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Filmmaking, language and culture learning in higher education: A USC case study

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FILMMAKING, LANGUAGE
AND CULTURE LEARNING
IN HIGHER EDUCATION:
A USC CASE STUDY
by
Rita Xanthoudakis Stafford
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
(Education)
December 1996
Copyright 1996 Rita Xanthoudakis Stafford
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UMI Number: 1383548
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This thesis, written by
Rita Xanthoudakis Stafford
Advisor, has been presented to and accepted by the
Faculty o f the School of Education in partial
fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree o f
M a ste r o f S c ie n c e in E d u c a t io n
under the direction o f her
Dean
Advisor
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Dedication
With infinite gratitude
to my husband Frederick Stafford
for his warm disposition,
fine mind, and sense of humor.
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Acknowledgment s
I would like to thank Dr. David Eskey, Director of the
American Language Institute and Joe McVeigh of the American
Language Academy for their confidence and support of my
'experiments' . I also wish to thank Kim Ryan not only for
providing the camera and running the front office with great
aplomb, but for her infectious laughter.
Finally, I am grateful to all my students who were good
sports through both semesters, and of whose work I am greatly
proud.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgments iii
X . Introduction 1
Background 1
Video in the Language Classroom 2
Video-filmmaking in Language Education 3
Video-filmmaking as a Discourse Community 4
Language and Culture Learning 6
Expanding a Language Teacher 1s Knowledge Base 8
Additional Considerations 10
II Educational Learning Theory 12
The Challenge of Constructivism 13
Second Language Acquisition Theory 14
Content-Based Instruction 18
The Affective Domain 19
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Ill English Through Video Production:
An Overview of the Class 21
Assessment and Evaluation Methods 24
Some Benefits of Reflective Teaching 25
IV Developing a Successful ESL Video Course 2 6
The Right Equipment 26
Technical Media Arts Consultant 27
Teacher Training 27
Course Design 28
V Conclusion 3 0
Appendix 3 3
A - Course Description 33
B - Sample Assignments 34
C - Video-filmmaking Lexicon 36
D - Instructional Text Sample 37
E - Video Production Shot List 41
F - Reflective Notes: Video Letter 42
G - Self-Assessment Sample: Before and After 43
H - Student Survey Questionnaire 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY 4 6
v
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CHAPTER I
Background
In the Summer and Fall of 1995, the American Language
Academy at the University of Southern California offered a
course entitled 'English through Video Production'. This
pilot course sought to determine whether or not a video
filmmaking sheltered English course would be feasible and
suitable for language and cultural learning at the university
level.
While a filmmaking ESL/EFL course seems an ideal option
for USC given the international reputation of its film
school, it was nonetheless, the first time a course of this
kind had ever been offered. Through the two semesters that
'English through Video Production' employed the art of
filmmaking as content for both language, and intercultural
learning, data, albeit limited, was collected in an effort to
supply answers to the following questions:
1. Does participating in the filmmaking process enhance
English language acquisition?
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2. Does participating in the filmmaking facilitate
acculturation, intercultural communication and cultural
learning?
3. Were international students interested in learning
English this way?
The American Language Academy course was to be the
prototype for a more comprehensive video-filmmaking language
course that, in the future, would serve as a model for other
college campus English language programs.
Video in the Language Classroom
In recent years, the popularity gained by video
technology among language educators is reflected in the
growing number of publications promoting its use in the
language classroom, particularly in secondary and post
secondary education (e.g. Lonergan 1983, 1990; Allen 1985;
Geddes and Sturbridge 1982; Gillespie 1985; Willis 1983;
Tomalin 1986,1990; Stempelski 1987, 1990; Stempelski &
Arcario 1994).
Video's portability, low cost, and simplicity of use has
enabled language teachers to use video in numerous ways to
meet a variety of language learning objectives. Today
authentic, non-ESL, commercially produced video materials are
used as content in content-based instruction, and to
stimulate oral and written communication (Stoller 1994;
Stempelski 1990; Arcario 1994; Kerridge 1982). Using a video
camera to assess and evaluate a language learner's classroom
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performance or as an effective tool in teacher-training has
become almost routine (Lonergan 1983; Allen 1983).
More recently, student-produced video has been receiving
more and more attention (Lonergan 1990; Kennedy 1983; Forrest
1994; Hambrook 1994) . Yet, little effort has been made to
present film's cinematic principles and social history as
content for language learning. While in many cases student-
produced video activities include the learning of basic
filmmaking techniques and some vocabulary, an approach has
yet to be developed that takes the language of film, with its
history, theory, style, and technology and shelters it into
comprehensible input (Lambert and Tucker 1972; Krashen 1981)
for an ESL class.
Video-filmmaking in Language Education
In this study, the filmmaking process as a subject for
second language education at the university level is
presented from the perspective of my own personal experience
as a filmmaker and language teacher. It is an attempt to
show, first, that the art of filmmaking can be used as
content for language learning; and second, that filmmaking
production can be creatively practiced through video.
Throughout this study, the terms "film", "filmmaking",
and "video" are used interchangeably to refer to a highly
motivating and socializing creative activity that has not
been adequately (or properly) exploited in the language
classroom. The words 'video' and 'filmmaking' are frequently
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combined to form a term that represents the merging of the
theoretical construct of one medium (film) with the
technology of another (video).
The term 'filmmaking' is used when the process, history
and art of film are being discussed, and 'video', when the
tools of production are being discussed. It is also important
to note that although the refinement and "magic" of film has
yet to be matched by videotape, a great deal of original,
creative work can be realized with a simple VHS video
camcorder camera and other rudimentary AV equipment readily
available in most ESL departments (Cooper 1990, Lonergan
1990).
Video-filmmaking as a Discourse Community
Filmmaking is an excellent example of a discourse
community (Swales 1990). In language education, filmmaking
can be approached through different styles or genres-- e.g.
narrative, documentary, ethnographic, anthropological,
experimental, videographic or as videojournalism. While each
of these genres represents a discipline with a separate set
of rules, all of them have roots in film theory and share
most of the same 'filmic codes' (Monaco 1977).
Discourse theory which is concerned with 'how' language
develops— not in the cognitive sense, but as an external
process, can be readily observed through a video-filmmaking
approach. Video-filmmaking's interactivity is a highly
motivating vehicle for real-life communication and for
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interlanguage development as defined by discourse theorists
such as Hatch (1978) and Selinker (1972) .
The filmmaking process, which has a 'sign and syntax' of
its own (Kramsch 1993; Monaco 1977), is used in a second
language learning context that promotes traditional skills
proficiency. Reading and writing activities, along with
discussing and collaboratively planning the production of
short visual pieces, enable language function to grow out of
the interpersonal uses to which it is put (Hatch 1978) . The
employment of filmic codes, a simple glossary really, that
includes terms like 'shot', 'frame', 'scene', 'dialogue' and
so on, brings a unique perspective to language learning and
acquisition. Without having to venture into weighty
discussions of the film medium and theory (so loved by the
French) , a lot can be gained from a simplified version of
film 'talk', leaving plenty of room for the 'unaffected'
syntax of L2.
Teaching English through the language of film fosters a
unique discourse community in which L2 learners are able to
communicate authentically and get the maximum mileage from
the filmmaking process. Up to now, university language
teachers have not fully investigated the rich material
inherent in both film and video technology. Learning to use a
piece of equipment is one thing, learning to view that piece
of equipment critically and learning to use it creatively are
very different (Kramsch 1993).
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Language and Culture Learning
How do we teach language and culture? Discussions on the
relationship between language, ethnography, media
applications, and cultural learning can be found in the work
of many respected educationists, linguists and
anthropologists including Geertz (1973), Hymes (1980),
Saville-Troike (1982), Gumperz (1984), Stewart and Bennett
(1991) and Byram (1994) .
Today, many universities in the U.S. have large foreign
student populations. In the fall of 1995, there were 4,046
international students enrolled at USC alone. Studies show
that the alienation and cultural conflict experienced by
international students affects both their student life in the
states (Parr et al. 1992, Mallinckrodt and Leong 1992, Hayes
and Lin 1994), and their post-student life when they return
home (Chiu 1995) . This conflict is largely the result of
differences in the interpretation of fundamental values
related to such concepts as responsibility, family, and
social recognition (Hsu 1972) . In addition, the shock of
experiencing a new and different language, new and different
ethnic groups, driving habits, roads and locales, shopping
facilities, and expectations of social behavior in everyday
situations produces even greater stress (Parr et al. 1992;
Hayes and Lin 1994). Furthermore, for many international
students, relationships with most Americans rarely go beyond
superficial contacts, and they soon give up hope of ever
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establishing genuine friendships (Mallinckrodt and Leong
1992) .
One remedy for the difficulties encountered by
international students is to offer a course in a university
classroom environment that stresses culture learning.
Inherent in a language classroom is a rich cross-cultural
component ready for exploration, and video is an excellent
medium for that exploration. The difficulties international
students have in acculturation can be addressed through the
cooperative and collaborative learning environment of
filmmaking.
When we consider international university students,
several assumptions can be made. First, most are young adults
between the ages of 20 and 26; second, they are literate, and
third, they are, to a large degree media sophisticates--
meaning they were raised with mass media— and are generally
open to exploring different technologies and their uses.
At USC, the majority of international students are
enrolled in the sciences. While many are required to take one
or two ESL classes, most do not have the time or interest to
learn any more English than is absolutely necessary. On the
other hand, if international students were offered courses
that sheltered English, many, in addition to language
learners might be more inclined to enroll in these courses as
electives. International students could benefit enormously
not only from filmmaking programs but from other sheltered
subject matter from a variety of disciplines-- e.g. American
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history, psychology, communications, intercultural studies,
linguistics and anthropology and so forth.1 These classes,
taught from an American perspective, would provide the
content (or input) for both linguistic and cultural learning
(Krashen 1981; Lambert and Tucker 1972; Hauptman, Wesche and
Ready 1988; Sternfeld 1989). In addition, university English
language programs could expand to offer certification in
areas like filmmaking, Communications, American cultural
studies, or TESOL for the serious language student who wishes
to teach English in her native country.
Expanding a Language Teacher' s Knowledge Base
In addition to the needs of learners, the professional
development needs of educators must also be considered,
especially in the context of new subject areas for language
teaching. Yet the question remains: With all the many and
varied subjects suitable as content for the language
classroom, how can the parameters of a language teacher' s
knowledge base be expanded without imposing unreasonable
demands on what she is expected to know?
Throughout the field of language education innovative
efforts have emerged in response to increased interest in
content-based instruction (CBI) and sheltered subject matter
teaching (SSMT). In recent years, university Intensive
I Universities do occassionally offer sheltered courses for
international students. USC's undergraduate history department for
example, offers an American History course and the School of Education
offers an introductory applied linguistics course. But sheltered courses
are still few in number whereas, demographics show that international
student enrollment increases year to year.
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English Programs (IEPs) have been providing students with a
bridge from ESL courses to the university classroom through
sheltered courses taught by content instructors or adjunct
courses where ESL students attend regular university courses
with other college students. In adjunct courses, students
receive additional language support from ESL instructors in
parallel classes (Dantas-Whitney and Larson 1996). One
example of bridging ESL students with mainstream college
courses is a program coordinated between UCLA's American
Language Academy and its anthropology department. In this
program, language learners can enroll in a regular university
anthropology class, while meeting regularly with an ESL
teacher to review any language questions they may have
regarding the content. Despite the obvious advantages these
programs offer language learners, they do little to expand
the knowledge and instructional base of language teachers.
While it is true that language teachers can broaden their
knowledge base through in-service training, outside courses
and ESL materials that have been designed specifically for
SSMT, the limitations persist. Certainly there are texts that
help language teachers integrate content into their language
classrooms without sacrificing instruction in grammar and
basic language skills.2 Yet, what is still lacking are
content-based textbooks designed and produced by language
2 The University of Michigan Press publishes a series of theme-based
textbooks for all levels of instruction on such topics as American
culture, varieties of English, media, and American government. While
this is a start, the content has yet to break away from areas that are
traditionally ESL related.
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educators and experts from a variety of fields. It seems to
me that as interest in SSMT and CBI increases especially at
the college level, the demand for high quality material will
influence the educational publishing market in precisely that
direction: language educators and experts in a given field
co-authoring basic sheltered subject texts. These textbooks
will enable the language instructor to teach a content-based
intermediate level language course using the basics of almost
any course (e.g. anthropology, linguistics, filmmaking etc.)
without a separate content instructor. A film textbook that
contains some critical theory and film history along with
basic how-to information can lend enormous support to the
teacher who is interested in film as content for her language
class. The same holds true, of course, for many other
subjects.
Additional Considerations
All creative ventures, including educational ones,
require risk, commitment and desire. Certainly exploiting
filmmaking's potential in cultural communication as well as
for language acquisition requires some effort. Yet, it does
not follow that the language teacher must be a seasoned
filmmaker to conduct a filmmaking language course. Nor does
the equipment needed for a successful program have to exceed
most modest school budgets. Hopefully, this study will help
interested administrators, curriculum planners, course
designers, and teachers make informed decisions when adopting
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a video-filmmaking language course or program. I have taken
into account the fact that most language teachers are already-
beleaguered without a jumble of wires and new technology to
worry about.
Video, like any other instructional media, is too
daunting a technology for most of us to just dive into
without the support offered by sound curriculum development
and teacher training (see Chapter IV). Teacher training and
acquiring the right equipment can be accomplished easily with
the help of a good media arts consultant (Huey 1995) . This
way, getting acquainted with any new media and technology
will simply be a matter of willingness to try and willingness
to learn. Finally, whatever perceptions, misperceptions and
mystique filmmaking presents, its appeal remains strong; and
teaching filmmaking techniques in an accessible, simplified
form to language learners can produce impressive results. The
most trenchant and widely accepted research in literacy,
language acquisition and cognitive development supports the
case for filmmaking programs in second language education at
the university level; and, as an approach to cultural studies
in language education, filmmaking can also play a pivotal
role in internationalizing higher education.
The next four chapters address the following areas:
Chapter II is a review of several theories by well-known
educationists whose insights lend credibility and support to
the use of filmmaking in language education.
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Chapter III describes the pilot course, "English Through
Video Production", offered at USC's American Language Academy
during the 1995 Summer and Fall semesters.
Chapter IV is a discussion based largely on experiences
with the pilot course. It describes what is needed to develop
a successful filmmaking language course and suggests
assessment and evaluation methods. Conclusions and
recommendations for future research are presented in Chapter
V, followed by appendices and references.
Chapter II
Educational Learning Theory
Since the 1970's the changes that have marked second
language learning theory place an ever-growing importance on
the learner and the learner's role in the educational process
(Richards and Rogers 1986).
Filmmaking is an ideal subject for language learning
when looked at from the perspectives of interactive,
cognitive and language acquisition educational theories. This
chapter looks at the theories that share highly socializing
perspectives in their methods, including:
1) Constructivism and other learning theories that
support the notion of learning as a social activity (Brooks
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and Brooks 1993; Duffy and Jonassen 1992; Smith 1988;
Savignon 1983; Wadsworth 1971).
2) The second language acquisition theories of John
Schumann's Acculturation Model (1978) and Krashen’s
Acquisition-Learning and Input Hypotheses (1981).
3) The content-based teaching approaches of Eskey
(1984), Mohan (1986), and Brinton, Snow and Wesche (1989),
and finally:
4) The role of affect and personality in language
education (Brown 1980; Gardner and Lambert 1972; Krathwohl,
Bloom and Masia 1964).
Filmmaking and Current Learning Theory
1. The Challenge of Constructivism
...the best methods are also the most difficult ones: it would be impossible to
employ a Socratic method without having first acquired some of Socrates’ qualities.
(Piaget 1969).
Among the scholars who have contributed to
constructivist thinking, Piaget is the best known. Probably
the most important and most revolutionary implication of
Piaget's theory of intellectual and cognitive development is
that learners "construct knowledge" from their actions on the
environment (Wadsworth 1971). Piaget viewed constructivism as
a way of explaining how people come to know their world.
Piaget considered the knowledge gained through active
involvement with the environment to be experiences that are
assimilated into schemata (see also Rumelhart [1980]). He
believed that this kind of learning promoted discovery,
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invention, and the moral development that evolves through
social interaction (Wadsworth pp. 20-25). Certainly other
non-constructivist theorists agree on many of the same
points. For instance, Smith's distinguished essays (1988) on
literacy and education focus strongly on the importance of
prior knowledge to learning.
... (children’ s1 ) abilities do not improve as a consequence o f repetition, but
because the activities, if meaningfully undertaken, provide opportunities to learn. As
cognitive psychiatrists are realizing more and more, it is what we already know that makes
learning possible. The basis of learning is understanding.
In The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. authors
Brooks and Brooks claim that constructivism as a theory
stands in contrast to the traditional educational methods
that typify most classrooms. In constructivism, what the
student can generate, demonstrate and exhibit is of greater
value to the learning process than the "mimetic approach to
education "(Brooks and Brooks pp. 15-16). Students are viewed
as "thinkers with emerging theories about the world" and work
primarily in groups; "teachers behave in an interactive
manner and seek the students' points of view" (Brooks and
Brooks p. 17) . By adapting filmmaking into a language course,
we are making a leap beyond traditional classroom practices
towards a communicative, learner-centered approach where
students are: 1) learning a second language by interpreting
what they already know through a different scheme structure
(film); and, 2) are responsible for what they learn by
deciding much of the content— coming up with an idea and
writing a scenario; coordinating a schedule with classmates
so they can produce the film they wrote; deciding who is to
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perform what roles in order to accomplish their goals, and so
forth.
Video-filmmaking is a complex, energizing activity. The
filmmaker's need for clear communication at all times through
the transactional use of a second language can be a mechanism
for gaining and developing proficiency. Constructivist
assumptions such as, 1) the importance of "situating"
cognitive experiences in authentic activities (Duffy and
Jonassen 1992; Brown, Collins and Duguid 1989); and 2),
"learning is an active process in which meaning is developed
on the basis of experience" (Merrill 1993) apply directly to
language learners who are conveying ideas and solving
communication problems through the flexibility of video
filmmaking.
2. Second Language Acquisition Theory
In this section, two key research theories, Schumann's
Acculturation Model (1978) and Krashen's Acquisition-learning
and Input Hypotheses (1977) are applied to video-filmmaking.
I. The Acculturation Model.
Acculturation as defined by H.D. Brown (1980 p.129), is
the 'process of becoming adapted to a new culture' . John
Schumann, who formulated the Acculturation Model in second
language acquisition stated it thusly:
...the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language will control the
degree to which he acquires the second language.
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Language is one of the most observable expressions of
culture (Ellis 1986). Schumann's theory stresses the need for
"good" learning situations where LI and L2 groups view each
other as socially equal and share the target culture's social
facilities equally. In other words, the less psychological
distance between the learner's culture and the target culture
group, the greater the degree of language acquisition.
Video can facilitate acculturation from a variety of
filmmaking perspectives. For example, students may use video
ethnographically and do anthropological research of the host
culture. Thus, in addition to using the language in a real
context, students are challenging their own prejudices and
beliefs by 'discovering' the culture, its values, and
language first hand. Another perspective, similar to
ethnography, is documentary filmmaking which is a less
objective record of people or events as the filmmaker sees
them. Or even a filmmaking style that imitates the host
culture by producing a parody or take-off of, for example, an
American TV commercial or a theatrical scenario can
contribute to acculturation.
Whichever genre is pursued, video-filmmaking allows the
learner to "play" with the target culture's inhabitants and
social structures by using the culture's most powerful tools-
- the tools of mass media.
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II. The Acquisition-Learning and Input Hypotheses
The filmmaking process is a vehicle for real language
use that is both formal and informal in its language focus.
These characteristics reflect Krashen's acquisition-learning
distinction which states that 'acquisition' occurs
subconsciously as a result of a learner's participation in
natural, informal communication where the focus is on
meaning; and 'learning', which occurs as the conscious study
of the formal properties of language where the focus is on
form (Krashen 1981; Krashen and Terrell 1983). Filmmaking
also complements Krashen's concept of i +1 since it falls
into the category of "interesting and relevant"
comprehensible input (Krashen 1981 pp. 168) . Of course, it is
the teacher who ultimately makes the input interesting and
comprehensible. In a filmmaking language course, a teacher's
use of comprehensible input might involve:
a) defining the individual production roles according
to an accepted standard of interaction found in most
filmmaking contexts;
b) defining the formal elements of film and video's
unique vocabulary and scriptwriting fundamentals, and
c) teaching several simple techniques to accomplish the
task of either ethnographic, documentary or theatrical
narrative video-filmmaking.
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3 . Content-Based Instruction
Content-based instruction has generated a great deal of
interest, especially for students at intermediate and
advanced levels of L2 proficiency (Eskey 1984; Cantoni-Harvey
1987; Benesh 1988; Brinton, Snow and Wesche 1989). CBI, which
includes, sheltered subject matter teaching (SSMT), is an
approach that provides real life contexts that subsume the
formal study of language into the course content.
An important assumption of CBI is that "people do not
learn languages, then use them, but that people learn
languages by using them" (Eskey 1992). In content-based
settings, content and language are mutually reinforcing even
though learners focus their attention on meaning rather than
on the language itself (Stoller 1994); language thus becomes
the vehicle with which to explore content (Eskey 1984).
A filmmaking language course includes the vocabulary and
language of film, the content emerging from its social
history, technology and theory, and a variety of production
assignments by which students explore the medium's potential.
These assignments are based on topics of interest to students
(Brinton, Snow and Wesche 1989), such as popular culture,
history, art, the environment, or personal narratives. The
content is determined mainly by the students who shape the
assignments into the written scenarios that are then filmed.
By looking at language from the perspective of a
filmmaking class, we see that learners have many
opportunities to participate in various capacities, on many
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different levels. Filmmaking is a collaborative activity that
can protect a shy student or trumpet a brave one's
performance. Often, the inclusionary nature of filmmaking
activities and the support of other learners can help a
reticent student break through psychological obstacles. With
filmmaking's numerous options there is bound to be an area
where a shy or uncommunicative learner can feel competent,
confident and motivated enough to try, thus gaining the
benefit of the content, the language, and of interpersonal
experiences.
4. The Affective Domain
When we speak of the affective domain, we are
considering the emotional side of human behavior.
Understanding how human beings feel and respond, and what
they believe and value are important aspects of second
language acquisition (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia 1964).
Furthermore, in an instructional setting, attitudes are
greatly influenced by people in the immediate environment and
differing values can often be a source of conflict.
Student and teacher attitudes, motivation and the level
of anxiety are all part of the affective domain, as well as
key variables that can determine the success or failure of a
course which relies strongly on independent student
creativity and participation for its implementation (Brown
1980) .
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A teacher who understands the importance of affect in a
language classroom can, through her own enthusiasm for the
material and her students, harmonize any latent conflicts and
set a receptive tone for the instruction that is to follow
(Richard-Amato 1988).
In language learning, affect problems are almost always
successfully resolved when students overcome obstacles to
acculturation. Video-filmmaking is a dynamic way for students
to learn about cultural differences and how to value them.
The optimal second-language filmmaking classroom must be
a non-threatening environment where students are able to
explore ideas, take risks, make mistakes, laugh at themselves
empathize with others, and collaboratively produce work that
reflects L2 development (Brown 1980; Rubin 1975; Guiora,
Brannon and Dull 1972). It is through the interactive and
creative nature of filmmaking that the language classroom can
be transformed into what Curran (1972) calls a "learning
community".
It is important to keep in mind that there will always
be students who find the demands for class participation to
be threatening. As educators, many of us consider film and
video to be highly motivating learning tools; nevertheless,
any video-filmmaking course needs to be voluntary and should
have a range of participatory roles that can accommodate even
the most hesitant language learner.
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CHAPTER III
"English Through Video Production": An Overview
of the Class
Classes at the American Language Academy are kept small,
with around eight to 12 students. The ten students who
enrolled in the 'English Through Video Production' course
(all at intermediate proficiency levels) had recently arrived
in the U. S. from countries in Asia, Latin America, Europe,
and the Middle East.
The class (see Appendix A) met for two hours twice a
week for 14 weeks. Assignments were situation and theme-based
(Appendix B, Samples 1 and 2) , and offered students an
opportunity to learn new film vocabulary (Appendix C) and
technical information. The technical material came from "The
Bare Bones Camera Course for Film and Video" (Schroepple
1984) and "Camcorder Basics" (Hedgecoe 1995). Excerpts from
"The Rule of Thirds", a theory about composition, and from
"Camera Moves" (Appendix D, Samples 1 and 2) , are reprinted
from Schroeppel's book. They are included here as examples of
supplementary instructional material and as proof that it
does not take a George Lucas or a Steven Spielberg to teach
this material or to participate in its production.
At each class meeting we viewed one or two authentic
video clips to illustrate an upcoming assignment or a
particular aspect of filmmaking (e.g. style, content, genre
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camerawork, acting, directing) . We had no editing equipment,
in fact, all we had was one VHS camcorder camera and a
tripod. Students were taught techniques for in-camera
editing, which, in fact, requires a great deal of planning,
discipline and creative restraint.
From the beginning of the semester, students were
assigned different LI filmmaking partners. Each student was
also a member of a larger group of five that worked together
on projects that called for more participants. They worked on
one another's assignments each week, swapping roles as camera
operators, directors, and actors. Of the seven video
assignments, six were produced outside the classroom.
During class students were required to brainstorm
together and develop "shot" outlines (Appendix E) for
scenarios. They wrote scripted scenes when necessary, and
presented their ideas to each other for feedback. In
addition, the demanding class schedule kept students in
constant communication. They were responsible to each other
when transferring equipment (the one camera), and got to
taste the rigors of professional film and video work when it
came to managing all the details that are part of production.
Student videos had to be at least three minutes long,
five minutes maximum, when the assignment dealt with a more
complex subject, and part of each class meeting was devoted
to viewing and discussing their work. In addition, after each
assignment, students produced written evaluations of the
films they produced and reflected on their experiences.
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As illustrated in Appendix F, with each assignment
students learned something more about the medium itself, saw
ways to do things better or differently, learned something
about their own process and about their communication with
others. They also had the opportunity to apply what they had
learned to the next project.
At the end of the semester students voted for the top
videos and scheduled a video-film festival for the entire
American Language Academy. To prepare for the occasion, I
took the 'winning' tapes to a professional video post
production facility and had them edited together on to a
half-inch VHS cassette. In the editing room we were able to
make some minor changes and fades between segments that
vastly improved our presentation. The festival was a success
and the students had the pleasure of seeing their finished
work being enjoyed by others.
In the "English Through Video Production" class,
(according to my observations and to the students
themselves,) students were certainly 'learning' English. They
had authentic texts to read, authentic video material to view
and discuss. They had to work as teams giving each other cues
and direction, and communicated extensively over scene set
ups, camera angles, sound recording levels, and in-camera
editing. They had scripts to write, and they developed the
ability to objectively, yet critically reflect on their work.
Our greatest obstacle was the lack of equipment in a
course that featured technology. Good used equipment can be
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purchased relatively cheaply if one knows what to buy and
where. For us, had there been but one additional camera,
students could have increased their productivity and deepened
their knowledge substantially. Furthermore, a fifteen dollar
external microphone would have eliminated ambient sound
problems caused by distance and street noise. Finally, it
would have been ideal to have had editing equipment. Having
simple editing equipment would have given students a lot more
creative freedom. Yet, by the end of the semester, despite
limitations, the engaging work students produced revealed a
marked improvement in both their filmmaking and language
capabilities.
Assessment and Evaluation Methods
In the pilot course, videotaped paired interviews (see
Appendix G) were used to compare students' speaking abilities
at the beginning and end of the semester. Teacher evaluation
of written assignments was also used to gauge L2 development,
and student self-evaluation was an ongoing process in class
(Schon 1983; Richards & Lockhart 1994).
Students were required to thoughtfully assess their own
performance on every assignment. The emphasis was always on
process over product and students critiqued one another1s
work by pointing out what was good. They had to submit
production notes and write reviews of their own work,
analyzing what they did and how they would do things
differently next time. The most frequently made criticisms
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were usually about the need to approach each assignment with
more preparation.
Survey questionnaires administered during mid-semester
were useful in pointing the instructor in the right direction
when making adjustments along the way. Survey course
evaluations (Appendix H) at the end of the semester were
useful as feedback for future research possibilities and as
feedback for course development. By the semester's end, these
evaluations and questionnaires confirmed that the students
who applied themselves the most got the most from the course
in terms of filmmaking expertise, self-confidence and
language. Students who for various reasons might not have
benefited as much from the course were rescued by the
inclusionary nature of the work, the informal structure of
the course and its fast pace. In most problem situations
teacher intervention was not nearly as effective as peer
involvement. Students overcame most obstacles through
collaboration and instinctively knew when to ignore, jest
with, or reprove a difficult peer.
Some Benefits of Reflective Teaching
Keeping a journal of each class meeting helped me fine
tune activities as needed. It also gave me insight into my
own teaching process, improving my teaching skills, and
became the means of anticipating problems that had a tendency
to reappear (Schon 1983; Richards & Lockhart 1994). Through
this journal, I was able to see how I could communicate more
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clearly and in a more organized fashion. Also, keeping notes
about which assignments were most successful helped me revise
and polish the best of them, and discard the least effective
ones.
In comparing the two courses, summer and fall, 1995, the
latter was by far more successful in terms of student work
quality. Knowing how to help students produce good work is
predicated on experiencing the course material over time, and
is undoubtedly the reason why results were more impressive
the second time around.
Chapter IV
To develop a successful video-film course, four elements
are essential: The right equipment, a technical media
consultant, teacher training, and a well-designed course.
1. The Right Equipment
We have already indicated that the right equipment need
not be the latest high priced cameras to hit the market, or a
20,000 dollar computerized editing system. A couple of VHS
camcorder cameras with tripods and separate microphones will
provide a language learning class with real filmmaking
experience and a real-life communication context. A modest
video editing set-up, with monitors and sound recording
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capabilities will help transform the classroom into a mini
film studio.
2 . Technical Media Arts Consultant
The goal of a good media arts consultant is to make
herself expendable. Once teachers have taken video production
and film literacy courses, a consultant’s job should be that
of giving advice on technical matters and on how to improve
aesthetic considerations (Huey 1995). A good consultant knows
how a camera works, and more importantly, how to use video
production creatively in classroom situations. Language
teachers can seek her advice on these matters and gain some
of that knowledge for themselves along the way. Together, a
teacher and media consultant can help students produce better
work by being able to convey why, when shooting video,
certain things work and others don't, and what language
skills require more individual student awareness.
3 . Teacher Training
Teacher training is essential to any new program that
involves technology, and teachers who take courses in how to
creatively use and manage media technology should be given
full accreditation for it. In addition, an arrangement where
the technical consultant is also the teacher-trainer gives
both the teachers and the consultant a chance to know how
they will work together before the program reaches the
classroom.
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Teachers should also be required to do the same things
the students will be doing, that is, making live action
movies. First-hand experience can give teachers a better
understanding of the limitations and possibilities of the
medium. In addition, these teacher-produced videos can be
used as a resource in much the same way student-produced
videos will be used (Huey 1995) .
4. Course Design
A new course, according to Yalden (1987), is a "skillful
blending of what is already known about language teaching and
learning with the new elements that a group of learners bring
to the classroom: their own needs, wants, attitudes and
knowledge of the world." Add to this the authentic content
of the course that shelters the second language.
Language curriculum designers can work with film
education experts to develop interesting, relevant courses
and texts. The content of a film course must derive from
authentic film and video texts that are accessible to
language learners and teachers alike. Good text materials
capitalize on the students (and teachers) schemata or
background knowledge. Material that is stimulating and
interesting for the teacher is bound to be transmitted with
verve to the class. Good texts will help make the video/film
code a considerable part of the classroom discourse. In
addition, teachers can design the assignments with the help
of the many excellent, recently published video resource
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books. These contain clearly defined video production
activities that can easily be adapted to the requirements of
a university level sheltered film course.
In any case, whatever genre is emphasized in the class
(e.g. ethnographic filmmaking, narrative story-telling, or
documentaries) , the assignments can be designed to address
communication situations that require realistic use of the
language. The Video Letter (Appendix A) , for example, which
falls in the category of documentary video-filmmaking, uses a
variety of language forms that are ordinary greetings,
declarations and interrogatives that are normally written.
The Video Letter transforms them into spoken dialogue and
narration that accompanies well-thought out, intentionally
composed visual images.
Finally, though English is the target language, the
secondary ' film’ language, is used to communicate within the
student filmmaking group about how a video will be produced,
what kinds of shots will be made, who will be in them, and
where and how they will be filmed.
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Chapter V
Conclusion.
Film is a complex social process that has the ability to
psychologically expand time and make us aware of what each
minute contains— the colors and shapes, the words and
gestures, as well as the meta-meanings each image holds for
its creators and viewers. Yet, despite the wealth of
possibilities it has to offer the field of language
education, transposing the art of filmmaking to language
learning is not without its limitations or disadvantages.
While the language teacher need not be a filmmaker or
film aesthete, the lack of general expertise must, and can
easily be avoided. After all, most teachers today are media
oriented and are often presented with technological training
opportunities through their schools or professional
educational organizations.
Yet, though language teachers are receptive to video
technology, filmmaking as we have discussed it, is still a
world apart and far from conventional language teaching
beliefs. The manner in which video-filmmaking facilitates
language acquisition is sufficiently unresearched and, as
such, remains a nontraditional approach. There simply has not
been adequate documentation of filmmaking as the subject of
second language education. In addition, critics justifiably
point to costly equipment, specialized teacher-training, and
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the non-academic knowledge filmmaking emphasizes as obstacles
to efficient, quality instruction. Nevertheless, I hope my
arguments and final thoughts will sway the skeptics.
In order to overcome some of the complications
mentioned, there need to be experimental ESL filmmaking
courses at universities like USC that have well known English
language and filmmaking programs. These experimental courses
can serve as longitudinal studies in both second language and
cross-cultural education.3 Furthermore, expanding a teacher's
knowledge base to include filmmaking can be realized with:
1) teacher training, 2) with the development and production
of appropriate teaching texts, and 3) team teaching classes.
This would make teaching sheltered subjects, be they
filmmaking, anthropology, or American history, more
accessible to language teaching professionals and
international students, and can help usher in the next level
of language education methodologies.
A well-designed filmmaking language program is one that
is supported by adequate equipment and an adequately trained
staff. It is also one that has a reliable means of evaluation
and measurement that extends beyond the duration of the
course itself, and which tracks student achievement in
advanced English classes or regular college courses. In the
case of this study, the USC pilot course was successful
despite the lack of equipment and other materials. Yet, for
3 Although no mention has yet been made of community colleges, ESL
filmmaking programs would be equally as effective despite the mainly
adult immigrant population tp be found there. In fact, the work produced
by such students may even be more compelling.
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this study to be persuasive, evidence, based on valid
research, of growth in both language and acculturation is
needed. Built-in measures that can be used to follow-up a
student' s performance in subsequent courses would have to be
carefully integrated into any ESL filmmaking course concerned
with reliably assessing student achievement.
In conclusion, filmmkaing as ESL subject matter is an
excellent means of acculturation and cultural learning. It
presents the language learner with an opportunity to use
English in a dynamic social context rich in content and
creativity; and perhaps even more importantly, it helps the
learner discover new ways of looking at reality. Or as French
film critic Andre Bazin affirmed in his seminal work, What is
Cinema (1967) ,
"The (cinematic) image is evaluated not according to what it adds to reality but what
it reveals of it."
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3 2
Appendix A
English Through video Production
Course Description
English Through Video Production is an upper-level
English class that combines a variety of filmmaking
activities aimed at increasing language fluency and
understanding.
The course is pro~iect-oriented. which means that
students will be required to work in small groups, sometimes
over a period of time. This makes regular attendance and
clear communication between group members essential.
The goal of this class is to help the student develop
oral fluency by integrating all the language skills.
Activities include pair work and group discussions, role
play, dramatic play readings, and of course video-filmmaking.
Some activities require you to spend time outside of
class planning, preparing, and producing "live action
movies". This aspect of the course is important to the
success of the work you produce, and in fostering language
learning. Please exchange phone numbers with your
classmates-- you'll need them as the semester progresses.
By the end of this course you will have learned how to
produce short films on video tape in addition to improving
your English. You will also be responsible for presenting
oral and written summaries assessing the work you have
completed.
Class times:
Tuesday - 1-2:50 at VKC 104
Thursday- 1-2:50 at TBH 305.
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Appendix B
Sample Assignment 1
"Home Away from Home"
A video letter
Think of someone you have been wanting to write a letter
to but have not gotten around to it yet.
In this assignment we describe a new environment and
culture to a friend or family as though it were a letter,
only now we are communicating through video;
Plan the shape of your letter and the shots carefully so
that you are speaking against various backdrops while your
partner does the actual taping.
You can show the recipient of your letter any part of
your environment you wish. You may also introduce them to new
people you have met, describe some new clothes you have
bought, and so on.
Procedure:
1. In class, compose your letter and the different shots
that will illustrate it. Keep letters to a three minute
maximum
2. Explain to your partner what you would like to do. Share
your letter and describe what you hope to get on tape. Get
feedback.
3 . Your partner will then share his or her plan for a video
letter and get feedback from you.
4. Outside of class, rehearse the letter and walk through
the different shots a couple of times before actually
shooting.
5. When you are finished, go to your partner's locations
and follow the same procedure.
6 . Submit production notes.
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Appendix B
Sample Assignment 2
"Video Portrait"
Documenting a Person
Consider the following:
First, is there one person, alive or dead, that you
would most like to meet and talk to? Decide on a few
key questions you would like to ask them?
In Class:
1. View short videos that cover a range of
interview styles
2. Decide on a person you know that you can
actually interview. What you would like u§. to know
about this person? What is the tone, or approach you are
taking? Will your interview be funny or serious?
Small group activity:
1. Share ideas about who you would like to
interview, and develop questions and follow-up questions
to be asked.
2. Arrange a planning and production schedule with
your group. Be clear about the location and try to
prepare for any unusual problems
Keep your on-camera interview short, -seven minutes or
less.
In order to maximize your in-camera editing
advantage, rehearse with your subject.You may
want to have a warm-up discussion so that
everyone is comfortable and relaxed.
Submit production notes.
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Appendix C
Video-Filmmaking
LEXICON
(partial list)
ACTION
ANGLE
AUDIO
BACKLIT
CABLE
CAMERA SPEED
CUT
CLAPBOARD (sticks)
DEPTH OF FIELD
DIRECTOR
DISSOLVE
DOLLY
DUB
EDITOR
ESTABLISHING SHOT
EXT. CLOSE UP (XCU)
FADE IN/ FADE OUT
FAST FORWARD/ REWIND
FLASHBACK
FOCUS
GRIP
JUMP CUT
LENS
MICROPHONES/MIKE/BOOM
PAN
PAUSE
PRODUCER
PROPMASTER
SCENE
SET DESIGNER
SEQUENCE
SHOT
SLOW MOTION
SOUND MIXER
SYNC SOUND
TAKE 1, 2, 3 etc.
TILT
TRACKING
VIEWFINDER
ZOOM
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Appendix D
Sample 1 "Rule of Thirds"
RULE OF THIRDS
— ^ ----- *-—
— * -----X —
The rule of thirds is an old, old theory about composition
that still works pretty well. It won't compose the picture for
you, but it'll at least give you someplace to start.
The idea is to mentally divide the frame into thirds horizon
tally and vertically. Then you place your elements along the lir.
preferably with the center of interest at one of the four points
where the lines cross.
Here a:-, some- example- of compos iticr.i improved by usir.p the
rule of thirds:
WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS WITH RULE OF THIRDS
from "The Bare Bones Camera Course for Film and Video"
Copyright T. Schroeppel 1994
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Appendix D
Sample 1 "Rule of Thirds"
WITHOUT RULE OF THIRDS
WITH RULE OF THIRDS
WITHOUT RILE OF THIRDS
WITH RULE OF THIRDS
WITROUT RULE OF THIRDS
WITH RULE OF THIRDS
from "The Bare Bones Camera Course for Film and Video"
Copyright T. Schroeppel 1994
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Appendix D
Sample 2 "Camera Moves"
A ZOOM-OUT [from close-up to wide shot) usually reveals new
information. Often it tells us where we are. For example, you
can start on a close-up of a man’s face talking about flowers, the:
zoom back to reveal that he's surrounded by flowers.
PANS (horizontal moves) and TILTS (vertical moves) also reveal
new ii
One caution about pans. If you pan too fast, vertical lines,
like fenceposts, doorframes, etc., will strobe on you, trailing
ghost images behind. When in doubt, pan a little slower.
An effective way to lead your viewer through a long pan is to
follow a smaller object--a person walking, a car perhaps--as it passe
by your subject. For example, a wide shot pan across the front of
a building is much more interesting with a person walking by, lead
ing the move.
from "The Bare Bones Camera Course for Film and Video"
Copyright T. Schroeppel 1994
A ZOOM-OUT REVEALS NEW INEORMATIC
PANS AND TILTS REVEAL NEW INFORMATION
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Appendix E
Video Production Shot List
(Student sample)
Title: Video Letter- Lunch at University Village
Date: Aug. 9. 1995
1. ESTABLISHING SHOT: WIDE ANGLE-
EXT. UNIVERSITY VILLAGE- DAY
2. EXT. FOOD FAIRE
MED. CLOSE UP - First, I say "hello1 to my family and
tell them I am across the street from my school. This is
where I eat lunch everyday. Today, I am inviting them to join
me. Then I walk away from the camera. I go inside the Food
Faire.
3. INT. FOOD FAIRE/ KOREAN BBQ
MED. WIDE ANGLE- I'm talking about the place where I eat
lunch everyday. Camera PANS across the COUNTER to the area
with the TABLES AND CHAIRS. We see people eating.
4. MED. SHOT- I'm ordering something to eat. I look at the
camera and say, "I'm hungry."
5. MED. SHOT- Camera follows me (TRACKING) as I carry my
tray to a table and sit down. I look at the camera and point
to my food. I explain what I am eating. I explain what the
foods are on my plate. I offer some. "Would you like to try
some?" Then I start to eat. I look up at the camera, "Mmmmm,
it's delicious."
CUT TO:
8. INT. FOOD FAIRE- Camera is TRACKING me while I carry
tray to the trash, and then go outside.
9. EXT. UNIVERSITY VILLAGE- I speak to the camera:
"Thanks for having lunch with me. I hope you enjoyed it.
Anyway, as you can see, I'm fine and I'm eating well, too. I
miss you. Say 'hello' to everyone. Bye, bye."
10. Camera holds on shot of while I walk away. FADE OUT.
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The End.
Appendix F
English Through Video Production
Video Letter
Reflective Notes
Use this paper to write your about your experiences of
shooting your video letter. Discuss how you approached the
assignment, what arrangements you made, and how the actual
shooting went.
Were you were able to achieve the results you had planned on?
Do you think this project has helped you with English?
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4 1
Appendix 6
English Through Video Production
Before and After
Compare your English abilities in the first taped interview
you did at the beginning of the semester with the last taped
presentation talk you recently gave.
Consider your progress.
How have you improved in areas of pronunciation, vocabulary,
grammar, intonation, body language and confidence level?
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4 2
Appendix H
English Through Video Production
Summer, 1995
Student Survey Questionnaire
Male __ Female ___
Age ___
Native Country ________________
Years studying English ______
Please respond candidly, and as best you can to the following
questions. This will help us to improve the course. Thanks.
PART I. YES or NO
1. Did this course help you in learning English?
2. Did it make you want to practice English more?
3 . Would you recommend this course to others?
4. Did this course help you become more confident in
speaking English?
5. Would you take the next level of a course like this?
PART II.
Place a number next to each assignment to determine how you
liked each one:
1- excellent; 2- good; 3- fair; 4- poor.
6. In-class interviews (first taping in class) ____
7. Audio Interview Survey _______
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8 . Video Letter _____
9. Documenting a Place ________
10. Theatrical Play Readings _____
11. Video Portrait _____
12. Presentation (last in-class taping) _____
PART III.
13 . Which assignment was your favorite or most valuable to
you? Please explain as best you can.
14. Which was your least favorite and least valuable?
Please explain.
15. Did evaluating your own work help you? Please explain.
16. Do you think you learned much about filmmaking? Please
explain.
17. What would you have done differently in anv area of this
course if you were the teacher?
18. Are there any filmmaking assignments you would like to
do have done that were not part of the course?
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Creator Stafford, Rita Xanthoudakis (author)

Core Title Filmmaking, language and culture learning in higher education: A USC case study

School School of Education

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Cinema,education, curriculum and instruction,education, language and literature,language, linguistics,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

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Advisor Hentschke, Guilbert (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

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