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Academic success for African -American male community college students

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Academic success for African -American male community college students

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Content INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UM I films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send U M I a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note w ill indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, M l 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NOTE TO USERS This reproduction is the best copy available. UMI' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACADEMIC SUCCESS FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS by Preston Hampton A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2002 Copyright 2002 Preston Hampton Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. U M I Number: 3073786 ___ ® UMI UMI Microform 3073786 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA School of Education Los Angeles, California 90089-0031 This dissertation, written by under the direction of h ^^Dissertation Committee, and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partialfulfillment of the requirements for the degree of D o c t o r o f E d u c a t io n Date XXL Dissertation Committee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables................................................................................................................. iii List of Figures............................................................................................................... iv Abstract...........................................................................................................................v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1 Background and Problem Statement....................................................4 Purpose of the Study.............................................................................4 Methodological Approach........................................................^.......11 H. LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................ 12 Community College Students.............................................................16 African American Students.................................................................19 Parenting and Expectations of Others...........:................................... 23 Student Development Theory............................................................ 30 ID. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................37 First Set of Analyses...........................................................................39 IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS............................................................................48 Interpretation o f Results......................................................................59 V. POLICY IMPLICATIONS.............................................................................87 Conclusions......................................................................................... 90 Policy Implications.............................................................................93 REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 96 u Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Description of Variables...................................................................................41 2. Analyses by Block for Analysis..................................................................... 49 3 A. Analysis I - End of Semester 1 ....................................................................... 50 3B. Analysis 2 - End of Semester 2 .......................................................................52 3C. Analysis 3 - End of Semester 3 .......................................................................54 4. Reduced Models - Parameter Estimates, Standard Errors, and Statistics.... 56 5. Reasons for College Enrollment............................................................... 58 6. Items and Constructs Used in the Analysis...................................................... 64 7A. Significant Direct Effects - GPA.....................................................................68 7B. Significant Indirect Effects - G PA.................................................................71 8A. Significant Direct Effect - Earned Units.........................................................74 8B. Significant Indirect Effects - Earned Units.....................................................76 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Path Diagram of Academic Success fpr African American Male Community College Students............................................................................................. 67 2. Path Diagram of Academic Progress for African American Male Community College Students..............................................................................................73 & iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT ACADEMIC SUCCESS FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALE COMMUNITY COLLEGE STUDENTS Demographics such as gender and race are an important consideration when studying college completion. Retention is a concern for all students and is particularly so for African-American students. Among the African-American group, however, African-American males seem to be most at risk of non-retention. Thus this study is dedicated to increasing the retention rates of African-American^ales. The research questions driving this research were: What are the significant factors predicting retention among African-American males in an urban community college? Do the factors promoting retention vary with respect to the number of semesters enrolled? As the study progressed, other research questions surfaced: since grades are important measure of success, what are the significant factors predicting college grade for African-American males in an urban community college? The findings presented herein provided insight for policy as well as suggest additional factors to be included in future research. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I Introduction It is apparent in many circles of education that there is a need to support the efforts of students who wish to earn a college degree. However, for a number of students, the goal of a college education is difficult to achieve. In a review of literature it has been found that African American males may be especially at risk of non success. The following quote from Dr. Pedro A. Noguera, a faculty member at the Harvard University School of Education, gets right to the point. “African- American males are in trouble by almost any standard.” (Noguera, 2000, p 22). Dr. Noguera made the above statement as he considered how culture affects the academic performance of African-American males. He also stated that African- American males are afflicted by high incarceration rates, declining life expectancy, an increasing suicide rate and other social ills. Another quote is especially appropriate: Making the connection (with environmental and cultural factors) is important because it helps to put [the academic performance issue] in context. In fact, it would be much more surprising if Black males were doing well academically in spite of the broad array of difficulties that confront them. (Roach, p.23) Given this plight, it is almost impossible to look at the overall rates of achievement of African-American men in education and not be concerned on many levels. It is the consensus of most educational policymakers that research and change are required. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This study is an attempt to look at one small area focusing on assisting African- American men to progress in college. It is an attempt to stem the high retention rates and to suggest policy that will allow postsecondary faculty, administrators, and others to confront a problem and to take the necessary steps to improve the situation. How do we get more African-American men to matriculate in higher education successfully? For the community colleges, successful completion of a goal may consist of completing one course (or examination) or a series of courses, which could lead to a vocational certificate, associate in arts degree and/or transfer to a four-year institution. Despite the long term goal, short term coflege persistence is required. The benefits of completing this goal generally include: higher self-esteem, higher earning power and last, but certainly not least, greater health and happiness throughout life. A persisting student is one who continues enrollment in the postsecondary institutions (until graduation or transfer) instead of leaving (or dropping-out). There is an abundance of research on persistence and the variables associated with it (Astin, 1993; Tinto, 1993). Understanding these variables is important because they can provide useful information, which could enhance student outcomes. The growing body of higher education literature on persistence indicates there is no one reason that students fail to complete their collegiate studies. Rather, this failure is attributable to a combination of complex behaviors and conditions. For example, attrition in higher education may be due to problems associated with institutional structures of dealing with dropout behavior (Dougherty, 1992; Kuh, Pascarella, & Wechsler, 1996). 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This study looks specifically at a sample of African American men who have begun their postsecondary education at a community college. Community colleges play a significant role in the advancement of many people of color. Specifically, the community college is the point of entry into higher education for a large number of African American males. Often, students of color have multiple obligations outside of school such as jobs and families that limit the time and energy they can devote to college level work. Thus, keeping students enrolled is a difficult task and challenge to of community colleges. Community colleges are very diverse. They not only enroll large numbers of students of color, but also have large enrollments o^students that are older and poorer than those attending traditional four-year colleges and universities (Cohen & Brawer, 1996). African American males were chosen for review since persistence rates for this group are disproportionately low (Reisberg, 1999). Further, the demographic statistics are not very encouraging. In the whole of American society, African-American men confront formidable challenges to success, which include lower achievement scores in basic subject areas, higher likelihood of placement in programs for students with learning disabilities, higher likelihood of school suspension. They are also the frequent victims of lowered expectations by educational professionals (Reed, 1988). Background and Problem Statement The under-representation of African-American men has serious repercussions not only for the men themselves, but also for our nation as a whole. Whenever a group of individuals is not interacting and achieving at optimum levels, 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the country is robbed of talents that could enrich the lives of many. This researcher felt compelled to question the deplorable retention rates among this important population sub-sample and to determine factors and subsequent policy implications to provide academic success. Since a large proportion of African-American men who begin postsecondary instruction do so at community colleges, it seems intuitive that the identification of factors that promote retention and subsequent success in these institutions is a worthy and important endeavor. Because there has been so little research on this group, this dissertation was designed not to test a well- elaborated framework of hypotheses, but instead to explore the pertinent questions. Purpose of the Study Recruiting students and supporting them through the educational pipeline is a major task for all institutions of higher education. Persistence is a critical issue because it is driven (or affected) by so many different elements of campus life: student/peer interaction, student/professor interaction, and student/administration interaction (i.e. policy, quality of student services, physical condition of the plant, and so forth). All of these factors affect student success and determine how successful the college will be in retaining students. In a study on academic retention programs for at-risk minority students, Levin and Levin (1991) concluded that the major determinants of academic preparation for college are high school grade point average and class rank, completion of college preparatory courses, and the development of good language skills and study habits. 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The importance of college-prep courses completed prior to college is supported by Boyer’s (1987) study of experiences of undergraduate students. Thus this study will look at predictors for college success. One of the main criteria includes “a specified number of years of mathematics and English courses” (Hagedom, Maxwell, & Hampton, 1999). Other factors to be reviewed are the age of the student and the number of semesters completed with satisfactory grades. Finally, goal identification will be considered. The retention literature supports goal selection as a predictor of success (Bean & Metzner, 1985). Research Questions This study will examine the following research questions: 1. What are the significant factors predicting retention among African- American males in an urban community college? 2. Do the factors promoting retention vary with respect to the number of semester enrolled? In other words, do the same factors that promote retention through the first semester also promote retention through the second semester? And what factors will continue to promote retention in a third semester? 3. What part does “units earned” play in retention among African-American males in an urban community college? 4. What part does cumulative grade point average (GPA) play in retention among African-American males in an urban community college? 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Offering answers to these questions, a variety of relevant independent variables are suggested in the conceptual literature concerning theories of integration, attrition, and status attainment. Significance of the Study The demographic statistics for African-American males appear static and even dismal. Historically, African-American men in American society face strong challenges to success. Some o f these are lower achievement scores in the basic subject areas, higher likelihood of placement in programs for students with learning disabilities, and higher likelihood of school suspensions, which could constitute an interruption in achieving their educational goal(s). African-American men often have a marginal status in the workplace that has a direct connection to the perception of the “declining quality of Black male workers” (Myers, 1998). Community colleges are a popular entry point for postsecondary instruction for a large number o f African-Americans (Chenoweth, 1998; McCool, 1984; Nora & Rendon, 1990). Thus, it is necessary for those interested in increasing the chances for higher education success among African-American males to do it through the nation’s community colleges. Definition of Terms/Glossary Throughout this dissertation study there are terms that may merit explanation or definition. For that reason, the following explanations are provided. Units. Each college course is worth a certain number of units or credits or semester hours. This number is determined by the type of class and the number of 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. hours per week that it meets. For example, a three- unit lecture class in the English or Health Sciences division meets three hours per week during a regular eighteen- week semester, but a one- unit laboratory course meets three hours per week. Thus, lecture units are calculated differently from laboratory units. Another way of looking at the unit of credit is to equate it with class time. The campus that served as the setting for this study defines one unit of credit as eighteen hours of instruction by way of lecture. Thus, fifty-four hours of lecture equate to three units of credit. Conversely, this campus defines one unit of credit for a lab class as fifty-four hours of non-lecture instruction. One hundred and eight hours (108) of lab equate to two units of credit. With the foregoing in mind, eighteen hours of lecture plus fifty-four hours of lab result in two Carnegie units of credit for the student. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Grades. A summative assessment of student work given at the end of the semester. The grades utilized on the subject campus are: Symbol Definition Grade Poi A Excellent 4 B Good 3 C Satisfactory 2 D Passing, less than satisfactory I F Failing 0 CR Credit (at least satisfactory, the equivalent of a “C”; Units awarded not counted in (GPA) < f NC No Credit (less than satisfactory or failing-units not counted In GPA) 0 I Incomplete 0 W Withdrawal 0 Theoretical Framework Integration. The dominant paradigm in retention research posits that academic achievements and social relations with college peers promote learning and retention. Tinto (1975) defined academic integration as identification with, and the degree of achievement (for example, grade point average) according to, the scholarly standards o f an institution. Social integration had been defined as student peer relations consisting of friendship, informal academic discussions and efforts, and shared extra-curricular activities. 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Theoretically, the student’s academic achievements and peer relations are assumed to shape several attitudes including college completion goals. These goals in turn affect retention and persistence in college. Extensive research on four-year colleges has provided substantial support for this theory (Braxton, Sullivan and Johnson, 1996; Cabrera, Nora, & Castenada, 1993; Kuh, et.al., 1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Tinto, 1975, 1993, & 1998). Status Attainment and Attrition. Other perspectives place greater emphasis on the social contexts outside the campus, particularly socio-economic status and the influence provided by family and friends (Bean, 1980; Hauser & Featherman, 1974; Metzner & Bean, 1987; Sewell & Others, 1976). Despite differences in emphasis, these perspectives overlap with integration theory in noting the impact of academic achievement and college completion goals on retention. A considerable amount of research has provided support for these frameworks (Cabrera, Nora & Castenada, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Tinto, 1993). Relevant research on African-American males in community colleges is scarce and conflicted. Because the community college literature is so limited, one is unable to speculate whether or not the four-year college theories on integration, attrition, and status attainment are applicable to students in two-year colleges (Maxwell, 1998). The differences between students at four-year and two-year campuses are many, including patterns of residence, ethnicity, gender, parental education and income, and age. O f the limited number of studies of community college students in the literature, very few have examined outcomes for African- 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. American males (Carroll, 1988; Lin & Vogt, 1996). Nora (1993) in an extensive review of persistence research on minorities, concluded that there were no “theoretically based” studies of African-American community college students. A few studies have included substantial numbers of African-Americans, but did not examine African-American males as a specific group with respect to the integration or attrition models of retention (Pascarella, Smart, and Ethington, 1986; Voorhees, 1987; Webb, 1989; Weiss, 1985). Assumptions of the Study 1. It is assumed that responses to survey questionnaires were earnest and truthful. 2. Men who have not returned to the college within the five-year span of this study will never complete their studies, hence have been coded non- persisters. 3. The surveys that were returned are representative of all Black males at the study’s site. Limitations of the Study It must be emphasized that this study took place in a single campus college district in southern California. This campus is located in an urban community with several neighboring community colleges within ten miles. Thus, this study is not meant to represent students from rural, southern (USA), eastern, and Midwest populations. This study is also not meant to represent college students from “high- end” (i.e. Beverly Hills, CA) socio-economic areas. 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Delimitations of the Study This study focused only on African-American men. Certainly, there is ample concern for the plight of other students, especially other students of color, but this study is delimited to only African American males. Findings from this study may not be generalized to other groups of students. Methodological Approach This dissertation study had both a qualitative and quantitative component. The quantitative portion consisted of two survey instruments administered at two separate times to the same population. Thus the quantitative section is a longitudinal picture of the subjects. In looking at persistence, I quantified the measure as cumulative college units earned. I also included analyses of GPA, as it is an important component of persistence. The qualitative portion of the study included in-depth and probing interviews of those individuals who remained a part of the intact sample during the second wave of the study design. Chapter two of the dissertation provides a complete review of the literature and a grounding in the knowledge that preceded this inquiry. Chapter three provides the complete methodology. Chapter four provides the results of the analysis while chapter five provides the conclusions and policy implications. 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW All Students This chapter presents a review of the literature pertaining to African American males, community college students, and persistence. It is the goal of this chapter to frame the research questions such that the reader is able to place this study in the context of the extant knowledge. A primary measure of success in college is retention. Although there is usually the implication that retention means graduation, many studies examine retention as a short-term process that covers a limited time span that may or may not include graduation. A review of literature reveals why students leave college before graduation or goal completion has been of great interest to numerous scholars (Astin, 1975) (Cope & Hanna, 1975) (Haywood, 1971) (Pantages & Creedon, 1978) (Pasacarella & Terenzini, 1980) (Tinto, 1982). According to Nelson et al. (1993), multiple studies designed to investigate the possible causes of attrition present limited data on college dropouts and do not isolate specific factors at which interventions could be targeted. Nevertheless, the general issues of attrition have prompted community college educators to design and implement programs, which attempt to identify students at risk of dropping out in order to prevent departure and improve retention. Of the approximately 2.4 million students who entered higher education in 1993, it was estimated that 1.1 million would leave postsecondary education without 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. completing their degree. An important contributing factor for many students is poor academic preparation, specifically English and mathematics deficiencies. However, student characteristics also contribute to the prediction of goal completion. For example, first generation students are more likely to report academic problems as an area of concern in college while traditional students report social integration as a concern (Terenzini, Rendon, Upcraft, Millar, Allison & Jalomo, 1994; Tinto, 1993). In other words students who have not been exposed to postsecondary experiences or expectations are at least more apprehensive about academic success than their counterparts who have experienced higher-education socialization at an earlier life stage. Recruiting students and supporting them through the educational pipeline is a major task for all modern-day institutions of higher education. Retention is a critical issue because it is driven by so many different elements of campus life: student/peer interaction, student/professor interaction, student/administration interaction, or impact (i.e. policy, quality of student services, physical condition of the plant, and so forth). All of these variables affect student success and determine how successful the college will be in retaining students, (Braddock & Dawkins, 1981). Vincent Tinto, (1993) a leading researcher in the area of persistence has developed a popular model of student persistence based on the traditional college student. It is important to note that as increased attention is paid to non-traditional students, the majority of what is known is based on studies such as Tinto’s individualistic model, which is in opposition to a group model of departure. For 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. instance, Tinto stresses the role of the individual student and not his or her position as a member of a specific group, such as women, men, Hispanics, Asians, African- American males and student athletes. Tinto’s theory, influenced by the work of Van Gennep (1960) and Durkheim(l961), does not come without criticism. Tiemey (1992) criticizes the individual nature of Tinto’s model and argues that many minority students come from cultures, which value the group as opposed to the individual. This may be a key factor in retention for minority students, most notably Hispanics and African-Americans (Nora & Cabrera, 1997; Nora & Rendon, l990;Nora, 1987;Weiss, 1985). * In a study on academic retention programs for at-risk minority students, Levin and Levin (1991) conclude that the major determinants of academic preparation for college are high school grade point average and class rank, completion of college preparatory courses, and the development of good language skills and study habits. The importance of courses completed prior to college is supported by Boyer’s (1987) study of experiences of undergraduate students. Instead of adopting the stance of retention theorists, who focus much of their discussion around the collegiate experience, Boyer approaches the situation from the perspective of pre college factors. He highlights how high school courses influence admissions decisions and that ultimately these courses impact academic performance in college. The specific skill required for preparation for college varies across institutions. It is 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. posited here, however, that there are at least two generally agreed upon criteria for college. 1. A set of college preparatory core courses 2. A specified number of years of Mathematics and English courses (Hagedom, Maxwell & Hampton, 1999). Crucial to the study of retention is the importance of social factors. In this vein it appears that low-income students are challenged by issues pertaining to the social climate of college campuses. Vincent Tinto’s work (1987) on retention, while not targeting low-income students or community college students identifies^ involvement in extracurricular activities as a variable, which decreases the likelihood of dropping out of school. These activities include meeting with professors outside of the formal classroom environment and participation in student organizations (Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). These are applicable for non-traditional students as well (Chapman & Logan, 1996; James, 1989; Zey, 1984). The institutional environment consists of two parts: an academic system and a social system. Key factors such as initial goal and institutional commitments subsequently affect the degree of academic and social integration into the college environment. Academic integration is a measure of students’ intellectual development in formal classroom and study situations. Social integration measures the degree to which students interact with peers and faculty on an informal basis. The degree of student integration, both academically and socially, indeed has an impact on final goals and institutional commitments. Commitments to achieving 15 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. educational goals and commitments to the institution also have an impact on retention (Beal &Noel, 1980; Bean, 1980). Tinto’s model of student institutional departure views the process of persistence (which is the behavior that leads to retention) as marked over time by different stages in the passage of students from past forms of association to new forms of membership in the social and intellectual communities of the college (Tinto, 1987). Eventually, persistence requires that individuals make the transition from high school to college. It becomes apparent then that beyond the transition to college, persistence requires the integration of the student as a significant member in the social and intellectual communities of the college. The construction of different theories on student retention and attrition has led to some disagreement about an adequate explanation of student departure (Tinto, 1986). This is particularly true in two-year public community colleges. Tinto’s interaction theories o f departure certainly have some limitations when trying to explain the effect of the community forces on student departure at the college. It is important to note that many current forms of inter-action theory may not be well suited to the study of non-residential institutions or of departure among community college students. Community College Students Now that I have discussed all students it is apparent that a discussion focusing on community college students is appropriate. It is important to acknowledge that student attrition is an important issue at community colleges, 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. which are considered the traditional homes of non-traditional students. Keeping students enrolled is one of the primary challenges of community colleges where most of the students commute, are older and generally poorer than four-year college students (Alfred, 1983; Brawer, 1996; Cohen & Brawer, 1996; Tinto, Russo & Kadel, 1994). The student role is just one of many roles and responsibilities competing for community college student time and attention, For some students, going to college is but one of the obligations to be completed during the course of a day. It has also been found that personal reasons such as family obligations, financial responsibilities, lack of child care, and job demands are often cited as the cause of withdrawal (rather than academic concerns) (Kerka, 1995). Older students make up an increasing proportion o f community college enrollment, and tend to be part-time students, commuters, employed, having more family responsibilities, and relatively little interaction with other students outside of class (Baird, 1991). As has been said before, these students are more likely to have many roles that compete for their time. These roles have been suggested as reasons for non-persistent behavior (Brawer, 1996; Cabrera, Stampen & Hansen, 1990; Chickering, 1974; Metzner& Bean, 1987; Tinto, 1987). It is historically significant that goal achievement and persistence have been difficult for community college officials to evaluate because of the great diversity of students enrolled (Bonham & Luckie, 1993). This diversity is created by: a) students who intend to or may transfer to four-year colleges before completing a degree; b) 17 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. students who enroll in technical training and leave the college after they take the courses they need; c) students who want new job-related skills, and having obtained the level of skill requited by their employer, leave before completing the program; and d) students who have an interest in a particular subject or desire for self- improvement, and leave when they feel they have learned enough, (George, 1998; Seidman, 1995). Working with community college students, Nora, Attinasi, and Matonak (1990) found initial institution and goal commitments to have a significant effect on academic and social integration. Traditional support models, which have attempted to assist students through to goal completion, are being examined and refined to determine whether they apply to non-traditional students whose participation is complicated by competing external factors such as jobs, family, and financial problems (Kerka, 1995). Although the problems of retention appear to be more severe at community colleges, there is less research on theoretical models to explain retention at two-year colleges. The current research on retention is expanding. The model developed by Cabrera, Nora, and Castaneda (1993) to merge Tinto’s model with the work by Bean, (1987) is a practical integration model more applicable to community colleges. It is important that community college leaders take more of the known variables into consideration when attempting to create a model for determining attrition rates. 18 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. African American Students African-Americans appear to be the only racial group in America in which females appear to consistently and overtly out-achieve males. The proportion of African-American men who graduated from high school, achieve a bachelor’s degree or higher, enter the labor force, or become managers or business professionals is lower than the proportion of African- American women who achieve these same milestones (Cheatham & Berg-Cross; Farrell, 1996; Hawkins, 1996; Stein, 1996). The gender gap occurs early in the educational pipeline for African-American males. Nancy Kirby, Director of Graduate Admissions, School of Social Work, Bryn Mawr College, states that, “African-American males are on par with African-American females until they get to the fourth grade, but in primary and secondary school the big drop off occurs”. Another scholar in the field of African-American studies agrees, ‘The disparity in the number of Black males on college campuses and their ability to earn degrees is inevitable if we start losing Black boys (in the educational system) as early as the fourth-grade”. (Kunjufii, 1996, p.20). The reasons for the unique gender differences may be quite complex. Courtland Lee, (1994) posits that the combination of racial discrimination and lowered socio-economic status experienced by many African-Americans creates a complex array of historical and social interactions that ultimately blend to inhibit success. Majors and Billson (1992) have labeled this phenomenon “subjective cultural realities for black males”. For African-American males the combination of 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. racial discrimination and lowered socio-economic status has a “double whammy” effect (in other words, there is more impact than for African-American women). According to Dr. Frederick Phillips, President of the Association of Black Psychologists, “Men view relationships in terms of power and control. That is why white men are so vicious in subjugating African men and their manhood” (1996). All of this led to African-American males having a shorter fuse, as it were, in dealing with white males. “In the back of our minds, we know they’re out to get us. That is historical and omnipresent. It is everywhere, so it is a very combustible relationship” (Farrell, 1996). Dr. Phillips says that Black women have assumed more of a position of power with their counterparts in the white community. “It could be that control and power are not as important in female groups, perhaps because women traditionally are more conditioned to be accommodating in social institutions”. (Strube, 1996). It is true that the current economic situation for colleges and universities is not always good. Budget allocations have not kept up with inflation and replacement costs. This comes at a time when campuses are striving to develop diverse student populations. Census figures indicate that the United States population continues to become more diverse. This diversity has brought with it many problems and challenges including the need for a better understanding by leaders of the diverse cultural makeup of our cities and towns in such areas as government, education, and business. 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Academic apprehension and academic achievement in all probability share a common source. Perhaps this link is in part responsible for the statistical reporting that minority students are more likely to be placed in retention programs emphasizing academic skills (Levin & Levin, 1991). Although students find themselves admitted to a college, they may not be prepared for this experience. Further, minority students represent a disproportionate percentage o f remedial students at all levels. While African-Americans comprise only nine percent of higher education total enrollment, they represent 23 and 30 percent of the remedial population at two- and four-year colleges respectively (Boylan, Bonham, (Sc^Bliss, 1994). Thus, the over-representation in remedial programs would suggest that many African-American students are entering college lacking sufficient skills. Several studies have addressed the withdrawal of African-American students due to academic problems and poor grade performance. (Bennett & Bean, 1984; Donovan, 1984; Gosman et al., 1983; Lenning et al., 1980; MacMillan, 1969; Sedlack & Webster, 1978). African American Students and Achievement It is helpful to review the background of the desires and wishes of African Americans as they relate to achievement. It will also be beneficial to review the implications of these desires as they relate to educational achievement in particular. To begin this process, I will use data from the Postsecondary Student Survey (BPS) completed in 1994 as a point of reference. 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Data from the First Postsecondary Student Survey (BPS) and Second Follow-Up (1994) indicate that only 16.6% of African-Americans who began their education in community colleges in 1989-90 could be traditionally classified as persisters. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating that African- Americans are about 22% more likely than their white counterparts to leave college prior to goal completion (Porter, 1990; Carter & Wilson, 1993). Among African- American males in community colleges, the retention rate is even more shocking: less than 10% (Black Issues in Higher Education, 1998). A report from the Carnegie Foundation for the advancement of Teaching (1990) states that modern-day higher education must be intentional about the type of educational experience it wants to provide for college students. According to researchers such as Tinto (1975), Lang and Ford (1998), and a host of others, diversity with a multicultural thrust is crucial not only to retention, but also to the overall preparation of national and world leadership. Global perspectives are imperative (Ponterotto, Casa, Suzuki, el, al, 1995) (Cross, 1995). A great concern in American society is that the nation is not investing its resources effectively in human capital, because as a society we have come to the full realization that America is indeed a tapestry of cultures. One of the largest has been the Black, or African-American culture. The following sections will include some of the major forces in the life of the African-American male and his relationship to the concept of achievement. 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Parenting and Expectations of Others The family, the peer group, and the neighborhood influence the psychological perspectives of African-American males as they struggle to come to grips with the issues involved in self-definition, attitudes toward women, coping with racism, discovering adaptive possibilities with the African-American “way of being”, and integrating African-American ways and Euro-American lifestyles (White & Cones, 1999). Although all cultures experience different pressures, I argue that the unique perspective of African American males is more intense and perhaps more inclusive than for other cultural groups thus imparting higher rates of retention. The family environment is crucial to the success of the young in many cultures and societies. This is no different for the African-American male in the United States of America. The source of strength most frequently mentioned within this environment is the mother. When asked why they succeed, many young men suggest that if they did not, “my mother would kill me!” (Habrowski, Maton & Greif, 1998). In fact, we learn that even in two-parent homes, the mother assumes primary responsibility for rearing and educating the child, particularly when the child is young (Billingsley, 1992; Cuyjet, 1997; Habrowski, Maton & Greif, 1998; Staples & Johnson, 1993; White & Cones, 1999) It is important to note that achievement and learning is not a new concept in the African-American community. In a review of literature, Herskovits admits that many believe that African-Americans have no intact history or true cultural 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. background (1941). Historically, African-Americans were portrayed as savages from the continent of Africa who needed to be “civilized”. Thus, it is the works of leaders such as Dubois, (1903) and Woodson, (1933 & 1936) who point to African- American history as crucial building blocks for the enlightenment of all people. Thus, I include in this review some background pertinent to African- American’s history beginning in the continent of Africa. The history of inhabitants of Africa stands in sharp contrast to that of the circumstances meeting those who found themselves in the United States. Africans were brought to this country under severe and inhumane conditions. They were involuntary immigrants into a country that they neither understood nor desired to enter. As slaves, they were stripped of their cultures and their dignity. Although U. S. history has included many immigrant groups who were mistreated and rejected by existing cultural norms, no other racial or ethnic group received the malevolent treatment that was reserved for African slaves. Dubois (1903) and others detailed that despite the inhumane treatment of their forefathers, today’s African Americans do have a cultural background and history from which they can build upon from their beginnings in Africa. Beginnings in Africa Historically, the socialization of African boys in the tribal cultures of West Africa involved a carefully delineated series of steps designed to facilitate psychosocial maturation and prepare them for their adult male roles and responsibilities. Beginning in childhood and continuing through late adolescence, 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. male children were guided through the rites of passage by village elders, (Beranl, 1987; Billingsley, 1992; Seritima, 1976). In pre-colonial African societies, a high value was placed on children. Children, as extensions of the ancestors and spirits, represent the future of the tribe. Children were guided not only by the tribal elders, but the biological family, extended family, and the entire village (Diop, 1974; Woodson, 1927). Tribal elders, who were central figures in the psychological and social development of young males, acted as their mentors, (Woodson, 1933 & Woodson, & 1936; Hilliard with Williams & Nia, 1987; Diop, 1974; Bernal, 1987; Sertima, 1976). Mentors taught youths the tribal culture, the village’s history, and the role of God and spiritual ancestors in everyday life, (Ben-Jochannan, 1988; Clarke, 1992; Woodson, 1936; Haley, 1976; Bernal, 1987). As future tribal leaders, males were expected to preserve the village culture and pass it on to the next generation. Boys were taught their responsibilities as husbands and fathers, proper care of the body and appropriate sexual behavior. The elders passed on the survival skills that would enable these young men to take care of themselves and others. Adolescents learned crafts, hunting and farming, and self-defense (Herskovits, 1994; Woodson, 1933; Woodson, 1936; Haley, 1976; Bemal, 1987). By successfully testing themselves against these expectations, boys were gradually able to develop a sense of mastery, personal power and shared values - significant psychological qualities essential for an adequate definition of self, identity, and masculinity (White & Cones, 1999; Bemal, 1987; Diop, 1974; Haley, 1976; Franklin, 1988; Frazier, 1957). 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In the next section I review how the transition from Africa to America played a crucial role in the African-American’s eventual status in the United States of America. Although some of the culture and history survived, more was destroyed. The Transition from Africa to America In the many different cultures and societies o f Africa the male was esteemed and highly regarded as the head (and provider) of the family. His role was clearly defined and accepted. In America, African males would be redefined a sub-human property. Because of the psychological disruption engendered by slavery, two major aspects of the African male experience would undergo significant change. First, African male slaves in America would not have legal rights or political power. Second, African males in American would be forced to live according to a Euro-American worldview, which differed dramatically from the one that had shaped their lives in Africa (Blassingame, 1972; Elkins, 1968; Franklin, 1988; Frederickson, 1971; Harley, 1995; Olmsted, 1953; Rawick, 1972; Thompson, 1993; White & Cones, 1999): In America, the social institutions and the psychological coping styles that existed in Africa all but disappeared. The African-American slave was forced to relinquish his old personality, values, life-guiding principles, and self-assertion (Carroll, 1900; Olmsted, 1953; Smedley, 1993; Woodson, 1927 & 1936). According to Ulrich Phillips, the dean of classical slavery historians, the Black male was totally a creation o f the White slave master (Blassingame, 1972; Franklin, 1988; 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Olmsted, 1953; Phillips, 1918; White & Cones, 1999; Woodson, 1936). He embraced the master’s values, but lacked the ability, resourcefulness, and self- direction to achieve the level of competence expected of an adult male in American society (Blassingame, 1972; Clarke, 1992; Elkins, 1968; Franklin, 1988; Haley, 1976). These deficits were, in large part, not the fault of the black male. The African-American slave’s power to govern his own life was taken from him. As late as 1963, some social scientists would maintain that although other American ethnic groups had cultural and historical resources in which to tap to assist them to define themselves, American blacks were only American and nothing else. It has laeen suggested that the black man had no history or culture to protect his own self and use as a basis for defining his identity. We now know that this belief is not true (Herskovits, 1941; Woodson, 1927, 1933 & 1936; Dubois, 1903) Early Family and Community Life in America Family and community life, active and passive resistance, and religion and spirituality, three areas studied extensively by some historians, show clear evidence of attempts by African-American slaves to construct their own social institutions, seize control of their destiny, and create a sense of self-determination and self-worth (Billingsly, 1968 & 1992; Carroll, 1938; Franklin, 1988; Frazier, 1957; Rawick, 1972; Sterling, 1958; Woodson, 1933). The value system of the slave extended family emphasized collective survival, mutual aid and solidarity, cooperation, and responsibility for others, just as it had in pre-colonial Africa. Marriage was a highly valued institution among slaves. 27 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It is important to note that after the Civil War, thousands of newly freed Blacks rushed to courthouses to have their marriages legally registered (Franklin, 1988; Frazier, 1957). Until 1925, according to the historian Herbert Gutman, who compiled Black family statistics based on plantation records; 75 percent of Black children were bom into families that had two married parents. There was a form of culture and family structure in Africa. Such constructs were not foreign to the peoples of Africa. Stability and the motivation to achieve were in place in the African lifestyle, before slaves were forced to come to America. Contrary to what many would believe, African males who came to Americans slaves left a world in which they were part of a well-organized culture with clearly defined masculine roles (Billingsley, 1968; Herskovits, 1941; Woodson, 1936). Motivation for Achievement Much of the inspiration and motivation for African Americans to succeed was honed while in Africa. This was done through spirituality and various forms of religion. In making the transition from Africa to America much of what provided motivation to succeed came from spirituality and religion. The power of religion as a socio-psycho logical force in the African- American community can be traced back to the spiritual worldview fostered in Africa. Africans lived in a society that revolved around the presence of spiritual forces as the guiding elements of life and the universe. Religion transcended all areas of existence; there was, for the most part, no distinction between the sacred and the secular (Ben-Jochman, 1988; Billingsley, 1992; White & Cones, 1999). In 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the New World, Africans combined the slave owner’s Christianity with African cultural patterns involving the oral tradition, music, rhythmic motion, and dance (Ben-Jochannan, 1988; Billingsley, 1992; Herskovits, 1941. It is significant that, one hundred years after slavery, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. would draw upon the power of the African-American soul force to lead the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s (Cross, 1987; Hamlet, 1994; Oates, 1982; Pasteur & Toldson, 1982; Washington, 1996). Indeed the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was one of the most shining examples of African-American male achievement. In America during slavery, the slave preacher was one of the replacements for the village elders (Blassingame, 1972; Rawick, 1972). Slave preachers provided leadership in spiritual and secular matters (Phillips, 1918; Herskovits, 1941; Woodson, 1936). It has only been in the last 30 years that the preacher, teacher and doctor were not the most revered persons in the black community. This has occurred, of course, at the same time that society in general has adjusted its attitudes and perceptions also about such vocations. Out of the slave experience emerged a style that became the basis of black male pride, black identity, black power and the black revolution of the twentieth century (Asante, 1987; Cleaver, 1968; Nobles, 1972; Pasteur & Toldson, 1982; White, 1984). With all o f this came a great deal of interest in perpetuating the further growth and development of African-Americans. The following sections will include descriptions from various student development theorists regarding increasing African-American achievement among students. 29 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Student Development Theory Background A review of pertinent literature reveals national data that African- American males are more than twice as likely to be admitted to mental hospitals than either white males or black females (Boyd-Franklin, 1989; Sinagawa & Jang, 1998). The data also show that even elementary school Black boys exhibit more psychological symptoms and have more behavioral problems than Black girls. When these boys become teenagers, they seem even more vulnerable than their female counterparts and have a variety of problems in all aspects of their lives. These can include problems at home as well as at school, emotional disturbances that could involve inpatient or outpatient psychiatric treatment (Oliver, 1989; Levinson, 1978; Rasmeur, 1989). Gibbs, in her discussion of the physical and mental health of young black males asserts that, Since studies also suggest that black male children, as compared to females, are given less nurturance by their parents, treated more harshly by their teachers, discriminated against more by employers, and treated less favorably by nearly every other institution in American society. Thus it is reasonable to infer that the lowered self esteem of black males is the inevitable outcome of their persistent differential and demeaning treatment Projecting the blame onto black males for racial problems in employment, university admissions, and government contracts is a somewhat recent tactic in a long history of victim-blame. Historically, many believe that Whites have relied on the general concept of Black male inferiority, thus avoiding responsibility for the detrimental effects of White racism ( Dixon, 1905; Lesher, 1995; Richter, 1991). 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Using affirmative action to create a smokescreen or reverse discrimination is a convenient defense mechanism that protects Whites from facing the real problem, which is twofold: the lack of a level playing field for America’s Black males and the lack of a long term programmatic commitment based on a shared agreement between Blacks and Whites to make equal opportunity a reality (The Gallup Organization, 1997; Jackson, 1990; Lesher, 1995; Oates, 1982; Page, 1995). Teachers and administrators develop perceptions about the future achievement based on beginning performance and test scores. When young African- Americans sense the negative attitudes and expectations, they often respon</in negative ways, and young Black males, in particular, turn to their peers for approval in non-academic ways (Braddock & Dawkins, 1981; Majors & Billson, 1992. They become “cool” or “fly” and adopt the movement, speech and dress of men successful in the streets: drug dealers, pimps, and some rap artists (Anderson, 1990 & 1994; McCall, 1994; Watkins, 1994). Many young Black males come to reject any behavior associated with being smart in school. In this way two worlds are maintained, each with different values. Many ask the important questions of how to reverse this disturbing trend of Black children not wanting to achieve in school, not wanting to be seen as smart. Marian Wright Edelman has effectively articulated the issue: If our children of any color think that being smart and studying hard is acting white rather than acting black or brown and don’t know about the many great black and brown as well as white achievers who overcame every obstacle to succeed, then we are a part of the problem rather than a part of the solution to racial stereotyping. 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. According to Dr. Whitney G. Harris o f McNeese State University, it is imperative that we do not deal with a possible “blame the victim” model to one that says not only can we be successful but we will be successful. Thus, many African- American males do not know that they can be successful.. Perhaps they are able to “talk the talk” but nonetheless do not truly understand success (Lee, 1994 & 1996). There is concern about the perception of failure, the lack of success in many African-American males. As researchers have sought to find ways of increasing African-American achievement, various relevant theories have been developed. In the next section of this study I review some of these in detail. A Literature Review o f Relevant Student Development Theories Educators need appropriate theories that correlate to the developmental issues affecting African-American students and theories that can be translated into practice as programs to enhance the achievement rate of these students (Dawson- Threat, 1997; Howard-Hamilton, 1997;Robinson, 1994). What follows is a review of several developmental theories that are relevant to African-American students. Specific theories need to be constructed for the purpose of identifying student affairs administrators, counselors and faculty who deal with the variables surrounding the disappearance of African-American males on college campuses (Widick, C., Parker, C.A. & Knefelkamp, L., 1978). It may be assumed by many that because an African American man has been admitted or (in the case of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. community colleges) attends the institution, he has overcome the odds and has the ability to successfully enroll and graduate (Harris, 1996; Johnson, 1993). It has not always been apparent, however, that the African-American male may still be internalizing tremendous personal burdens similar to those of the non-college-bound group of African-American males (Howard-Hamilton, 1997; Morgan, 1996; White & Cones, 1999). Many of these men are struggling with their search for identity (Cross, 1991 & 1995; Erikson, 1980; Howard-Hamilton & Behar-Horenstein, 1995). They have been attempting to develop resistance strategies for personal and academic survival (Robinson and Howard-Hamilton, 1994; Robinson & Ward, 1991) and attempting to find persistence in activities that are foreign to them, but in which mastery could make them self-efficacious (Bandua, 1977; Cuyjet, 1997). There are quite a number of educational institutions that have embraced and adopted theories developed by Chickering, Perry, Kohlberg, Holland, Super, Loevinger, and Sanford. These theories, however, do not always reflect the socio cultural perspectives o f a multi-cultural society (Cheatham & Berg-Cross, 1992). In an example provided by Howard-Hamilton, the career development theories of Super and Holland are used to make the point. With the career development theories of Super and Holland, we find there is a correlation made for students of color who have not had the privilege of observing successful persons in business, creative arts, or education such that they can have a clear point of view or perspective when it comes to their career choice. It is often 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. assumed that most students can make a career choice because they have had the appropriate vocational mentoring. When many apply the moral reasoning concepts of Kohlberg to college-age students, they frequently do not consider the moral dilemma for students of color. For example, if an African-American man who is debating whether or not to challenge a rule for the sake of a friend or loved one (as a way of support for the friend) then decides not to challenge the “status quo”, is he not at a higher level of moral development? It could and should be noted that many African-American students do not challenge the system and established rules because this process would put the student in serious jeopardy with the law because of the prevalent socio-economic and subjective biases in society. In other words, decisions made by Whites to break the law may not lead to severe penalties; however, if an African-American man breaks the same law there is a considerable amount of subjective bias in how the system interacts with him (Habrowski, Maton & Greif, 1998; Howard-Hamilton, 1997 Majors & Billson, 1992; White & Cones, 1999). It is no secret that the penalties for African-American males are often more severe. Therefore, when applying Kohlberg’s moral reasoning principles, the person’s race, cultural background, and socio-economic status should be taken into consideration before assuming that lower stages of development are in effect (Cheatham & Berg-Cross, 1992). It is probably not best to always apply existing theories, “which are based upon the traditional values and philosophies of a western world view and researched with predominantly white participants” (Howard-Hamilton, 1997) to students of 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. color (Harris, 1995; McEwen, Roper, et al., 1990). For example, the latter insist that careful scrutiny must take place first using the following nine dimensions. According to Howard-Hamilton, they are as follows. 1. Developing Ethnic and Racial Identity, inculcating ethnic identity, information and facts on African self-consciousness 2. Interacting with the Dominant Culture: discussing acculturation, assimilation, and association with white students on campus 2. Developing Cultural Aesthetics and Awareness: understanding and & appreciating other cultures as well as one’s own 4. Developing Identity: enhancing one’s own unique and diverse characteristics, societal interaction, and group identification 5. Developing Interdependence: establishing personal relationships amid some separation from immediate family, but with development of extended campus family 6. Fulfilling Affiliation Needs: satisfying African-American students’ social needs outside the campus community 7. Surviving Intellectually: challenging African-American students to compete with those who had educational privileges preparing them for the academic rigors of college. 8. Developing Spiritually: understanding the role and importance of religion and spirituality in the growth and development of African-Americans 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9. Developing Social Responsibility: coming face-to-face with real and perceived social inequities, thus becoming social advocates on campus Summary According to Howard-Hamilton, “these nine dimensions provide evidence that perspectives on ethnicity and ethnic influences on student growth and development should include differences in consciousness, self-worth, and philosophy of life” (Jones, 1990). She goes on to say, “it is important to include these nine dimensions so that students of color feel included and so that majority students can learn about multiculturalism and have their ethnocentric perspectives challenged”. If one were to use an example citing Chickering or Erikson it would be significant to integrate dimensions four and five, mentioned previously, into the traditional paradigms by encouraging the interaction with a peer group that enhances racial and ethnic pride. This is important because we know that previously established developmental theories hold much in the way of information and assistance for growth and fulfillment. There should be an overlap between those theories and the ones incorporating the issues of African-American students. These theories provide one with a frame of reference for pursuing effective ways of helping African American men achieve their goal or goals. In the next chapter I describe the method used to study a sample of African American men who have found their way into a community college. The purpose of the study as well as the research questions have already been described. 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER HI RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In this chapter I provide a full description of the sample, the sampling technique, as well as describe all methodology utilized in this study. The Environment From Which the Sample Is Drawn Cerritos College was chosen as the site for this study. It is important to describe the college and its demographics. Cerritos College is a large community college campus with approximately 22,000 students. It is located in a middle-class & predominantly blue-collar suburban community in Southern California. The majority of the students are Hispanic (40.6%), about one-eighth of the students are Caucasian (16.3%), 14% are Asian and 8.8% are African American. The demographics of the college mirror its location in Southern California. Description of the Sample The initial sample for this study consisted o f 202 African-American male students who began their college experience (new enrollments) in the fall of 1995 (n=83), fall 1996 (n-76) or spring 1997 (n=43) indicating their desire to earn either a certificate, associate of arts degree and/or transfer to a four-year educational institution. For each of the cohorts, data were longitudinally collected through spring 2000. The sample used for the follow-up procedure consisted of 70 men from the first cohort who agreed to remain in the study. All 70 men were both surveyed and interviewed. 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Selection Criteria of the Sample Subjects were identified through their stated gender and ethnicity on the Cerritos College application packet. It must be noted that students were free to self- identify or not to identify their race. For this research I included only those students who marked African-American on the application. Although there may have been more African-American men than those reflected in these data, only those who self identified as African-American males were included in this study. Background Given the uncertain applicability of four-year college theories to tw<>year college students, an exploratory strategy that relies in part on these theories and also on other variables associated with classroom experiences has been followed. Our method was employed secondary data analysis of existing institutional files, which I supplemented with, theoretically identified variables, such as college completion goals. With respect to the import of classroom experience, Levin and Levin (1991) observed that with the usually limited involvement of students with the campus, the classroom is often the only focal point for both academic and social integration. Thus, a variety of variables concerning the number of course credit hours and academic achievements, such as grade point average and units earned that might be correlates of factors promoting social and academic involvements within the classroom, have been included (Nora, 1987; Maxwell, 1998). 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. It was imperative that a variety of methodologies be used in this study. There was deep interest in seeing the men from a variety of perspectives. There were two major contacts employed for data gathering purposes. First Set of Analyses Sampling We obtained the student data for this study directly from the Office of Institutional Research at the study site. The majority of the data was collected via Computerized Assessment and Placement Program tests (CAPP), which are routinely administered to incoming students to assist in the determination of appropriate course placement. The CAPP battery used at the study site consisted of three subtests; Assessment and Placement of Writing (APW), Assessment and Placement of Reading (APR), and Basic Mathematics Readiness (BMR). In addition, the CAPP queries students on educational background and college plans. Also included in the CAPP were 15 questions added by the Office of Institutional Research concerning varied subjects including planned study, work responsibilities, high school coursework, and self-ratings on skills in English and mathematics. Research Design (1st Study): Block Analysis Almost all statistical methods of numerical data analysis are the same in one respect; they, identify, partition, and control variance. Multiple regression analysis and analysis of variance, for example, break down the variance of dependent variables. It is possible to say that all methods of analysis seek to identify and quantify variance shared by variables. 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Logistic regression was used in the analysis to analyze the dependent variable, because retention in college can be conceived as a binary or dichotomous variable and because this statistic permits the mixing of continuous and categorical variables (Cabrera, Stampen & Hansen, 1990; Mallete & Cabrera, 1991; Feldman, 1993). To better portray a longitudinal perspective on retention in the sample of African-American men, I designed three logistic regression equations regressing independent variables on the dichotomous outcome of retention (Hagedom & Maxwell, 1999). The first equation explained retention through semester 1, the second equation explained retention through semester 2, and the last retention equation explained retention through semester 3. Each equation consisted of four blocks of independent variables. The first block consisted of items that were exogenous to the decision to enroll in the college (i.e. demographics and high school variables). Block two consisted of ability tests administered prior to coursework as well as a scale measuring the self-assessment of ability. Block three consisted of items pertaining to experiences occurring during the semester. Finally, the last block consisted of items and experiences occurring simultaneously, but external to, college (i.e. demographics and high school variables). The design allowed for an assessment of the contribution of each of the variable groups while controlling for the preceding blocks 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1. Description of Variables Block Variable Description Dependent Variable Retention Dichotomous variable (0=not retained, l=retained) measuring retention. In each of the three equations, retention is defined differently. In equation 1, retention is measured through semester I. In equation 2, retention is measured through semester 2. In equation 3, retention is measured to semester 3. Block I. Pre-college (demograph ics and high school variables) Age Respondent’s age in years Parent’s level of education 1= advanced degree to 6=less than high school diploma Years of English Number of years of high school English (1= less than 1 year to 5= 4 years) /. High School GPA Self-reported high school GPA (1= A to 1 - below D) Highest level of HS Math Highest level of math class completed (1= none to 8=Calculus) Years of Science Number of years of high school science (0= none to 4= 4 years) Block 2. Ability Ability Scale Mean score of CAPP Program subtests in reading, writing, and mathematics. (Alpha=.8069) Self-skill rating The sum of respondent’s expressed needs for tutoring, assistance in study skills, math, reading, and writing (Alpha=.85l0). Block 3 College related Orientation Dichotomous variable indicating if student attended orientation exercises prior to enrollment (0=no; l=yes) Average credit hours The average number of credit hours enrolled. Analysis 1= average for semester 1 Analysis 2=average for 2 semesters Analysis 3=average for 3 semesters Success The difference between the number of credit hours enrolled and the number of credit hours successfully earned in past semester(s) Analysis 1= not included Analysis 2=for semester 1 Analysis 3=sum for semesters 1 and 2 41 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1 Description of Variable Continued Block Variable Description CUMGPA Cumulative GPA Analysis 1= average for semester 1 Analysis 2=cumulative average for 2 semesters Analysis 3=cumulative average for 3 semesters Day Dichotomous variable indicating if student attends college classes during the day. (0=evening and/or weekend courses; 1= day courses) Voc-ed Dichotomous variable indicating if student is in a vocational program (0= no; l=yes) Certainty of Major Degree of certainty on chosen major (1= unsure to 3= very sure) ^ Study hours Number of reported hours of studying Reverse transfer Dichotomous variable indicating if student had a prior degree. Stop-out Dichotomous variable indicating if student ceased enrollment for 1 semester; Analysis 1= not included Analysis 2= student enrolled in semester 2, but earned 0 credits in semester 1. Analysis 3= student enrolled in semester 3, but earned 0 credits in semester 1 and/or semester 2. Block 4 Personal variables (pull factors and self- evaluations) Work hours Number of weekly hours of employment while enrolled (l=none to 6= more than 40). Importance to others Self-rating of importance of completing college to others (l=not very important to 3=very important). Importance to self Self-rating of importance of completing college to self (l=not very important to 3=very important). Leisure hours Number of weekly hours reported in leisure activities or getting together with friends (l=none to 6= more than 40). Perceived need for academic assistance Self-assessed need for assistance in writing, reading, study skills and mathematics (Alpha=.7740) 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1 provides specific details on each of the four blocks of independent variables. In addition to the full models, reduced models were developed using a block-by-block likelihood ratio (LR) backward elimination test. The likelihood ratio test eliminated one variable at a time followed by an estimation of the model by observing the change in the log likelihood. The resulting models were parsimonious versions of the full models (Norusis, 1990; Cabrera, 1994; Nora & Cabrera, 1997). Thus the following were included in the analysis of each model: 1. Assessment of the block 2. Assessment of the individual predictors for each equation ^ 3. Assessment of the reduced model Follow-up The second contact with the sample occurred in spring 2000 with the administration of a follow-up questionnaire. The follow-up questionnaire was designed to enhance my understandings from the first study. Specifically, I needed to augment the institutional data with attitudinal items. Thus I collected additional background information, perceptions of support, employment variables, more specific measures of academic and social integration, perceptions of discrimination, institutional satisfaction, and the existence of a mentor. Institutional data collected at this time also allowed me to access grades and persistence behaviors. The follow-up of spring 2000 asked additional background information, assessed support from both personal and academic sources, requested perceptions of 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. college social and academic experiences, and perceptions of privilege, discrimination, and Afro-centrism. Data Collection (follow-up^ A copy of the survey questionnaire was mailed to each of the African- American males in the cohort. Accompanying each questionnaire was a cover letter from a Cerritos counselor. The letter clearly indicated student rights and the voluntary nature of participation. Approximately sixty surveys were returned due to addresses that were no longer current. After two follow-up mailings, 63 completed responses were received. An additional seven survey questionnaires were completed in conjunction with the telephone interviews that were conducted at the same time the survey questionnaires were being mailed. The final yield was 70 survey responses, which represents over 30% of the original mailing and a 49.2% response rate among those men who were contacted. Schedule of Student Interviews The student interview schedule was designed to elicit more detailed and qualitative information from those who had responded to the survey questionnaire. It was developed in accordance with the major principles of interviewing prescribed by Seidman (1991) and Kvale (1996). The premise for all questions was based on previous data collected from institutional data from all of the students in the study. More importantly, the questionnaire was designed to 1) fill in the areas of my knowledge that the first wave of data did not cover, and 2) provide observations into 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the academic lives of students two years later. Observations in group settings such as the Black Student Union and probation workshops also provided a backdrop for developing the interview questions. Interviews were performed via telephone because most of the men led busy lives and could not (or would not) come to the campus for a one-on-one interview. Where it was possible to reach the males in this study at home it seemed very convenient for them to agree to a telephone interview and complete it on the spot. For some, an appointment was made for a phone interview to take place at a later and more convenient time. The interviews were helpful in that they provided the mechanisms to better understand the perceptions and inclinations of the men who were contacted. The variables identified in the literature on retention are helpful, but did not confirm whether or not they applied to the African- American male population at Cerritos College. For example, it has been reported by researchers that cultural attributes indeed play a pivotal role in improving rates of the African-American student population. In this study, however, that information was not found in the data that was available at the time. In other words this information is not solicited on the application packet. It was necessary to contact the students personally to obtain the desired information. Thus each student in the study was contacted by telephone. Home numbers that were provided by the college were used initially. In some cases students no longer resided at the number that was available through the college and alternate 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. avenues had to be used. For example, some families were helpful in giving the new phone numbers of the male students in question. In other cases, friends of the males in this study had information about the whereabouts of students who needed to be contacted. The length of the telephone conversations varied. Most of the interviews lasted about 15 minutes. No telephone interview went over 30 minutes. The length of time for each interview session was dependent on how much time the student could provide, but also (and more importantly) how much interest the student had in the subject matter. Some students were very supportive and felt the study was crucial to helping other African-American male students. Others felt that in some ways this whole effort was a waste of time and all a student needed was to work hard in order to succeed in college. The questions were framed around issues affecting African-Americans and specifically African-American male students. Things such as employment, financial support, family support and academic support loomed large. The questions were specifically derived from variables reported in the literature regarding predictors of success for African-American students. Research Design (follow-up!: Path Analysis The data from the questionnaire was analyzed with computer software package SPSS to determine possible patterns or correlations between enrollment, retention, and the participant’s background. 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Structural equation modeling is a body of statistical techniques that make it possible to examine a set of relationships between one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables. These variables may be either continuous or discrete. Structural equation modeling is known by several names; it is sometimes referred to as causal modeling, causal analysis, simultaneous equation modeling, or analysis of covariance structures. Structural equation modeling also is sometimes called path analysis or confirmatory factor analysis, in essence, both of these are simply special types of structural equation modeling (Tabachnick & Fidell, *1996). Several methods are used in developing structural equation model diagrams. Measured variables (dependent variables), are also called observed variables, indicators, or manifest variables. Factors have two or more indicators and are also called latent variables, constructs, or unobserved variables. It is important to note that the relationships between variables are to be indicated by lines with arrows. The value of the p indicates the probability of statistical significance. Statistically significant paths are so designated by an asterisk (*). A line with an arrow pointing to GPA or UE (units earned) is reflective of a direct relationship between GPA or UE and one of several variables (i.e. work related, program, interruption, African- American support). The initial and follow up portions of the study together created a rich renounce to better understand retention of African American males in community colleges. 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS This chapter includes a review of all data and the subsequent analysis. The chapter is divided into two halves. The first half details the results of the analyses of institutional data. The second half details analyses from subsequent surveys and interviews. Analysis of Results -Logistic Regression O f the 202 men who began their college experience, 75 (36.9%) earned credits at the end of semester one. By the end of semester two, 56 (27.6%) ^ continued to earn credits. Retention in semester three included 69 men (34%) from the original sample. The fluctuation in numbers included men who left the college as well as men who “stopped out” for a semester. The results of the logistic regression follow: Forward Entry of Blocks of Variables Table 2 provides the results of the block entry of variables for the full model for each of the three analyses. Tables 3a, 3b, and 3c provide parameter estimates (or logistic regression weights, B) and standard errors (S.E.) for each of the independent variables in the equations. 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2 Analyses by Block for Analysis I (semester I), Analysis 2 (semester 2, and Analysis 3 (semester 3). Analysis 1 Semester I N=157 Analysis 2 Semester 2 N=163 Analysis 3 Semester 3 N=137 Block I: Pre-college (demographics and high school variables) -2 Log Likelihood chi square (x2 ), (df) G^/df ratio, Cox and Snell R .2 » PCP 202.797 10.853 (6) 1.299 .067 61.15% 173.679 31.93 (6)*** 1.16 .178 72.39% 170.256 18.78(6)* * 1.27 .128 62.04% Block 2: Ability -2 Log Likelihood chi square (x2 ), (df) G^/df ratio, Cox and Snell R^* PCP 195.069 7.728 (2)* 1.24 .112 68.15% 167.912 5.77 (2) 1.17 .206 70.55% 164.^)80 6.176(2)* 1.24 .167 65.69% Block 3: College related -2 Log Likelihood chi square (x2 ), (df) G^/df ratio, Cox and Snell R^> PCP 152.561 42.51(8)*** 1.02 .322 73.89% 117.774 50.14 0.75 .417 84.66% 133.465 30.62(10) *** 1.03 .446 80.29 Block 4:Personal and Pull Factors -2 Log Likelihood chi square (x2 ), (df) G^/df ratio, Cox and Snell R^> PCP 149.998 2.563 (4) 0.997 .333 73.89% 106.975 10.80 (4)* 0.844 .454 84.05 121.695 11.77(4)* 0.86 .519 83.21% Forx analyses * p< .05; ** p< .01; *** p>001 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3 A: Analysis 1 - End of Semester 1 Block Independent variables Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 Block 1 Age -.0327 (.0402) -.0306 (.0405) -.0324 (.0581) -.0284 (.0603) Table 3. Block-by- Block Logistic Regression Weights (B) and Standard Errors (S.E.) Parent level of education -.2537 (.1217)* -.2687 (.1269)* -.3324 (.1587)* -.3195 (.1627)* # years of English .1725 (.1954) .1353 (.1977) .2878 (.2286) .2407 (.2375) High school GPA -.1006 (.1444) -.0523 (.i486) .0421 (.1841 ^0327 (.1840) Highest level of high school mathematics .1136 (.1215) -.0532 (.1390) -.1452 (.1651) -.0996 (.1766) # Years of science -.0720 (.2108) -.0483 (.2164) .1330 (.2606 .1524 (.2673) Block 2 Ability scale .0780 (.0289)** .0427 (.0356) .0355 (.0369) Self-skill rating .0357 (.1282) .0760 (.1553) .0625 (.1610) Block 3 Orientation -.0661 (.4205) -.1499 (.4357) Average credit hours .2347 (.0562)*** .2379 (.0585)*** Success Not applicable Not applicable 50 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3 A: Analysis 1 - End of Semester 1 Continued CUMGPA .3313 (.1662)* .3273 (.1680) Day -.3108 (.4746) -.4203 (.4899) Voc-ed -.4059 (.5561) -.4621 (.5744) Certainty of major .2162 (.2081) .1732 (.2131) Study-hours .0033 (.0977) -.0255 (.1003) Reverse transfer 1.7165 (1.2226) 1.8312 (1.2587) Stopout Not applicable Not applicable Block 4 Work hours -.03*3 (.1477) Importance to others -.2708 (.3026) Importance to self -.0027 (.4553) Leisure hours .2432 (.1944) *p>.05; **p<.0l; ***p<.001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3B: Analysis 2 - End of Semester 2 Block Independent variables Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 Block 1 Age -.2562 (.0987)** -.2361 (.0985)* -.2990 (.1148) ** -.2875 (.1216)* Parent level of education -.2642 (.1335)* -.2607 (.1387) -.3456 (.1854) -.4619 (.2068)* # years of English .5233 (.3252) .4695 (.3423) .7275 (.4880) .7787 (.5071) High school GPA .1665 (.1643) .2236 (.1696) .5311 (.2473)* .6706 (.2732)* Highest level of high school mathematics .1168 (.1295) .0075 (.1485) -.0541 (.2027) -.1380 (.2311) & # Years of science .0647 (.2324) .0721 (.2354) .3390 (.3052) .4357 (.3339) Block 2 Ability scale .0599 (.0309) .0229 (.0416) .0139 (.0478) Self-skill rating -.2276 (.1660) -.4707 (.2327)* -.5401 (.2597)* Block 3 Orientation -.4206 (4898) -.1901 (.5367) Average credit hours .3538 (.0814)*** .4216 (.0963)*** Success .2291 (.1469) .3033 (.1725) CUMGPA .1464 (.2395) .1615 (.2557) Day -.0158 (.6043) -.0703 (.6382) Voc-ed .7695 (.6657) .9216 (.7306) Certainty of major .6929 (.2519)** .7687 (.2838)** Study-hours .1097 (.1150) .0845 (.1291) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3B : Analysis 2 - End of Semester - 2 Continued Reverse transfer 2.1404 (1.7243 2.1493 (1.7322) Stopout Not Applicable Not Applicabl e Block 4 Work hours -.2187 (.2018) Importance to others .4437 (.4439) Importance to self 1.7594 (.7052)* Leisure hours .2308 (.2341) *p>.05; **p<.C)1; ***p<.001 & Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3C: Ana ysis 3:-- End of Semester 3 Block Independent variables Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 Block 1 Age -.1807 (.0683)** -.1768 (.0704)* -.2855 (.1017)** -.2814 (.1059)** Parent level of education -.0693 (.1393) -.0911 (.1463) -.0298 (.1698) -.0834 (.18830) # years of English .1844 (.2256) .1211 (.2346) .0704 (.2768) .0400 (.2981) High school GPA .2309 (.1662) .2839 (.1723) .4371 (.2196)* .5443 (.2521)* Highest level of high school mathematics .1002 (.1279) -.0301 (.1484) -.1318 (.1796) -.2739 (.2059) # Years of science -.1840 (.2273) -.1710 (.2314) -.1227 (.2661) ■ < * 1 3 2 2 (.2799) Block 2 Ability scale .0714 (.0325)* .0697 (.0408) .0877 (.0451) Self-skill rating -.1287 (.1429) -.2247 (.1761) -.2878 (.2008) Block 3 Orientation -.5739 (.4534) -.2577 (.4963) Average credit hours .2638 (.0788)*** .2898 (.0848)*** Success .0449 (.0931) .0805 (.1019) CUMGPA .0179 (.2510) -.0047 (.2671) Day -.1416 (.5187) -.2231 (.5649) 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3C: Analysis 3 — End of Semester 3 Continued Voc-ed .5852 (.6550) .5214 (.7086) Certainty of major .6142 (.2350)** .7277 (.2613)** Study-hours .0016 (.1023) -.0226 (.1160) Reverse transfer 3.6492 (1.5980)* 3.7293 (1.6249)* Stopout .7583 (.9484) 1.1292 (.9877) Block 4 Work hours -.2310 (.2002) Importance to others .5955 (.4107) Importance to self V -.4931 (.5507)** Leisure hours .1096 (.2103) *p>.05; **p<.01; ***p<.00l Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4: Reduced Models - Parameter Estimates, Standard Errors, and the Ap Statistics Variable Analysis 1 Analysis 2 Analysis 3 Parameter Estimates (S.E.) Ap Parameter Estimates (S.E.) Ap Parameter Estimates (S.E.) Ap Block 1 Age -.2549 (1071)* .1607 -.2730 (0902) ** .0923 Parent level of education -.3062 (1426)* .0545 -.4332 (.1743)* .1175 Years o f English .5662 (3990) Block 2 Ability .0383 (.0296) -.0188 (.0358) .0393 (0341) Block 3 Success .2651 (1289)* .2900 Average hours .2271 (0521)*** .1870 .3571 (0694)*** .3124 .2170 (.0677)** .2141 CUMGPA .2946 (1597) Certainty of Major .5984 (2398)* .3694 .6652 (2266)** .3205 Reverse transfer 3.5152 (1.5538)* .6312 o \ Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4: Reduced Models - Parameter Estimates, Standard Errors, and the Ap Statistics Continued 1.2081 (.5811)* .4941 .9991 (.4458)* .3910 Goodness o f Fit Measures -2 Log Likelihood 159.749 126.497 138.292 Goodness of Fit 146.022 178.067 146.867 Cox & Snell R2 .291 .385 .310 PCP 71.97 84.05 81.02 Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 5. Enrollment Causes Block Independent variables Equation 1 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 4 Block 1 Age -.2562 (.0987)** -.2361 (.0985)* -.2990 (.1148)** -.2875 (.1216)* Parent level of education -.2642 (.1335)* -.2607 (.1387) -.3456 (.1854) -.4619 (.2068)* # years of English .5233 (.3252) .4695 (.3423) .7275 (.4880) .7787 (.5071) High school GPA .1665 (.1643) .2236 (.1696) .5311 (.2473)* .6706 (.2732)* Highest level of high school mathematics .1168 (.1295) .0075 (.1485) -.0541 (.2027) -.1380 (.2311) # Years of science .0647 (.2324) .0721 (.2354) .3390 (.3052) .4357 (.3339) Block 2 Ability scale .0599 (.0309) .0229 (.0416) .0139 (.0478) Self-skill rating -.2276 (.1660) -.4707 (.2327)* -.5401 (.2597)* Block 3 Orientation -.4206 (4898) -.1901 (.5367) Average credit hours .3538 (.0814)*** .4216 (.0963)*** Success .2291 (.1469) .3033 (.1725) CUMGPA .1464 (.2395) .1615 (.2557) Day -.0158 (.6043) -.0703 (.6382) Voc-ed .7695 (.6657) .9216 (.7306) Certainty of major .6929 (.2519)** .7687 (.2838)** Study-hours .1097 (.1150) .0845 (.1291) Reverse transfer 2.1404(1.7243 2.1493(1.7322) Stopout Not Applicable Not Applicable Block 4 Work hours -.2187 (.2018) Importance to others .4437 (.4439) Importance to self 1.7594 (.7052)* Leisure hours > ■ .2308 (.2341) *p>.05; **p<.01; ***p<.00 Vi 0 0 Backward Stepwise Procedure To facilitate the interpretation of the results, the analyses were performed using a backward stepwise procedure. Rather than reproduce all of the parameter estimates for each of the equations, I have included in Table 4 only the final model (after all of the blocks of variables have been considered for entry or removal). Interpretation of Results Assessment o f blocks For each of the three analyses, the first block of variables (demographics and high school-related) explained a large and significant proportion of the variance of the dependent variable, retention. Although the independent variables in the block are beyond the control of the community college, they indicate the importance of pre-college predictors in college outcomes and provide a reminder of the importance of including these variables as controls. Block 2 ability variables measured in college added little to the predictability of the equation beyond the contribution of the earlier high school achievement measures that had been previously introduced by the block 1 variables. The strongest set of variables happened to be those of block 3 (college related). The combined effect of the first three blocks explained more than three-fourths of the variance in retention. This occurred as a result of defining the individual equations. Since the college has more control over these factors, important and constructive policies may be implied. In conclusion, the last block (personal and pull factors) had a small (Analysis 3) or imperceptible effect (Analysis 1 and 2) effect. 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Assessment of Individual Predictors Block 1. In all three analyses, being younger was a significant predictor of retention. There is a possibility (for further study) that African-American men, family, employment, and/or other responsibilities that usually increase with age, are detractors to the community college experience. In retention through semester 2 (Analysis 2) and through semester 3 (Analysis 3), high school grade point average was a significant predictor. These findings indicate that as the student progresses in college, his academic preparation—and probably some correlates of high school grade point average, such as motivation—become increasingly more important in determining collegiate outcomes. Most likely the effect of high school preparation and correlates becomes more prominent as college coursework moves beyond the introductory and into the more advanced. Block 2. As indicated earlier, an absence of significant effects of the ability tests on retention in semester 1 were found. However, for the semester 2 analysis, the effect of low self-assessment of skills was a significant predictor of non retention. Therefore, African-American men who feel capable of college level work tended to complete semester 2 in larger numbers than those who appeared to feel less capable. Block 3. In all three analyses, the number of hours of course enrollment was a positive and significant predictor of retention. In other words, men who attended 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the college on a full time basis were more likely to persist. In the second and third analyses, certainty of major was also a significant predictor of retention.. Block 4. In predicting retention both through semesters 2 and 3, men who expressed a high degree of importance (to self) in completing college were found to be more likely to complete the semester. Although this finding was not surprising, when combined with the finding of the importance of certainty of major, it further confirms the role of college completion goals (“goal commitment” in the integration literature) for this sample of African-American men. & More Insights from the Reduced Models The reduced models simplified the equations by stripping them of variables that did not appear to pertain to this specific sample and by allowing only those variables that explained a significant proportion of the variance of the dependent variable to remain. In many instances, comparing the reduced model to the full model reveals different significant predictor variables. The inconsistency may be explained by an overlap in the full models of multiple independent variables explaining a portion of the variance. Whenever a variable is removed from the equation, its associated explained variance can be attributed to another predictor. Thus, variables that appeared to be non-significant predictors may suddenly emerge as more important in the reduced models. These findings are presented with caution because they are based on this sample and are not applicable to other African- American men at other institutions. Nevertheless, the reduced models do provide 61 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. additional important information. The delta-p statistic has been calculated from the reduced models to better understand this study’s sample. The role of age is evident in the reduced models. In predicting retention in semesters 2 and 3, the likelihood of non-retention increases 16% and 9.2% respectively for each additional year in age. From block three, the role of completing courses (which is also interpreted as success) was a significant predictor for analysis two. In other words, dropping courses led to non-retention. In terms of the delta-p statistic, for each credit unit dropped, the likelihood of non-retention increased by 29%. . Similar to the full models, college-related variables (block 3) offered many insights (or revelations). Again, the importance of full-time enrollment is evident. With each additional credit unit of enrollment, the likelihood of retention through semesters 1,2, and 3 increased by 18.7%, 31.2%, or 21.4% respectively. The reduced model also indicated that men with a previous college degree were 63% more likely to persist through semester 3. The reduced model demonstrated the importance of goals for retention. Men who reported that college was very important were 49% and 39% more likely to persist through the semesters 2 and 3 respectively. Conclusions from the initial model Support was found for the impact of grade point averages and college goal commitments, as posited integration, attrition, and status attainment theories. Also consistent with these theories are the high correlations of the number of course credit 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. units and the dropping of course units with retention. The number of course credit units is useful as a measure of the potential for academic and social involvement of African-American males in the classroom, which is a uniquely significant form of involvement in community colleges. Additional variables that have distinctive manifestations in community colleges were high school preparation, perceptions of the need for academic assistance, and age. Analysis of Results—Path Analysis - Follow up This section includes the following variables and their importance to this study. UE (units earned), GPA (student g.p.a.), Work-Related goals, Income, Program of study, Interruption (withdrawals), Faculty Rating, Diversity of Faculty and Administration, the perception of Counselor helpfulness, Family Support, Racial Composition (as it relates to high school attended), Neighborhood (socio-economic status), Support of African American (evidence of environmental support). Path Analysis shows the interrelationship between all of the variables listed in the preceeding paragraph. The dependent variables were units earned (UE) and grade point average (G P A). Some of these variables had a direct affect on UE and Grade Point Average and others had an indirect affect on them. All of this will be demonstrated in the tables and figures that follow. 63 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6. Items and Constructs Used in the Analyses 1. UE (Units Earned) 2. GPA (Student GPA) 3. Work-Related (Is Work related w/ academic or vocational goal?) ( 0: No, Not Related; 1: Yes, Related) 4. Income (Total Household Income) (1: less than $15,000 2: $15,001 to $30,000 3: $30,001 to $50,000 4: $50,001 to $70,000 5: more than $70,001) 5. Program (Program of the Study) (0: Non-Transfer; 1: Transfer) 6. Interruption (Interruption of Studies) (0: not interrupted; I : interrupted) 7. Faculty Rating Scale a=.92 Please rate the faculty at Cerritos College> (Excellent to poor) Rate the faculty in the following areas Competence in subject taught Interest and concern for students Inspiring to others The classes are challenging Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6 Items and Constructs Used in the Analyses Continued Available to you outside of class Aware of recent research in their filed Show no partiality regarding the race of their students Show no partiality regarding the gender of their students Rate the quality of your contacts with faculty in each of the following areas: Classroom & Department functions Mentoring relationships Office hours (availability) Informal interactions (i.e., lunch, dinner, “dead hour” Visits to faculty member’s home Office campus experiences (trips, programs, etc.) Assisting students in forming new student groups 8. Faculty and Administration Diversity Scale a=.88 Rate the overall level of diversity within the faculty (excellent to non-existent) Rate the overall level of diversity within the administration (i.e., Dean, Vice-President, President) 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6. Items and Constructs Used in the Analyses Continued 9. Counselor Helpfulness Scale a=.85 Is your counselor readily accessible to you? (Excellent to Poor) Has the counselor been helpful in giving guidance and advice? Do you feel that your counselor cares about you and your plans for completing the program of study you have chosen? (always to never) 10. Family Support (How supportive is your family in your education?) (High score: highly supportive; Low score: not at all) 11. Racial Composition (racial composition of high school attended) (High score: low percentage of AA; Low score: high percentage of AA) 12. Neighbor (Neighborhood in which you grew up) (High score: Rural; Low score: Large Urban) 13. Support of African Americans Scale a=.81 Would you like to have more references or contributions from African Americans included in the curriculum? Would it be helpful if the college assisted in forming networks with other African American students? Would it be helpful if the college provided orientation sessions targeting African American students? 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 1. Path Diagram of Academic Success for African American Male Community College Students Work Related Counselor .019 (p= 869) .252 (p=.035) . 372 (p=.000) Faculty Rating Income Faculty Diversity -.321 (p -.24' . 505 (p=.000) .486 (p=.000) GPA Program -.260(p=.Q13) Age .303 (p=.01 Family Support -.185 (p=. 100) -.274 (p=.027) -.377 (p=J Interruption ^N eighbor^) .340 (p=.004) Racial AA support Table 7 A. Significant Direct Effects - GPA (P < .10 level) • Program + GPA [Students who are enrolled in “Non-Transfer” programs, tended to have a higher GPA than those who were enrolled in ‘Transfer”] • Family Support + GPA [Higher support structures yield higher GPA] • AA Support + GPA & [Lesser amounts of perceived support specifically for African- Americans, the higher the GPA] • Work-Related + Income [A stronger relationship between student work and academic/vocational goals yields a higher GPA.] • Income + Program [Higher levels of household income increase the likelihood that the student will be enrolled in a ‘Transfer” program.] • Faculty Rating + Program [The higher the student rates the faculty, the more likely he is to be enrolled in a “Non-Transfer” program.] 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7 A. Significant Direct Effects Continued • Age + Program [Younger students are more likely to be enrolled in a “Transfer” program.] • Income Interruption [Higher incomes makes educational interruption less likely] • Family Support + Interruption & [Higher levels of support yield a reduced likelihood of educational interruption] • Racial Composition + AA support [Men from high schools with a lower proportion of African- Americans perceive higher levels of African American support structures in the college] • Counselor + Faculty Rating [Higher perceptions of the college counseling staff, lead to higher overall faculty satisfaction] • Faculty Diversity & Faculty Rating [A higher perception o f faculty diversity leads to more satisfaction with the faculty] 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7 A. Significant Direct Effects Continued • Neighbor + Racial Composition [Urbanicity of neighborhood yields a higher proportion of African Americans in the high school] 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7B. Significant Indirect Effects - GPA (P < .10 level) • Work-Related Income Program GPA • Work-Related Income 4 Interruption 4 AA GPA • Counselor 4 Faculty Rating Program GPA • Faculty Diversity Faculty Rating 4 Program 4 GPA • Age 4 Program GPA • Family Support Program 4 UE (Marginal Significance, P=.l 10 for family support Program) • Family Support ^ Interruption AA • Neighbor Racial Composition 4 AA 4 GPA • Family Support Interruption + AA GPA Significant Direct Effects Regarding Units Earned Program and Units Earned (p= 025) For this sample of African American men, program of study (major,) has a direct positive effect on the number of credit units earned. Family Support and Units Earned (p=.036) It is supported in this study and throughout the literature on retention that family support can and does play a pivotal role in units earned. In analyzing the effect of family support there are a number of factors to consider. The family is usually the first line of support in helping students actualize a college education. Historically, many parents in the African-American community did not have a college education, but wanted one for their children. There was and is much family 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. support for a college degree and/or vocational certificate. As has been identified in literature and represented in this study the support for education has been in the African-American community for many years. Interrupt and Units Earned (p=.046) Interruptions in college attendance can be disruptive in a student’s pursuit of a college degree and/or certificate. There are many reasons why a student “stops out”. The student who can overcome the reasons for “stopping out” has a greater chance of achieving his educational goal. As the data in this study shows, those who pursue their goal without interruptions tend to persist and achieve their goals in larger numbers than those who do not. 72 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission o f th e copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2. Path Diagram of Academic Progress for African American Male Community College Students Counselor Work Related .114 (p=286) .252 (p=.035) .372 (p=.000) Faculty Rating Income Faculty Diversity .250 (p=.025) .505 (p=.000) -.24- .486 (p=.000) UE Program -.260(p=,013) Age .243 (p=.036) .187 Family Support -.185 (p=.100) -.377 (p=J Interruption Neighbor .340 (p=.004) Racial AA support Table 8A. Significant Direct Effects - Earned Units (P < .10 level) • Program + UE [Students enrolled in ‘Transfer” programs, tend to earn more units than those who are enrolled in “Non-Transfer” programs] • Family Support UE [Higher levels of perceived familial support lead to higher number of college units.] • Interrupt + UE [Higher number of interruption of studies lead to less earned units.] • Work-Related Income [Higher degrees o f relationship between work and program qf study increases the likelihood of higher income] • Income & Program [Higher levels of income increase the likelihood that a student will be in a transfer program.] • Faculty Rating + Program [Men who rate the faculty higher are more likely to be in a non transfer program.] • Age + Program [Younger students were more likely to be enrolled in a “transfer” program.] • Income + Interruption [Having a higher income decreases the likelihood that a student interrupted their studies.] • Family Support + Interruption [Higher levels of perceived support decrease the likelihood that studies were interrupted.] 74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 8A. Significant Direct Effects - Earned Units Continued • Interruption + AA Support [Students who interrupted their studies were more likely to need specific support for African American students while in college.] • Racial Composition + AA support [Men from high schools with lower proportions o f African-Americans were more likely to need specific support for African Americans while in college.] • Counselor + Faculty Rating [Higher perceptions of the college counselor increased the likelihood that perceptions of the faculty would also be positive.] & • Faculty Diversity + Faculty Rating [Higher perceptions of faculty diversity increased the likelihood of positive overall perceptions of the faculty.] • Neighbor Racial Composition [Lower levels of urbanity were more likely to yield high schools with smaller proportions of African Americans.] 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 8B. Significant Indirect Effects - Earned Units (P < .10 level) • Work-Related Income 4 Program 4 UE • Work-Related ■> Income Interruption UE • Work-Related 4 Income Interruption AA • Counselor 4 Faculty Rating Program UE • Faculty Diversity Faculty Rating Program UE • Age Program UE • Family Support 4 Program 4 UE ( Marginal Significance, P=.l 10 for family support Program) • Family Support Interruption 4 UE • Family Support Interruption 4 AA • Neighbor Racial Composition AA 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Significant Indirect Effects (at P=. 10 level) Work-Related, Income, Program and Units Earned The inter-relationship of these variables provides provocative fodder for study and review. It is probably to no one’s surprise that if one’s work is related to the program of study then there is an intrinsic motivation to succeed. Extrinsically, income can have a high correlation to units earned. In a number of careers, the more credit units one has earned the higher the salary (i.e. administration of justice, nursing). & Work-Related, Income, Interruption and Units Earned It is apparent that if a student is involved in work that is not related to the program of study and interruptions are a part of his college career then there are negative effects on total credit units earned. Income plays a role however, sometimes in a negative way. For example, a “high paying” job in a (non) work- related field can make it convenient to “stop out.” The student is earning so much money that he doesn’t want to give it up. Counselor, Faculty Rating, Program and Units Earned (.0242) The results show that these four factors are related. Students who rated the faculty, program and counselor favorably also had a significant number of units. Usually more than six units completed at the college. The reverse also seemed to be true. Students who did not rate the faculty or program favorably did not appear successful in completing more than six units favorably and did rate counseling favorably. 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Faculty Diversity, Faculty Rating, Program and Units Earned (.0303) The results that students who felt that there is a fair amount of diversity among faculty also rated program favorably. The more units that students earned the more favorably they rated faculty diversity and program. Family Support, Interruption and Units Earned Family support leads to less interruptions and more units earned. If a student’s family believes in what the student is trying to achieve, there can be positive effects such as goal completion. If the opposite is true, the student’s ability & and chances of achieving a goal can be limited. The level of support can be high or low. The level of support can be either a benefit or detriment to the student while attending college. It appears that if support is available (i.e. financial, emotional, motivation) the chances are greater for the student to achieve career and academic success. Significant Indirect Effects Regarding Grade Point Average Program and Grade Point Average As was mentioned earlier, the choice of program of study (major) has a significant impact on grade point average. To begin with, all students who complete any program must have a cumulative grade point average of 2.00. There are some programs (i.e. nursing, physical therapist assistant, dental hygiene) that require an even higher grade point average to be admitted, even before a student has embarked on the program itself. 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. African-American Support and Grade Point Average (not statistically significant) The findings in this portion of the study were surprising. It had been expected that support from the African-American areas of a student’s life would have had a positive impact on grade point average. However, it appears that for this sample of men, African American support had no effect on GPA. There may be important outcomes resulting from a cultural support structure, but this analysis showed no statistically significant link with College GPA. Significant Indirect Effects Regarding Grade Point Average & Counselor, Faculty Rating, Program and Grade Point Average The interrelationship between units earned and grade point average is prominent. It is apparent that a strong path between the two variables does in fact exist. If a student is content with the program of choice and its faculty and/or advisors, there is greater chance of achieving “good” grades and thus completing the program. The student’s success then becomes a collaborative effort involving the counselor, faculty, programs and the student himself. All of these areas combined can provide motivation where and when it is needed. Faculty Diversity, Faculty Rating, Program and Grade Point Average There is the possibility that some students feel more comfortable and an added incentive to achieve when there is high degree of diversity among the faculty. It is true that any group appreciates seeing itself reflected in their college of choice and African-American males are no exception. 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Neighborhood, Racial Composition, African-American Support and Grade Point Average (.0225) One can see that these two variables are significantly intertwined. When a student lives and attends school in an African-American community, the likelihood of his support to do well academically comes from that community as well. Family Support, Interruption and Grade Point Average (.377) As expected the path between family support and interruption is strong. Many students who did “stop out” or “drop out” did so, at least in part, because of family issues. ^ Those who do persist find it difficult when family needs are significant and the responsibility to resolve them lie, in part if not totally, on the student himself. On the other hand, if family support is good, the likelihood of interruptions can be low and thus the student’s ability to persist and achieve his goal is a strong possibility. Racial Composition, African-American Support and Grade Point Average (.0750) One would expect that if the racial composition of the high school is largely African-American then the African-American male would perceive the support for academic achievement to be strong. This was not the finding in this study. It could be that the support is there, but inconspicuous to the African-American male. In the interview section o f this study, one will find in some cases that students felt that being around their friends was a negative. In order to achieve their academic goals and thus succeed, they had to get away from that environment by attending this college campus. 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Work-Related and Income (p=.035) Perhaps in this case the closer the relationship to the type of job a student has with his educational/career goal, the greater the income. It could be that the motivation to achieve and advance on the job is there, thus the higher income. Income and Program (p=.000) Perhaps the more one advances in the program, the higher one’s salary will be. The law enforcement agencies are a prime example of this. One can be hired as a police officer with a high school diploma as the minimum requirement. With additional degrees (i.e. Associate in Arts, Bachelors and Masters degree) one can earn a higher salary and advance through the ranks. Faculty Rating and Program (p=.048) In many cases, the accreditation, rating and perception of a program is built on the reputation of its faculty. . If the faculty is perceived as competent and caring, the student’s perception of the program will be more favorable. Conclusions Academic success was predicted by college-related variables. Integration and satisfaction with the academic program loomed large. Moreover, support for the impact of high school grade point averages and college goal commitments (as posited in integration, attrition, and status attainment theories) also became apparent. The need for more intense and personal forms of academic counseling is strong and evident throughout all of the analyses. 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Analysis of Results -Personal Interviews A strong factor that emerged from the interviews was that of family support. Students felt that family support and upbringing played a significant role in their decision to attend college. There was a strong sense of expectation from family regarding success. For example, Sam, a young man in his early twenties remarked: My mother always expected me to do well, even though I was not getting good grades. It was important to me that my mother believed that I could do better (Sam). This was noted in a number of interviews that expectations were hig(i even if the student was not doing particularly well at the time. Not doing well usually meant the student was on probation. Probation status results in two different categories at Cerritos College. One is academic probation (grade point average below 2.0) and progress probation (over 50% of units attempted resulting in withdrawals “w”). Two other themes that were prominent include peer relations and financial concerns. A number o f students said they were having problems academically because there was not enough time to study. This was due in large part to working 40 and 50 hours per week. The following quote was simple, but very concise regarding work and its interference with study time. I could get more done if I didn’t have to work so much. (Devin). 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Other students noted how personal relationships can interfere with achieving academic and career goals. The following quote is from a student who is adamant in his pursuit of a college education “No matter what it takes I want to finish college”. Arnold It is important to note that Arnold is doing much to improve his lot in life. He has indicated that there is strong support from his father (who is living with him now) and until recently had a full time job. Arnold’s aspirations are high in that he wants to transfer to California State University, Fullerton or Yale University. It must be noted, however, that the two colleges of his choice are drastically different thus indicating that he probably does not understand the relationship of institutional prestige and academic achievement. The counselor’s role has been to encourage, not discourage him from succeeding. Arnold has academic potential in English and sociology; he is quite a writer. His issue with women is that the temptation to interact and thus be distracted is always there. This bothers Arnold because he feels this could derail him from achieving academic goals. The quote cited earlier relates to his fear of not being able to stay focused because of his interest in women. His present unemployment is also discouraging him. Other students felt they were spending too much time “partying” and hanging out with friends. Unfortunately, according to the interviews, friends did not always instill good study habits. 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “During the weekends I sometimes want to “get my groove on” and when I do no studying gets done. I know this is not the right thing to do, but it happens. I guess I just need to practice better study habits”. Harold In response to the question: Why are you attending this college? Some of the men expressed surprise. One of the responses was, “What do you mean by that?” Are you trying to tell me that I shouldn’t be here?” (Terence). Obviously, there was a need to clarify and then re-phrase the question. An explanation was given about not wanting to offend anyone. A better version of the question, “What motivated you to attend this college?” got better results. In subsequent conversations students responded to that question without hesitation. Some of the men said that attending this college was good because it gave them a chance to not only attend college, but also leave their neighborhood. These students were from another city and felt that if they had attended the community college in their area too many of the “bad influences” would “drag them down.” Several students said that they were given an ultimatum by their mothers, “either go to college or get a job.” Although one of them admitted that he wanted both it seemed that going to college was more important because it would help him get a good job. All o f the students were asked if financial support was an issue or concern. Many of them indicated that they were given verbal support regarding finances while in college. Some said that tangible financial support did follow. However, a few expressed regret that no financial support ever materialized outside of their own employment. I was very curious to know if the students felt they could 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. do well in college no matter what the individual circumstances. Thus, the question: Can you do well regardless of outside influences? One of the students said that he could, but that it would be very difficult. He used an example from high school where he was asked to join a gang and refused. Although he made it through high school without joining the gang, it was not easy. One of the problems he faced was the necessity to prove his manhood. In this situation he felt it was at stake. Many of his peers felt that joining a gang was the only way to prove that one is a man. This response is important because it touches upon the concept of status attainment;. “When I was attending Cerritos on a regular basis it was real helpfuf to go to the Learning Assistance Program office and talk to the peer counselors. It seemed there was always someone there to help me or spend time with me” (John). One of the students said that he really didn’t think he would survive in college at all if he had the college in his city. This same student felt he needed a “fresh outlook”. Having something different to look at, he said, gives him the motivation to attend classes and to make new friends. “Cerritos College is such a nice campus. There are a lot of friendly people there and a lot of the professors are very nice” (William). When asked if they had selected a goal or major, at least 20 of the men said they had. It was interesting, however, that nearly all of the men said that they wanted an Associate of Arts degree and/or transfer to a four-year college or university. It was explained to them that as a requirement for an Associate of Arts degree, general education is included. At this college general education is 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. considered an official major. In fact a few of the students said that they felt much better knowing that at least something (some direction) was now evident. Summary At least half of the students involved in the interviews said family played a major role in their decision to attend college. It seems that two thirds of them cited mother as the most influential member within the family—even where a father or other male was present. This finding is supported in the literature on retention. Family values played a very important role and provided direct motivation to attend & college. The outside environment was important and many of them seemed aware of the importance that friends and family can have in one’s life. This can have a positive or negative effect on the students. The most notable scenario in my mind was the example of the student who was invited to join a gang, but refused. He made it through high school, but it was not easy. As noted earlier, the literature supports the notion that goal identification is a major factor in retention. The students seemed to be pleased when they realized that any student who is pursuing an associate of arts degree and/or transfer program has a goal in mind. Throughout each of the interviews, it was evident that when motivation to succeed was addressed, it almost always included the family and in a number cases the significant role of the mother. This is consistent with the literature on motivation for achievement within the African American community. 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Overall Conclusions Through these exercises of personal interviews, I was able to identify and confirm various variables that are culturally and socially based. The literature on retention as it relates to African-Americans includes the importance of family and other social organizations in the encouragement and development of academic success. These variables were used as a guide during the conversations with the men. There was a particular interest in seeing if indeed the men in this group had some of the same issues and variables for motivation cited in the literature. As was noted in the data above, many of the males did identify family as a very strong motivator in their decision to attend college. As was expected the mother was of particular importance in that decision. This is indeed cited in literature as a prime motivator especially within many African-American families. One o f the recommendations suggested the involvement of parents in the college’s endeavors to assist students in pursuing their educational and career goals. 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V POLICY IMPLICATIONS Although this study only includes a relatively small number of men (followed for two years), there are significant implications that can be drawn for the specific campus where the study took place. One must be careful not to generalize, but I believe that the ramifications may be instructive to other urban campuses. Implications for Policy Development Age In all of the analyses, being younger was a significant predictor of retention. It is possible that for African-American men, family and employment, or other responsibilities that tend to increase with age, are detractors to the community college experience. This finding could indicate the need for more support of older African-American men. While many community colleges have adult re-entry programs that stress the needs of older students in general, perhaps this college and others like it should consider expending a more equal effort to accommodate older men with a special emphasis on older men of African-American descent. Grade point Average It was found that grade point average was a significant predictor. This indicates that as the student progresses in college, his academic preparation—and probably some correlates of high school grade point average, such as motivation— become increasingly more important in determining collegiate outcomes. It is highly probable that the effect of high school preparation and correlates becomes more 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. salient as college coursework moves beyond the introductory and into the more advanced. Self-Assessment of Academic Ability There was found in this study an absence of significant effects of the ability tests on retention (particularly in semester I). However, for the semester 2 analysis, the effect of low self assessment of skills was a significant predictor of non retention. African-American men who feel capable of college level work tended to complete semester 2 in greater proportion than those who felt less capable. This finding may underscore the importance of providing academic assistance to^those who express a need for academic assistance. A full 40% of the men in this sample indicated a need for academic assistance in at least one of the five items queried (tutoring, study skills, mathematics, reading and writing). Coupled with the reality that few African-American men actually walk into an academic assistance facility and ask for help, this may indicate the need for the college to take a more proactive stance. It may be useful for academic counselors to extend an invitation to individuals who indicate academic concerns on the CAPP instrument, inviting them to tour or learn more about the Learning Assistance Program. Professors may also find it appropriate to introduce students to the Learning Assistance Program early in the semester. Course Credit Units Enrolled and Certainty of Major The number of units of course enrollment was a positive and significant predictor of retention. In other words, men who attended the college on a full-time 89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. basis were more likely to persist. Certainty of maior was also a significant predictor of retention. Although the importance of full-time enrollment regardless of race or gender is generally noted in higher education studies, it may be particularly important for African-American men to focus more exclusively on education. Because certainty of major is obviously related to college goal commitments, it may be that men who have a specific occupational goal and can pursue it on a more full time basis are more likely to persist. Thus, community colleges should continue to help students to attend full-time whenever possible. Helping students to identify and apply for financial aid may assist some men to focus more exclusively on completing their education. Self Efficacy In predicting retention both through semesters two and three, men who expressed a high degree of importance (to self) in completing college appeared to be more likely depending on the semester reviewed. Although this finding was expected, when combined with the finding of the importance of certainty of major, it further confirms the role of college completion goals, or “goal commitment” as it is referred to in the integration literature, for this group of African-American men. IMPLICATION: This suggests that the college should continue to establish activities and experiences that emphasize the need, the importance, and the benefits of a college degree. 90 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Course and/or Program Withdrawals Dropping courses led to non-retention as it was found for this sample of men. : Since the college tracks both units attempted and units earned, policies to contact individuals after a course has been dropped could be an important way to show concern and to remind students of the types of available assistance on campus. Goal Commitments Support was found for the impact of high school grade point averages and college goal commitments, as posited in integration, attrition and status attainment theories. IMPLICATION: The need for more intense and personal forms of academic counseling appears evident throughout all of the analyses. Conclusions Community colleges are important avenues for the success of African- American men. Many degrees earned by African-American students are at the associate of arts and vocational certificate level (Shinagawa & Jang, 1998). Moreover, a college degree has positive and important consequences. For example, the 1993 Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) reported the 1991 median earnings of African-Americans over the age of 25 years with at least a bachelor’s degree was SI3,960 more than that for only a high school diploma. Finally, African-American men lag behind African-American women in their proportional representation in the ranks of managers and professionals (Shinagawa & Jang, 1998). It is time for community colleges to recognize not only the potential and the importance of African-American male students but also to acknowledge that 91 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. they are a special group that may need additional support, recognition, assistance, and development. Thus, it may be necessary for community colleges to specifically address the needs of African American male students when they develop policies for students. Path Models. Many of the paths that were significant for one model were also significant for the other, revealing the importance of constructs for success no matter how it is defined. Directly linked to both a higher GPA and to retention were positive perceptions of family support. Like all students, the men in this sample responded positively and significantly to support structures. But while the path from a perceived supportive environment specifically for the African Americans was significant to GPA, the link to retention was not. Thus men in this study academically performed at a higher level in a more ethnocentric environment but it did not necessarily lead to gains in retention. The link from program type (transfer versus non-transfer) was significant to both GPA and retention, but the implications were opposite in direction. While men in non-transfer programs achieved higher GPA’s, it was the men in the transfer programs who earned more college units. These opposing findings may in part be explained by the significant link between age and programs revealing that older men tend to be in non-transfer courses. Thus while the older men may earn higher grades, they are not as likely to take many units at the college. Interviews with the men revealed that many of the men enrolled for a course or two that would assist them in 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. their employment. Once the courses were complete, these men did not see value in continuing at the college. The direct path from interrupting studies for a semester or more did not impact grades, but it did significantly impact retention. This is easily understood when viewing the fact that both family support and income were significant and were negatively tied to interruption. Thus, interruptions in this study may have been prompted by financial and personal upheavals rather than by academic problems. Indirect Paths. The indirect paths to success provide many insights. Of special interest may be that being enrolled in a program that is related to the student’s job has a strong and positive relationship to income, a subsequent strong and positive relationship to being in an occupational (non-transfer) program, and a final effect on GPA. This finding underscores the importance of links between industry and the community college that can yield great success on a personal level for the student and on a business level for the industry. Personal interviews also supported this finding. The path models also indicate the importance of familial support. Working both directly and indirectly through interruptions in this study, it is evident that perceived family support leads to multiple measures of success. Those students who identified that they came from a more heavily African- American high school did not lead to preferences for support structures in college that targeted African-Americans (i.e. curriculum, extra-curricular activities). It was expected by this researcher that just the reverse would be the case. This could 93 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. suggest that enough support was given for African American contributions in; the high schools with African American student counts. The path models are instructive, but point in the direction that the men in this sample respond to the same type of environments as most students. Family support, adequate income, and satisfaction with faculty all lead to success. Although the inclusion of support structures to specifically support African Americans is important and should be continued and expanded, our models did not indicate significant links to either grades or earned units. Of course, we only measured short term goals. It may be that this type of support has more long-term implications. Policy Implications When researchers began their studies on the decimation of the African- American male population, numerous strategies for survival and success were provided. At a minimum, programs and activities should be created to assist African-American men in becoming more tolerant in interracial group settings (Farrell, 1996; Taylor & Howard-Hamilton, 1995); disseminate information on career and work options in underrepresented areas such as mathematics, science and engineering (Habrowski, Maton & Greif, 1998); match them with African-American role models (Harris, 1996); and provide them with an opportunity to work with other African-American men in defining who they are, where they fit in the campus environment, and how they can find balance and harmony with themselves and others (Jeff, 1994). “A theory-to-practice approach in which the models are adapted for racial, ethnic, gender, and cultural fit could be the missing link to 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. providing group interventions for African-American men. These restructured or new theories should enhance chances for academic success and degree attainment for them. If the African-American man has all of the appropriate developmental tools to use when faced with life’s challenging situations, he should be able to rise above drugs, incarceration, homicide, gang violence, and racism by finding strength from within and from others who care and have persevered against the odds” (Howard-Hamilton, 1997). In this section I will review the implications for policy development as they relate to higher education. It is imperative that appropriate applications of these theories be considered in the community college since this study takes place there. Affirmative action has emerged as one of the most contentious issue^ facing universities today. For many years, colleges have relied on a 1978 Supreme Court ruling to justify their affirmative-action programs. That ruling, in the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, said that colleges could use race and ethnicity as a factor in admissions decisions, but could not designate a set number of spaces for members of specific ethnic and racial groups. This ruling was hailed as critical, by colleges, to remedying the effects of past discrimination and to diversifying their campuses. A series of lawsuits filed in recent years, however, has started to chip away at that notion. A number of colleges have found themselves in court over their affirmative action programs (Renner, 1999). “My level of discomfort with all of this has deepened now that the informal backlash against affirmative action has received official sanction through legislative actions and the courts: I. The California Board of Regents of the University of California decided to end affirmative action; 2. The Texas appeals court decided against race- based admissions practices at the University of Texas Law School; 3. A chain reaction of legal and political challenges to minority programs was set off by the decisions in California and Texas. 95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “These events are very negative, not only because they contribute to the passive misperception that blacks have gained and unfair advantage through affirmative action, rather than more or less holding their own, but also because they are based on an even more dangerous assertive distortion of the truth—that the ideal of “greater social justice” may be achieved through eliminating all “racial preferences”, even one that does not, practically speaking, exist”. According to Dr. Arnold Mitchem, President of the Council for Opportunity in Education, “Conservatives may oppose race-based affirmative action in academically competitive universities, but my experience tells me that there is still growing support for expanding access to the community colleges, local private schools, and state colleges that serve the vast majority of ordinary students seeking an education” (Mitchem, 1999). He goes on to say, “Society won’t be able to address its serious social and economic problems if African-Americans can’t access...resources. And...policymakers will never be able to make good decisions concerning the entire population if they exclude a growing percentage of the people impacted by their choices” (p. 21). With all of this in mind it is imperative that the needs of African-American males be addressed in the community college. There is a need to make sure that the academic goals and successes of these men be made possible through the institutions that serve them. 96 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. References Astin, A.W. (1975). Preventing Students From Dropping Out. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Astin, A.W. (1993). What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Beal, P.E. & Noel, L. (1980). What Works in Student Retention. Iowa City, IA: American College Testing Program. Bean,J. (1980). Dropouts and Turnover: The Synthesis and Test of a Causal Model of Student Attrition. Research in Higher Education. Vol. 12, pp. 155-187. Bean, J.P., & Metzner, B.S. (1985). A conceptual model of nontraditional undergraduate student attrition. Review of Educational Research. Vol. 55(4), pp.485-540. Ben-Jochannan, Yosef, A. A. (1988). African Origins of the Maior “Western Religions" (Baltimore: Black Classic Press). 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Creator Hampton, Preston (author)

Core Title Academic success for African -American male community college students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, adult and continuing,education, community college,education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hagedorn, Linda Serra (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-219273

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Identifier 3073786.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-219273 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3073786.pdf

Dmrecord 219273

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hampton, Preston

Type texts

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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