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Androgyny and transformational leadership: Effects of gender and sex -role identity in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, R.O.C.
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Androgyny and transformational leadership: Effects of gender and sex -role identity in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, R.O.C.
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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NOTE TO USERS This reproduction is the best copy available. UMI Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ANDROGYNY AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP : EFFECTS OF GENDER AND SEX-ROLE IDENTITY IN THE COLLECTIVISTIC CONTEXT OF TAIWAN, R.O.C. by Chun-Hsi Vivian Chen A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION) December 2001 Copyright 2001 Chun-Hsi Vivian Chen Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3065769 __ ® UMI UMI Microform 3065769 Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA The Graduate School University Park LO S ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90089 1695 Thi s dissertation, w ritten by CHUN-HSI VIVTAN CHEN_______ Under the direction o f A E & ~ . D issertation Comm i ttee, an d approved b y a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School , in p a rtia l fu lfillm en t o f requi rem ents fo r the degree o f DO CTO R O F PHI LOSO PHY Graduate Studies Date May 10 . 2002 DI SSER TA T IO N C O M M ITTE E Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. To my mother and my father Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gracefully acknowledge Drs. Catherine Burke and P Robertson for their guidance and support during my grad program at the University of Southern California. I a extend my appreciation to Drs. Kathleen Reardon and Th Lin for their precious advice for my dissertation. I am greatly indebted to Ping-Song Hsu, Member cf ' examination Yuan of Taiwan, for the generosity of his in m.y data collection. Without his assistance, the da collection would never have been sc successful. Without family and friends, taking on the doctoral pro would be unbearable at times. I would like to thank Jca Chih-I Yu, An-Chung Chang, Shu-Jiao Lin, Chvi-Lu Jang, Ching-Heng Pan, I-Jan Kevin Yen, and Chi-Yu Richard Chou their company in this long journey. The doctoral program a lot more enjoyable, thanks to them. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. There are also some friends on whose help I partrcula drew; for their willingness to listen, and for the generos of their support. I thank Yu-Ling Zoe Lin and Li-Min Sue Deep appreciation also goes to the Lee's family, th landlords during my first few years in the doctoral progr Thank them all for their taking me in as a family member feeding me. I would like to thank my brother, sisters, and in-laws their being a constant source of encouragement. I also wc like to thank my grandmother, Cnin-Chong Liu Lo, for her ce a mentor and great source of inspiration in my life. Specially thanks for my one-year-old son, Justin Wang, my husband, Snih-Jon Wang. To Justin, I am grateful for understanding and cooperation when Mommy had to be away her writing. And to Shih-Jon, my thanks- for his humor, he and love. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Finally, my deepest gratitude is to my parents, Wen-C'nin Chen and Hsiu-Mei Lo Chen, for their unflagging encouragement and support. They provide the essential ingredient that makes everything worthwhile and possible in life: love. For their unconditional belief in me, I dedicate this dissertation t? h 0 r r : . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ..... Acknowledgements List of Tables . . Abstract ........ Glossory ........ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................ Background and Rationale............................. Statement of The Problem............................. Purpose of The Study................................. Significance of The Study............................ Summa ry................................................ CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE........... Debates on Gender Differences in Leadership Style.. Female Leaders in Organizational Settings........... Transformational Leadership.......................... Prior Research on Gender and Transformational Leadership ............................................ The Androgynous Theme in Transformational Leadership ............................................ Transformational Leadership in the Collectivistic Context................................................ Collectivism in Taiwan, Republic of China........... Research Hypotheses................................... Summary................................................ .. I .. I ..6 !() 13 16 19 23 31 36 51 54 56 63 66 73 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY.................................. 76 Sample and Data Collection............................ 76 Measuring Instruments..................................81 Scoring of Instruments.................................87 Data Analysis...........................................86 Delimitations...........................................61 Limitations.............................................63 Summary..................................................66 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION..................... 67 Results................................................. 67 Discussion of Gender.................................. 106 Discussion of Sex-Role Identity...................... 113 Discussion of Organization-Role Congruence..........116 Summary.................................................124 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION................................... 125 Implications and Future Research Agenda............. 130 Summary.................................................135 BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................137 APPENDIX I. Packet of Questionnaires of Chinese Version.................................................161 APPENDIX II. Packet of BSRI and MLQ Questionnaires 165 vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 1 Gender Distribution of the Universe ......... Gender Distribution of the Sample Pool ..... Gender Distribution of the Valid Responses . . Tabulated Statistics for Participants ...... Percentage of Sex-Role Identity Groups ..... Results of ANOVA for All Five Subscales .... Means of Both Gender on Idealized Influence (Attributed and Behavior) ................... . Means of Four Sex-Role Identity Groups on Transformational Leadership Subscales ..... . Results of Analysis of Variance: F-Test Approximations, Degree of Freedom and Probability for Gender, Sex-Role Identity, Department,& Sex-Role Identity X Department 0. ANOVA for the Integrated Scale............. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT Prior research on transformationai leadership is mos done in the individualistic context and suggests a get.' effect on transformational leadership. It is found tha women leaders possess qualities more in line with transformational leadership and are thus more transformational than their male counterparts. Drawing prior research, this study goes one step further to investigate the relationship between transformaticna1 leadership and gender as well as sex-role identity amor leaders in the collect ivistic context of Taiwan, ROC. effect of congruency between one's sex-rcie identity a: organizational orientation on one's level of transformational leadership is also tested in this stuc Questionnaires of Bern's Sex-Role Identity (BSRI) an Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) are used to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. evaluate participants' sex-role identity and transformational leadership behavior. Government empic who are at GS level 9 and above are selected as samples the Department of Health and the Ministry of Finance in Tai The findings suggest that sex-role identity has mo explanatory power than does gender in Taiwan. Gender accounts for a significant portion of the variance for two subscales of transformational leadership, i.e., idealized influence 'attributed) and idealized mfiuer {behavior,. Contrary to the prior research done in th individualistic context, men in Taiwan are found to se themselves as inducing more idealized influence on folic than do women. Sex-role identity accounts for a significant portio. the variance for all five subscaies of transformeriona leadership, i.e., idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivati Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. intellectual stimulation, and individualized considerat Androgynous individuals are found to demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior than individuals evaluated as masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated It is also found that the congruence between one's sex- identity and organizational orientation does not have impact on individuals' level of transformational leaders Dissertation Committee Catherine Burke, Ph.D., committee chair Peter Robertson, Ph.D. Thomas Lin, Ph.D. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. GLOSSORY Androgyny is a Greek term that stems from the root wor andrc (male) and gyne ( female) . It has come to denote a pers or personality that embodies a balance of both male and fema qualities (Frye, 1980) . Collectivism pertains to societies in which people fr birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive ingroup Individuals see themselves as fundamentally connected wi others and tend to sacrifice their personal needs to satis the group (Hofstede, 1991; Markus i Kitayama, 1991). Feminine sex role identity refers to an identity whi includes behaviors characterized as gentle, warn, affectionate, tender, loyal, shy, understanding, deper.der. submissive, emotional, and expressive (Bern, 1974). Gender means whether a subject is a male or a female, man or a woman, in the biological sense of the term. Concep Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of sex and gender are used interchangeably in this study despite the distinction made by feminists between biologically based "sex" and socially constructed "gender" (Galas & Smircich, 1996). Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose. Individuals tend to prioritise their own personal needs and see themselves as separate and autonomous individuals iHofstede, 1991; Markus c i Kitayama, 1991) . Leadership is "leaders inducing followers tc act for certain goals that represent the values and the mot ivat icr.s-- the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations of both leaders and followers" (Burns, 1978) . Masculine sex role identity refers to an identity that includes behaviors characterized as aggressive, assertive, competitive, dominant, active, independent, self-reliant, self-confident, and individualistic (Bern, 1974). \iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sex roles are beliefs about appropriate behavior for the two genders. These behaviors are positively sanctioned for members of one gender and ignored or negatively sanctioned for members of the other (Spence and Helmreicn, 1973}. Sex-role identity refers to hew much a person approves of and participates in feelings and behaviors which are seer, as "appropriate" for his/her gender (Frye, 1930). Sex-role stereotype is a set of beliefs about the characteristics of the occupants of a sex role, not necessarily based on fact or personal experience. It als: has an evaluative component as these expected behaviors are evaluated as good, bad, desirable, and so on (English, la” . Transformational leadership refers to behaviors which: "raise followers' level of awareness of the importance of achieving valued outcomes and the strategies for reachinc them"; "encourage followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team, organization, or \ i \ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. larger policy"; and "develop followers' needs to higher levels in such areas as achievement, autonomy, affiliation, which can be both work-related and nonwork-related" (Bass & Avolic, 1990) . Undifferentiated sex role identity refers to the relative absence of behavior identified with either male or female stereotypic sex role (Frye, 19S0). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background and Rationale The feminist movement of recent decades enhanced contemporary women's participation in the public sph changed the nature of organisational life and thus aba facets to management. The old rules of division of iabc been changed. In most societies, women's lives are no 1 restricted to the household and revolve around their bon responsibilities. Women have more opportunities, tin- energy to take part in public life. As a result, me r more women have emerged as outstanding leaders in the p arena, e.g., former British Prime Minister Lady That former Philippine President Ccrazon Aquino, and the Katherine Graham (1917-2001) . Leadership is one of the world's oldest preoccupat Throughout history, however, well-known leaders were n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ail men except fcr those women who had royal roots or connections . Leadership has been cons idered as a masculine domain ( Fr iesen, 1983) . As a result, cur understanding of the concept and most established theories of leadership have been drawn from examples of male subjects and have excluded women from consideration (Korabik, 1990). There is a thread of masculine connotation weaving through major theories of leadership. As argued by Kanter '1993 , a "masculine ethic" of rationality has given the managerial role in the West its defining image for most of the twentieth century. For decades, to think leader has mostly meant to "think male" (Schein, 1978) . Both women and men managers perceived the characteristics of the ideal manager to be those they associated with the typical man rather than the typical woman (Powell & Butterfield, 1979; Schein, 1973, 1975) . This preference for maleness is also well presented in Cann and Siegfried's (1987) argument, which maintains that “maler.ess" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. is implied to equate with effective leadership while "femaleness" may be regarded as inappropriate. The trace of this masculine theme can also be found ar.d is well evident in the classic Weberian model of bureaucratic organization. The bureaucratic model was proposed by Weber to describe optimal efficiency in organizations. Instrumental rationality and official relations are emphasized and personal feeling is thus excluded in the bureaucratic model (Stiver, 1993;. Following the line of Weberian thinking, effective management is characterized by masculine qualities such as competitiveness, hierarchical authority, high control for the leader, analytic ability t: abstract and plan, a capacity to set aside personal emotional considerations in the interests of task accomplishment and a cognitive superiority in problem-solving and decision-making (Loden, 1985). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Namely, the image of a successful manager is a person who is rational, objective, active, aggressive, competitive, dominant, forceful, decisive, strong, self-confident and independent (Kruse &Wintermantel, 1986; Hartmen et al., 1966; Lueger et al., 1984). In contrast, "feminine traits" such as kindness, selflessness, gentleness, passiveness, sensitivity, warmth, emotionality, dependency, submissiveness, etc. (Feather, 1984; Kruse & Wintermantel, 1986) are regarded as in conflict with those promoted as necessities for functioning as successful leaders in the traditional organizational world. Although the horizon of management has been broadened with the influx of women into management, the masculine managerial ideologies still prevail in contemporary workplaces . As part of the evolution of management theory and practice, an androgynous theme of management has been suggested by- researchers, generating slow movement toward an androgynous 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. identity for managers (Sargent, 1981; Blanchard & Sargent, 1984 ; Loden, 198 5) . Sargent argues that management theory and practice should expand its definition cf what makes a good manager, beyond the masculine behaviors preferred by males, to include the feminine behaviors of the newest members of the managerial ranks. From the balance perspective, Bern also advocates that having relatively similar levels of masculinity and femininity is an advantage over exclusively masculine or feminine orientations. 3em (1917) suggests that the androgynous individual is likely to be a mere flexible ar.d effective person than sex role-stereotyped individuals (masculine or feminine). Therefore, managers of each sex should adopt "the best" of the other sex's qualities to become androgynous managers in order to cope with today's organizational uncertainties and complexities. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Statement of The Problem Biological sex differences and sex-differentiated pr experiences are presumed to have an impact on differences individual social behaviors. In recent decades, social scientists have devoted heightened attention and interest this area and relevant studies. It is suggested that men women perceive the world differently and communicate differently (Giiiigan, 1982). According to Giliigan, wo view the world as a net'work of connect ions whi ie the wo is made up of individuals in a hierarchical social order f men's perspective. Women are found to be more nurturir. understanding, helpful, collaborative, empathetic, socia sensitive, cooperative, and expressive than their maie counterparts (Eagly, 1987; Eagiy& Johnson, 1990; Hall, 196 Incontrast, "men are expected to be more independent, master assertive and competent" (Eagly, 1987). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The effect of gender on individuals' social behaviors and leadership styles has been suggested by scholars and caused contention among them. Some argue for a gender difference in leadership styles (e.g., Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Jacobs i McClelland, 1 954}; others do not (e.g., Dobbins & Plate, 1 96 6; Shakeshaft, 1987). For researchers in the former camp, women leaders are more likely to show greater concern for the individual needs of the foliowers, to encourage participation and adopt a mo re democratic leadership style (Eagly & Johnson, 1590; Eagly, 1991) . Women leaders also differ from their male counterparts in their view and use of power (Jacobs & McClelland, 1994; . According to Jacobs and McClelland, women think of power in terms of resource-building and relationship-developing whereas men think of power as a means of securing control rather than developing relationships. 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. On the other hand, processes such as selection and socialization suggest that male and female leaders who occupy the equivalent organizational role should differ very little (Korabik et al., 1993). In order to strive and succeed in their managerial career, women must pattern their behavior after that of their male colleagues (Riger & Galligan, 19801 . Besides, organizations minimize the tendencies for women to manage in a stereotypic manner by socializing women managers into their roles based on clear guidelines about appropriate conduct (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Therefore, women managers become more like men (i.e., more masculine) the longer they are in the profession (Korabik & Ayman, 1989). Although there are differing arguments on individual's social behaviors, the fact has to be acknowledged that net all men or women engage in the gender stereotyped behaviors. Furthermore, some scholars contend that the factor of sex-rcle identity accounts for the variance of leadership styles to 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a greater extent than gender (Powell & Butterfield, 1977). Kent and Moss (1994) argue that sex role has a stronger effect on emergent leadership than gender. According to them, androgynous andmascul ine sub j ects are the mcst 1 i kely to emerge as leaders. Studies confirm that there is a significant positive relationship between sex-roie identity ana leadership style (Frye, 1980; Kohut, 198 3). However, studies also indicate that there is either a negative or no significant relationship between psychological androgyny and leadership effectiveness (Kohut, 1983; Ortega Oieda, 1985; Wall, 1951,. In fact, androgynous individuals have the lowest mean effectiveness score of the four sex-roie identity groups i . Frye, 1980) . Frye thus concludes that leadership style is a function of one's sex-roie identity while leadership effectiveness is not a function of sex-roie identity. To solve the contention among researchers from different camps, both factors of gender and sex-roie identity will be 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. included in this study in order to present a more complete analysis of leadership behaviors. Purpose of The Study In recent years, the model of transformational leadership has provided a new perspective for people to better understand the concept and theories of leadership. As a new framework (Bass, 1590), the transformational model, which shares similarities with concepts such as charismatic, inspirational or visionary leadership, has led to a new approach referred as "the New leadership" (Bryman, 1992) . According tc Ben Hartog et ai. (1997),"the New leadership" integrates ideas from trait, style and contingency approaches of leadership and builds on the work, of sociologists such as Weber (194'1 and political scientists such as Burns (1578). Therefore, the transformational model presents a more comprehensive framework to include a "full range" of leadership styles and behaviors. 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Based on an array of studies done by researchers, it has been found that transformational leadership behaviors generate greater effort, performance, and satisfaction on the part of followers (Bass & Avolio, 1990; Howell & Frost, 1598, . In addition, researchers have also argued that women leaders are rated generally mere transformational than their male counterparts (Floit, 1997 ; Druskat, 1994; Bycio et al., 1 9 95 ; Bass et al., 1996; Bass 5 Avolio, 1990; Howell & Frost, 198- . Drawing on prior research, it is suggested that a leader's gender is highly cor related with t rans forma t Lor. a 1 leaders!, ip . Apart from this factor of gender, prior research also indicates that sex-roie identity is positively correlated with leadership style. Thus, the main objective of this study is to test if sex-roie identity accounts for more variance in transformational leadership than does gender. This study makes a case for the universality of the concept of transformational leadership in spite of the fact that most 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. relevant studies have been done in the individualistic cont^ of the United States. With the increasing focus on international ventures and management (Hofstede, 1980 ; Adi? 1986), the theory, model, and measurement appear equal! applicable in the coliectivistic societies of Asia even thoi many psychological and managerial principles are cultural relative (Ronen & Shenkar, 1935; Erez & Earley, 193-;. In collectivistic cultures, an individual's group membership status depends on his or her relationship with t group's leader. Leaders are thus more personally ir.vol\ in followers' lives and there is a rather strong bonding bet we leaders and followers. Ingroup members typically share interests and characteristics with the leader and are pa of the leader's communication and support network (Earle 1993). As such, leaders are provided with ready-made opportunities to become transformational leaders in the collectivistic cultures (Bass, 1996). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Transformational leadership may be far more pervasive ccllectivistic societies compared to the individualist societies of the West. Therefore, given the collectivis context of Chinese culture and the influence of tradition social norms, the purpose of this research is to investig the relationship between transformational leadership and character is t i cs of gender and sex-rcie identitv among lead in ; a 1 WaTi, r \ ^. Significance of The Study There has been a considerable amount of work oomple examining either male-female differences or sex-roie ide.ot in leadership style and leadership effectiveness (e.g., 3rodsky, 1993; Donnell & Hall, 1930; Dobbins & Platt, 19 Frye, 193C; Wall, 1982; Ortega Ojeda, 1985; Kohut, 1 93 3 ; You 1990; Floit, 1997); nonetheless, no prior research was fo to nave both factors of gender and sex-roie identity integra and investigated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Transformational leadership is argued to cover a full range of leadership styles and behaviors and thus presents a more complete view of leadership. Although confirming the effect of gender on transformational leadership (Bass ec al., 15 9c , prior research of transformational leadership was mostly done in an individualistic context, which is different from the reiationshio-oriented coiiectivistic context. In individualistic societies, individual's personal needs are prioritized and autonomy as well as individual initiative are thus emphasized. Incontrast, the supremacy of the col iect i ve is stressed in coliectivistic societies. Collectivists prefer group ccnesiveness and thus emphasize cooperation and subordination of personal interests to ensure group welfare and success. Drawing on prior research, the significance of the current study lies in its incorpcrating both factors of gender and sex-roie identity into the investigation of transformational 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leadership in a different, coiiectivistic context of Taiwan, ROC, instead of an individualistic context. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sex role is one of the areas that has drawn a lot of psychological research since the 1970s in the US and other Western societies. With the advent of the concept of androgyny (Bern, 1974, 1975), there have been many attempts to address a broad range of controversial social issues from this perspective. This study incorporates concepts of gender ar.d sex-roie identity into the investigation of transformatioral leadership in order to better explain a full range of leadership styles and behaviors in the colIectivistic context of Taiwan. An overview of related literature will be covered in Chapter Two. This chapter includes the differing arguments from researchers on gender differences in leadership style. The essence of transformational leadership will be explored with Bass' s 4 I' s model. Theandrogynoustheme in t rans format iona 1 leadership will be outlined. Common themes for transformational leadership and collectivism will also be 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. covered and discussed. Due to the androgynous theme denoted in transformational leadership, four hypotheses will be posed to further investigate the relationship between leader's sex-roie identity and transformational leadership in the co1iectivistic context of Taiwan. Research methods will be discussed in Chapter Three. Tv:; instruments will be adopted in this study, Bern's Sex-Bole Identity . BSP.I) and 3ass & Avolio's Multifactor Leadership Questiornaire ;MLQ/ . The former is associated with ider.t i f y ing indi vidua 1' s sex -role identity, i.e., masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated, whereas the latter distinguishes individual's leadership style. .Analysis of variance will be used to assess these relationships . Chapter Four will deal with the findings and a discussion of the study. The effect of coiiectivistic characteristics on the interaction of androgyny and transformational leadership will be further discussed in this section. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Conclusionswill bep re sent edinChapter Five. Inaddition, implications and a future research agenda of the study will be identified as well. 1 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE Biological sex differences and sex-differentiated prior experiences are presumed to have an impact on individual social behaviors and cause men and women to be somewhat different kinds of people (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972 ; Maccoby, 1981; . Indeed, gender differences are apparent even at the pre-natal period. Scientists who have looked for prebirth differences found that boy fetuses are a little more active, more restless, than girl fetuses (Life, July, 1999) . In the first year after birth, according to the report of Life, boys seem to already have dist inct preference for toys . Boy infants rap id I y engage with more mechanical or structural toys while girl infants areattractedtoto ys with facesand that can be cuddled. Little boys tend to be more rough-a.nd tumble than little girls. Gender differences are also evident in the cognitive process . It is generally maintained by researchers that women 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are right-brained while men left-brained (Smith & Desimone, 1983; Moir & Jessel, 1991; Weiner & Brown, 1993) . As claims Dr. Joe E. Bogen, a renowned neurosurgeon, "It is clear that there are, on average, gender dif ferences in the brain" .quoted in Rosener, 1995) . The fact that the corpus callosum a mass of nerve fibers that connect the brain hemispheres is larger in women than in men suggests that women may process informat ion differently because there is more communication between the right and left halves of the brain (Smith & Desimone, 1 9 5 3 ; Fausto-Steriing, 1935; Time, 1992). The way the brain is differently crgani zed between men and women results in women's better performance on verbal fluency tasks and tests of perceptual speed (Kimura, 1936). Men and women generally perceive the world differently and therefore communicate differently (Gilligan, 1982). Although it is still hard to tell how much of the difference is biological and how much has to do with socialization, the 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. difference in perception has usually shown its roots in the childhood play patterns of boys and girls . Boys tend to gather in larger, competitivegroups. They play games that have clea r winners and losers, while girls gather in small groups, playing theatrical games that do not feature hierarchy or winners. In fact, the connotation of male superiority is implied in Piaget's study (1932) . In his study of the rules of the game, boys are more concerned with the legal elaboration of rules and the development of fair procedures for adjudicating conflicts while girls are mere concerned with relationships, of ten at the expense of the game itself. Lever (1976) extends Piaget's study and comes to the conclusion that boys are able to resolve the disputes more effectively than girls when disputes arise in the course of a game . By elaborating a system of rules to resolve disputes, boys are equipped with the higher level of social skills necessary for ensuring their success in modern corporations. 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In terms of worldview, the world is viewed by women as a network of connections in which support and consensus are sought and confirmed. For men, the world is made up of individuals in a hierarchical social order in which life is a competitive struggle for success, the gaining of independence and advantage over others, and avoiding the loss of power {Tannen, 1990) . From a psychoanalytic view, women are allowed to accept their feelings of fear; men are socialized to develop tendencies to reject such feelings (Miller, 1986) . Women are more often encouraged not to discount emotions, feelings, and intuition; to helpothers to develop; and to assume greater responsibility for cooperation. Women as a group, when compared with men as a group, are regarded as friendly, pleasant, nurturing, interested in other people, expressive, and socially sensitive (Eagly, 1987; Hall, 1984). These characteristics enable Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. women's social skills. They are seen as being more obliging, integrating, and compromising than men. Debates on Gender Differences in Leadership Style Most scholars have reached a consensus that women and men who take on similar leadership roles in organizational settings do not differ significantly in the way they lead, particularly once factors such as age, education, experience, type of occupation, and level in the organization have been controlled (Korabik, Baril, & Watson, 1993; Ragins, 1991; Chusmir & Mills, 1938; Powell, 1988; Korabik & Ayman, 1987; Shakeshaft, 1937; Bartol 4 Martin, 1986; Bass, 1981). Research on the impact of a leader's gender on leadership behavior and effectiveness, however, has been incoherent and confusing (Dobbins & Platz, 1986; Korabik, 1990). Two opposing camps have different arguments regarding the absence and presence of gender differences in leadership style. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Men and Women Lead Similarly A large body of research maintains that men and women managers who hold equivalent positions do not differ in personality, leadership style, motivation, conflict management style, or effectiveness (Dobbins & Platz, 1S S 6; Korabik, Baril, & Watson, 1993; Korabik, 1990; Nieva & Gutek, 1982; Powell, 1988; Birdsali, 1980; Donnell & Hail, 19SC; Shakeshaft, 1987). Linden (1985) also argues that no significant differences are found between male and female managers on any of the individual difference variables, e.g., age, education, career orientation, and organizational commitment. As Bass (1531) claims, "the preponderance of available evidence is that no consistently clear pattern of differences can be discerned in the supervisory style of female as compared to male leaders." In actual fact, it is generally believed that managers of both genders are more concerned about managing 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effectively than about representing sex-differentiated features of societal sex roles (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Two factors that impact on managerial women selection and socialization are suggested to result in their similarity to their male counterparts (Korabik et al. , 19 Indeed, women in leadership positions are a highly selectee group who do not conform to the tradit ional feminine stereotype (Korabik, 1990) . Several studies have demonstrated that women managers are higher in masculinity than nonmanager;a1 women (3ariietal., 1 987 ; Fagenson & Horowitz, 1985; Korabi k i Aym.a.o, 1987) . Women must pattern their behavior after that of their male colleagues in order to climb the managerial ranks and succeed in their managerial career (Riger & Galligan, 1 980; . Moreover, since management has long been a male-dominated arena, the masculine mode of such managerial ideology has a tendency to keep women without the reguisite levels of masculinity out of management positions (Korabik & Ayman, 1989). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition to the criteria used for selecting managers, organizations minimize the tendencies for women to manage in a stereotypic manner by socializing women managers into their roles based on clear guidelines about appropriate conduct (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Therefore, women managers become more like men (i.e., more masculine) the longer they are in the profession (Korabik & Ayman, 1989). In sum, processes such as selection and socialization suggest that male and female leaders who occupy the equivalent organizational role should differ very little. This argument that organizational roles should override gender roles shares the same refrain with Kanter's (199 structural interpretation of organizational behavior. Kanter argues that individuals' positions in the organization structure, rather than their gender, shape and define their traits and behavior, and thus determine actions in an organizational setting. There are no significant differences 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between female and male managers on individual characteristics. Therefore, apparent sex differences in the behavior of organizational leaders are in fact a product of situational variables, such as restraints and differing structural positions of the genders within organizations. Men and Women Lead Differently In spite of all the structural forces for minimizing differences, researchers in the opposing camp argue that male and female leaders, even those who occupy the same positions, may di f f er to some extent in thei r leadership style . Opponent s in this camp maintain that ingrained sex differences in personality traits and behavioral tendencies cannot be easily nullified by organizational selection or socialization. Biological sex differences and sex-differentiated prior experiences are presumed to cause men and women to be somewhat different kinds of people (Maccoby, 1988), even if they do hold the same managerial position. 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Prior research on the effects of gender differences on leadership style has been mostly characterized by two independent dimensions, e.g., task oriented and relations oriented leadership (Bales, 1950; Fiedler, 1967; Hersey S Blanchard, 1977) ; concern for production and concern for people (Blake & Mouton, 1964; Korman, 1966); or directive-participative and autocratic-democratic leadership (Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1957; Heller S Yukl, 1969,. In early studies, women were found to be more nurturing, understanding, helpful, collaborative, empatnetic, socially sensitive, cooperative, democratic, and expressive than their male counterparts (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Hail, 1984) . The way 'women lead differs from the traditional masculine approaches owing to these characteristics (Rosener, 1990). Women leaders are more likely to show greater concern for the individual needs of the followers, to encourage participation 2S Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and adopt a more democratic leadership style, to proceed with more collaboration and sharing of decision-making, to enhance the self-worth of others, and to get followers to trade off their self-interests for the overall good of the organization (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly, 1991; Bass, 1996). Helgesen (1990) also argues that women leaders are mere likely to structure flatter organizations and more likely than men to emphasize frequent contact and sharing of information in "webs of inclusion." In contrast, male leaders are more inclined to pay more attention to fairness and rules and are more attuned to focusing on failings of their foi lowers, rather than caring about them as individuals, as women leaders appear to be more likely to do (Brockner & Adsit, 1986) . Women leaders also differ from their male counterparts in their view and use of power (Jacobs & McClelland, 1994). According to Jacobs and McClelland, men and women tend to think differently about how a leader wields power. Women leaders 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are more likely to use "resourceful" power rather than "reactive" power, which is more frequently used by men. Resourceful power is used when leaders act on behalf of others; reactive power is used to control individuals or groups. Therefore, women think of power in terms of resource-building and relationship-developing whereas men think of power as a means of securing control rather than developing relationships. Explanations for Differing Research Results The incoherence and confusion of gender differences or. leadership research has mostly resulted from the way the researchisconducted, i.e., gender composition of the research sample, and laboratory experiments versus assessment studies . Research conducted on groups composed of members of the same gender contains results inconsistent with those from mixed gender groups. Differences in the outcomes between the homogeneous and heterogeneous gender composition settings can 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. be explained by the possibility that women may be socialized to suppress their capacity to take on the active role when being in the company of men. They tend to see it either as inappropriate due to the sex-role constraints of the situation or against their socialization. In addition, research done by laboratory experiments is often unable to accurately reflect the interpersona 1 relationships and interactions in organizational settings. The results tend to present participant's expectations or stereotypes rather than assessment of leadership behaviors in real-life organizational settings. Female Leaders in Organizational Settings In organizational settings, women are often found at lower organizational ranks than men, and in segregated, low-power, female-typed departments (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). Women's competence, capacity, and potential for managerial Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. advancement are often questioned by people. As a matter of fact, the perceived lower competence of women leaders is often caused more by the situation than by the individual characteristics of females (Rigor & Galligan, 1980; Linden, 1585). As Hollander (1985) suggests: "One serious consequence of entrenched stereotypes is that women...may need to be occupied as much with overcoming negative attitudes as with performing their jobs well." In fact, women leaders often face more external restraints and a less supportive environment than their male counterparts. They have to invest far more effort to prove their abilities. They do not have the status and influence needed to provide the support and resources desired by subordinates and this, in turn, makes them appear to be less competent than male leaders (Kanter, 1993; Linden, 1985). Ragins (1991) confirms this view by arguing that gender differences in power may have an important impact on the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leader-subordinate relationship. In her study of gender effects on subordinate evaluations of leaders, it was found that subordinates give more positive evaluations to powerful leaders because such leaders can provide subordinates with resources, rewards, recognition and opportunities. Subordinate support, in turn, may be an important source of power for managers in organizations (Conger & Kanungo, 1 980'-. Female leaders who lack power are unable to provide support and resources that subordinates seek and may therefore encounter an erosion of power from the lack of subordinates' support. In addition, the pervasive phenomena of sex-role stereotypes and spillover have stood in women's way of managerial effectiveness and advancement in the workplace. Defined as "a carryover into the workplace of gender-based expectations for behavior" (Gutek & Morasch, 1982; Nieva & Gutek, 1982), the spillover concept suggests that sex roles 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. may override organizational roles to some extent and cause people to have different expectations and standards for female and male managers. When a leader's performance is rated, the factor of a leader's gender tends to influence the rater's perceptual process, unless leader performance information is given as guidelines (Dobbins et al., 1985) . Male and female managers are not necessarily evaluated similarly in spite of the fact that they behave similarly (Korabik et al., 1993; Butler i Geis, 1990; Euwema & van de Vliert, 1990; Jago & Vroom, 1582; Nieva & Gutek, 1982; Powell, 1988) . As the spillover effect explains, expectations and standards tend to be lowered for female managers. Infact, subordinates' perceptions are of ten biased by their sex-role stereotypes and do not reflect actual differences between men and women in their competence or effectiveness (Butler & Geis, 1990; Korabik et al., 1993). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Wentworth and Anderson (1984) contend that women must be seen as experts to be perceived as leaders, whereas men become leaders when there are no female experts and because of role expectation. However, when taking on leadership roles, women leaders tend to rid themselves of stereotypically feminine styles of leadership apparently for the fear that femininity might lead to less authority, especially in extremely male-dominated organizational settings. Being the minority in the workplace, women have to be high on "seif-monitoring" in order to emerge as leaders (Oddcu et al., 1585). Women in positions of leadership and authority are less able to make mistakes and more attentive to the appropriateness of their behaviors since their behavior is more likely to be closely observed by others. They are often put under the enormous strain of having the status of a token in organizations or being used as models for all women (Kanter, 1993). 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Furthermore, they are often caught between the dilemma of "damned-if-you-do" and "damned-if-you-don't. " It is generally believed that managers should be aggressive, competitive and tough (Bersoff, Borginda & Fiske, 1991! . But women leaders who behave this way are disliked and create dissatisfaction among colleagues and subordinates (Eagly, 1991) . Instead, none of these concerns seems important or relevant when men emerge as leaders. Transformational Leadership Burns i 19*78) is one of the first to introduce the concept of transformational leadership. The concept of transformational leadership is still poorly understood in spite of the fact that provocative ideas are provided from a variety of studies (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Sims & Lorenzi, 1992; Bryman, 1992; Hunt, 1991; Hotter, 1990; Lindholm, 1990; Burns, 1978; Conger, 1989; Conger & Kanungo, 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1988b; House, 1977; Kanter, 1983; Leavitt, 1986; Paige, 1977 ; Tichy & Devanna, 1986; Willner, 1984; Zaieznik, 1989). In addition to the elusive nature and the mystical connotation of the term, further ciarificaticn of the concept is hindered by the lack of a systematic conceptual framework or clearly stated and generally accepted paradigm to guide the research (Willner, 1984 ; Conger & Kanungc, 1987 ; 3ehlir.g S McFi1len, 1996). Essence of Transformational Leadership It is confirmed by Howell and Frost (1983) that only charismatic/transformational leadership could maintain high productivity in the face of conflicting lowproductivity norms . Drawing on an array of definitions provided by researchers, transformational leadership has the following characteristics: 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Charisma Charisma is defined by House et al. (1990) as "influence exerted on followers' normative orientations, emotional involvement with the leader, and follower performance, that is due to the actual behavior of the leader". Charismatic leaders are differentiated from noncharismatics by dominance, seif-confidence, need to influence, and strong conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs. However, charisma is a necessary (and extremely important) but not sufficient component of transformational leadership (Bass, 1990). Envisioning Envisioning goals and motivating are two tasks ao the heart of the popular notion of leadership (Gardner, 1990). This very essence of leadership is also advocated by scholars such asGreenleaf (1998), Burns (1978 ) , and Bennis and Nanus (1985) . Transformational leaders point the followers in the right direction. Like "the holy grail of the crusades," vision 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. motivates people to overcome themselves and achieve the goal (Tichy & Devanna, 1986). Clear Articulation With their clear articulation of appealing ideological goals, transformational leaders have their greatest effects on followers' emotions by creating a sense of success arc competence in followers. In addition, motives relevant to mission accomplishment are thus aroused in followers (House, 1977) . Challenging the Status Quo and Striving to Change Conger and Kanungo (1937) argue that charismatic leaders oppose the status quo and strive to change it with their idealized vision that is highly discrepant from the status quo. In doing so, the leaders provide a challenge and a motivating force for change. With their referent power, the leaders maintain high standards and set challenging goals for their followers. 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As a matter of fact, the greater the discrepancy of the goal from the status quo, the more likely followers will attribute extraordinary vision to the leaders (Conger £ Kanungc , 198"7) . Besides, transformational leaders encourage followers to develop critical thinking, to question their old way of doing things or to break with the past. This is echoed by Michael Hammer's (1990) arguments for "reengineering" that maintain the working process has to be reengineered in order to make quantum leaps in an organ! cat i c r.'s performance. Followers are supported for questioning their own values, beliefs, assumptions, and expectations, as well as those of the leader and organization. Followers are also supported for thinking on their own, addressing challenges, getting to the root of things, being totally out of their conceptual ruts, and considering creative ways to develop and expand their abilities. 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Empowerment Transformational leaders treat followers differently but equitably on a one-to-one basis. They are individually considerate and provide followers with timely support, mentoring, and coaching . With individualized consideration, assignments are delegated to followers to provide learning opportunities and expand their potential. For Burns :19_r , transformational leadership is a process where "leaders arc followers raise one another to higher levels of morality ar.d motivation". Transformational leaders go beyond basic emotions to appeal to ideals and moral values such as justice and liberty. The leader seeks to satisfy the followers' higher needs and to engage the full person of the followers resulting in a mutually stimulating and elevating relationship that converts followers to leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents (Burns, 1978). By communicating high performance 4 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. expectations and instilling confidence, transformational leaders inspire the followers to enhance performance accomplishments. Transformational leadership and the concept of servant leadership (Greer.leaf, 1998 ; Block, 1993) share one thing in common: empowerment of followers. Servant leadership prescribes that a leader has to be a servant first. The servant-leaders stress the importance of other people's highest priority needs being served. They help those served to grow as persons and become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants. Thar is, the ultimate goal of servant leadership is to empower these served to become servants as well as leaders. Consider the words of Lao-tsu: To lead the people, walk behind them... As for the best leaders, the people do not notice their existence. The next best, the people honor and praise. The next, the people fear; and the next, the people hate... When the best leader's work is done the people say, "We did it ourselves!" 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Transcending Follower's Own Self-Interest and Going Beyond Self-Actualization Burns (1973) and Handy (1994) contend that Mas lew's (1951, hierarchy of needs should be extended upwards tc go ceyor.d one's self-oriented concerns. Transformational leaders net only move followers up on Maslow's hierarchy, but also move them to transcend their own self-interests (Burns, 19~5 . Masiow... postulated that there was a hierarchy of needs, that when you had enough material goods you moved your sights to social prestige and then to self-realization. His hierarchy did not reach far enough. There could be a stage beyond self-realization, a stage we might call idea 1 i zat ion, the pursuit of an ideal or a cause that is more than oneself. It is this extra stage that would redeem the self-centered tone of Maslow's thesis, which for all that it rings true of much of our experience, has a rather bitter aftertaste (Handy, 1994, p. 275). Transformational leaders need to do both by aligning the followers' desire for personal development with the interests of the group, organization or society (Bass, 1996) . According toWilliams (1994), transformational leaders will display more citizenship behavior such as altruism, conscientiousness, 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue as well as imbue such ideas in their subordinates. Four Dimensions of Bass' Transformational Leadership iMore recently, extended from earlier work by Be.nnis and Nanus (1985) , Burns (1978), TichyandDevanna (1986), andothers, 3ass and Avoiio (Bass, 1985; 3ass, 1990; Bass u Avolio, 1995 have come up with a framework to further explain and identify the concept of transformational leadership. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was developed as a primary measure of transformational leadership, which is comprised of four distinct transformational leadership components, i.e., the 4 I's. The 4 I's are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. There is a strong emotional attachment between the followers and transformational leaders and the followers seek to identify with and emulate the leaders (Bass, 1996). 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Idealized Influence Transformational leaders provide vision and a sense mission, instill pride, gain respect and trust, and increa optimism (3ass & Avoiio, 1989;Bass, 1985). Followersidenti with and emulate these leaders. Such leaders have much referent powe r, ma intain high standards , set cha 1 ier.g ing go a fcr their fciiowers, and thus excite, arouse and inspire the subordinates (Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Inspirational Motivation The idealized influence requires identification with t leader, inspiration does not. Hence, this dimension may may not overlap with idealized influence leadership, deper.di on how much followers seek to identify with the leader. T leader acts as a model for followers and provides symbols a simplified emotional appeals to increase awareness and understanding of mutually desired goals. He/she elevate followers' expectations. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Intellectual Stimulation Intellectually stimulating leaders encourage followers to question their old way of doing things or to break with the past. Intellectual stimulation is characterized by followers' conceptualization, comprehension, and analysis of the problems they face and the solutions they generate (Yammarino & Bass, 1990) . Followers are supported for questioning their own assumptions, values, beliefs, and expectations, as well as those of the leader and organization. Followers are also supported for thinking on their own, addressing challenges, and coming up with creative ways to solve problems. Individualized Consideration Individually considerate leaders treat followers differently but equitably on a one-to-one basis. Such use of individualized consideration significantly contributes to individual followers achieving their fullest potential 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Yammarino s Bass, 1990). Not only are followers' needs recognized and perspectives raised, but coaching and mentoring are provided by the leaders. With individualized consideration, assignments are delegated to followers to provide learning opportunities. The leaders also provide continuous feedback and link individual follower's needs cc the organization's mission {Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 19SC). To sum up transformational leadership, Hater and Bass '1998 state: "The dynamics of transformational leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a shared vision of the future, or going beyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for compliance" (p.695). Transformational leaders inspire the followers with challenge and persuasion, expand the follower's capacities, broaden and elevate the interests of followers, generate awareness and understanding of mutually desired goals among the followers and motivate followers to go beyond their self-interests for 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the good of the group (Yammerinc & Bass, 1990) . As Yammarir.c and Bass argue, "the transformational leader articulates a realistic vision of the future that can be shared, stimulates subordinates intellectually, and pays attention to the differences among the subordinates." There is a strong emotional attachment between the followers and transformational leaders and the followers seel to identify with and emulate the leaders 'Bass, 1996' . Transformational leaders inspire followers to do more than originally expected and thus bring about a greater impact on the followers and organizations. As House and his colleagues (House & Shamir, 1993; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993) suggest, transformational leaders produce in their followers a higher: (1) salience of the collective identity in their self-cor.cept ; (2) sense of consistency between their self-concept and their actions on behalf of the leader and the collective; (3) level of self-esteem and a greater sense of self-worth; (4) similarity 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between their self-concept and their perception of the ieahe (5) sense of collective efficacy; and (6) sense of "meaningfulness" in their work and lives. In recent years, researchers have endeavored to study t phenomenon and effects of transformational leadership, is confirmed that leaders rated higher by fcilcwers on trans format iona 1 leadership behaviors generategreatereffo performance, and satisfaction (Bass & Avclio, 1990) . Tic and Devanna (1990! also maintain that transformational ieade can have transforming effects on their organizations as we as on individual followers. By def inmg the need for change, creating and articulat i new visions, mobilizing commitment to these visions, leade can motivate followers to a greater feeling of both self- a collective efficacy and to internalize a strong moral commitment or commitment to the "spirit of the organizatio (Hodgkinson, 1983). Followers thus develop a strong mor Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. commitment to the organization as a collectivity, transcending their own self-interests, and the organization will ultimately be transformed. Transformational leadership, however, could also be argued as a double-edged mechanism when it comes to enhancing organizational effectiveness. The essence of transformational leadership deserves some serious thought. In the case that an organization's purpose is evil, transformational leaders can also easily motivate followers to wrongfully internalize a strong moral commitment to the evil spirit of the organization, which might lead to certain calamities and catastrophes for the entire human society. This concern is best reflected by the example of Hitler and the Nazis during the World War II. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Prior Research on Gender and Transformational Leadership Based on the MLQ, Bass and Avolio (1994) contend that women leaders are ratedno less, and generally more, transformational than their male counterparts. In actual fact, women leaders are ratedhigherthanmen inall the transformaticnal leadership scales (statistically significant for idealized influence and individualized consideration), and in the outcomes of extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction with the leaders. An explanation for the male-female differences in transformational leadership may be due to the well-known tendency for women, supported by the evidence, to be more nurturing, interested in others, and more socially sensitive {Eagiy, 1991). Claiming that women have a different way to lead, Rosener (1990) argues that women leaders are more likely than men to encourage participation, to enhance the self-worth of others, and to get followers to trade off their self-interests for 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the overall good of the organization. Women leaders appear to display qualities more in line with transformational leadership, which in turn makes them more effective in the eyes of their followers. In addition, the ability to clearly articulate a vision is an important element of transformational leadership. Transformational leaders have a direct influence on followers' perceptions of role and mission clarity and these perceptions subsequently influence followers' perceptions of leader effectiveness. Women are usually equipped with better language ability as well as social skills (Kimura, 1996;. There fore, they are mo re 1 i kely to be viewed as t rans f o rmat iona 1 and more effective by followers. Moreover, the component of moral values is essential to transformational leadership (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). Powell, Posner, and Schmidt (1984) maintain that women leaders tend to show more concern for others when dealing with ethical and 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. moral considerations as compared to their male counterparts. When it comes to moral reasoning, women focus on care and responsibility; men on rights and justice (Gilligan, 1962/. Eagly (1991) also provides empirical evidence c£ consistent differences between males and females in leadership styles, particularly in that women leaders tend to be more democratic and participative than their male counterparts. Again, women may be seen as more transformational to the degree that they are seen as less self-serving in their leadership style (Eagly& Johnson, 1990), more developmentallyoriented, and more concerned about moral and ethical issues. In addition to moral values, a strong component of developmental ism is also evident in transformational leadership. Trans format ional leaders focus on developing and raising the awareness of their followers about the importance of satisfying higher order growth needs (Burns, 1978). Transformational leaders are also individually considerate 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. to place heavy emphasis on differentiating among the varying developmental needs of their followers. Accordingly, they attempt to understand the needs of followers and then develop them to higher levels (Bass & Avolio, 1990). It is thus suggested that organizations with highly transformational upper-level leaders also tend to have more transformational leaders at lower levels (Bass, Waldman, Avolio & Bebb, 19 r 7 . The Androgynous Theme in Transformational Leadership It is a consensus among researchers that the best leaders are characterized by the integration of their task- and relations-orientation in their behavior toward their colleagues and direct reports (Bass, 1990;Misumi, 1935; Blake & Mouton, 1964; Hall, 1976). Task-orientation is viewed as more of an expression of masculine traits, while relations-orientation, shown in the behaviors of nurturing, consideration, and caring, is regarded as more feminine (Eagiy 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. & Crowley, 1986; Eagly, Mladinic, & Otto, 1991). However, transformational leadership goes beyond this integration of task- and relations-oriented leadership. It involves challenging the status quo, empowering followers, transcending followers' self-interest, and an emphasis of moral and ethical issues. There is a strong connotation of both feminineandmascuiine personality traits in transformational leadership. The former includes traits such as being nurturing, caring, socially sensitive, and individually considerate, while the latter covers characteristics such as being less conforming, more self-confident, and more likely to challenge the status quo and take risks (Bass, 1985) . Both masculine and feminine factors are positively correlated with perceptions of transformational leadership (Hackman, Furniss, Hills, & Paterson, 1992). 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Furthermore, transformational leadership calls for a balance of masculine and feminine qualities. For example, the dimension of intellectual stimulation in transformational leadership is characterized with a balance between the analytical and intuitive forms of problem-solving (Bass i Avclio, 1993). That is, in addition to rationality, transformational leaders also rely on intuition and non-traditional approaches to solving problems. Therefore, the coexistence of masculine and feminine qualities in transformational leadership enables androgynous leaders to display more transformational leadership behavior than others. Transformational Leadership in the Collectivistic Context Although transformational leadership was first articulated in the United States, the epitome of individua 1 ism, the concept appears to be also in line with and applicable 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in the collectivistic context. Since the 1980s, "the decade of I/C" labeled by Kagitgibasi (1994), the constructs of individual ism and collectivism (I/C) have proven to be a concise, coherent, integrated, and empirically testable dimension of cultural variation (Triandis, 1994; Bond, 1994! . Based or. the I/'C constructs, the relationship between transformational leadership and collectivism will be addressed as fellows. Definition of I/C The I/C dimension has been used by social scientists to explain differences among cultures. Drawing on previous research (Hofstede, 1980; Hui & Triandis, 1986; Si.oha 1 Verna, 1987), it is maintained that "I" consciousness prevails in individualistic societies and certain characteristics are thus promoted, e.g., autonomy, uniqueness, emotional independence, individual initiative, and right to privacy. Collectivistic societies, on the other hand, stress "we" consciousness, which is manifested by collective identity, 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. emotional dependence, group solidarity, sharing, duties obligations, group decision, and the like. Hofstede (1591) further defines individualism and collectivism as fellows: Individualism pertains to societies in which : ties between individuals are loose: everyone expected to look after himself or herself and : or her immediate family. Collectivism as it opposite pertains to societies in which peep from birth onwards are integrated into strcr. cohesive ingroups, which throughout people's lifetime continue to protect them in exchange unquestioning loyalty, (p. 51) From the psychological viewpoint, parallel to the 1 constructs, scholars propose the personality dimensions idioce.ntrism and aiiocentrism (Triandis, Leung, Villarea ' a Clark, 1985) as well as the independent view and interdependent view of the self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) distinguish cultural differences. Markus and Kitayama describe individuals who uphold the independent view as bei "egocentric, separate, autonomous, idiocentric, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. self-contained" (p.226). Interdependent individuals are "sociocentric, holistic, collective, allocentric, ensembied, constitutive, contextualist, and relational" (p.227). Therefore, members of individualistic cultures tend to prioritize their own personal needs as well as goals and see themselves as separate and autonomous individuals. In contrast, an emphasis on intergroup behavior is a characteristic cf coiiectivistic cultures, in which members see themselves as fundamentally connected with others and tend to sacrifice their personal needs and goals to satisfy the group (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In coiiectivistic cultures, individuals view and identify themselves through a small number of memberships in ingroups and subordinate their personal interests to the goals of their collective, or ingroups (Earley, 1993; Triandis etal., 1985). Ingroup is defined as a group whose members identify one another via common interests, values and beliefs, or heritage, are 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. concerned about one another's welfare, and seek collective outcomes orgoals (Pfeffer, 1983; Triandis, 198 8 ; Ea rley, 1993; Olson, 1971) . Therefore, the supremacy of the collective is emphasized. That is, the value or survival of the collective takes precedence ever that of the individual. Members of an ingroup view their long-term wel fare in terms of the successes of the group (Hofstede, 1980; Kanter, 1972; Triandis et al., 198 and feel they have an indispensable role in the group's survival (Earley, 1 98 9'. As such, collectivists emphasize cooperation and subordination of personal interests to ensure group welfare, ingroup harmony and the attainment of group outcomes (Earley, 1989) . Common Themes for Transformational Leadership and Collectivism The theme of collectivism is also delineated in transformational leadership. The dynamics of transformational leadership involve strong personal 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (f) identification with the leader, joining in a shared vision of the future, awareness of mutually desired goals among followers, and motivating followers to go beyond their self-interests for the good of the group (Hater & Bass, i98S; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Transformationa1 leadership and collectivism have the following in common: Model Emulation Model emulation is an essential component of coilectivisn (Ho & Chiu, 1994). Individual's autonomy and initiative is not emphasized in coliectivism. Institutions or organizations are seen as an extension of the family. A leader is thus considered to be a father figure who is a role model identified by subordinates and is supposed to look after them in coiiectivistic societies. Transformational leadership involves a relationship between a leader and followers that is personal and not based on formal, institutional rules, 6 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. regulations, rewards, or punishments (Yammarinoet al. , 1997) . There is a strong emotional attachment between them and followers seek to identify with and emulate the leader (Bass, 1996) . The leader is therefore symbolized as a model for fo1lowe rs. Uniformity cf values Collectivism emphasizes collective identity and group solidarity. Followers in the collectivistic context tend to internalize the collective goals and interests, which take precedence over individuals' personal needs. Transformational leaders talk about their most important values and beliefs and provide the followers with a vision (Bass & Avolio, 1939; Bass, 1985). A collective sense cf mission is also maintained through their articulation and persuasion to pursue new missions. Followers are mobilized to develop a strong moral commitment to the organization as a collectivity (Tichy & Devanna, 1990). 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Collective Actualization Transformational leadership is a distinct form of exchange within a group, a higher-order exchange with intangible rather than tangible benefits (Yukl, 1994 ; Graen & Scandura, 1987) . In other words, transformational leaders move followers to go beyond self-realization to pursue an ideal that is more than oneself, i.e., idealization (Handy, 1994). To achieve the goal, transformational leaders need to align the followers' self-interests in development with the interests of the group. The theme of conformity to an ideal presented in transformational leadership sguares with the emphasis of collective development and actualization in coiiectivistic cultures (Ho & Chiu, 1994). Collectivism in Taiwan, Republic of China Chinese society has been a collectivist culture for centuries. Confucianism (C. 470 B.C.-present) extols the virtues of collectivism and has become the dominant 63 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. moral-political philosophy for Chinese since that time. Confucianism emphasizes the desirability of having a moderate attitude toward life, allocating little attention to metaphysics, religion or any philosophical achievements. Group solidarity is greatly emphasized and the promotion of the collective welfare and harmony is the ultimate goal cf Confucianism. Acknowledging the authority of the nation and family, and obedience cf the common people to the king, children to parents, wives to husbands, and the young to the elderly were considered the cardinal rules in maintaining social order in ancient China. 3ecoming a "man of nobility" was regarded as the ideal human model in Confucianism. To strive for this ideal, external attributes were more emphasized than internal ones in cultivating the morality of a virtuous man. Therefore, emphasis was placed on adhering to formality, possessing authority, being considerate in one's conduct, reticent, and 64 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cautious with one's words and manners by restraining oneself (Yoon, 1994). Chinese society has historically been focused on social interests, collective actionas well as shared responsibility, and a deemphasis of personal goals and accomplishment (Earlev, 1989; Hofstede, 1980; Leung et al., 1990). The expression and development of one's own individuality and uniqueness is not stressed in Chinese culture. Based on the indoctrination of Confucianism, Chinese strongly tend to identify themselves with their ingroup, i.e., the extended fami 1y and clan, andtheyprefergroupcohesiveness, immersing themselves in the ingroup's activities, and group similarity, forming a consensus of opinions rather than respecting individual opinions. Individuals in Taiwan are taught to put other people's and the group's interests before their own. Because the collective is more emphasized than individuals, the sense of order is emphasized as a rule for 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the diverse members to form harmonious relationships within the group (Kim, 1987). Individuals are bound by ascribed relationship, interrelated through their ascribed roles, and thus have a common fate (Kim, 1994). The collectivism promoted in Confucianism is consistent with the collective development and idealization emphasized in transformational leadership. Hence, leaders in Taiwan seem to be provided with more ready-made opportunities to demonstrate transformational leadership behavior than those in individualistic societies. Research Hypotheses Prior research has shown that men and women do not actually differ in leadership style when leadership style is conceived as authoritarian-directive compared with democratic-participative, or task versus relations-oriented (Bass, 1990; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly & Karu, 1991). 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. However, some authors suggest that there are important gender differences in leadership style, particularly when we consider models of leadership that go beyond task versus relations-oriented distinctions to include charismatic and transformational leadership (e.g., Rosener, 1990). In addition, factors of culture and context might play important roles in this study. Prior research has been mostly done in individualistic societies, where individuals see themselves as separate and autonomous. This study will be done in the coiiectivistic context of Taiwan, where people are indoctrinated by Confucianism and see themselves as fundamentally connected with others. Collectivism in traditional Chinese culture is characterized by an emphasis on dependence on relationships, courtesy, mutual succor, maintenance of tradition, respect for seniors and superiors, and obedience to authorities. When compared with individualists, these social characters enable Chinese to be 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. more likely to be high on power distance, high on uncertainty avoidance, collective, and feminine (Hofstede, 1980). There is a growing consensus among researchers that women are more likely to become transformational leaders and elicit greater efforts from followers. In individualistic contexts, female leaders are rated as displaying significantly more transformational behaviors than male leaders (Bass, Avoiio, & Atwater, 1996; Druskat, 1994). Therefore, to test this premise and to argue that gender does account for some of the variance in transformational leadership in the coiiectivistic context, the first hypothesis for this research is: Hypothesis 1: Women demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior than men. An androgynous theme is strongly denoted in transformational leadership. Both masculine and feminine qualities are essential to transformational leadership. Transformational leaders are characterized by 6S Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. instrumental-oriented masculine traits such as activeness, aggressiveness, rationality, decisiveness, forcefulness, independence, self-confidence, and need to influence. In addition, feminine qualities also make up other important: portions of transformational leadership, which includes sensitivity, selflessness, kindness, clear articulation, empowerment, problem solving based on intuition and empathy, concern for the welfare of others, and the strong conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs. Hence, the research will have its second hypothesis as: Hypothesis 2: Individuals classified as androgynous will demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior than individuals classified as masculine, feminine or undifferentiated. Prior research suggests that differences in leadership style may be due to the effect of the sex-role identity variable 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. rather than gender itself (Powell & Butterfield, 1577; Inderlied & Powell, 197S) . Following the second hypothesis, the research will take another step to further investigate whether the effect of sex-role identity accounts for greater variance in transformational leadership than the factor cf gender. Hypothesis 3: Sex-role identity, i.e., masculinity, femininity and androgyny, will account for more variance in transformational leadership than gender. Sex-role stereotypes tend to get in the way of people's perceptions and evaluations of leadership ef fectiveness . Men and women are evaluated more favorably when they conform to these stereotyped roles than when they deviate from them (Korabik et al., 1993; Euwema & van de Vliert, 1990; Watson, 1998; Wiley & Eskilson, 1982). Eagly and Johnson (1990) also suggest that leaders of each gender emphasize task 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. accomplishment when they are in a leadership role regarded as appropriate for their gender and congruent with the stereotyped sex roles. According to Eagly and Johnson, male leaders tend to be more task oriented than female leaders to the extent that leadership roles are regarded as more masculine; female leaders tend to be more task oriented than male leaders to the extent that leadership roles are viewed as more feminine. For example, a union leader is expected to be aggressive and fight for the welfare of fellow union members while a nurse leader is supposed to lead fellow nurses to conduct the nurturing and caring jobs for patients. As a consequence, a union leader is regarded as a post that is more congenial for men while a nurse leader is more congenial for women. Therefore, differences in organizational orientation are significantly correlated with the tendency for the leadership roles to be regarded as more congenial for men or for women. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Following this line of thinking, this study will test whether the congruence between sex-role identity and organization has any effect on transformational leadership by comparing two different task-oriented organizations, the Ministry of Finance and the Department of Health. The fourth hypothesis will be tested as, Hypothesis 4: Individuals whose sex-role identity are congruent with the organization's orientation will demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Based on an array of studies, women are suggested to be more likely to be transformational leaders. Women leaders tend to be more sensitive to follower's individual needs, to enhance the self-worth of others, and to get followers to trade off their self-interests for the overall good of the organi zat ion. There is an androgynous theme implied in transformational leadership. Transformational leadership includes both mascui ine and feminine character 1stics: charisma, envisioning ability of clear articulation, challenging the status quo and striving to change, empowerment, and transcending follower's own self-interest and going beyond self-actualization. Trans format iona 1 leaders need to be ca ring, sociallysensitive considerate of individuals, and less conforming as well as more self-confident. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Trans formatior.al leadership also shares some common them with collectivism. Collectivists identify one another v common interests and values , and seek collective goals . Mod emulation, uniformity of values, and collective actuaiizati are stressed in both transformational leadership and collect ivi sm. To test the impacts of gender and sex-role identity transformational leadership in collectivism, four hypothes were proposed as: Hypothesis 1: Women demonstrate more transformations leadership behavior than men. Hypothesis 2: Individuals classified as androgynous will demonstrate more transformations leadership behavior than individuals classified as masculine, feminine or undi f ferentiated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hypothesis 3: Sex-role identity, i.e., masculinity, femininity and androgyny, will account for more variance in transformational leadership than gender. Hypothesis 4: Individuals whose sex-role identity are congruent with the organization's orientation will demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY Chapter Two outlined the differing arguments of gender differences in leadership, the concepts of androgyny and transformational leadership, characteristics of collectivism as well as the common themes between collectivism and transformational leadership. In this chapter, the methods used to investigate the impact of gender and sex-rcie identity on transformational leadership in Taiwan's collectivistic context will be conducted and described in the following steps: sample and data collection, measuring instruments, scoring of instruments, and data analysis. Delimitations and limitations will also be discussed. Sample and Data Collection The sample in this study consisted of 500 employees from two public agencies, the Department of Health and the Ministry of Finance in Taiwan, Republic of China. These two agencies 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. were chosen because of their highly sex-typed orientation. Besides, both agencies had the history of having females as their head figures in the past and were thus considered as more female-friendly contexts. Being in charge of health care provision for ail citizens in Taiwan, the Department of Health is a typically female-dominated and feminine task-oriented organization, consisting of 1,027 male and 1,605 female employees. The Ministry of Finance, consisting of 5, 942 male and 5,675 female employees, is a traditionally masculine task-oriented organization since its business involves the detection of tax evasion and arrest of smugglers (Ministry of Examination and Recruitment, 1998). Employees who are at GS level 9 or above within each organization were considered as qualified samples and thus included in the sample pool for this study. There were 776 qualified persons, 627 males (81%) and 14 9 females (191), from the Ministry of Finance . 145 qualified persons, 98males (681) and 47 females (32%), are from the Department cf Health (See Table 1) . 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1. Gender Distribution of the Universe Department of Health Ministry of Finance Number Percentage ; • r r , r " ^ r~ Percent ace MALE 93 3 3 62 ^ S 1 ■ FEMALE 4 ” 3L - 14 9 14 TOTAL 14 5 100 2 7b 10 ' j ■ Compared to the Ministry of Finance, the qualified sample size from the Department of Health was relatively small. A simple random selection of the combined qualified subjects might wash out the representation of the Department of Health. All 145 qualified persons in the Department of Health were thus included as the sample in the study. The technique cf random selection was applied to the Ministry of Finance tc select the other 355 qualified subjects (See Table 2} . Among the randomly selected samples, there are 257 males (41'; of the male universe in the Ministry of Finance) and 98 females (66% of the female universe in the Ministry of Finance). Table 2. Gender Distribution of the Sample Pool Department of Health Ministry of Finance Number Percentage Number Fercertaae MALE 98 100 C . J < ^ FEMALE 47 :oo; 99 6 6 TOTAL 1 * i 'D 355 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Respondents were administered a questionnaire packet, which consisted of the original version and Chinese translation for both the Short BSRI and the MLQ, with a brief survey description (see Appendix I & II). Personal background information was also covered in the questionnaire, for example, age, gender, GS level, years in the public service, and education. Individuals completing the Short BSRI and the MLQ evaluated their sex-role identity as well as the frequency of their engaging in specific transformational behaviors. After completing the questionnaires, they were asked to submit them, in sealed envelopes to an on-site coordinator by the deadline. The on-site coordinator in each organization would personally remind those participants who have not returned the questionnaires in time to submit them within a week after the deadline. All respondents were assured that their individual ratings would remain anonymous and confidential. 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Among the 389 returned questionnaires, 357 or 711 of the entire sample, were complete and valid for inclusion in further analysis. Among the 357 valid questionnaires, 110 were from the Department of Health and 247 were from the Ministry cf Finance. For the Department of Health, 75 males (76* of the male samples) and 35 females (741 of the female samples: completed and returned with valid questionnaires. Fcr the Ministry of Finance, 155males ( 601 of the selected male samples and 92 females (941 of the selected female samples) completed and returned with valid questionnaires (See Table 3) . Table 3. Gender Distribution of the Valid Responses Department of Health Ministry of Finance .'L-r.cer Per :er.taie N 'urrxer r*r r t fi MALE 155 ci F=.XALr. 35 "A 2 ? - i TOTAL 1 1 C 2-r 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Measuring Instruments Measures of Sex-Role Identity The Original Bern Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bern, 1974; was the first to be developed and widely used to assess sex-role identity as indicated by internalized socially desirable characteristics. The purpose of the BSRI, in Bern's words, is to "assess the extent to which the culture's definition of desirable female and male attributes are reflected in an individual's self-description" (Bern, 1975). In this study, the revised Short 3SRI (1981) was the primary instrument to measure respondents' sex-role identity. The Short BSRI contains 10 items characteristic of the masculine sex-role stereotype (e.g., defend my own beliefs, independent, assertive), 10 items characteristic of the feminine stereotype (e.g., sympathetic, understanding, warm), and 10 items not associated exclusively with either stereotype (e.g., conceited, tactful, conscientious). For this 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. particular questionnaire, due to the lack of a Chinese version, the Chinese translation by the author also includesthe original English descriptions for respondents to have a better understanding as well as to preserve the originality of the questionnaire. Scale Anchors A 7-point rat ing scale was used to evaluate the respondents' sex-role identity. The anchors used to evaluate the BSRI propensity were presented as follows: 1= never or almost never true; 2= usually not true; 3= sometimes but infrequently true; 4= occasionally true; 5= often true; 6= usually true; 7= always or almost always true (see Appendix II). Measures of Transformational Leadership The latest version (Form 5X, 1995) of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, the primary survey instrument to measure transformational, transactional and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. non-transactional/laissez-faire leadership, has been used in hundreds of research programs, doctoral dissertations and master's theses around the globe over the past several years. The MLQ has been translated and published in many languages, including Chinese, Dutch, German, French, Spanish, and so on. In this study, a Chinese version of the MLQ, version 5x (1995 ; , was used to assess transformational leadership in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. With leader and rater forms, the MLQ Form 5X contains 36 items tapping nine conceptually distinct leadership factors, plus three items measuring extra effort for the leader's unit, four items measuring the effectiveness of the leader and his or her unit, and two items measuring satisfaction with the leader. Among the nine conceptually distinct leadership factors, there were five distinct transformational leadership components, i.e., idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. stimulation, and individual consideration; a contingent reward leadership factor; two factors representing management-by-exception (active/passive); and a laissez-faire leadership factor. For the purpose of this study, the measures of transformational leadership (the 4 I' s) , which contain five distinct factors, were obtained using items from the MLQ. This subscale distinction was maintained in this study. The transformational leadership scales measured were as follows: Idealized Influence (Attributed) (4 items): Leaders engender trust from and serve as role models for followers. The leaders are respected and hold much referent power. Followers identify with and emulate these leaders. Sample items: "I display a sense of power and confidence". "I go beyond self-interest for the good of our group". Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Idealized Influence (Behavior) (4 items): Leaders provide visionanda sense of mission for followers . They also maintain high standards and set challenging goals for the followers. Sample items: "I talk, about my most important values and beliefs". "I emphasize the importance of having a collective sense of mission". Inspirational Motivation (4 items): Leaders are seen as inspirational, providing symbols and emotional appeals to increase follower awareness and understanding regarding mutually desired goals. Sample items "I articulate a compelling vision of the future". "I express confidence that goals will be achieved". Intellectual Stimulation (4 items): Intellectually stimulating leaders move their followers to quest ion the "old way of doing things", and approach problems f romdif ferent angles and from alternative perspectives . They encourage followers to think on their own and to be creative 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in solving problems. Sample items: "I re-examine critical assumptions to question whether they are appropriate". "I seek differing perspectives when solving problems". Individualized Consideration (4 items): Individually considerate leaders recognize and elevate follower needs and push them to achieve their fullest potential. They focus on identifying ways to encourage followers to improve their capabilities and to take on more challenging goals. 3y providing coaching and mentoring when needed, they show empathy and concern for the individual needs of their followers. Sample items: "I consider an individual as having different needs, abilities, andaspirationsfromothers". "I help others to develop their strengths". Scale Anchors A 5-point rating scale was used to evaluate the frequency of self-rating leader behaviors. The anchors used to evaluate the MLQ factors were presented as follows: 0= not at all; 1 = 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. once in a while; 2= sometimes ; 3= fairlyoften; and 4 = f requent ly, if not always. Scoring of Instruments Sex-Role Identity. Masculinity and femininity scores were calculated for each individual as the average of scores on the masculine and femininity items . The median masculini ty and femininity sco res then we re calculated for the entire sample . For purpose of categorization, the median split procedure was applied. In this study, the median masculinity and femininity were scores of 4.6 and 5.4, respectively. By comparing individuals' scores on the BSRI to the medians for the entire sample on masculinity and femininity, each individual was then classified into a sex-role group as follows, Masculine; an individual's masculinity score is above the median while femininity score is below the median 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Feminine: an individual's masculinity score is below the median while femininity score is above the median Androgynous: individual's masculinity and femininity scores are both above the median Undifferentiated: individual's masculinity and femininity scores are both below the median Transformational Leadership. Transformational leadership scale scores were calculated for each individual as the average scores for the items on t he scale foreachof the five dimensions, i.e., idealised influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Data Analysis As an integrated applications system that provides complete data processing and analysis capabilities for social science, the Minitab program (MTB) will be used in the current study to analyze the data. MTB general linear models procedures will be utilized to compute F-test approximations and degree of freedom associated with the factors. An F-test is usually a ratio of two numbers, where each number estimates a variance. It is used in the test of equality of two populations . General linearmodel (GLM) assumes the relationships among independent and dependent measures basically vary according to straight-line patterns. It is regarded as a highly flexible tool that can be modified to suit specific combinations of discrete and continuous measures available for testing hypotheses (Bohrnstedt & Knoke, 1994). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. As a special version of the general linear model, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical test of the difference of means for two or more groups. If the dependent variable is continuous but the independent variables are discrete, the ANOVA is the appropriate technique to analyze the data. Since the dependent variable, i.e., transformational leadership, is a continuous measure and the independent variables, i.e., gender, sex-roleidentity, and department, are discrete, ANOVA is thus adopted to analyze this study. In addition to gender and sex-role identity, the factor of organization was also included to test all the four hypotheses. Moreover, to test if the congruency between one' s sex-role identity and organizational orientation influences his/her leadership style, the interaction term of sex-role identity and department is also incorporated into the general linear model. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Delimitations There are three types of delimitations forthis study, i.e., branch, government level and GS level. The ROC Constitution provides for a central government with five "yuan" (branches) the Executive Yuan, the Legislative Yuan, the Judicial Yuan, the Examination Yuan, and the Control Yuan (The Republic of China Yearbook, 2001; . The current study confines its subjects within the Executive Yuan. The total popuiationof ROC government employees is 602 , 3 9 6 persons (Ministry of Examination and Recruitment, 1998). Among them, there are 360,473 male employees, constituting 59. 84 1 of the total; while there are 24 1, 923 women employees, or 40.161. In addition, the ROC government is organized into two levels, i.e., the central level and city/county level, this study confines its subjects within the central level of government 01 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for the convenience of accessibility and a greater degree of representation. Moreover, GS level is another criterion for selection. Positions such as section chief are usually undertaken by persons who are at GS level 9 and above. To better assess leadership style, government employees who are at GS level 9 or above are thus taken into account as qualified subjects. 4,401 persons are the total for government employees who are at GS level 9 and above and in the central-level organizations of the Execut ive Yuan . Among them, 3,806perso r.s (86.5%) are male and 595 females (13.5%). The delimitations set on the samples might affect the research outcome. Government employees who are at GS level 9 and above as well as in the central-level organizations tend to take charge of nationwide issues, compared to these who are below GS level 9 and in the city/county level. They are more inclined to look at things from the whole picture and 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. take into account long-term effects in terms of policy making. As a result, the parochialism might not get to influence the outcome and a general, better presentation of organizational reality will thus be revealed. Limitations The translation of questionnaires into Chinese is one issue that deserves some attention. Some concepts in a different language might have different connotations for that specific culture. For example, masculine items in the BSRI such as "aggressive" and "assertive" might have a rather neutral connotation in English. But they become less positive when translated into Chinese for the fact that collectivism plays down the expression of individuality, uniqueness, and autonomy. As a consequence, respondents might be inclined not to associate themselves with the undesirable characteristics in collectivistic societies when answering 93 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the questionnaire. With including the original Short BSRI, the Chinese translation had sought its best to match the originality of the questionnaires in order not to have non-English-speaking respondents' preconceptions get in the way of precisely answering questions. However, the preclusion of these preconceptions cannot be fully warranted. Secondly, since the survey was conducted in the format of leaders' self-evaluation, the results might be different char, the evaluation by subordinates. When it comes to self-evaluation, people tendtoglcrify themselves or evaluate themselves more lenient 1 y and pos it ively. Thus, leadersmight view their leadership style from a more positive lens. They are prone to evaluate themselves as being democratic than autocratic because this is more congruent with modern management theory and practice. As a result, leader's self-evaluation might be biased and could not fully reflect the managerial reality in organizations. 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition, differences in individuals' self-evaluation might also occur even though participants were instructed to use the same set of anchor for measuring their own sex-role identity and leadership style. One of the possibilities for such differences might come from the different ways men and women express feelings and describe things. Men usually tend to place themselves in a more positive light while women are inclined to be more reserved. As such, the subjectivity in perceptionswas beyond control and might influence the research outcome to some extent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 500 questionnaires were distributed to subjects who were at GS level 9 and above in two different task-oriented organizations, the Department of Health and the Ministry of Finance . Quest ionnaires of Short Bern Sex-Role Inventory (ESRI) and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) were administered through an on-site coordinator in each organization to evaluate subject's sex-role identity and the frequency of engaging in transformational leadership behaviors. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This chapter will cover the research findings regarding the four hypotheses and discuss these results. Results Table 4 contains the tabulated statistics on gender, sex-role identity, and department for participants in this study. The majority of subjects for the current study were male, 230 persons (64') . 127 females (361) took part in the study. 247 persons, 691 of the sample, were from the Ministry of Finance; 110 persons, 311, from the Department of Health. Table 4. Tabulated Statistics for Participants Sex-Role Identity DOH MOF TOTAL M8SCU* IP.b Male Female Male Female Male Female 1 9 C - Feminine 2 c 13 32 36 "c 4 1 Andrcavr.cus 3 4 12 3 4 2 6 3 5 ♦ ^ * r ■ ^ . 0 Z c i 1 ”5 3 5 155 92 230 12" 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 5 indicates that most of the participants were classified as either androgynous, 126 persons (35.21), or feminine sex-role identity, 125 persons (351). 70 persons, nearly 203 of the subjects, were classified as masculine sex-role identity, and only 36 persons (101) as undifferentiated. Table 5. Percentage of Sex-Role Identity Groups Sex-Role Identity DOH MOF TOTAL Misc'hu.-; I T 21.3 1 0 . 2 Vndi f r.i i d * 1 * 3 c i • 1 ' ~ i . 3 C 1 D . 3 ~' . 3 :2 As presented inTable 4, 21 females and 49 males constituted the totality of 70 persons who were classified as masculine sex-role identity. 49 females and 76 males were among the 125 persons who were classified as feminine sex-role identity. 38 females and 88 males were among the 126 persons who were classified as androgynous. 19 females and 17 males 98 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. were among the 36 persons who were classified as undifferentiated sex-role identity. The discrepancy between the total male participants (N= 23C) and the male participants classified as masculine (N= 49) deserves some attention and explanation. This study indicates that one's sex-role identity is not necessarily a precise correlate of his/her gender. Indeed, the characteristics of collectivism enhance the probability of men in Ta i wan to become androgynous rather than being masculine, compared with men in the individualistic society. Given the paternalism in Taiwan's collectivistic context, men are assumed to take on personal responsibility for the family. Chinese traditional culture stresses the father's effort to preserve harmony among family members . Therefore, inadditior. to masculinity, the sacrifices and responsibilities required on the part of men in collectivism enable men to acquire some Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. feminine qualities as well and become either androgynous or feminine from the indiviaualistic perspective. Six ANOVAs with five subscales of transformational leadership as well as the integrated scale of all fivesubscales were conducted. The analysis was a study of the role of gender, sex-role identity, and department on each of the five transformational leadership subscales that comprise the MLQ framework as well as the integrated scale. The gender factor was a two-level fixed effect contrasting males and females. The sex-role identity factor was a four-level fixed effect contrasting masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated. The department factor was a two-level fixed effect contrasting the Department of Health and the Ministry of Finance. MTB General Linear Models Procedures were utilized to compute F-test approximations associated with the gender main effect, the sex-role identity main effect, the department main 100 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effect, and the sex-role identity by department interaction. The F-test used in ANOVA was to test the hypothesis of equality of means for two or more groups. The overall results are presented in Table 6. The gender effect was significant for the subscales of Idealized Influence (Attributed; and Idealized Influence (Behavior) beyond the 0.01 level of p-vaiue among the five transformational leadership subscales. The sex-role identity effect was significant for ail five subscales beyond the 0.01 level of p-value; however, none of the department effects or the interaction effects of sex-role identity and department were significant. The p-value represents the probability of making a Type I error, which is rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. The smaller the p-value, the smaller is the probabilityofmakingamistakebyrejectingthenull hypothesis. The cut-off value for this study was chosen to set at the 0.01 level because the main effect of sex-role identity had an 101 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. outstanding p-value= 0.0000 with all five transformational leadership subscales. Tests of post-hoc differences between the levels of the significant main effects were then performed for these transformational leadership subscales. As indicated in Table 6, gender accounted for a significant portion of the variance for the subscales of Idealized Influe nee (Attributed), II/A, ( F(1, 355) = 13.62, p= 0.0000) and Idealized Influence (Behavior), II/B, (F(1, 3 5 5)= 9.10, p= 0.003). Pairwise comparisons were conducted for males and females on the subscales of II/A and II/B. Men (M= 2.75 for II/A; M= 3.00 for II/B) scored higher than women (M= 2.44 for II/A; M= 2.76 for II/B) on the two subscales significantlycorrelated with gender (see Table 7). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6. Results of ANOVA for All Five Subscales SUBSCALES________________DF______ Idealized Influence (Attributed) Idealized Influence (Behavior) Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individual Consideration This indicates that men tend to see themselves as having more idealized influence (both attributed and behavior) on the part of followers than women in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. Namely, men in Taiwan were found to demonstrate 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. more transformational leadership behavior than women since they induce more idealized influence on their followers. Hypothesis 1 was thus rejected. Table 7. Means of Both Gender on Idealized Influence (Attributed) and Idealized Influence (Behavior) SUBSCALE NUMBER MEAN S.D. Idealized Influence (Attributed) Hale 230 Female 127 . * 1 4 - i i _ . Q T Idealized Influence (Behavior) Male 2 30 Female 12" 2 . 7 5 56 C . c 1 represents mere siar.i f iear.t store of means As Table 6 indicates, sex-role identity accounted for a significant portion cf the variance for all five subscales of transformational leadership: Idealized Influence (Attributed) (F(3,353)= 38.10, p= 0.0000); Idealized Influence (Behavior) (F(3, 3 5 3)= 15.89, p= 0.0000); Inspirational Motivation (F(3,353)= 25.78, p= 0.0000) ; Intellectual Stimulation (F(3,353)= 33.11, p = 0.0000); Individual Consideration (F(3,353)= 9.05, p= 0.0000). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Pairwise comparisons were also conducted for the four kinds of sex-role identity on all five subscales of transformational leadership. Table 8 reveals the results of sex-role identity groups. As Table 8 presents, participants who are classified as androgynous scored significantly higher on all subscales than the other three groups. This indicates that androgynous individuals demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior, thus supporting Hypothesis 2. Table 9 presents the re-arranged ANOVA results of five subscales of transformational leadership, which were earlier presented in Table 6. Based on the overall results revealed in Table 9, Hypothesis 3 was therefore supported since sex-role identity accounted for a significant portion of the variance for all five subscales of transformational leadership while gender merely accounted for a less significant portion of the variance for two subscaies. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 8. Means of Four Sex-Role Identity Groups on Transformational Leadership Subscales SUBSCALE NUMBER MEAN S.D. Idealized Influence (Attributed) dSCu . 1 r.O O Feminine 12 5 Androgynous 12 6 'Jr.di f rerent iated 3c 2.6621 2.3932 * - / . ~ 1 - . . 3 - t r U " " Idealized Influence (Behavior) Masculine ~ 1 2.9325 c . 3 i . ■ i Ar.drc .ryr.cus 1 2 6 Vr.di::e renc : a".e - 1 3>5 2.33-2 . . * i J - t - - . * t : * . Inspirational Motivation A n d r c c y : i c us 12 6 t ’ r - . d i f feren*. iated 36 . *1 o 3 _ , ; r c * Intellectual Stimulation : . '63 3 . 3 _ t i d d p ' - t . ^ ::6 . ,o » Individual Consideration Masou ^ino i ! , Ci'd ' .3 66 5 hndi: rerent ia:ed 3 6 2 . ~35_ * :. 6:_ ~ * represents the most significant score c: c.ear.s Sex-role identity thus accounts for more variance in transformational leadership than gender. Moreover, an ANOVA of the average score for the integrated scale of five transformational leadership subscales was also conducted. 106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Based on the general result presented in Table 10, it was confirmed that sex-role identity is the foremost effect that accounts for the variance in transformational leadership ( F ( 3, 353)= 4.17, p= 0.006). Table 9. Results of Analysis of Variance: F-Test Approximations, Degree of Freedom and Probability for Gender, Sex-Role Identity, Department, and Sex-Role Identity X Department EFFECT DF F p Gender Idea 1 1 dee 1 Ir.sc: ized Ir. fiver. :e .lehavior' ralicr.di Motivation - . 1 ' .:: - • Ir.di v lectuai Stimulation :Sia. Cons ice rat izr. ;.; - - . - n - Sex-Role Identity Idealized Influence ; At t r ibuted ; Idealized Influence ;2ahav:cr! I r.spi rat icnai Motivation Intel lectuai Stimulation Individual Consideration 3 j 8 . 11 1 5 . 5 9 3 3.11 „ . j j Department Idealized Influence (Attributed; 1 1.5? 0.205 Idealized Influence 'Behavior; 1 ' . 922 Inspirational Motivation 1 2.9? 0 . 0 5 6 Intellectual St imuiaticn 1 . 3 6 ■ h ; t- * Individual Consideration :. 4 5 Sex-Role Identity X Department Idealized Influence (Attributed; n 0.26 0 .555 Idealized Influence (3ehavior) 3 u . 4 4 0.723 Inspirational Motivation 3 0.05 0.521 Intellectual Stimulation 3 0 . 21 0. 5 92 Individual Consideration 3 0.21 0 . b 9 0 * p< o.oi 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 10. Analysis of Variance for the Integrated Scale EFFECT DF F p Gender 3 . :. ~: 3 Sex-Role Identity 3 4.1" i.:: £ * Department 1 1. £ 6 Sex-Role Identity x Department 3 » — As indicated in Table 9, the department effect and the interaction effect of sex-role identity and department were tested to be not significant for all five subscales of transformational leadership. It was thus concluded that Hypothesis 4 was rejected. That is, the congruency between one's sex-role identity and organizational orientation does not have any effect on whether individuals demonstrate trans format iona 1 leadership behavior. The gender distribution of four groups of sex-role identity in both organizations is presented in Table 4 and 5. Although the Ministry of Finance is oriented toward masculine task, most participants were found to be either feminine (351, 86 out of 247) or androgynous (32%, 80 out of 247) . A relatively Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. high percentage of females (39%, 36 out of the total female sample of 92 in the Ministry of Finance) still maintain their femininity in this masculine task-oriented organization. On the other hand, females comprise of the higher percentage (!''%, 6 out of the total female sample of 35 in the Department of Health) to be masculine when compared to males (11%, 6 cut of the total male sample of 75 in the Department of Health in the feminine Department of Health. It is thus sufficient to support the rejection of Hypothesis 4 and infer that participant's sex-role identity is not necessarily congruent with the organizational orientation. Discussion of Gender There has been a considerable amount of work completed examining male-female differences in leadership style (e.g. Brodsky, 1993; Donnell & Hall, 1980; Dobbins & Platz, 1986); nonetheless, the results delineated in this study present a 109 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. new perspective from which to empirically investigate the impacts of gender and sex-role identity on transformational leadership. The current study comes up with results that are rather different from earlier research done in the individualistic context. It is found that the factor of gender cannot sufficiently and effectively explain variance in transformational leadership among male and female leaders in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. Indeed, the factor of sex-role identity proves to have more explanatory power in this context. Numerous studies have been conducted in individualistic societies. Women in the individualistic context are found to possess qualities more in line with transformationai leadership and are therefore more likely to be transformational leaders. The current findings do not fully support the argument of gender effect on transformational Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leadership in the co llectivistic context. Although the gender effect was significant in the subscales of Idealized Influence (Attributed) and Idealized Influence (Behavior), the results were converse to the hypothesis. Men scored higher on those two sub scales and were found to be more likely to see themselves as having idealized influence on followers. This discrepancy from previous research may be mostly due to the effect of the contextual difference. Research on transformational leadership has been mostly conducted in individualistic societies, which stress the supremacy and intrinsic value of the individual human being (Kim, 1994) . Individuality, self-identity, and self-reliance are fundamental for interpersonal interactions in the individualistic context. In contrast, institutions are viewed as an extension of the family in the collectivistic culture, and paternalism and legal moralism reign supreme (Kim, 1994). According to Kim, 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the leader in a collectivistic society tends to be considered as a father figure who is paternalistic, moralistic, and welfaristic. To followers in the collectivistic society, e.g., Taiwan, the leader or supervisor is often regarded as a father, one who is obliged to attend to the life and needs of his subordinates Organizations often carry out specific acts in relation to their personnel in Asian countries (Kim, 1994b). The birth, marriage, or even school admission of an employee's child can be cause for congratulation in Taiwan's collectivistic context In addition to the formal relationship in organizations, there is also a very close informal bonding between leaders and followers. Leaders tend to see themselves linked to their subordinates and thus believe it is their duty to take care of subordinates' personal problems. Although gender proves to be inadequate in explaining variance in transformational leadership, to some extent, the 112 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. influence of paternalism is reflected on leadership in the collectivistic context. Men's superior sociopolitical status and authority over women in Taiwan enhance their chance to be regarded as role models. As such, it is more likely for men to induce idealized influence, both attributed and behavior, on the part of followers. Discussion of Sex-Role Identity The current findings suggest a strong relationship between androgyny and transformational leadership in the collectivistic society. Androgynous leaders demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior in collectivism. Androgynous leaders are characterized as being both masculine and feminine, both assertive and yielding, as well as both instrumental and expressive (Bern, 1979). The dichotomy of masculinity and femininity bears a great resemblance of that of individualism and collectivism. It 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. is proposed that masculinity and femininity are consistent with fundamental modes of human interaction: masculinity with agency and femininity with communion (Bakan, 1974). Agency is demonstrated in qualities of individual preservation such as self-protection, self-assertion, self-expansion, the formation of separations, and the urge to master. Communion is presented in qualities of interrelatedness, i.e., contact, openness, union, the lack of separations, and noncontractua1 cooperation. In general, agency is related to the advancement of the individual, whereas communion is related to the interrelationship between the individual and the collective (Bern, 1977) . Taiwan is a highly relationship-oriented, collectivistic society. Despite the increasing influence of individualism in recent times, people in Taiwan have been indoctrinated with Confucianism and collective ideology since their childhood. They are taught about the importance and supremacy of collective 114 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. goals and outcomes. Each individual is an indispensable part of parts in the collective machine. Therefore, individuals believe they should sacrifice their own interest in order to safeguard the collective mission. Cooperation, ingroup harmony, interdependence and sociability are greatly emphasized and valued (Hui & Trianais, 1986; Triar.dis et ai., 1936). Only when collective interests are fulfilled can individuals' self-interest and welfare be maintained. In contrast to individualistic societies, collectivism enhances the chance for leaders of both genders to act androgynously. Along with modernization and elevating education levels, women in Taiwan are able to get themselves out of the traditional rut of "three obediences" (obedience to her father before being married, obedience to her husband when being married, and obedience to her son after the death of her husband) and "four virtues" (morals, excellence, manners, and language). They are encouraged to participate in public Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. affairs by taking civil examinations to hold public office. For example, women constitute 70% and 61% of the candidates who passed the general and senior civil service examinations in 1996. In addition, the percentage of women in higher managerial levels is increasing, e.g., women constitute 7.06- of the ministerial positions and 10.59% of the senior managers (Ministry of Examination and Recruitment, 1996). They are also encouraged not to suppress their instrumental, masculine behaviors that were considered undesirable or inapproprrate in the past. On the other hand, in spite of the fact that men still constitute the mainstream in the public sphere, the relation-centered orientation of collectivism enables men in Taiwan to become highly considerate in their own behavior. The interrelatedness and interdependence manifested in collectivism encourage them not to discount their deep feelings 116 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in caring, nurturing, and being considerate. Through informality, leaders of both genders are closely connected to followers, look out for them, and demonstrate more transformational leadership as they act more androgynously. Characteristics associated with masculinity and femininity, agency and communion as well as instrumentality and expression are well evident in transformational leadership (Hackman, Furniss, Hills, and Paterson, 1992). Therefore, androgynous leaders in Taiwan are found to demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior than leaders who are evaluated as masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated. Although the characteristics of collectivism a re conducive to the development of transformational leadership, leaders in the collectivistic context often face some dilemma when adopting transformational leadership. Self-assertion is an important element in transformational leadership. In addition, transformational leaders are supposed to be less 117 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. conforming, and willing to take a stand to confront and challenge the status guo. Collectivist culture, however, emphasizes harmony within the group, restrictive conformity, security, and tradition (Schwartz, 1990). Collectivists are expected to behave in accordance with the group's decisions and tend to withhold their personal opinions and preference. They prefer to hear others' opinions before express ing the i r own. They hes itate in expressing the i r uniqueness and individuality in public and are afraid that the uniqueness might jeopardize approval from the ingroup members. Moreover, collective values and interests always take precedence over individual's personal needs. Leaders might thus encounter the difficulty of practicing individual consideration for their followers. Therefore, the ingrained Chinese collectivistic characters might discourage leaders from being fully transformational. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Moreover, one of Chinese social characters is the acknowledgement and respect of the authority of seniors and superiors. They tend to lean toward seniority to maintain the order and harmony of the system. They are taught to be obedient, loyal, and compliant to authorities and traditions. As a consequence, it is hard for subordinates to challenge the authorities, question the old way of doing things, and approach problems from different perspectives. Instead of thinking on their own, the followers might rely on the j udgments and instructions of the leader. Discussion of Organization-Role Congruence People tend to have different expectations and standards for female and male leaders because of the effect of sex-role stereotypes . Leaders are evaluated less favorably when their behavior is gender incongruent than when it is gender congruent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Korabik et al., 1993; Euwema & van de Vliert, 1990; Watson, 1988; Wiley & Eskilson, 1982). The two agencies chosen for this study, the Department of Health and the Ministry of Finance, represent two types of organizations that are often highly sex-typed. The former is characterized by a feminine orientation, e.g., caring, nurturing, and empathy, whereas the latter is more masculinity-oriented, e.g., rationality, analysis, policy-making, and implementation. The current study, however, reveals that the congruency between one's sex-role identity and organizational context does not have any impact on individuals' level of transformational leadership. With higher education levels and changing societal expectations towards both genders, the sex roles of both women and men in traditional Chinese cultures are undergoing many changes. Roles prescribed by traditional norms and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. conventions cannot suffice to meet the extra demand on both men and women in contemporary life. Men and women have to take on multiple roles and perform accordingly. In private, they can be feminine as well as masculine by being the caretaker and breadwinner for the household. In organizational settings, processes such as selection and socialization eliminate the potential differences in behaviors between genders and further help men and women perform effectively. That is, both genders are more concerned about their performance than representing sex-differentiated roles in organizations. Therefore, it was found that the congruence between the leader's sex-role identity and organizational orientation does not have any effect on his/her adoption of transformational leadership for both organizations in this study. The majority of organizational members have both superiors and subordinates at the same time, other than those who are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. positioned at the highest rank and bottom of the hierarchy. The androgynous style, which includes masculine, directive and feminine, considerate behaviors, will likely appeal to one's superiors and subordinates because it enhances effectiveness and creates a supportive work climate. Thus, a "gender balance" exhibited in androgynous attitudes and behaviors proves to be essential to transformationa1 leadership. The findings reveal that the characteristics of collectivismenhance people in Taiwan to act more androgynously and thus demonstrate more transformational leadership. Uncertainties in organizational reality require leaders to be flexible enough to adopt appropriate managerial behaviors suited for different, sometimes unexpected circumstances. Strongly sex-typed individuals tend to be seriously limited in the range of behaviors available to them as they move from situation to situation (Bern, 1919) . Only androgyny would allow 122 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leaders to freely engage in both masculine and feminine behaviors required to deal with today's organizational complexities. Indeed, societal shifts in socialization and education and organizational shifts towards more attention to the needs of their human resources play important roles in moving organizations toward appreciating androgyny (Noe, 198 8; Offerman & Gowing, 1990). Both genders thus recognize and learn the best qualities of the opposite gender. Androgynous leaders are better equipped with both feminine and masculine qualities that are essential to transformational leadership. These qualities make them more likely to be admired by both male and female subordinates. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The current study comes up with results that are different from prior research. It is found that men are more likely to induce idealized influence on followers in Taiwan's collectivistic context. The findings also indicate a very- significant relationship between androgyny and transformational leadership. Androgynous leaders are more likely to engage in both masculine and feminine behaviors and thus demonstrate more transformational leadership. In addition, the factor of sex-role identity has proved to be more sufficient than gender to explain and predict transformational leadership in a collectivist culture. Moreover, role congruence between sex-role identity and organizational context does not affect individuals' transformational leadership. To sum up, sex-role identity proves to be the foremost effect for transformational leadership in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. 124 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION While there is an ongoing debate cn the effect of gender on leadership, the current study goes one step further to incorporate the factor of sex-role identity into the investigation of transformational leadership in Taiwan's collectivistic context and generates a rather different outcome from previous research. Based cn the leader's self-evaluation, it is found that men in Taiwan are more likely to induce idealized influence on followers than women. The paternalistic characteristics of collectivism are conducive to explaining the fact that men in Taiwan are more likely to be transformational leaders. As Bern (1974, 1975) argues, itiseachindividual'ssex-role identity, not sex, that influences the degree to which certain traits and behaviors are manifested. The empirical results confirm Bern's arguments in the case of transformational 125 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. leadership in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. Sex-role identity proves to be a more sufficient and effective variable for explaining the tendency to act as transformational leaders among males and females. There is a strong relationship between androgyny and transformational leadership. Androgynous leaders are more likely to demonstrate the characteristics denoted and reguired for transformational leadership. Change seems to be the only constant in today's organizational life. Leaders nowadays need to be "strategic leaders" in order to be proactive in responding to multi faceted, changing organizational conditions (Reardon et al., 1993/. Successfulleadersmustbeflexibleandcapableofenvisioning, challenging the status quo, seeking creative alternatives, inspiring others to adopt those strategies, and being willing to take greater risks (Reardon et al., 1998; Hotter, 1990; O'Toole, 1996) . 126 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. According to Reardon et al., inspirational leaders are needed to overcome the resistance to radical change. Throughout the five stages of radical change, i.e., planning, enabling, launching, catalyzing, and maintaining, inspirational leaders provide creative input, get followers' involvement, and inspire followers to adopt the change after it has been launched and to maintain it despite obstacles. As organizational reality is best characterized by change and uncertainty, behavioral flexibility in leadership is thus greatly stressed in order to deal with a wide range of organizational issues and ensure performance. An important resource of leaders' power in influencing followers comes from "the match between style, skill, and capabilities and what is required by the situation" (Pfeffer, 1992) . That is, the effectiveness of any leadership style is contingent on surrounding situational conditions, and the same behavior will not be successful under all conditions. 127 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It appears that androgynous management implies a flexibility of response that is compatible with the advice given by scholars. Androgynous leaders have more leverage in adapting to different demands from different situations. However, it is necessary to bear in mind that the effectiveness of androgynous leaders greatly depends on the individual, the way in which masculinity and femininity are integrated and displayed, the social climate and context, and other factors. With the trends toward flatter organizations and a more diverse workforce, coordination and cooperation is becoming crucial to the completion of organizational tasks. Androgynous management enables leaders to adopt both a masculine approach to ensure the organization's performance and a feminine way to tend to subordinates' specific needs and help them to grow and develop. 128 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Androgyny, however, does not come witnoutaprice. In fact, there is a growing body of commentary suggesting that androgyny can have some substantial negative consequences (Frye, 1980; Baril et al., 1989). Kelly and Worell (1977) maintain that competitive and assertive tendencies are often in anxiety-producing conflict with empathy and warmth in the managerial role. Androgynous individuals are under extreme social pressure to conform to sex role stereotypes and often suffer from depression and anxiety (Forisha, 1978). Baril et al. (1939) point out that those androgynous supervisors who are unable to integrate their masculinity and femininity in an effective way tend to be unsuccessful as managers and more anxious, miserable, and self-derogating than others. Therefore, to be effective and androgynous, there might be still a long way to go for leaders to successfully integrate their masculine and feminine characteristics and keep them in balance. 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Implications and Future Research Agenda The current study confirms a strong relationship between androgyny and transformational leadership in the collectivistic context of Taiwan. Androgynous leaders maintain a balance of masculine and feminine qualities that are essential to transformational leadership, and thus demonstrate more transformational leadership behavior. It is suggested that organizations with highly transformational upper-level leaders are more likely to have more transformational leaders at lower levels (Bass et al., 1987; . As such, the recruitment of androgynous employees plays an important role in enhancing the probability of assuring organizations to have transformational leaders at all levels. In order to select androgynous employees, organizations in Taiwan may conduct an evaluation of sex-role identity for the eligible candidates when recruiting new members. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition to the selection, organizations in Taiwan need to provide more training and brainstorming programs to encourage selected androgynous employees to express their personal opinions, challenge the old way of doing things, and address problems fromdifferent perspectives. Creativityar.d uniqueness should be praised. It should also be made clear that seniority and group solidarity stressed in collectivism are not the main parameters when it comes to organizational decision-making. Furthermore, collectivists are socialized to refrain themselves from expressing their individuality or challenging the status quo. Traditions are worshiped and maintained to avoid uncertainties. However, such tradition maintenance is against the tenets of transformational leadership. Transformational leadership stresses certain characteristics that are at odds with collectivism, e.g., the importance of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. confidence and assertion, and striving to change the status quo with the leader's idealized vision. To cultivate these characteristics in collectivism, an early socialization from the childhood is needed and helpful. Hence, the education system in Taiwan demands ongoing reforms to value individual differences, encourage self-expression, and promote the importance of individuality. The generalization and application of the findings, however, may be subject to some limitations. The subjects selected for this study are concentrated on GS level 9 a r . c i above in two public agencies of Taiwan, i.e., the middle- and upper-level managers, who are mostly the people in charge of organizational decision making. For those who are below level 9 and in charge of organizational routines, research on androgyny and transactional leadership might be more consistent with the characteristics of their daily routines in organizations. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In addition, being at GS level 9 and above, the selected subjects for this study are often in their forties, fifties, or even sixties. Employees younger than forty years old are left out from the study. Younger employees tend to be more individualistic compared with their older colleagues. Thus, the factor of age may be included in the future research to further delineate the possible effects age might have on leadership behaviors. As Bass et ai. (1996) maintain, survey measures of leadership always measure percept ions of behavior, which are subject to potential biases and inaccuracies in a rater's judgment. Hence, future research may include subordinates' evaluation of the leader's leadership along with the leader's self-evaluation in order to more accurately reflect the organizational reality. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Besides this perception issue, the cross-culture differences in individualism-collectivism might result in different conceptualizations and interpretations of gender roles and leadership behaviors. As a result, the BSRI and MLQ might not include items that are culture specific sex-role stereotypes and leadership behaviors in a collectivistic context. To better assess the sex-role identity of people and leadership elements in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, sets of sex-role inventories and transformational leadership scales that include idiosyncraticpatterns in the Chinese value system is needed for further investigations of this topic. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Changes in and the multifaceted nature of contemporary organizations call for transformational leadership to cope with ongoing uncertainties and complexities. Androgynous leaders with great behavioral flexibility will have more leverage in adapting to different demands from different situations. However, personal challenges exist for androgynous leaders when they are exercising this behavioral flexibility. They have to effectively integrate masculinity and femininity and keep them in balance . Avoiding the negat ive consequences from being androgynous, e.g., depression and anxiety, is still a challenge that androgynous leaders must address. As each culture has its own specific characteristics, individualism and collectivism have different conceptualizations and interpretations regarding gender roles and leadership. To more accurately assess the sex-role 135 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. identity of people and leadership elements in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, sets of sex-role inventories and leadership scales that include the idiosyncratic pattern of the Chinese value system is needed for future investigations of these issues. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, N. 1986. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior. Boston, MA: Kent. Avolio, B.J., Waidman, D.A., & Yammarino, F.J. 1991. Leading in 1990's: Towards understanding the four I's of transformational leadership. Journal of European Industrial Training, 154, 9-16. Bales, R.F. 1950. Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bakan, D. 1974. The Duality of Human Existence . Chicago: Rand McNally. Baril, G., Elbert, M. Mahar-Potter, S., & Reavy, G. 193 7. 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Women and transformational and contingent reward leadership: A multiple-level-of-analysis perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 205-222. Yoon, T.R. 1994. The Koreans, their culture and personality. In G. Yoon & S.C. Choi (Eds.), Psychology of the Korean People. Seoul: Dong-A Publishing & Printing Co., Ltd. Young, M. 1990. Transformational Leadership Behaviors of Male and Female Academic. Dissertation. Bowling Green State University. Yukl, G.A. 1994. Leadership in Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hal1. 159 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Zaleznik, A. 1989. The Managerial Mystique. New York: Harper & Row. 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX I. Packet of Questionnaires of Chinese Version ## ’ A**. «*>«!« • * * i m t t t t i f • «***•* • IUHMHt* - • *«** ttS**J3EA 1 #«$*}£#**# • «**+■=.* friBHt • ftftg ***** ***»*! A ■ ***1 *fc*« * ± * > 1 A I f t * * BLb + *fclA+A#. + ^fl jb a ir * » * * #:____ - I t *1 : X □ *□ *A*<i :_________________________ * * :____________ * * ± a *. + *:_______* * * « £ • • ■ + □ * t D ■*#+□ * . * □ # * □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ait*sm% § £.ftA &tt*> • *ft$*ftft*ft**»ftftft B,«?T ±T * S • ft-ftft*«*ft-« • ft * ft + ft * « ft ft ft ft t ft ft * ft ft ft .......... .......... □ C □ □ □ □ n *»«T«................ .......... □ □ □ □ D □ □ iilti*................ .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ n L J fljifii................ .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ It*ft............................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ftftfcfttt................ .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ mm«i............................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ftft-M*................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ *Aff«........................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ........................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ •Itttt&N A ........................ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ A lift*........................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ft***........................... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ftftHft-tf............... .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ * T .............................. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ * w t * ............... .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ft* Aft................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ * * « ? « £ .............. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ u **MHr................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ fcftftta................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 4 J M & ................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ £Kft&$*.............. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ -*■***»................. .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ HA.............................. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ........... .......... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ftftft*JA*£............ ........... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ftftBft................... ........... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Wit*.................... ........... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ mat....................... ........... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ ................... ........... □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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At**.*#.***.......................................................................... □ □ □ □ □ 10. A + A A M H a A A A f A f t t t M ........................................... □ □ □ □ □ 11. A - r A A A t t A A t t A i t A A S B * * * ....................................... □ □ □ □ □ 12. A * ? * ! * * * » ■ * . * ♦ * * * * .................................................. □ □ □ □ □ 13. □ □ □ □ □ 14. A * A « l 1 ? t a t t « * « * B * 4 . * * < & □ □ □ □ □ 15. A * ? 6 # W * * A > f t « f « * W t t * * l l * □ □ □ □ □ 16. A A A A A f lt A A t t t f . - f e A lif lW X A A A iif ’J f l l * # * . # ♦ * « * « « # □ □ □ □ □ 17. A * A ± A * . B * m * □ □ □ □ □ 18. A T t t B I A f i e . W A A * J A . * * * < iA B * W * J £ □ □ □ □ □ 19. A * A l * - f l H I ± W f l M I . * : F * * * A r t * . - J I □ □ □ □ □ 20. A * * £ H * A * & « J A ± A A . * * * * W b □ □ □ □ □ 21. A W f f A A A A # A £ ± * A □ □ □ □ □ 22. 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A + A A A A t t f c f e f lJ f t t A f i £ . £ * * * > * * □ □ □ □ □ 40. A f c £ * lfc £ X A * T ffiU tA * J '.l'tt.............................................. □ □ □ □ □ 41. A f e 4 > A * * * * * * * f & A - * * ................................................. □ □ □ □ □ 42. A f c * S # A * * * 9 ! r t t t » * ......................................................... □ □ □ □ □ 43. A t e * ............................................................. □ □ □ □ □ 44. Att*ft*A£4»*Jkx*tt*a................. □ □ □ □ □ 45. A A < M * - « * * t t * $ B « L ......................................................... □ □ □ □ □ 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX II. Packet of BSRI and MLQ Questionnaires Survey Description Dear Participants, December, 1999 The purpose for this survey is to investigate the relationship between sex-role identity and transformational leadership in Taiwan's collectivistic context. Please fill out the following questionnaire based on your authentic, personal opinions. Each provided information will be solely used for academic research. All responses will be remained anonymous and confidential. The completion of this research greatly depends on your participation. Thank you very much for your support. Sincerely, Vivian Chen Ph.D. Candidate School of Policy, Planning, and Development University of Southern California Participant's Information Age: Gender: Department: Position/Level: Years in Public Service: Education: Junior high school Senior high school Junior College University Master's Doctorate 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Bern's Sex-Role Identity (Short) This questionnaire is to describe your own characteristics as you perceive it. Please answer all items on this answer sheet. If you are unsure or do not know the answer, leave the answer blank. Thirty traits are listed on the following pages. Judge hew frequently each trait fits you. Using the following rating scale: 1 Never or almost never true 2 Usually not true 3 Sometimes but infrequently true 4 Occasionally true 5 Often true 6 Usually true 7 Always or almost always true 1. Defend my own beliefs 2. Affectionate 3. Conscientious 4. Independent 5. Sympathetic 6. Moody 7. Assertive 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8. Love children 9. Reliable 10. Strong personality 11. Eager to soothe hurt feelings 12. Jealous 13. Forceful 14. Compassionate 15. Truthful 16. Have leadership abilities 17. Understanding 18 . Secretive 19. Willing to take risks 20. Warm 21. Adaptable 22. Dominant 23. Tender 24 . Conceited 25. Willing to take a stand 26. Sensitive to needs of others 27. Tactful 28 . Aggressive 29. Gentle 30. Conventional Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Leader Form (5x-Short) This questionnaire is to describe your leadership style as you perceive it. Please answer all items on this answer sheet. If an item is irrelevant, or if you are unsure or do not know the answer, leave the answer blank. Forty-five descriptive statements are listed on the following pages. Judge how frequently each statement fits you . The word "others" may mean your peers, clients, direct reports, supervisors, and/or all of these individuals. Use the following rating scale: 0 Not at all 1 Once in a while 2 Sometimes 3 Fairly often 4 Frequently, if not always 1. I provide others with assistance in exchange for their efforts 2 . I re-examine critical assumptions to question whether they are appropriate 168 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. 4 . 5. 6. " 7 / . 8 . 9. 10. 1 1 . 12. 13. 14 . 15. 16. 17. I fail to interfere until problems become serious I focus attention on irregularities, mistakes, exceptions, and deviations from standards I avoid getting involved when important issues arise I talk about my most important values and beliefs I am absent when needed I seek differing perspectives when solving problems I talk optimistically about the future I instill pride in others for being associated with me I discuss in specific terms who is responsible for achieving performance targets I wait for things to go wrong before taking action I talk enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished I specify the importance of having a strong sense of purpose I spend time teaching and coaching I make clear what one can expect to receive when performance goals are achieved I show that I am a firm believer in "If it ain't broke, don't fix it" 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18. I go beyond self-interest for the good of the group 19. I treat others as individuals rather than just as a member of a group 20. I demonstrate that problems must become chronic before I take action 21. I act in ways that build others' respect for me 22. I concentrate my full attention on dealing with mistakes, complaints, and failures 23. I consider the moral and ethical consequences of decisions 24. I keep track of all mistakes 25. I display a sense of power and confidence 26. I articulate a compelling vision of the future 27. I direct my attention toward failures to meet standards 28. I avoid making decisions 29. I consider an individual as having different needs, abilities, and aspirations from others 30 . I get others to look at problems from many different angles 31. I help others to develop their strengths 32 . I suggest new ways of looking at how to complete assignments 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33. I delay responding to urgent questions 34. I emphasize the importance of having a collective sense of mission 35. I express satisfaction when others meet expectations 36. I express confidence that goals will be achieved 37. I am effective in meeting others' job-related needs 38. I use methods of leadership that are satisfying 39. I get others to do more than they expected to do 40. I am effective in representing others to higher authority 41. I work with others in a satisfactory way 42. I heighten others' desire to succeed 43. I am effective in meeting organizational requirements 44. I increase others' willingness to try harder 45. I lead a group that is effective 171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Creator
Chen, Chun-Hsi Vivian
(author)
Core Title
Androgyny and transformational leadership: Effects of gender and sex -role identity in the collectivistic context of Taiwan, R.O.C.
School
Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Public Administration
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University of Southern California
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University of Southern California. Libraries
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Tag
business administration, management,OAI-PMH Harvest,political science, public administration
Language
English
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Digitized by ProQuest
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Advisor
Burke, Catherine (
committee chair
), Lin, Thomas (
committee member
), Reardon, Kathleen (
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committee member
)
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-189659
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business administration, management
political science, public administration