight (8) were di rectly related to nonpublic school concerns/issues not necessarily related to public school, defined as general academic achievement. Positive responses to Questions 2, 5, 6, 8, 23 were above 90% (Appendix K, Table 3). Ninety eight percent (98%) of the parents felt that good grades related to academic success (Question 2). Ninety-seven (97%) of the parents expressed the importance of consistency in the basic learning requirements, which are critical to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 long range educational success (Question 5). Consistency of a learning program is (Table 3) felt the successful academic achievement results in children being prepared to enter college (Question 23). Additionally, 89% of the parents believe that the non-public school prepare students for college (Question 21 of Appendix K). Ninety three percent (93%) of the parents believe that if schools were interested in their children's success, standards and measures would be taken for continual im provement (Question 8). Parents express the importance of academic success being dependent essential for the achievement of students. Ninety-four percent (94%) of the parents on academic standards (Question 6). Interesting enough 64% of the parents related academic achievement to high school graduation (Question 20 of Appendix K). Because students are more likely to succeed if they have something to work towards, a school, which establishes standards and sets goals for their students and staff, provides hope and encourages individuals to work hard in accomplishing suc cess. This study firmly supports concerns of parents that schools provide concrete direction and standards for their children's academic success. Schools are seen as institutions and environments of socialization and per sonal growth. Materials and equipment for students, providing extracurricular ac tivities for personal growth of children and other issues, weighted heavily as impor tant criteria and attributes of academic achievement. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 Table 3. Learning Program Question Number Question on Survey Score 2 It is important for my children to get good grades 98% 5 Consistency in basic learning requirements is critical to long-range educational success. 97% 8 Schools that are interested in their student’ s aca demic achievement adopt standards and measures for continual improvement. 93% 6 Academic success depends on academic standards. 90% 23 Successful academic achievement results in students being prepared to enter college. 94% Providing opportunities for students to learn how to work together and com municate effectively is essential to the educational process. Communication classes in the elementary grades would certainly enrich the personal growth of students and encourage small group activities in the classroom, which has been proven to be an effective strategy for academic achievement. Students learn to take responsibility for their own actions and be more considerate of others. This process socialization and personal growth transfers to the playground where parental concerns for safety discipline issues on the school campuses exist. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 Ninety three percent (93%) of the parents felt that communication is key to school academic success and school safety. The communication process is a key factor in successful schools, whether it is written, verbal or spoken with actions. Questions with less positive responses from parents, i.e., considered less im portant for academic achievement related to differences in the organization process and school program structure between public and private schools. Although it was not a strong concern of parents (Table 4) research shows school structure and organization as indicators of school success. Effective organ izational structure and operational processes establish order and consistency of any program (Table 4). Questions 7,11,12 and 13 relate to school program structure and/or activi ties of public and non-public schools. All four questions had approximately 60% positive responses. This will be discussed in the category of school culture. Safety Issues Fourteen (14) questions were general to all schools in regard to safety in schools. Only two (2) questions related to comparisons of nonpublic and public in stitutions. Questions 29, 32, 33, 34, and 35 were strong responses from parents to have a discipline policy that is written and shared with all stakeholders. The policy should be written and consequences should be clearly identified. With a written and shared policy parents and students would know what is expected from students in the school environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 Table 4. Questions on Survey Question Number Question on Survey Score 7 Non-public schools are more successful in the consis tency of their learning standards and course work than public schools. 68% 12 Risk of losing time or credits is less likely for students transferring from non-public schools during relocation. 67% 13 Academic standards are more uniform than norrpublic school 66% 11 If students have to relocate they are academically more easily integrated into any school (public or pri vate} when they have attended non-public schools. 61% Many schools may have discipline policies, however, a very important aspect of a discipline policy is to follow through with the procedures that have been estab lished. Consistency and follow through is key to the functionality of the plan. The consistency and follow through of the plan has been the problematic aspect in many schools. The communication process is a key aspect to school safety and academic success and school safety is as important as academic achievement; question 38 had a 93% positive response and question 39, 92%. The order of rank of academic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 achievement, safety issues, school culture and teacher efficacy showed parents feel achievement and safety are of top importance. School Culture Ninety five percent (95%) of the parents responded positively that a positive school climate is important for the success of their children (Question 45) and 91% that nonpublic schools create a positive environment for learning and school pro gram participation (Question 51). Ninety-one percent (91%) of the parents believe that nonpublic schools create a clear vision of their mission and what students should learn and become (Question 44). Only 64% of the parents indicated that public schools show concern for all students' safety and take measures to ensure it, and only 48% felt that they foster stability, order and a consistent pattern in the environment. Motivation and Efficacy Ninety-six percent (96%) of the parents felt teacher's expectations and be liefs can and do influence a students academic success, personal growth and devel opment and 90% indicated a teacher's attitude has an effect on a student's learning process (Questions 60 and 59). Ninety-two percent (92%) of the parents believe that students who believe they are successful can handle most academic challenges (Question 55). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 Rank of School Attributes As mentioned above parents were asked to rank each school using a scale of 1-5, 1 being top priority. (Appendix L) The results were: 1. Academic achievement 2. Safety issues 3. Positive school culture 4. High teacher expectations of children 5 Teacher's belief that all children can learn "Summary of Variable Correlation's" (Appendix M) shows variable high correlation’ s between response to questions in each of the four major sections of the questionnaire. Academic achievement is highly correlated with questions/variables V17, V10, V12, V13, and V8, The majority of parents had one to four children in the family. At least one child 35% of Group I households attended public schools at one time or another, 38% of Group II households and 52 % of Group III households. Correspondingly, in 90% of Group I households at least 1 child attends a private school, 92 % in Group II households, 100 % of Group III households (V12). The statistics indicate that parents initially had some or all of their children in public schools and apparently gradually transferred there children into private schools or possibly, some of their children were never enrolled in public schools (Table 5). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 The parent's concern about academic success is the reason for the financial sacrifice as mentioned in the demographic section. Parents who rated their own education as average to low have high expecta tions for their children's education and want their lives to have greater accomplish ments than theirs. Thirty-seven percent (37 %) of Group I parents attended private schools, only 15 % in Group II and 25 % of Group III. There is low correlation between parents who attended private schools with children who attend private schools. Table 5. Summary of Variable Correlation Coefficient Variable Questions Description G-l G-2 G-3 V 17 Parents rated own education K-12 Low to average 65% 83% 70% V 10 Number of children in family 1-4 Children 86% 100% 85% V 13 Number of children attend (ed) public school 1-4 Children 35% 38% 52% V 12 Number of children attending private school. 1-4 Children 90% 92% 100% V 8 Parents attended private school. Attended private 37% 15% 25% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 A red flag is raised for the reason parents are choosing to place their children in private schools. For the most part they themselves did not attend private schools and rated their public school education as below average. The Spearman correlation coefficient chart (Appendix M) shows that there were strong correlation's between the four variables: (a) Academic Achievement, (b) Safety Issues, (c) School Culture, and (d) Motivation and Efficacy of Teachers. Correlations between the self-reported demographics and the four sections of ques tions were not considered strong (Table 6). Table 6. Spearman Correlation Coefficient Variable Description Correlated Variable Correlation AA-1 Sum of academic SI-1 74% achievement SC-1 67% SI-1 Sum of safety issues AA-1 74% SC-1 72% ME-1 62% SC-1 Sum of school culture AA-1 67% SI-1 73% SI-3 74% ME-1 Sum of motivation/ SC-1 72% efficacy SC-2 76% AA-1 61% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 Throughout the literature review, there is a strong relationship between these variables. Educational institutions must have all in order to provide a successful learning experience for students, where all students can and do have an opportunity to acquire knowledge and develop personal social skills. Written Parental Responses Questions 9, 10, 16 and 17 are open-ended, are designed to support the Likert Survey and allow a deeper investigation into the specific reasons parents made their decisions to enroll their children in private schools. What events caused you to decide to transfer your children to non-public schools (Question 9)? Of 47 responses; documented from parents. 1. Academic achievement (18) 2. Safety (11) 3. Positive school culture (3) 4. Teaching (5) 5. Religion (4) 6. Other (6) Academic achievement is the number one specific reason parents have for removing their child/children from the public school, which supports its Likert scale/frequency rank as highest in importance. A few of the comments documented were: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 1. Quality of education. 2. Quality of education did not meet Standards I was to which parents were accustomed. 3. Grades and report cards important. 4. Students do not have knowledge. Safety issues concern is the second frequent reason documented. Safety comments were very clear and direct, focusing on both classroom and school safety. 1. Violence and drugs (2). 2. More discipline required on campus. 3. Incidence of gang activity, profanity. 4. Teachers without discipline plans for students. Comments related to teaching conveyed strong opinions. 1. Lack of qualifications among teachers. 2. Teachers did not care about students. 3. Less time spent teaching, more time spent on discipline. There were on four (4) responses regarding religion for private school en rollment of children despite the fact that all three (3) sample schools had religious affiliation. Religious schools are concluded to be regarded as providing quality edu cation with a disciplined and safe campus. What decision-making process was used to select a nonpublic school (Question 10)? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 1. Lack of discipline in the public school. 2. Poor teacher/student relationship. 3. Lack of school security. 4. Lack of standards in schools. A Few Answers Were Quite Interesting! 1. Several parents expressed the effort and economic sacrifice involved in sending their children to private school and their feeling they had no choice. 2. Several mentioned trying to get children in/being on waiting list for Charter School. 3. A few mentioned that they had gone to the same school and wanted their children to attend. Parents made recommendations for public schools and private schools re sponding to questions 16 and 17 (Table 7). The list of the top six (6) response, prioritized from top to bottom according to the number of responses, indicates their belief of the shortcomings of public schools in important basic academic areas and further support the conclusions made regarding the factors of their decision to choose private schools. Issues concerning private schools, on the other hand, primarily regard the economic constraints, i.e., scarcity resources of the school, and their need to provide greater breadth to the curriculum. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 Table 7. Recommendations for Public and Private Schools Recommendations for Public School Recommendations for Private School More communication with parents More facilities Establish standards and academic improvement Campus and teacher aids Secure safer campuses Extracurricular activities Teacher caring Higher standards Institute dress code Increase science Create smaller classes More social studies Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 Chapter 5 Discussion For years, parents have had the ability to and have selected the schools their children attend, given their economic capability. Public educational institutions were designed to prepare our children for success and functional citizenship. The current trend, about a decade old, is focused on increased school choices! Public education, supported by tax dollars, is free and education is compulsory for all children. In chapter 2 the Literature Review, carefully identified and explained the embryonic stages of United States public education. Knowledge of the historical background of schooling and the on-going development of educational institutions is imperative to opening the thought process and true appreciation of the public school system, which in large part, must be improved in the future. Many legal cases ad dressing important issues of attendance as far as who and where, philosophical ide ologies and socialization were discussed. Parents in urban schools have expressed their desire to have choices for their children's' education due primarily to the lack of quality in public education. At this point, some urban parents have more opportunities and economic means to make educational choices for their children. Parents are finding ways to provide a better quality of educational experiences for their children. The choice for private institu tions is based on goals of academic achievement and success for their children. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 Home schooling, a total withdrawal from the public facility, has even become attrac tive and has risen from 1% to 2% of national enrollment. The population of this study was in South Central Los Angeles, which is not a wealthy economic region. Many parents there are struggling economically; some work several jobs to pay the rent. More than 50% of parents in groups 2 and 3 of the sample groups were single, widowed or divorced with incomes of $50,000 or less. A large percentage of group 1 had annual incomes of less than $30,000. Households with $50,000 and less do not leave surplus income for the lux ury of private school education for a family's children. So why are parents of minor ity children choosing private schools, when the primary goal of the public school system is to provide opportunities for all students to achieve their fullest potential? This points to a failure in the public school system. How is the public school system failing? This and other questions directed the research; they were answered through the Likert Scale of Importance. There were five educational issues categorized in four major areas of questions: (a) academic achievement, (b) safety issues, (c) school culture, and (d) teacher motivation/efficacy. Parents provided their (a) demographic information, (b) background and specific information important to validate, (c) associate and conclude on reasons, (d) concerns, and (e) intention and sacrifices made in changing their children's atten dance to nonpublic schools. Data for household income, ethnic group, marital Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 status and educational experiences, were analyzed and documented. Parents were primarily African-American and Hispanic. The Literature Review identified that historically, private schools were highly associated with families of financial influence and well-to-do households. These schools were college prep schools. They were primarily attended by Anglo- Saxon students. As racial integration of schools occurred, more and a greater diver sity of private schools developed. They were not necessarily specific to Anglo- Saxon students. More religious schools, independent schools and ethnic based schools developed. The majority of parents in the study, conducted in three private religious fo cused schools, did not enroll their children for religious study. In their written com ments under "other" found in the results, less than a percent from each school, stated they enrolled their children in the schools for religion or moral development. However, this issue could be addressed in further research. The most significant reason for enrollment was academic achievement and educational success. The strong conclusion of this study, is academic achievement and empower ment through knowledge, is the main vehicle for minority students to become suc cessful, productive citizens capable of being independent, raising their families and meeting community demands. Parents were interested in many factors related to school success for their children. Many urban parents are aware of the importance of education and have Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 learned curriculum attributes that will prepare their children for their future. They indicated: 1. Academic standards at the school level were important for student success. 2. A school's instructional program should be consistent and on going. 3. Grades showed that their children were learning. 4. Successful classroom assessment was more important than standard ized testing. Academic Program A sound academic program positively includes (a) established standards and goals,(b) appropriate materials for instruction provided to students, and (c) adequate instructional time without interruption allowed and prepared teachers to facilitate the educational program. A strong concern of parents, indicated in their written re sponses, is unqualified teachers in the public school classroom. California college and university teacher preparation programs are producing fewer teachers. Educational programs are losing popularity. Universities and col leges graduated 5,000 teachers in 1997. There were 20,000 positions. The short age was created by the state mandated lowing of class size in Grades 1-3 to less than 20. Instructional success for students in the primary grades was the primary reason for the state's action. Private schools have had lower class sizes—a reason parents choose private schools. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 Parents identified extracurricular activities for students to develop, personal growth, as vital to their children's academic achievement: (a) working together in/on teams, (b) planning projects, and (c) developing/being taught competitiveness to increase their desire to study harder in an instructional setting. School Safety It was not surprising that parents expressed concerns for weapons, gangs and drugs in the school environment. In the Literature Review, it was cited private schools have less gang activity than public schools. Parents were concerned about weapons in schools— the safety of students. In the time since this research, there have been numerous extremely violent acts in school environments that could only intensify this concern. Concern for safety equated to desiring a school discipline policy with conse quential actions. Parents and students should be aware of the policy and the fact that is enforced. The policy should be outlined to parents and students upon enroll ment. It should be consistent and carried out with parental involvement. It estab lishes order on the campus, which prevents disruption to the academic program for student learning. Discipline in a school makes the vital difference for a strong academic in structional program. It requires and allows teachers on task, fewer interruptions from students, and more opportunity for all students to stay focused on the instruc tional program. Adherence to and follow through by the school administration of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 the plan establishes teacher credibility— respect from students' of teachers' serious ness. Students who participate in the development of classroom rules take owner ship of them. Issues brought into the classroom from the playground must be ad dressed prior to resuming at work. All stakeholders in the environment must agree and abide by the plan. Discipline policies and procedures should consist of classroom rules, school rules and the district or board policy as the guiding factor. Parents must be a part of the process at a very early stage of implementation. Therefore, parents must be no tified upon enrollment of their child into any school of the policy and consequences to students who do not adhere to the rules. Parents need to be involved if there is any deviation or issues related to their children not following the rules. It is impor tant that concerns of students not continue without parental involvement as to the solutions and consequences of actions. Communication classes are important for students to learn how to resolve or manage conflict through a positive process. Parents desired their children learn how to communicate effectively. Individuals resolving issues appropriately is a key to successful school experience and has a positive impact on school academic success. School Environment Management of a successful discipline policy creates a positive school envi ronment for academic success. As stated in the Literature Review, organizational culture is the body of solutions to external and internal problems. The creation of a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 positive school environment is established through the relationships among staff, parents, and students that are developed. The survey showed a positive school envi ronment as important. Parents want stability, order and a consistent pattern in their children's educational environment. They want parent participation and clearly de fined expectations for parents. Parent's participation is required in private schools and is one of their strengths. There are zero options for parents to negotiate their responsibilities as identified by the school. Parents want to experience positive interaction with schools. At times, public schools teachers are not clear regarding participation re quired from parents other than homework support. Developing a positive school climate involves developing school pride, a shared vision among stakeholders, effective communication, a strong academic pro gram, and activities that create teamwork. The Teachers Role The teacher's role in the classroom is critical. Good and Brophy (1995) identified teachers as active social agents capable of stimulating student motivation to learn, and further suggested the importance of developing an instructional pro gram which shows students how the information can apply to them in the real world. Involving students in the process of teaching stimulates learning and under standing and creates a method of learning. Research has found that students are not treated the same in all cases, and that certain treatments limit students' opportunities Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 in the classroom. The most important behavior that can exist between teacher and student is high teacher expectations for all students. Further teachers need to role model their expectations of all students. Some teachers have preconceived ideas that students of color have less abil ity than others. These behaviors and attitudes are easily observed by the both stu dents and parents, and students are very sensitive to teacher treatment the classroom towards them. The behaviors that are observed include: (a) giving less time to an swer questions; (b) criticizing more often, (c) less attentive to students in the class room, (d) less communication with the student, and (e) praising the students less than others. Teachers establishing goals and objectives in the classroom allow the oppor tunity for all to achieve. Their demonstrating patience, understanding of diversity and providing appropriate teaching strategies in their classroom, can facilitate growth and learning for all students. Students should be provided with a cadre of teaching strategies to be successful in a learning environment. Classrooms now are very culturally diverse and the instructional program must provide appropriate opportunities. Teachers need to adjust instruction to ac commodate diversity, including assessing self-efficacy. On-going professional de velopment is key to school success, which is defined as adjusting to change and con sistent focus on the purpose of schooling, i.e., academic achievement for all students in a changing environment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Spearman correlation coefficient data indicated that all five attributes of education are closely correlated to each other. Success requires (a) an instructional program that is consistent, (b) a discipline policy that is implemented, (c) a school culture that is intrinsically motivational and positive, (d) a staff that cares and pro vides motivation, and (e) an attitude to all students that they will learn. Our system is in constant change and reform due to the vast concern from parents. Public schools are investigating ways to improve student achievement and must utilize current studies and research to improve the state of affairs. Further re search could contrast the concerns of parents in other geographic and economic re gions, testing the success of the public educational system in those environments. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 References Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 References Allen, J. P, & Turner, E. (1990). Where diversity is: American demographics, 12(8), 34-38. Ayres, H., Cooley, E., & Dunn, C. (1990). Self-concept, attribution, and persis tence in learning-disability students. Journal of School Psychology, 28, 153- 163. Armor, D. J., Conry-Oseguera, P., Cox, M. A., King, N., McDonnell, L. M., Pascal, A. H., Pauly, E., Zellman, G., Summer, G. C., & Thompson, V. M. (1976). 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Explaining within-semester changes in student effort in junior high school and senior high school courses, Journal of Educational Psychology. 83. 201-211. Provost, J. H. (1985). Concepts of governance from church law of interest to edu cation. Unpublished manuscript. Washington, DC: The National Catholic Educational Association. Schein, E. H. (1985). How culture forms, develops, and changes. Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 19-201. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Steinberg, A., & David, A. (1991). Survey of voter attitudes in California toward a choice system in education: Summary Report (p. 22). [Research project.] Policy Insight, No. 1130. The Reason Foundation, California. Steinberg, L., Dombusch, S. M. & Brown, B. B. (1992). Ethnic differences in ado lescent achievement: An ecological perspective. American Psychologist. 47. 723-729. Stipek, D. J. (1984, December). Preschool-age children's performance expectations for themselves and another child as a function of the incentive value of suc cess and the salience of past performance. Child Development. 55(6). 1983- 1989. Stipek, D. J., & Mac Iver, D. (1989). Developmental change in children's assess ment of intellectual competence. Child Development. 60. 521-538. Slaughter, Defoe, D. T., Nakagawa, K., Takanishl, R. & Johnson, D. J. (1990). Toward cultural/ecological perspectives on schooling and achievement in African-American children. Child Development. 61. 363-383. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 Schein, E. H. (1985). How culture forms, develops, and changes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Scott-Jones, D. (1987). Mother-as-teacher in the families of high- and low-income Black first-graders. Journal of Negro Education. 86(11. 21-34. Steinberg, A., & David, A. (1991). Survey of voter attitudes in California toward a choice system in education. Summary Report: Policy Insight, No. 130. Tharp, R. G. (1989). Psychocultural variables and constants: Effects on teaching and learning in schools. American Psychologist. 44. 349-369. Tyack, D. G. (1976, August). Ways of seeing: An essay on the history of compul sory schooling. Harvard Educational Review. 46131 355-389. Tyack, D., & James, T. (1987). Law and the shaping of public education, 363-368. van Geel, T. supra; Tyack, D., James, T., Benarot, A. (1987). Law and the Shap ing of Public School education 1785-1954. Waldrop, J., & Exter, T. (1990). What the 1990 census will show. American Demographics. 12(1), 20-30. Wehrly, B. (1988). Toward a multicultural partnership in higher education. Macomb: Western Illinois University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Ser vice No. ED 308 731). Well, A. S. (1988). Urban teacher recruitment programs. New York: Columbia University, Institute for Urban Minority Education. (ERIC) document Re production Service No. ED 312 319). Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (1992). The development of achievement task vales: A theoretical analysis. Developmental Review. 12. 265-310. Williams, B. F. (1992). Changing Demographics: Challenges for educators. Inter vention in School and Clinic. 27131 157-162. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendices Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A Differences in Organizational Structure Between Public, Parochial and Independent Schools Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 Appendix A Differences Between Public, Parochial and Independent Schools TOPIC PUBLIC PAROCHIAL INDEPENDENT 1. Purpose of Education To teach all students to be Productive & functional to the best of their abili ties in preparation for citizenship. To teach students to achieve the harmonious development of the mental, physical, emotional, in preparation for spiritual as well as academic success. To teach students to strive for the highest learning goals in prepa ration for academic success in college. 2. Governance Democratically elected School Boards and ap pointed Superintendent, decisions guided by fed eral, state & local laws School Boards are elected or appointed from within the religious structure; often church, state & local codes and laws. Appointed school Boards; often large fi nancial donors have great influence; deci sions guided by federal, state, & independent codes and bylaws. 3. Administration & Participation A shared vision guides the direction o f the school; the Superinten dent recommends and guidance policy and level of participation in district operation. Principal or headmaster has full responsibility for daily school operation, participates on consultation boards & educational committees. Principals guides daily school operations; school board or founder establishes school pol icy and direction. 4. Financial Support Support by the citizens through local, state, and federal taxes and bond funding. Supported by the parish ioners, tithes and religious organizations, fund raising, grants, tuition, and private endowments. Supported by the foun der, tuition, fund rais ing, grants, and private endowments. 5. Conflict & Due Process Union protected negoti ated contracts, due proc ess as guided by district policy, state codes and federal. Contracts negotiated and due process guided by the religious organization. Contracts negotiated by the school board or founder; due process action directed by the school board or founder. 6. Hiring & Dismissal Superintendent recom mends to the board with regard to hiring and dismissal of all staff. Principal consults with the religious organization with regards to hiring and dis missal of all staff. Principal consults with the school board or founder with regard to hiring and dismissal of all staff. 7. Parental Involvement Parents are invited to participate in child’s school activities. Parents are required to participate in child’s school activities Parents are required to participate in child’s school activities. By Gwen Gholson-Driver (2000) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix B Simplified Organizational Structure Public School Model Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. O rg an izatio n al S tru c tu re Appendix B Simplified Organizational Structure Public School Model Elected School Board Superintentent Negotiator Unions Pupil Personnel Services Educational Services Personnel Services ~r Business Services Principal Parents resellers Start Legend ---------------- Relationship — — — Consultative Support Services ........... Direct Line Relationship Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix C Diocesan School Model Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A ppendix C structure Diocesan School Model Diocensan Boards Diocensan Bishop Diocensan Educational Administrators) Consultative Board Principal Legend Informational Relationship Consultative R elation sh ip Direct Relationship Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix D Parish Model Consultative Education Board Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 Organizational Structure A ppendix D Parish Model Consultative Education Board Parish /Pastoral Council Principal Director of Religious Education Pastor Consultative Education Board Finance Council Legend Informational Relationship Consultative Relationship Direct R elation sh ip Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix E Independent School Model Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Organizational Structure A ppendix E Independent School Model T ea ch ers Staff E d u catio n al Advisory Committee D irector/Principal F ou n d er or S elf-selected B oard Legend Direct Relationship Consultative Relationship Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix F Student's Reports of School Crime 1989 and 1995 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix F 114 Students kr]H>t‘is if/ StiuMtl C'fitH?: /WtfV ttad I W t Street Clangs al School • Students in W 5 were much mure likely n> report that street gangs were present in their sclit»«N titan were students in 10X0 (28.4 percent v. 15.3 percent). • in 1995, Hispanic students were more likely than either white or black students to report the cmmciivc ol street gangs in their schools (40.5 percent v. 23.0 percent and 34.7 percent, respective!} i. A soniUir set o f relationships existed in 1989. Figure 9 — Percent of students ages 12 through 19 who reported that street gangs were present at school, by race/ethnicity: 1989 and 1995 Percent 1989 1995 49.5 Alt VKt*. Black. Hap anic Other. All V M t Black, Hip m e Other. S tu lm t ro o noo ror> Student norv non non s Hspenie Hspanic Hap ante s Hspenic H spnic Hspavit, Stident nee/ethnicity SOURCE U S. Department of Justice. Bureau o f Justice Statistics. School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, spring 1989 and 1995 • 1 ,1 and 1995. students living in households with higher incom es were less likely to report fh*ri Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 street gangs were present at school than were students in households with low er incom es. Figure 10.— Percent of students ages 12 through 19 who reported that street gangs were present at school, by household income: 1989 and 1995 Percent 50 45 4 0 35 3 0 2 5 20 15 10 5 0 Student ho use ho Id income SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau o f Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, spring 1989 and 1995 • Students in central cities were more likely to respond that there were street gangs at their schools l-Ui.7 percent) than were suburban students (26.3 percent) or students in nonmetropolitan areas (19.9 percent) in 1995. Sim ilar results occurred in 1989. • Between 1989 and 1995. reports o f gang presence increased in all three categories o f student place o f residence. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 11.— Percent of students ages 12 through 19 who reported that street gangs were present at school, by place of residence: 1989 and 1995 Percent 1 090 1 GO'! Central city Sibrehi Nonmetro- Central city Suburbs politan area Student place of n side nee SOURCE’ U.S. Depaitmart cf Justice, Bureau oflustice Statistics, School Crime Supple mart to the Natmnal Crime Vktisnkatbn Sumy, spring 1989 and 1995 « Students in public schools were more likely to report thai street gangs were present at school than were students in private schools in both years. In 1995,30.6 percent o f students in public schools reported that M rcet gangs were present compared to 6.8 percent in private schools. The 1989 percents were 16.4 and 4.4. respectively. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 12.— Percent of students ages 12 through 19 who reported that street gangs were present at school, by school type 1989 and 1995 39 30 25 26 I s iO J 0 Student school type SOURCE? U S. Department of Justice, Bureau o f Justice Statistics, School Crime Suppten^nt to the National Crime Victimization Survey, spnng 1989 and 1995 1989 1995 30.6 Pvblic Private Ptblic Private Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix G School Invitation Letter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix G G w endolyn (Jh o lso n -D riv e r U n iv ersity of S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia D octoral C an d id ate, D ep artm en t of E d u catio n 310-376-9389 iu iU E-mail gholsondSi'scf.usc.oiu March 16, 1997 Dear school Administrator, Thank you for scheduling this meeting with me to discuss the possibilities of conducting a research study with your parents. Your parents are invited to participate in this study entitled School Choice: Analysis of issues Influencing Parents Making Decisions To Enroll Their Child(ren) in Parochial Private Schools K-12. This study is being conducted by Gwendolyn Gholson- Driver, Higher Education Doctoral Student, at the University of Southern California. The study is designed to determine the most pertinent and influencing issues that cause parents to select and pay for private schooling for their children. Benefits of this study are that your recommendations can be used to improve educational systems both in public and private schools; identify issues that are important to parents about their children's education; and processes parents take to make the decisions. Precautions have been taken to assure your anonymity. There is no risk involved to any respondent in this study. All responses will be kept confidential. The answers will average with approximately one hundred other parents in Los Angeles County K-12 private school students for statistical analysis. No published information will ever make it possible to identify any individual's name or answers. Individual responses will not be used and/or released to anyone. The survey does not involve any right or wrong answers. This survey addresses the understanding or knowledge of a particular topic or question. The participation is strictly volunteer. Answers need to be straightforward. This is important to the questionnaire. Thank you so very much for your assistance and support through this process. Your kindness and positive spirit is most obliging. Sincerely, Gwendolyn Gholson-Driver University of California Student D-DSCAdm. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix H Parent Letter Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 A p p e n d ix H Parent Letter S u r v e y Q uestionnaire Parents and School Choice: Analysis of issues influencing parents m aking decisions to enroll their Child (ren) in C hristian Schools. D ear Parents, T hank you for taking your precious and valuable tim e to com plete this questionnaire. The purpose of this questionnaire is study how an d why parents m ake the choice to remove th eir children from public schools and enroll them in non-public schools. The five section questionnaire will identify, exam ine, and evaluate the inform ation gathered from parents during the decision m aking process and provide vital data regarding issues surrounding those decisions. The questionnaire will also identify dem ographic inform ation. This is an anonym ous process and will be treated confidentially. Please do not w rite yo u r nam e or school on the questionnaire in o rd e r to m aintain confidentially. T hank you in advance for your cooperation. Sincerely, Gwendolyn Gholson-D river University of Southern California Doctoral C andidate, D epartm ent of Education Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix I The Survey Demographic Characteristics and Parent Questionnaire Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 Appendix I 'Survey Parent Information School Choice for m i n o r i t y p a r e n t s D ir e c tio n s : Please read each item carefully sad marie the appropriate box or fill in your answers in the appropriate space. Please answer all of the questions. !. The person completing this questionnaire is: a). [ j Female [ ) M ale h i- (J 18-25 years old [ ] 26-35 (1 36-45 [ ) 46-55 ( J 56 and older cl. [ ) married ! 1 single ( J divorced [ ) widowed 2. Your highest level o f education is: { | 8th grade or less [ ) high school graduate or GED ( ] som e under graduate college t } college degree (13-16) [ ] graduate degree or in progress (17-up) [ ] doctorate and post doctorate 3. The total household income is: (this includes all adults before taxes) I ! less than 320.000 ( ] 520.001 130.000 U 330.001 $40,000 t] $40,001 $50,000 n 330.001 $60,000 [i 360.001 $70,000 t) 370.001 $90,000 n 390.001 $ 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 0 3110.001 and over ( 1997) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 4 . Did you altead private afihoel2- 11 Yes [] No 11 Eksseatary t ] High School IJ College 5. ! tow many children do you have? 6. What ages m your children? 7. . How many children do you have in private school? R . How many children attended public school? a. If so, what grade(s)? b. If so, how many yean? 9. What event(s) caused you to decide to transfer your children to a non-pubic school? 10. What decision-making process did yon use lo select a non-public school for your child(twt)? 11. 1 low would you rate the public schools is your neighborhood? {] high standard [ 1 average standard [] low standard Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 12. How would yourateyourK* 12sdneaiiaa? [ J high itwdard | J » a » a (» < M ! ] low atmdwd 1.1. How m ^ y yean h « y o ® child asscadiri ® aoa-pi&ik *di«4? (cliiatk rase) (11-3 {1 3 -6 [] (ormore 14. if you could nwk the (5) following important atuibuo of aoy ichool, how would you rank them using «1 at lop priority. (eater f t 1.2 ,3 ,4.3): ______________ Academic Admvessmt Poeittve School Culture ______________ School Safety ______________ Teacher1 * belief that all children can ieara . _______________ High teacher espectsooa of chUdrea Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 6 _____________ Parent Questionnaire D ir e c tio n s : Ptease answer all of the questions. (Circle One) 4 s Strongly Agree 3 = Agree 2 = Disagree I = Strongly Disagree ______ Academic Achievement 1. State-the-art schools prove a school's potential for , student achievement (tedusdog^/equipmeitt/malenals including, textbooks & instruction). 4 3 2 1 2. It is important for my children to get good grades. 4 3 2 1 3. Good grades show that my child is learning. 4 3 2 1 4. A good indication of a student's academic achievement are standardized test scores. 4 3 2 1 5. Consistency in basic Seaming requirements is critical to long range educational success. 4 3 2 1 6. Academic success depends on academic standards. 4 3 2 1 7. Non-public schools are more successful in the consistency of their learning standards and course work than pubic schools. 4 3 2 1 8. Schools that are interested in their students* academic achievement adopt standards and measures for continual improvement (s). 4 3 2 1 9. Non-public schools are more focused on and successful at maintaining high standards. 4 3 2 1 10. Students allowed to participate in setting their own academic goals are higher achievers and therefore, are more successful than those who are only allowed to follow school goals in educational systems. 4 3 2 1 11. If students have to relocate they are academically more easily integrated into any school (public or private) when they have attended non-public schools. 4 3 2 1 12. • Risk of losing time or credits is less likely for students transferring from non-public schools during relocation. 4 3 2 1 13. Academic standards are more uniform from non-public school to non-public school than from public school to 4 3 2 1 public school. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 14. Processing a transfer student’s paperwork is more expedient in non-public versus public schools. 4 3 2 1 I S. Extracurricular activities and programs are vital for a student's academic achievement 4 3 2 1 16. Extracurricular activities are essential part of a student’s personal growth and development 4 3 2 1 17. Successful classroom assessment results are indicators of a students academic success. 4 3 2 1 18. Non-public schools stimulate more interest in academic achievement 4 3 2 1 19. High attendance rates display a school’* academic excellence and further contributes to academic success. 4 3 2 1 20. The number of students who graduate from from high school confirms academic achievement 4 3 2 1 21. Non-public schools prepare students for college. 4 3 2 1 22. Student who show success on a job display academic achievement 4 3 2 1 23. Successful academic achievement results in students being prepared to enter college. 4 3 2 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Safety Issues w\]ct «<« tlwuut u/Kt^k an» fm m attv 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 28. Safety and positive disciplinary policies coexist in 4 3 - 7 1 excellent schools. 24. Excellent schools are those which are secure from any outside influence. 25. At no time should students be in possession of any item that mi ght be perceived to serve as a weapon. 26. Threats to student safety could be considered mental as well as physical. 26. Students safety issues are really only linked to threats of physical harm. 27. The major safety threats in schools today are related to violence and/or weapons. 29. Non-public schools are safer than public schools. 30. The main safety threats in schools are national disasters or structural. 31. Schools should adopt and follow a written code of conduct 32. Public schools have a written disciplinary policy which is followed and shared with students and parents. 33. Consequence for inappropriate behaviors should be established and written prior to disciplinary requirements and actions. 34. Parents should be notified of disciplinary policies and consequences. 36. Attributes of good character should be identified, taught, and practice at a school regardless of race, gender, etc. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 35. Ethical guidelines are linked to values, behaviors, actions, attitudes, and decisions. 4 * 3 2 37. The communication process is key to school safety and academic success for students. 4 3 2 38. Safety on a school campus is just as important as student academic achievement 4 3 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■ 1 2 9 School C ulture 39. Public schools shows concern for ail students safety and takes measures to ensure this process. 40. Public schools foster stability, order, and a consistent pattern in the environment 41. Parent participation is welcomed in the public schools. 42. Non-public schools embrace parent participation and have a dear, organized and well defined expectation of parent participation and responsibility. 43. Non-public schools establish a clear vision as to what schools stand for and what students should leant and become. 44. A positive school climate is important for the success of a school. 46. Principles for teamwork should be a required class for all students. 47. Non-Pubic schools encourage and produces a caring attitude toward all students. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 45. Good Leadership in a private school influences on the climate in a school. 4 3 2 3 2 3 2 48. Starting in elementary grades, communication classes should be required for all students . 4 3 49. Teaching students to communicate effectively will result in safer campuses. 4 3 50. Non-public schools create a positive environment for learning and school program participation. 4 3 52. Non-public schools have zero tolerance for student behavior problems. 4 3 2 1 53. Teachers are committed to a high quality of education in a non-public school. 4 3 2 1 54. School communications emphasizes a relationship between parents, staff and students and the school’s goals for positive development 4 3 2 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 Motivation & Efficacy 55. Students who believe they ate successful can handle most academically challenging activities. 4 3 2 1 56. Teachers in non-public schools believe all children can and . will learn. 4 3 2 1 57. Teachers treat all students the same in non-public schools. 58. Non-public school teachers are focused on the instruction of students and student academic success. 59. Does a teacher * s attitude have an effect on a student’s learning process which could effect academic achievement for student 60. A teachers expectations and beliefs can and do influence a students academic success, personal growth, and development 4 3 2 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix J Self-Reported Demographic Characteristics Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix J S e lf R eported D em ographic C haracteristic* by School Characteristics Catholic School Group 1 (N-53) Christian School Group 2 (N-13) Lutheran School G roup 3 (N-20) Gender Female 4 3 (8 7 .1 ) 12(92.3) 15(75.0) Male 6 (1 2 .2 ) 1 ( 7.7) 5 (2 5.0) Age(Ytart) 18-25 2 ( 4.0) 0{ 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) 26-35 14(28.0) 2(15.4) 2(10.0) 36-45 30 (60.0) 6 (46.2) 1 4 (7 0 .0 ) 46-55 3 ( 6.0) 4 (30.8) 3 (1 5.0) 56+ 1 ( 2.0) 1 ( 7.7) 1 ( 5.0) Marital Status * Married 42 (79.3) 6 (4 6 .2 ) 1 0 (5 0 .0 ) Single Parent Household 11 (20.1) 7 (5 3 .9 ) 1 0 (5 0 .0 ) Education Level < 8 th grade 1 4 (2 7 .5 ) 0 ( 0.0) 0 { 0 .0 ) H igh S chool Graduate 11 (21.6) 3 (25.0) 6 (3 0.0) Some College 11 (21.6) 3 (25.0) 7 (3 5 .0 ) College Graduate 12(23.5) 4(33.3) 4 (2 0.0) Post Graduate 3 ( 5.9) 2(16.7) 3 (1 5 .0 ) Household Income <30,000 26(52.0) 3 (27.3) 6 (3 0 .0 ) 30,0 0 1 -5 0 ,0 0 0 18(36.0) 7 (63.6) 1 (40.0) 5 0 ,0 0 1-70,000 * ( 8.0) 0 ( 0.0) 2(10.0) 7 0 ,0 0 1 - t - 2 ( 4.0) 1 ( 9.1) 4 (2 0.0) Ethnieity African-Am erican 5 ( 9.8) 12(92.3) 1 7 (8 9 .5 ) Hispanic-Americart 37 (72.6) 0 ( 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) Other 9 (1 7 .7 ) 1 ( 7.7) 2 (10.5) *: Value* are frequency (column percent). Single parent household category includes: Single, Divorced, and W idowed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 Self Reported School Related Characteristics by School C haracteristics Catholic School C hristian School L utheran School G roup 1 G roup 2 G roup 3 (N-53) (N-13) (N=20) Did you (parent) attend private sckool?- Ycs 19(37.3) 2(15.4) 5(25.0) No 32(62.8) 11(84.6) 15(75.0) How would you rate your X-J 2 education? - High Standard 16(34.0) 2(16.7) 6(30.0) Average Standard 24 (51.1) 10(83.3) 13 (65.0) Low Standard 7 (14.9) 0 ( 0.0) I ( 5.0) How would you rate the publk schools in your neighborhood?- High Standard 1 ( 2.0) 0 ( 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) Average Standard 23 (46.9) 2(15.4) 8(44.4) Low Standard 25(51.0) 8 (8 4 .6 ) 10(55.6) How many children do you have?- 1 11 (20.8) 4(30.8) 5(25.0) 2 20 (37.7) 5(38.5) 8(40.0) 3 12(22.6) 3 (23.1) 2(10.0) 4 3(5.7) 1(7.7) 2(10.0) 5 4(7.6) 0(0.0) 2(10.0) 6 2 ( 3.8) 0 ( 0.0) 1 ( 5.0) How many children do you have in private school? 1 17(32.7) 6 (46.2) 14 (70.0) 2 19(36.5) 5(38.5) 4(20.0) 3 9(17.3) 1(7.7) 2(10.0) 4 2 ( 3.9) 0 ( 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) 5 0(0.0) 0(0,0) 0(0.0) 6 2 ( 3.9) 0 ( 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 Self Reported School Related Characteristics by School C haracteristics Catholic School C hristian School L u th eran School G roup 1 G roup 2 G roup 3 (£***53) <W*I3) (N~20) How many children attend(ed) public school?- 0 31 (64.6) 1(61.5) 9 (47.4) 1 8(16.7) 4(30.8) 6(31.6) 2 5 (10.4) I ( 7.7) 2(10.5) 3 3 ( 6.3) 0 ( 0.0) 2(10.5) 4 1 ( 2.1) 0 ( 0.0) 0 ( 0.0) *: Values are frequency (column percent). V m ie n M l l . W Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix K Listing of Likert scale Responses (Frequency and Agreement) to Survey Questions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix K LISTING OF LIKERT SCALE RESPONSES (FREQUENCY AND AGREEMENT) TO SURVEY QUESTIONS Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Strongly Percent Percent Question Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree D isa g r e e 1. State-of-the-art sc h o o ls (m ost m odern) technology/equipm ent/m aterials including, textbooks & instruction validate a sch o o ls potential for student achievem ent. 3 7 37 6 7 91% 9% 2. It is important for m y children to g et good grades. 6 0 22 2 O 98% 0% 3. G ood g rad es sh o w that m y child is learning. 40 34 8 2 88% 12% 4. A good indication of a student's academ ic ach ievem en t is standardized te st sc o r e s. 2 0 4 2 15 7 74% 26% 5. C on sisten cy in b asic learning requirem ents is critical to long range educational s u c c e s s . 4 7 34 3 0 97% 4% 6. A cad em ic s u c c e s s d ep en d s on acad em ic standards. 31 43 8 0 90% 10% 7. Non-public sc h o o ls are m ore su c c e ss fu l in the c o n siste n c y of their learning standards and co u r se work than public sc h o o ls. 25 30 23 3 68% 32% 8. S ch o o ls that are interested in their student's a cad em ic ach ievem en t adopt standards an d m ea su res for continual im rovem ent(s). 35 44 6 0 93% 7% 9. Non-public sc h o o ls are m ore fo cu sed on and su c c e ssfu l at maintaining high standards. 30 33 18 3 75% 25% Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10. Stu d en ts allowed to participare in setting their ow n acad em ic goa ls are higher ach ievers and therefore, are m ore su c c e ss fu l than th o se w ho are only allowed to follow school goals ineducatlonal sy ste m s. 22 36 23 2 70% 30% 11. If stu d en ts have to relocate they are academ ically m ore easily integrated into any school (public or private) w hen they have attended non-public sch o o ls. 15 35 29 3 61% 39% 12. R isk of losing tim e or credits is le s s likely for stu d en ts transferring from non-public sch o o ls during relocation. 14 40 2 5 2 67% 33% 13. A cadem ic standards are m ore uniform from non-public sch ool to non-public school. 21 39 15 4 76% 24% 14. P ro cessin g a transfer, student's paperwork is sp eed ier in non-public v e r su s public sch o o ls. 14 3 5 23 2 66% 34% 15. Extracurricular activities and program s are vital for a student’s acad em ic achievem ent. 29 3 8 15 0 82% 18% 16. Extracurricular activities are an essen tia l part of a stu d en t's personal growth and developm ent. 36 38 7 1 87% 10% 17. S u c c e ssfu l classroom a s s e s s m e n t results are indicators of a stu d en t's acad em ic s u c c e s s . 22 43 13 1 82% 18% 18. Non-public sc h o o ls stim ulate m ore interest in acad em ic acnievem ent. 27 36 17 1 78% 22% 19. High attendance rates display a school's academ ic excellen ce and further contribute to acad em ic s u c c e s s . 28 3 9 11 2 84% 16% 20, The num ber of stu d en ts w ho graduate from high school confirm s acad em ic achievem ent. 17 35 24 5 64% 36% 21. Non-public sc h o o ls prepare stu d en ts for college. 30 42 7 2 89% 11% 22. S tu d en ts w ho dem onstrate s u c c e s s on a job display a cad em ic achievem ent. 21 41 15 2 79% 22% Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23. S u ccessfu l acad em ic ach ievem en t results in stu d en ts being prepared to enter college. 4 2 33 4 1 94% 6% S a fe ty Is s u e s 2 4 . Excellent sc h o o ls are th o se which are se c u r e from any outside influence. 20 28 29 4 59% 41% 25. At no tim e should stu d en ts b e in p o ss e ss io n of any item that might b e perceived a s a w eapon. 68 16 2 2 95% 5% 26. T hreats to student safety could b e con sid ered mental a s well a s physical. 51 30 3 1 95% 5% 2 7 . Students safety is s u e s are really only linked to threats of physical harm. 8 21 34 19 35% 65% 2 8 . The majority of safety threats in sc h o o ls today are related to violence and/or w eap on s. 3 7 31 12 5 80% 20% 2 9 . Safety and positive disciplinary policies co ex ist in excellent sc h o o ls. 38 31 8 1 89% 11% 30. Non-public sc h o o ls are safer than public sc h o o ls. 30 34 15 6 75% 25% 3 1 . The main safety threats in sc h o o ls are national d isasters or structural problem s. 6 29 3 5 14 42% 58% 32. S ch o o ls shoulc adopt and follow a written c o d e of conduct. 4 2 40 4 0 95% 5% 3 3 . Public sch o o ls have a written disciplinary policy, which is followed and shared with stu d en ts and parents. 9 30 2 4 13 51% 49% 3 4 . C o n se q u en ce s for inappropriate behaviors should be established and writted prior to disciplinary requirem ents and actions. 37 39 8 2 88% 12% 35. Parents should be notified of disciplinary policies and co n se q u en ce s. 5 6 26 1 3 95% 5% 36. Ethical guidelines are linked to values, behaviors, actions, attitudes and d ecision s. 43 33 4 2 93% 7% 3 7 . Attributes of good character should be identified, taught and practiced a t a school regard less of race, gender, e tc ... 52 24 6 3 89% 11% Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38. T he com m unication p r o c e ss is key to school safety and acad em ic s u c c e s s for students. 3 0 49 4 2 93% 7% 39. Safety on a sch ool ca m p u s is just a s important a s student acad em ic achievem ent. 5 3 26 5 2 92% 8% S c h o o l C ulture 4 0 . Public sc h o o ls sh o w concern for all stu d en t's safety and ta k e s m ea su res to en su re this p ro cess. 13 36 21 7 64% 36% 41. Public sc h o o ls foster stability, order and a c o n siste n t pattern in the environm ent. 7 29 3 3 6 48% 52% 4 2 . Parent participation is w elcom ed in the public school. 16 44 15 5 75% 25% 4 3 . Non-public sc h o o ls em b race parent participation and have a clear, organized and w ell-defined expectation of parent participation and responsibility. 4 3 31 6 2 90% 10% 4 4 . Non-public sc h o o ls extablish a clear vision a s to w hat sc h o o ls stand for and what stu d en ts should learn and b ecom e. 3 2 41 6 1 91% 9% 4 5 . A positive sch ool clim ate is important for the s u c c e s s o f a school. 4 4 36 2 2 95% 5% 4 6 . G ood leadership in a private scholl in flu en ces the clim ate in a school. 4 5 32 2 5 92% 8% 4 7 . Principles for team work should b e a required c la s s for all stu d en ts. 3 8 32 7 3 88% 13% 48. Non-public sc h o o ls en cou rage and produces a caring attitude toward all stu d en ts. 2 4 46 6 2 90% 10% 49. Starting in elem entary grad es com m unication c la s s e s should be required for all stu d en ts. 3 7 33 9 3 85% 15% 50. T eaching stu d en ts to com m unicate effectively will result in sa fer ca m p u ses. 3 6 33 12 3 82% 18% 51. Non-public sc h o o ls create a positive environm ent for learning and school program participation. 2 8 46 7 0 91% 9% 's D Reproduced w ith permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52. Non-public sc h o o ls have zero tolerance for student behavior problem s. 18 24 34 4 53% 48% 53. T ea ch ers are com m itted to a high quality of Education in a non-public school. 23 3 9 14 4 78% 23% 54. School com m unications em p h a size a relationship betw een parents, staff and stu d en ts and the sch o o l's goa ls for positive developm ent. 41 32 6 3 89% 11% M otivation & E ffica cy 55. S tu d en ts w ho believe they are su c c e ssfu l can handle m o st academ ically challenging activities. 37 4 0 5 2 92% 8% 56. T each ers in non-public sc h o o ls believe all children ca n and will learn. 2 7 3 4 16 5 74% 26% 57. T each ers treat all stu d en ts the sa m e in non public sc h o o ls. 18 2 9 26 7 59% 41% 58. Non-public school tea ch ers are fo cu sed on the instruction o f stu d en ts and student academ ic s u c c e s s . 2 9 38 11 2 84% 16% 59. A teach er's attitude have on effect on a stu d en t's learning p ro cess. 54 2 3 3 1 95% 5% 60. A tea ch ers expectations & beliefs can and do influence a stu d en ts acad em ic s u c c e s s , personal growth and developm ent. 5 3 27 2 1 .96 .4 4% Appendix L Respondents of Important Attributes in the Education of Their Child and Determining School Choice Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 Appendix L RESPONDENTS TA N K OF IM PO R T A N T ATTRIBUTES IN TH E ED U C A TIO N O F T H E IR CHILD A N D D E T E R M IN IN G SCHOOL CHOICE Rank Educational Attribute Percentage of Parents Assigning Attribute The Ranking Probability 1 Academic Achievement 45.50% 79% II School Safety 20.00% 25% Ill Positive School Culture 26.90% 27% IV Teacher's Belief That All Children Can Leam 35.40% 40% V High Teachers Expectations of Children 24.60% 50% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix M Summary of Variable Correlations Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 A p p e n d ix M SUMMARY OF VARIABLE CORRELATIONS Closely Correlated Variable Variable AA2 Academic Achievement V17 How Parents Rate their K-12 Education 98% V10 Number of Children in Family 78% V13 Number of Children in Family Attending Public School 88% SI SC1 School Culture 72% V8 Parents Attended Pritate School 79% V5 Marital Status 90% V13 Number of Children in Publich School in Family 86% V24 Ethnicity 77% SI3 V24 Ethnicity 80% V6 Education 78% V8 Attend Private School 93% V7 Income 99% SC1 SI3 Safety Issues 74% ME1 Teachers Expectatio ns & Ethnicity 77% ME1 SC1 72% SC2 76% Education 83% V6 83% ME2 V7 70% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gholson-Driver, Gwendolyn (author)

Core Title Factors influencing minority parents to place their children in private schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, ethnic and racial studies,sociology, individual and family studies

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Williams, Edgar H. (committee chair), Broussard, Vernon (committee member), Gothold, Stuart (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-97636

Unique identifier UC11338236

Identifier 3027719.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-97636 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3027719.pdf

Dmrecord 97636

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gholson-Driver, Gwendolyn

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA