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Curriculum policy and educational practices: A study of primary classroom music education in Kern County, California

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Curriculum policy and educational practices: A study of primary classroom music education in Kern County, California

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CURRICULUM POLICY AND EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES:
A STUDY OF PRIMARY CLASSROOM MUSIC EDUCATION
IN KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA
by
Patrice Elaine Lamboume
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment o f the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(EDUCATION)
May 2002
Copyright 2002 Patrice Lamboume
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U M I Number. 3074944
Copyright 2002 by
Lamboume, Patrice Elaine
All rights reserved.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007
This dissertation, written by
Patrice Elaine Lambourne
under the direction of hex Dissertation
Committee, and approved by all its members,
has been presented to and accepted by The
Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re
quirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
•an of Graduate Studies
Date ..W ay ...l.Q .,..2 Q Q Z .
DISSERTATION COMMUTE]
Chairperson
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the glory of God, and to my parents,
Charles Allan Lamboume and Beverly Stancliff Lamboume (1913-1997), without
whose love, guidance, and support this effort would not have been possible. I am
grateful for the patience and understanding of my children, Ashleigh, Graeme, and
Laurel Geddes, when I was involved in study and writing.
It is appropriate to thank the staff of Voorhies School in Bakersfield City
School District, and especially the principals during this process, Mario Castro and
Tom Hendricks, for their support and encouragement.
PL
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
D ed icatio n ...................................................................................................................................ii
List of Tables............................................................................................................iv
Chapter I..................................................................................................................... I
Chapter I I .................................................................................................................13
Chapter III............................................................................................................... 57
Chapter IV ............................................................................................................... 75
Chapter V ...............................................................................................................159
References............................................................................................................. 179
Appendices............................................................................................................ 184
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LIST OF TABLES
1. SAT Scores reported by the College Board..................................................................... 52
2. SAT Scores based on length o f study................................................................... 53
3. Participating Districts...........................................................................................................60
4. Participating Districts by Enrollment................................................................................ 61
5. The relationship between research questions and data collection instruments 65
6. Comparison o f participation o f teachers by grade level..................................................75
7. Comparison of delivery o f music instruction ..........................................................77
8. Minutes of music education per week................................................................................82
9. Number o f days o f music education per week................................................................. 83
10. Influence of national and local music education policy statements on classroom
music instruction....................................................... 93
11. Individuals or groups providing support to teachers in music instruction .................. 94
12. Mixing Schedule: Five week Rotation Schedule........................................................... 123
13a. Comparison of average Likert scale ranking o f Critical Success Factors # 1-3 .130
13b. Comparison of average Likert scale ranking o f Critical Success Factors # 4-6 .131
13c. Comparison of average Likert scale ranking o f Critical Success Factors #7 -9 .133
13 d. Comparison of average Likert scale ranking o f Critical Success Factors # 10-13.. 134
iv
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Patrice Elaine Lamboume David Marsh. Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
CURRICULUM POLICY AND EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES:
A STUDY OF PRIMARY CLASSROOM MUSIC EDUCATION
IN KERN COUNTY. CALIFORNIA
This study investigates the curriculum policies and instructional practices
in music education in Kindergarten through third grade classrooms in a county
central California. The study identified what elementary classroom music
education looks like in Kindergarten through third grade: how districts reconcile
state and national curriculum policies with the music education practices in their
elementary classrooms; the strategies for change in curriculum and teaching
which districts foresee in the implementation of those policies; and the barriers to
implementations and how some districts overcame those barriers.
A comprehensive survey provided the foundation for analysis of what
music education is currently being taught in primary classrooms. The survey was
followed by interviews with teachers and administrators. A second survey was
conducted to study the perceptions of teachers and administrators on the extent to
which certain factors were in place in their own settings.
Results indicate that music education has been set aside in favor of
programs and curriculum that promise immediate results on standardized test
scores. Classroom teachers are frequently left with out-of-date materials or none
at all, with few resources at the district level. Teachers cite their own “personal
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experience" as the most important resource, yet overwhelmingly indicate they
have had no musical training in their personal experience.
There are creative and innovative schools and districts that have developed
programs to overcome the emphasis on preparing for standardized tests. Some
have written grants, others have developed various “team teaching" approaches,
and yet others formed “mixing groups." Other schools, with higher test scores,
continue to support music specialists instructing students at all grade levels, which
lead one participant to say that the "rich get richer, and the poor get poorer."
The study concludes with recommendations for additional study into the
scope and sequence of music education programs across the country, study of
brain development related to music experience and education, and study of music
education policy in the face of test-score accountability.
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CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
During the past forty years, support for music education has diminished.
What was once taken for granted as part of a comprehensive education to produce
moral and upright citizens, music education took a back seat to the pressing needs of
an increasingly diverse and multi-cultural student body. Educators and parents who
were concerned about this decline in music education had no substantive formal
policy which they could take to their school boards when requesting additional
support - and funding - for music programs.
The last decade of the twentieth century witnessed the development and
passage of a national education policy that included music education as core
curriculum as part of “arts education." The term “arts education" includes music,
drama, dance, and visual art. The development of national standards for many
academic subject areas, including arts education followed shortly thereafter. It is
beneficial to review these documents here.
National Policies And Standards
In 1994. following years o f reform efforts in education, the United States
Congress passed Goals 2000: Educate America Act. In that law, Goal 3: Student
Achievement states
By the year 2000, all students will leave grades 4, 8, and 12 having
demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter including English,
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mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics,
arts, history, and geography, and every school in America will ensure that all
students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for
responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive employment in our
Nation’s modem economy. (Emphasis added.)
In Sec. 306 State Improvement Plans of Title III - State and Local Education
Systemic Improvement, Part (c) Teaching, Learning, Standards, and Assessments,
each state educational agency was charged with the responsibility to meet "the
National Educational Goals by improving teaching and learning and student’s
mastery of basic and advanced skills in core content areas, such as English,
mathematics, science (including physics), history, geography, foreign languages, the
arts, civics and government, and economics.” (Emphasis added.) Arts education is
not regarded as "elective" or "extra-curricular" but is addressed as part of the core of
knowledge and experience in which all students must participate.
In 1992 the Consortium of National Arts Education Associations (American
Alliance for Theatre and Education, Music Educators National Conference, National
Art Education Association, and National Dance Association) anticipated that
standards would emerge as a focal point of the national reform legislation. The
Consortium received a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, the National
Endowment for the Arts, and the National Endowment for the Humanities to
determine what the nation’s students should know and be able to do in the arts. The
Consortium responded with the publication of the National Standards for Arts
Education which says that students:
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• should be able to communicate at a basic level in the four arts disciplines—
dance, music, theatre, and the visual arts,
• should be able to communicate proficiently in at least one art form,
• should be able to develop and present basic analyses of works of art,
• should have an informed acquaintance with exemplary works of art from a
variety of cultures and historical periods, and
• should be able to relate various types of arts knowledge and skills within and
across the arts disciplines (1994).
As a result of developing these capabilities, students can arrive at their own
knowledge, beliefs, and values for making personal and artistic decisions. In other
terms, they can arrive at a broad-based, well-grounded understanding of the nature,
value, and meaning of the arts as a part of their own humanity (1994).
The National Standards for Arts Education are written for all students. The
standards affirm that every young American should have a vital relationship with the
arts and that to do so requires discipline and study. They also clearly state that more
than "exposure" is necessary for competence. A once-a-month visit by a music
specialist, an annual assembly, or courses for the specially motivated students do not
qualify as basic or adequate arts instruction. Those experiences are valuable but they
do not provide all students with preparation to meet the Standards.
While the Standards assume that all children will actively be engaged in
comprehensive, sequential educational programs which include "creating,
performing, and producing on one hand, and study, analysis, and reflection on the
other" throughout all grade levels, the Standards are not concerned with how the
curriculum should be delivered. The decisions of curriculum and instruction are left
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to the respective states and their local agencies. The Standards also recognize that
teacher preparation and professional development must change to be successful.
California Policies and Standards
In California, a forward-looking State Board of Education adopted a
comprehensive policy in 1989 which stated that
Arts education, which includes dance, drama/theater, music and visual art is
an integral part of basic education for all students kindergarten through grade
twelve: Districts should develop a policy, allocate resources, and carry out a
plan to provide a high quality comprehensive arts education program for all
students, based on the adopted visual and performing arts curriculum
resource documents.
In California, state curriculum frameworks were first developed in the
I960's. Since the early 1990s there has been considerable time, effort, and financial
expenditure devoted to the development of curriculum frameworks. There has been
an assumption that these documents will focus current education reform efforts and
will provide impetus to bring quality education to students. Yet there is no
convention for the use of curriculum frameworks as working documents (Curry and
Temple, 1992). There are a variety of opinions regarding the purpose of
frameworks. The documents themselves vary greatly in their physical appearance,
depth of content, and their audiences. This lack of consistency in design,
development, and utilization contributes to the confusion regarding their value to the
classroom teacher. When the 1996 Visual and Performing Arts Framework was
adopted, its Forward stated:
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The California Department of Education and the California State Board of
Education continue to support arts education for all students as a vital and
fundamental part of the core curriculum. The arts foster students' abilities to
develop problem-solving skills, flexibility, creativity, cooperative
approaches, persistence, and responsibility as well as oral and written
language skills (Framework, p. v).
In the Framework, the four disciplines of dance, theatre, music and visual arts
are presented as discrete disciplines with commonalties of the four components of
artistic perception, creative expression, historical and cultural context, and aesthetic
valuing. In addition, the Framework addresses the areas of assessment in the arts,
multicultural perspectives, cognitive theory, and technology in arts education in
accordance with current research and practice. The 1996 California Framework is
very much aligned with the Goals 2000: Educate America Act and the National
Standards for Arts Education: comprehensive, consistent education in arts across all
grade levels K.-12 for all students.
Local Countv and School District Policies
Consistent with state and national policy, counties within California have
passed resolutions to support arts education. Additionally, local school districts
frequently have policy statements which state that arts education should be included
in the core education of all students. At the level of policy statements and standards,
arts education would appear to be thriving for all students in the state of California.
Unfortunately, there frequently exists a gap between policy and classroom practice.
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It is the goal of this research to examine music education in the primary grade and to
determine where those gaps occur and how some districts have filled them.
Statement of the Problem
The passage of Goals 2000: Educate America Act in 1994 represents a new
page in the history of education in the United States. For the first time, a national
policy has emerged regarding public education. States are given immense latitude
concerning the development of curriculum and teaching practices to reach those
goals. Historically there is no tradition of using a national policy to frame
implementation of curriculum and instructional practices within classrooms. There
is a need for more information and additional research on the impact of policy on
music education instructional practice. This information falls into several categories:
1. There is a need to establish the condition o f music education in primary
classrooms at the present time to serve as a base line.
2. There is a need for information about how the California Visual and
Performing Arts Framework (1996) and other national, state and local
policies impact primary classroom practices in music education in California.
This study focused how districts reconcile the policies with the music
education practices in primary classrooms.
3. There is a need to know how some districts are able to more fully implement
the state and local policies to meet the National Goals, National Standards,
and state and local policy statements. This study identified strategies for
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implementation of music education policies and how some districts have
identified barriers to implementation and overcome those barriers.
Purpose of the Study
This study analyzed the linkages between national, state, and local policies
and classroom practices in music education, focusing on kindergarten through third
grade in California. This study offers analysis and insight to districts as they seek to
more fully implement comprehensive music programs in primary classrooms. The
broad purpose of this study is to establish the extent to which critical factors are in
place that enable schools to provide Kindergarten through third grade students with
equal access to a quality music education program.
Questions to be Answered
The following questions were used for this investigation and analysis:
1. What does elementary classroom music education in Kindergarten through
third grade look like in Kern County, California?
2. How do districts in Kem County reconcile the policies of Goals 2000, the
National Standards in Arts Education, and the 1996 Visual and Performing
Arts Framework (California) with the music education practices in their
classrooms in the primary grades?
3. What strategies for change in curriculum and teaching do districts foresee
that would assist in the implementation of music education policies?
4. What are barriers to implementation and how have some districts overcome
these barriers?
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Importance of the Study
This study has immediate relevance for several groups interested in
educational change, music education and improving student achievement. There is
insufficient local information available to districts regarding the successful
implementation of a high quality music education program for all primary
elementary students. The data from this study will be beneficial to schools and
districts planning educational change processes in music education.
Some policy analysts are promoting the use of the state framework as the
critical link between the National Goals 2000 and National Standards for Arts
Education and school reform efforts at the district and site level. Researchers
interested in classroom music education practices will find data on instructional
strategies in relation to educational reform and change practices. They should
benefit from analysis of how schools and teachers are embracing the framework and
standards in music education relative to school level reform efforts.
Additionally, the study will provide site administrators as instructional
leaders with insights into implementation of quality music education in primary
grades. These insights may assist schools and teachers in attaining the high quality
instructional practices necessary for their students to meet the state and national
standards in music education as well as standards in language arts, math, social
sciences, and science.
Further, this study will heighten the awareness that music education, and arts
education in general, is a core component in the education of all students. Districts
which have relied on magnet programs and other self-selected programs to provide
music and art education to a small segment of their population will recognize the
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need for consideration of changes in their delivery o f music and art curriculum to
strengthen literacy of all students.
Delimitations
This study is delimited in the following manner:
1. This study will investigate selected elementary schools within districts in
Kern County in California. The schools include kindergarten through fifth or
sixth grades. Ail of the districts serve students from kindergarten through
eighth grade.
2. The school districts and schools studied may not be representative of all
schools and districts in the county or state. Kern County was chosen based
on characteristics of the diversity of population served.
3. Qualitative data will be obtained from interviews, questionnaires, surveys,
and observations.
4. This study includes only primary elementary classrooms and schools, and
studies the implementation of classroom music education as its focus.
Limitations
This study is limited in the following ways:
1. Because this study is limited to selected elementary sites in school districts in
Kem County, California, the results of this study may not be generalizable to
all elementary schools and districts.
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2. Data gathered through interviews, questionnaires, and surveys are limited by
the accuracy and honesty of the participants.
3. Qualitative data analysis is limited by the abilities of the researcher to
accurately record and synthesize. The reader should be mindful of the
possibility of researcher bias.
4. The finding, recommendations, and conclusions may be applicable only to
classroom music education at the primary elementary level.
Assumptions
This study is based of the following assumptions:
1. The teachers, administrators and students who participated in surveys,
interviews, questionnaires and observations gave complete and honest
answers.
2. The data collection instruments yielded valid and complete data for the
purpose of this study.
3. The recommendations, conclusions and implications are applicable and
constructive, and may be generalized to similar schools and districts.
Definition of Terms
Art: The term art in this study has two meanings: (1) the creative works and the
process of producing them, and (2) the whole body of work in the art forms
that make up the entire human intellectual and cultural heritage (Framework,
1996).
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California Alliance for Arts Education: A member of the Kennedy Center Alliance
for Arts Education, CAAE membership is comprised of educators, businesses
and industry interested in promoting arts education in California.
Consortium of National Arts Education Associations: An organization consisting of
the American Alliance for Theatre and Education. Music Educators National
Conference, National Art Education Association and National Dance
Association, which worked together to develop the National Standards for
Arts Education (1994).
Content Standards: The standards specify what students should know and be able to
do in a particular curriculum. In this case it reflects what students should
know and be able to do in each of the four arts disciplines.
Curriculum Framework: A curriculum framework sets out the content knowledge,
skills, and processes that students need to know, and the instructional
strategies and organizational elements that support teaching and learning.
Frameworks may also include statements of philosophical foundations,
visions, ways of knowing the subject, and discipline-specific teaching
processes.
Elementary: Includes grade K through six.
Intermediate: Includes grades four through six only.
Music Educators National Conference: A national organization of over 70,000
music educators, founded in the 1930s as the Music Supervisors National
Conference, but changed in the 50s to include all music educators.
www.menc.org
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National Art Education Association: A national organization of over 15,000 art
educators founded in 1947. www.naea-reston.org
National Standards for Arts Education: A document developed by the Consortium of
National Arts Education Associations in 1994 stating the level of competency
students should attain in each of the four arts by fourth grade, eighth grade
and twelfth grade.
Primary: Includes grades K through three only.
Organization of the Study
Chapter I of the study includes the introduction, statement of the problem,
purpose of the study, questions to be answered, importance of the study,
delimitations, limitations, assumptions, definitions, and organization of the study. A
comprehensive review of literature is presented in Chapter II. Chapter III discusses
the methodology used in the study including a description and rationale of the date
collection techniques, the sample, and the analysis of the data. Chapter IV presents
the findings and analysis of data. The chapter includes a discussion of findings. The
study concludes with Chapter V, which summarizes the findings, draws conclusions,
and presents recommendations for further research. References and appendixes
conclude the study.
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CHAPTER H
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The Value of Music and Arts Education
The debate over the value of arts education is not a new one. Philosophers
and educators of ancient Greece pondered the need to study the arts, which arts to
study, and how to apply the arts to their lives. Today there is a growing consensus
that study of all of the arts - music, theater, dance, and visual art - should be included
in the education of all students, regardless of their background, talents, or
disabilities. A cadre of educators, business professionals and politicians now
consider music and arts education vital to the nation.
Arts are a basic and central medium of human communication and
understanding. The arts convey knowledge and understanding that are not
communicable through written or spoken word. It is these non-verbal forms given to
profoundly human characteristics and insights through the arts that have inspired
human interaction between cultures and through time. "Words are used for
communicating everyday experiences, but the arts express the human experience"
(Dewey, 1934).
The arts also explore the human capacity for simultaneous imagination and
judgment. The study of the arts requires the use of higher-order thinking skills such
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as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. "The exercise of judgment in the making of
artistic images or in their application depends upon the ability to cope with
ambiguity, to experienced nuance, and to weigh the trade-offs among the alternative
courses of action. These skills not only represent the mind operating in its finest
hour, but are precisely the skills that characterize our most complex adult life tasks"
(Eisner, 1991).
Jeanne Rollins, chair of the Task Force for National Standards in the Visual
Arts, puts it another way. "Integrated study in the arts focuses on higher level
thinking. It helps students think and communicate in different and highly effective
ways. It demands the use of careful thought and reason, and it requires flexibility
and exploration of multiple solutions. (MENC, 1994b)
This concept of creativity as the focus of rigorous intellectual demands is
addressed by Joseph W. Polisi, president of The Julliard School. He asserts that
creation is the act of invention, of producing new ideas to touch individuals through
experiences, such as those found in music, dance, drama, and the visual arts. This
process, if done seriously, requires thought, organization, and, above all,
imagination. The process must be engaging, substantive, and fun. Most important, it
must immerse the students in the process - not for success or failure, but to
'‘experience the texture of creation” (MENC, 1994b).
Noted radio commentator Paul Harvey states rather strongly, "The back-to-
basics curricula, while it has merit, ignores the most urgent void in our present
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system - absence of self-discipline. The arts, inspiring - indeed requiring - self-
discipline, may be more basic to our national survival than the traditional credit
courses" (Murfee. 1992)
The arts are also an essential aspect of a nation's civic life, making possible
shared reflections, communication, and civic participation, on which a democratic
community depends. Ann Lynch, former president of the National PTA, contends,
"We must recognize that before a civilization can be successful, they have to have
the literacy of each of the arts. (MENC, 1994b)
The arts provide new opportunities for individuals who may be economically
disadvantaged. The arts have traditionally been more open to people of diverse
racial, ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds. Many talented individuals have
acted, played instruments, sung, and painted their way out of poverty. The arts have
significant impact on individuals and communities. The Dance Theater of Harlem is
a prime example of arts education making a difference in the lives of students
(Murfee, 1992).
Business leaders also value students well versed in arts education. Jane Polin
of General Electric Foundation describes why GE values arts education as useful
business training. "We see a tremendous need for workers who are creative,
analytical, self-disciplined and se f-confident. And we believe that hands-on
participation in the arts is...one of the best ways to develop those abilities in future
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workers. The business person will need to be a maker, someone who creates a
vision, not just a plan." (Murfee, 1992).
Richard Gurin, president and chief executive officer of Binney & Smith, Inc.
concurs. "In order to compete, business needs an up-and-coming work force that has
been trained to be flexible, has the ability to learn quickly, and is adept at solving
problems in new and unique ways...I believe the best way for our children to learn
how to see and think creatively is through arts education. It’ s not art for art's sake, or
even cultural appreciation. The economic future of our country depends on our
ability to develop innovative ways of learning." (MENC, 1994b).
Binney & Smith has participated in research projects which point to these key issues
in the learning process:
• Learning happens best when kids have fun. and the arts are fun for kids...
• Arts activities enhance learning capability...
• The arts are the core of our American culture and central to an understanding of
and appreciation for the multicultural society in which we work and live.
(MENC. 1994b. p.6)
Gurin quotes Dr. Abraham Zaleznik from the Harvard Business Review (1997):
"Vision, the hallmark of leadership, is less a derivative of spreadsheets and more a
product of the mind called imagination. Business leaders have much more in
common with artists...and other creative thinkers than they do with managers."
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While business leaders may find that arts education makes good business
sense, sociologists and historians point out the value of arts to basic freedom. A
nation's cultural life is closely connected to its freedom. Both freedom and artistic
expression require open dialog and acceptance of criticism. Historians quickly point
out civilizations where arts have been suppressed, the people have been oppressed
(Murfee, 1992). History also demonstrates that political dialog between nations
traditionally follows cultural dialog. Communication through the arts is the
beginning of cultural understanding. "The arts have an unparalleled ability to cross
the national boundaries imposed by language, politics, and contrasting cultures. The
arts are noted for building minds without borders and minds that can cross borders."
(Murfee. 1992) "Musical intelligence functions across cultures. It also functions
throughout life" (Beall, in Gates, ed.. 1988)
The arts are a natural adjunct to the study of history and people. Arts use
symbolic systems to evoke times or eras in ways unknown to words alone. Arts are a
repository of historical understanding and context. "The most lasting achievements
of past civilizations -whether they be Anasazi. Aztec, Indo-Chinese...or Zulu - can be
measured in the arts the people produced, the literature and myths they cherished,
and the wisdom they attained." (Murfee, 1992)
Nanneri O. Keohane, president of Wellesley College, states that the arts are
valuable for "rooting [the people] in the history and culture to make sure they
understood and respected ancient truths and carried on worthy traditions." (Murfee,
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1992) Historically, it has been through the arts that society has instilled their core
values.
"The importance of music, as judged by the sheer ubiquity of its presence, is
enormous, and when it is considered that music is used both as a summatory mark of
many activities and as an integral part of many others which could not be properly
executed at all, without music, its importance is substantially magnified. There is
probably no other human activity which is so all-pervasive and which reaches into,
shapes, and often controls so much of human behavior" (Alan P. Merriam, 1964;
quoted by Beall, in Gates, ed.. 1988)
Musicians, artists, sociologists, historians, and business leaders all recognize
that art education has value for our society and for our students, despite their
differences about the source of its relevance. This has not always been the case. An
overview of the history of music education will provide insights into current
struggles in music education.
An Overview of the History of Music Education
The passage of the Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994) was a milestone
for music education: for the first time in the history of American education, music
was officially included in a national policy document as a core subject for study.
The inclusion of arts education as a core subject represents a shift in philosophy that
has pervaded education since the colonial times. To provide a framework for future
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policies and programs supporting music education, it is important to briefly review
the past.
The ancient Greeks afforded music great prestige by including it as the
education for the soul. The mathematician Pythagoras developed music theories in
the fifth century B.C. that are still practiced today. In the Middle Ages, music was
placed in the Quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music), the higher
division of the seven liberal arts. During this period, most education was done under
the auspices of the church. With the strong ties between the religious service and
music, music began to develop a religious connotation. During the fifteenth century,
churches began to found music schools in a type of orphanage which was called a
"conservatorio." Music education continued to also be available to a small and elite
population in the ruling class.
In America, the first songbook, not surprisingly, was published by a church in
1641. Called the Bay Psalm Book, it depended on the "call and response" method,
with the pastor or preacher singing a phrase, which is then imitated by the
congregation from memory. This Psalm Book was used for the next one hundred
fifty years, undergoing several revisions. During this time, the first singing school
was established in Boston in 1717. Singing continued to be predominantly
associated with the church (Hamm, 1983).
During the early years o f the nineteenth century, the theories of Swiss
educator Pestalozzi were very influential on American music education. He
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proposed that education is best acquired through participation that involves the
senses. He stressed the inclusion of music, predominantly singing, in all schools.
(Abeles, et al, 1994) Music continued its association with the church well into the
nineteenth century.
The "Father of Music Education" is generally a title accorded Lowell Mason,
who in 1838 became the first music supervisor hired in the Boston public schools.
Mason called for the inclusion of music in public school education, despite critics
who called it a religious movement. He justified music education by three standards:
1. Intellectually. Music had its place among the seven liberal arts, which
scholastic ages regarded as pertaining to humanity. Arithmetic, Geometry,
Astronomy, and Music - these formed the quadrivium. Memory, comparison,
attention, intellectual faculties - all of them are quickened by a study of its
principles. It may be made to some extent a mental discipline.
2. Morally. It is unphilosophical to say that exercises in vocal music may not be
so directed and arranged as to produce those habits of feeling of which these
sounds are the type. Happiness, contentment, cheerfulness, tranquility - these are
the natural effects of music.
3. Physically. It appears self-evident that exercise in vocal music, when not
carried to unreasonable excess, must expand the chest and thereby strengthen the
lungs and vital organs. Judging by this triple standard, intellectually, morally,
and physically, vocal music seems to have a natural place in every system of
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instruction which aspires, as should every system, to develop man's whole nature
(Birge, 1966).
Thus music instruction in singing was included in public schools, first in
Boston, and then across the nation.
The first normal school opened in Boston at this same time for the purpose of
training teachers. This marked the separation and status of the profession of
teaching. During the next sixty years, the normal schools became recognized for
their contributions to the training of teachers across America. These schools
prepared teachers to include singing in their classrooms. No other music training
was included (Keene, 1982).
Following the Civil War the development of instrumental music gained
momentum, primarily due to the availability of inexpensive brass and string
instruments. Music appreciation and the study of harmony were added to the music
curriculum in many of the large cities.
By the turn of the twentieth century, normal schools were developing into
teachers colleges. With the increase in complexity of society, normal schools
expanded to a four year institution, with the goals that teachers should have a body
of knowledge which they would share with their communities using the art of
teaching which was superior to the methods of those who had not attended such
institutions. The teachers colleges were now given the legal authority to grant
degrees. (Keene, 1982)
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Following World War I school bands rose to the forefront. Returning army
bandsmen took positions in schools to teach instrumental music, predominately band
music. This shifted the focus from singing and academic study of harmony and
notation to music performance. Bands also rose in prestige over orchestras due to
the increase in patriotism following the Great War, where bands were associated
with victory. Bands were also portable, and could be scheduled indoors or outdoors,
adding flexibility to their assets (Birge, 1966). This focus on performance, and
especially military precision performance, is with us today in the many competitions
for bands of every age group.
Between the world wars music education was predominantly taught by men,
either professional musicians or university trained music specialists. During the
Great Depression, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) was developed to
stimulate and support creativity and artistry through federal support (Abeles, et al,
1994). This provided employment for many musicians.
The conflict of World War II reduced the music education field to a bare
minimum. To offset the loss of men to the armed services, classroom teachers were
armed with new techniques and curriculum to conduct the daily music lessons
themselves, with the music specialist acting as a consultant to introduce new skills.
The music specialists contributed their subject matter knowledge and skills, while
the classroom teachers provided schedule flexibility and familiarity with the
particular group of students (Hoffer, 1993). At the close of WWII, the returning
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soldiers found employment in the booming post-war economy outside the field of
teaching. School districts did little to replace the music specialists and instrumental
music directors who did not return to the music classroom following the war.
During the "Sputnik crisis" of the late 1950s, great emphasis was placed on
support for science and academics. This included music education, but the
philosophical based had shifted to include aesthetic values in music in addition to
performance. Music education enjoyed renewed vigor. In 1965 the Johnson
administration proposed the Elementary-Secondary Education Act, which renewed
interest in and support for music education. Once again music education was
reaching out to every child as envisioned by the Music Educators National
Conference of the 1930s.
Music Education as Victim of Economic Circumstance
The downturn in the economy during the 1970s and 1980s brought the "Back
to Basics" movement to education. This movement was not a philosophical shift but
wrought out of the failing economic conditions. Budgets were cut, and programs had
to be cut. With the growing baby boom, programs that seemed to offer the most
immediate progress in academic study were upheld, and the "frills" were cut.
Unfortunately, much of arts education in the United States was dropped at this time.
"Arts [were] frequently viewed as non-cognitive, more to do with handedness than
headedness" (Fowler, in Gates, 1988). The arts were viewed as recreation and
luxuries, as play that one could pick up without curriculum and instruction. By the
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mid-1970s the economic situation required schools to further cut back on the elective
courses, which included the music education program. As the media began
publicizing declining standardized test scores, the no-frills, back to basics approach
additionally cut into the time allowed for music education at all levels. Public
perception of improving academic achievement focused on those programs that
produced immediate and measurable results. Declining enrollments and limited
funding washed away much of the gains in music education made during the 1950s
and 60s. While the goal of providing music education for every child remained
intact, many areas of music education suffered and some were eliminated. (Abeles.
etal. 1994)
The Development of National Reform Policies
During the 1980s there was a great amount written about the declining
condition of education in the United States. A Nation at Risk (1983) sounded an
alarm to the public that education in America was failing the students and failing the
taxpayers. As a result, considerable educational research has been undertaken to
study effective schools. Accountability for student results has become the
cornerstone for state and federal funding.
At the same time, arts education began gaining recognition as an important
component in a student's education. Results from numerous schools that focused on
music and visual arts education began to indicate that students who linked music or
art with education were frequently highly successful in other academic areas.
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Educational Testing Service began keeping statistics of student participation in all
content areas of education in the early 1990s. ETS has consistently published SAT
test results which indicate that students who have participated in a variety of music,
theater, dance, and visual arts courses in high school score significantly higher that
the average SAT score (MENC, 1995). The inclusion of arts education as a core
subject in the Goals 2000: Educate America Act gave legitimacy to music educators'
claims that full literacy can only be accomplished when some branch of arts
education is included as a core subject, echoing back to the Greek era and the Middle
Ages when music and art were considered essential for literacy.
"Emphasis on human values in music education becomes more essential with
every passing day. It appears obvious that the contemporary world is becoming
increasingly mechanized, depersonalized, computerized, and homogenized. Howard
Johnson's. McDonald's, Burger King, and Wendy's are prime examples. Each of
these chains not only has the same look but also the same menu from Maine to
Hawaii and beyond. Every passing year sees a greater premium placed on
predictability, standardization, control and rule-governed behavior, both within the
school and without. The atmosphere of the school as well as of the society has
become increasingly anti-aesthetic and anti-imaginative" (Leonhard, in Gates, ed.,
1988). Yet the demand for workers who are self-discipline, creative, and analytical
grows as the world relies more and more on technology.
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National Standards for Music Education
The first major policy statement that heralded a change in the way music and
arts education is viewed by the public was Goals 2000: Educate America Act of
1994. The arts are included as core subject matter in this national document. That
policy statement was followed by the National Standards for Arts Education, also
published in 1994. These standards set markers for student proficiency in each of the
arts: dance theater, music, and visual art. Subtitled, "What Every Young American
Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts" the standards delineate five key areas
that should be accomplished by the time students have completed high school:
• They should be able to communicate at a basic level in the four arts disciplines -
dance, music, theater, and the visual arts. This includes knowledge and skills in
the use of the basic vocabularies, materials, tools, techniques, and intellectual
methods of each arts discipline.
• They should be able to communicate proficiently in at least one art form,
including the ability to define and solve artistic problems with insight, reason,
and technical proficiency.
• They should be able to develop and present basic analyses of works of art from a
variety of cultures and historical periods, and a basic understanding of historical
development in the arts disciplines, across the arts as a whole, and within
cultures.
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• They should be able to relate various types of arts knowledge and skills with-in
and across the arts disciplines. This includes mixing and matching competencies
and understanding in art-making, history and culture, and analysis in any arts-
related project (MENC, 1994a).
Although this document is not an official position or policy of the
Government, educators must reflect on the standards as guidelines for curriculum
development and instruction. The standards include outlines of sequential learning,
which assists in curriculum development: discussions of issues critical to school
boards formulating district policies; and clearly delineated goals of arts education by
each discipline.
History of the Development of Music Curriculum
"When we define curriculum, we are also defining the opportunities the
young will have to experience different forms of consciousness. To have a musical
consciousness, one must interact with music" (Eisner, 1982).
Luther Whiting Mason's National Music Course was the first graded series of
music texts. Originally published by Ginn in the 1870s, the series was the pattern for
most series texts for the next fifty years. His system was used as the music
curriculum by many school districts and large numbers of teachers throughout the
country (Keene, 1982).
By 1895 most textbook series promoted aural learning of music (rote singing)
in response to the developmentalism of the child-study movement of that day. "As
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children learn language by natural aural means, so music should be taught the same
way" (Keene, 1982). The theory or technicalities of music were to be learned later.
The development of sight singing, so prominent in the early nineteenth
century, waned by the 1920s. Note reading was still required, and continues to be
required, for instrumental instruction. With the development of the phonograph,
textbook publishers seized the opportunity to provide auditory examples of their
products for rote singing.
The development of classroom music curriculum in the 1920s and 1930s
followed the general philosophy of music education as a whole: music had to have
direct and observable benefit to society. It was not enough to follow Mason's
conclusion that music education was morally and intellectually beneficial. Art was
valued for its social implications. These educators recognized that historically music
students had higher academic achievement and greater civic participation. They
advocated music education as a means to civilize a society that was dealing with an
increasing number of social problems. Others saw arts education as producing
values such as delayed gratification for long-term goals, self-discipline, appreciation
for critique, and civic responsibility (Murfee, 1992).
During the 1940s and 1950s publishers and record companies moved to
publishing textbooks that were almost totally devoted to rote singing and music
appreciation. Music appreciation became a central feature of the music lesson.
Through the phonograph children in schools across the nation could hear the finest
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symphony orchestras, military bands, and great oratorios. Classroom music
education began to enter a very passive stage. Instrumental music continued to
flourish, with patriotic themes pulling together student orchestras, bands, and choirs
performing grand pageants, which frequently included dance and drama.
Any discussion of the development of the curriculum of music education
must include with the recognition that the philosophy of music education has
undergone a profound change during the second half of the twentieth century. From
the times of the ancient Greek scholars and academics to World War II, "music was
taught not so people would know its beauty and therefore value it, but because
people who knew its beauty and valued it were expected to be different kinds of
citizens in the society that sponsored the music education." (Mark, in Gates, ed.,
1988). Robert House and Charles Leonhard have written:
Indeed, where music education has flourished, it has always contributed
directly to social unity and development. Its objectives were specifically
drawn in terms of values important to society. The Greeks supported music
education because it attempted to produce a rounded individual - one of
strong character and intellectual grace. In America, music was admitted to
the schools for the specific purpose of establishing a common music literacy,
useful in the sacred and secular life o f the time. (Leonhard and House, 1972).
Music education has a unique role in education: to address questions of value,
beauty, and goodness; to challenge and extend human experience; to develop the
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skills essential to hear acutely and feel sensitively via nonverbal symbol systems like
music; and to nurture aesthetic appreciation - an enlightened understanding of the
processes of decision making and valuing in music and the arts. (Schwandron,
Abraham A., in Gates, ed., 1988) "Music education must provide all students with
opportunities to develop their full intellectual competence" (Fowler, in Gates, ed..
1988).
Since the 1950s advocates have stressed the aesthetic value of arts education.
This side of the discussion gravitates toward the inclusion of the arts for arts sake.
This perspective places the study of the arts in aesthetic education, which is part of
the study of philosophy. The philosophical dialog leads to divergent thought. Elliot
Eisner has been an outspoken advocate and authority in the diverse fields of art
education, curriculum development, and educational evaluation. His discussion of
the students' "aesthetic way of knowing" (Eisner. 1991) is based on his construct of
the arts as a symbol system which communicates the students' culture, civility, and
humanity (Boyer and Eisner, 1987). This view of aesthetic education links the arts
with higher order thinking skills, cognitive development, and a form of evaluation
which Eisner calls "connoisseurship" (Eisner, 1991).
Unfortunately many educators, including some music educators, ignore the
aesthetic uniqueness of music in favor of its functional uses (for instance, the
marching band that stirs up the fans at athletic events). Currently music educators
are frequently forced to "justify" the existence of the music programs specifically in
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the utilitarian: patriotism, good citizenship, national pride, team effort, racial
understanding, improved reading, correlations with math and science, proper social
and moral habits. Few would disagree that these outcomes of music education are
worthy and desirable, yet when these become the driving force of a music education
program, it is the students and the society who lose. When the educational purposes
of music education are identified as nonmusical (extrinsic), the aesthetic value
(intrinsic) of music education has been lost (Eisner, 1991).
Music education for all students has been the goal of the MENC for the past
half century. "Until all students are provided with high quality learning experiences
in the arts, the arts will not enter the mainstream of American life, but will remain
the domain of the educated elite" (Fowler, in Gates, ed.. 1988). No longer should
music be kept to the elite group at a magnet program. Children need to have
valuable musical opportunities from preschool all the way through high school
(California State Board of Education. 1996). Music and other arts education need to
be taught alongside reading, writing, and arithmetic but will be considered core
curriculum only when teachers are comfortable and competent with the medium.
Equality of opportunity needs to be examined in light of both the curriculum
and the instruction. Students who receive instruction from a certificated music
classroom specialist for a certain time period each week throughout their elementary
schooling have a vastly different opportunity than the students who receive their
music instruction from the general classroom teacher (MENC, 1996). There are a
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number of classrooms where the teacher does have personal background in the
language and mechanics of music, but the vast majority of general classroom
teachers have a severely limited fluency in music. These students will continue to be
the have-nots unless administrative decisions are made to provide additional music
experiences for the generalist or to provide instruction from a music specialist.
"The recognition that music exists as a separate intelligence, having its own
process of development, leads to an important conclusion: Musical development
must be nurtured from first awareness through the school years, and it must be
extended as an imaginative and satisfying experiences throughout life. Our society
does not tolerate illiteracy, and one measure of a society is the extent to which it can
eradicate illiteracy. Our society, however, does seem to tolerate a high degree of
musical illiteracy; and this denies a measure of understanding, communication,
sensitivity, imaginative projection in sound, and social enjoyment to a large
proportion of the population" (Beall, in Gates, ed.. 1988).
"The importance of music, as judged by the sheer ubiquity of its presence, is
enormous, and when it is considered that music is used both as a summatory mark of
many activities and as an integral part of many others which could not be properly
executed at all, without music, its importance is substantially magnified. There is
probably no other human activity which is so all-pervasive and which reaches into,
shapes, and often controls so much of human behavior" (Alan P. Merriam (1964),
quoted by Beall, in Gates, 1988). Indeed, some businesses flourish using music to
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manipulate human behavior. The advertising industry spends millions on music to
entice customers, and the film industry is acutely aware that the score of a film has a
major impact at the box office.
The Current Development of Music Curriculum
Before a curriculum can be developed, there needs to be a definition of the
perspective of curriculum. Klein et al, (1979) developed a conceptual framework
that includes five perspectives of curriculum: the ideal curriculum; the formal
curriculum; the instructional curriculum; the operational curriculum; and the
experiential curriculum. One starts with the ideal curriculum, which is at least a
view of what should be offered to students. This curriculum may or may not actually
exist, but the construct must be in place before moving on to the formal curriculum.
The formal curriculum represents the values and expectations that various groups
have about what should be taught. This curriculum may be presented in a document
by a district. (Abeles et al. 1994) Teachers read the formal curriculum and then
make adaptations to it as they perceive the students need or to meet their
instructional qualifications. This becomes the instructional curriculum. What the
students actually leam from the instruction is the experiential curriculum.
While the individual states, and the school boards within the states, were
given the right and responsibility to develop the curriculum in all areas of
instruction, the development of curriculum for music education has been frequently
relegated to the choice of music text. "Teacher-proof music texts book series were
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developed and continue to be most commonly used in elementary classrooms across
the country (Abels, et al, 1994). The publishers made music education as simple as
instructing students to open to a certain page, and dropping the needle on the
phonograph record or set the track on the CD. General classroom teachers who have
little or no background in music can usually follow along with the help of the
teacher’ s edition. The question remains; is this effective and comprehensive
education in music?
The content of a curriculum is influenced by many factors: the philosophy of
the school board to curriculum development, the location of the decision-making
power in the district, the attitudes of administrators, teachers, and community, and
the background of the classroom teachers all play a part in the development of a
curriculum. Although the local community and the individual school districts are
charged with the responsibility of curriculum development, until the recent
development of state frameworks, the development of the music curriculum for a
district was frequently left with the music supervisor and the music teachers (Abeles
et al. 1994).
"What do we include in music education? What do we pass over? We must
resolve to develop musical skills and understanding within the widest range possible
to provide access to music not available in the popular culture of the students (the
informal education experience). Further, to reach more students, music education
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must develop a general curriculum for all students that explores music as a
wonderful human invention" (Fowler, in Gates, ed., 1988).
The MENC has published two editions of its report, The School Music
Programs: Descriptions and Standards. (1974, 1986) which provide a framework
onto which a curriculum can be drawn. In addition, MENC has also published the
National Standards for Arts Education (1994), which was developed by the
Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, and Strategies for Teaching
(1996) which discusses ways to implement the national standards for music
education found in the 1994 publication. These documents present the “best
practices” of music education programs and use performance standards by which
students are to be measured. The term “performance standards” is used in other
curricular areas to gauge to amount of academic learning that has occurred during
instruction. In the MENC documents, performance standards generally refer to a
performance o f an instrument or voice to meet an agreed upon standard.
Preparing the Classroom Teachers in Music Education
Teachers have basic vocabulary and reading skills, which permit them to
teach language arts, history, and science at the elementary level with a degree of
fluency. This literacy is assumed because the teachers have graduated from a four-
year college program and have passed the California Basic Education Skills Test
(CBEST). Teachers have traditionally thought to have been successful teaching
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reading, history and science because they themselves are literate in these fields to the
elementary level.
A similar relationship exists between the mathematical ability of the teachers
and their ability to teach elementary classroom math. Again, the assumption is that
teachers who have passed CBEST and probably can balance their checkbook will be
successful teaching math at the elementary level. They have a degree of fluency in
math and are generally considered mathematically literate at the primary and
intermediate levels.
Music and art education and their subsequent literacy skills are not evaluated
by the CBEST. nor is fluency in arts education a requisite for college graduation.
Many teachers entering the elementary classroom, including those who have
satisfactorily completed a teacher preparation course, are not literate in the arts they
will be required to teach.
The current upheaval of education in California through the Classroom Size
Reduction of 1996 brings an overload of young and unprepared personnel to the
classrooms. As many as 15,000 new teachers have been hired during this past school
year alone. There are legitimate concerns about the quality of the new hires. The
preparation to teach music and art is even more precarious. To qualify for these
emergency credentials, the potential teachers had to have completed a Bachelors
degree in any subject matter and pass the California Basic Educational Skills Test
(California Department of Education, 1998). This demonstrates a degree of
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competence in reading and math, but certainly does not show knowledge of how to
teach music or art. Many of these new teachers are moderately comfortable with the
use of the adopted textbooks in language arts, math or history, but when music
education is brought up, there is visible discomfort and anxiety in the new teachers.
Over the past two decades the music and art programs in both elementary and high
schools have frequently been eliminated or curtailed, so that many of these new
teachers have not experienced music education while they were elementary and high
school students. They are frequently uncomfortable with their lack of music and art
content knowledge. Teachers cannot be expected to teach that with which they have
no familiarity. There is little prior knowledge for many new classroom teachers to
fall back on for support. As a result, what isn't known, isn't taught (McLaughlin, in
Odden. ed.. 1991).
Professional development of teachers already in the classroom has focused
heavily on language arts during the past decade. The sustained theme has been to
follow the lead of the state Language Arts Framework, incorporating first the plunge
into whole language, and recently into the balanced literacy program. During this
time, professional development in music education, offered now primarily by music
educators' groups, has been attended largely by teachers already fluent in music.
General classroom teachers have received less and less staff development on
teaching music in their classrooms. Elementary teachers who are questioned about
the inclusion o f music in their classrooms now frequently respond that they are
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prepared to use new technology, but that they feel inadequately prepared and ill at
ease teaching a music curriculum (PCAH, 1995).
"Music education, as it has existed, is an educational cul de sac." (Fowler, in
Gates, ed., 1988). Masking this condition are the highly touted musical
performances, drama productions, and student art exhibits which display highly
trained musicians, dramatists and artists. The spring concert brings highly
enthusiastic parents and community members to the school where the auditorium is
brightly decorated with student artwork. The parents and community are led to
believe that music and art education is thriving in their school and community
(PCAH. 1999). Teachers in the school who do have a musical or artistic background
provide special opportunities for "talented" students. Unseen are the hundreds of
students whose families do not have the knowledge or the financial commitment to
make music and art an integral part of their child’ s development and whose
classroom teacher is either unable or unwilling to teach art and music in the
classroom. It is here that the administration must step in to assure that all students in
the school have equal opportunity for literacy in all areas of arts education (CAEA,
1997; PC AH. 1996).
The California Framework for Visual and Performing Arts
The California document is based on three convictions. "The first is that the
arts have an intrinsic value, which makes them indispensable in the center of every
student's education. Second, the arts have an instructional value; that is, they assist
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students in learning other subjects and disciplines. Third, the arts have an enduring
value; in an educated society everyone has the knowledge and background that
allows them to experience and enjoy the arts throughout their lives." (Framework,
1996) The Framework divides the study of the arts into four components: artistic
perception, creative expression, historical and cultural context, and aesthetic valuing.
These four components are common to the four arts: dance, theater, music, and
visual art. Thus before a curriculum can be delivered, the teachers must be fluent in
all four components in each of the arts.
Literacy in the arts includes use of the specialized vocabulary in each of the
disciplines, which enables the student to gain basic knowledge and skills in order to
communicate in each art form. Students should develop a clear understanding of
each of the four components in a comprehensive arts education program. The first
component is artistic perception, which involves "processing sensory information
through the elements unique to the art, sensitizes the individual to the aesthetic
qualities of the world" (Framework, 1996). This provides a heightened perception of
such elements as light, color, sound, timbre, movement, and composition. "The
development of artistic perception enables one to comprehend and respond to the
essential elements of an object or event and to express an appreciation of the work in
greater depth and detail" (Framework, 1996).
The second component is creative expression, which involves either creating
a new art piece or by performing the works of others. Expression in the arts is
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developed by doing the arts. Direct involvement is necessary for the student to
understand and appreciate the discipline. "Purposeful art activities focus on,
channel, and encourage communication and originality and proved increasing
understanding of the structure and language of the arts. In creative expression the
artistic perception appropriate to each art is embodied in concrete objects and
performance... Creative experiences foster problem solving and reflective thinking
and promote originality, imagination, and creativity" (Framework, 1996).
Studying the arts in context with political and economic history provides
students with a broad understanding of the artists and performers, their works, and
the effects that their society and times had on them. "Knowledge of the artistic
accomplishments of great world cultures enables students to see the importance of
the arts in relation to those cultures and to grasp the relevance of the arts in
contemporary society (Framework, 1996). Thus the third component, historical and
cultural context, seeks to bring life and meaning to artistic expression.
The fourth component in a comprehensive arts education program is aesthetic
valuing. Aesthetic valuing involves analyzing, making informed judgments about,
and discovering meaning in arts. This is the capstone of arts education: the ability to
make informed judgments about, make just criticism about, and to value a work
aesthetically signifies the application of the three previous components. "To develop
aesthetic sensibilities, students study sensory, intellectual, emotional, and
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philosophic bases for understanding the arts and for making judgments about their
form, content, technique and purpose (Framework, 1996).
A comprehensive arts education program needs to be well planned, carefully
articulated, and developmentally appropriate. The comprehensive program will also
provide opportunities for personal skill development in each of the arts, emphasizing
the creative process along with the product. There will be opportunities for guided
reflection about and analysis of music, dance, theater performance, and visual art
(Framework, 1996). The program will develop students' appreciation for and
understanding of the different art forms of many cultures and periods in world
history with the intent of developing informed citizens who have a lifelong
commitment to the arts. This is no small task, and requires a deep reevaluation of
the arts education programs currently available.
National Research Projects
A growing body of research shows a remarkable relationship between
learning, knowing and the arts. A recently developed synopsis, Schools.
Communities and the Arts: A Research Compendium, was produced by the National
Endowment for the Arts in cooperation with the Morrison Institute for Public Policy.
This volume focuses on research published since 1985 and pulls together qualitative
and quantitative studies supporting the importance of the inclusion o f arts education
for all students. If there is one over-arching theme coming from arts education
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research, it is that all students benefit in multiple ways to a solid program of arts
education (NCES, 1995).
Current medical research is also documenting the unique role that the arts
play in the development of the child's intellect. Research into how the brain works,
how learning occurs, and the timing of learning experiences all point to the necessity
of early childhood experiences in the arts (. Studies now look at how and why the
arts engage and develop intellectual ability through integrating neurological
functions. Use of MRI brain scans shows that people with perfect pitch have
significantly more neural links between left and right brain (Dana, 1997).
Long before Howard Gardener's publication of Frames of Mind (1983) and
the current research on brain development and learning, music has been used as a
tool for second language acquisition around the world. Music, the rhythm, melody,
and harmony, is the universal language. When music is coupled with song
(language), there is a powerful fusion of cognitive development and language
acquisition (Gardner, 1982). Through the structure and syntax of songs in English
the students experience the vocabulary, grammar and context for acquisition of the
English language. Music has been called "the privileged organizer of cognition"
(Gardner, 1996).
In the concluding years of the twentieth century, large-scale studies, aided by
the accessibility of data and the technology to work with massive amounts of it, have
provided insights into arts education across the nation. One such study, the Arts
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Education in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools Report was conducted in
1994 by the National Center for Educational Statistics in cooperation with Westat,
Inc., the National Endowment for the Arts, and the National Institute on Student
Achievement, Curriculum, and Assessment. The study presents data by school
enrollment, geographic region and metropolitan status (NCES, 1995).
The study reports that music is offered in 97% of public elementary schools
in the United States. Seventy percent of the public elementary schools that offer
music reported that the subject is taught by certified music specialists only; 22
percent indicated that both specialists and classroom teachers provide instruction.
Only 8 percent leave music instruction totally up to the classroom teacher (U.S.
Department of Education. 1995). The report makes no distinction of the grade levels
served by the music specialists, or if the specialists teaches instrumental music or
general classroom music. The report does point out that slightly over half of the
elementary schools have at least one full-time music specialist. It is also reported
that because the arts can enhance learning in other academic subjects through
interdisciplinary instruction, instruction in the arts is often left up to non-arts
teachers. As a result, the arts are frequently not emphasized. The report concludes
with a caution that while the respondents to the survey indicated that arts education
is “essential” or “very important”, other data obtained suggests that in practice arts
education is not receiving “the emphasis that would reflect such views” (National
Center for Educational Statistics, 1995).
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In 1996 the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities teamed up
with Americans for the Arts to produce a report, Coming Up Taller, to identify
community programs in the arts and humanities that reach at-risk children and youth.
The report describes principles and practices that make these programs effective.
While no two programs are alike, there are several characteristics that many of the
programs have in common:
1. The programs take advantage of the ability of the arts to engage
students. Once engaged, the programs impart new skills and
perspectives to the students, such as motivation, resiliency,
organization, and self-perception.
2. Community arts programs provide crucial ‘‘building blocks” for
children's healthy development by linking with support services.
3. Use innovative teaching strategies such as hands-on learning,
apprenticeships and technology in the arts, often giving youth
concrete job skills.
After the publication of the report, Americans for the Arts developed an award
program for community projects that effectively link the arts and humanities with at-
risk youth. The organization web site ( w w w .c o m in g u D ta lle r.o rg ) has lists of
Program Profiles available for study.
In 1999 the President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities and the
Arts Education Partnership released a report compiling the results o f seven major
studies that provides new evidence that the arts can and do enhance learning and
academic achievement. The research presented in Champions o f Change: The
Impact of the Arts on Learning is based on both quantitative and qualitative data, and
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represents projects in New York, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.
The report was developed to explore why and how young people are changed
through their arts experiences. The findings are presented in seven categories:
1. The arts reach students who are not otherwise being reached. They
provide an opportunity for engagement in school and community. The
arts have a measurable impact on students in "high-poverty” and urban
settings. Students with high levels of arts participation outperform '*arts-
poor” students on virtually every measure.
2. The arts reach students in ways that they are not otherwise being
reached. Problem students often became high-achievers in the arts
learning settings. Success in the arts became a bridge to learning and
eventual success in other areas of learning.
3. The arts connect students to themselves and each other. The student
feels invested in ways that are deeper than "knowing the answer/’
Student’s attitudes towards one another are also altered through their arts
learning experiences.
4. The arts transform the environment for learning. The school culture is
changed and conditions for learning are improved. Teachers are
renewed. "Visible” changes also appear in the community.
5. The arts provide learning opportunities for the adults in the lives of
young people. Young people gain an understanding that learning in any
field is a never-ending process. The roles of the adults are also changed
- now as coaches and active facilitators of learning.
6. The arts provide new challenges for those students already considered
successful. Students can overcome boredom and complacency in
schoolwork through unlimited challenges in the arts.
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7. The arts connect learning experience to the world of real work. The arts
learning experiences show remarkable consistency with the evolving
workplace. Ideas are what matter, and the ability to generate ideas, to
bring ideas to life and to communicate them is what matter to workplace
success (PCAH, Catterall, et al. 1999).
Almost all arts organizations now have excellent resources available on their
web sites, with links to other organizations and programs. With the capacity of the
Internet to disseminate information instantly and without printing costs, a variety of
national arts organization, arts support organizations, and research institutions are
producing a continual flow of reports and research on the benefits of providing arts
education for all students. Some, such as Coming Up Taller, emphasize the need for
arts programs that reach at-risk children, "providing soul-saving and life-enhancing
opportunities for young people” (PCAH. 1997). All point out that rather than spend
education funds on commercial programs that offer to "fix” what’s wrong with
schools today, the money would be better spent on arts education, which has been
part of the curriculum all along (PC AH, Catterall, et al, 1999). National and state
arts organizations now have access to "hard data” from national sources, such as the
National Center for Education Statistics, which gives the arts supporters increasing
opportunities to validate the "value” of arts education in a quantitative manner.
Policy Implementation Research
Along with the education reform movement of the past two decades, there
has been an increase in research on effective implementation of policy and
curriculum. The body of research into effective reform has focused primarily on
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state and federal compensatory education programs. A number of studies have come
to similar conclusions:
1. Fundamental change occurs at the classroom level (Marsh and Odden,
in Odden, ed., 1991); the most significant way to improve schools is
through improving the instructional performance of the teachers (Hall
and Hord, 1987); change occurs at the smallest unit. Focus on
classroom practices and instructional strategies (McLaughlin, in
Odden, ed., 1991).
2. Change in schools is a hard, slow process (Odden, in Odden, ed.,
1991); systemic change is difficult (McLaughlin, in Odden, ed.,
1991).
3. It is exceedingly difficult for policy to change practice. Policy
success depends on two broad factors: local capacity and local will.
(McLaughlin, in Odden, ed.. 1991).
4. Project scope is an important consideration. Ambitious efforts are
more likely to stimulate teacher change and involvement
(McLaughlin, in Odden, ed., 1991); ambitious efforts have more
impact (Odden, in Odden, ed., 1991).
5. The principal is a significant factor in the success in the efforts of
schools to improve (Hall and Hord, 1987); active commitment of
district and site leadership is essential (McLaughlin, in Odden, ed.,
1991).
Likewise, the list of ineffective strategies is almost universally accepted:
1. Reliance on outside consultants.
2. Packaged management approaches
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3. One-shot, pre-implementation training
4. Pay for training
5. Formal, summative evaluation
6. Comprehensive, system-wide projects implemented simultaneously
(McLaughlin, in Odden, ed., 1991).
To gain insights on policy and program implementation research in arts
education, several new studies examine factors that include many listed above, and
additional issues that may be peculiar to arts education.
Gaining The Arts Advantage: Lessons From School Districts That Value Arts
Education, was written by the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities
and the Arts Education Partnership (1999) after an extensive national study. This
nation-wide study provides evaluation of the implementation of district-wide arts
education programs. It offers insights into how school districts develop and sustain
arts education programs in the face of pressure to prove their academic success
through accountability measures that focus on reading, math, and writing. For these
districts, the arts are considered the “fourth R — a basic tool in the school reform
arsenal” (PC AH, 1999). The document continues by stating that arts education is not
a “magic pill that will simultaneously reform schools and boost student
achievement” (PCAH, 1999). The study found it difficult to quantify annual
spending for arts education as a percentage of the total budget, and finally assessed
financial commitment through the evidence of commitment in personnel. The study
pointed out that
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1. The arts represent six percent of the gross national product, which is equal to
wholesale trade.
2. Consumer spending on the arts outpaced expenditure on either motion
pictures or sports.
3. Arts education contributes significantly to improved critical thinking,
problem posing, problem solving, and decision-making.
4. As with language and math, the crux of an arts education involves the
communication, manipulation, interpretation, and understanding of complex
symbol systems.
5. Developing fluency in artistic expression and understanding fosters higher-
order thinking skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
6. The arts foster the development of multiple intelligences.
Generalizations about school districts with strong arts education include
information about student performance in arts and in other academic subjects,
breadth and depth, staffing by full-time certified art and music specialists, access to
arts education in the elementary years, innovation in programs, community and
resources, leadership, and state and national guidelines for arts education. The
study’s findings conclude that there are thirteen critical factors that support the
development and implementation of successful arts education in school districts.
These factors include:
1. Community support for arts education - the community is actively involved
in arts politics and development of instructional programs
2. School board support for arts education — the school board provides the
supportive policy framework and environment for the arts.
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3. The superintendent’s support for music education - the superintendent
regularly articulates a vision for arts education and commits personal time to
meeting with representatives of the arts community.
4. Continuity of district/site support for arts education - stability in the formal
leadership at the district level and site level are consistent with pursuing long
term goals in arts education.
5. The effective district arts coordinator — a key to implementation throughout
the district/school and maintains an environment of support for arts
education.
6. A cadre of principals within the district - a group who can share support for
the implementation of successful instructional practices in arts education.
7. The music teacher valued as a musician — teachers are encouraged to
continue to learn and grow in mastery of their music as well as in their
teaching competence.
8. Parent/public relations around arts education - leaders in the school/district
seize the opportunity to make their arts programs known in the community to
ensure support and funding for them.
9. An elementary foundation of arts education - leaders recognize the strength
of their programs are built on the successful foundations laid in the
elementary years.
10. Opportunities for higher levels of student achievement in the arts - school
leaders recognize the special opportunities in arts education for students to
go beyond the program expectations.
11. Using national, state, and other outside forces for arts education and
instruction — districts recognize the power of aligning their district policies
with state and national policies to build consensus.
12. Consistent planning for arts education — by developing a vision for their arts
education programs, schools and districts are able to effectively plan and
incrementally implement strong arts programs.
13. Continuous improvement of the arts education program — schools and
districts also promote reflective practices at all levels to improve quality of
student, teacher and administrative performance.
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The report presents case studies from across the nation which emphasize the
variety of implementation strategies of quality arts education programs. The districts
in the report represent the diversity of districts across the nation. The five districts
from California were presented: Clovis Unified, Lawndale Elementary, Redondo
Beach Unified, San Jose Unified, and Santa Barbara County School District. The
characteristics of the districts are dramatically different, the methods they use to
implement quality arts education programs are diverse, and their critical success
factors are varied. What they have in common is success (PC AH, 1999).
It is interesting to note what is missing from this study that is common to
most policy implementation studies: curriculum and instructional practices. That
does not mean that arts curriculum and instruction are not important to the success of
an arts education program. They are. Success, however, is measured differently in
an arts program than in other education reform programs. Academic test results have
little to do with success in arts education programs and everything to do with
measuring achievement in other academic areas such as language arts, math and
science.
The College Entrance Examination Board has reported scores on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT I) which is routinely required by colleges and
universities as part of the admission application. The test has two sections: verbal
and mathematics. In 1994 the College Board began gathering data from a self-
reporting questionnaire, the Student Descriptive Questionnaire, which asks students
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to indicate their academic preparation during high school. When comparing students
who list no arts coursework on the questionnaire to the students who list Music:
Study or Appreciation and Music: Performance, it is readily apparent that students
who have had some study of music score higher than students who list no arts
courses during their high school career (The College Board, 2001). Table 1 presents
the test scores for 1998, 1999, and 2000.
Table I
SAT Scores reported bv the College Entrance Examination Board based on self-
reported studv
Course Title Verbal Mean Scores Math Mean Scores
1998 1999 2000 1998 1999 2000
Music: Study or Appreciation 537 538 538 535 534 537
Music: Performance 529 530 532 530 531 534
No Arts Coursework 477 A ll 477 494 492 496
Students with experience in music performance scored 55 points higher on
the verbal portion of the test in 2000 and 38 points higher on the math portion than
the students who listed no experience or coursework in the arts. Students who
studied music appreciation scored 61 points higher on the verbal and 41 points
higher on the math portion of the 2000 test. The College Board merely reports the
scores and does not make any interpretation of the scores.
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Further questions asked the students how many years of study they had
undertaken in each of these areas. Table 2 below demonstrates consistently that the
more time of study, the greater the increase in test scores.
Table 2
SAT scores reported bv the College Entrance Examination Board based on self-
reported length of studv
Years of Studv Verbal Mean Scores Math Mean Scores
1998 1999 2000 1998 1999 2000
More than 4 years 543 543
4 or more Years 538 538 536 533 537 532
3 Years 514 515 516 514 513 517
2 Years 506 506 506 512 511 513
1 Year 498 498 497 510 508 510
.5 Year of Less 488 487 486 501 499 500
No Arts Coursework 477 477 477 494 492 496
Students reporting more than four years of study scored 66 points higher on
the verbal portion and 47 points higher on the math section, with scores falling
consistently as the length of study decreased. Again, the College Board makes no
interpretation of these scores. There is no way to demonstrate that the participation
in music experience or study caused the scores to go up. Educators, from high
schools and colleges, agree that these data correlate with their experiences with the
college-bound students.
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At the high school level, students are taught during class periods designated
for music instruction. At the elementary level, most instrumental music programs
are provided by “pull-out” programs where students leave their regular classroom
and report to the music teacher at a certain time each week. With the mounting
pressure to raise test scores, administrators, teachers, and parents sometimes express
concern that students are missing valuable instructional time when they are pulled
out for music lessons. The concern is that the students’ test scores will suffer
because of missing the classroom instruction.
Several studies have addressed this issue by comparing the academic
achievement results of students participating in pull-out music programs with
students of matched ability who did not participate in the music lessons. Groff
(1963) studied sixth-grade students matched by gender, IQ, and academic teacher.
The instrumental students were excused from classroom instruction each week for 30
minutes. All students took the Iowa Test of Basic Skills at the conclusion of the
school year, and the analysis of test scores showed no significant difference between
the two groups of students.
Kvet (1985) conducted a similar study of 175 sixth-grade students in southern
Ohio. This study included students from different socioeconomic and geographic
areas who were also matched for gender, IQ, and classroom teacher, but in addition
were matched for race and cumulative achievement test scores in reading,
mathematics, and language arts. This study again showed no significant difference
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between the students who were excused for music lessons and the students who
remained in class. Kvet concluded that parents, teachers, and administrators need
not be concerned that instrumental music lessons would jeopardize the test scores of
students.
Wallick (1996) chose to compare the test scores of fourth-grade students on
the Ohio Proficiency Test (OPT) mandated to measure reading, writing,
mathematics, and citizenship achievement. The total sample for instrumental and
non-music students in this study was 296. In two of the four test sections, writing
and mathematics, there was no significant difference between the two groups. In the
reading and citizenship sections, the instrumental students scored significantly higher
(p<.05) than the non-music students. Wallick draws an implication that students
who are excused from their classrooms for music lessons are not leaving consistent
and structured instruction. Reading words and reading music both involve
interpreting abstract symbols, translating them into concrete phenomena that involve
time and space.
A massive project undertaken through the Harvard Graduate School of
Education, the Reviewing Education and the Arts Project (REAP), searched through
over 11,000 studies from 1950 to 1999 that claimed that arts education programs
bring academic improvement. After sorting through testimonials, advocacy articles,
and program descriptions, the study found one hundred eighty-eight reports that met
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their criteria o f scientific research. In all, this meta-analysis sought causal links
between education in an art form and achievement in a non-art form.
Three areas were found to have reliable causal links.
• Listening to music and • Classroom drama and verbal
spatial-temporal reasoning skills
• Learning to play music and
spatial reasoning
There were seven areas where no causal link was determined.
• Arts-rich education and • Learning to play music and
verbal and math scores or reading
grades
Visual arts and reading
• Arts-rich education and
creative thinking • Dance and reading
• Learning to play music and • Dance and non-verbal
mathematics reasoning
The study reports that the failure to find a causal link could be attributed to the fact
that there is no causal link; the study size was too small; or a small causal link was
found but could not be generalized to other studies. It does not negate the
correlational studies between an art form and achievement in non-arts, academic
areas, nor does it investigate why some powerful correlations exist (REAP, 2000).
This study will examine the music education opportunities within Kern
County to see how they "measure up” to the criteria of the California Framework for
Visual and Performing Arts (1996) and the Critical Success Factors (PCAH, 1999)
listed earlier.
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CHAPTER HI
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This study is a descriptive study designed to identify conditions and practices in
music education in elementary schools in Kern County, California. It describes
linkages between curriculum policy and classroom music instructional practices.
This study will identify the following:
• what elementary classroom music education looks like in Kindergarten
through third grade in Kern County.
• how districts reconcile state and national curriculum policies with the music
education practices in their elementary classrooms
• the strategies for change in curriculum and teaching which districts foresee in
the implementation of those policies
• the barriers to implementation and how some districts have overcome those
barriers
Scope of the Studv
This study was designed to examine music education instructional practices
in Kindergarten through third grade classrooms in a descriptive and analytical
format. The focus was on 1) instructional practices, 2) how national, state, and local
policies are reconciled with instruction, and 3) how districts work to implement a
comprehensive music education program.
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The research methods for this study were primarily qualitative. A
comprehensive survey provided the foundation for analysis of what music education
is currently being taught in primary classrooms. The survey was followed by
interviews with teachers and administrators. Lengthy, in-depth interviews were
taped with permission to increase accuracy of analysis. A second survey was
conducted to study the perceptions of teachers and administrators on the extent of
critical factors in their own setting.
Justification for Qualitative Research Design
There are several traditions of qualitative research. One of these is the case
study. A case study is conducted to illuminate a phenomenon, which may be a
person, a group, an event, or a process (Borg & Gall, 1996). A second and newer
type of qualitative research is evaluation research which is described as “an
important tool in policy analysis, the political decision-making process, and in
program management” (Borg & Gall, 1996). The results of an evaluation study can
be used in guiding future decision-making on policies, their implementation, and
their impact.
This study blended the case study with the evaluation study to focus on music
education in primary classrooms and the impact and implementation of policies
regarding music education.
Sample Population
This study examined the extent of music education in Kindergarten through
third grade classrooms and linked the instructional practices with the California
Framework for Visual and Performing Arts. The study examined a diverse group of
schools and districts with the following characteristics:
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Urban
Suburban
Rural
All ethnicities
All language groups
All ranges of Base Revenue Limits
Title 1 and non-Title 1 districts
Districts with API scores from 1 to 10
Districts of fewer than 100 students to
more than 25,000 students
All K-8 districts (n =35) within the San Joaquin valley portion of Kem
County were invited to participate in this research. The proximity of the districts
within the San Joaquin valley allowed the researcher better communication and
availability for face-to-face interviews. Several districts declined to participate,
frequently districts with fewer than 100 students. Some elected to participate in only
one phase of the study. Analysis of the participating districts determined that there
were representatives in each of the following categories as shown below in Table 3:
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Table 3
Participating Districts
N=21
SCHOOL
DISTRICT
COMPREH1
SURV1
ENSIVE
EY
CRITICAL
FACTORS
SURVEY
n=209
INTERVIEWS
Fall
n=231
Spring
n=362
Administrator
s
n=l 1
Teachers
n=32
A X X
B X X X X
C X
D X X
E X X X X
F X
G X X
H X
I X X X
J X
K X
L X X
M X X X X
N X
P X
Q
X X X
R X
S X X X
T X X
U X X
V X X X
KCSOS X
Total
Districts
12 9 7 7 10
The elementary (K-8) school districts in Kem County range in size from Blake
District, with an enrollment of 13 students, to the largest elementary district in
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California, Bakersfield City School district, with over 27,000 students. The student
enrollment of participating districts is shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Participating Districts bv Enrollment
Enrollment
Comprehensive
Survey
Critical
Factors
Interview:
Administrators
Interview:
Teachers
Fewer than 2,000
students
N=9
9 2
1 4
Between 2001 -7,000
students N=10
10 4 16
More than 7,001
students
N=2
2 2
5 12
Districts were assured that their participation (or lack of participation) would remain
confidential. Of the districts under 7,000 enrollment that chose to participate in the
study, all Kindergarten through third grade teachers (n =939) received the
Comprehensive Survey. In the districts with greater than 7,000 students, eight
schools were randomly chosen to participate in each district and all K-3 teachers in
those schools received the Comprehensive Survey (n =334). A total of 1273
Comprehensive Classroom Surveys were distributed in twenty-one districts. The
response rate of the Comprehensive Classroom Survey was 46%. Confidentiality
was assured all teachers and administrators who participated in surveys and
interviews.
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Instrumentation
Instrument design
The Comprehensive Classroom Survey was developed by the researcher
during the summer and fall of 1998. The researcher consulted with several other
researchers and participants in two national arts education research projects, and the
National Center for Educational Statistics, "Elementary School Arts Education
Survey of 1994.” The President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities and Arts
Education Partnership, "Gaining the Arts Advantage” document was the basis for the
Critical Success Factors Survey. Both of the national studies had included all four
areas of arts education (music, dance, theater, and visual arts) in their projects. This
researcher sought and received help in narrowing the focus to music education, and
then refining the lens to focus on music education in Kindergarten through third
grade.
To answer the first research question. "What does elementary classroom
music education in Kindergarten through third grade look like in Kem County,
California?” the researcher developed the “Comprehensive Survey of Classroom
Music Education.” This survey included demographic data about the teachers, their
length of service, their background in music, their preservice preparation to teach
music in the classroom, professional development in music education while teaching,
music education resources available to them in their classrooms, their music
education practices in their classrooms, preparation to teach classroom music, self-
reported competence in teaching classroom music, policies that influence their music
instruction, individuals or groups that influence their music instruction, their goals
for their students in music education, and personal opinions about obstacles and how
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to overcome obstacles. The three-page survey was designed for legibility and ease of
responding. On the advise of the designers of the other surveys, close attention was
paid to the professional appearance of the instrument.
With the Comprehensive Survey as a background, the researcher developed
the Interview instruments, detailed and brief, for teachers and for administrators, to
amplify the findings of the survey. The interview framework probed for additional
information to support or refute data collected in the Comprehensive Survey.
The second research question asked, “How do districts reconcile the policies
of Goals 2000, the National Standards in Arts Education, and the 1996 Visual and
Performing Arts Framework (California) with the music education practices in their
elementary classrooms?” The Comprehensive Survey asked the teachers to evaluate
the importance of these policy documents to their instructional practices. The
administrators at the site level and district level were queried about their decisions
about and levels of support for music education through textbooks, instructional
materials, professional development, and encouragement of teachers who exhibit
exemplary practices in classroom music education.
“What strategies for change in curriculum and teaching do districts foresee
that would assist in the implementation of those arts education policies?” was the
third research question. Teachers, site administrators, and district administrators
were interviewed using both the “Brief Interview” and the “Detailed Interview”
frameworks to investigate this question. Responses were carefully screened and
categorized for evaluation (Silverman, 1993). Teachers also responded in the “Any
additional comments” section of the Comprehensive Survey.
To answer the fourth research question, “What are barriers to implementation
and how have some districts overcome these barriers?” the researcher again used the
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interview frameworks to gather most of the data. Responses on the Comprehensive
Survey were also used. Data analyzed from the Critical Factors Survey was of
assistance. A similar system of coding and analysis was employed to interpret the
data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Development of Data Collection Instruments
This study used seven instruments for gathering data. The researcher
developed the instruments by modifying models from national arts education
research projects. The instruments were field-tested in districts outside of Kern
County in the fall of 1998 and spring of 1999. The instruments were amended by the
researcher with the advice of teachers and administrators to clarify directions,
questions, and responses.
Table 5 displays the relationship between the data collection instruments and
the four research questions. Some instruments provided data for more than one
research question.
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Table 5
The relationship between research questions and data collection instruments
Data Collection
Instruments
RQ1
State of K-3
music in
schools
RQ2
Reconcile
practices with
policy
RQ3
Strategies for
change
RQ4
Overcoming
barriers
Comprehensive
Classroom Survey
X X X
Brief Teacher Interview X X X X
Detailed Teacher
Interview
X X X
Brief Principal Interview X X X
Detailed Principal
Interview
X X X X
District Personnel
Interview
X X X
Critical Factors Survey X X X
Comprehensive Classroom Survey A comprehensive survey was developed
for general classroom teachers in kindergarten through 3rd grade. This instrument
provided insight into what is actually taught in music education throughout the
county, where the curriculum is developed, and what policies influence the
implementation of the curriculum. Both quantitative and qualitative data was
available from the surveys. This survey was based on the Elementary School Arts
Education Survey conducted in 1994 by the National Center for Education Statistics,
Washington, D.C. (NCES, 1994). The purpose of the national survey was to find out
the teachers perceptions of the extent of arts education instruction, the effect of
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various national, state and local policies and standards o f arts education on
instruction, the support for arts education in the schools, and barriers to
implementing a comprehensive and effective arts education programs in elementary
schools, grades Kindergarten through eight.
For the purpose of this study, the NCES survey was rewritten and revised to
focus on music education only, and instruction in Kindergarten through third grade
only. The resulting Comprehensive Survey was piloted in two school districts
outside of Kern County. It was revised to provide a clearer focus on the research
questions and to remove some ambiguity in the former instrument. In the
Background Information section, teachers were asked to fill in grade level, years
teaching, personal background in music and music performance. The School
Information section had teachers check the availability of music textbooks, materials,
equipment, performances, and curriculum guides. The third section of the survey
focused on policies and individuals who influence the music education they provide
in their classrooms. These responses were obtained on a Likert scale of four
(Considerable, Moderate, Small, None). The section on Professional Development
asked teachers to check off the preservice and inservice training they have received
in teaching classroom music. The teachers were also asked to provide names of
programs and activities they would find beneficial. The final section of the survey
asked teachers to list days per week and minutes per weeks they taught music in their
classrooms, to rank the importance of instructional practices and activities, and rank
the importance of equipment and materials. The teachers were also asked to check
statements that applied to their music instruction, list their goals for music education,
and write briefly about obstacles to music instruction.
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Critical Factors Survey A second survey was developed from the 1999 report
from the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities and Arts Education
Partnership, '‘Gaining the Arts Advantage: Lessons from School Districts that Value
Arts Education” (PCAH, 1999a). The survey used in this study was constructed to
measure the teachers and administrators perceptions of the strengths of the music
education programs across school districts. Again, the focus was shifted to music
education in Kindergarten through third grade. The thirteen “critical factors”
developed by the national study were framed as statements about music education in
the respondents’ own school and district. The responses were given on a Likert scale
of one to five, a response of one denoting that that factor was NOT present in their
school or district and a response of five indicated that the factor is strongly
supported in their school or district. Scores in between indicate gradations of support
for that factor. After the pilot study, two questions were rewritten to remove
ambiguity. The factors include: 1.) Community support for music education, 2.)
School board support for music education, 3.) The superintendent’s support for
music education, 4.) Continuity of district/site support for music education, 5.) The
district music coordinator, 6.) A cadre of principals within the district supporting
music education, 7.) The music teacher as a musician, 8.) Parent/public relations, 9.)
An elementary foundation of music education, 10.) Opportunities for higher levels of
student achievement in music, 11.) National, state, and other outside forces in music
education and instruction, 12.) Planning for music education, and lastly, 13.)
Continuous improvement of the music education program.
Superintendent Interview Guide The Superintendent Interview Guide was a
two-page document based on the NCES study and the PC AH study “Gaining the
Arts Advantage”. Again, the guide was piloted outside of Kern County, and then
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refined to focus more directly on the research questions. Four superintendents in
Kern County were interviewed to study the superintendents’ perceptions of the extent
of music instruction in primary grades within their respective districts.
Principal Interview Guide Very similar to the Superintendents’ Interview
Guide, this instrument focused more directly on “where the rubber meets the road” in
music instruction: reconciling the policies with educational practices, and
overcoming barriers to implementing the policies.
Teacher Interview Guides Two types of interviews were conducted. A short,
to-the-point “Brief Interview” was conducted to focus on the specific research
questions. This interview reviewed some of the questions from the Comprehensive
Survey and then included open-ended questions that led the teachers to reflect
directly on the research questions. This interview guide was pilot-tested on four
teachers in three coastal districts and then refined. The brief interview guide focused
on expanding the data from the Comprehensive Survey. Broad-ranging, lengthy,
open-ended interviews were also conducted; their purpose was to gain additional
insights into the implementation of music curriculum and teaching strategies and
how schools and districts have overcome some of the barriers to comprehensive
music education in Kern County primary classrooms. These interviews lasted
between forty-five minutes to two hours. With permission, lengthy interviews were
tape recorded to increase accuracy of data. Some interviews were summarized rather
than transcribed. The interviews were also augmented with observational data, such
as body language, emotions, and surroundings.
Archival Data In addition to the data gathering instruments described above,
archival data was obtained from the California Basic Educational Data Systems
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(CBEDS), the Kem County Superintendent of Schools office, and the California
Department of Education, Office of Curriculum.
Data Collection
Contacting Districts and Schools
All districts were contacted personally by the researcher, either by phone or
by visiting the district offices. The researcher attempted to contact the
superintendent directly, although in several cases the secretary handled
communication. When contacting the principals, the researcher affirmed that the
superintendent had given permission for the district to be included in the study. In
several cases the superintendent had previously notified site staff of the study and his
or her support of the project. Again, confidentiality was stressed.
Procedures for Data Collection
Qualitative research methods to be used in this study are consistent with
designs by Patton (1990). Silverman, (1993), and Strauss & Corbin (1990). The first
set of data was collected from the county office and districts early in the fall o f 1998.
The school site and teacher data was collected in the spring of 1999. Interviews were
held during the 1999-2000 school year, as personnel were available. A follow-up
survey of Critical Factors was distributed in the spring o f2000. Data collection
consisted of gathering state and national music and arts education policies, policies
of selected districts, interviewing district personnel involved with curriculum
development and administration; interviewing school site personnel including
principals, curriculum specialists, and classrooms teachers; interviewing classroom
music specialists as available and surveying additional teachers and principals as
needed.
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Phases and Activities of Data Collection
Data collection was conducted in several phases. Phase one involved
gathering national and state arts education policies and conducting a review. The
sample population (Kern County) was chosen. Phase one concluded with the
framing of the research questions, restated here:
I. Practices: What does elementary classroom music education in Kindergarten
through third grade look like in Kern County, California?
II. Policies: How do districts reconcile local, state and national music education
policies with the instructional practices in their elementary classrooms?
III. Strategies: What strategies for change in curriculum and teaching do districts
foresee that would assist in the implementation of music education policies?
IV. Implementation: What are barriers to implementation that face school
districts and how have some districts overcome barriers to implementation?
Phase two began the active data collection from districts, schools, and
teachers. The Comprehensive Survey was distributed to primary teachers in twenty-
one districts. Twelve districts received the survey in the fall and an additional nine
districts received the survey in the spring.
The third phase involved the interviewing of superintendents, assistant
superintendents of curriculum and instruction, and other district personnel involved
in music education curriculum and policy as available. This phase was conducted
immediately following the distribution of the Comprehensive Surveys. Next,
selected site personnel, including the principal, curriculum specialist, classroom
music specialist, instrumental music teacher, and classroom teachers in elementary
grades, were also interviewed as available.
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Phase four of data collection was the distribution and collection o f the
“Critical Factors Survey” which was distributed to primary teachers and
administrators in seven districts.
Confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the study in order for
respondents to have assurance that their participation and responses would not be
disclosed. As part of the interview process, the persons being interviewed were
informed what the information was being collected for, how it would be handled, the
purpose for the collection of data, and how the data will be used. Given that
interviews can be highly personal and have the propensity to open up what is inside
people, a qualitative study may be more intrusive and involve more reactivity than
surveys, tests, or other quantitative approaches (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Silverman,
1993). The researcher bore this in mind during interviews and during analysis of the
data.
Data collection concluded with the comprehensive comparison of strengths
and weaknesses o f the primary music education program with the “critical factors”
delineated in “Gaining the Arts Advantage”.
Data Analysis
"Analysis makes clear to researchers what would have been most important
to study, if only they had known beforehand."
-From Halcolm's Laws o f Evaluation Research a la Murphy
This section explains how the data was organized, analyzed, and interpreted.
First, the Comprehensive Survey was distributed to approximately half of the
districts in Kem County in the spring of 1999, with the remainder delivered in the
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fall of 1999. The results of the survey were entered into a computer database, from
which a variety of reports was generated. The analysis of the reports indicated that
some areas needed further examination, which became the basis of the interview
frameworks.
Next, the researcher interviewed teachers and administrators throughout the
districts to clarify results of the Comprehensive Survey, and to further illuminate the
research questions. The brief interviews were evaluated on a scoring guide and
entered into a second database. The lengthy interviews were analyzed and evaluated
based on the research questions. When further questions arose, the researcher
returned to the schools for clarification.
Finally, a second survey, the Critical Success Factors survey, was distributed
to approximately half of the districts that had participated in the Comprehensive
Survey. The data from this second survey was entered into another database and
reports were generated. In several instances, this data conflicted with previous data,
necessitating additional phone calls to principals and several teachers. This
phenomenon o f conflict between actual practices and perceptions of practices
corroborated the observations in the NCES study that instructional practices do not
always reflect the perceptions of the implementation of the programs (Carey, et al.,
1995).
Summary
This chapter discussed the research methodology used for this study. This
included a description of the sample and population, instrumentation, and data
collection methods used. Data collection instruments included surveys, brief
interviews, lengthy interviews, archival data, and extensive notes by the researcher.
Procedures included interviews of district administrators, principals, support staff
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and teachers, and two surveys of teachers and site personnel. Data analysis included
organization o f the data using databases, and transcription and summarization of
interviews and researcher’s notes.
Chapter IV will present the findings and results of the research, which
address the research questions.
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NOTE TO USERS
Page(s) missing in number only; text follows. The
manuscript was microfilmed as received.
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u m t
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA AND FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present the data and findings of the study.
The study examined music education in Kindergarten through third grade in Kem
County, California, and the relationship o f national, state, and local policies to
instructional practices. The data consist of surveys o f teachers and administrators in
twenty-one K-8 school district. Interviews o f teachers and administrators in ten
districts are included in the study. Data also consist of observations made by the
researcher. The data include archival records of K-8 districts in Kem County
available on the Internet and from the Kem County Superintendent of Schools office.
Table 6 shows that the 593 teachers participating in the study are almost
equally divided by grade level, with no grade level having a significantly greater
representation in the study than any other grade.
Table 6
Comparison o f participation of teachers
bv grade level
Grade Level
Percent of teachers
participating
n=593
Kindergarten
n=154
26%
First Grade
n=160
27%
Second Grade
n=142
24%
Third Grade
n=137
23%
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Research Question One; Music education In
Kindergarten Through Third Grade in Kern County
Framework for Research Question One
The first research question asked, “What does elementary classroom music
education in Kindergarten through third grade look like in Kem County, California?
Five primary sources o f information were used to address this question: (a) the
Comprehensive Classroom Teacher Survey o f teachers in twenty-one K-8 districts in
Kem County, (b) follow-up interviews with teachers in ten districts, (c) observations
of music instruction in classrooms in three districts, (d) the Comprehensive Music
Specialist survey and/or interview of music specialists in four districts, and (e) in-
depth and brief interviews with eleven administrators in six districts and the Kem
County Superintendent of Schools office.
Findings for Research Question One
A broad picture of the scope of music education in primary classrooms in
Kem County emerges in several categories that will be discussed in depth
individually:
• Who teaches music to primary children, the general classroom teacher, a music
specialist, or a combination of both?
• How many minutes per week do student receive music instruction?
• What is the distribution of materials for teaching music?
• How prepared to teach music do general classroom teachers feel?
• What policies or documents do teachers refer to for support in teaching music?
• What individuals or groups to teachers turn to for support in teaching music?
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The delivery of music instruction in primary classrooms in Kem County.
The table below indicates the responses to the Comprehensive Classroom
Survey where teachers were asked to indicate who actually delivers the classroom
music instruction.
Table 7
Comparison of delivery o f music instruction
Person delivering instruction: Percent
By a music specialist only 17%
By a combination of classroom teacher and music specialist 22%
By general classroom teacher only 59%
Survey results indicate that in Kem County most primary grade students
receive their music instruction from their general classroom teacher. Four of the
twenty-one districts participating in this study have music specialists who teach in
the primary grades in varying instructional models. Three districts provide music
specialists who rotate among the classes at the primary level, usually serving several
schools. One district provides a specialist at each of two schools in the district.
Music specialists providing music instruction.
Music specialists in one district are each assigned to serve approximately one
thousand students from Kindergarten through sixth grade with general classroom
music. Almost all students in the district are served by a music specialist. Some of
the music specialists who provide instruction in the primary classes also provide
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instrumental and/or vocal instruction at the intermediate or junior high level. These
specialists noted that class size reduction in the primary grades has made it easier for
them to teach, although now there are more classes and their schedules are frequently
crowded and inflexible. Activities, such as moving to music, playing Orff
instruments, and song-games, are easier with fewer students in each class. Several
teachers noted that at times two classes are doubled up because of scheduling
conflicts caused by busy school calendars. With the smaller class size, students have
more opportunities for participation and the specialists can vary the content for a
wider range of activities. These music specialists develop their own curriculum for
Kindergarten and first grade and utilize the textbook series provided by the district
for grades 2 and 3, supplemented by teacher-provided materials, such as special
instruments from other cultures, books, and CDs. They meet regularly with their
supervisor, who is cooperative and supportive of their needs. All indicated that they
are familiar with the California Visual and Performing Arts Framework and have
internalized the components of the Music section. Several also refer to The
California Arts Project (TCAP) for support in curriculum development and
instructional practices, while all rely most heavily on their own personal experience
teaching classroom music.
A second district has two music specialists instructing Kindergarten through
sixth grade classroom music and after school music programs in two elementary
schools, with enrollment at approximately 760 at one school and 930 at the other.
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Both are Performing Arts Magnet schools. Each music specialist has a music room
and classroom instruments with which to teach. The teachers are assigned
exclusively at one site. Both schools provide extended day music activities. The
remaining thirty-three elementary schools in the district do not have music specialists
for classroom music.
Teachers in schools with music specialists were generally enthusiastic about
having a music teacher. The teachers recognize that the music teachers have
extensive training and background in music and are hired to focus on that one area of
specialization.
The music specialist at our school is a true professional. The students are
100% engaged in the lessons, whether it is about a particular style of music,
rudimentary note-reading, singing or playing song-games. I frequently just
sit in the back and watch rather than go in the workroom for my prep period
(District M, Teacher 21c).
I am so grateful to be teaching in a district that supports the music program
with a financial commitment, not just a lot of talk. I mean, they hire real
music teachers... I don’t know tweek about music, so it’s really important if
they’re going to get music they get it from someone who knows how to teach
it (District F, Teacher 3c).
Occasionally a teacher responded that taking “time out from much-need
instruction” was not beneficial to students. One teacher who was interviewed at
length did recognize that the students returned to class “much more willing to work
after their music period.” This teacher admired the music teacher’s ability to lead the
children “like the Pied Piper” with few discipline problems. The enthusiasm of the
students was linked to the music teacher’s “charisma” and the “fun and games” they
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played during the music class, not to the instructional practices of the music teacher
or music content of the lessons. While opinions such as this were rarely voiced, one
music specialist noted that some teachers seemed to “regularly forget their music
time.” (District M, Teacher 2c)
Music instruction from classroom teachers.
While most teachers are enthusiastic about the music instruction that their
students receive from music specialists, many general classroom teachers who are
responsible for providing music instruction expressed the general feeling of fatigue.
This weariness was most apparent in schools that have the lowest API scores and
where teachers are feeling the greatest pressure to bring the scores up “or else.” The
teachers express this pressure in several ways: some are working together vigorously
with other teachers and their administrators to bring about deep internal change in
the values of the school and the values of the parents and students; some are opting
to transfer to schools — and districts - with higher scores and less pressure; and
others are considering leaving teaching. Still other teachers apparently close the
door and “keep on keeping on” with little contact with the community at large.
In our school the classroom teachers provide all of everything. We do not
have any support in the areas of music, art, science, or PE. We are also
struggling with old facilities, lack of materials, lack of parental support, and
general lack of morale. The demographics have changed dramatically since I
came here. We have so many dysfunctional ‘families’ that when you teach,
you can’t make assumptions that the kids know anything other than what is
on TV — and it’s lots o f violence in the home too... I wouldn’t encourage
any young teacher to stay here. I’m trapped because I would lose too much
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[salary] now if I moved to another district. I would like to teach music and
art. I know these are important to all kids, but maybe even especially to the
ones here. I didn’t even know there was a new Framework in 1996. Look,
it’s not even new, and I haven’t seen it. I think of myself as keeping up with
what’s going on in education, I read the newspaper, and I watch the news on
TV. I think I’m a good teacher. Right now, though, I’m a very frustrated
good teacher! (District B, Teacher 11c).
I love teaching music to my class. I have had eighteen students the past two
years in second grade and they have done amazing things. Our school, on the
whole, scores very poorly on the Stanford tests... I just can’t let that prevent
me from bringing some light into their little lives. The living situations - 1
can’t call some of them ‘homes’ - are frequently very dismal with very little
hope or joy. I know I can bring laughter with some of the song-games we
play... We learn a lot about cooperation and kindness through our music
time. My little ones need that so desperately. If this is ‘depriving’ them of
scoring up at the 15th percentile, instead of the 10th percentile, so be it. Either
score will make the public think they are failures... So I teach music
anyway ...(District I, Teacher 8c).
Teaching music is my favorite part of the day. I started as a kindergarten
teacher and we sang a lot. I noticed that kids remembered the things all year
long, even when we hadn’t sung that song for months. I have developed a
way of singing and dismissing the students to centers so that everything runs
smoothly. Kids at any grade need to have music (District D, Teacher 6c).
Many teachers expressed resignation regarding the teaching of music in their
schools. Their body language indicated that they were uncomfortable when
discussing how little time they have to spend on music.
Minutes per week of music instruction.
The total number of minutes per week of music instruction varies greatly not
only across the county, but within districts and within schools as well. Table 8
shows a breakdown of the percentage of teachers who instruct a certain number of
minutes each week.
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Table 8
Minutes of music education per week
Number of minutes
of music instruction
per week
Percent of
classroom teachers
at that number of
minutes
Number of minutes
of music instruction
per week
Percent of
classroom teachers
at that number of
minutes
Wrote “0” or
“None”
15% 45 minutes 4%
Left blank 21% 50 minutes 5%
10 minutes 1% 60 minutes 10%
IS minutes 7% 75 minutes 2%
20 minutes 7% 90 minutes 12%
30 minutes 10% 100 minutes 2%
40 minutes 4%
In the process of interviewing teachers, several teachers admitted to leaving the
number of minutes blank rather than fill in “none” out of an embarrassment for not
teaching music to their students. The teachers expressed regret in the interview, one
teacher on the verge of tears, as they admitted that they feel compelled to omit
music, art and P.E. in order to provide more time for reading and math instruction.
Number of davs per week of music instruction.
In some schools, teachers use a “mixing” program where the students rotate
through several subjects each week, music being one of the classes once a week. In
other schools, teachers may choose to teach a little bit each day, or a longer lesson
once a week. In still others, music specialists teach every other week, with
expectations that the classroom teacher will supplement the instruction on the week
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that the specialist is not there. Table 9 indicates the number of days per week that a
percentage of classrooms receive music instruction.
Table 9
Number of davs of music instruction per week
Days per week of
music instruction
Percent of
classroom
teachers
Days per week of
music instruction
Percent of
classroom
teachers
Wrote “0” or
i4 None”
18% Three days 6%
Left blank 20% Four days 2%
One day 18% Five days 26%
Two days 10%
The table shows that one quarter of primary classrooms receive music instruction of
some sort every day. Eighteen percent have only one day of instruction, the same
percent of classes that have no instruction.
In schools where there is a music specialist, the time allotted for primary
classes is usually 25 minutes every other week. Many classroom teachers in those
schools do not provide any additional instruction in music. Other teachers follow up
on the lessons with supporting activities in the weeks in between, using the music
specialist as a resource.
In the schools with no music specialist each grade level did vary greatly in
the amount of time and number of days of music instruction by the classroom
teacher. In general, more time and more days are spent in kindergarten for music
than at other grade levels. There is not much variation between first, second and
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third grades in average number of minutes, but the number of days is less in third
grade. Some districts have a set schedule of time allotted per subject area and
administrators monitor lesson plans to ensure adherence to the schedule. Other
districts and administrators do not monitor time spent on music instruction. "Our
district is requiring music and art be covered along with science and PE in one 75
minute per week time slot. Integrating all four areas is not easy” (District D,
Teacher 5a).
Other districts seem to emphasize reading and math, and while most do not
openly discourage teaching music, it is observed by teachers in many districts that
the administrators are not checking for the inclusion of music, or art and PE, in some
cases. "Music is not a priority at this time in our district” (District S, Teacher 65b).
One teacher lamented in April, "This is my first year of teaching. So far I haven’t
heard anything about music. I do teach some songs, but I’m not sure if that is music
education. I don’t know how to teach music” (District S, Teacher 40b). Several
teachers in far-flung districts wrote on their survey the exact same response: "All we
do is sing occasionally” Districts A, B, D, H, I, P, U, V).
In several situations, teachers are uneasy about teaching music. "We teach
when the principal is off campus. We are uncomfortable teaching music” (District I,
Teacher 4b). There is an unwritten policy in several districts that they are to
concentrate on teaching reading and math. Another teacher stated, “There is a shift
from a well-rounded education to an emphasis on reading and math. There is a push
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to raise test scores” (District T, Teacher 120b). Even when teachers feel they will
not be chastised for teaching music, some feel indirectly discouraged. “I do see the
need for having the arts in the primary grades. However, our district has instructed
us to spend most of the day with language arts and an hour minimum with math. I
integrate music and art when I can” (District D, Teacher 12b). One teacher
responded, “I teach flutophones to my entire grade level for 6 weeks, devoting 15-20
per day three times a week for music during that period. The rest of the year there is
very little music here.” (District Q, Teacher 5a) In addition, teachers in at least
three schools where the instrumental music teacher provides the instruction on
flutophone considered that instruction to be the complete music program for the
students at that grade level, "therefore music is not in my objectives in my
classroom.” (District B, Teacher 6b) For the entire year the flutophone instruction is
the sole music program for those students.
On the other hand, there are schools that are carving out time and space for
music education. Using a “mixing” type of model is common across the county.
Our school groups by grade level after lunch and the teachers in each grade
level with the most music background teach music to all the classes at the
grade level. The classes rotate Monday through Thursday for 45 minutes of
music, art, PE, and science. We feel we are doing the best we can. We also
enlist the help of parents and grandparents for all these subjects. (District G,
Teacher 11c)
Several teachers reported that parents and grandparents have provided some music
lessons, but that it is not as consistent year after year as when a music specialist is
hired to do the job.
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Some teachers report that they feel their efforts to bring music and art to their
students is fully supported by the administration. Teachers are very enthusiastic
when they report their administrators thank them for their efforts in art and music
instruction.
Our administrators are awesome. They are all supportive of our efforts to
bring guest musicians and artists on the campus. We have been given
additional supplies the past two years by the [parent club]. Now even the
primary classes put on performances for the whole school. The parents have
been very enthusiastic. (District M, Teacher 82b)
More teachers report that for music education to be effective in their schools,
the site administrators are key to the success of the programs. Other teachers may
not have additional materials but they report "a change in the attitudes here regard
music and art instruction in the past two years. We have six new teachers on
campus, not all in primary, and they have generated a lot of enthusiasm for teaching
music in new and creative ways. Consequently I think that all of us will increase the
amount of time teaching music next year when we have the new music materials.”
(District B, Teacher 41c)
Textbooks and materials for music instruction.
The 1999-2000 school year was the “official” year to adopt new music
textbooks in the seven year cycle of state funding for textbooks. In cycles past,
many schools had chosen to “roll over the funding” to the following school year, and
then spend it on computers, science materials, and other supplies rather than on the
music (and art) textbooks for which the funds were allotted. During the 1999-2000
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school year, however, of the twenty-nine districts in this study, twenty-one had made
purchases of new textbooks. Three districts piloted textbooks during that same time
with intent to purchase textbooks during 2000-2001. Six districts were “considering
their options” regarding textbooks. Teachers and administrators were embarrassed
when asked the copyright date of their previous music textbooks:
Our music textbooks were brand new when I started teaching here in 1979.
We were given textbooks for every other student and a set of long playing
records. Somewhere around 1990 they were collected over a summer and
never made it back into the classrooms. Now we are getting texts for every
third student due to class size reduction, and we have CDs and a boom box.
We absolutely skipped the cassette tape generation! Of course, the stereos
have a cassette player in them, but who’s going to use them now? (District T,
Teacher 143b).
No district reported purchasing music textbooks for each child. Several
districts allotted textbooks based on the enrollment in each school. A common
“formula” was one classroom set of thirty books, one teachers edition, and one set of
CDs per grade level for schools under a certain number, varying from 450 to 600
students, with a second set when the enrollment went over the designated number.
Even in schools with two sets for a grade level, class size reduction has increased the
number of primary classrooms so that not all teachers had an opportunity to use the
new materials.
We were so excited to have new materials last fall... We made up a rotation
chart for the art and music textbooks, and I think it actually worked for a
while. But then, a teacher who had used them at the beginning of the year
saw how well they fit in with a unit of language arts in January and borrowed
the books ‘out of sequence.’ As a result, two teachers had them only a short
time, a matter of a couple of weeks, and I never did get to use them. I’m
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going to be assertive next year and demand to use them from the get-go
(District B, Teacher 24c).
Teachers in one district where classroom music is taught by a specialist
complained in the survey that the specialist keeps one set locked up in the music
room, and the second set must serve all five or six classrooms at each grade level.
The specialist sees each class once every other week. The classroom teachers
expressed interest in using the new materials.
Teachers who had an opportunity to use the new textbooks were generally
pleased with the materials. They felt that the songs are more relevant to their
students than the old materials they had been using. This was the general consensus
even though districts purchased different music series. Only two music series have
been approved for purchase with state textbook funds.
I am very excited to have the new materials. I spent one week of Christmas
vacation studying the teachers’ edition [of the music text] and planned
various activities for the rest of the school year. I don’t know anything about
music so I am learning a lot as I go. The principal says the textbook is
'‘ teacher proof’ so I guess I can’t really make any serious mistakes. The
textbook was recommended highly by teachers in another district that piloted
it last year. They say it includes a lot of the [California] Framework [for
Visual and Performing Arts]. (District B, Teacher 41c)
There are some districts that have waited to study the implementation of the
materials in other districts before making their selections. Teachers are concerned
that this is what has happened in the past when no materials were ever purchased.
Some teachers are skeptical about the district’s intent to purchase new music
textbooks.
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I have been at this school for eighteen years and have never had sufficient
materials or training to teach music in the classroom. Now the excuse [for
delaying the purchase of music materials] is that our students need only
reading and math because their test scores are so low. When do we educate
the children? (District T, 143b)
Most districts are replacing record players with “boom boxes” that can play
cassette tapes and CDs. The distribution of the boom boxes varies by district. In
some districts, there is one district-purchased stereo per classroom, in others only
one for every four classrooms. Teachers frequently supplement with their own
stereo equipment. One district already had in-cabinet stereo components with
speakers permanently attached to the walls, and has added a CD unit to the system.
There are requests for additional materials and supplies beyond the textbooks
and CDs. Some teachers work hard to integrate music and art with other curricular
areas. At times these materials are purchased by parent support groups, at other
times by categorical funds and, less frequently, by district funds. Teachers have
expressed frustration with the lack of coordination of requesting additional materials.
“I have been trying very hard to get CDs that are appropriate. I have asked the upper
grade music teachers in our district for information, but nobody has ever gotten back
to me.” Other districts have a “focus person” on whom all staff members can call
for information and some supplies.
Since we only prepare a song for the Christmas program, I don’t have any
music materials in my classroom. I think some teachers might use the
materials (District T, Teacher 118).
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Teachers’ perceptions about their preparation to teach music in the classroom
Sometimes we sing; it’s the blind leading the blind in this classroom as far as
music goes (District S, Teacher 52a).
The preparation to teach classroom music, or in reality, the lack of
preparation, is a very sore spot for many teachers. The researcher was overwhelmed
by responses handwritten on the surveys in bold, all capital, and underlined with a
sentiment similar to this:
I am not prepared to teach music!! I am not a musician. 1 have not had
training! (Districts B, D. L, S, Tand V).
While not all respondents included all those statements, 60% of the teachers
responded that they had NOT received any music education training during their
student teaching preparation programs. Most indicated a willingness to receive
training but many are already overwhelmed by the requirements to obtain their
credentials.
O f the teachers who had received music education training 27% responded
that their teacher preparation program did NOT help them feel prepared to teach
music in the classroom. To clarify the concept of “prepared to teach music” the
researcher asked teachers if they felt they could attain their own “personal goals” for
music education. 45% of the teachers felt they were “moderately” or “fully” able to
meet their personal goals for teaching music in the classroom. Over two-thirds of
those teachers wrote that they relied on their personal training in music when they
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were in junior high and high school rather than on any training they received in their
teacher preparation programs.
When asked about the California Visual and Performing Arts Framework,
85% of the teachers responded that they did NOT feel prepared by preservice
training, inservice training while they have been teaching or personal experience to
meet the goals of the Visual and Performing Arts Framework. Only 9% of the
general classroom teachers responded that they felt prepared to meet the goals, and
6% did not respond to the question. Many of the teachers admitted that they had not
read the Framework and had no idea what the goals of the Framework are, but had
already concluded that their lack of training would preclude successful instruction to
meet the goals.
Teachers in only two districts reported any inservice or staff development
provided by the district during the past five years that included music. That training
was limited to integrating songs with social studies and language arts instruction, and
was not presented by a music specialist. Ten teachers reported voluntary
participation in classes at night or on the weekends. Only one district reported
paying for this participation. (Other teachers may have participated; only ten
responded on the survey.)
I don’t "teach” music. We “do” music (District S, Teacher 42b).
I’m not trained to teach music and I’m not comfortable with it (District T,
Teacher 122a).
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Music specialists, on the other hand, felt that their preparation was sufficient
to get them started in the right direction. Most responded that they continually (and
frequently voluntarily) attend inservices and conferences where they can leam new
skills and instructional practices. Most are members o f their local music educators
association, which also provides support and collaboration. They also attend state
and regional conferences which renew and energize their instruction. The specialists
feel they are equipped to competently instruct, but none felt they were attaining the
goals of the Framework. This dichotomy is explained by the limited amount of time
they are scheduled to spend with each class. All of the music specialists have over
600 students, and some have as many as 1200 students, to instruct.
Do you remember that old movie, ‘If it’s Tuesday, it must be Belgium’?
That’s the way I feel about my schedule. Frequently I survive only on auto
pilot. I can barely keep track of the teachers’ names... I want to be able to
call on students by their names, but it’s almost impossible. So, am I teaching
to meet the goals of the Framework? You bet! Are my students learning?
You bet! Are they meeting the goals? No way... (District M, Teacher 3c).
Policies and documents to which teachers refer for support in teaching music
in their classrooms.
Classroom teachers were asked to what extent do the following policy
statements influence their classroom music instruction. Table 10 shows the percent
of teachers who responded to each policy or document, whether national, state or
local.
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Table 10
Influence of national and local music education policy statements on classroom
music instruction
Considerable Moderate Small None
Goals 2000: Educate America
Act
1% 1% 11% 78%
National Standards for Arts
Education
1% 6% 16% 69%
California Visual and
Performing Arts Framework
6% 15% 23% 52%
District Policy on Music
Education
10% 13% 18% 54%
District Curriculum Guide
6% 11% 16% 61%
During teacher interviews, three teachers admitted checking off a policy in the
chart above because they were embarrassed to leave it blank when they felt they
should be guided by some sort of policy. Several districts did not have curriculum
guides for music or art. Many teachers were not aware of curriculum guides.
I’m embarrassed to say I have never looked inside the cover of the
framework. When I was in college, a professor held up a copy one time, but
that’s it (District B, Teacher 41c).
Education now is to prepare for ’the test,’ not fine arts, which are not tested.
I don’t think we [teachers] will really consider how or what we teach for
music until our students are going to be tested... It’s not that it’s not good
for students to listen to music and hear about music. If it was important, the
district would have a music teacher (District S, Teacher 9c)
I don’t have set goals for music; however they are exposed to daily listening
of classical music. It is always being played at a low tone as background
music (District C, Teacher 183b).
I have no goals for music. There are no state standards to have to meet
(District T, Teacher 167b).
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Of the music specialists surveyed, 90% responded that the Framework is very
important in the development of their lessons. The National Standards were rated as
'Very important” to their lessons by 80%. District policies were generally
considered weaker than either the National Standards or the California Framework
and were considered very little. District policies frequently included only a clause to
indicate that music instruction is included in elementary curriculum.
Groups or individuals classroom teachers turn to for support in teaching
music.
There are many individuals or groups willing and able to provide support to
teachers in their classroom music programs. Table 11 examines those groups and
compares how teachers rate the importance of their support.
Table 11
Individuals or groups providing support to teachers in music instruction
Considerable Moderate Small None
District Superintendent 3% 6% 10% 74%
Other district personnel 5% 9% 16% 63%
School Principal 8% 7% 23% 56%
School staff on site 12% 18% 22% 43%
Parents 3% 8% 18% 64%
Personal experience 51% 22% 12% 11%
Other: 1%
“Personal experience” was marked by 73% of the teachers as a
“considerable” or “moderate” o f support for their classroom music instruction.
Other staff on the school site were consulted by 30% of the teachers considerably or
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moderately. The district superintendent was marked only by teachers in small
districts where the superintendent actually has a presence on the school site.
O f the teachers who listed ‘‘personal experience” as a source of support for
teaching music in the classroom, 12% did not list any music experiences in
elementary, junior high, high school or college, either private music lessons or
participation in a music activity at school. This does not prove that they did not have
any music training, but only that they did not fill out that section of the survey asking
for background information in music experiences. In the random selection of teacher
interviews, the researcher did not find anyone who admitted to marking this. There
is no way of probing what these teachers consider their “personal experiences” that
so strongly support their music instruction.
Some teachers look through catalogs of teacher supplies or the local
educational supply store for music materials. Some take advice from the store clerks
on what sells best.
We sing Greg and Steve, and Raffi in our language arts program. We went to
the Greg and Steve concert last year. No formal music instruction other than
that (District C, Teacher 170b).
To be honest, I’ve never taken the time to think about it [asking someone
about music instruction] (District A, Teacher 3a).
Many teachers did ask the instrumental music teachers for support. The
instrumental teachers rarely had time to go into a classroom to do a demonstration
lesson, but most provided some assistance. In districts with music specialists in the
primary classroom, both classroom teachers and music specialists expressed
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frustration over the lack of time the teachers have together for planning or
coordination of instruction.
It is apparent that instruction in music in primary classrooms in Kem County
is widely inconsistent. There are several schools where students school-wide are
receiving excellent instruction in music that is aligned with the California Visual and
Performing Arts Framework (1996). There are many schools were individual
teachers are bringing music to the lives of the students in their classrooms with
competence and creativity. At the other end of the spectrum, there are many
teachers, and possibly entire schools, that are not instructing their students in even a
bare minimum of music education as defined by the state Framework. The vast
majority of students receive just enough music instruction to assuage the consciences
of the teachers and administrators.
Research Question Two: How do districts reconcile
policies with practices?
Framework for Research Question Two
The second research questions was, “How do districts in Kem County
reconcile the policies of Goals 2000, the National Standards in Arts Education, and
the 1996 Visual and Performing Arts Framework (California) with the music
education practices in their primary classrooms?” Initially there were two sources of
information to address this question: (a) Comprehensive Classroom Survey, (b)
interviews of site administrators, and (c) interviews o f district administrators.
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During the course of follow-up interviews with classroom teachers and music
specialists, it became apparent that other insights into the disparity between policy
and practice were available from those sources. That information is included in this
section.
Findings for Research Question Two
During the 1990s there was increased concern over the decline in
standardized test scores across the nation. In California, the Academic Performance
Index was constructed to provide educators and the general public a rating system to
compare the students’ performance at one school with the performance o f students at
another. With the publication of the API on the Internet in 1998, low performing
schools came under closer scrutiny by the California Department of Education and
the public at large. In a society that increasingly demands immediate gratification,
many district administrators have been forced to focus on implementing programs
that produce, or at least promise, immediate increase in scores on standardized tests.
All administrators and teachers interviewed for this study recognize that a
large number of students in Kem County are struggling with the academic “basics.”
All acknowledged that students must be able read and compute simple math
problems to survive in a world that is relying heavily on technology. The policies,
curriculum, and instructional practices to enable students to meet those goals are as
divergent as the populations the districts serve.
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Addressing the gaps between policies and practices.
Reconciliation of the gaps between the California Visual and Performing Arts
Framework (1996) and instructional practices across Kem County is in part a
function of the perception of the value of music education to the whole child. The
researcher observed that administrators, and to some degree teachers also, align with
three different viewpoints of the role that music education plays in the curriculum
and instruction of their school: Music education should be (a) omitted until test
scores are raised, (b) improved to reach students who leam in different ways, or (c)
continued with the current programs.
The Academic Performance Index It is very clear that burden of test scores
looms large in most districts in Kem County. Administrators in three districts
expressed frustration at being questioned about their music education programs at
this time. One stated that they have “more important things to do with students” to
keep the state from ‘taking over.” Another administrator used the analogy of dinner
and dessert, stating that '‘students have to have their meat and potatoes [reading and
math] before they can have dessert [music and art].” This administrator contended
that if they have dessert first, they will not have room for the “real food”.
Our school scored a 2 API for 1999 which means we have a long row to hoe
to bring scores up... Many of these students are English-leamers, and some
have difficulty expressing themselves in their first language [Spanish]. Their
life experiences are so limited that we feel we are starting at ground zero with
their education... We are concentrating on English and math because that’s
what these kids will need as adults (District B, Administrator 16c)
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We have to teach our students to speak English. That is Numero Uno around
here! (District B, Administrator 12c)
Two other administrators were visibly uneasy when asked about the
alignment of their music programs with the California Visual and Performing Arts
Framework. They responded with evasive answers that painted the image of music
education being out of their realm of control.
You know, I don’t really have any say about music education. Our school
board makes all the decisions about our programs. We have very low test
scores. The board is focusing on the test scores. We don’t want to be one of
those that is taken over and run by the state... We have to have programs to
bring up test scores. We can’t go for extra subjects right now (District S,
Administrator 2c).
We are in the process of completely revising our language arts programs in
all grade levels. The teachers are taking lots of classes to improve teaching
reading. We are trying to get parents involved... There are lots of important
changes taking place around our district. We have to work to get our
students to realize that school is work, not fun and games... It would be nice
if we had time and lots of money to have a music teacher (District B,
Administrator 3c).
Other administrators were ambivalent about their music instruction.
Lots of our teachers are still teaching music. They know that we have to
improve test scores and that’s the bottom line (District B, Administrator 12c).
Teachers in districts such as these reported that they are encouraged to forego
music, art and PE specifically to strengthen the language arts and math programs
(see discussion in Research Question One). Priorities for funding focus on
producing immediate test results. Funding for the arts, science, social studies, and
physical education has taken a back seat to literacy programs and math programs that
promise better test scores.
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I bring my own CD player and CDs to school so I can at least have some
music. I don’t think it’s what the state framework says. I’ve never read the
[Visual and Performing Arts] Framework. I almost feel like a traitor if I
teach music. On the other hand, I think students really should have a more
balanced education (District T, Teacher 6a).
Teachers like these agonize over following the instructions of their administrators or
following the traditional educational programs that includes the arts, science and P.E.
Some observe the passive faces of their students, not knowing if the students are
failing to understand because of a language barrier, or failing to care about the
instruction.
You can do lots of bells and whistles with reading. We try to make fancy
word walls to keep the children’s attention. We do dramatic readings of
stories. The teacher next door uses the new language literacy model. But I
think our students miss something when they don’t have the arts. Our
students just don’t know how to read or add or subtract (District S, Teacher
65b).
I used “Directed Art” in my classroom, even though it’s not really meeting
anything [art] in the Framework. Maybe it makes me feel better seeing all
the little projects on the walls. I can justify it because there is a lot of math
language development and geometry concepts taught in it... I don’t really
have anything for music. We are focused on the Stanford tests (District U ,
Teacher 89b).
I sure hope this is confidential because I could get in trouble for telling you
that we don’t teach music or art here. Isn’t it required by the state or county
or something? I don’t know the law. But it just doesn’t seem right teaching
only reading and math. Our district has to do better this year on the [state]
tests (District I, Teacher 7c).
I’m sorry I can’t help your project. We have to raise our test scores (District
S, Teacher 5c).
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Even districts that do allow some funding for these other subjects report that
the focus of their instructional time is on reading and math.
It would be really nice if we could teach art and music. I remember my third
and fourth grade classes, because we had lots of singing, square dancing, and
I remember painting a special ceramic tile for my mom for Mother’s Day. It
was really great... We can’t do that with the students we have now. We
don’t have that kind of time. Our scores are not good, and there is a lot of
pressure to produce... I wish I could say we will provide some music
instruction in the future, but I don’t think it’s realistic these days (District U ,
Teacher 86c).
Music as a Stimulus for Learning Several administrators stated that they are
now looking at arts education “in spite o f’ or ’‘because o f’ their API scores. Two
felt that research [gleaned from CSLA and professional literature] showed that the
arts can provide a “stimulus to learning for disenfranchised students.”
I will lobby for increasing the arts in my school because I don’t think we can
afford to leave it out. The arts have traditionally been an avenue out of
poverty for so many. California is a center for arts and entertainment...
From what I have read, schools that focus on arts education are able to bring
up test scores along with reducing behavior problems, graffiti, and
absenteeism. I’m all for giving it a try. What we’ve been concentrating on
for the past five years [reading and math] is not working (District C, Teacher
2c).
Arts are important for arts’ sake. Don’t tie it to math or reading. Learning
fine arts makes you a better person. Fine arts should be appreciated because
they are fine arts. I wonder, why do the arts have to take a back seat to other
areas? Our students need to have this chance too (District E, Administrator
1c).
One administrator recently made a public statement at the California Music
Educators Association state convention supporting music education for all students.
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He had a prepared speech, which he set aside after listening to two elected officials
speak before him.
I followed two politicians who essentially said the arts are okay, but test
scores have to come up first. I told the audience that if they look over there
[at the All State Honor Band performing at the convention] and see only band
students, they are missing the big picture. I see student body officers, varsity
athletes, special-needs students, honor roll students...because students who
participate in music are all these things (District Q, Administrator 1c).
This administrator recognizes the shortcomings of the music education program
currentiy within his district and is actively working to reinforce music in the primary
grades.
Another administrator expressed the immediate (2000-2001) intent to include
all students in comprehensive music and art education from kindergarten, not just
selected students in the upper elementary/junior high vocal and instrumental music
programs. Both of these administrators will be providing professional development
and mentoring in music and art for classroom teachers as part of their efforts to
expand the role of music and art education for their students.
Continuity of Programs Two other administrators felt their districts had
always made a commitment to excellence in the arts and that their API scores and
participation in junior high honor band, honor orchestra, and honor chorus
demonstrated their commitment. Both districts will continue to support music
instruction at the current level.
We have had a commitment to music education for many decades. It’s not a
new thing here. Our board is 100% behind our music programs. We have
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good materials, good facilities, and enthusiastic teachers (District M,
Administrator 2c).
These administrators believe that their music policy and programs meet the
criteria of the Framework. Teachers in one of these districts have voiced the
concern, discussed in Research Question One, that they do not have the capacity to
implement the programs without extensive and on-going professional development.
Yes, we do have materials, supplies, and equipment. But I’m not sure how to
teach with them. I really haven’t had any training in teaching music. It
would be very helpful if the district realized that having wonderful
curriculum, plenty of materials, and even clear goals does not mean that the
instruction that the students receive from their classroom teachers is effective
(District B. Teacher 213c).
Teachers in another district would like to see the specialists spend more time
with their students. They do not consider one period every other week to meet any
of the goals of the music program. If the classroom teacher is expected to provide
supplemental instruction in addition to the specialists, they need to be provided with
professional development. Another administrator in the same district seconded the
teachers.
We have a great program in vocal and instrumental music. An excellent
program across the district. What we need to bolster is the classroom music
program. The music specialists are spread incredibly thin and can’t provide
all the music instruction as it is structured now, but the classroom teachers
frequently do not pick up the instruction by themselves (District M,
Administrator 2c).
Are our students receiving music instruction aligned with the state
framework? I would like to think so. I know our music specialist is
completely prepared to fill the criteria, but the schedule is such that he is not
able to spend enough time with each class. So, really, no, they are not. Some
classroom teachers have a strong music background and they do a great job
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where the specialist leaves off. Other teachers are less knowledgeable
(District M, Administrator 5c).
Administrators are aware that even some of the better music programs can be made
better. The continuous support of the music programs remains a priority for these
districts.
Adding Programs to Close the Gaps Several districts are looking to expand
the “Arts in Education” programs in their schools to address the gaps between the
state framework and their instruction in the arts. The program, a collaborative effort
of the Arts Council of Kem and the Kem County Superintendent’s office, has
provided art, theater and dance instruction to mostly intermediate classrooms over
the past three years. The program will include music instruction for the first time
during the 2000-2001 school year. The AIE program focuses heavily on the
Historical/Cultural and Creative Expression components of the Framework. The
AIE program will supplement the new textbooks which the schools have purchased.
The Arts in Education program has been well received by our teachers and
our students. They were so excited to learn the Greek dances and Native
American arts. Their enthusiasm spilled over into other areas, such as
reading Greek myths and looking things up in the encyclopedia... Two
students known to be disruptive were admonished only during the first class.
After that they paid attention and were cooperative. I was very impressed
with the professionalism of the instructors. I think this program is a benefit
to all students (District B, Teacher 4c).
One o f the important features of the AIE program is that it focuses on the
historical and cultural links. These are important features of the program. It
makes our fine arts program more comprehensive (District B, Teacher 7c).
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The eleven districts participating in the AIE program during the 1999-2000 school
provided constructive feedback to the project coordinator who then introduced the
inclusion of music in the next year’s agenda. The participating classrooms benefit
from the professional program designed to meet needs that are sometimes awkward
for individual schools or districts to provide.
Assessment When teachers and administrators were asked about assessment
of students in music education, the researcher was most frequently met with blank
looks or a laugh.
Assessment in music? You’re kidding. It’s not on the report cards (District
U, Teacher 34b).
You mean give grades in music? I don’t think we do that in our district
(District T, Teacher 134b).
Music is our chance to relax and have fun. I’m not going to spoil it by giving
a test (District B, Teacher 4c).
It is clear that student outcomes of music education are very vague to the vast
majority of teachers, including several music specialists.
I see assessment meaning did the kids have a good time or perhaps can they
all sing a song together. My primary goal for my music instruction is for my
students to develop a love of music. If these students continue in
instrumental and vocal programs later on, they will make their own
assessments then. At this primary level, I just expect them to respond to
music (District B, Teacher 15c).
This specialist’s expectations of students coincides with the goals many classroom
teachers set for their students. Enjoyment was most frequently cited as a goal for
students. Appreciation for various types of music is also widely held as a goal.
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There were, however, teachers who responded that they have no goals, but that they
will develop them for next year now that they know they are expected.
My strongest goal would be a love of music and the willingness of students to
take part in it, enjoy it, and not feel inhibited about participating (District M,
Teacher 69b).
As districts develop curriculum guides and standards, assessments must be
developed to aid in the evaluation of their teaching as well as the progress of the
students.
Alignment of district music programs with California Framework.
In most districts, the alignment of content of their music program with the
Framework is largely textbook-driven. The purchase of new textbooks and support
materials is viewed as a concerted effort to align instruction with the Framework in
all but one district in this survey.
We chose textbooks that we feel best present the content of the Framework.
We also feel that these textbooks will meet the needs of our students (District
M, Teacher 67b).
Our [new] textbooks were purchased because they do align with the
Framework. This way we can insure that our teachers have materials that
conform to the state recommended standards. Our students will benefit from
a comprehensive program that covers all areas of music (District B,
Administrator 2c).
We cannot afford a textbook for each child, but will provided sufficient
books so that the materials can be rotated between classrooms effectively.
Each teacher is going to be provided with a teachers’ edition so that he or she
can plan effectively while another class is using the textbooks... The
teachers are excited because we will be providing them with up-to-date
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materials that they have been requesting for quite a while (District F, Teacher
17a).
Perhaps because so many districts had not updated their music texts and recorded
materials in many years, many administrators interviewed see the purchase of the
new materials as meeting the intent of the Framework. They have not responded to
the problem of implementation of the textbooks. In at least two districts the
materials were delivered to the school site and into the classrooms without any
inservice on effective instructional practices.
This lovely set of materials was brought to my room in September along with
a new portable stereo system. You’d think I’d be in hog heaven. The
teachers’ edition is quite thorough, and I tried to follow along for a few
weeks... but I’m not a musician. It would be very helpful to have some
training ...(District B, Teacher 6c).
Our district had the publisher’s representatives present 45 minute sessions on
the new textbooks last summer before school opened. These were voluntary,
and not all staff members attended at that time because many of us thought
there would be additional training sessions all year long. Now it’s near the
end of the year... and there have been no inservices provided by the district or
the publisher on how to instruct, how to organize, or how to assess our music
instruction. (District B, Teacher 4c).
Administrators in three districts admitted that their districts had not been as
supportive of training the teachers to use the new materials as they should have been.
Many teachers felt that the implementation of the materials had been left up to the
individual school sites without explicitly directing the sites to provide inservice.
There seemed to be a general lack of communication regarding the implementation
of the new textbooks.
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Writing new policies and standards.
Four districts are currently evaluating their music programs and actively
writing a curriculum guide and standards for music education. Cadres o f teachers
are working collaboratively to organize self-studies, evaluate results of the review
process, and formulate standards and curriculum guides.
We have had a lack of consistency across the district. Each school has been
doing its own thing. We have not had a curriculum guide for music for a
number of years. Our music curriculum committee has worked hard to
present a comprehensive document that will be useful to the teachers in the
classrooms (District B, Administrator 2c).
Our district is developing a new music policy that will be adopted formally
by the Board of Trustees. The policy will support the goals and standards
that are being developed also. The teachers are working with several
administrators to accomplish this (District E, Administrator Ic).
The administrators in districts such as there are encouraging their staffs to “aim
high” for their music education programs.
One district developed a comprehensive document that combines goals,
teaching strategies, examples, and assessment tools. The development of the
“Standards for Excellence in Visual and Performing Arts” was a three-year project
undertaken by teachers in the district with support from professionals in each o f the
arts disciplines. The document is arranged with music, theater, dance, and visual art
across two pages, listed by components from the state Framework.
This binder represents many hours of study of the National Standards for
Visual and Performing Arts, the California Framework, and documents from
each of the disciplines’ national organizations, such as the Music Educators
National Conference... It is laid out to assist the teachers in making links
between each discipline. As they look at Goal 1 for Artistic Perception, the
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teachers can scan across the page and see how that goal can be met in each
discipline (District B, Administrator 3c).
Our committee worked hard to align the “Standards for Excellence”
generally with the state framework. Here and there we took parts of other
documents. I think it’s a document that we can live with effectively for quite
a while... We tried to make it very practical, so that teachers can more easily
see how to develop a complete program in their own classrooms (District B,
Teacher 8c).
Such an excellent example of policy, goal-setting, standards, and assessment is a
model for other districts. These standards have not been frilly implemented yet, but
there is hope that in the next year there can be professional development that will
link the curriculum guide to the new textbooks.
There are two elementary schools within the county that have excellent arts
programs. One has been singled out as a “Distinguished School in Fine Arts” and
the other received an “Honorable Mention” in the Distinguished Schools Fine Arts
awards for the 1999-2000 school year. Each school worked diligently to implement
consistent instruction across all grade levels (K-6). The teachers and administration
at both sites are to be commended for their collaborative efforts that went into
preparing the application for the Distinguish Schools Award.
Not all schools in those districts have the same level of accomplishment. The
inconsistency across districts is as apparent as the inconsistency of curriculum and
instructional practices across Kem County. The next research question examines
what some schools are doing to provide equity in music education.
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Research Question Three: Strategies for Change
Framework for Research Question Three
The third research questions asked, “What strategies for change in curriculum
and teaching do districts foresee that would assist in the implementation of music
education policies?” Information to support this question was found in: (a) the
Comprehensive Classroom Survey, (b) interviews with teachers, music specialists
and administrators, and (c) the Critical Factors Survey. The change strategies
expressed by this research fall into broad categories:
• Change brought on by the purchase of new textbooks and materials.
• Change by professional development for classroom teachers.
• Change by using support from the community and parents.
• Change by hiring music specialists and/or classroom teachers with background in
music.
Findings for Research Question Three
“ A good music education program is a conscious decision on someone's
part. ”
Textbook-driven Curriculum and Instruction.
Providing “adequate and up-to-date materials” is a key strategy to
implementing music education programs across many districts in Kem County.
Fifty-seven teachers wrote in the margins of the Comprehensive Classroom Survey
to the effect that they want to effectively teach music but that they need materials
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and instruction on how to use the materials. Several districts are purchasing new
textbooks and support materials for the first time in many years. Other districts have
a process in place to study which new music materials to purchase.
Districts are considering collaborating to hire consultants and/or music
specialists to provide on-going, hands-on support to the purchase of new textbooks
and materials. They would assist the teachers with using all the parts of the new
materials. The consultants or music specialists would show the teachers what is
available in the text, how to link it with language arts, math, and social studies, and
how to teach music as a discrete subject. The new textbooks were selected because
the districts felt that they best covered the Framework without requiring the teachers
to supplement the text. Administrators repeatedly stated that if the teachers follow
the textbook, they will cover all four components of the Framework and effectively
implement the music education program.
Three schools in two districts use on-staff experts to assist teachers in grade
level groupings to develop music programs in their sites. These sites pilot-tested
new music textbooks during the 1999-2000 school year, the district has now selected
a publisher, and they will be purchasing materials for 2000-2001 to support arts
programs. The teachers who piloted the textbooks will be used as “on-site experts”
to support other staff members. The administrators see collaboration as the key to
the success of their implementation. Again, these administrators and teachers appear
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to consider the implementation of a selected textbook to be implementation of an
effective music education program.
Flexible and adaptive models of music instruction and professional
development.
Only four districts within Kem County have music specialists who regularly
instruct primary classrooms. Even in those four districts, kindergarten students
frequently are not part of the regular music program in the school. One group of
kindergarten teachers is working with a music specialist to provide support for their
students. The teachers call it '‘flexible collaboration.” Once a month the music
specialist presents a demonstration lesson in one of the classes, with the two morning
kindergartens combined. Both regular classroom teachers observe the lesson,
participating with the specialist in the instruction as directed. At the same time, the
afternoon kindergarten teachers observe the lesson. Later in the month when the
specialist is on campus, the teachers meet briefly with the specialist to discuss how
they have been able to implement and follow-up on the lesson presented. The
following month the demonstration lesson is presented to the afternoon kindergarten
students with all teachers present observing and participating. The teachers have
used this format off and on for a number of years and feel that they have learned
music skills from the process. The teachers note that their system will undergo
revision and modification as the kindergartens become extended-day or full-day
kindergarten programs. It may be easier for the kindergarten teachers to work
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together, since all the teachers will be on the same schedule, but it will be more
difficult for the specialist to present multiple lessons for all classrooms. In the
current plan, the specialist is forfeiting lunchtime once a month to provide this
instruction.
In another district, second grade teachers are working with the instrumental
music specialist to provide the beginnings of note reading to their students. The
instrumental music teacher reaps the benefits a few years down the road when
students sign up to learn an instrument. The students are reinforcing reading
concepts - left to right, top to bottom, symbols stand for something - and learning a
"universal language" in the process. The classroom teachers are all able to read
music, at least at the elementary level, from their own personal experiences with
music in school. All are willing to learn from the music specialist how to teach the
basic concepts of note reading to their students. In the process of teaching note
reading, the teachers report that their students are beginning to make simple
compositions. The teachers are making a conscious effort to strengthen the Artistic
Perception component of the state Framework.
Using music with social studies makes it easy to link the historical/cultural
component of the Framework. Many songs just naturally fit with our social
studies program. Because we do a lot of singing and use made-up
instruments for rhythm, I have felt that we also worked on the Creative
Expression as well. (District F, Teacher 19c)
It turns out the kids think it’s a puzzle to work out. They go at note reading
with gusto. It didn’t used to be this way, because I really didn’t know where
to start, and our previous music text was ancient and didn’t cover note
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reading at all at this grade level. We have done this on our own. I’m proud
of our students (District F, Teacher 23c).
These teachers agree that their own personal background in music is a key to the
success of their students. They are interested in assisting third grade teachers at their
school, where the teachers do not have a strong personal history in music. One of
the core teachers is transferring to a new school and expects to work with teachers in
her new setting.
The music specialists fully support this type of music instruction for the
primary students. They point out that the students who have had early music and
note reading experiences are frequently the ones who continue with vocal or
instrumental music instruction in middle school and high school. The music
specialists frequently point to the ETS data that show the higher SAT scores of high
school seniors who have participated in music education through high school. One
high school administrator interviewed by this researcher bluntly put it,
We can’t begin music instruction at the high school level for a number of
reasons: (a) our music teachers don’t have the time to start students, (b) high
school students are at a fragile emotional stage where the beginner sounds of
an instrument are a total embarrassment, (c) the three years on instruction
before the SAT would not be a strong enough background for raising test
scores... Music instruction is a long-term project We can’t give students a
"quick fix” in high school. It does my heart good to hear o f creative and
comprehensive music programs at the elementary level that mean more
students will be participating in music when they arrive on my campus. Keep
sending me those music students! (District W , Administrator 3c)
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Not all high school administrators are as vocally supportive of elementary music
education programs, but they recognize the strength of their school “runs parallel to
the strength of the arts programs” at their schools.
In Kern County, collaboration between high schools and elementary schools
in music education is almost unheard of. The high schools belong to a separate
district and received students from over thirty-five elementary (K-8) districts across
the county. Working with elementary schools that are located near elementary
schools is an option that has not yet been explored for music education. High school
tutors are frequently seen in classrooms as reading and math tutors. One elementary
school hopes to work with a nearby high school to use music students as tutors.
Initially, the plan calls for the tutors to work with instrumental students, but several
visionary teachers - at the high school and at the elementary school - are hopeful
that they will have high school vocal students working with primary students. The
high school already has the mechanism for the students to be evaluated and receive
credit for their participation as tutors. The “new” part of the project is using the
tutors with small groups of students for music instruction. It will be interesting to
follow this experiment in reaching out for music education.
Hiring music specialists to implement music programs.
Two administrators are “considering sharing a music specialist” to support
the classroom teachers in providing music education that is more consistent with the
state framework. This specialist in this district would not function as the primary
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teacher of music to the students, but rather as a teacher of the classroom teacher who
would then integrate music into all curricular areas. The music specialist’s role is
then more as a mentor teacher, bringing professional knowledge and skills to the
teachers on a regular, on-going basis to improve the instruction in the classrooms.
The administrator envisions the specialist sometimes doubling classes to provide
demonstration lessons to two classroom teachers at a time, who can then support one
another in the absence of the specialist. The administrator would like to see the
specialist spend at least forty minutes every other week working with each classroom
and teacher. This would require support on the site, so that classroom teachers
understand that the music instruction is not a prep period or recess for them, but that
they are teaching the class collaboratively with the specialist. Another administrator
has observed this concept in another county and feels it would work effectively in
Kern County as well. The classroom teachers across the county emphatically agreed
that hiring music specialists would be the most effective and efficient means to bring
comprehensive music education to all students. There were no administrators that
would go on record saying that additional music specialists are being interviewed
and hired.
Using lead teachers to support music education.
During the 1999-2000 school year one school piloted both textbook series
approved by the state for adoption with the specific intent of having the pilot
teachers become " ‘lead teachers” in the implementation of the chosen text for the
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2000-2001 school year. The teachers who tested the two new textbooks were
deliberately chosen for their leadership and collaborative skills, not based on their
length of teaching. Some are new teachers, others “have been here a while”, and
others remember the last textbook adoption twenty years ago. All expressed
eagerness to participate in the pilot project, which included Kindergarten through
sixth grade.
During the project year, the teachers were provided with support from the
textbook publishers. Additional support came from their peers on campus. The
instrumental music teacher worked with the classroom teachers, clarifying concepts
and teaching strategies. The teachers were encouraged to consider “music for
music's sake” and not for what music education brings to language development,
social skills, or math skills. They were also encouraged to 'leach music because it is
a worthwhile subject.” Throughout the year the teachers met to consider articulation
across grade levels and to review the Framework and the National Standards. They
were constantly reminded that the goal is the education of the children, not which
textbook is chosen.
The textbook selection was made after the teachers worked together to review
the content of the texts in comparison with the Framework, the functionality of the
teachers’ edition, the quality of recorded materials, and other factors. The teachers
who piloted the textbook that was not chosen did not feel that they were left with
“the short straw” but that they had gained a great deal of insight into the
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development of a music program at the elementary level. They will adapt their new
knowledge and skills to the new textbook in the fall o f2000.
All of the teachers who “test drove” during 1999-2000 will be considered
“lead teachers” during the following year. These teachers will provide
support within their grade levels to implement the new music program at
their school. They will share the goals and objectives developed by the
selection committee to all staff members (District Q, Administrator lc).
Professional development programs bring music education to students.
Four administrators across the county are “considering professional
development in the arts” over the course of the school year. The configuration of the
professional development has not been fleshed out. All administrators recognize the
importance of sustained training for effective implementation. Two of these
administrators have the support of at least one member of the school board. These
professional development programs would focus on music and art, but would include
drama and dance. The Arts In Education program has been effective and well-
received in these districts, as well as other districts. The professional development
strategies would seek to further the efforts of the AIE program.
One administrator indicated interest in investigating a professional
development program called “Different Ways of Knowing,” which is based on
Howard Gardners theory o f multiple intelligences. Using the concept that different
students learn in different ways, this administrator wants to capitalize on the
strengths o f each student, rather that pointing out their failures.
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Many of our students are second language learners. A little over half receive
welfare. They score very poorly on standardized tests. Yet I am confident
that we have many very bright kids who have not been given the opportunity
to demonstrate their talents... Music is the universal language. Using the
arts to develop the language of these students may give them the confidence
to attempt some of the “basic” academic subjects that are, literally, foreign to
them now. (District B, Administrator
This administrator acknowledges that the arts are not a cure-all for education, but
points to schools [in professional literature] where immersion in the arts has had a
dramatic impact on the academic achievement of students, the school climate, and
community involvement. The demographics of this district align very well with
those of several districts in research studies, further encouraging the administrator.
Developing community support for music education.
It was noted by two administrators and three teachers that in order for
changes in curriculum and instructional practices to be effective and sustained, there
must be a collaborative consensus of various stakeholders. This supports the
findings of the report, “Gaining the Arts Advantage” (PC AH, 1999a), which points
out that the consensus must then be sustained “using a repertoire of strategies,
resources and skills.” Teachers were quick to point out the “top down” reforms
frequently do not provide the teachers with the skills and motivation to make the
changes in their classrooms, and that the “top down” change actions frequently deal
with governance and compliance. Teachers also asserted that changes made from the
classroom level often do not have a broad strategic plan, are spotty and inconsistent
in practice, and frequently lack support from the school board and administration for
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necessary funding. It was agreed by this group that the most effective
implementation results when all parties are working toward the same goal, although
they may have different means of going about it.
I guess administrators haven’t read the research that correlates a child’s
academic success with his participation in performing arts. Very sad.
(District U, Teacher 103b)
Another small group of administrators and teachers suggested “romancing”
the other stakeholders in support of music education. The intent would be to
influence these other segments of the educational community to support a
comprehensive arts education program.
I think there are many people who intuitively understand that the arts are
important, but aren’t sure where they fit into education. New research shows
various benefits of arts education to the students, the school and the
community at large... We have to find ways to bring this information to our
community in a non-threatening manner (District T, Teacher 137b).
Developing support, it was agreed, would take time. Four districts
deliberately showcase their student performances to gain community support.
Showcasing the student learning through programs, back-to-school nights, and public
displays offers the parents, school board, administrators, and community the
opportunity to see the results o f instruction and fosters the atmosphere of support and
enthusiasm. The vocal and instrumental programs at the middle schools are highly
visible and widely recognized in the community. The group felt it would be
reasonable to ask that the music education programs be offered in the primary
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grades, and to all students, to build a foundation for the vocal and instrumental
programs.
In another district an administrator expressed curiosity at a dichotomy he has
observed over his years in the community. When parents are asked on community
surveys which programs they support in their school,
Parents don’t indicate interest in supporting art and music education. But
when their children perform [in music] they all come. The whole family. It’s
the parents’ number one priority to attend. They [the parents] are not
articulate enough to verbalize that the music program is what they want to
support (District E, Administrator Ic).
This administrator considers the parents to be very supportive of the music
programs in the school despite the written indications on surveys. The parents are
“voting with the feet” when they attend school performance.
Other administrators considered seeking collaborative support and funding
from foundations that support arts education. These administrators recognize that
grant monies are only temporary and cannot support additional staff, such as music
specialists, over the long haul. They would seek to develop a program where the
district gradually assumes responsibility for funding a comprehensive music
education program over five to seven years. One district is actively pursuing two
grants aimed at arts education.
Teachers in four districts expressed interest in educational programs for
parents to help the parents and community understand the need for consistent
educational opportunities for all students. Several teachers suggested that when
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large numbers of parents show up for student performances, it would be an
opportunity for the parents to be reminded that the accomplishments of their children
in these music programs must be supported by resources (commitment of funding,
personnel, and time) for all students.
A model of “mixing” instruction combined with professional development.
It appears that “mixing” for music and other subject areas takes on an
assortment of forms and presents unique problems that can be handled creatively.
The researcher observed “mixing” or “mixers” in four schools, and interviewed
teachers in two others that use some hybrid form of mixing. Two unusual variations
are presented here.
Third grade teachers in a school struggling with low test scores, little
professional development, and sagging morale invited the researcher to observe a
program of “mixing” for instruction in science, P.E., music and art. There are five
third grade teachers at the school where the California Class Size Reduction Program
has limited enrollment to twenty students or fewer. At the time of the observation,
two of the classroom had seventeen students, one had eighteen, and two had nineteen
students. Two of the classes are designated “regular” English speaking classrooms,
where the students’ primary language is English, or the students have been officially
redesignated Fluent English Proficient. The other three classrooms are designated
English Immersion classrooms, where students who have a primary language other
than English, in this case Spanish, are immersed in English instruction. The teachers
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respect each other as individuals as well as professionals. When asked if their model
of instruction could be effective in groups of teachers who do not have the
camaraderie that they exhibit, all responded affirmatively. They regard the mixing
program as an outgrowth of their professionalism.
The program is arranged in five-week units of instruction. The students in
each class are broken into four groups, A, B, C, and D. When assigned to the
classrooms, only four teachers are giving instruction, and the fifth teacher has the
week “o ff’. The mixing program is four days each week. This allows for flexibility
when there are Monday holidays, Friday assemblies, and other changes in the
schedule. Each five weeks, the students are changed into new groups, and, key to the
program, the teachers switch subject areas. The table below shows a five-week
series for these third grade classes.
Table 12
Mixing Schedule: Five week Rotation Schedule - Third Rotation of Teachers
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5
Teacher #4 Music Group A Planning Group D Group C Group B
Teacher #5 Art Group B Group A Planning Group D Group C
Teacher #1 P.E. Group C Group B Group A Planning Group D
Teacher #2 Science Group D Group C Group B Group A Planning
Teacher #3 Rotating
Subjects
Planning Group D
Music
Group C
Art
Group B
P.E.
Group A
Science
In any given five-week rotation, four of the teachers teach the assigned subject
matter four weeks (not necessarily in a row) and provide support to the rotating
teacher the fifth week. The rotating teacher teaches each subject for one week during
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the cycle. Every fifth cycle a teacher becomes the rotating teacher. While the
administration at this school is not particularly supportive of this program, the
teachers do not find any undermining of the program either.
The teachers see several benefits to this program: (1) The students receive
concentrated instruction in a 45 minute time block four days each week. (2) The
teachers prepare one lesson that they teach for four days to the four groups of
students. By the end of the week, the teacher has made significant notes to share
with colleagues on how the lesson improved over the week (3) Teachers are held
accountable to begin and end the lessons promptly. Occasionally teachers reflect
that they may lose a “teachable moment” because it was time to clean up. (4)
Teachers will rotate through teaching all four areas of curriculum. With the support
and collaboration of all the teachers, the teachers themselves are learners of new
curriculum and teaching strategies.
I have learned more about teaching science and music during the two years
we have been following this pattern of mixers than in the nine previous years
of teaching. It’s the collaboration we have, usually on Fridays, where we
share our insights. If I were left on my own, I know my science and music
lessons would have remained stagnant. I still don’t feel I know enough to
really teach music completely effectively, but the kids and I are having a lot
more fun and we are learning together. O f course, having the new art and
music materials is wonderful. That may be part of my success. (District B,
Teacher 17c)
I can’t even draw stick figures. I failed remedial paste and scissors in grade
school. But I’ve hung in there with teaching art. The new materials are
awesome! I can call on [the teacher next door] if I get lost on an art concept.
She’s the expert. But I actually went to an art gallery a few weeks ago and
looked at the pictures instead of watching the people. (District B, Teacher
18c)
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If it were up to me, I would just teach P.E. and let the others rotate through
the other subjects. I love teaching P.E. This has forced me in a very
constructive way to become a better teacher all the way around. I know that I
will have to spend a month teaching nothing but art, poor kids! Maybe I’m
stretching a bit when I say I have brought athletics to art. (District B,
Teacher 19c)
The effectiveness of this type of program is based on teachers volunteering to
participate. The year following this observation, two teachers had left the school and
two of the remaining three teachers were involved in a standard team teaching model
and the third teacher was self-contained. There seemed to be lack of initiative to
engage in the previous instructional model. Other teachers in other schools hesitated
to participate in mixing programs that are. by necessity, more rigid in format. Also,
the model discussed above does not adapt easily in small schools with only one or
two teachers at a grade level.
'•Focus points” mixing model of instruction.
Another type of mixing program that was observed by the researcher adds a
different twist to a more traditional mixing program. Four teachers in four second-
grade classrooms rotated their students four days each week so that each teacher
taught only one subject area. The mixing period is 40 minutes long in this program.
The key and unique feature to this mixing program is the “Focus Points” that the
teachers have developed to facilitate instruction and assist students with life-long
learning. The week that the researcher observed, the focus was on visual
observations. Lessons were developed in all four subject areas that focused on visual
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observations. While visual observation is a primary and obvious concept in art
instruction, the teachers readily pointed out that observation in science is part of the
scientific method. Visual observations that were taking place in the music classes
were o f patterns of notes. The students in this week’s music lessons were beginning
instruction on note reading and were observing the patterns of notes, the color of the
notes, and the location of the notes on the keyboard. In P.E. the students were
observing the position of their body and their leg when kicking the ball low or high.
The next week, the lessons would focus on listening. That seemed obvious in music,
but the art lessons would have students listening to the sounds of chalk on various
types of paper (and the blackboards), the sounds of different types of liquids being
poured in science class, and to the sounds of properly inflated and under-inflated
kick balls as part of the P.E. lesson. Last week the focus was on “the rules.” And
later on, “cause and effect” will be a focus point.
I know this sounds “hokey” but I think our weekly focus has been the really
fascinating part of our mixing. I can see kids looking, touching, smelling,
and hearing things differently that they used to. Involving the senses is part
of it, but the reflection that kids put into it is great... Reflection is a natural
when studying art... The fact that we are all focusing on the same thing all
week long in all four subjects helps students to make connections. I think
this kind of instruction is just as important for these little guys during their
lifetime than knowing the difference between a noun and a pronoun. (District
B, Teacher 21c)
This type of focus is making us all work harder while it is making life easier
for us. I’m looking at P.E. in ways that I never have before. I have never
planned so intensely as I have last year and this year... I am a much better
teacher, and my children [at home] think I’m a better parent too. We do lots
more fun activities at home that are directly related to what we are focusing
on for the week. (District B, Teacher 22c)
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Instead of just sending my students off to the next room for instruction in
another subject, I know that they are also “focusing” on the same idea or
topic, so we will be able to share those focus skills together as a class when
we come together after mixing. (District B, Teacher 23c)
These teachers plan collaboratively at weekly grade level meetings. At those
meetings they cover their language arts instruction, math, and their focus point for
the next week. Because these teachers teach the same subject area all year, they
consider that they are becoming “quasi-specialists” in their subject areas.
We have new music textbooks and CDs this year. Our district did not buy
enough for each classroom to have a set. This way [of mixing] I can have all
the materials I need at my fingertips. This is the first time I feel that I have
been able to teach music effectively. I have a strong background in vocal
performance, through high school, college, and my church. Now I am able to
bring a little of this love of music to all of the students in second grade. I see
this as a big advantage. I wish I could teach them twice a week, but I guess I
should be thankful that I have them for 40 minutes! Be grateful for small
things. (District B, Teacher 23c)
I wanted to be an art teacher, but I didn’t want to work with high school or
junior high kids... Now I have the best of both worlds. I teach second grade,
and I teach art! With new textbooks! (District B, Teacher 21c)
When asked why this model of mixing was not used at other grade levels at their
school, it was explained that at other grade levels, there were not four teachers
willing to teach each of the four subject areas. Mixing models of instruction appear
to need a charismatic teacher-leader to work effectively. Again, smaller schools with
fewer teachers at a grade level would have to modify this type of program.
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Research Question Four: Barriers to Implementation
and Overcoming Barriers
Framework for Research Question Four
The fourth research question asks, “What are barriers to implementation and
how have some districts overcome these barriers?” Teachers, music specialists, and
administrators have wrestled with that question in interviews and on surveys for this
study. The Comprehensive Classroom Survey asked teachers to suggest ways to
overcome barriers, the interviews focused a great deal on overcoming barriers, and
the Critical Success Factors Survey asked participants to evaluate their own situation
against the criteria of factors developed in the national study. It is apparent that
districts face different barriers depending on their community, the structure o f the
district, the size of the district, and frequently, the test scores and API reports. Some
schools and districts within Kem County are handling barriers better than others.
What follows is a discussion of the barriers, and how some local districts are
overcoming them.
Findings for Research Question Four
Barriers to Implementation
Research by the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities cites
“The single most critical factor in sustaining arts education in their schools is the
active involvement of influential segments of the community in shaping and
implementing the policies and programs of the district.” Community support starts
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with an openness and willingness to share experiences in the arts in both directions,
from the community into the schools and from the schools back into the community.
The report goes on to list an additional twelve factors for the successful
implementation of a music program. A survey developed from these “critical
factors” was distributed to teachers and administrators in seven school districts in
Kern County
The results of the Critical Success Factors Survey reveals how teachers and
administrators view the strengths and weakness of these identified factors within
their own district. Participants were asked to rate their district on the thirteen Critical
Success Factors on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being a complete lack of support
and 5 being the optimal support. Tables I3a-d below show the lowest average score
from a district, the average score of all surveys returned (n=209), and the highest
average score from a district. The reader should bear in mind that no single district
ranked in any one column. Some districts’ relative strengths were others’ relative
weaknesses. The thirteen factors are presented in clusters to facilitate analysis of
data. A general analysis of the Critical Factors Survey data reveals that the average
scores are very low (a score of 1 signifying no support and a score of 5 signifying
strong support). Many surveys were returned marked “ 1” for each item. Several
included notes that their school/district did not support music education. Items with
“0” written on the survey or items left blank were not counted.
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Table 13a
Comparison of average Likert scale ranking of Critical Success Factors #1-3
Critical Success Factor
Lowest
Average
District
Rating
Average
of all
Surveys
n=209
Highest
Average
District
Rating
Likert Scale 1 2 3 4 5
#1 Community - assists in the teachine and leamine
activities, mobilizes and supports music education
through political activity, uses school facilities for
community music programs, and provides venues for
faculty and student performances.
1.33 1.73 2.22
#2 School Board — One or more members have a
personal background in music education and use this
knowledge and value of music education to: adopt
written policies that value music equal to other
school subjects when budget cuts are required;
support the development of plans to strengthen music
education; apportion resources, facility renovation
and development to support the policy framework.
1.33 1.85 2.25
#3 SuDerintendent — Tvoicallv credits school staff,
key board members and influential community forces
with assisting him or her, but the actions of the
superintendent are vital to the music program:
regularly articulating the importance of music
education in achieving the goals of the district;
committing personal time to attending music events;
and meeting with the music teachers and
representative from the music and cultural
organizations of the community.
1.56 2.03 4.20
The data in Table 13a substantiate the data collected from the Comprehensive
Classroom Surveys and the interviews with administrators and teachers. Across the
county teachers and administrators feel there is little support for music education in
general. There are schools and districts that have excellent programs, frequently
supported by community, administration, and teachers, but in general the participants
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in this survey paint a bleak picture of the programs and support within their districts.
Frequently the programs that are supported by the district and community are the
highly visible performance groups in junior high schools.
District and site administrators who are either passive or negative about
music education present a formidable barrier for music education in the school or
district. Previous sections have dealt with how many teachers manage in conditions
not conducive to music education. There are a small number of teachers who are
taking the role of “educating the administrator of the advantages of including the
arts in the curriculum.” This approach requires considerable interpersonal skills and
great tact. It remains to be seen if this strategy can be used effectively to bring about
positive change in some schools in the area of music education.
Table 13b
Comparison of average Likert scale ranking of Critical Success Factors # 4-6
Critical Success Factor
Lowest
Average
District
Rating
Average
of all
Surveys
n=209
Highest
Average
District
Rating
Likert Scale 1 2 3 4 5
#4 Continuity — Stability in the formal leadership
positions within the district and individual schools
is important in pursuing a set of educational goals.
Continuity in demographics, values, and politics
supports music education in this district.
1.51 1.87 3.35
#5 District Arts Coordinator - facilitates
program implementation throughout the school
system. Smaller districts use a curriculum
specialist or music educator to fill these crucial
roles and provide vital services: to influence
segments of the community that value and nurture
music education; to keep music education “on the
table” during budget sessions; to negotiate between
board, central office and school-level decision-
1.14 1.84 3.15
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Table 13b - Continued
making; to foster a climate of support in the
community and district.
# 6 Cadre of PrinciDals — s u d d o H s the Dolicv of
music education for all students, creating
expectations and climate for music education,
recognizes the intrinsic value of music as well as
the effectiveness of music education in addressing
other issues at the school.
1.76 2.42 3.81
Stability and continuity in the leadership of schools and districts was a
concern to many teachers who felt that, although the administrators were most
frequently chosen from within the district, the “musical chairs” of administrators did
affect the goals and vision of the school in all areas, including music education.
Mobility of the superintendent and other district office personnel, some of whom do
not live in the community or even county of the school district, was cited as lack of
commitment to the district. Some districts have had very stable leadership, to the
disappointment of some music advocates who are concerned by the lack of support
for music in the primary classrooms.
The District Arts Coordinator or person charged with the responsibility of
overseeing music education was rarely seen as supportive of a dynamic music
program at the primary level. Most felt that there was support for the intermediate
and junior high performance programs, such as glee club, orchestra and band. Some
teachers complained that the lack of cohesive coordination has relegated the junior
high band to an out-of-school activity rather than a course of study.
Principals were seen as more supportive of music education in the primary
classrooms than the superintendents. This may be due to the proximity of the
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principal to the instruction. While some teachers clearly stated that they felt their
principal supported music in the classroom, many others stated that the pressures of
meeting testing goals had sidelined any support of music by the principal.
Table 13c
Comparison of average Likert scale ranking of Critical Success Factors # 7-9
Critical Success Factor
Lowest
Average
District
Rating
Average
of all
Surveys
n=209
Highest
Average
District
Rating
Likert Scale 1 2 3 4 5
#7 Teacher as Artist — Effective music educators
are encouraged to continue to learn and grow in
their musicianship as well as their teaching
competence.
1.31 2.02 3.87
#8 Parent/Public Relations - School leaders
employ a variety of techniques to engage the total
school community in music activities that create a
climate of support and funding for music.
1.43 1.84 3.91
#9 Elementarv Foundation - Buildine music
programs in the early years is the foundation for
strong system-wide and community music
programs to achieve proficiency in music and build
relationships with parents and community
organizations that are important to sustaining
support for all school programs.
1.20 1.85 3.55
In schools where music instruction is provided by music specialists, many
teachers were not aware o f the music activities of their music teacher outside of the
school. Lack of time to communicate with the music teacher was the most common
response. In schools where the music teachers provide only instrumental instruction
at the intermediate level, the teachers sometimes did not know who the music teacher
was. In districts where the primary students are at a separate site, teachers were
unaware o f how music education is presented at the intermediate level.
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For most schools, parent support and public awareness is focused on the
performance groups at the intermediate and junior high levels. The showcasing of
junior high groups is seen as fundamental to their programs. Building support for
classroom instruction does not exist for most schools.
Teachers in districts without music specialists in the primary grades felt that
the elementary foundation of music was neglected or non-existent. Consistently in
interviews and surveys, teachers felt most strongly about the lack of support for early
music experiences for their students.
Table 13d
Comparison of average Likert scale ranking of Critical Success Factors #10-13
Critical Success Factor
Lowest
Average
District
Rating
Average
of all
Surveys
n=209
Highest
Average
District
Rating
Likert Scale 1 2 3 4 5
#10 Opportunities for higher music
achievement — School leaders provide specialized
music programs, which encourage students to
aspire to professional levels of performance.
Specialized music programs are part of a broad
strategy for securing and sustaining community
support for the district’s overall educational goals.
Students at these high levels express pride in and
commitment to their work.
1.53 2.09 3.87
#11 National, state, and outside forces -
National and state standards for music education,
education reform movements, federal funding for
general school improvement or targeted programs
are employed to support and advance the music
education agenda.
1.13 1.57 3.05
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Table 13d - Continued
#12 Plannine for music - School leaders
combine the compelling vision of the importance of
music education with a thoughtful implementation
plan that show how resources will be apportioned
over time to reach all students.
1.07 1.56 3.40
#13 Continuous ImDrovement — The school
district promotes reflective practices, such as
portfolios, at all levels of the school and district to
improve the quality of music education.
1.07 1.41 2.80
Conversely, opportunities for high achievement were recognized by more
teachers, especially those with intermediate classes on their campuses. Some
teachers were concerned that the high achievement of some students in performance
groups at the junior high level was the result of parental support and private music
lessons rather than instruction received at school. One music teacher at a junior high
credits the success of the performance groups to the fact that more than 90% of the
students take private music lessons.
Few schools and districts use outside sources for funding, standards or
programs. The Arts in Education Program sponsored by the Arts Council of Kern is
a program that is gaining strength across the county. Many primary classroom
teachers were unaware of corporate grants and support for music education targeting
the primary classrooms. Planning for music education consists of purchasing new
textbooks and materials in most schools. The concept of “continuous improvement”
in music education was foreign to most teachers. It can be observed that the farther
down the list of Critical Success Factors, the less the teachers feel they are
supported.
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Communication is frequently lacking in support of music education.
Teachers are not aware of the excellent guidelines and standards found in the
national and state policies and the California Visual and Performing Arts
Framework. The Comprehensive Classroom Survey and interviews corroborated the
data from the Critical Success Factors survey that teachers frequently did not know
that there are definitive goals in place for music and arts education. Districts have
not insured that all teachers know and use the state and local guidelines and
standards.
It would be nice to have some standards to teach to [in music] and the
materials necessary fordoing so (District V , Teacher 104b).
There needs to be a clear set of goals for our music and materials to reach
them (District T. Teacher 167b).
Teachers in these cases need to be guided by administration, mentors, or colleagues
through the Framework and provided support for implementing newly purchased
music education materials.
There are barriers to music education that start at the top, with the policy
makers in the district: the school board, district administrators and site
administrators.
Currently there is not enough time to teach music, because other subjects
must be taught a specific number of minutes per day and per week as
required by law. Our daily schedule barely allows for the time required for
language arts, math, history, and science (District G, Teacher 10a).
Music would be taught more effectively if it were a priority to the district. At
this time it is looked at [by this district] as “fluff’ instead of important to the
education of the students (District S, Teacher 65c)
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Isn’t it interesting that this district has spent countless hours and big bucks to
bring in so many really hair-brained programs, required teachers to sit
through how many hours of training for class size reduction, balanced
literacy and test preparation, and now they hand us a [music] textbook and
say, “Go” without so much as a “fare-thee-well”. Somewhere along the line,
someone forgot something very fundamental (District B, Teacher 4c).
The greatest barrier to implementation of comprehensive music education
reported in districts with low API scores is the push for immediate increase in test
scores. The climate across the county is not conducive to implementing programs
that may not have direct and immediate results on test scores. Local media have
presented API rankings and SAT/9 tests score results in a very negative light. Little
recognition is given to schools that work against enormous odds and produce modest
gains. Observations made by the researcher in staff dining rooms and lounges
indicate that many teachers are deeply frustrated by the lack of support they receive
for their efforts on behalf of the tremendously at-risk students they serve. Comments
in the margins of surveys and comments made in interviews indicate that some
teachers are regarding the current test-driven climate at their schools with several
terse options: (1) bail out of teaching, (2) move to a “better” school/district, or (3)
close the classroom door and ignore the “hoopla”. This researcher senses that the
stress of test-driven accountability is about to create unforeseen and unfortunate
results in staffing.
A frequently expressed barrier is that music education is not valued as an
intrinsic part of education today. Media emphasis on test scores, and test emphasis
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on reading and math have left many parents, and unfortunately some educators,
thinking that reading and math are all the children need to be taught in order to be
successful. While recent research has shown that music education can make
significant differences in school climate, academic performance, and staff morale,
there are some communities within Kem County where music is regarded with
misgiving. Although parents and school board members were not directly
interviewed in this study, observations of parents in three schools corroborated what
teachers reported over a wide spread area of the county. Attitudes about what music
does (or doesn't do) were expressed by parents as students were dismissed to go
home.
He [a second grade student] doesn’t need any of that music stuff. He’s going
to be a mechanic like his daddy. He works lots with his hands.
My daughter [first grade student] told me she had to hold a boy’s hand
[during a music game]. I don’t want her doing that. That’s teaching kids the
wrong things. We believe in morals, you know.
Although these observations were isolated, a bumper sticker observed by the
researcher in one parking lot read, “If it ain’t country, it ain’t music,” which summed
up attitudes succinctly.
Teachers repeatedly wrote and reported they felt ill-prepared to teach a
comprehensive music education program to their students. They cited lack of
preparation during their teacher training programs, lack of inservice while teaching,
lack of materials, and a general lack o f ability to teach music. This must be
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acknowledged by school districts in their efforts to improve their music instruction.
This was discussed in Research Question One.
Another barrier is the purchase of new textbooks in many districts. While
new materials may be welcomed help for teachers, the books themselves are not the
music program. Too many administrators expressed the view that the textbooks
were going to provide the teachers with “the means to instruct the students in a
program aligned with the state framework.” There has been a lack of recognition
that there are teaching strategies and models in music education that are different
than models used for other subjects. Assessment of music instruction has not been
addressed, other than to say that the tests are included in the book.
The mobility of staff is a barrier to all subject areas. The loss of teachers is
felt in the school climate and morale. It is difficult to sustain any programs, not just
music programs, when staff members move through a school or district. One district
with fewer than 3,000 students had reported nineteen teachers leaving the district by
May for the following school year. Other small districts frequently have high rate of
staff turnover. The movement appears to be from lower-paying districts and from
lower scoring districts. This leaves “endangered districts” holding the bag looking
for new teachers after most hiring has been done in other districts. These districts
frequently have more challenging students to instruct. The factor of continuity in the
Critical Factors survey plays a large role in several districts.
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These barriers are being challenged by districts across the county. Creative
and resourceful individuals and groups are working to provide unique solutions that
meet the needs of their school districts. Community leaders and organizations are
working with administrators, parents and teachers to resolve these dilemmas.
Overcoming barriers to implementation of effective music education.
This section will explore different ways schools and districts across Kem
County are making music education a part of their regular program of education.
The strategies used are a diverse as the districts, but the net results is that there are
inroads into bringing music instruction to children across the county.
Support for music programs is apparent in reports of parent groups working
hard to make the programs happen. Many parent groups work tirelessly to support
junior high and middle school performance groups. Recently one parent
organization at a small rural school in a high poverty area expressed their support by
raising thousands of dollars to purchase new band uniforms. Their enthusiasm for
the music in their school rubs off on the primary grades, where music is part of the
culture of the school. Working together with parents, teachers are bringing support
for their classes in the form of volunteers working in music, raising funds to
purchase classroom sets of rhythm instruments, working on music skits for school
programs, and bringing visiting local professional musicians to the school.
Rather than grumble about all the stuff the junior high got, we got together
and went to the parents, because they are also the parents of our children.
When we let them know that there are things that we would like to have — a
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wish list — they were very excited to get to work on it (District M, Teacher
69c).
Examples of collaborative efforts across the county provide much need support for
music classes.
Parental support of the music education program in some parts of the county
exceeds school goals and places high expectations on the quality of music instruction
received in the classrooms.
Our school has families that value music very highly. Some of our students
enter Kindergarten with a year or two of music instruction, usually piano.
Other students begin music lessons the same week they start
[Kindergarten]... The parents of these children focus a great deal on what
music brings to their children, such as fortitude - one parent actually said that
to me. used that word, self-reflection, emotional expression, and see positive
links between the music instruction they are providing at home and the
academic achievement of their child at school... We are hard-pressed to
provide classroom music experiences that expand the child’s view of
music... (District M, Teacher 48c).
Clearly, this is the exception, not the rule, for parental support of early music
experiences across the county. These students, however, are seen in their later
school years participating in state and national honor performance groups.
Are these children always the most musical or best musicians? I don’t think
so. I think they have had the opportunity to learn that hard work pays off. In
those volatile junior high years, these students receive accolades that buoy
them on into successfully meeting the challenges of honors programs in high
school... It’s a “vicious circle of success”. But my point is we have an
obligation to offer the opportunity for all of our students to get caught up in
this spiral of success. My big thing is that every student comes to school
with an instrument — their voice — which they can use at no cost to their
parents. Even when the parents can’t afford instruments and private music
lessons, why aren’t we lifting up the little ones you are talking about [primary
students] with singing experiences in the very beginning of Kindergarten?
(District M, Teacher 50c)
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The frustration expressed in the above interview is echoed by teachers and
administrators at various levels. Several teachers related personal experiences in
music that transformed their lives. The issue of providing music experiences for all
students is clearly very emotional.
Music transforms people. There are days when I don’t want to drive across
town to teach a group of wiggly little bodies that seem intent on defying
everything that the school stands for. Then I think about our music lessons...
Some days I admit I use it as a crutch. We sing when we line up, we tap
finger rhythms during math, we illustrate a Debussy Nocturne for art. But
their faces light up and I know that they have some moment of peace in their
souls... I can’t change what happens when the bell rings for them to go
home but I can change what happens here (District G, Teacher 12c).
A great number of teachers were eager to ’“ tell their story” of an experience in music
that made a difference for them personally. It is not the scope of this research to
document these transforming events, but they illustrate the high emotional
involvement in the subject of music education. One prominent administrator has
repeatedly told his story to audiences across the state.
I wanted to play violin. I wanted it so badly. But we couldn’t afford the
rental of the instrument. To this day I have a heavy heart that wants to play
violin... I am very aware of the critical need to support music for all students
(District W , Administrator 1).
The key is when key administrators team up with board members, teachers, and
community members who have similar agendas in music education to make changes
happen. This change is occurring in some districts and is on the horizon for others.
Necessity to value music education.
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Interviews with administrators and teachers across the county included
questions their perceptions of the effective implementation of music education.
Recurring themes throughout the districts that have been successful in implementing
music programs was the value placed on music education and the commitment to the
program.
Commitment. It takes commitment to have successful music and art
programs. You have to be committed to a vision for what the students are to
become, committed to the strategic plan to achieve your goals, and
committed to providing the leadership to accomplish this vision (District E,
Administrator Ic).
It is clear that there are administrators in Kern County who are making commitments
to arts education for all their students. These districts are making plans to include
music and art at every level in their districts. The next step is the toughest one:
putting it in the budget. Whether the district is going to buy into a program such as
Different Ways of Knowing, provide creative professional development, hire music
specialists, or collaborate with programs offered through local agencies, placing
music education on the finance table is the challenge.
Local outreach.
One of the local programs offered to support school music programs is the
Arts In Education program developed by the Arts Council of Kem in conjunction
with the Kem County Superintendent of Schools, which expects to include musicians
into the program for the first time during the 2000-2001 school year. In this
program, community artists, dancers, actors, and now musicians present lessons to
one class o f students at least once a week for a period of six weeks. At the
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conclusion of the program, a culminating event is held at the school, presenting back
to the community the students’ comprehension of the lessons as well as the
integration into other curricular areas, such as social studies, math, or literature.
My third graders hung in there with the fourth graders, concentrated and
participated. They benefited from the professional instruction right in our
own classroom. They were extremely excited on Arts day, as we called it...
After our AIE classes in the fall and the spring, we volunteered to participate
in Museum Arts Day. It was held at the County Museum and linked a lesson
in local heritage with a hands-on arts lesson, one in the morning and one after
lunch. It was a wonderful way for my students to see how the arts are woven
into their daily lives (District B, Teacher 4c).
The program was originally targeted at grades four through six but now is
expanding to include third grade. The program is growing each year, and has more
requests from schools than it can provide with artists in residence.
There are other links with the community besides the music and arts
organizations. Local context of community networks must be fully developed to
sustain change in music and arts education. At least one district is actively seeking
support of local businesses to promote its music education program. The support
includes funding for uniforms for band, risers for choir rehearsals and performances,
and group activities with employees o f the businesses. While these activities have
been directed at upper elementary and middle schools, administrators are actively
engaged in bringing these community contacts to the primary students. These
activities are called “works in progress.”
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Administrative enthusiasm and support.
While the research presented in “Gaining the Arts Advantage” (PCAH,
1999a) stated that the community is frequently the most important element to the
successful implementation of arts education programs, the Critical Factors Survey
and interviews with teachers revealed that the principals exert considerable pressure
on the teachers, either to teach music and do it well, or to forgo music to provide
additional test preparation time. Even when the administrators are not themselves
musicians, their enthusiasm for music can rub off on the culture o f the school. In
one school, the principal plays a different kind of music (classical, jazz, Broadway
musicals, film scores and “big band oldies”) in the cafeteria at lunch each day. At
least one teacher reported that he uses the “lunch music” as an opportunity to
reinforce musical styles by discussing similarities and differences when the students
come in after lunch. The encouragement of the principal gives teachers “permission
to be creative and try new things.”
Groups of parents have worked with segments of their community to bring
attention to music education and music activities that are available in neighboring
districts. One parent group has successfully lobbied their school to purchase
equipment (boom boxes, portable speakers, and a cordless microphone) to support
music and drama productions at their school. Teachers suggested that parents
working with administrators are effective in making changes. Collaboration between
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administration, staff, and parents is seen as an effective means to overcoming some
of the barriers to implementing effective music education.
Providing on-going professional development.
If there were a mantra in the Comprehensive Classroom Survey and
interviews it is “I’m not a musician trained to teach music.” The teachers’ feelings
of inadequacy are exacerbated by the total lack of professional development
provided by districts.
Providing on-going staff development is an increasing challenge in light of
the decreasing days provided for staff development. Schools and districts are
struggling to find answers.
Implementation of any program is taking on different dimensions now days
since staff development days have been eliminated. There used to be five or
six days, where a project could be introduced in the fall, have follow-through
at intervals all year long, and then evaluation of progress in late spring. No
such luck now. Our district has no staff development days during the school
year... Our staff members have to volunteer to give up a Saturday or stay
late after school - even if we get paid extra hours. Many of our teachers are
taking classes after school or on weekends to complete their credentials...
Many of us have children at home who don’t need to become latch-key
children of teachers who know better than to leave their children. Luckily,
our principal agrees that our priority is to our families and is supportive of
our commitment to our own kids... Other administrators either have
forgotten what it’s like to have children at home waiting for you to take them
to the park, or they ignored their own children’s needs to advance their
careers... What do you do to implement much need reforms? Get creative!
(District B. Teacher 4c)
I guess I’m as transient as the students. I have worked in five districts in four
towns in three counties... but I think I have been a successful administrator
by going to the “smallest unit” which in education is the teacher. I can’t
make changes, improve test scores, generate better attitudes and school
climate, or anything without focusing on the teacher. He or she is the key to
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success. Teachers come in varying degrees of proficiency. Some must be
nurtured more closely than others. I’ve even had to let some go... So when
you talk about implementing an effective music program, I say we look at the
teachers. Let’s provide training at their individual level - not a “one-size-
fits-all” type of inservice that is bound for failure. Let’s be creative (District
B, Administrator 14C).
Some other strategies for implementation that were effective in the past are not
available now. In addition to the loss of staff development days, the demand for
teachers has put a premium on providing adequate substitute teachers.
There simply aren’t enough substitute teachers to go around. We used to hire
five or six subs, then have a half dozen teachers spend [the morning] with a
consultant or a curriculum specialist, then other teachers in the afternoon, so
we could reach a dozen or so teachers a day. It cost about $1000 per day for
the substitutes and the consultants, which is a very cost effective method of
providing staff development. With class size reduction, we struggle to find
subs for the teachers who are ill, let alone additional ones for staff
development (District B, Teacher 213c).
Other schools have used creative scheduling to meet the needs of providing staff
development. These models show the extent to which some schools and teachers
will go to make a program successful. These schedules may, of course, be used for
other subject matter besides music, but the thrust is “where there’s a will, there’s a
way.”
Perhaps this isn’t politically correct, but we double up our classes so that half
our teachers can attend training in the morning, and then they switch in the
afternoon. I remember having thirty-five second graders till year long, so
half a day once in a while isn’t bad (District G, Teacher 8c).
We heard about a school where all the teachers got to have lunch together at
the same time once a month. That was unheard of at our site with four lunch
hours. Now we hire extra playground aides for one day a month — I don’t
think it even costs that much - and our students rotate through the cafeteria
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and the teachers have lunch from 11:45 to 12:45. Our staff dining room is
crowded and kind of noisy, but we can get a lot of whole school business
done. Someone suggested we try a schedule where primary teachers can
have lunch to discuss primary level stuff. We haven’t figured that out yet
(District B, Teacher 4c).
“Partner Days” started as a teaching tool for the kids and ended up as a staff
development opportunity for our teachers. We use the Peer Tutoring model,
where third graders read with the K’s, fourth graders pair up with first grade,
and the fifth graders read with second grade. At first, half of the older kids
came to our rooms on one day and the other half on the next day. Once we
got the routine down, they could all come at one time, which meant that the
third, fourth, and fifth grade teachers had a free period. It didn’t take us long
to figure out that next week those teachers could come to our classrooms
with their students to watch over the Peer Tutoring process so we had a free
period! Then it evolved into an hour and a half. Now we schedule things
where we need to meet together, like writing the School Mission Statement
or revising the library policy and schedule. I think the students are benefiting
too. This is a win-win situation (District N, Teacher 17a).
We have a wonderful program called “Bank Days” where we teach extra
minutes on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Friday in order to let the
students go home at lunchtime on Thursdays. It makes the week seem so
much shorter. I know it’s just psychological, but it works. The teachers are
ready to have an afternoon of collaboration by Thursday, and then Friday,
well, it’s just Friday and it’s a piece of cake... The catch is that the Thursday
activities need to be well planned and efficiently organized. You want to see
some unhappy campers - just watch what happens if things aren’t ready for
presentation on Thursdays!! (District B, 41b)
Unfortunately, many schools find their daily schedules set by the busses. They are
unable to adjust start and end times to accommodate bank days due to the
complications of bus schedules. Each of these inservice schedules must be adapted
to meet the needs of the individual sites, but are examples of how teachers and
administrators, working together, are able to provide time for professional
development.
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As a means of bringing awareness of the needs o f the music program teachers
and administrators are working collaboratively to write (or rewrite) a district policy
statement for music education. They can also use state and local standards and
frameworks to write standards and a curriculum guide geared specifically to the
needs of their district. One district, selected as a demonstration site for arts
education, is in the process of preparing these documents to support the purchase of
new music materials.
A "hidden” resource of community collaboration may be found in some of
the new teachers on staff. There is a new phenomenon of men and women entering
the teaching profession in mid-life for a wide range of motivation. These individuals
bring with them vast networks in the local community that their younger colleagues
lack.
I have always wanted to be a teacher. But I got married and had children
before finishing college so it was out of the question. When my children all
finished college, they encouraged me to complete my degree and get my
teaching credential... So here I am. It’s an incredible challenge. What an
eye opener to really live the challenges that face teachers day to day. I am in
awe of the tremendous work teachers do (District G, Teacher 9c).
My business was doing well, but I felt like I was going in circles and not
accomplishing anything. I had my bachelor’s in business, so I had one leg
up... I started teaching and then applied for my emergency credential... I
routinely invite my business colleagues to spend a day - or even just a
morning - shadowing me as I teach. I think a lot of people need to know
what teaching is all about... I use my associates as resources and they bring
different things with them to class. I’m trying to get a regular pattern of
reading to my class by “guest speakers” (District M, Teacher 86b).
A man I used to work with before I became a teacher just loves soccer. I
have been able to convince him that my students really need his expertise as
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a soccer coach twice a week. He has been able to work it into his schedule,
and now we have two second grade classes that are learning soccer in an area
where AYSO and Club soccer are non-existent (District B, Teacher 40c).
Developing the community links with resources already on campus may be
an untapped field at many schools. These resources may provide also financial and
moral support.
There is renewed interest in education at the political level besides the issues
of test scores. Legislature may be willing to provide much needed funding for
education. There is a sense of optimism among teachers that some concerns and
problems may be addressed with funding.
With all the rumblings about our poor test scores, I have a feeling that things
are going to get better. Not that the problems that cause the low scores in our
school - incredible poverty, violent families, malnourishment, and there is
lots of physical damage done to these children before they get to
Kindergarten - are going to go away so the kids can be “successful” on the
tests... I just think the public is going to recognize that different students
have different needs, and different learning abilities... We’ve been under a
lot of pressure and lots of positive changes have been made. But I see even
better things ahead (District V , Teacher 103c).
However glum teachers were in reporting the lack of music (and art, science, and
P.E.) instruction and their frustration in not being able to provide the music
experiences they want for their students, there is a strong sense of energy and
enthusiasm among teachers. They expressed optimism that problems currently
facing educators were not hopeless, that all children would have opportunities for
successes. They are dedicated professional educators.
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Discussion
This study pointed out the ubiquitous disconnect between the public
perception of the value of arts in the lives of students and the value of the arts in their
own personal lives. The music, arts, and entertainment industries are enjoying
steady growth in all segments: live performances, television programming, cable
programming, movies, and Internet. The public is demanding higher quality
performances, increased sophistication in presentation, and extraordinary creativity
not only in their leisure activities, but in the workplace as well. Business leaders
now stress the need for employees who are team players, flexible, and able to solve
problems in creative and unique ways (MENC, 1994b). There exists a contradiction
between what the administrators and teachers believe and what their schools provide
(Leonhard, 1988; REAP, 2000). Virtually all educators who participated in this
study agreed that music and arts education are valuable for all students, yet their own
districts fail to provide a structured, sequential program in music education.
In districts where the leaders expressed the desire to provide music education
to follow the state framework, there are no incentives to fuel music programs. Test
scores, which reflect only verbal and math reasoning, drive the economy of
education today. Many educators feel that music and art will only receive attention
when they are included in the standardized testing and Academic Performance Index
(Hamblen, 1988).
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Another paradox is that many educators feel the need to “justify” the music
programs in some way (Royer, 1991; Brophy, 1994). Sources on the Internet abound
with testimonials about how music and arts education programs affected individuals,
schools, and even communities (REAP, 2000). For some, music is justified because
they find connections between studying music and improved academic outcomes
(College Board, 2000; Morrison 1994; Murfee, 1992: PC AH, 1999). Others justify
music because it appears to improve the outcomes of students who are considered at-
risk (PCAH, 1996; Hanson, 1991; Shuler, 1991; Shuler 1992). There are those who
consider music a primary source of patriotism (Hamm, 1983; Birge, 1966; Murfee,
1992).
Still others ring a cautionary note that music and the arts should be valued as
arts (REAP, 2000; Gardner, 1996, PC AH, 1999). Music is not a silver bullet to solve
the problems of an educational system gone awry. When schools and districts count
on a music program to correct the deficits of their math and reading programs, then
music education would be discredited if the test scores do not improve (REAP,
2000). Music should be valued for the musical experience it brings to students, not
for a secondary function (PCAH, 1999). One does not teach science to improve
history knowledge; why do some educators persist in requiring music education to
teach reading and math? Music can, however, teach in ways that no other subject
can.
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Results of this study indicate a reversal of the statement, “Do as I say, not as
I do.” Districts are saying that music education is not valuable in the lives of their
students while doing just the opposite by insisting that their families have access to
quality music lessons and music ensembles during their schooling.
Three observations can be made directly about music education in primary
classrooms in Kem County: a.) Districts are not linking addressing the quality of
their music education programs; b.) Districts are not linking instructional practices
with state or district policies on music education; and c.) Districts are not addressing
goals or standards for music education. Districts frequently skirt around the core
issues of policy, standards, and the quality of programs and instruction in music
education.
The data from this study indicate that very little music education takes place
in most primary classrooms across Kem County. Two primary factors in this are:
lack of time ( < quantity o f instruction) are the concentration on test preparation for the
SAT/9 test, and lack of teacher preparation to teach music. Although this study did
not address quality of instruction and assessment in their music programs, data reveal
that many general classroom teachers are not trained or prepared to provide
comprehensive instruction in music, thus compromising the quality o f instruction.
The expansion of the current music education programs in the majority of districts in
this study would not provide effective and successful music education to meet the
goals of the state framework or the forthcoming standards in music education. The
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music education programs in most districts need significant overhauling. Efforts to
reform music education programs require intensity and commitment for successful
implementation.
In the course of this study the most frequent suggestion made by teachers to
improve the music education program at their school was to hire a music specialist.
Administrators also cited a music specialist as a key factor in implementing a
comprehensive music education program, but frequently couched the suggestion as
“the impossible dream.” All regarded the music specialist as an instructor trained in
the components o f instruction as delineated in the Framework, knowledgeable in the
specific teaching methodologies, such as Orff, Kodaly, and Education Through
Music, and with access to additional materials and support through professional
music education organizations. Lack of financial commitment to music education
prevents the hiring of music specialists.
Another concern facing districts at this time in the implementation of all
educational programs is the increase in teacher mobility. In the past teachers
changed schools or districts for proximity to their homes and families, or to seek
higher-paying positions. Now there are patterns of movement out of schools and
districts with low test scores, low parent participation in the school, and high
transiency of the students. The active transferring of teachers may be a reflection of
the pressures of teacher accountability and potential for merit pay based on test
scores. This revolving door o f staffing affects all subject areas but may place an
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additional strain on music education as schools lack effective instructional programs
in music. Finding the supportive combination of teachers to implement innovative
professional development activities such as team teaching and mixers, and to sustain
a school climate that embraces music is challenging under these circumstances. The
instructional strategies of team teaching or mixing classes for instruction in several
subjects may need to be a mandatory part of an effective program rather than a
voluntary activity by the staff to ensure that the instructional strategy is sustained.
There are two districts in Kem County with full-time District Arts
Coordinators. Both coordinators are active in the local music education association.
The other nineteen districts in this study, all with fewer than 7,000 students, do not
have a full-time coordinator. In the PC AH study (1999), the arts coordinator has
considerable impact on the quality of music education in the schools. The
coordinator, whether a full-time position or an adjunct to another role, provides vital
services to the district: engaging and influencing the community in support of music,
keeping music “on the table” during budget discussions, possibly participating with
screening and hiring of teachers, and facilitating communication and fostering a
climate of support between all stakeholders in the school or district. Clerical tasks
such as ordering valve oil, hanging student artwork, and scheduling instrumental
performances are not the primary activities of the coordinator in a district with an
effective primary music education program.
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Additional funding for education looms on the horizon. Teachers in many
districts are eager to line up for salary increases to bring their salaries to the state
average. Districts with low test scores are eager to purchase programs and materials
to increase their API. Other districts are planning renewal of their facilities.
Through all of the discussion of where the funding is best spent, teachers, parents
and administrators interested in music education need to solicit assistance from the
community to keep music education in the dialogue. One administrator called this
“getting your ducks in a row.” Music education advocates must be consistently
articulate about the need for all students to receive the best possible music instruction
(Catterall, et al, 1999).
The adage “if it is tested, it is taught” was borne out by data from this study.
Music advocates need to consider how mandatory state testing of music education
could serve to strengthen the music education programs for all students. When the
State Board of Education adopts the content standards in music, there is no
requirement that a district must follow the standards. Without any accountability for
instruction and assessment in the arts, the Framework and Standards are sterile
documents. Interviews and surveys in this study indicate that few teachers have read
the 1996 Visual and Performing Arts Framework in the four years since its
publication. There is no accountability procedure to ensure that teachers or districts
will respond to the forthcoming Content Standards any more thoroughly than they
have the Framework. Frameworks and standards do have an impact on educational
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practices when they are studied and implemented, but not when they are used as
doorstops.
The pressure felt across Kem County to raise test scores is palpable.
Teachers and administrators recognize that businesses are crying for students capable
of meeting the technical demands of the twenty-first century. Through the data in
this study one must examine the “shotgun” approach to curriculum in the United
States. The prevailing theory that all subjects must be taught from kindergarten
through high school following a logical scope and sequence must be questioned.
Forcing students to sit through more of what isn’t working does not produce the
competent, creative life-long learners needed to support the technology of the future.
There must be serious consideration at the state level to implementing a vigorous
music education program for all students beginning in pre-school and kindergarten
and delaying instruction in subjects such as science or social studies until third or
fourth grade.
Districts, schools and teachers have an obligation to their students to provide
adequate instruction in music education for all students. It is evident in Kem County
that this is not the case at this time.
Summary of Chanter Four
The data collected during this study provided answers to the four research
questions of this study. The surveys and interviews that generated the data were
derived from national studies presented in the review o f literature. The findings
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yielded descriptions of what elementary music instruction looks like in Kem County
and how districts across the county are dealing with implementing effective music
programs. Chapter Five summarizes the study and the findings, leading to
suggestions and recommendations.
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CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
The last two decades of the twentieth century witnessed waves of school
reform efforts across the nation. These reform efforts sought to stem the tide of
eroding test scores across the grade levels and across the nation. During this time,
the development of national policies was taking place. Local policy and programs
gave way to national reform efforts. For the first time, national standards for
education in the arts was developed under the Consortium of National Arts
Education Associations which delineated explicit goals for all students in music
education.
In 1996 the California Visual and Performing Arts Framework was published
to focus education reform efforts in music education on bringing quality music
experiences and education to all students in the state. Yet there was little agreement
over the authority and use of the framework. As a result, gaps occurred between
what the policies strove to bring to students in music education and what instruction
students were actually experiencing. This study looks at the gaps and identifies
strategies in curriculum and teaching and how districts have overcome barriers to
implementation of quality music programs.
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Summary
Statement of the Problem
There is a need for more information and additional research on the impact of
policy on music education instructional practice. This information falls into several
categories:
1. There is a need to establish the condition of music education in primary
classrooms at the present time.
2. There is a need for information about how the California Visual and
Performing Arts Framework (1996) and other national, state and local
policies impact primary classroom practices in music education in California.
This study focused how districts reconcile the policies with the music
education practices in primary classrooms.
3. There is a need to know how some districts are able to more fully implement
the state and local policies to meet the National Goals, National Standards,
and state and local policy statements. This study identified strategies for
implementation of music education policies and how some districts have
identified barriers to implementation and overcome those barriers.
Purpose of the Study
This study analyzed the linkages between national, state, and local policies
and classroom practices in music education, focusing on kindergarten through third
grade in Kem County, California. This study offers analysis and insight to districts
as they seek to more fully implement comprehensive music programs in primary
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classrooms. The broad purpose of this study is to establish the extent to which
critical factors are in place that enable schools to provide Kindergarten through third
grade students with equal access to a quality music education program.
Methodology
The research methods used in this study were primarily qualitative in nature.
The instruments were designed following research reported by the National Center
for Educational Statistics, “Elementary School Arts Education Survey of 1994” and
the President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities and Arts Education
Partnership, “Gaining the Arts Advantage.” The use three types of data - surveys,
interviews, and observations - strengthened the validity of the data and findings.
Kem County selected for study was chosen for its diversity of types and sizes
of districts, the diversity of the student population within the county, and the range of
music education programs in the county. All K-8 districts (N=35) were invited to
participate. Twenty-one districts chose to participate. The sample consisted of
teachers in Kindergarten through third grade classes and adminstrators. All
participants and districts were assured of anonymity.
To answer the first research question, “What does elementary classroom
music education in Kindergarten through third grade look like in Kem County,
California?” the researcher developed the “Comprehensive Survey of Classroom
Music Education.” This survey included demographic data about the teachers and
their music programs, their students’ music instruction, and personal opinions about
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obstacles to comprehensive music instruction and how their schools and districts
work to overcome obstacles.
With the Comprehensive Survey as a background, the researcher developed
the Interview instruments, detailed and brief, for teachers and for administrators, to
amplify the findings of the survey. The interview framework probed for additional
information to support or refute data collected in the Comprehensive Survey.
The second research question asked, ‘‘How do districts reconcile the policies
of Goals 2000, the National Standards in Arts Education, and the 1996 Visual and
Performing Arts Framework (California) with the music education practices in their
elementary classrooms?” The Comprehensive Survey asked the teachers to evaluate
the importance of these policy documents to their instructional practices. The
administrators at the site level and district level were queried about their decisions
about and levels of support for music education through textbooks, instructional
materials, professional development, and encouragement of teachers who exhibit
exemplary practices in classroom music education.
“What strategies for change in curriculum and teaching do districts foresee
that would assist in the implementation of those arts education policies?” was the
third research question. Teachers, site administrators, and district administrators
were interviewed to investigate this question. Responses were carefully screened
and categorized for evaluation (Silverman, 1993). Teachers also responded in the
“Any additional comments” section of the Comprehensive Survey.
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To answer the fourth research question, “What are barriers to implementation
and how have some districts overcome these barriers?” the researcher again used the
interview frameworks to gather most of the data. Responses on the Comprehensive
Survey were also used. Data analyzed from the Critical Factors Survey was of
assistance. A similar system of coding and analysis was employed to interpret the
data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Summary of Findings
First Research Question: What elementary classroom music education in
Kindergarten through third grade looks like in Kem Countv. California.
The first research question probed how music education is delivered to
students: by the general classroom teacher, a music specialist, or a combination of
both. Further the researcher asked how many minutes of instruction the students
receive and how often each week the students receive this instruction. Additionally,
this study investigated how prepared the teachers feel, what policies or documents
teachers refer to in teaching music, and what individuals or groups do teachers turn
to for support in teaching music.
This study found that in Kem County, music in the primary grades is most
frequently taught by the general classroom teacher (59%). The classroom teachers
indicated that about one third of the classes do not have music instruction, another
third have music between 10 and 45 minutes per week, and the final third have music
instruction between 50 and 100 minutes per week. A majority of teachers (60%)
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responded that they had not received any music education training during their
credential programs. These teachers do not feel prepared to teach music to meet the
goals of the Visual and Performing Arts Framework.
Music specialists generally felt prepared and competent to teach to the state
and national standards. They participate in continuing education to enhance their
instruction. The music specialists did agree that they do not have enough time with
students to fully meet the goals.
Policy statements had little impact on music education for the general
classroom teacher. Policy statements at all levels, district, state and national, did not
seem to be known by teachers or communicated to teachers. The highest rated
policy was the district policy on music education, by which 23% of the teachers
indicate that they are influenced.
Teachers cited “personal experience” as their primary resource for their
instruction in music in their classrooms, with 73% of teachers surveyed using their
personal experiences in music to support their music instruction. Yet the personal
experiences may not have been linked to competency in meeting the state framework
for music instruction.
Music education in the primary grades in Kern County is highly inconsistent
at best. There are a limited number of teachers in general classrooms who are well-
trained and competent, providing excellent music education experiences for the
students. The vast majority of classrooms, however, are not receiving adequate
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instruction in terms of quantity or quality. Many site and district administrators are
reluctant to grapple with the issue of accountability for the quality of the music
education programs.
Second Research Question: How districts reconcile national, state, and local music
education policies with instructional practices in their primary classrooms.
The second research question concerned how districts reconciliation of
policies with practice in music education in Kern County. The surveys and
interviews revealed the following findings:
In districts in this study with music specialists teaching the music programs,
the music teachers are supported as professionals who are trained and qualified. The
music specialists have content knowledge, know and understand the standards and
framework, and create lessons which meet the criteria of the California Visual and
Performing Arts Framework.
The music teachers also use a music text that is aligned with the state
framework and frequently supplement the text with materials they personally
develop. Many of the music specialists have additional training in specific music
methods, such as Orff, Kodaly, and Education Through Music. These districts
consider that the music instruction in primary classrooms is carefully developed and
delivered. Although these music specialists are capable and competent (quality of
instruction), several of these districts have not addressed the lack of time (quantity of
instruction) scheduled with groups o f children. Thus, potentially outstanding music
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instruction is diluted by scheduling the specialist with hundreds of students. These
districts are not actively addressing how this deficit could be addressed in their
programs.
A second group, districts without music specialists providing classroom
music instruction, recognizes that there are gaps between policies and the music
education programs in their districts. In this group there are three general categories
of reconciliation, all of which involve the purchase of new music textbooks and
materials.
a.) Some districts have already received new music textbooks or have
ordered new texts and have plans to provide inservice training in the
implementation of the textbooks. The textbook publishers will provide
much of this inservice.
b.) In other districts plans have been made or are in progress to implement
the textbook by providing classroom teachers with on-going inservice in
how to use the new materials and how to use new music teaching
strategies. These districts have responded to teacher requests for
additional training to become effective in classroom music instruction by
focusing on the text and related materials. Some are considering adding
local programs such as Arts in Education to fill in gaps in their programs.
c.) There are districts now considering the purchase of new textbooks. With
the purchase of new state-approved texts, the music program will be
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considered to be aligned with the state framework. These districts will
address the inservice needs of their staff if they purchase textbooks.
There are no other plans in these districts to reconcile gaps between state
and national policies and their instructional practices in music education.
A third group of districts and schools are greatly concerned about the low
Stanford/9 test scores and the low Academic Performance Index. Their focus is on
bringing in new reading and math programs. There is little incentive to examine
their music education programs for several reasons:
a.) There is no state standard for music education to which the district is held
accountable.
b.) Their district S AT/9 test scores and their Academic Performance Index
are very low. Great effort is expended in providing new techniques and
strategies to raise test scores.
c.) The state focus on test scores in the areas of language arts and math
preempt concerns for other curricular areas, including science, social
studies, PE, and the arts.
d.) A cultural climate within the district school board or administration that is
reluctant to support arts education. In some cases, site administrators are
knowledgeable about the benefits of music education but are unwilling to
speak out in behalf of classroom music education.
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Third Research Question: Change Strategies that would Improve Music Instruction
The third research question asks districts to examine strategies for change in
curriculum and instruction to assist in the implementation of music education
programs and policies. Two districts are currently undergoing review and
restructuring of their music programs at all levels. A group of districts that is
focusing on raising test scores are not anticipating making changes to improve or
even include music instruction. By far the largest group of districts falls in between.
These districts can be arranged in three basic categories: (a) districts that anticipate
improvement based on the purchase of new textbooks and materials, (b) districts that
will add staff development to the purchase of new materials, (c) districts that will
also seek support from community agencies, such as the Arts Council of Kern or the
Kern County Superintendent of Schools, and (d) districts that are hiring classroom
teachers with extensive backgrounds in music.
With the exception of the districts currently undertaking self-study and
review prior to restructuring their music and art programs, few administrators
expressed concern with the ability of their teachers to provide music instruction now
that there are new textbooks. The acquisition of new materials has been long
overdue in many districts and is regarded now as a show of support for their
classroom music programs. The quality of instruction and learning in music
education is not evaluated. Students are not evaluated based on standards, and
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teachers are not evaluated other than the acknowledgement that some classrooms
seem to provide excellent programs at assemblies.
Several schools presented varieties of team teaching and “mixing” programs.
Team teaching is generally where two or more teachers each take one subject area,
such as music and art, and then trade classes for instruction. Mixing programs also
involve two or more classrooms, but the students are “mixed” between the classes.
Mixing programs seem to have their roots in the bilingual education programs of the
1980s and 1990s, until bilingual classes were dismantled by Proposition 227. Even
though there is no linguistic imperative to mix students between classes, some
teachers feel that the social interaction is an important part of their instruction. Both
team teaching and mixing programs are based on the good will of the teachers
involved: all are volunteers in the program. Effective programs are fragile, and
subject to changes in staffing. Programs that were exemplary for several years may
be disbanded when members of the group move or change grade levels.
Administrators are not willing to mandate team teaching and mixing programs out of
concern for reluctant teacher participation or possible union issues. Mandating that a
teacher must teach one subject four afternoons a week might be a concern for the
teachers’ union.
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Fourth Research Question: Barriers to implementation and how some districts
overcome these barriers
The fourth research questions examines some o f the barriers districts see that
prevent them from implementing a comprehensive music education program and
discusses how some districts have been able to overcome those barriers. There are
two broad categories of barriers: a.) several, or many, of the identified factors for
successful implementation of a comprehensive music program are missing, and b.)
the press for increasing test scores.
In districts where the first three “critical factors” are present (support from
community, superintendent, and school board) the music programs have been
maintained throughout the economic and academic “crises” during the past two
decades. In districts where several dynamic individuals have lobbied for music
education, the music programs have been sustained, sometimes on the sheer energy
and enthusiasm o f an individual in a small district. Conversely, in districts where
there has been no consistent lobby for the support and inclusion of a comprehensive
music program, the quality and quantity of music instruction has waned.
The districts with a designated coordinator who was known and recognized
by teachers across the district, had more communication with site administrators and
staff, whether that person was full-time or part-time. The communication included
information about the Framework, national standards and the development of state
standards. Teachers in these districts felt included in decision-making.
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In several districts, there were teachers who were not aware of the goals in
the Framework (1996), or the current work on state standards. Several teachers
lamented that there was no direction or guidance in music education. It became clear
that communication with teachers about the Framework and standards in music is
fundamental to improving the music education programs.
The second broad category of barriers to the implementation of
comprehensive music education programs in Kem County is the concentration on
improving test scores. The current political climate in California regarding public
schools and accountability has created an intense focus on standardized test scores,
in many districts to the detriment of subjects not covered on the tests: music, art,
physical education, social studies, and science. Although some districts test their
students in science and social studies on the standardized tests, the results used for
the calculation of the Academic Performance Index include only the scores in
reading, language, and math. Schools are motivated by politics to teach to improve
test scores. This is a serious impediment to allowing districts the time and energy to
thoroughly examine their music programs to restructure and reform them.
Conclusions
Classroom music education in Kindergarten through third grade in Kem
County varies dramatically from district to district, and from school to school within
districts. The implementation of comprehensive music education in primary
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classrooms hinges on the commitment of the community, school board,
administrators and teaching staff. Many districts need to implement their own board
policy regarding music education. State law requires a course of study in music
beginning in grade 1 and continuing through grade 6. Districts need to review their
compliance with the state education code.
Questions about music education in Kem County provoked emotional
responses from teachers and administrators. It is apparent that the childhood music
education experiences of the adults in the schools were fundamental to their growth
as students. The music education programs offered to students across Kem County
at this time fall short of the programs of the last two decades. This study did not
assess the quality of the music instruction but teachers’ misgivings about their own
ability to instruct lead this researcher to conclude that the quality of music education
varies greatly from classroom to classroom, with few students receiving a
comprehensive music education.
To improve music education instruction and experiences schools and districts
in Kem County need to consider the following recommendations:
1. Engage in meaningful self-review and restructuring of the music
education programs in the district Be prepared to examine how to
provide a quality program with quality instruction for all students.
Focus on meeting the goals of the California Visual and Performing
Arts Framework. The next step is meeting the California Visual and
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Performing Arts Standards, which were adopted by the State Board of
Education in January, 2001, to improve the quality of general classroom
music. Districts should consciously and methodically strive to put into
place the Critical Factors for successful music programs as outlined in
the PCAH document, “Gaining the Arts Advantage” (PCAH, 1999).
2. Consider hiring professional music educators, sharing teachers between
schools or districts if necessary. Music specialists have background and
training in the specific methods and strategies to effectively implement
a program of music education that strives towards the goals of the state
framework.
3. Designate a district arts coordinator with a schedule that permits
effective advocacy in the community, school board and school staff.
This person should be known to all staff members, communicating the
availability of the coordinator to assist with all aspects of the music
program. This person should exert influence at the school and district
level to enhance music in the school. Some district superintendents
consider this position one of the keys to a successful music program.
4. Additional local programs, such as the Arts in Education Program and
Young Audiences, should be brought into the schoolhouse. Districts
should seek financial support from local agencies and community
businesses to bring additional arts activities and experiences to students
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across the county. These experiences bring a broader base for the four
components of music education of the state framework.
There are exemplary music education programs in Kem County. Other
schools and districts would be well advised to observe the successful programs and
adapt their success within their own sites. These isolated programs demonstrate that
the obstacles to a comprehensive music education program can be overcome.
Recommendations for Further Research
There are two major areas that need further research: student learning and
policy development. The development of state and national standards in music
education is a positive step in developing awareness of the importance of music in
the lives of students. There are important new policies at all levels that include
music education as a core subject for all students. Research is needed to establish
links between the power of music, school performance and academic achievement.
The early childhood experiences from birth to age 5 are critical to leading a
productive and successful life. Additional studies are needed to examine how music
and music education programs can affect these early learning experiences. Current
brain research needs to link with educational development research.
The Goals 2000: Educate America Act included arts education as core
subjects, with a basic level o f literacy that should be attained by all students. All
students should be able to communicate in and about music at a basic level.
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Additional studies need to determine whether students are achieving the minimum
proficiency standards and whether districts are striving to attain these goals.
While arts educators and researchers agree that music programs should not be
justified by non-music outcomes, there needs to be additional research into the strong
correlation between music and non-music subjects, such as math and science. More
research on the effects of music education on adult life and life satisfaction should be
pursued. Is there a link between the skills taught in music education and the skills
required for non-music jobs and careers?
The 1996 report Coming Up Taller showed that at-risk students who
participate in music and other arts activities in and outside of school showed
increased academic performance and more motivation to stay in school. Additional
research is needed to determine what are the particular attributes of music that
contribute to the success of these students.
Research into the most effective instruction in music education would be
valuable. In addition, studies of effective professional development would benefit
teachers in maintaining high standards of instruction. Additional research needs to
be undertaken to identify support systems for music education that are effective.
A large area of research that needs to be addressed is making reliable
information and research results available to the policymakers at district, state, and
national levels. Without this knowledge, policies may be decided by emotional
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responses rather than reason and information. There also needs to be studies made
on the unintended effects of policies on music education.
International comparisons of scores in science, math, and literacy are
ubiquitous. Studies are needed in which the arts education programs are compared
with those of other nations. Further, studies need to compare students of similar
music achievement across all areas of academic achievement. If the United States is
to provide '‘ world-class” education to all students, one must examine all areas of
education internationally. Studies need to be undertaken to examine how music
education plays a role in international achievement score.
At the local level, there are additional studies that need to be undertaken in
Kem County. A parallel study into the implementation of the visual arts component
of the California State Visual and Performing Arts Framework should be undertaken.
The development of creative and innovative minds is essential to the technological
world of the twenty-first century. With the adoption of California State Standards in
January 2001, teachers and administrators have additional information about what
should be taught in visual art as well as music, dance and drama. A study
investigating how thoroughly schools and districts are meeting these standards is
needed.
As part of reforming and restructuring music education, research studies
should include the quality of content as well as instructional practices in primary
music education. Again, the implementation of state standards will assist the
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teachers who felt that they had no goals to which to aspire. Communication of the
Standards as well as the Framework is a critical component of implementation of a
comprehensive music education program. Studies should evaluate the quality of the
music instruction that students in Kem County are receiving.
A retrospective study of use of state textbook monies designated for music
books and materials over the past three state music text funding cycles could be used
to evaluate a district’s history of commitment to music education. Teachers
participating in this study indicated that some districts “roll over” the music textbook
budget to purchase materials for other curricula in the following year. Funds for
music education are designated as part of the policy to provide music to all students.
Any other use of these funds is misappropriation. A study would substantiate or
disprove these claims.
With the implementation of the California Governor’s Awards for individual
teachers and schools making the target improvement in test scores, a study should be
undertaken to compare “similar schools” that implement the music programs of the
California Visual and Performing Arts Framework and the Standards with schools
that forgo music education to concentrate on preparing students for the SAT/9 tests.
There is considerable research that needs to be undertaken in the area of
music and music education. It is encouraging to note that key national arts
organizations and the U.S. Department of Education are making great efforts to
disseminate information and knowledge about these studies. The Internet will
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continue to grow as a source o f unregulated data. The public needs to be aware of
the disparity of quality in reports found on the Internet and be cognizant of their
responsibility to use reliable and responsible sources of information. Studies should
be examined cautiously and thoroughly. The national organizations should exercise
great integrity when posting studies on the Internet.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A - List of Elementary School Districts in Kem County.......................185
Appendix B - Comprehensive Survey of Classroom Teachers..............................186
Appendix C - Comprehensive Survey of Classroom Music Specialists............... 190
Appendix D - Critical Factors Survey......................................................................194
Appendix E - Letter of Introduction to Administrators.......................................... 197
Appendix F - Letter of Introduction to Teachers.....................................................198
Appendix G - Letter of Introduction to Music Specialists..................................... 199
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APPENDIX A
An Alphabetical Listing of all Elementary (K-8) Districts in Kem County (2000)
Arvin Union
Bakersfield City
Beardsley
Belridge
Blake
Buttonwillow Union
Caliente Union
Delano Union
DiGeorgio
Edison
Elk Hills
Fairfax
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Fruitvale
General Shaffer Union
Greenfield Union
Kemville Union
Lakeside Union
Lamont
Linns Valley-Poso Flat Union
Lost Hills Union
Maple
McKittrick
Midway
Norris
Panama-Buena Vista Union
Pond
Richland-Lerdo Union
Rio Bravo-Greeley Union
Rosedale Union
Semitropic
Southfork Union
Standard
Taft City
Vineland
Wasco Union
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APPENDIX B
SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY CLASSROOM TEACHERS
Thank you for participating in this survey. Your frank and honest resp on ses are
greatly appreciated. P lease respond to all questions.
Background Information
Grade level you currently teach: __________ Years of teaching this grade:____
Years of teaching:_________
Do you read music? How well? Beginner______Moderate Advanced
Do you play piano? How well? Beginner Moderate Advanced.
Do you have a piano in your classroom to u se? How often do you use it? _
Did you study music as a student?________ If so, what did you study?________
At what grade levels?___________________________________________________
Did you participate in high school or college music performance groups? ______
A little Moderate Extensive participation________ For pay
About your school:
Does your school have music performances/assemblies in which your students participate
as a class?_____________
How often do they participate each year?____________
Does your school provide music text books?
Yes, one for each child
Yes, but the children share texts
No, we do not have music text books
Do you have any of the following in your classroom (check all that apply):
Tape recorder
CD player
record player
rhythm instruments
other._____________________________________________________________
Does your school or district provide a written curriculum guide for music instruction in
Kindergarten through Grade 3? Yes No (Circle one)
If so, do you use i t regularly infrequently never
Does your school or district provide on-campus performances in music, such as Young
Audiences?_________ If so, how often?______________________________________
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Does your school or district take your class on field trips to music performances or events?
Yes No (Circle one)
Does your school provide funds for music supplies for your classroom?_______________
What is the range of funds? $_______ Per class? Per student?____
Policies
To what extent do the following policy statements influence your music instruction?
(Check one in each row)
Considerable Moderate Small None
Goals 2000: Educate America Act
National Standards for Arts
Education
California Visual and Performing
Arts Framework
District Policy on Music Education
District Curriculum Guide
To what extent do the following individuals or groups influence how you teach music
education? (Check one in each row.)
Considerable Moderate Small None
District Superintendent
Other district personnel
School Principal
School staff on site
Parents
Personal experience
Other
Professional Developm ent
Did you receive music education training in your student teaching program?_____
If so, to what extent do you feel your pre-service teacher preparation program was effective
in preparing you to teach music in the classroom?
Not helpful Slightly Moderately_____ Highly effective________
Has your district or school sent you to any professional development program in teaching
classroom music? _______________________________________________________
If so, what training?______________________________________________________
Are there professional development programs or activities which you feel would be
beneficial? What are they? ________________________________________
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About your music instruction:
(If music is taught only by a music specialist, please check here:.
How often do you teach music (total davs per week): _________
How many minutes do you teach music (total minutes per week):
Please rank the order of importance of activities or instructional practices you include in your
music instruction: (1 is most important)
singing ______ rhythm instruments
singing games______________ ______ oth er___________________________
movement ______________________________________
Please rank the order of importance of these types of equipment in your music instruction: (1
is most important)
tape recorder______________________ rhythm instruments
CD player ______ text books
record player______________________ piano
other._____________________________________________________________
If your school has music text books, do you use: Check all that app[y.
the teacher’ s edition
the student text books
music big books
other written materials: _____________________________________________
_text and songs to support themes in other areas
(Check all that apply)
Do you:______ enjoy teaching music in your classroom?
develop your own music lessons? Based on
.supplement your music instruction with personal supplies?
If so, what?_______________________________________
have little time to prepare and teach music in your classroom?
sometimes avoid teaching music because of pressures to teach other
subjects?
sometimes avoid teaching music because you feel inadequately trained
or prepared?
What are vour goals for your students to learn in music while they are in your classroom?
To what extent are you able to reach your goals? A little Moderately Fully
What are obstacles to meeting your goals?____________________________________
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How can these obstacles be overcome?
Please add any comments you have about your classroom music education
instruction. In the original document this was at the top of Page 4.
N o te : The m argins have been changed fo r inclusion in the dissertation docum ent. The survey as
distributed was one sheet o f 11 "x 17 "paper printed fro n t and back, then fo ld e d into fo u r pages.
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APPENDIX C
Survey of Music Specialists
B a ckgro und Information:
Years of teaching classroom music_________ Grades_________
Do you play piano?__________Do you play an instrument?___________Sing?
Did you participate in high school or college music performance groups?____
A b o u t your school(s) and district:
What percent of students in grades K-3 in your district receive music instruction from a
certificated music specialist?_______ %
Do you have a classroom of your own in which to teach music? (Check all that apply)
_________at all schools to which you are assigned
_________at some of the schools
________ at none of the schools
Do your students have music text books?
_________Yes, one for each child, Grade_________
_________Yes, but the students share text books
_________No, we do not have music texts
Do you have any of the following provided for you? (Check all that apply)
_________Tape recorder
_________CD player
_________record player
_________rhythm instruments
_________Orff instruments
_________O ther______________________________________________________
Are these provided at all of the schools where you teach? Yes No
Do you have a budget for supplies? __________Per semester Per student____
Per cla ss Per school_____
What supplies do you provide on your own?_____________________________________
A b o u t your school/district m usic education policies:
Does your district have a written policy regarding music instruction for students in grades
K-3? Yes No (Circle one) If no, continue on next page.
Is it useful to you? Very useful moderately useful Not very useful____
Does your district provide you with a written curriculum guide for music instruction in
grades K-3?__________
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If yes, when was the curriculum guide developed?
developed?_________________________________
How was the guide
Does it meet the 1996 Visual and Performing Arts Framework?__________
If you do not have a written curriculum guide, how is your curriculum planned and by whom?
Are you and your music education colleagues included in the development of policies
regarding music education for your district?__________
If yes, how are you included?
If you are not included, who makes the policies regarding music education for your district?
Is there an implied policy? Please explain:
To what extent do the following policy statements influence your music instruction?
(Check one in each row)
Considerable Moderate Small None
Goals 2000: Educate America Act
National Standards for Arts
Education
California Visual and Performing
Arts Framework
District Policy on Music Education
District Curriculum Guide
To what extent do the following individuals or groups influence how you teach music
education? (Check one in each row.)
Considerable Moderate Small None
District Superintendent
Other district personnel
School Principal
School staff on site
Parents
Personal experience
Other.
How are music education policies implemented in your district? (Check all that apply)
District staff development activities for music teachers
Written directives from district office
Oral instruction from district office
Other (Please explain)________________________________________
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Are the policies consistent across the district?____________________________
What are effective ways to implement music education policies in your district?
A bout your instructional practices:
How many students (total number) are you assigned to teach classroom music?
What is the average size of the groups you teach?______
In how many schools do you teach?______
How many minutes do you spend with each group of students?_________
How has class size reduction affected your teaching?
• Scheduling________________________________________________________
• Content___________________________________________________________
• Instructional Practices
• Other __________________________________________________________________
Please rank the order of importance of activities or instructional practices you include in your
music instruction: (1 is most important)
singing ______ rhythm instruments
singing games______________ ______ oth er______________________
movement _________________________________
Please rank the order of importance of these types of equipment in your music instruction: (1
is most important)
tape recorder______________________ rhythm instruments
CD player ______ text books
record player______________________ piano
o th e r _______________________________________________________
If your school has music text books, what do you use? Check all that app[y.
the teacher's edition
the student text books
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music big books
other written materials: ________________________________________
text and songs to support themes in other areas
Do you:______ develop your own music lessons? Based on ?_____________________
supplement your music instruction with personal supplies?
If so, what?________________________________________________
What are vour goals for your students to learn in music while they are in your classroom?
To what extent are you able to reach your goals? A little Moderately
Fully___
What are obstacles to meeting your goals?
What are some of the best features of the music program you teach?
What are some of the difficulties you face in the music program you teach?
Please add any comments you have about your music education programs and
policies.
Thank you for participating!
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APPENDIX D
Survey of “Critical Factors”
In Music Education Programs
In Kern County
In 1999 the President’s Council on the Arts and Humanities published a massive
study titled, “Gaining the Arts Advantage.” The report outlined a list of “critical success
factors” for art and music education programs across the country. The current study being
undertaken is examining the strengths and weaknesses of music education programs at the
elementary level in Kern County. Your thoughtful and critical responses are valued. Please
rate on a scale of 1 (Not evident) to 5 (Always evident) the extent to which these factors are
evident in your school and district. Circle the appropriate number.
Factor 1: The Community (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The community — that is, parents, families, musicians, music organizations, businesses, local
civic and cultural leaders and institutions - is actively engaged in the music politics and
instructional programs of the school district. The community assists in the teaching and
learning activities, mobilises and supports music education through political activity, uses
school facilities for community music programs, and provides venues for faculty and student
performances.
Factor 2: The School Board (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The School Board provides a supportive policy framework and environment for music
education. One or more o f the board members have a personal background in music
education and use this knowledge and value o f music education to: adopt written policies
that value music and equal to other school subjects; treat music education equally with other
subject areas when budget etas are required: support development o f plans to strengthen
music education: apportion resources, facility renovation and development to support the
policy framework.
Factor 3: The Superintendent (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The Superintendent regularly articulates in writing, memos, and speeches a vision for music
education across the district. The superintendent typically credits school staff, key board
members, and/or influential community forces with assisting him or her, but the actions o f
the superintendent are vital to the music program: regularly articulating the importance o f
music education in achieving the goals o f the district; committing personal time to attending
music events; and meeting with the music teachers and representatives from the music and
cultural organizations o f the community.
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Factor 4: Continuity in Leadership (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
There is continuity in the school, district and community leadership that supports music
education. Stability in the formal leadership positions within the district and individual
schools is important in pursuing a set o f educational goals. Continuity in demographics,
values, and politics supports music education in this district.
Factor 5: District Arts Coordinator (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The district arts coordinator facilitates program implementation throughout the school
system and maintains an environment of support for music education. Smaller districts use a
curriculum specialist or a music educator to fill these crucial roles and provide vital
services: to influence segments o f the community that value and nurture music education: to
keep music education “ on the table ” during budget sessions; to negotiate between board,
central office and school-level decision-making; to foster a climate o f support in the
community and district.
Factor 6: The Principal (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The school principal supports the policy of music education for all students, creating
expectations and climate for music education. Research affirms the role o f the principal as
the primary instructional leader at the individual school level. The principal recognizes the
intrinsic value o f music as well as the effectiveness o f music education in addressing other
issues at the school.
Factor 7: The Music Educator as a Musician (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
Effective music educators are encouraged to continue to learn and grow in their
musicianship as well as their teaching competence. The value placed on the professional
quality o f their music by administrators, parents, and community stimulates and refreshes
their commitment both to their music and to teaching.
Factor 8: Parent/Public Relations (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
School leaders seize opportunities to make their music programs know throughout the
community in order to secure support and funding for them. School leaders employ a
variety o f techniques to engage the total school community in music activities that create a
climate o f support.
Factor 9: An Elementary Foundation (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
A strong music program in the early elementary years is the foundation for strong system-
wide and community music programs to achieve proficiency in music. Building music
programs in the early years also builds relationships with parents and community
organizations that are important to sustaining support fo r all school programs.
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Factor 10: Opportunities For Higher Levels Of Achievement
(No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
School leaders provide specialized music programs, which encourage students to aspire to
professional levels of performance. School and district leaders recognize specialized music
programs as part o f their broad strategy for securing and sustaining community support for
the district s overall educational goals. Students at these levels express pride in and
commitment to their -w ork. Their achievements contribute to community enthusiasm for
music education.
Factor 11: National, State, Or Outside Forces (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The district utilizes state or national policies and programs to advance music education.
National and state standards for music education, education reform movements, federal
funding for general school improvement or targeted programs are employed to support and
advance the music education agenda.
Factor 12: Planning (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
School leaders combine the compelling vision of the importance of music education with a
thoughtful implementation plan that shows how resources will be apportioned over time to
reach all students. The plan establishes confidence among music teachers and building
level administrators that resources will be made available, and that support is incremental.
Factor 13: Continuous Improvement (No) 1 2 3 4 5 (Yes)
The school district promotes reflective practices, such as portfolios, at all levels of the school
and district to improve quality of music education. The disposition to reflect on and
improve practice is central to improving achievement in music.
Thank you for your participation in this research project.
Note: The margins have been changed fo r inclusion in the dissertation document.
The survey as distributed was the front and back o f one sheet o f paper.
196
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APPENDIX E
University of Southern California
School of Education
Curriculum, Teaching and Special Education
(213) 740-3290
Dear Colleagues.
1 am pursuing a Ph.D. through the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. The topic of my study is curriculum policy and
instructional practices in music education in Kindergarten through Third Grade. The
participation of teachers, music specialists and administrators is needed to make the
results of this study comprehensive, accurate, and timely.
Please find enclosed a copy of the survey for your teachers. The surveys will
take approximately fifteen minutes for teachers to complete. Postage-paid envelopes
will be provided to aid in the collections and return of die surveys. There may be
follow-up interviews of teachers and administrators. Names of teachers,
administrators, schools and districts will remain confidential. A copy of the
dissertation will be made available to the Kem County Superintendent of Schools
I encourage the participation of your school in this study. I am looking
forward to working with you and other members of your staff. If you would like
more information about this project, please contact me at (661) 393-2130 or Dr.
David Marsh, the Robert A. Naslund Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the
University of Southern California, at (213) 740-3290. Your support is gready
appreciated.
Sincerely,
Patrice Lam bourne
Researcher
197
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APPENDIX F
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Curriculum, Teaching and Special Education
(213) 740-3290
Dear Colleagues,
I am pursuing a Ph.D. through the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. The topic of my study is curriculum policy and
instructional practices in music education in Kindergarten through Third Grade. The
participation of teachers, music specialists and administrators is needed to make the
results o f this study comprehensive, accurate, and timely.
Please respond to the enclosed survey. The survey will take approximately
ten to twelve minutes to complete. Postage-paid envelopes are provided at each
school site to aid in the collections and return of the surveys. There may be follow-
up interviews of teachers and administrators. Names of teachers, administrators,
schools and districts will remain confidential. A copy of the dissertation will be
made available to the Kem County Superintendent of Schools
I encourage your participation in this study. I am looking forward to working
with you and other members of your staff. If you would like more information about
this project, please contact me at (661) 393-2130 or Dr. David Marsh, the Robert A.
Naslund Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Southern
California, at (213) 740-3290. Your support is greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
Patrice Lamboume
Researcher
Please return the completed survey in the postage-paid return envelope.
198
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX G
University of Southern California
School of Education
Curriculum, Teaching and Special Education
(213) 740-3290
Dear Colleagues,
I am pursuing a Ph.D. through the College of Education at the University of
Southern California. The topic of my study is curriculum policy and instructional
practices in music education in Kindergarten through Third Grade. The participation
of teachers, music specialists and administrators is needed to make the results of this
study comprehensive, accurate, and timely. I would like to include your responses
and opinions in my study.
This survey should be completed by a music specialist who teaches general
classroom music in grades K-3. It will take approximately fifteen minutes to
complete. Please return the survey in the postage-paid return envelope. Names of
teachers, administrators, schools and districts will remain confidential. A copy of the
dissertation will be made available to the Kem County Superintendent of Schools
I encourage your participation in this study. I am looking forward to your
frank and honest responses to this survey. If you would like more information about
this project, please contact me at (661) 393-2130 or Dr. David Marsh, the Robert A.
Naslund Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Southern
California, at (213) 740-3290. Your support is greatly appreciated.
Sincerely,
Patrice Lamboume
Researcher
199
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lambourne, Patrice Elaine (author)

Core Title Curriculum policy and educational practices: A study of primary classroom music education in Kern County, California

School Graduate School

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,education, elementary,Education, Music,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Marsh, David D. (committee chair), Gothold, Stuart (committee member), Madura, Patrice (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-237089

Unique identifier UC11338999

Identifier 3074944.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-237089 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3074944.pdf

Dmrecord 237089

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lambourne, Patrice Elaine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA