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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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China's critical educational access demand and United States higher education distance learning curriculum: An answer?
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China's critical educational access demand and United States higher education distance learning curriculum: An answer?
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U M I MICROFILMED 2002 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. China's Critical Educational Access Demand And United States Higher Education Distance Learning Curriculum: An Answer? by Caleb Kai-Mong Zia A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2000 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3054915 _ __ ® UMI UMI Microform 3054915 Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA School of Education Los Angeles, California 90089-0031 This dissertation, written by Caleb K. Zia i s imder the direction o f /» _ _ Dissertation Committee, and approved by all members o f the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School o f Education in partialfulfillment o f the requirementsfor the degree o f D octor o f E d u c a tio n 7BST 3/h * j00 "Bean Dissertation Committee _____ Chairperson f \ _____________ )yu - ' - v - ;j Ko)n\ , vl ____________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION This study is dedicated to all the students in China who aspire to receive a degree in a U.S. higher education curriculum through the distance learning delivery modality. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Linda Serra Hagedorn for her advice, guidance, and assistance in preparing this work. I would also like to thank Dr. Melora Sundt, Dr. William Michael, and Dr. William Vega for their concern and encouragement. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Leslie Purdy and Dr. Peter Vander Haeghen for their permission to used the telecourse "Faces of Culture" as the study instrument; as well as Dr. Fran Newman, Mr. Clyde Hostetter, and Ms. Tammi Bright for their invaluable suggestions and proof reading effort. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Nancy, my son Aaron and my daughters, Deborah, Lydia, and Rebecca for their understanding and unwavering support in helping me to achieve my life long educational goal. ni Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. T A B L E OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ..........................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................iii LIST OF TABLES .................................... vii ABSTRACT ............................................ix CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION ...............................1 Background ......................................1 Purpose of Study ............................... 9 Historical Antecedents......................... 10 Areas of Concern ...............................15 Importance of the Study ........................18 Areas of Inquiry .............................. 21 Conceptual Assumptions ........................ 23 Delimitations ................................. 24 Limitations ................................... 24 Definition of Terms ........................... 25 Organization of the Remainder of the Study .... 31 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ...................... 32 Distance Learning in the United States ........ 32 Historical Perspective ....................33 Current Status ........................... 38 Summary .................................. 53 Learning Theories & Concepts .................. 55 Condition of Learning Theory............. 56 Experimental Learning Theory............. 57 Andragogy Theory ......................... 59 Constructivist Theory ....................61 Summary ...................................63 Distance Learning in China .....................64 Historical Account ....................... 64 Current Situation .........................67 Political Aspect ......................... 69 Motivational Aspect ...................... 74 Cultural Aspect .......................... 77 Student Learning Aspect ...................80 Summary ...................................82 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY ............................ 88 Study Site and Research Sample ................. 88 Design and Procedure .......................... 93 Instrumentation .............................. 97 TOEFL Equivalency Test ................... 97 Telecourse ............................... 98 Faces of Culture ......................... 98 Assignment of Participants to Groups ...........110 Administration of Tests ...................... Ill Data Collection ............................. 112 Method of Data Treatment ..................... 113 Testing Conditions ........................... 119 Methodological Assumptions ................... 120 CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS & ANALYSIS .................... 122 Test Results ................................. 123 Descriptive Analysis of Test Score Data ...... 124 Raw Scores Analysis ..................... 124 Simple Gain Analysis .................... 129 Actual Gain Analysis .................... 131 Descriptive Analysis .................... 135 Further Descriptive Analysis ............ 137 Overview of t Test Employed .................. 140 t Tests for Independent-Samples.......... 141 Correlation t Tests for Paired-Samples ..151 Independent t Tests for Pairs Subgroups of Students Classified by Gender, Age, and Exposure to English- Samples Test ............ 158 Difference Between Means Associated with Gender ............................. 158 Difference Between Means Associated with Age ................................ 163 Difference Between Means Associated with Years of Study of English .......... 165 CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS ......... 167 Introduction ................................. 167 Purpose of Study............................. 170 Interpretation of Results .................... 171 Conclusions .................................. 176 Recommendations .............................. 178 REFERENCES ........................................ 185 v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX: A1 - Class Schedule Layout for Group One, Term One ........................... 194 APPENDIX: A2 - Class Schedule Layout for Group One, Term Two ........................... 195 APPENDIX: A3 - Class Schedule Layout for Group Two, Term One ........................... 196 APPENDIX: A4 - Class Schedule Layout for Group Two, Term Two ........................... 197 APPENDIX: B1 - Questions for Term One Midterm Exam .198 APPENDIX B2 - Questions for Term One Final Exam ...210 APPENDIX: B3 - Questions for Term Two Midterm Exam .222 APPENDIX: B4 - Questions for Term Two Final Exam ...234 APPENDIX: B5 - Answer Sheet for all Exams .........246 APPENDIX: Cl - TOEFL Equivalency Test Score for Students 1-125 ..................... 247 APPENDIX: C2 - TOEFL Equivalency Test Score for Students 126-250 ................... 248 APPENDIX: D1 - Student Information - Group One .....249 APPENDIX: D2 - Student Information - Group Two .....250 APPENDIX: D3 - Student Test Scores - Group One .....251 APPENDIX: D4 - Student Test Scores - Group Two .....252 APPENDIX: El - Student Information - Original .....253 APPENDIX: E2 - Student Test Scores, Group one - Original ........................... 254 APPENDIX: E3 - Student Test Scores, Group Two - Original ........................... 255 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. L IS T OF T A B LE S TABLE 1: Study Design ............................. 95 TABLE 2: Design Layout ............................ 96 TABLE 3: Pretest Average Scores on all Exams ..... 127 TABLE 4: Posttest Average Scores on all Exams .... 128 TABLE 5: Simple Arithmetic Gains (SAG).............130 TABLE 6: Comparison of Average Actual Gains including Simple Arithmetic Gains (SAG) on Experimental classes vs. Control Classes (A) Term One .............................132 (B) Term Two .............................132 TABLE 7: Comparison of Average Total Gains Between Experimental Classes and Control Classes (A) Same group of Students on Different Chapters of Materials ................ 134 (B) Different Groups of Students on Same Chapters of Materials ................ 134 TABLE 8: Frequency Distribution on Sex, Age and Years Learned English ....................13 6 TABLE 9: Descriptive Statistics on Test Scores ... 138 TABLE 10: Descriptive Statistics on Actual Gain... 139 TABLE 11: Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison of Means on Test Scores and Actual Gains between Experimental and Control Classes) over Same Materials on Different Students with Different Methods ................... 149 TABLE 12: Paired-Samples t Test (Comparison of Means on Test Scores or Actual Gains between Experimental and Control Classes over Different Materials on Same Group of Students) ............................. 157 vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 13: Two-Sample Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Male and Female Students) ................................ 162 TABLE 14: Two-Sample Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Older and Younger Students) ................................ 164 TABLE 15: Two-Sample Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Eight or Nine Years of Learning the English Language) ........166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT China's educational system, with its traditional classroom lecture approach, is strongly influenced by its 5,000 years of civilization and culture. Grown out of the Confucian style of teaching, this tradition is still highly regarded as the major guideline of educational development. At present, with a population of over 1.2 billion people, China has approximately 27 0 million students in elementary and high schools. Since there are only around 1,080 institutions of higher learning in the entire country, only 8% of the 25 million high school graduates or about one million of them are permitted to go on to college. This 8% rate is one of the lowest annual college admission rates even among the Asian countries. To keep up with a fast growing economy, that has an average annual GNP growth rate of 9.8%, and to catch up with its neighbors on educating its citizenry, China needs to enroll more students in higher education. With limited physical resources, the demand for access to higher education has now risen to crisis proportions. One option that potentially could ease the crisis is to offer a curriculum that includes Bachelor and Master degrees from accredited United States higher education institutions, through an appropriate distance learning delivery modality, to the students in China. This study will quantify the effectiveness of offering United States curricula through distance learning in China. It will determine the effectiveness of a distance learning delivery system to document a ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. possible increase in, or at the very least, equal educational success compared to a traditional instructional delivery media. A one-shot case study was used to determine the English language proficiency of all the participating students for the all English curriculum. This was then followed by a pretest-posttest control group design experiment on 60 randomly selected students for two terms. Using a Telecourse developed in the United States on Cultural Anthropology, entitled "Faces of Culture," the 60 randomly selected students were divided into two groups of 3 0 students each. For the first term, instructional materials were given to the first group through the distance learning modality with the second group receiving the course work in the traditional manner. This was then repeated in the second term with the first group becoming the control group and the second group acting as the experimental group. Results were then collected, tabulated, and analyzed using statistical instruments, such as frequency distributions, gains analysis, and t tests. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In the Great Learning, Chapter 1, Confucius declared, What the Great Learning teaches, is - to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness, there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their roots and their branches. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning (Legge, 1967, p. 2). Background China, a country with 5,000 years of civilization, has a culture that profoundly influenced its traditional education theories, classroom and lecture practices, and educational system (Lo, 1989). Chinese education has grown out of the Confucian teaching. This teaching is still highly regarded as the major guideline of educational development (Hao, 1993). For more than 2,200 years, Chinese people have believed that a teacher should spread morality, impart Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. knowledge, and resolve doubts (Kuo, 1995). Teaching morality, a principal part of education, means the teacher should set a good example for the students. Thus, erudition alone does not make a qualified teacher, but rather the combination of wisdom, knowledge, personality, spirits, and virtues by which the teacher influences and cultivates students (Min, 1990) . Therefore, Chinese people have traditionally preferred and been practicing a face-to-face instructional strategy (Hao, 1993). In contrast, distance education is characterized by the physical separation of teachers and students in the course of learning. However, decreasing the interaction between teachers and students often challenges the central status of the teacher in the learning process (Purdy, 1983b). A major task for promoters of distance education is to convince the Chinese people that distance education is at least as effective as traditional education in the acquisition of knowledge (Potashnik & Capper, 1998). Under the feudal system, the compulsory texts in China were limited to nine books referred to as "the Four Books and the Five Classics." They were the Great 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, the Analects of Mencius, the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Changes, the Book of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The emperors and educators believed that the Confucian doctrines in these books would make people loyal, obedient, kind, and useful to the empire and the feudal society (Hayhoe, 1996). This "curriculum" was discarded early in the 20th century with the end of the Qing Dynasty and efforts were made to introduce modern education to China. A significant change began after 1949 when a modern national syllabus of higher education was designed. It was characterized by a proliferation of academic majors and a narrow curriculum. Students were granted limited freedom to select only a few courses outside of their majors and even from their own departments (Min, 1990). They could not change their majors because that would disrupt the predetermined enrollment and job assignment plans. In China there is a saying: "different trades are separated as by mountains" (Hao, 1993, p. 26). Students majoring in one field knew little about another. 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Today there is an increasing demand for people with a broad knowledge base. Distance education, with its diversified curriculum, can enrich students and expand their knowledge base as well as meet their specific educational and professional needs (World Bank, 1997). The vast variety of distance education courses can serve as a beneficial component to higher education. Because of the severe competition in labor markets, more and more adults will enroll in distance education to increase their knowledge and improve their professional skills (CPC,1993). As noted, teachers in China play an important role in traditional education. They are viewed as the owners of knowledge, the beacons of the next generation, and even the symbol of authority (Kuo, 1995). Since students had difficulty understanding traditional Chinese textbooks without a teacher's explanation, a teacher-centered, textbook-centered, and classroom-centered methodology evolved and prevailed over thousands of years (Hayhoe, 1996). "People trained in such a way inevitably become worshippers of books and authority. They lack creativeness and an enterprising spirit, for they have no thinking ability 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and are used to obedience" (Hao, 1993, p. 38). This methodology has been under severe criticism ever since the late 19th century, but it still dominates instructional strategies in the current educational system (Hayhoe, 1996). The traditional Chinese education also advocates teaching in accordance with a student's aptitude. A good teacher should take into consideration the different cognitive learning styles, intelligence, and abilities of his/her students, and structure a specific academic program for each (World Bank, 1997). The current educational practice in China is highly examination-oriented. The rigid educational system and the inequitable and unbalanced educational structure in China support and promote this phenomenon. Students are trained to pass examinations, as they rely on high scores to compete successfully with their fellow peers. In addition, the limited access to higher education institutions leads to severe enrollment competition among high school graduates (Min, 1990). In feudal China, the purpose of education and learning was to become a government official (Lo, 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1989). This approach existed because Confucius told people a good scholar would make a good official. Therefore, Chinese people connect education with employment. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the new government enforced a planned economy. Attendance at institutions of higher education was a part of the employment plan. Students would be assigned jobs upon graduation. For a long while, the entrance to a university was compared to the entrance to a "bank safe" (World Bank, 1997). Hence, higher education meant a life-long employment. The College Entrance Examination therefore was considered a powerful tool to determine one's whole life (Hao, 1993) . One of the advantages of distance education lies in the fact that it can totally change the teacher- centered methodology and permit learners to control their own curriculum and studying pace. Thus, learners can study in accordance with their own aptitude. A distance education curriculum can provide more opportunities for high school graduates to further their education and for adults to pursue continuing 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. education. In fact, distance learning can promote life-long learning for all (Purdy, 1986). The first attempt in China at higher education reform came in the 1950s when the Communist Government introduced a higher education system geared to train students to meet the manpower needs of the government and the society at large. This endeavor included the introduction of correspondence education in 1952, which later came to be known as China's traditional distance education (CPC, 1993). Almost completely destroyed by the Cultural Revolution of 1966 to 1976, China's higher education system was rebuilt in the late 1970s. The Chinese Government quickly drew up a "four modernization's plan of 1980" right after the Cultural Revolution to revitalize the state of higher education in China and to increase the quantity and quality of skilled human resources (World Bank, 1997). In 1978, with the approval of Mr. Deng Xiaoping, a Radio- Television University known as RTVU was established, a step which paved a new way for the development of China's higher education. With RTVU, courses are delivered mainly through video programs and radio broadcasting (Liao, 1989). In 1981, a system of self Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. study, self-taught examination was also introduced as a complement to the existing Chinese distance education. On October 1, 1986, the first satellite TV educational channel was opened. This event marked a great breakthrough in the delivery of distance education (Hayhoe, 1996) . During the period from 197 8 to 1994, China experienced a remarkable proliferation of public higher education institutions, growing from 598 institutions to 1,080 (World Bank, 1997). As remarkable as this increase in higher education institutions may have been, it is hardly enough to meet the demand of a country that has a population of over 1.2 billion people with approximately 27 0 million students in elementary and high schools. As a result, of the 2 5 million high school graduates, only 8%, or about 2 million, of them are permitted to go on to college. This selection process is accomplished by the Annual National College Entrance Examination for all high school graduates who aspire to advance to higher education. This 8% rate is extremely low compared to that of other countries; even other Asian countries. The higher education rate in Indonesia is 10%, 19% in Thailand, 20% in Hong Kong, 39% in Taiwan, and 51% in 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. South Korea; all are substantially higher than that in China (World Bank, 1997). To keep up with a fast growing economy that has an average annual GNP growth rate of 9.8% and to catch up with its neighbors on educating its citizenry, China needs to enroll more students in higher education (World Bank, 1997). With limited physical resources, the demand for access to higher education has now risen to crisis proportions. One option that potentially could ease the crisis is to offer a curriculum from accredited United States higher education institutions through an appropriate distance learning delivery modality to the students in China. Purpose of Study This study intends to quantify the effectiveness of offering a United States oriented curriculum through distance learning in China. It also attempts to determine the effectiveness of a distance learning delivery system to document where there was an increase, or at the very least, equal educational success compared to that of a mere traditional instructional delivery media. 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Historical Antecedents The deliberate intention of the higher education reform in China was to train higher level personnel as effectively as possible for service in all sectors of the socialist state. The model was derived directly from the former Soviet Union with the assistance of Russian experts in both its design and implementation. This approach was intended also to counteract some of the past weaknesses of higher education. The new system was created initially between 1950 and 1955, with a complete reorganization of the old institutions and with the creation of new institutions around a national plan. This national plan emphasized curricular patterns that would ensure close coordination between higher education programs and the personal needs of the state, as well as a rational geographical distribution of higher education. The country was divided into six major geographical regions, and, from 1950 to 19 54, each of them had an educational bureau that coordinated planning for the region. At the core of the system were three main types of institutions that were directly administered by a new national ministry of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. higher education. These were polytechnic universities with a wide range of applied scientific and engineering programs, comprehensive universities with programs mainly in the basic arts and sciences, and normal universities with arts and science programs combined with education. These institutions were also responsible for setting national standards for teacher training at tertiary and secondary levels (World Bank, 1997). Each region had at least one of each of these three types of institutions, and their role was both a national and regional one. In addition to these core institutions, there was a large number of sectional institutions, in areas such as agriculture, medicine, steel, finance, law, and railways. Managed by appropriate ministries these institutions were distributed across the country. The differences of each region were taken into account with emphasis placed on these differences by sector (Lin & Myers, 1996) . Each institution was narrowly specialized in its programs, and its role was to train personnel for its specific sector. Between 1950 and 1954, each region had the responsibility of enrolling students through entrance 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. examinations, but in 1955 a national unified entrance examination was established (Lo, 1991). The recruitment was based on a selective and highly academic upper secondary education system, although competition at first was not so intense as it later became (Xie, 1994). A unified national job assignment system was put in place in 1956 and was managed jointly by the State Planning Commission, the sectional ministries, and the Ministry of Higher Education. This management mode was to ensure that graduates were assigned a position as a state cadre in setting where their knowledge could be put to good use. It was the norm for graduates to be sent far from their homes, often to serve in the development of new institutions or industries in hinterland areas (Lin & Myers, 1996) . The main function of this new higher education system was for teaching, with a separate system for research established under the jurisdiction of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and various national ministries. A large number of research institutes developed, with research topics and funding assigned by the state based on the educational plan. There was very little connection to the higher education system, 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. except that research staffs were drawn from their graduates (Lin & Myers, 1996). A few institutes under the Academy undertook programs of graduate training in the late 1950s and early 1960s (Xie, 1994). In 1957-58, with the Great Leap Forward, a second important stage in the evolution of the socialist higher education system took place (CPC, 1993) . It started with the vigorous development of new institutions at the provincial level and with the decentralization of authority over some national institutions. The Ministry of Higher Education was merged with the Ministry of Education (Hao, 1993) . Many provinces created their own comprehensive and normal universities, as well as various specialized institutions, during this period in order to serve provincial personnel needs. This period was a time when a large number of graduates from the best universities in coastal areas were sent to remote regions as core faculty for newly established local institutions. Also some coastal institutions were moved to the inland areas (Lin & Myers, 1996). In a situation where the priorities were to build heavy industry as the basis for a modern economy and to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. establish a strong socialist governmental and educational system, these patterns set in place in the 1950s worked well at first as there was a fairly high degree of predictability in personnel planning for these areas (Hayhoe, 1987). However, with a new emphasis on agriculture and light industry in the late 1950s and with the rapid growth of secondary education which increased the pool of graduates competing for entry to higher education, many concerns about equality of access and the suitability of the system to China's indigenous economic and cultural development came to the fore (Epstein, 1991). The Cultural Revolution was a period in which some of these concerns were aired and strong criticism was expressed of the Soviet-derived pattern. For three years, from 1966 to 1969, all regular recruitment to higher education was halted (Hayhoe, 1989a). Between 1971 and 1976, much smaller numbers of students were enrolled. The Cultural Revolution of 1966 to 1976 created chaos in China's higher education. In an attempt to revitalize the state of higher education in China and to increase skilled human resources, a 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. modernization plan was put into effect in the late 1970s. In an important national conference for science and education held in the year 1981, clear goals of service to economic modernization in the four areas of agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology were set forth. This national policy, with its emphasis on the economy, has resulted in dramatic changes over the 1980s (Lin & Myers, 1996). In 1985, the Chinese government's new policy entitled "The Reform of the Education System" emphasized the implementation of a three-level school management system at the central, provincial, and major municipal levels. The same reform plan gave universities new powers, particularly with regard to the content and methods of teaching, as well as freedom to develop new programs and even new local institutions at the short-term level and in adult education (CPC, 1993). Areas of Concern The 1,080 regular public universities and colleges that dominate the current Chinese higher education 15 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. system, have a total student body of 2.8 million in public institutions. The percentage of students enrolled in degree-earning undergraduate studies, in short-term, non-degree programs, in postgraduate studies were approximately 52, 44, or 4, respectively (World Bank, 1997). In addition, there are 1,172 public adult education institutions at postsecondary levels, including radio and television universities, schools for workers, farmers, government personnel and officials, military units of both commissioned and noncommissioned officers, pedagogical colleges, independent correspondence colleges, and correspondence or evening courses run by regular higher education institutions (World Bank, 1997). Furthermore, there are another 800 private postsecondary institutions currently in operation (Lin & Myers, 1996). In 1994, these private postsecondary institutions enrolled another 2.5 million students mostly on a part-time basis. About 90% of enrollees participated in short term programs and only 10% took part in regular undergraduate studies (World Bank, 1997) . Because of the lack of instructional design and appropriate integration of learning theories in course 16 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. contents as well as in the historical cultural tradition, the traditional Chinese distance learning system, including the correspondence schools, the system of self-taught examinations, and even the inclusion of radio/television universities, has never been fully accepted as a proper mode of education (Hayhoe, 1996). The readiness of the Chinese students to adopt a new and foreign style of distance learning from the United States is an area of concern. As education is the foundation of the modernization of China, in recent years, the Chinese central government has decided to grant more freedom to educational institutions in the development of distance learning. To guarantee educational quality, the Ministry of Education drew up a set of specific regulations to supervise and to support the development of domestic distance education as well as to encourage the communication between Chinese and foreign educational institutions (CPC, 1993). Based on history and on the current political environment, the openness of the Chinese government on accepting distance learning and related technology from the United States requires careful coordination. From the perspective of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. institutions in the United States, dealing with the various accreditation agencies in order to allow the offering of American degrees to students in China is also an area that needs immediate attention. Importance of the Study Student learning is, in part, the direct result of what has been designed, intentionally or unintentionally, by teachers, schools, curriculum developers, and communities. Behind teaching and learning are beliefs about learning theories and instructional design practices that directly influence what students experience (Purdy, 1983b). The development of distance learning courses is without exception. Distance learning courses are designed and developed to meet the needs of the United States student population. Distance learning affords the acquisition of knowledge and skills away from a classroom, via a variety of media and teaching methods. Thus, although students of distance learning may be separated by distance from their instructor, they are still able to receive the similar course content and to 18 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. learn the same concepts as their "traditional," on- campus students. Producers of distance learning education base their work on a number of educational theories rather than on any one philosophy. Even though the theoretical positions for some of the distance learning courses are not articulated, nevertheless, they are present (Purdy, 1986). It is important to see whether those learning theories, integrated with instructional design in the United States distance learning courses, would be as effective for students in China as they are for students in the United States. The present educational delivery system of postsecondary institutions in China not only includes the typical teacher-centered, textbook-centered, and classroom-centered methodology, but also consists of the traditional correspondence schools, a system of self-taught examinations education, and a system of radio/television universities. The aspects of the present delivery system that appear to be compatible with distance education modes of delivery are the existence of the radio/television universities and the presence of satellite TV educational channel. The 19 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. aspect of the Chinese culture that makes an introduction of distance education more challenging is the importance of face-to-face learning, with the imparting of personality, spirit, and virtues, along with the wisdom and knowledge of the teachers. This crucial aspect of learning in the Chinese culture is expected to be limited because of the decreased interaction between teachers and students. These difficulties can be overcome through the use of a proper instructional design and the achievement of an appropriate integration of learning theories into course contents of distance learning courses. The Chinese government will not refuse the introduction of modern technology and a new educational delivery system; they have frequently been prudent in accepting new ideas and scientific advancements. The same orientation holds true for distance learning education (Potashnik & Capper, 1998). The Chinese government is particularly sensitive to information and/or technology and any material that would undermine their independence. They are concerned with politics, economics, culture, and ideology. All of these concerns indicate the resolution of the Chinese 20 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. government to uphold the socialistic ideology and the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. China has made it clear that it will never sacrifice its political principles and its sovereignty for advanced systems or technology. Any introduction must be designed to serve the socialistic government and must not be perceived as bringing capitalism to China (CPC, 1993). Because the Chinese ideology is so fundamentally different from that of most Western countries, adaptations are necessary before a foreign educational delivery system can be established. The success of this study may help to inform Chinese educators how to structure these adaptations. It may also demonstrate to the Chinese authorities that the United States distance learning education modality may be a viable solution to China's critical problem concerning access to and equity for higher education. Areas of Inquiry This study sought to investigate distance learning in China: its past history, current status, and future potential and conditions in which distance education could be most useful, efficient, and cost effective. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. How the present educational delivery system of postsecondary institutions in China works is of major interest to this investigator. It is the intent of this investigator to find aspects of the present delivery system that appear to be compatible to distance education modes of delivery, as well as aspects of the Chinese culture that would make an introduction of the United States distance education more challenging. The motivational aspects of postsecondary Chinese students to learn new aspects of teaching materials and their willingness to adopt and to accept new concepts and technology are also being investigated. Chinese history on education from both an economical and political standpoint is also explored to determine the economic feasibility for the typical Chinese families as well as the likelihood that the Chinese government could be open to accept distance learning and related technology. The language aspect, for Chinese students to understand and to comprehend an all-English curriculum, if distance education from the United States were available to China, is also being investigated. Finally, a method of quantifying the 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effectiveness of the United States distance learning program is applied to assure whether this new mode of instructional delivery could result in similar or increased student learning as compared to that provided by the traditional instructional delivery system. Results of this evaluation may be essential to determine whether such a delivery method should and could be implemented in China. Conceptual Assumptions The following conceptual assumptions were implicit in this study: 1. The appropriate mode of delivering distance learning to China from United States institutions is through Codec-Interactive (Coding - decoding Interactive) with telecourses. Telecourses are pre produced video lessons augmented by student's textbooks, student study guides, and an instructor's manual. 2. Students in China will have access to a TV and a VCR with either the NTSC (National Television Standard Committee) or PAL (Phase Alternative Line) format. These students will also have limited access 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. to videoconferencing equipment for videoconferences and limited access to computers for Internet usage. Delimitations The following delimitations were noted: 1. The study was not designed to test different types of distance learning in order to determine which should be the more appropriate distance learning modality. 2. The students who participated in this study were from the same University in Southern China, the Hainan Teachers University at Haikou, China. 3. All the students were in either their second year or third year of college at the Foreign Language Department, and had an English language competency skill indicated by a score of 450 or higher, based on the TOEFL test. 4. The curriculum was entirely taught in English. Limitations The following limitations were evident. 1. There is a possibility of both the Hawthorne effect and the Novelty effect in this study. 24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2. In this study, effectiveness was measured only by comparing the test scores of students and by calculating their gains. No attempt was made to determine how much time the students actually spent studying their lessons for each mode of learning. 3. Scheduling of class meetings, length of classes, and length of each term of study were all pre determined by the Hainan Teachers University as part of their regular school calendar. 4. To the degree that the methodological assumptions set forth were not met, the internal and external validity of the study would be limited. Definition of Terms ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interexchange. ASCII is a uniform code used in computer and data communications systems. ASCII text - A type of text file display generated by a computer system that resembles simple readable English letters without special formatting. Bandwidth - A range of frequencies in the broadcast spectrum that is occupied by a signal. 25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Baud - A measure of the speed at which data is transmitted. Browser or Web browser - A computer program such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer which can read and display the media/graphic content of the World Wide Web. CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) - A system in which a signal is transmitted from a point of origin to only those receivers who have previously arranged access to it. Codec - Coding-decoding, a way of compressing information so that it may be carried over telephone lines. CVU - California Virtual University. Cyberspace - The term for the intangible network of communications that is facilitated by the existence of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Distance learning - The acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other factors of learning at a "distance" (United States Distance Learning Association, 1997). 26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Downlink - The part of a satellite system that includes the satellite itself, the receiving earth station, and the signal transmitted from the satellite to earth stations. Download (Receive) - Procedure used to receive data from another computer into your computer. It is also called "receive." E-Mail (Electronic Mail) - E-mail allows the user to send a message via a computer instantly to one or more persons around the world. FAX (Facsimile) - The electronic transmission of printed material by electronic means over a telephone system. Hyper-text - Text which links to other documents that can be retrieved from one document. HTML (Hyper-Text Mark-Up Language) - The programming language used to design and to present computer sites on the Internet in a graphical user interface fashion. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - Switched network providing end-to-end digital connection for simultaneous transmission of voice and/or data over multiple multiplexed communication Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. channels and employing transmission that conforms to internationally-defined standards. Internet (or the Net) - A computer network stretching across the world that links the user to businesses, government agencies, universities, and individuals. The giant world wide computer network started as a system of military and research computers interconnected for sharing of information, but now consists of thousands of civilian computers sharing and communicating in a wide area system which is accessible by millions of home computer users through special access subscriptions. Modem - Acronym for MOdulator-DEModulator. Conventional modems comprise equipment which converts digital signals to analog signals and vice versa. Multimedia - A combination of various video, audio, text, animation, and graphics elements used to convey information, typically via a computer-based delivery system. NTSC (National Television Standards Committee) - The agreed upon compromise standard of a television industry group, developed in the 1950s which governs the technical parameters and standards of television 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. transmission and quality as well as broadcasting and receiving equipment in the United States. PAL (Phase Alternate Line) - The format for color TV signals used in the United Kingdom, West Germany, Holland, much of the rest of Western Europe, several South American countries, some Middle East and Asian countries, several African countries, Australia, New Zealand, and other Pacific Island countries. PAL inverts the phase of the color signal 180 degrees on alternate lines, hence the term Phase Alternate Line. PC - Personal computer. Server - A computer containing Web documents that can be delivered on demand to other computers which contact it through the Internet. Teleclass - Term often used to describe the live television transmission of an otherwise regular classroom session. Teleconferencing - The use of audio, video, or computer equipment brought together through a communications system to permit geographically separated individuals to participate in a meeting or discussion. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Telecourse - A course of programmed instruction featuring integrated media materials typically including video lessons, text materials, student handbooks, study guides, quizzes and tests, and some degree of instructor-student interaction. URL (Universal or Uniformed Resource Locator) - The standard way to provide an address that is maintained by a database resource, and thus allows one computer to hook on to the World Wide Web to locate and to connect to another computer. Analogous to a telephone number in the telecommunications world. WGU - Western Governors University. WWW (World Wide Web) - Created in Switzerland, WWW is client/server software. It utilizes the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to exchange documents and images. It is also the aspect of the Internet that features easy-to-use graphical interfaces as a front- end to data acquisitions and transfer between computers hooked to the Internet. 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Organization of the Remainder of the Study The remainder of this study is organized as follows: Chapter 2 provides a review of selected relevant literature concerning (a) distance learning in the United States, (b) learning theories and concepts, and (c) distance learning in China. Chapter 3 includes a description of the study site and research sample, the design procedure, and the instrumentation used, as well as the method of data collection, and the manner in which the data were processed. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the investigation and the manner in which the scores were analyzed. Chapter 5 consists of a summary of the findings, the conclusions, and the recommendations of the study. 31 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW In the Confucian Analects, Chapter 1:1-3, Confucius asked, Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters? Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him (Legge, 1967, p. 1)? Distance Learning in the United States The Unites States Distance Learning Association (1997) defines distance learning as "the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance" (p.l). Under distance learning programs, students receive the same course content and learn the same concepts, as do the "traditional" on-campus students. The content delivered to the students via a variety of media and teaching methods. The exact breakdown of interactivity for each course varies according to the applicability 32 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of each delivery medium to the concepts being taught (Andleigh, 1997). Historical Perspective Historically, the primary means of communication between learners and instructors separated by space and time has been through the printed word. Although some scholars have pointed to the earliest text-based correspondence schools as the originators of distance learning, mediated distance learning might more properly be traced to the first educational radio broadcasting. As early as the 1920s, radio foreshadowed the ability of technology to deliver education with programs such as those produced by the University of Wisconsin at Madison and the Latter Day Saints' University of Salt Lake City, Utah (Anglin, 1995) . Though radio had some limited success in delivering education to a wide audience, it was really the growth of television that made the case for the value of distance learning. Milestones of television development include Vladimir Zworykin's 1929 development of the first electronic television system (Purdy, 1983a). In 1936, the British Broadcasting 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. System went on the air. In the 193 0s, German engineers developed ways to record magnetic signals on plastic tapes. As radio gave way to the excitement of television, the Federal Government began to take an increasing interest in the role of television in education. As early as 193 8, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set aside five television broadcast channels in the UHF (ultra high frequency) range for educational use. After a restricted period of study in the forties, considerable numbers of educational licenses were finally allocated in the fifties and paved the way for an explosion of television-based programming (Wood & Wylie, 1977). In the 1950s cable television was born. In the 1960s, satellites began to bounce signals across the country and around the world. In the 1970s there followed a consumer breakthrough as cassette video recorders enabled the recording and playback of programs for later viewing, and thus freed a host of students from having to be in front of the screen when television programming came on the air. This chain of technological development eventually led to the advent 34 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of the popular television based educational courses of the 1970s and 1980s (Boehler, 1997). The last forty years have been an important period of experimentation and development in the field of distance learning in the United States. Although distance learning may have found its origins in the first educational radio programs broadcast in the early 1920s and 1930s, it was really in the middle 1950s when "The Chicago TV College," "The Continental Classroom, " and other grand experiments in educational television first captured the public's attention. Since the time when these 1956 black and white television broadcasts offered the novel concept of bringing the classroom into the home, distance learning has undergone evolutionary changes in style, technology, and course offerings. These changes transformed the original live "tele-classes" with instructors "professing" in front of cameras into the highly produced, pre-recorded "tele-courses" of today (Zigerell, 1983). Hence, the television delivery model grew from a variety of sources, including the work of the Chicago City Colleges in 1956, New York's "Sunrise Semester" on WCBS in 1958, and NBC's "Continental Classroom" in 35 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1963. Other influences were the British Open University's work in educational television in 1969 in the United Kingdom, and the activities of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting in 1967. As these influential innovators and creators of television-based distance learning programming increased the awareness and opportunities with the power of the media, including the video, a new programming/course model slowly began to emerge for a highly structured educational design that went beyond the "talking-heads" of live television (Purdy, 1983a). Carlisle (1974) described the creators of these courses as the "new breed" of producers. As early as 1974, Coast Community College District, Miami-Dade Community College District, and others began to introduce the concept of location enhanced television courses, with supporting insert visuals, content experts, and feature interviews to help carry the program content. This pattern of development was a significant shift from what had previously been strictly studio-based faculty presenting their lecture notes on camera. Eventually, many of these sophisticated productions reached budgets over a 36 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. million dollars and required the rallying of consortium members from multiple colleges and textbook publishers to help pay the bills. As important as television has been in communications over the past fifty years, another important contender was developing in its shadow. The personal computer grew from the primitive beginnings of vacuum tubes in 1946, to transistors in 1947, and silicone chip improvements in 1959. By the 1970s, the desktop computer revolution arrived (Boehler, 1997). Perhaps nothing has changed the climate of the educational community in the past twenty years so much as access to personal computing power. Now, with the Internet, an extension of what personal computing power can do on a global networking scale (JDL, 1996), the educational community is witnessing another transformation. And together, the computer and the Internet offer yet newer horizons for distance learning applications. Military/research computer networks led to the 1984 beginnings of today's Internet, and a profoundly important paradigm shift in personal, professional, and educational communication. The Internet's graphical 37 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. component, known as the World Wide Web, has been described to be as profoundly important as Gutenberg's printing press of the 1600s (Massy & Zemsky, 1995). Today, the Internet is growing so rapidly that precise figures of usage are nearly impossible to measure. A report from the United States Commerce Department places the number of people connected in 1998 at over 100 million users, with estimates that this number will grow to one billion in just a few more years (Ecommerce, 1998). Current Situation Currently, typical media and teaching methods used in delivering distance learning courses include telecourses, cablecast courses, Independent Study/CD- ROM, Codec-Interactive, as well as the Internet. Most distance learning courses are academically proven, well-produced curriculum developed by college faculty, scholars, practitioners, and instructional design specialists (Boehler, 1997). Telecourses are pre-produced video lessons broadcast over local TV stations. Students can watch the lessons as they are aired, pre-record lessons to watch at a later time, repeat viewing at a more 38 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. convenient time, or watch the lessons at one of the various viewing centers. Video lessons are also available at local libraries. The video lessons augment the students' textbooks and study guides. Students receive course information and assignment syllabi through the Information Packet and Student Handbook. Students interact with their instructors by telephone, fax, or in-person. Instructors generally conduct review sessions, administer examinations on site, and may have optional workshops (Zigerell, 1983). Cablecast courses are locally produced lessons shown on cable TV from a Cable Television Center. For students who do not have cable access, cablecast lessons are available after broadcast at the various viewing centers. Students attending a cablecast course from their home or workplace can telephone their instructor(s) following the cablecast. In the same manner as in telecourses, students watch and follow their instructors' lectures, read textbooks, and complete course assignments. Instructors usually develop their own course materials and lectures to be delivered on cable (Richardson, 1983). 39 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Independent Study/CD-ROM courses are specially prepared with course materials including reading materials, textbooks, study guides, self-paced assignments, and video materials. Courses may also include CD-ROM multi-media materials, Internet access, or laboratory kits. Although these courses are designed for students to study independently, students can interact with their instructor by telephone, e- mail, fax, or in-person. Examinations are administered by the instructor or with a proctor on-site (Andleigh, 1997) . Codec-Interactive courses are the latest in interactive videoconferencing technology that allow institutions to offer point-to-point electronic connections with classrooms anywhere in the world. A college or university instructor and students see, hear, and interact with students in another classroom location in "real time." Electronic presentations usually supplement class materials and lectures (Boehler, 1997). Internet courses allow students to complete course work on-line at their own time, place, and speed. The course web site features text lectures, video clips, 40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sound files, images, site links, assignments, on-line quizzes, instructor interaction, and discussion forums for student-to-student interaction. Textbooks, as well as possible multi-media products and videotapes are materials required to complete the Internet course. Examinations are conducted on-site or proctored on-site (Andleigh, 1997). Codec is derived from the phrase coding-decoding, a way of compressing information so that it may be carried over telephone lines. Codec systems were the first to allow two or more distant sites to communicate through dial-up services over telephone lines with full video and audio communications. These systems are frequently used for distance learning where communications and classroom linkages over thousands of miles are needed. With this two-way audio-video system, full communication, meetings and training options are available on a local, national, or global basis. Many Codec rooms feature switched dial-up connections, full-service, and international conferencing capabilities. Typical Codec rooms, which can accommodate from 25 to 3 00 individuals, make them one of the largest distance learning facilities. In 41 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. addition, these rooms feature wide-screen presentation and electronic graphics support, fax connections, audio conferencing, and video recording (Boehler, 1997) . As the availability of the Internet grows, the Internet becomes an increasingly viable delivery channel for distance learning courses as well. The use of the Internet is increasing rapidly, with 45 million users worldwide, 35 million of whom reside in North America. This explosive growth in the Internet means that more and more individuals will be able to enroll in distance learning programs (Campbell, 1998) . Currently, one of the main obstacles to delivering high-quality video and multimedia distance education online is the limited bandwidth. Video, graphic, and audio-rich content enhance the quality of the material delivered but require a large amount of bandwidth for transfer. Content-rich material requires too much time to download for online delivery to be a viable solution to the issue of quality. As solutions to bandwidth limitations emerge, such as ISDN lines, two-way cable and cable modems, and satellite transmission, instructors will be able to deliver content that is 42 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. rich with video, graphics, and audio for an enhanced learning experience (Robinson, 1997). The term "distance learning" suggests actions of one person, i.e. the learner, who is independent of the actions of teachers. Yet, every so-called "distance learning" program is in fact a teaching program as well as a learning program. Therefore, it should correctly be referred to as distance education. But, no effort has been made to enforce the distinction and the two terms when are being used interchangeably are considered synonymous. However, distance education (Verduin & Clark, 1991) is not the same as self-directed learning (Candy, 1991). When one talks about distance education, one is referring to a distance that is more than a geographic separation of learners and teachers. It is a distance of understandings and perceptions, caused in part by the geographic distance, that has to be overcome by teachers, learners, and educational organizations if effective, deliberate, planned learning is to occur. It is the physical separation that leads to a possible psychological and communication gap -- a space of potential misunderstanding between the inputs of the 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. instructor and those of the learner, which is called the transactional distance (Moore, 1980). The concept of "transaction" was derived from Dewey (Dewey & Bentley, 1949) . As explained by Boyd and Apps (1980), it "connotes the interplay among the environment, the individuals and the patterns of behaviors in a situation" (p. 3). Transactional distance is a continuous rather than a discrete variable, a relative rather than an absolute term. What is referred to as distance education is that a subset of educational programs in which the separation of teacher and learner is so significant that it affects their behaviors in major ways by requiring the use of special techniques that lead to special conceptualization. In most distance learning programs, learners have to make their own decision about study strategies. Even where a course is structured to give directions and guidance, if there is no dialogue, students may decide for themselves whether the instructions will be used and, if so, when, where, how, and how much (Purdy, 1986). Thus, there is a relationship between transactional distance and learning style, for the 44 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. greater the transactional distance, the more autonomy the learner has to exercise. Therefore, the success of distance education is dependent on open communication between the teacher and learner, in order to reduce transactional distance. With the aid of teleconferencing and support materials, the institution and the course instructor will be able to provide the appropriate opportunity for quality dialogue between teacher and learner (Thompson, 1998) . Distance education implies something much more than a simple modification of what is done in the "live" classroom, by putting a camera or microphone in front of instructors and communicating with the student via written lessons or computer exchange in asynchronous time formats. It also implies that the learner or learners are more or less permanently separated from the teacher pedagogically, instructionally, and philosophically. This separation results in a profound transformation. It opens up an educational opportunity to previously unreached populations. It changes education from a process that must be squeezed into the limited years of schooling into a process of life-long learning. And, it alters the relationships between 45 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. teachers and learners by changing the ownership of knowledge, power, and authority (Moore, 1990). A United States Commerce Department report (1998) estimates that there are now at least 32 0 million Web pages on the Internet accessible to casual browsers. They can be checked and catalogued by various Internet "search engines" such as, Hotbot, Lycos, Yahoo, Web Crawler, Alta Vista, and Northern Light (Heinich, 1999). This estimate does not include those pages protected by passwords, or firewalls. The number of Web pages is expected to grow by 1,000% in the next few years (Recer, 1998). These increased numbers of web pages are being utilized for the delivery of distance learning. One educator characterized the popularity of distance learning with students as it is simply a convenience in education for the more demanding customers (McCue, 1998). The fact is that distance learning provides educational institutions with a great number of important benefits. First, it can significantly extend, and often improve, the quality of an institution's educational offerings, and thus can enhance the attendance of 46 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. students on remote campuses or ensure their rural schools have access to the same classes and teachers as those on the main campus or better-funded urban schools. In addition, distance education can bring added consistency to the curriculum, for example, by making certain that all students, regardless of campus, take core courses from the University's two or three best instructors in each subject area (Walsh & Resse, 1995) . Second, distance learning delivers substantial economic benefits. It reduces time and expenses required to shuttle instructors from campus to campus around the state or across a large school district. Further, distance learning can help schools maintain or increase school enrollments by generating the much needed added revenues (Walsh & Reese, 1995). Third, distance learning can actually provide a university with a strategic advantage in penetrating new potential market segments, such as corporate education, continuing education, and job training. This advantage has important implications for institutions seeking to make up for lost revenues because of declining student populations and ever- 47 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. increasing competition. It is no surprise, then, that so many institutions have adopted distance learning as a mainstream educational tool (Walsh & Reese, 1995). International Data Corporation (IDC) estimated the direct costs for United States corporate training activities in 1996 to be more than $60 billion. Indirect costs such as travel and compensation for time spent in training raised the cost to over $120 billion (Axelson, 1997). With this kind of overhead, anything that can reduce these tremendous costs is very attractive to business. Even a 10% reduction in costs represents $12 billion dollars in savings. Distance learning results in travel savings (airfare, lodging, per diem) as well as savings of employee travel time. The net result is less loss of productivity during employee training. This outline alone can result in tremendous savings to a company. Coupled with a demonstrated effectiveness of electronic media support as part of an educational design, the company can reap multiple benefits (Axelson, 1997). Although a university is not the same as a corporation, there are many parallels between them. Among the many similarities, they both require a great 48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. deal of planning, a tremendous amount of coordination, and careful scheduling. Even though, most companies are structured to be for-profit, there are many non profit corporations. On the other hand, most of the universities are non-profit in nature, but there are some for-profit educational institutions. Regardless whether they are non-profit or for-profit, they both demand results. Therefore, what is implied to be for one is also applicable to the other. Moreover, it appears that an investment in distance learning infrastructure is money well spent (Daniel, 1997). This conclusion is indicated by the cost effectiveness of these programs serving over 2.8 million students through universities in eleven countries. In this case, the cost per student educated drops to almost half of the cost in comparable traditional classrooms in these various countries. Such cost savings in programs are due to "new applications of technology, rather than applications of new technology" as pointed out by Daniel (1997, p. 14). This distinction is important according to Daniel (1997), because the cost-effectiveness is dependent on both the new instructional and organizational processes 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. as much as on the hardware solutions used to offer distance education. Assessment of one particular two-way interactive audio/video classroom project at Coastline College is another example of the cost savings potential of distance learning in a different regard. The real benefit in this particular distance learning solution is to the students and to their quality of life. The interactive video "2+2 project" between Coastline Community College (CCC) and California State University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH) allows students to attend the first two years of a baccalaureate degree at the community college and the second two years at the university. Since the course-work being delivered allows students seeking upper division classes from the university to stay at their neighborhood community college campus site, the distance delivery mode is particularly attractive (Witherspoon, 1995). To understand the cost savings, one may consider that the shared classroom of twenty students at the remote (CCC) site and twenty at the local (CSUDH) site is separated by a distance of about 25 miles. The class meets twice a week in the evening for fifteen 50 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. weeks. To attend class, a student at the remote site would normally drive, assuming no carpooling, approximately fifty miles round-trip twice a week. Over the course of fifteen weeks, each student would normally have to commute one thousand five hundred miles to attend class. Thus, the entire class could save up to 30,000 miles of driving and could avoid freeway congestion every semester by the use of a telecourse with videoconferencing technology. Additionally, the students save wear and tear on their cars, save parking fees, and save at least four hours of commute time by staying away from the crowded freeways at the hours the class is scheduled. The Unites States Distance Learning Association (USDLA, 1997) provides a listing of many of the most active colleges and consortiums involved in distance learning programs across the country. Two of the most recent distance learning consortia are the Western Governors University (WGU, 1998) initiative, and the California Virtual University (CVU, 1998). Though somewhat politically competitive, the two organizations have similar goals. The Western Governors University represents the participating states of Arizona, 51 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Pete Wilson, former Governor of California, noting that his state represented more learners than some of the other states combined, decided that California should set its own distance learning agenda, and parried the publicity of WGU with the proposal of a California Virtual University. Both of these organizations have had involved and intense discussions and planning events at academic and governmental levels. As of spring 1998, the CVU listed hundreds of courses as a part of its program. Both organizations represent a kind of brokerage learner, who is seeking college credit courses and degree programs. Neither organization actually teaches courses, but rather relies on constituent member institutions to offer the courses and credit through their existing accreditation processes. These processes may include telecourses, independent study programs, CD-ROM, videoconferencing (Codec), and internet delivered courses. The consortiums takes the lead in facilitating the dissemination of information about course offerings and enrollment and attempts to 52 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. insure collegial agreements on uniform transferability, matriculation, and articulation (CVU, 1998). At a national level, the Public Broadcasting System (PBS) "Going the Distance" campaign has helped coordinate the delivery of a variety of distance learning materials (video or Internet or print) to a wide audience. The "Going the Distance" goal is to provide entire Associate of Arts and Baccalaureate degrees in every state and be available entirely at a distance. This PBS network has been of benefit to many smaller schools, by facilitating the participation in and offering of distance learning at their local sites. As of 1998, 175 colleges and universities in 37 states were part of the program (PBS, 1998) . Summary The fact of the matter is that distance learning has a long history of success in academia. For a variety of reasons, the appeal of distance learning has recently begun to transfer from the "early adopters" to the "early majority" (Boehler, 1997). The technologies of the personal computer and the Internet are revolutionizing the delivery options available to students through distance learning. 53 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Internet traffic is doubling every hundred days. It is estimated that the population of Internet users will grow to over one billion in the next few years (United States Commerce Department, 1998). A dramatic increase in the public interest and awareness of the World Wide Web is creating significant competitive pressures for colleges offering traditional distance learning courses via television. Web based delivery is allowing hundreds of institutions to move into a field that once had only a few major players (Heinich, 1999) . Distance education is useful, efficient, and effective when learning and teaching can occur in different places and at different times, and when teachers and learners can communicate effectively through electronic and print media. There is a general agreement also that distance education is the only cost-effective means of distributing scarce expertise and of making it available on demand (Moore, 1996). Equality of access to good teaching resources is especially appealing to educators and university students. It is not the mere act of linking learners with teachers through a medium that results in effective teaching and learning, neither is it the 54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. buying and adding of new communications hardware. It consists of organizing, or reorganizing, educational resources into a total delivery system, building on experiences of systematic program design and delivery. It provides for planning of instructional programs and produces and delivers them through a variety of communications media. Instruction can be prepared for distributions over large areas to large numbers of learners. Uniform, high quality outcomes are virtually guaranteed. Plus, with large numbers of users, average costs are lower than in conventional education. Therefore, distance education is most efficient and cost-effective when there are large numbers of students or adult learners who could be educated through mass media. It is also extremely useful and even ideal for those who require special attention from the teacher because distance learning can give individual learner a feeling that he or she is learning on a one-on-one relationship with the instructor. Learning Theories and Concepts What determines the success of distance teaching is the extent to which the institution and the 55 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. individual instructor are able to provide the appropriate opportunity for, and quality of, dialogue between teacher and learner, as well as appropriately structured learning materials. Frequently this set of requirement translates into taking measures to reduce transactional distance by increasing the dialogue through the use of teleconferencing and through developing well-structured, printed support materials. Much time and effort therefore have to be devoted to understanding the needs of learner populations and individual learners, to analyzing the content to be taught, and to determining the exact learning objectives, the type and frequency of learner exercises, activities, and evaluation procedures, and the relationship between the learner and the instructor. There are many learning theories and concepts available for instructional technology, which can be applied to distance learning. Condition of Learning Theory R. Gagne stipulated that there are several different types or levels of learning: (a) different instruction is required for different learning outcomes (Gagne, 1985); (b) events of learning operate on the 56 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning; (c) the specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome; (d) learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and determine a sequence of instruction. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in many domains (Gagne & Dristcoll, 1988). Experimental Learning Theory C. Rogers originates this theory as part of a humanistic movement in psychology (Patterson, 1973; Valet, 1977). Experimental learning addresses the needs and desires of the learner. The qualities of experimental learning Rogers listed as (a) personal involvement; (b) self-initiation; (c) evaluation by the learner; and (d) pervasive effects on the learner. Experimental learning refers to applied knowledge, such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. This type of learning is very different from cognitive learning, which is not necessarily tied to the practical but is better defined as a basic type of learning (i.e. augmentation of vocabulary, uses of multiplication table). 57 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In experimental learning, the role of the teacher is organized: set the climate, clarify the objective(s), provide learning resources, balance the intellectual and emotional levels, and share (but not dominate) outcomes. Rogers' (Rogers, 1969; Rogers & Freiberg, 1994) theory applies primarily to adult learners, as it relies on the learner's maturity level and openness to change. Experimental learning theory incorporates four basic principles: (a) significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student; (b) learning which is threatening to the self is more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum; (c) learning proceeds faster when the threat to the self is low; and (d) self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive. These principles provide a broad base for designing instructional technology-enriched lessons for distance learning. The adult (sometimes adolescent) comes to the lesson motivated because of a certain need to learn a given topic, and because external threats are minimized. This set of circumstances is the most 58 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. lasting and pervasive form of learning since it is self-initiated learning. Andragogy Theory During the 1970s and 1980s, Knowles (Knowles, 1975; Knowles, 1984) developed and refined the Andragogy learning theory which targets the needs of adult learners. The primary principles of this theory include the following: (a) adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction and (b) experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities. In application, this theory has been used extensively in designing organizational training programs, especially for 'soft skills' domains such as management development. Knowles identified at least one attribute of adult learners: (a) they are self- directed and (b) they expect to take responsibility for decisions. When designing learning opportunities for adults, one should address the following assumptions: (a) adults need to know why they need to learn something; (b) adults need to learn experientially; (c) adults approach learning as problem-solving; and (d) adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value. 59 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The instructional implications suggest that the teacher's role is that of facilitator, rather than that of lecturer or evaluator. The focus of the learning is more on process and less on content. Effective instructional strategies include (a) case studies; (b) role-playing; (c) simulations; and (d) self-evaluation. Knowles (1984) provided an example of how Andragogy is applied to the design of personal computer training including (a) an explanation of why specific things are being taught (e.g. commands, functions, etc.); (b) instruction which is task-oriented and contextualized, not memorized; (c) instruction which takes into account the varying needs of the learner; and (d) opportunities for discovery in order to support the self-directed learner's needs as well as to provide guidance and assistance when mistakes are made. Because the Andragogy theory is focused on the needs and attributes of adult learners, it fits well within the instructional design of distance learning. There are 5 main features of distance learning: (a) assures learner convenience; (b) allows learning activities to be experientially-based; (c) provides ample opportunity for self-direction and discovery; (d) 60 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. offers a conceptualization of learning as a problem solving activity; and (e) permits individual reflection for self-evaluation (Knowles 1984) . Constructivist Theory Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. The ideas originated from a conference focused on science and mathematics learning (Bruner, 1960). A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge (Bruner, 1960) . The instructor should encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialogue. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curricula should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what he or she has already learned. The principles of this theory are as follows: (a) instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to 61 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. learn (readiness); (b) instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization); (c) instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or to fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). Bruner (1966) stated that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (a) the learner's predisposition toward learning; (b) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured such that it is readily grasped by the learner; (c) the most effective sequences in which to present material; and (d) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Bruner (1983) focused on language learning in young children. Effective methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. Because the constructivist theory is focused on the needs and attributes of Socratic learning (the engagement of an active dialogue between instructor and learner), it fits well within the instructional design of distance learning. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of 62 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. understanding. In many aspects, the needs of distance learning are recognized and capitalized on three features: (a) the instruction of distance learning is concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student able to learn (readiness); (b) the instruction of distance learning is structured in such a way that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization); and (c) the instruction of distance learning is designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or to fill the gaps by going beyond the information given. Summary The incorporation of these learning theories into the design of United States distance learning courses is the primary distinction between the United States distance learning programs and those developed in China. These learning theories lay the foundation for the effectiveness of offering a United States curriculum orientation through distance learning in China and play a pivotal role in determining whether United States distance learning could be fully accepted as a proper mode of higher education in China Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Distance Learning in China The introduction of correspondence education in 1952 marked the beginning of distance learning in China (CPC, 1993). During that year, the Chinese People's University set up the first division of correspondence schools and began to offer courses in finance and economics to approximately 2,500 students (Hayhoe, 1984). Since then, correspondence education, which has expanded to most institutions of higher learning, is known as China's traditional distance education (CPC, 1993). Historical Account In 1978, after the Cultural Revolution was finally over, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Radio and Television jointly founded the Chinese Television Universities with the objective of addressing the constraints on human resources in China (Liao, 1989). This under taking was done with the support and approval of Mr. Deng Xiaoping. In 1979, the Central Radio and Television University was established in Beijing and 28 Provincial Radio and Television Universities (TVUs) were set up in the provinces and municipalities. These radio-television 64 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. universities paved a new way for the development of distance education in China (World Bank, 1997). In 1981, a system of self-taught examinations similar to that in correspondence schools was also introduced as a complement to the existing Chinese distance education. This system offered a series of self-taught examinations held by the state. Examinations of more than 400 specialties were opened to all people regardless of their age and educational background. Any student who passed the required examinations could apply for an academic degree or a certificate (Lin & Myers, 1996) . On October 1, 1986, a very unique first TV satellite educational channel was opened which marked a great breakthrough in the delivery of distance education (Hayhoe, 1996) . With the introduction of satellite-born transmission, the capacity of TV broadcasting was expanded dramatically. About half of the satellite transmission time was used for in-service training of primary and secondary school teachers. Short-term courses covering science, engineering, and economics, were also introduced (World Bank, 1997). To maintain quality of TVU's intake, applicants for 65 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. undergraduate programs were required to pass the National University Entrance Examination. The State Education Commission encouraged joint running of schools and merging of various TVU's with other adult education, such as correspondence universities, worker's colleges, evening universities, and conventional universities. Courses studied under the TVU's could be recognized by local institutions, which could award certificates to successful candidates (Lin & Myers, 1996). These three forms of education, namely radio and television university education, correspondence education, and the system of self-taught examinations, represent the traditional distance education in China. However, because of the lack of instructional design and the lack of appropriate integration of learning theories in course contents as well as the historical Chinese cultural tradition, the traditional Chinese distance learning, as stated previously, has never been fully accepted as a proper mode of higher education (Hayhoe, 1996). 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Current Situation At present, there are four independent correspondence colleges with an enrollment of approximately one million students. Through the system of self-taught examinations, it is estimated that more than 2 0 million people have been exposed to this form of learning and that more than 2 million of them have successfully completed their education. As for the Radio and Television Universities, there are currently 46 province-level, 831 city-level, and another 1,699 county-level RTVUs, for a total of 2,586 such stations offering 59 majors, which cover the fields of art, science, engineering, agriculture, finance, and law (World Bank, 1997). With the advancement of information, science, computer and telecommunication technology, a new form of distance education is now emerging in China. In some higher educational institutes, such as Tsinghua University, Shanghai Communication University, and Southern Engineering University, distance courses are also being delivered on-line via the school Internet (World Bank, 1997). In Shanghai Communication University, physics lessons are now available on the net. This course 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. not only confers physical theories, but also offers vivid demonstrations and experiments. In Tsinghua University, distance education is combined with continuing education. Adult students can learn in selective courses at any time and at any place if they have access to Tsinghua University's educational network. At some fixed time, teachers are also on the net to answer students1 questions (World Bank, 1997). Beijing Normal University, in cooperation with Harvard University, is now offering international communication courses through distance education on their websites. Modern technology enables the professors in Boston University and Harvard University to teach biology and computer lessons to the post graduates in Beijing Normal University (World Bank, 1997). However, because this form of computer-based on-line distance education requires a high level of technology and a great amount of government intervention, its development has been restricted to only the country's top universities. Even though a new modern computer with Internet capability is now under construction in China, the likelihood for its expansion into institutions other than the nation's top few universities is very remote (Lin & Myers, 1996) . 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Nevertheless, the potential of distance education, in the form of telecourses on video and over television, is recognized by the government as a complement to regular higher education. Both the central government and local governments attach much attention to its progress. Its development is considered highly necessary not only for educational purposes, but also for resolving many of China's social problems (Hayhoe, 1996). Political Aspect It has long been recognized that the shortage of professional personnel and low quality of the labor force have restricted the economic development of China (Hayhoe, 1987). In 1977, there were approximately 1.2 million scientists and researchers in the United States, and approximately 900,000 in the Soviet Union, but in China there was only 200,000 (Baily, 1990). Without a large quantity of professional personnel, the modernization of China could not be realized. For that reason the radio and television universities were established in 1978 (Hayhoe, 1996). One of the advantages of distance education lies in its large educational scale. With the gradual improvement of 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. teaching facilities, distance education can be expected to train more and more professional personnel for the country. Another advantage is that the cost for operation is much less in comparison to that of the traditional higher education. Distance education can cover a larger area, provide more educational opportunities and greatly increase the educational efficacy. Furthermore, distance education is much more flexible than traditional education. Its curriculum can be modified quickly to include new skills and the latest advancements in technology, meeting the needs of a variety of people. Distance learners can decide what to learn, when to learn, and where to learn. Distance education therefore brings new opportunities to the Chinese people and helps China to meet global competition (World Bank, 1997) . In recent years, "rejuvenating China through science and technology" has been adopted as a long-term policy by the central government. As more and more secondary school graduates and adults desire to receive higher education and professional training, and because education is the foundation of the modernization of China, the Chinese government has decided to grant more 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. freedom to educational institutions in the development of distance education (Cheng, 1989) . However, to guarantee the educational quality, the Ministry of Education drew up a set of special regulations to supervise and to support such a development (CPC, 1993) . The Chinese government not only supports the development of the domestic distance education, but also encourages the communication between Chinese and foreign educational institutions (CPC, 1993). Ever since 1978, the Chinese government has been carrying out the "Open Policy." Mr. Deng Xiaoping once said: "Any nationality, any country should learn the strong points of other nations and study others' advancement in science and technology. China must learn from other countries, not only when we are lagging behind, but also when we have caught up with the advanced level of the world" (Cheng, 1989, p. 48). On one hand, the Chinese government will not refuse the introduction of any modern technology and modern educational delivery system. On the other hand, the Chinese government has almost always been judicious and circumspect when something new is introduced (Kuan & Brosseau, 1991). 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Chinese government is particularly sensitive to information and/or technology and any material that would undermine their independence. Absorbing the quintessence and discarding the rubbish, said President Jiang Zemin, we must analyze what we are getting when learning from the foreign countries. We must tell what is advanced and what is backward, what is scientific and what is decadent, what is beneficial and what is harmful. We must actively absorb the advanced, scientific, and beneficial things, and fight against those backward, decadent, and harmful things. Our country should be independent, not only in politics and economics, but also in culture and ideology (Hayhoe, 1996, p. 74). For more than 2 0 years, the Chinese government has been carrying out its reform policy, but every step of the way has been taken cautiously. For example, the adoption of the American credit/unit system to China is quite recent. In the past, Chinese higher education used the academic year system in which all students in a major took the same set of courses together every year for the duration of their training. The introduction of the American credit/unit system began in 197 8, in schools such as Nanjing University, East China Normal College, and Wuhan University. Only after Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. almost five years, in 1983, when its merit had finally been proven, were the non-comprehensive universities then allowed to adopt this advanced system (Baily, 1990) . This example shows that the Chinese government and educational institutions are open to, but still very careful in accepting new practices. Chinese people by tradition favor a gradual evolution, not a sudden overthrow of an old system. Moreover, as China is a large country, it almost always takes a long time before a new and advanced system is established. Also, because of the differences in ideology, any modern system, when introduced to China, must be modified to include the Chinese cultural characteristics and to serve the Chinese situation (CPC, 1993). For a long time, the Chinese government has been deliberate against the direct borrowing of the Western systems and severely restricting against attempts for Westernization. This position shows the resolution of the Chinese government to uphold the socialistic ideology and the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. China has made it clear that it will never sacrifice its political principles and its sovereignty 73 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for an advanced system of technology. Any introduction has to be designed to serve the socialistic government, and must not be perceived as bringing capitalism to China (CPC, 1993). As the Chinese ideology is so fundamentally different from that of most of the Western countries, adaptations are necessary before a foreign educational delivery system such as distance learning and/or any related technology from the United States can be established. Motivational Aspect One of the ancient myths about the Chinese people is that they are not aggressive and therefore have little or no motivation. A related myth is that because Chinese are, for the most part, illiterate and uneducated, they are ignorant. Illiteracy and ignorance are not the same nor is passivity in motivation. Throughout the years, the Chinese people have shown much wisdom in their culture and have displayed much knowledge in their accomplishments. The Chinese people also have demonstrated their national characteristics of hard-working, endurance, preservation, and overcoming many different obstacles with self-determination. Chinese people, in general, 74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. and Chinese students, in particular, are highly- determined to finish their works, to complete their studies, and to accomplish their tasks painstakingly. Motivation refers to an inferred process within a person to move toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation (Wade & Tavris, 1998). Despite extensive research in Europe and in the United States there are few materials written on this subject in Chinese. This absence has contributed to the myth that Chinese people, especially the students in China, have little or no motivation. Factors commonly known to influence student motivation are personal beliefs and perceptions, school environment and/or specific classroom practices, and the behaviors of their teachers (Dembo, 1994). Pintrich and DeGroot (1990) identified the, three following motivational components related to personal factors: (a) a value component, which asks the question, "Why am I doing this task?" and which includes a student's goal and belief about the importance and interest of the task; (b) an expectancy component, which asks the question, "Can I do this task?" which reflects the belief held by a student 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. about his/her ability to perform the task; (c) an affective component, which asks the question, "How do I feel about this task?" and which portraits a student's emotional reaction to the task. Research further classified motivation into two categories, intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity "for its own sake," or for the personal enjoyment and satisfaction realization. Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior influenced by external events (Dembo, 1994). Much work has been done on external locus of control, in which a person is perceived to have little control over fate and fails to perceive a cause-and-effect relationship between actions and their consequences. An equal amount of work has also been done on internal locus of control, in which a person holds the reins of fate securely and understands that effort and reward are correlated (Rotter, 1996). Studies on self-efficacy, ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck have also all been done quite thoroughly with results published in Western journals and literature. The absence of Chinese written materials on this subject should not be construed as a lack of motivation 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. on the part of Chinese students. The concept of self- efficiency is a familiar one that can be found throughout Chinese stories, teachings, and even classical writings. Currently with the one-child policy in China, each family is limited to only one offspring. Each child therefore has six watchful eyes from three sets of parents, the two grandparents from the father's side, the two grandparents from the mother's side and his/her own two parents. Therefore, the external motivational factor become extremely strong, and the intrinsic motivation for all Chinese students is assured and warranted. Cultural Aspect Historical materials and cultural folklore document the value that the Chinese place on scholarly endeavor and toil. The Chinese have long respected academic accomplishments, and with some brief interruptions, such as during the Cultural Revolution of 1966 to 197 6, this respect persists to the present day (Wan, 1985; Xiangrong, 1985). Intellectual facility is appreciated in its own right, but it is also valued as a path to employment and status. 77 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In China, the examination system has provided a vehicle to social, political, and economic mobility for more than a thousand years (Ridley, 1973). This respect for scholarly attainment together with a high regard for hard work and effort offers the major avenue to accomplishment and competence (Chang, 1985). Historical accounts of preparation for examinations reveal exceedingly high levels of motivation (Ridley, 1973) . The ancient teachers and scholars urged young students by saying, "If you are not diligent in studying when your hair is black, it will be too late to sigh about studying when your hair is white." Nowadays, parents, teachers, and adults often refer to folklore containing vivid exemplars of the value of effort. Among the many legends well known to the Chinese, the following few can be used to illustrate this respect for effort. The first one is concerned with a boy named Kuang Heng. Kuang's family was so poor that they could not afford fuel for lights at night. But Kuang, so determined with his studies, bore a small hole through a wall that his house had in common with a neighbor who 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. was a little more affluent to find light by which to study. The second story pertains to a boy named Che Yin who made light for his studies by capturing fireflies. Another story was about a child by the name of Sun Kang who studied by the light of the moon reflected off the snow (Huang, 1969). These and similar legends that extol the virtue of effort in the pursuit of learning are familiar among the Chinese people throughout China. Beliefs about the efficacy of effort also appear in classical writings. Educational practice and educational principles from Confucius and other revered scholars offer advice on several aspects of scholarly activity. For example, on the role of mental concentration, Confucius' Tai Bo chapter had this to say; "learn as if you could not reach your object , and were always fearing also lest you should lose it" (Legge, 1967, p. 61). On the primacy of effort, Xin Gan's Xhong Lun had this words, "talent and will come first in study; will is the teacher of study and talent is the follower of study. If a person has no talent, achievement is still possible. But if he has no will, it is not worth talking about study" (Legge, 1967, p. 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86). On the need for persistence, Confucius' Zi Zhang chapter stated, "being diligent in study means devoting one's effort to it for a long time" (Legge, 1967, p. 65). On the efficacy of effort, Confucius' Xu Er Chapter declared, "one will inevitably succeed in one's study if one is diligent and takes delight in study" (Legge, 1967, p. 50). In the view of Chinese people, the enemies of study are laziness, non-persistence, and overconfidence (Huang, 1969). Chinese parents, especially mothers, believe that if their child should fail to achieve high levels of academic performance it is due to an internal factor, such as effort, over which the child has control (Dix & Grusec, 1984) . In their eyes, the lack of natural ability, bad luck, or even poor school training have little to do with failure. However, if their child should succeed, it is attributed primarily to school training. Student Learning Aspect Studies have indicated that Chinese students spend twice as much time each week on their educational endeavors as do their non-Asian counterparts (Eaton & Dembo, 1997). Typical post-secondary Chinese students 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are greatly influenced by their parents' desire for success. They are under pressure to please both parents and grandparents. The fear of failure combined with their belief in the importance of effort translates into long study hours and engagement in school (Reglin & Adams, 1990). Typical post-secondary Chinese students also set higher standards and have relatively low self-concepts concerning ability. They focus less on their situational perception of capability to complete a task (self-efficacy) and more on the importance of excelling at the task (value) (Dembo, 1994). The lower self-concepts associated with ability could be the motivating factor for Chinese students to approach their subject matter with relatively more determination and for relatively more hard work on the subject. It may also cause them to evaluate their performance more stringently. The burden to meet parents' expectations and the fear of academic failure combined with a lower level of self- efficacy and sustained effort are motivational factors which propel typical post-secondary Chinese students to succeed even under difficult academic challenges (Covington, 1992) . 81 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Theories of achievement motivation developed in Western countries are rooted in individualism, as they stress personal choice and responsibility. Students in the United States learn to "stand out," to make one's individuality salient, whereas Chinese students learn to "stand in," to become so identified with the society that one's individuality is not noticed (Weisz, Rothbaum, & Blackburn, 1984). Possibly, Chinese students view motivation more on a group level, based on a sense of shared responsibility to achieve, where luck is seen as having negligible influence (Eaton & Dembo, 1997). The relationship between Eastern cultural beliefs and Western motivational behavior is an interesting one that warrants further investigation (Eaton & Dembo, 1997). On the matter of students' attitude toward foreign cultures and Western civilization, Chinese students have almost always been willing, and eager, to interact and learn and have been open to new ideas and technology. Summary China and the Western world have had a long history of trade relationships, cultural exchange and 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. educational cooperation. The development of distance learning in the United States for higher education has not been an exception. As long ago as at the time of Marco Polo, European merchants had journeyed the "Silk Road" for Chinese silk, painting, porcelain, jewels, jade, and precious stones. They also brought back the knowledge of the compass, gun power, papermaking and printing which were ancient Chinese inventions to Europe. In return, China received Western gold and silver, Arab and Persian music, dance and decorative arts, and European science, languages and arithmetic. From the 15th to the 18th centuries, during which accounts of the splendor of Chinese civilization were relayed to Europe, the flow of Sino-Western knowledge exchange was mainly from China to Europe. However, when the Industrial Revolution of 1800s occurred in Europe and later in the United States, coupled with the internal decline of the Chinese Government, by the 19t h century, Chinese people had come to the realization that their sense of cultural and moral supremacy was useless and their technology outdated. 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Opium Wars of 1840 and 1858 opened up China completely for Western civilization, including an army of Protestant and Catholic missionaries. Although introducing Western scholarship and technology was not on the minds of the missionaries when they first set foot in China, in due time, institutions that replicated certain Western academic models started to appear on Chinese soil (Zhong & Hayhoe, 1993). Young Chinese intellectuals were drawn to them, especially after the abolition of the Imperial examination system in 1905. Not too long after the Chinese Revolution of 1911, which ended the last Imperial dynasty, more foreign models of higher education started to appear in China. Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, leader of the revolution and father of the New Republic, was a former overseas student himself from the United States. Hence, Chinese higher education which took after the European system, and in particular the German model of the university at that time, started to shift to a United States system which put integrated arts and sciences at the core of the curriculum instead of the Confucian classics. The American pragmatic approach to knowledge enabled the 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chinese students to expand their educational pursuit beyond theoretical and scholarly knowledge. Their curriculum could now be broadly academic or specifically professional (Hayhoe, 1989b). However, with the founding of the People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong in 1949, the entire system of Chinese higher education was reorganized in imitation of the Soviet pattern. A team of about 10,000 Soviet specialists from all fields was sent to China to assist in this reorganization. Another team of 7,500 Chinese scholars and students was sent to study in the Soviet Union (Hayhoe, 1989a). This Soviet-style, higher education system contributed to rapid industrialization and general social development in China. This group of events is another illustration of the willingness of Chinese people, especially Chinese students, to learn new aspects of knowledge, as well as of their openness to technology. But in the case of the Soviet Union, a foreign nation that had gone too far with its penetration. The Soviet aid, which was initially lauded as generous "internationalism," was gradually perceived by the Chinese to be a form of control that would lead to 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. China's cultural and material dependency. This perception led to the eventual revolt that resulted in the Cultural Revolution of 1966 (Kwong, 1979), which began as a de-linking approach to weed out the Soviet penetration, but lasted for a horrifying ten years. After the Cultural Revolution, and with Mr. Deng Xiaoping fully in power, two new-style universities of science and technology, modeled after American institutions such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the California Institute of Technology (CIT), were established to allow for direct Sino-American technological exchange (Zhong & Hayhoe, 1993). On Feburary 6, 1978, the concept of radio television universities for distance learning was approved by Mr. Deng Xiaoping and established in 1979. In May 1984, T.D. Lee, a famous Chinese-American physicist and Nobel laureate made the suggestion to Mr Deng Xiaoping that China should establish a postdoctoral system. One year later, the first postdoctoral scientific research stations were established in Beijing and Shanghai (Liu, 1992). On October 1, 1986, the opening of the first satellite TV educational channel marked a great breakthrough in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. delivery of distance education. All these instances demonstrate not only the willingness of the Chinese government to adopt new scientific advancements and new ideas, but also the openness of Chinese students to learn new knowledge and acquire new technology. In 1990, Marcoulides and Wang completed a study on students from a college in Los Angeles, California and students from a university at Hunan, China. The study was on cross-cultural comparisons of computer anxiety in college students. The results of 225 American students and those of 212 Chinese students indicated that computer anxiety was present to a similar degree for both groups. This study further illustrated the openness of typical Chinese students in China to technology. Their willingness to learn new aspects, their eagerness to acquire new knowledge, and their openness to new technology also contributed to their having the same kind of problems, such as computer anxiety, as was the case with the students in America. 87 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY In the Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 20:16, Confucius pointed out, To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge. To practice with vigor is to be near to magnanimity. To possess the feeling of shame is to be near to energy (Legge, 1967, p. 22). This chapter begins with an introduction of the characteristic of the study site, the composition of the research sample, and the selection criteria. It is then followed with an explanation of the design and study procedures. Details are then given concerning the instrumentation, assignment of participants to groups, administration of tests, data collection, method of data treatment, testing condition, and methodological assumptions. Study Site and Research Sample The study site is a nationally recognized postsecondary institution in China that was established in 1949 for cultivating and training teachers for 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. secondary education. Known as the Hainan Teachers University, it is situated at Haikou City, on the Hainan Island, a beautiful tropical island at the most southern part of China in the South China Sea. The Hainan Island, which is China's second largest island, is commonly known as the "Hawaii of the East." In 1988, it was given the authority of self-autonomy and afforded the status as the 31s t province of Communist China. In ancient times, disfavored officials were exiled from the mainland to the island to live out their natural life. Today, because of its beauty and geographic importance, the province is being developed into a special economic zone with flexibility and openness in foreign trade and economic development. There are 56 ethnic racial groups in China. The dominant race is the Han tribe with 93% of the country's total population belonging to this one single race. The other 55 ethnic minority groups account for the remaining 7% of China's population. Some of the larger ethnic groups after the Han are the Zhuang, Hui, Uygur, Yi, Li, Miao, Manchu, Tibetan, Mongol, Buyi and Korean. Of these tribes, the Zhuang, Hui, Yi, Li, Miao and Buyi are common in Hainan making the ethnic 89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. minority population in this region in excess of 20%. This is a significantly large percentage over the national average of 7%. Furthermore, the ethnic Li tribe in any significant numbers can only be found in Hainan. Thus its members represent a very special protective tribe in this region. Because of this unusual situation and the higher than average concentration of ethnic minority populations in Hainan, institutions of higher learning are required by the Education Ministry to provide special education for the minority tribes. Hainan Teachers University is the only institution of higher learning in Hainan province authorized by the Education Ministry of the People's Republic of China to admit international students while maintaining an emphasis on training its ethnic minorities. A multi discipline teachers' university, it embraces liberal arts, sciences and management studies. It has twelve (12) departments consisting of thirty-four (34) specialties. It has a student body of 10,708 local students from all over China including 3,520 full-time, 943 part-time, 6,030 off-campus, 135 ethnic minority, and 80 foreign students from Japan, Korea, Cambodia, 90 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thailand, Australia, and many European countries. It has a strong teaching force composed of 157 full and associate professors, 223 lecturers and research fellows, 168 teaching assistants, and 380 research assistants and classified workers for a total of 928 staff members with 80 of them holding Master's or Doctor's degrees. The university library ranks first in book inventory, and its computer network is the Hainan network center of China Education and Research Network The Chinese Teaching Center at the university for Chinese tribal minorities and foreigners has contributed significantly to promoting Sino-foreign cultural exchange and international friendship. Their close cooperation and friendly relationship with the Beijing Language and Culture University led to the establishment of a reception station in Beijing that provides testing and services for national and international students before they arrive at Hainan. Many of the students at the Foreign Language Department are Chinese students from all over the country who come to Hainan to study English. In the last 50 years, Hainan Teachers University has turned Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. out more than 50,000 qualified teachers in secondary education to teach in all corners of China (Ming, 1996). Selection of this site for the study was not solely due to the University's reputation for producing quality teachers. It was also probably because of the University's extensive promotion of academic co operations and exchanges with educational institutions around the world. At the time of this study, there were scholars and subject matter experts from Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, New Zealand, America, Canada, and France lecturing at the University. Hainan Teachers University, on the other hand, has professors and administrators outside of China furthering their own studies, receiving new instructional materials and teaching techniques, or performing research and promoting academic exchanges. The traditional way of teaching in China throughout all levels of educational institutions, as discussed in the previous chapters, is a "one teacher or professor lecturing and all students in the classroom listening" method with no student interaction or interruption. As a typical class-size in China for 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. all levels of institutional learning is around thirty, this number means that none of the 30 students ever speaks or asks questions in the class because it would be considered disrespectful. The majority of the time, the teacher or professor reads directly from the textbook or ones own lecture notes. The students are expected to memorize the text or the lecture and to be able to repeat the material in the examinations. As all examinations in China required closed books and closed notes, it is a test of memorization, not one of an application of materials learned. This traditional method in which Chinese students participate continue to be followed. Because students at Hainan Teachers University have been exposed to foreign scholars and the Western way of lecturing, these students were perceived to be more ready for the United States distance learning delivery modality experiment than other institutions. Design and Procedure This study used a two-part research design. The first part was a one-shot case study, also known as a one-group posttest only design which was used to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. determine the English language proficiency for students' participation in the study. The second part was a pretest-posttest control group design. Students who met the cut-off requirement of the first part were randomly selected and put into two groups; Group A and Group B. The study lasted for two school terms, with Group A as the Experimental Group and Group B as the Control Group for Term One, and Group B as the Experimental Group and Group A as the Control Group for Term Two. For each term, each group was given a pretest before the term started, a posttest for the first half of the term, followed with another pretest for the second half of the term, and a posttest at the end of the term. Instructional materials were given to Group A through the distance learning modality and to Group B in the regular way which is the traditional method of teaching in China for both halves of Term One. Then Group B was given the instructional materials through the distance learning modality while Group A was provided the traditional method, again for both halves of Term Two. The Study Design and Design Layout are shown in Table 1 and Table 2 below: 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 1 Study Design (A) First Part: One - Shot Case Study (One - Group Posttest Only Design) Treatment Posttest (B) Second Part: Pretest - Posttest Randomized Control Group Design TERM ONE : (Randomization and Selection of Subjects for Groups) Pre Post Pre Post Midterm Midterm Final Final Group One E (R) 0m X12 01 3 L 2 0121 X12 0122 Group Two C (R) 0113 0114 0123 0124 TERM TWO : (Keeping Subjects in same Groupings) Pre Post Pre Post Midterm Midterm Final Final Group Two E (R) 0213 X21 0214 Oa23 X22 0224 Group One C (R) Oail 0212 Oa21 0222 95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 2 Design Layout (A) BY CLASS: Instructional Method TERM ONE TERM TWO Distance Learning (E) Group One Group Two Traditional (C) Group Two Group One (B) BY GROUP: Subject Students TERM ONE TERM TWO Group One Experimental Class (E) Control Class (C) Group Two Control Class (C) Experimental Class (E) 96 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Instrumentation TOEFL Equivalency Test The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is a test to evaluate the English proficiency of people whose native language is not English. The scores are required for the purpose of admission by more than 2,400 colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. TOEFL is also used by institutions in and around the world where English is the language for instruction. The regular TOEFL test consists of four sections: 1. Listening - measures the ability to understand English as it is spoken in North America. 2. Structure - measures the ability to recognize language that is appropriate for standard written English. 3. Reading - measures the ability to understand non-technical reading material. 4. Writing - measures the ability to write in English on an assigned topic. The TOEFL Equivalency Test is a simplified version of TOEFL focusing only on the Listening and Reading portion of the TOEFL test. Students taking the test 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are expected to reach a minimum TOEFL equivalent score of 450 points to be considered as proficient in the English language (ETS, 1998). A one-day seminar on how to be prepared for and on how to take the test was given to the students of the entire Foreign Language Department. Telecourse A telecourse on Cultural Anthropology entitled "Faces of Culture" was chosen for the main part of this research study. The course was chosen because of many factors including the fact that it could be used as an elective. It is a proven telecourse that has been used by many colleges and universities for the past 17 years. The content of the course has been judged to be interesting and easy to understand. Most importantly, it is a course that fits the needs of the Hainan Teachers University due to the high concentration of ethnic minorities in the region. Faces of Culture "Faces of Culture" is a one-semester, college- level telecourse in introductory anthropology by the telecourse producer "Coast Telecourse". This telecourse is the product of the joint efforts of the 98 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Coast Community College District (KOCE-TV); the Office of International Systems Development at Coastline Community College; Holt, Rinehart and Winston (Harcourt Brace College Publishers); and several other educational institutions and consortia. Institutions such as: Dallas County Community College District, State of Florida Department of Education, City Colleges of Chicago, Miami-Dade Community College, the Southern California Consortium, the Texas Consortium for Educational Telecommunications, and the Northern Illinois Learning Resources Cooperative are among the major contributors to the telecourse. Design and production of the series involved an intense schedule and the cooperation of many anthropologists. Course goals, lesson topics, and specific learning objectives were established with input and advice from members of an advisory committee who were drawn from educational institutions participating in the project. A number of specialists in the cultures examined in the programs were consulted during the development of the program content and scripts (CCCD, 1996). 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The course explores the richly diverse human tapestry and reveals how every society is based on an integrated culture that satisfies human needs and facilitates survival. The video programs reflect contemporary research in cultural anthropology and feature dramatic and unique footage that embraces human adaptation to environmental challenges from the beginning of the human species to the present. The course focuses on the thesis that every society is based on an integrated culture that satisfies human needs and facilitates survival. Demonstrating this presumption are cultures such as the Nuer of the Sudan, the Trobriand Islanders of the South Pacific, the Netsilik of Northern Canada, the Yanomamo of Venezuela, the Boran of Kenya, the Juhoansi of Africa, the Bakhtiari and the Basseri of Iran, and the Yucatec Maya of Mexico. "Faces" from Western industrial countries and their subcultures are examined as well. The course also explores the ways in which North American culture fits into the broad range of human existence (CCCD, 1996). The majority of the video programs is multicultural in their approach, with several programs 100 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. presenting ethnographic studies of individual societies. These studies enable students to "experience" various cultures in depth, while the multicultural programs promote cross-cultural comparisons and analyses of general themes in the course. Major course topics include the nature of culture, where in which cultures are studied, language and communication, psychological anthropology, patterns of subsistence, marriage and the family, kinship and descent, political organization, religion and magic, the arts, and culture change. A multimedia course, "Faces of Culture" includes twenty-six half-hour video programs designed and produced by academic and media production specialists. The materials comprise of a textbook from a leading publishing house, a specially designed study guide that coordinates the textbook and the video programs, and a faculty manual with teaching aids and testing elements for the instructor. In design and content, lesson assignments, and the student performance expectations, "Faces of Culture" were designed for used in both two- and four-year 101 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. institutions for three units of lower-division credit. The telecourse is suitable for the extension programs, non-traditional learning situations, and general undergraduate courses. Especially appropriate for off- campus educational programs at outreach locations, the telecourse is now being used by more than 1,200 colleges and universities nationwide. The course designers, academic advisors, and producers have specified eight major goals for the course (CCCD, 1996). After completing all the assignments in this course, students should be able to meet the following objectives: 1. Understand and appreciate the concept of culture, from the perspective of anthropologists, as the adaptive mechanism that provides for the survival of the human species. 2. Recognize the underlying similarities, as well as the wide range and variability of human cultures. 3. Recognize and appreciate that there are many valid "cultural solutions" to living on earth. 4. Understand the relationship between culture and the individual. 102 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. Understand the factors involved in culture change. 6. Gain a broad cross-cultural background against which to view their own culture, as well as contemporary social problems. 7. Know the meaning of the basic concepts and terms used by cultural anthropologists. 8. Understand some of the procedures used by anthropologists in studying cultures. The video component of the course examines details of the lives of people in various cultures around the world. The footage used in the programs was chosen not only for its accuracy but also for its visual quality, allowing students to "experience" cultures other than their own. Some of the cultures shown may seem startling, even bizarre, but the goal was to portray the reasonableness of all human behaviors when seen in the cultural context. The designers hoped that ethnocentric attitudes and feelings would be challenged and reduced by the experience of seeing and becoming better informed about various cultures. The visual component of the course is crucial for students to gain an emotional and an intellectual 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. understanding of the attitudes and behaviors of people in other cultures. Few fields of study can use the instructional potential of the medium of video as well as the field of anthropology. The opportunity to see the peoples and cultures studied in the course helps students to comprehend and to appreciate cultures other than their own. The program features rare and unique footage shots on location throughout the world. Many of the programs chronicle the work of ethnographers and anthropological filmmakers. Eighteen of the programs are multicultural in approach, while eight deal exclusively with ethnographic studies of societies, such as the Aymara Indians of the Bolivian Andes and the Asmat of New Guinea. In addition, leading researchers in anthropology are interviewed throughout the programs. Footage from several films produced by the American Universities Field Staff, Inc., in its series Faces of Change: Five Rural Societies in Transition was used in the video programs. For example, the case study program on social stratification among the Aymara of the Bolivian Andes is based on these films. 104 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The video component consists of twenty-six half- hour programs available in all major videotape formats, such as NTSC and PAL. The course is designed for presentation on open broadcast, cable, and closed- circuit television, as well as by video playback, for groups or individuals. Individual programs can be used to enhance campus-based instruction. All programs were produced in the facilities of KOCE-TV, Huntington Beach, California, a PBS-affiliate station owned and operated by the Coast Community College District. Dedicated to educational programming, community affairs, and cultural enrichment, the station has received much recognition including numerous Emmy awards and Ohio State Awards, for its high-quality production of college-level telecourses and for community service. The second report of the Carnegie Commission (Public Trust, The Report of the Carnegie Commission on Public Broadcasting, 1979) acknowledged KOCE for leadership in, and contribution to, post-secondary education. The textbook for the course is Cultural Anthropo 1 ogy, authored by Dr. William A. Haviland in 1975, revised, and published by Harcourt Brace College 105 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Publishers in 1996. This best-selling textbook has been widely adopted throughout North America, and its contents parallel the general introduction to the principles and processes of cultural anthropology. Drawing on the research and ideas of a number of anthropological schools, the textbook includes related material from physical anthropology and linguistics. The text emphasizes a cross-cultural perspective in covering both Western and non-Western, traditional and modern, simple and complex societies. The textbook revision was based on extensive review by users and on input from the American Anthropological Association. All chapters have been updated to reflect the most recent findings in the field. Original studies, selected from the works of practicing anthropologists, are integrated into each chapter to give students an insight into current anthropological research. Many examples and illustrations, including full-color pictures throughout the textbook, amplify concepts and help make descriptions more realistic (CCCD, 1996). The study guide for the course, which was developed by the Office of Instructional Systems 106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Development at Coastline Community College for the Coast Community College District, was published by Harcourt Brace College Publishers in 1996. Richard T. Searles, author of the original edition of the study guide, has been a freelance writer and classroom teacher. He has a bachelor's degrees in English, Language Arts, Literature, and Music and a master's degree in Education from the University of Wyoming. Searles is also the author of the study guide for Humanities through the Arts. He has contributed to the study guide for The American Short Story, and has revised the second edition of the study guide for Understanding Human Behavior. The twenty-six lessons in the study guide that parallel the twenty-six video programs help students to integrate the material in the textbook with the material in the video programs. A basic function of the study guide is to provide students with a methodical, organized, convenient, and easily understood approach to the course. Each lesson in the study guide contains the following elements: 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1. Assignments - detailed instructions on activities and reading assignments to be completed before and after viewing each video program. 2. Overview - a summary of the highlights of the content of the textbook and video program, placed in the total perspective of the course. 3. Learning Objectives - measurable goals that the student is expected to accomplish as a result of completing the textbook reading assignment, study guide activities, and viewing of the video program for each lesson. 4. Study Activities - vocabulary check and completion exercises to help students review their understanding of important terms and concepts, and to integrate knowledge. 5. Multiple-Choice Objective Questions - a brief objective quiz that allows students to test their understanding of the material in the lesson. 6. Short-Answer Essay Questions - questions designed to enable students to check their comprehension of broad concepts presented in each lesson. 108 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7. Suggested Activities - suggestions for further study of anthropology. In addition to the three primary instructional components — the video programs, the textbook, and the study guide — other support publications are also supplied to institutions offering this course. The most important support publication is the faculty manual. Entitled Faculty Manual for the telecourse Faces of Culture, produced by Coast Community College District in cooperation with Harcourt Brace College Publishers in 1983, this manual was developed specifically for the instructor who teaches the course. It offers information about the course itself. It gives suggestions for communicating with students; checklists of tasks the instructor must complete before, during, and after the course; ideas for additional student assignments; descriptions of techniques for providing support to students; suggestions for enriching the course; and a test bank for the entire course with answers. Like the study guide, the faculty manual — especially the test bank — is revised when necessary to incorporate new material 109 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in the video programs and in revised editions of the textbook. With the many and various tribal minorities in the university, both the president of the university and the dean of foreign language department concurred on the selection of this telecourse the instrument for this study. Assignment of Participants to Groups With the permission of the President of Hainan Teachers University and with the concurrence and cooperation of the Dean of Foreign Language Department, the entire department of 2 50 students was the subject for the one-shot case study on English language proficiency. Each of the 250 students was given a student number of 1 to 250. The TOEFL was administered as a one-shot case study, or a one-group posttest only design as it is more commonly known. Students meeting the English proficiency cut-off requirement became the study population and their student numbers were placed in a box for random drawing. Sixty (60) students were then randomly selected from this population and constituted the final study sample of the United States 110 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Distance Learning Modality experiment. They were then subjected to the pretest-posttest control group design experiment with the course "Faces of Culture" as the instrument. The "random selection" process was a simple one. It involved the random drawing of 60 numbers from the student population whose numbers were in the box. The first 3 0 numbers drawn from the box were designated as the first 3 0 students to be assigned to Group A, and the second 3 0 numbers represented students assigned to Group B. The 3 0 students from Group A were then assembled in a classroom specially fitted for distance learning with a TV, VCR, and Codec-teleconferencing equipment. One of the university instructors then served as a facilitator to this group of students for receiving their instruction. The other 3 0 students from Group B remained with their regular instructor to study the material in the conventional or traditional manner. Administration of Tests The first pretest was administered to both groups at the beginning of the first term to determine their 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. knowledge level of the subject. Two months after the first pretest, both groups of students were given their first term midterm examination, which was considered their first posttest. One day after the midterm examination, the students were administered the second pretest for the materials to be studied for the rest of the term. At the end of the four-month long term, students from both groups were given their final examination, which was considered the second posttest of the term. This procedure was repeated for the second term with the 3 0 students in Group B receiving their instruction through distance learning and the 3 0 students in Group A receiving their education in the traditional manner with their regular instructor. Data Collection Thirteen (13) data items were collected from each of the 60 students. They were given the following variable names: 1. NAME - Name 2 . SEX - Sex : 1 = Male ; 2 = Female 3 . AGE - Age of students (18-24) 4. YIC - Years in college, (1-5) 112 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 . YLE - Years learning English, (1-20) 6. T1MPRE - Term one midterm pretest score, (*) 7 . T1MPOST - Term one midterm posttest score, (*) 8 . TlFPRE - Term one final pretest score, (*) 9 . T1FPOST - Term one final posttest score, (*) 10. T2MPRE - Term two midterm pretest score, (*) 11. T2MPOST - Term two midterm posttest score, (*) 12 . T2FPRE - Term two final pretest score, (*) 13 . T2FPOST - Term two final posttest score, ( *) (*) Scores are! all ranged from 0 to 100 All data items were collected by the instructors assigned by the Dean of the Foreign Language Department serving as teachers or facilitators for this study. Method of Data Treatment All of the tests were in a multiple-choice format. Questions for all the tests were taken from the "test bank" of the "faculty manual" that is a part of the telecourse. Results were tabulated and entered into the computer for analysis. A comprehensive statistical software system, SPSS, was used for statistical and descriptive analysis. All calculations were performed using the student as the unit of analysis. Also, 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. descriptive statistics were performed on the two groups for both terms. Gains from pretests to posttests, as well as from term one to term two, were studied with t tests for independent samples test as well as t tests for paired samples (Correlations t tests). To manipulate better the test data items, the following variables were created: 1. SID - Student Identification Number (1-60) 2. GRP - Group 1 or Group 2 3. CLS - Class 1 = control class 2 = experimental class 12 = control class term one, experimental class term two 21 = experimental class term one, control class term two 4. OLDER - 1 = 20 to 22 years old 2 = 23 to 24 years old 5. TlTPRE - Total term one pretest scores TlTPRE = T1MPRE + TlFPRE 6. T1TPOST - Total term one posttest scores TlTPOST = TIMPOST + TlFPOST 7. T2TPRE - Total term two pretest scores T2TPRE = T2MPRE + T2FPRE 8. T2TP0ST - Total term two posttest scores T2TP0ST = T2MPOST + T2FPOST 114 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Simple gain calculations were followed by the Hagedorn et al. formula as explained in a recent study (Hagedorn, Siadat, Nora & Pascarella, 1997). The Hagedorn formula controls for the ceiling effect imposed by the theoretical maxima and minima of scores. It also brings the nonlinear nature of gains into control. This formula expresses pretest and posttest gains as relative maximum attainable gain (P), which is defined as follows: P = (Post - Pre)/(Max - Pre) where: Post = Posttest score; Pre = Pretest score Max = Maximum theoretical gain, for which P is between 0 and 1 The most commonly encountered problem in gain studies is the sharp disparities between high and low scoring individuals with respect to their relative improvements, even though their absolute improvements may be equal. This kind of phenomenon is usually referred to as the ceiling effect. Other problems involved in gain analyses are the non-linear nature of gain. Students who score low on the pretest have a higher probability of improvement than students who 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. initially score high. Both problems were anticipated with the data collected. For example, a student who correctly answers 80 out of 100 items in the pretest has a gain margin of only 20 items, whereas the student who scored 40 correctly out of 100 items had a gain margin of 60 points. The relative maximum attainable gain analysis (P) compensates and controls for these problems. The "odds" function (G) is defined as; G = P/(l-P). When P is small, the function G is approximately equals to P. Therefore, G exhibits complete linear behavior for all values of P near zero. However, as P approaches one, G approaches an extremely large value, i.e. o <= G <= oo, for 0 <= P <= 1. The logarithm of a number is the exponent of that power to which another number, the base, must be raised to give the number first named. Any positive number greater than 1 might serve as a base. Two of the bases commonly used yielding to two systems of logarithms are the base 2.718 and the base 10. The system that used the base 10 giving logarithms particularly adapted to use in computation is called "common" or "Briggsian" logarithms. The base 2.718 usually indicated by the letter e, gives rise to a system of logarithms convenient in higher mathematics. This system is 116 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. called "natural," "Napenian," or "hyperbolic" logarithms (Spiegel, 1968). Therefore, applying the natural logarithm to G linearizes the growth of gain near 1. Hence Y is defined as: Y = In(G) = In(P/(1-P)) that is -oo <= Y <= oo for 0 <= P <= 1 where In stands for natural logarithm. To study the actual gain using the Hagedorn formula, the following additional variables were created. They were: Pi - Term One, Midterm score max attainable gain; where PI = (T1MP0ST - TlMPRE)/(100 - TlMPRE) G1 - "ODDS" function for Term One Midterm scores; where G1 = PI/(1-PI) Y1 - Actual Gain for Term One Midterm scores where: Yl = ln(Gl) P2 - Term One, Final score max attainable gain; where P2 = (T1FPOST - T1FPRE)/(100 - TlFPRE) G2 - G2 = P2/(1-P2) 6. Y2 - Actual Gain for Term One Final scores; where Y2 = ln(G2) 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7. P3 - Term Two, Midterm score max attainable gain; where P3 = (T2MP0ST - T2MPRE)/(100 - T2MPRE) 8. G3 - G3 = P3/(1-P3) 9. Y3 - Actual Gain for Term Two Midterm scores; where Y3 = ln(G3) 10. P4 - Term Two, Final score max attainable gain; where P4 = (T2FPOST - T2FPRE)/(10 0 - T2FPRE) 11. G4 - G4 = P4/(1-P4) 12. Y4 - Actual Gain for Term Two Final scores; where Y4 = ln(G4) 13. P5 - Total maximum attainable gain for Term One, i.e. Midterm + Final; where P5 = (T1TPOST - TlTPRE)/(200 - TlTPRE) 14. G5 - G5 = P5/(l-P5) 15. Y5 - Total Actual Gain for Term One scores; where Y5 = ln(G5) 16. P6 - Total maximum attainable gain for Term Two, i.e. Midterm + Final; where P6 = (T2TPOST - T2TPRE)/(200 - T2TPRE) 17. G6 - G6 = P6/(1-P6) 18. Y6 - Total Actual Gain for Term Two scores; where Y6 = ln(G6) Correlation analyses as part of paired samples t tests were also investigated using the variables list. 118 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Testing Conditions Experimental classes were conducted at the university campus. The classrooms used for the experimental classes were regular classrooms similar to those used for the control classes with the sole exceptions that they had been specially equipped with TV screens and audio-video equipment. The two instructors teaching in the experimental classes were the same two instructors teaching in the control class. They were regular instructors from the university who were specially selected and assigned by the Dean of the Foreign Languages Department to this study. Students met three times a week, each time for one hour. Each term length, which was eight weeks, yielded 24 one-hour sessions; equivalent to half a United States semester. The course material for "Faces of Culture" consisted of twenty-six, 40 minutes tapes. The course tapes were divided into thirteen tapes for each term with term one, group one, the experimental class, having the first thirteen tapes, and term two, group two, the second experimental class, having the second thirteen tapes for this study. The regular control 119 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. class had twenty lectures per term. Because each lecture usually included some review materials, the twenty lectures presented almost exactly the same amount of materials covered by the thirteen tapes. A class schedule layout for both groups and terms for the study is shown in Appendix A1 through Appendix A4. All tests, (both pretest or posttest, midterms or finals) were administered in class, inside the classroom, with closed books and without notes. The time allowed for each of the test was one hour (the length of the class session). Test questions were in multiple-choice format taken directly from the Faculty Manual. The same test was used for both the control class and the experimental class. All the test papers were collected, corrected and mailed from the Dean's Office to the United States at the end of the. second term. A set of the test questions is included in Appendix B1 through Appendix B4. An answer sheet for all the test questions is also included in Appendix B5. Methodological Assumptions The following methodological assumptions were implicit in this study: 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1. The Hainan Teachers University is the only institution of higher learning in the Province of Hainan, authorized by the Ministry of Education of China to admit international students. It has an enrollment of over 10,000 students including many ethnic Chinese. Of the 250 students in the Foreign Language Department, there were from Japan, Korea, Thailand, Cambodia, and other provinces of China. It is a fair representation of students in higher education in China today. Therefore, the results may be generalizable. 2. Randomization helped control for extraneous variables, which might have influenced the results of the study. 3. Students of both study groups exerted their maximum effort for the entire two terms. 4. Instructors and administrators of the Hainan Teachers University were perceived to be most cooperative and supportive of the study. 5. The research design, instrumentation, data analysis procedures, and control methods were appropriate. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 4 RESULTS & ANALYSIS In the Great Learning, Chapter 5, Confucius stated, The perfecting of knowledge depends on the investigation of things. If we wish to carry our knowledge to the utmost, we must investigate the principles of all things we come into contact with. For the intelligent mind of man is certainly formed to know, and there is not a single thing in which its principles do not inhere. But so long as all principles are not investigated, man's knowledge is incomplete. On this account, the Learning for Adults, at the outset of its lessons, instructs the learner, in regard to all things in the world, to proceed from what knowledge he has of their principles and pursues his investigation of them, till he reaches the extreme point. After exerting himself in this way for a long time, he will suddenly find himself possessed of a wide and far-reaching penetration. Then, the qualities of all things whether external or internal, the subtle or the coarse, will all be apprehended, and the mind, in its entire substance and its relations to things, will be perfectly intelligent. This is called the investigation of things. This is called the perfection of knowledge (Legge, 1967, p. 9) . In this chapter, test results are presented and observed outcomes are analyzed within the framework and context of the areas of inquiry presented in Chapter 1. Statistical findings are interpreted in relation to their support or failure to support the effectiveness Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of offering United States curriculum through distance learning modality and to determine that there was an increase, or at the very least, an equal educational success as compared to the traditional instructional delivery media. Chapter 5 provides the conclusion and policy implications of this study. Test Results The TOEFL Equivalency Test that was administered to the entire student body of the Foreign Language Department of the Hainan Teachers University resulted in the elimination of 7 0 students out of a total of 250 students. This reduction indicated that 72% of the student body or 180 students obtained test scores of 450 points or higher, meeting the minimum TOEFL equivalent cut-off requirement. The complete test record is included in Appendix Cl and Appendix C2. The sixty (60) randomly selected students who formed the two final research sample groups of 3 0 students each were subjected to two terms of pretest- posttest control group design experiment on the United States telecourse curriculum. Information on each of the 60 students with his or her test scores of the two 123 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. terms are tabulated and are shown in Appendix Dl through Appendix D4. Descriptive Analysis of Test Score Data Raw pretest and posttest scores on both midterm and final examinations for each term, group, and class were analyzed. Simple arithmetic differences between each posttest and pretest pair were computed. Actual gain scores using the Hagedorn Formula (see Chapter 3 for a full description) were performed on each posttest and pretest pair to provide a more complete and more accurate picture. Descriptive statistics for the measures of central tendency and dispersion were performed. Finally, two tailed t tests with alpha set at 0.05 on group statistics, independent-samples t test, two-sample t test, paired samples statistics, paired samples correlations, and paired samples tests were all compiled. Raw Scores Analysis The raw scores on pretest indicated that the difference in average scores between group one and 124 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. group two on the same subject material was negligible. In term one the midterm pretest scores for experimental group was 60.10 and control group was 62.50, a difference of 2.4 points. The pretest scores on the final examination for the same term between experimental group and control group were 52.3 and 53.4 respectively, a difference of only 0.9 points. Similarly, term two scores on midterm pretest were 55.70 for control group and 63.10 for experimental group, a slightly larger difference of 7.4 points, with the term two pretest scores on final examination of 47.60 for control group and 55.20 for experimental group posing the largest difference of 7.6 points. These pretest average scores are tabulated in Table 3. The differences on posttest scores between the groups were quite substantial. The experimental group had much higher test scores. In term one, students in the experimental group were subjected to the "Distance Learning" treatment. Their average midterm and final posttest scores were 88.97 and 86.63, respectively, while students in the control group had scores of 79.40 and 74.40, a difference of 9.57 points for the midterm and 12.23 points for the final. In term two, students 125 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. who were in the experimental group in term one became the control group, and students who were in the control group in term one became the experimental group. The average midterm and final posttest scores were 71.80 and 68.80, respectively, for the control group versus 90.47 and 89.57 for the experimental group, a difference of 18.67 points for the midterm and 20.77 for the final. These posttest average scores are tabulated in Table 4. 126 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 3 Pretest Average Scores Term One Term Two Midterm Final Midterm Final Term Group One 1 Experimental 60.10 52.50 2 Control 55.70 47.60 Term Group Two 1 Control 62.50 53.40 2 Experimental 63.10 55.20 Both Groups 61.30 52.95 59.40 51.40 Difference between 2.40 0.90 7.40 7.60 Group one & Group two 127 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 4 Posttest Average Scores Term One Term Two Midterm Final Midterm Final Term Group One 1 Experimental 88.97 86.63 2 Control 71.80 68.80 Term Group Two 1 Control 79.40 74.40 2 Experimental 90.47 89.57 Both Group 84.18 80.52 81.14 79.18 Difference Between 9.57 12.23 18.67 20.77 Group one and group two 128 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Simple Gain Analysis Simple arithmetic gains on posttest scores over pretest scores were calculated. The average simple gains on both midterms and finals were much greater in all the experimental classes regardless of group or term. For example, the average simple gains for term one for the experimental class were 28.87 for the midterm and 34.13 for the final, while the control class had only 16.90 and 21.00, a difference of 11.97 and 13.13 points, respectively, over the same materials. Also, equally as substantial for term two were the average simple gains for the experimental class, which were 27.37 for the midterm and 34.13 for the final, while the control class had only 16.10 and 21.20, a difference of 11.29 and 13.27 points, respectively, also over the same materials. Improvements on gains from midterms to finals between the two classes were also high. The experimental class had an improvement of 5.26 points for term one and 7.00 points for term two while the control class had an improvement of 4.10 points for term one and 5.10 points for term two. Calculations on the simple arithmetic gains are presented in Table 5. 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 5 Simple Arithmetic Gains (SAG) (SAG = posttest-pretest) Midterm Final Term One SAG IMP 34.13 5.26 21.00 4.10 13.13 Group Class Pre Post SAG Pre Post One E 60.10 88.97 28.87 52.50 86.63 Two C 62.50 79.40 16.90 53.40 74.40 Difference 11.97 Between E and C Term Two Group Class Pre Two E 63.10 One C 55.70 Difference Between E and C Post SAG Pre 90.47 27.37 55.20 71.80 16.10 47.60 11.27 Post SAG IMP 89.57 34.37 7.00 68.80 21.20 5.10 13.17 IMP = SAG (Final) - SAG (Midterm) DIFF = Experimental (E) - Control (C) 130 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Actual Gain Analysis Actual or True Gain Analysis, as was discussed in Chapter 3, affirmed the simple arithmetic gain calculation that the gain on both midterm and finals were significant in all the experimental classes, regardless of group or term. The average true gain for the experimental classes were 1.0131 for the midterm and 0.9412 for the final in term one, whereas the control class had a showing of only -0.2352 for the midterm and -0.1622 for the final over the same material studied by the students. Similarly, for term two, the experimental class had a true gain of 1.0880 for the midterm and 1.2519 for the final versus -0.5862 for the midterm and -0.3793 for the final for the control class, also over the same material studied. Combining the midterm score and the final score as an average total score for each term, the experimental classes had an average total true gain of 0.9826 for term one and 1.17 82 for term two, while the control classes had only -0.4466 for term one and -0.1544 for term two. The corresponding figures are tabulated and presented in Table 6 for comparison. 131 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 6 Comparison of Average Actual Gains including Simple Arithmetic Gains (SAG) on Experimental Classes vs. Control Classes (A) Term One: Actual Gain Group Class SAG P G Y One E Midterm 28.87 0.72 2.62 1.01 Final 34.13 0.72 2.55 0.94 Total 63.00 0.72 2.58 0.98 Two C Midterm 16.90 0.45 0.82 -0.24 Final 21.00 0.45 0.82 -0.16 Total 37.90 0.45 0.82 -0.15 (B) Term Two: Actual Gain Group Class SAG P G Y One C Midterm 16.10 0.36 0.57 -0.59 Final 21.20 0.40 0.68 -0.38 Total 37.30 0.39 0.63 -0.45 Two E Midterm 27.37 0.74 2.87 1.09 Final 34.37 0.77 3.29 1.25 Total 61.74 0.76 3.09 1.18 132 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The difference in student performances between the experimental classes and control classes, whether it be over the same materials, i.e. on same chapters, but with different groups of students, or over different materials i.e. different chapters but with same groups of students, were very sizable. On simple arithmetic gains for example, the experimental class had a difference of 25.70 points over the control class on term one and a difference of 23.94 points on term two. These differences were for the same groups of students, who studied different chapters of materials. On the same chapters of materials with the students studied in different groups, the experimental class had a difference of 25.10 points over the control class for term one and 24.44 points for term two. These figures along with true gain calculations are tabulated and presented in Table 7. 133 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 7 Comparison of Average Total Gains between Experimental Classes and Control Classes (A) Same Group of Students on Different Chapters of Materials Group Class SAG One E 63.00 C 37.30 E-C 25.70 Two E 61.74 C 37.90 E-C 23.94 Actual Gain P G Y 0.72 2.58 0.98 0.39 0.63 -0.45 0.34 1.95 1.43 0.76 3.09 1.18 0.45 0.82 -0.15 0.31 2.27 1.28 (B) Different Groups of Students on Same Chapters of Materials Term Class One E C E-C Actual Gain SAG P G Y 63.00 0.72 2.58 0.98 37.90 0.45 0.82 -0.15 25.10 0.27 1.76 1.14 Two E C E-C 61.74 37.30 24.44 0.76 0.39 0.37 3.09 0.62 2.46 1.18 -0.45 1.62 134 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Descriptive Analysis Of the 60 students in the sample, 12 were male and 48 were female. Five (5) of the males were in group one and seven (7) in group two. Of the females, 25 were in group one and 23 were in group two. There were 33 students between the ages of 20 and 21 (hereafter defined as "younger") and 27 students between the ages of 22 to 24 (hereafter defined as "older"). In terms of age, there were 12 younger and 18 older in group one and 21 younger and 9 older in group two. Whereas 40 of the students had studied the English language for 8 years, the other 2 0 students had studied English for 9 years. These 20 students who had 9 years of English were all placed into group two, while the 40 students that had 8 years of English were divided, with 10 in group two and the remaining 3 0 in group one. As such, all of the students in group one possessed the same amount of time exposure to the English language. The frequency distributions of sex, age, and years of English language are presented in Table 8. 135 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 8 Frequency Distribution (A) Sex Group One Two Total Male 5 7 12 Female 25 23 48 Total 30 30 60 (B) Age Group One Two Total Younger (20-21) 12 21 33 Older (22-24) 18 9 27 Total 30 30 60 (C) Years Learned English Group One Two Total 8 years 30 10 40 9 years 0 20 20 Total 30 30 60 136 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Further Descriptive Analysis Additional descriptive statistics on pretest and posttest scores, including true gains on both groups of students for both terms and classes, showing minimum and maximum of scores, range, mean, and standard deviation are presented in Tables 9 and 10. 137 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 9 Descriptive Statistics on Test Scores (A) Group One Term Class Test Min Max Range Mean SD One E M-Pre 34.00 82.00 48.00 60.10 11.95 -Post 78.00 96.00 18.00 88.97 4.80 F-Pre 28.00 73.00 45.00 52.50 13.41 -Post 76.00 96.00 17.00 86.63 4.90 Two C M-Pre 43.00 73.00 30.00 55.70 8.32 -Post 62.00 92.00 30.00 71.80 7.41 F-Pre 28.00 64.00 36.00 47.60 11.65 -Post 52.00 86.00 34.00 68.80 10.68 (B) Group Two Term Class Test Min Max Range Mean SD One C M-Pre 34.00 85.00 51.00 62.50 14.94 -Post 56.00 94.00 38.00 79.40 11.57 F-Pre 28.00 73.00 45.00 53.40 12.96 -Post 52.00 86.00 34.00 74.40 10.59 Two E M-Pre 43.00 73.00 30.00 63.10 7.69 -Post 83.00 97.00 14.00 90.47 3.35 F-Pre 28.00 73.00 45.00 55.20 9.65 -Post 81.00 96.00 15.00 89.57 4.24 M-Midterm; F-Final; E-Experimental; C-Control Pre-Pretest; Post-Posttest 138 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 10 Descriptive Statistics on Actual Gain (AG) (A) Group One Term Class Test Min Max Range Mean SD One E M-Yl 0.31 2.08 1.77 1.01 0.36 F-Y2 0.15 2.03 1.88 0.94 0.48 T-Y5 0.36 1.83 1.47 0.98 0.35 Two C M-Y3 i to • o 00 1.14 3.22 -0.59 0.58 F-Y4 -1.20 0.86 2.07 -0.38 0.54 T-Y6 rl 00 • 0 1 0.76 1.57 -0.46 0.36 (B) Group Two Term Class Test Min Max Range Mean SD One C M-Yl -2.40 1.39 3.78 -0.24 0.88 F-Y2 -1.01 0.58 1.59 -0.16 0.44 T-Y5 -1.00 0.88 1.87 -0.15 0.48 Two E M-Y3 0.00 2.08 2.08 1.09 0.54 F-Y4 0.50 2.53 2.03 1.25 0.51 T-Y6 0.43 0.95 1.52 1.18 0.44 M-Midterm; F-Final; T-Total; E-Experimental; C-Control Y1 8 Actual Gain for Term 1# Midterm scores Y2 = Actual Gain for Term 1» Final scores Y3 = Actual Gain for Term 2, Midterm scores Y4 = Actual Gain for Term 2, Final scores Y5 = Actual Gain for Term 1» Midterm and Final scores Y6 8 Actual Gain for Term 2, Midterm and Final scores 139 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Overview of t Tests Employed The independent-samples t test (or two-sample with a two tailed t test) was employed for comparison between mean scores of experimental class and control class. It was on average or mean scores over the same course materials for different groups of students on pre-tests, post-tests, and total pretest and total posttest for both terms of studies. It was also used on the true gain for testing of statistical significance. The paired-samples t test (correlation or dependent t test) was used to compare the means of two variables for a single group. This t test was carried out for comparison between scores of experimental class and control class over different course materials for same groups of students on averages or means on total pre-tests and total post tests and on true gain scores for both groups of students. The two-sample aspect of the independent- samples t test was then used for comparison between male and female students. It was then followed with a comparison between older and younger students and concluded with a comparison between students who had 8 years of English language learning to students who had 140 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 years of English language instruction. In all inferential statistical analysis, the alpha level was set at 0.05. t Tests for Independent-Samples This first test was for comparing the scores between students in group one and students in group two over the same material studied. For Term One, the comparison is Group One, Experiment Class versus Group Two, Control Class. For Term Two, the comparison is Group One, Control Class versus Group Two, Experiment Class. (T1G1E vs. T1G2C and T2G1C vs. T2G2E). The following variables were the subject of the t-test analysis: 1. T1MPRE - Term One, Midterm Pretest Score. The Levene's Test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.239). Therefore, homogeneity of variances was not violated and equal variances in scores were assumed. The absolute value for t was 0.7 83, which was not statistically significant. Therefore the two groups were statistically comparable in mean scores at the 141 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. beginning of the experiment and the mean scores were not statistically different (p = 0.437). 2. TIMPOST - Term One, Midterm Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.000), indicating that equal variances in scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 4.183, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000) . 3. TlFPRE - Term One, Final Pretest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.566). Thus equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 0.264, which was not statistically significant. Therefore, there were no real differences in test scores between the two groups (p = 0.793) . 4. TlFPOST - Term One, Final Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.001). Thus equal variances of scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 5.743, which was statistically 142 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 5. T1TPRE - Term One, Total Pretest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.276) . Thus equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for _ t was 0.580, which was not statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were not statistically different (p = 0.564). 6. TlTPOST - Term One, Total Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.000). Hence equal variances in scores could not be assumed. The absolute value of t was 5.076, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 7. T2MPRE - Term Two, Midterm Pretest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.583). Thus equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 3.577, which was statistically 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.001). 8. T2MPOST - Term Two, Midterm Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.002). Hence equal variances in scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 12.565, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 9. T2FPRE - Term Two, Final Pretest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant, (p = 0.229). Thus equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 2.752, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.008). 10. T2FPOST - Term Two, Final Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.000). Hence equal variances of test scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 9.897, which was 144 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.001). 11. T2TPRE - Term Two, Total Pretest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.254), indicating that equal variances could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 3.505, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.001) . 12. T2TPOST - Term Two, Total Posttest Score. The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.002), indicating that equal variances in scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 12.109, which was statistically significant. Therefore, means that the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 13. Yl - Actual Gain for Term One, Midterm Scores. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was statistically significant (p = 0.000), indicating that equal variances in actual gain scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t : 145 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. was 7.218, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 14. Y2 - Actual Gain for Term One, Final Scores. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.752). Hence equal variances in actual gain scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 9.248, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 15. Y3 - Actual Gain for Term Two, Midterm Scores. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.861). Thus equal variances in actual gain scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 11.557, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 16. Y4 - Actual Gain for Term Two, Final Scores. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.884). Hence equal variances in actual gain scores 146 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. could be assumed. The absolute value for was 11.991, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 17. Y5 — Total Actual Gain of Combined Midterm and Final Scores for Term One. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was statistically significant (p = 0.045), indicating that equal variances in actual gain scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 10.427, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.00 0). 18. Y6 - Total Actual Gain of Combined Midterm and Final Scores for Term Two. The Levene's test for equality of variances of actual gain scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.099). Thus equal variances in actual gain scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 15.702, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the two classes were statistically different (p = 0.000). 147 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. All statistically greater groups were those that were treated to the Distance Learning options, which were the experimental classes. Had one-tailed tests been used, the probabilities would have been half as great. The previous statistical findings are summarized in Table 11. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 11 Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison of Means on Test: Scores and Actual Gains between Experimental and Control classes) Same Material on Different Students with Different Methods TEST SCORES; Levene t Test Higher Variable Comp. P [ t ] ___________ P_ Group Term One: T IMP RE 0.24 0.78 0.437 - T1MPOST G1E 0.00 4.18*** 0.000 E TlFPRE 0.57 0.26 0.793 - T1FPOST VS 0.00 5.74*** 0.000 E T1TPRE 0.28 0.58 0.564 - TlTPOST G2C 0.00 5.08*** 0.000 E Term Two: T2MPRE 0.58 3.58** 0.001 E T2MPOST G1C 0.00 12.57*** 0.000 E T2FPRE 0.22 2.75** 0.008 E T2FPOST VS 0.00 9.90** 0.001 E T2PRE 0.25 3.51** 0.001 E T2TPOST G2E 0.00 12.11*** 0.000 E 149 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 11 (continued) Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison of Means on Test Scores and Actual Gains between Experimental and Control classes) Same Material on Different Students with Different Methods ACTUAL GAIN: Levene t Test Higher Variable Comp. P [ t ] P Group Term One: Y1 G1E 0.00 7.22*** 0.000 E Y2 VS 0.75 9.25*** 0.000 E Y5 G2C 0.86 11.56*** 0.000 E Term Two: Y3 G1C 0.89 11.99*** 0.000 E Y4 VS 0.05 10.43*** 0.000 E Y6 G2E 0.10 15.70*** 0.000 E * P < 0.05 ** P < 0.01 *** P < 0.001 E = Experimental Class; C = Control Class 150 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Correlation t Tests for Paired-Samples The paired-samples _ t test was used to compare the scores of the same groups of students over different course delivery modalities on different materials. For Group One, students in term one were exposed to the Distance Learning method for their course delivery (the experimental class), while in term two, the same group of students was using the traditional method of learning (the control class). For Group Two, the situation was reversed. Students in group two started out in term one as the control group using the traditional method of learning, while in term two, they were exposed to distance learning and became the experimental group. Therefore, the comparisons were between term one and term two for the same students with different materials and over different learning modalities. (T1G1E vs. T2G1C and T1G2C vs. T2G2E). The following pairs of variables were the subject of this t-test analysis: For Group One: 1. T1TPRE vs. T2TPRE - Term One Total Pretest (E) vs. Term Two Total Pretest (C) 151 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The correlation of scores for this pair was 0.455, which as expected was moderately high (p = 0.012). The t test showed an absolute value for t : to be 2.388, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean total pretest scores for the two methods of learning for the same group of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.024). 2. T1TPOST vs. T2TPOST - Term One Total Posttest (E) vs. Term Two Total Posttest (C) The correlation of scores for this pair was 0.568, which again was moderately high (p = 0.001). The t test then showed an absolute value for t to be 14.213, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean total posttest scores for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). 3. Y1 vs. Y3 - Actual Gain Term One Midterm (E) vs. Actual Gain Term Two Midterm (C) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was -0.027, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.888). The t test then showed an absolute value for t to be 12.692, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores 152 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. on midterm examinations respectively true gains for the two methods of learning for the same group of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0 .000). 4. Y2 vs. Y4 - Actual Gain Term One Final (E) vs. Actual Gain Term Two Final (C) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was 0.240, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.2 02). The t test then showed an absolute value for t to be 11.488, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean true gain scores with final examinations for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). 5. Y5 vs. Y6 - Total Actual Gain Term One (E) vs. Total Actual Gain Term Two (C) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was 0.256, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.172). The t test then showed an absolute value for t to be 17.960, which was highly significant statistically. Thus the mean of actual gain scores on the4 combined examinations for the two methods of 153 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). For Group Two: 1. T1TPRE vs. T2TPRE - Term One Total Pretest (C) vs. Term Two Total Pretest (E) The correlation of scores for this pair was -0.03 6, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.852). The t test then showed an absolute value for t to be 0.372, which was also not statistically significant. Therefore, the mean total pretest scores for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were not statistically different (p = 0.713) . 2. T1TPOST vs. T2TPOST - Term One Total Posttest (C) vs. Term Two Total Posttest (E) The correlation of scores for this pair was 0.503, which as expected was moderately high (p = 0.005). The t test showed an absolute -Oalue for t to be 7.527, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean total posttest scores for the two methods of learning for the same group of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). 154 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. Y1 vs. Y3 - Actual Gain Term One Midterm (C) vs. Actual Gain Term Two Midterm (E) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was 0.368, which was statistically significant (p = 0.045) . The absolute value of t was 8.584. Therefore, the mean actual gain scores on the midterm examinations for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). 4. Y2 vs. Y4 -- Actual Gain Term One Final (C) vs. Actual Gain Term Two Final (E) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was 0.308, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.098) . The absolute value for t was 13.667. Thus the mean actual gain scores on final examinations for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.0 00). 5. Y5 vs. Y6 - Total Actual Gain Term One (C) vs. Total Actual Gain Term Two (E) The correlation of actual gain scores for this pair was 0.562, which was statistically significant 155 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (p = 0.0 01). The absolute value for t was 16.921. Hence, the mean actual gain scores on the combined examinations for the two methods of learning for the same groups of students over different materials were statistically different (p = 0.000). All the pairs, except for group two, total pretest scores for term one and term two, were all statistically significant. Within each of those pairs, the experimental classes all showed higher mean values over the control classes. The findings are summarized in Table 12. 156 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 12 Paired-Samples t Test (Dependent t test) (Comparison o£ Means on Test Scores or Actual Gains between Experimental and Control classes over Different Materials for Same Group of Students) Correlations t Test HIGHER Pair (X,Y) r™ P [ t ] P GROUP GROUP ONE: T1TPRE VS T2TPRE 0.46* 0.012 2.39* 0.024 E T1TPOST VS T2TPOST 0.57** 0.001 14.21*** 0.000 E Y1 VS Y3 -0.03 0.888 12.69*** 0.000 E Y2 VS Y4 0.24 0.202 11.49*** 0.000 E Y5 VS Y6 0.26 0.172 17.96*** 0.000 E GROUP TWO: T1TPRE VS T2TPRE - o • o 0.852 0.37 0.713 TlTPOST VS T2TPOST 0.50** 0.005 7.53*** 0.000 E Y1 VS Y3 0.37* 0.045 8.58*** 0.000 E Y2 VS Y4 0.31 0.098 13.67*** 0.000 E Y5 VS Y6 0.56** 0.001 16.92*** 0.000 E * P < 0.05 **P<0.01 E = Experimental Class *** P < 0.001 157 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Independent t Tests for Pairs of Subgroups of Students Classified by Gender, Age and Exposure to English Three cases of the two-sample independent-samples t test were investigated. The first case was a comparison between male and female students. The second case was a comparison between younger and older students. The third and last case was a comparison of students having 8 or 9 years of English language exposure. Difference Between Means Associated with Gender For the first case, the first comparison was between the 5 male and 25 female students in Group One. The following variables were the subject of this analysis: 1. T1TPRE -Term One Total Pretest Score (E Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was statistically significant (p = 0.006), indicating that equal variances in scores could not be assumed. The absolute value for t was 0.963, which was not statistically significant. Therefore, the mean 158 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. scores for the male and female students were not statistically different (p = 0.385). 2. T1TPOST -Term One Total Posttest Score (E Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.099), indicating that equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 2.761, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the male and female students were statistically different (p = 0.010). 3. T2TPRE -Term Two Total Pretest Score (C Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.186) . Hence equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 2.364, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the male and female students were statistically different (p = 0.025). 4. T2TPOST - Term Two Total Posttest Score (C Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.273) . 159 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hence equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 2.119, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the mean scores for the male and female students were statistically different (p = 0.043) . 5. Y5 - Total Actual Gain for Term One (E Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.218), indicating that equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 2.255, which was statistically significant. Therefore, the actual gains on scores for the male and female students were statistically different (p = 0.032) . 6. Y6 -Total Actual Gain for Term Two (C Class). The Levene's test for equality of variances of scores was not statistically significant (p = 0.648), indicating that equal variances in scores could be assumed. The absolute value for t was 0.727, which was not statistically significant. Therefore, the actual gains on scores for the male and female students were not statistically different (p = 0.473). For Group Two, the comparison was between the 7 male and 23 female students. The previous sets of six 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. variables were again tested as with group one. The variables that presented any degree of statistically significant difference, were all from group one and none from group two. They were - T1TPOST (Term One Total Posttest Score, Experimental Class), T2TPRE (Term Two Total Pretest Score, Control Class), T2TP0ST (Term Two Total Posttest Score, Control Class), and Y5 (Total Actual Gain of Combined Midterm and Final Scores for Term One, Experimental Class). These variables all indicated that the female students had higher mean scores than the male students. The findings are summarized in Table 13. 161 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 13 Two-S»w»ple Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Male & Female Students) GROUP ONE: 5 Male vs. 25 Female Students Levene P. Class t Test [ t ] P. Higher Group T1TPRE 0.006 E 0.96 0.385 - T1TPOST 0.099 E 2.76* 0.040 F T2TPRE 0.186 C 2.36* 0.025 F T2TPOST 0.273 C 2.12* 0.032 F Y5 0.218 E 2.26* 0.032 F Y6 0.648 C 0.73 0.473 - GROUP TWO: 7 Male vs. 23 Female Students T1TPREC 0.177 C 1.62 0.116 - TlTPOST 0.029 C 0.87 0.413 - T2TPRE 0.166 E 0.78 0.442 - T2TPOST 0.497 E 0.07 0.928 - Y5 0.421 C 0.09 0.928 - Y6 0.506 E 0.27 0.792 - * P < 0.05 ** P < 0.01 *** p < 0.001 E = Experimental Class; C = Control Class 162 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Difference Between Means Associated with Age For case two, the comparison was between the 21 younger and 9 older students in Group One and between the 12 younger and 18 older students in Group Two. The same sets of variables as in case one were tested for both groups. The only variable that presented any noticeable degree of statistical difference on mean scores between the two age clusters was the variable Y5 (Total Actual Gain for Term One, Experimental Class) in Group One. The findings of all the variables are summarized in Table 14. 163 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 14 Two-Sample Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Older & Younger Students) GROUP ONE: 21 YOUNGER vs. 9 OLDER Students Levene P Class t [ t ] Test P. TlTPRE 0.851 E 0.77 0.448 TlTPOST 0.805 E 0.70 0.489 T2TPRE 0.341 C 0.84 0.410 T2TPOST 0.607 C 0.49 0.625 Y5 0.383 E 1.97* 0.049 Y6 0.126 C 0.03 0.977 Higher Group GROUP TWO: 12 YOUNGER vs. 18 OLDER Students T1TPRE 0.504 C 0.89 0.382 TlTPOST 0.403 C 0.72 0.475 T2TPRE 0.343 E 0.92 0.363 T2TPOST 0.600 E 0.45 0.656 Y5 0.053 C 0.27 0.786 Y6 0.793 E 0.04 0.965 * P < 0.05 ** P < 0.01 *** P < 0.001 E = Experimental Class; C = Control Class 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Difference Between Means Associated with Years of Study of English For the third and last case, students in group one all had 8 years of English language learning, hence, there was no need for the mean scores analysis. Students in group two, however, had different years of English language exposure. The comparison therefore was between the 10 students with 8 years of English and the 20 students with 9 years of English. The same set of variables as in case one were again tested for the two subgroups of educational differential by time of exposure to English. The only variable that presented any degree of statistical difference between the two subgroups with different lengths of English language learning was the variable Y5 (Total Actual Gain for Term One, Control Class) in group two. The findings of all the variables are summarized in Table 15. 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE 15 Two—Sample Independent-Samples t Test (Comparison Between Eight or Nine Years of Learning the English Language) GROUP ONE: No analysis needed, students in this group all had the same length of English language exposure (8 years). GROUP TWO: Ten students with 8 years and twenty students with 9 years of English language exposure. Levene t Test Higher T1TPRE P. 0.254 Class C ( t 1 0.76 P. 0.453 for TlTPOST 0.223 C 1.50 0.145 - T2TPRE 0.407 E 0.62 0.541 - T2TPOST 0.618 E 1.92 0.065 - Y5 0.061 C 2.55* 0.016 9 YRS Y6 0.662 E 1.90 0.073 - * P < 0.05 ** P < 0.01 * * * p < 0.001 E = Experimental Class; C = Control Class 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS In the Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 20:16, Confucius proclaimed, In all things success depends on previous preparation, and without such previous preparation there is sure to be failure. If what is to be spoken be previously determined, there will be no stumbling. If affairs be previously determined, there will be no difficulty with them. If one's actions have been previously determined, there will be no sorrow in connection with them. If principles of conduct have been previously determined, the practice of them will be inexhaustible (Legge, 1967, p. 25). Introduction Located in East Asia, bordering East China, South China, and the Yellow Seas, as well as 14 other countries, China is the second largest country in the world in terms of land mass and is the most populated. It is said that for every four persons in the world, one of them is Chinese. Yet, Chinese are not all alike. China is a multiracial state. There are at least 56 different ethnicities with 256 distinct and different dialects. Among the Asian countries, China is known as "Zhonguo" or the "middle country." The 167 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. title dates back to ancient times when China was assumed to be the center of the world. Many of the surrounding countries came and paid tribute to the Emperor of China every year. Yet, the word "Zhon" also means moderate, non-extreme, and non-aggressive, which is a characteristic trait of Chinese. This situation may be because of the teaching of Confucius, which is the backbone of Chinese education. In 1949, China emerged from a period of 99 years of war to a new regime, known as the People's Republic of China or PRC. The nation looked forward to a new beginning. The new regime radically changed the Chinese political structure. The old warlords and landlords were removed and the people were given land to farm for themselves and for the state. The central government asserted itself in every aspect of the centralized planning of the nation's economy and education. And, the very central aspect of education was to "correct" people's thoughts by purging out the old Confucius concept and installing the new "Communist Principles." This "correction" or "destruction" as may be more fitting, involved the destroying and discrediting of individuals, groups, and institutions 168 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. whose ideas were contrary to the goals of the Communist party. "The Great Leap Forward," as it was called, was just succeeding waves of purges and reforms, culminating in the "Cultural Revolution" of 1966, where nearly everything including the Chinese educational system was almost totally destroyed. This "Cultural Revolution" lasted for ten years until Mao's death in 197 6. When Mao died, the country was left with a mixed feeling of sadness for the death of a great leader and a feeling of relief, that perhaps the destructive purges and mass reforms were a thing of the past. Today, education in China has come a long way since the days of Mao Zedong and the "Cultural Revolution." During those days, teachers and educators were at the bottom of the social scale. Today, students throughout the country regard their teachers with the highest respect. Higher education, which had almost been grounded to a halt during the "Cultural Revolution," has again been given high priority and has achieved remarkable results over the last twenty years. In 1998 alone, Chinese colleges and universities enrolled over one million students, one and a half times as many as in 1978 when the system of National 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Entrance Examinations for colleges and universities were re-instated. Over the past twenty years, colleges and universities in China have trained an estimated 9.1 million students, an average of 455,000 students per year. This achievement may not be perceived as much for a nation of 1.2 billion people, but it is quite an achievement for a developing nation trying to achieve parity in the modern global world. The pressure is on from all directions, both social, cultural, economical, and even political, demanding training of more students. But, with only limited physical resources, the country must turn to high-tech and high-tech nations for answers. Purpose of Study As stated in Chapter 1, this study was intended to quantify the effectiveness of offering United States curriculum through distance learning in China. It also represented an attempt to determine the effectiveness of a distance learning delivery system to document where there was an increase, or at the very least, equal educational success compared to that in a mere traditional instructional delivery media. 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Interpretation of Results The 72% achievement rate on the TOEFL equivalency test by the students at Hainan Teachers University indicated that most students at the university level in China are well equipped for the all-English language United States curriculum. This competence level is further verified by the pretest results of the 60 randomly selected students. All of them, by having an average mean pretest score of 56.3 points from all the pretests, indicated that they probably could at least meet the minimum requirement of understanding the course materials before taking the courses. The average mean pretest on all the experimental class was 57.73 points. Compared with the average mean pretest of 54.88 on all the control class, the difference was only 2.85 points. This statistic indicated that the students placed in the two classes were quite uniform and thus probably had similar background even though they were placed in the groups randomly. The closeness of the two sets of scores further satisfied the proper baseline for all the students on the materials to be given before treatment began. 171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The posttest scores presented quite a different picture. First, the mean posttest scores on all tests regardless of delivery method were substantially higher than were the mean pretest scores. This finding indicated that students in China comprehend new materials regardless of presentation method. A closer investigation indicated that the average mean of posttest scores for all the control classes was 73.60 points, while the average mean of posttest scores for all the experimental classes was 88.9 points, a different of 15.3 points. This result was very substantial and suggested that students gained much more through the distance learning delivery modality than from a traditional approach. The simple arithmetic gain analysis performed on all the pretest-posttest pairs all indicated that there was a statistical significant difference of mean posttest scores over mean pretest scores. Moreover, the difference was much more substantial in experimental classes than in control classes. The actual or true gain analysis, as was discussed in Chapter 3, and investigated in Chapter 4, affirmed the simple arithmetic gain calculation that the gain on 172 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. both midterm and final examinations were statistically significant in all the experimental classes, regardless of group or term. The estimated average true gains for the experimental classes were 1.0131 for the midterm and 0.9412 for the final in term one, whereas the control class had a showing of only -0.2352 for the midterm and -0.1622 for the final examinations over the same material studied by the students. Similarly, for term two, the experimental class had an estimated true gain of 1.0880 for the midterm and 1.2519 for the final examinations versus -0.5862 for the midterm and -0.3793 for the final examinations for the control class, also over the same material studied. Combining the scores of the midterm and the final examinations as an average total score for each term, the experimental classes had an estimated average total true gain of 0.9826 for term one and 1.1782 for term two. However, the control classes had only an estimated average of -0.4466 for term one and that of -0.1544 for term two. These figures were presented in Chapter 4, Table 6. The difference in student performances between the experimental classes and control classes, whether it be 173 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. over the same materials, i.e. on same chapters, but with different groups of students, or over different materials i.e. different chapters but with same groups of students, were very sizable in term of mean scores. On simple arithmetic gains for example, the experimental class had a difference of 2 5.70 points over the control class on term one, and a difference of 23.94 points on term two. These differences were for the same groups of students, who studied different chapters of materials. On the same chapters of materials with the students studied in different groups, the experimental class had a difference of 25.10 points over the control class for term one and 24.44 points for term two. These figures together with true gain calculations were also presented in Chapter 4, Table 7. These findings were consistent throughout the entire study, as it matters not whether the comparison was within the same group of students over different materials or different groups of students over same materials. The evidence can be summarized as follows: 174 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1. The much higher scores of students on the posttests, indicated that students studied and grasped the materials presented. 2. Mean scores from experimental classes were much higher in all the posttests than those from the control classes. Thus students appeared to grasp much more from the distance learning modality then those students exposed to traditional mode of education. The independent t tests further confirmed that the differences in either simple arithmetic gain or actual gain on the experimental class (E) over the control class (C) were all statistically significant. On the importance of one more year of English Language learning between the students with 8 years versus students with 9 years, the mean scores presented no appreciable difference, as they were not statistically significant. This finding appeared to reconfirm the effectiveness of the TOEFL equivalency test in establishing the minimum English language proficiency requirement and insuring that students in the study possessed the required language ability necessary to complete the course materials. 175 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. On the issue of age, the study indicated that younger students out-performed older students. This finding also reaffirmed the conclusion that younger students were better in adopting new methods of teaching. On the issue of gender, the study clearly presented that female students out-performed male students. In both cases, the differences in mean scores were more substantial and statistically significant in experimental classes than in control classes. This finding suggested that, like younger students, female students were better able to adopt to the distance learning modality. Conclusions Distance Education as it is developed in the United States of America has incorporated many of the new technologies of the past twenty years. Its curriculum is well constructed with educational theories and instructional design. Subject matter now in existence covers the whole general education spectrum for a Bachelor of General Studies degree. The experiment that was taken at the Hainan Teachers 176 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. University resulted in the following concluding thoughts. 1. Students in China not only are equipped to take the all-English language United States curriculum but also are ready for it. 2. Distance education curriculum developed in the United States is well received by faculty and students alike in China. 3. University administrators welcome the United States Distance Learning Curriculum. This is not only because the student and faculty embrace it, but also because distance education modality in the form of telecourses allow the Chinese Central Government to have full control of the content offered by having the ability to preview any or all parts of the course material. As such, administrators will not have to worry about government repercussion. 4. Universities in China are fully equipped with all the technological equipment necessary for delivery of United States Distance Learning Education. 5. University faculty are prepared to handle the new curriculum. With the expectation of full participation in the World Trade Organization (WTO), 177 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. there is an even greater upward pressure for educating and preparing more Chinese students to face the New World order. The new distance education delivery modality is viewed as an ally to the faculty. On the other hand, the Chinese Central Government wants to demonstrate to the world community that they are more receptive to Western interaction especially in the area of education. The offering of United States curriculum with United States technology yet fully under the Chinese Central Government's control is an ideal opportunity for expressing their committed East West collaborative intention that Chinese Government cannot afford to overlook. This is, therefore, an opportune time to consider offering United States Higher Education Curriculum through distance learning from United States to China. Recommendations The findings from this study indicate that it may be prudent to take advantage of the current stable political environment in China as well as the greater access demand for higher education. It appears that 178 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the majority of the Chinese students, faculty, administrators, and educators are ready for and enthusiastic about and may be even capable for the United States distance learning curriculum. The following recommendations therefore are offered for consideration. First, with respect to Hainan Teachers University, the university should seek to develop and to enter into a cooperative agreement with an accredited United States Institution that offers distance learning curriculum. The university should examine the findings of this study and consider having this telecourse as a regular offering for the students. The university should also investigate other telecourses similar to this one for possible offerings. Courses such as Human Biology, American Cinema, Time to Grow, and Faces of Culture, are all acceptable, undergraduate, distance learning courses in videotapes format each with three United States units. These courses are now being used by more than a thousand universities in the United States. Any one of these courses could be incorporated into the university's existing course offering curriculum for on campus or off campus students. 179 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. However, before any course is actually offered, the university should launch another experiment similar to the one just completed, or even conduct a follow-up study on this telecourse, the "Faces of Culture" to reconfirm the findings of this study. An infrastructure should also be set-up for behind the scenes operations with supporting staffs for general office assistance and administrative support. Staff development and staff training for faculty and teaching assistants to teach the distance learning classes should also be implemented. Hainan Teachers University could develop an exchange program as part of the cooperative agreement to have United States students who have successfully completed those telecourses that the university wishes to offer to come to the university as teaching assistants. The university could offer those courses either for credit or not for credit toward students' Chinese degree curriculum. The university should also consider expanding the telecourse program with courses up to a full Bachelor of General Studies degree. Second, with respect to China, the program at Hainan Teachers University could be adopted by and 180 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. implemented into the curriculum of at least one university in each of the five Chinese regions. However, before anyone of the universities actually starts the program, a pilot program similar to the one just completed at Hainan Teachers University should be replicated to ascertain whether similar results could be realized. Furthermore, all the preparatory work done at Hainan Teachers University should be incorporated by each of the universities before course offering could be given. Upon successful implementation of this program by the regional universities, it should then be introduced to the provincial universities. Thereby students in the entire China can be benefited. Third, with respect to the United States of America, accredited institutions in the United States interested in offering their curriculum to China through distance learning should seek to obtain permission from their respective accreditation agencies to offer their courses to students in China for United States credit. Students in China will then have the option of obtaining a United States degree or a Chinese degree or both. 181 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fourth, with respect to distance learning, United States telecourse developers and producers need seriously to consider establishing local production facilities in China. The United States distance education curriculum with learning theories and instructional design can then be developed directly in China to satisfy China's educational demand. In this manner, Chinese curriculum in Chinese can also be developed to meet the need of the rest of China's educational institutions. The future of distance education in China appears unlimited. Once a few regional universities start to offer the United States designed and developed curriculum in China, there is a very high likelihood that many other universities will soon follow. In particular, if and when the United States Higher Education Accreditation Agencies recognize the courses offered by United States Institution in China for credits, and allow United States degrees to be conferred to students in China, distance education will be a common educational delivery modality in China. As for online delivery on the World Wide Web, this alternative approach will probably be allowed in the 182 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. near future, especially if the production facilities have been established in China and the courses are developed and produced in China. This course of action may prove to be the best and most economical way to bring education to all Chinese who desire a post secondary education in China. As China is now engaged in an intensive modernization program, with a rapid introduction of Western mechanisms of science and technology, the demands on higher education have become greater than at any other period in Chinese history. It seems now the time is ripe for a systematic approach into the introduction of distance education. However, with the present maturity gained through learning from the past and from the West, China's approach is likely to be a gradual one rather than a radical one. It may take a few years before any real and actual implementation of substantial nature to be seen. But even five to ten years is only but a wink of an eye or a flutter of the hand in the long history of China. As Confucius said, "Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous" (Legge, 1967, p. 11). There is also a famous Bible teaching in the New 183 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Testament, from the book of Matthew Chapter 7:24b-27. The passage says, ... a wise man, which built his house upon a rock: And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell not; for it was founded upon a rock. ...a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand: And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall of it (The Holy Bible, 1972, p. 8). Hopefully, this "house," the program of offering United States Higher Education Curriculum to China through Distance Learning Modality to ease China's Critical Educational Access Demand will be built on solid ground and shall withstand the test of time. 184 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. REFERENCES Andleigh, P. (1997) . Designing- Multimedia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Anglin, G. J. (Ed.). (1995). 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lin, B. & Myers, J. T. (Eds.). (1996). Contemporary China in the Post-Cold War Era. University of South Carolina Press. Liu, J. (1992, November). Postdoctoral education in China. Beijing Review 35, p. 33. Lo, L. N. (1989). Chinese education in the 1980s: a survey of achievements and problems, in Joseph Y. S. Cheng, China - Modernization in the 1980s. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Lo, L. N. (1991). Higher Education and Professional Manpower, in Kuan Hsin-chi & Maurice Brosseau (Eds). China Review 1991. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Marcoulides, G. A. & Wang, X. (1990). A Cross- Cultural Comparison of Computer Anxiety in College Students. Journal of Educational Computing Research 6(3), pp.251-63. Massey, W. & Zemsky, R. (1995) . Using Information Technology to Enhance Academic Productivity. Technology & Higher Education. McCormick, R. (1986). 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A P P E N D IX : A l HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY N o .99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Class Schedule Layout Group One - Term One Week Monday Wednesday Friday 1 Instruction Midterm-Pretest Videotape 1 2 Videotape 2 Review Videotape 3 3 Videotape 4 Review Videotape 5 4 Videotape 6 Review Midterm-Posttest 5 Final-Pretest Videotape 7 Videotape 8 6 Videotape 9 Review Videotape 10 7 Videotape 11 Review Videotape 12 8 Videotape 13 Review Final-Posttest 194 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : A2 «S»Ife HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY N o.99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Class Schedule Layout Group One - Term Two Week Monday Wednesday Friday Introduction Midterm-Pretest Lecture 21 & 22 10 Lecture 23 Lecture 24 Lecture 25 11 Lecture 2 6 Lecture 27 Lecture 2 8 12 Lecture 29 Lecture 3 0 Midterm-Posttest 13 Final-Pretest Lecture 31 Lecture 32 14 Lecture 33 Lecture 34 Lecture 3 5 15 Lecture 3 6 Lecture 37 Lecture 3 8 16 Lecture 3 9 Lecture 40 Final-Posttest 195 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : A3 HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No. 99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Class Schedule Layout Group Two - Term One Week Monday Wednesday Friday Instruction Midterm-Pretest Lecture 1 & 2 Lecture 3 Lecture 4 Lecture 5 Lecture 6 Lecture 7 Lecture 8 Lecture 9 Lecture 10 Midterm-Posttest Final-Pretest Lecture 11 Lecture 12 Lecture 13 Lecture 14 Lecture 15 Lecture 16 Lecture 17 Lecture 18 Lecture 19 Lecture 2 0 Final-Posttest 196 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : A 4 HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No.99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Class Schedule Layout Group Two - Term Two Week Monday Wednesday Friday 9 Instruction Midterm-Pretest Videotape 14 10 Videotape 15 Review Videotape 16 11 Videotape 17 Review Videotape 18 12 Videotape 19 Review Midterm-Posttest 13 Final-Pretest Videotape 20 Videotape 21 14 Videotape 22 Review Videotape 23 15 Videotape 24 Review Videotape 25 16 Videotape 2 6 Review Final-Posttest Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : B1 M ^ ! f f l M # U r c HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No. 99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Distance Learning Project (Faces of Culture) Questions For Term One Midterm Exam Covers Experimental class: Video Lessons 1-6 (Group One students) Control class: Lecture Lessons 1-10 (Group Two students) ( I ) 198 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Term One Midterm Exam Multiple-choice questions Only one correct answer for each question. Questions 1- 5 are 1 point each - 5 Questions 6-45 are 2 points each - 80 Questions 46-50 are 3 points each - 15 Total possible points - 100 1. Anthropology approaches its studies and seeks conclusions in a manner similar to that of the a. humanities. b. arts. c. sciences. d. none of the above. 2. The sciences are devoted to the study of observable phenomena and seek to understand them in terms of a. useful applications. b. universal principles or laws. c. hypotheses. d. absolute truths. 3. Anthropology has discovered certain truths about human behavior; these truths are a. subject to change as new information is discovered. b. generally so certain as to be unchangeable. c. generally thought to be unchangeable. d. tentative, as they are not based on observation. 4. Anthropology is best described as the study of a. all primates. b. human beings. c. primitive peoples. d. people in non-Western societies. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. The subject matter of cultural anthropology is closely related to that of the a. social sciences. b. biological sciences. c. physical sciences. d. medical sciences. 6. Cultural anthropology focuses on a . humans as biological organisms. b. behavior of individual humans. c . human behavior in a social environment. d. human behavior in ancient societies. 7. Archaeology is most precisely defined as the study of a . human art. b. ancient cities. c . material remains. d. nonindustrial peoples. 8. Description of a culture based on firsthand observation and done in a systematic manner is called a. ethnohistory. b . archaeology. c. ethnology. d. ethnography. 9. An anthropologist who lives with the people being studied and shares in their daily experiences is practicing the technique of a. holistic perspective. b . ethnohi s tory. c. participant observation. d. ethnic perception. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14. An explanation of natural phenomena supported by reliable data is termed a a. hypothesis. b. theory. c. conclusion. d. natural law. Culture is best understood as encompassing a. actions and behaviors. b. education and sophistication. c. values and beliefs. d. customs and legends. Members of a society generally share a. cultural assumptions. b. social roles. c. wealth. d. religion. Complete the following analogy: "Culture" is similar to a musical composition in the same way that "society" is similar to the a. composer who wrote the music. b. orchestra that performs the music. c. conductor who directs the performance. d. people who listen to the music. The process by which culture is transmitted from one person to another is called a. genetic inheritance. b. rituals. c. enculturation. d. subcultural variation. 201 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15. The most important symbolic aspect of culture is a. government. b. religion. c. ceremony. d. language. 16. In anthropology, integration refers to the a. toleration of a number of subcultures within a single society. b. human tendency to accept people living nearby as "neighbors." c. tendency for all aspects of a culture to function as a interrelated whole. d. movement of some societies throughout a large geographic region. 17 . Anthropologists have found that the cultural practices of societies can be traced to a. the demands of the environment. b. genetically inherited traits. c. a variety of factors. d. short-term needs of the group. 18. Changes in culture occur a. only rarely, due to natural or human-caused crises. b. only when forced on a society by another culture. c. in all societies, but usually at differing rates. d. frequently and on a large scale in most societies. 19. Cultural breakdown may occur if a society does not strike a balance between the self-interest of individuals and the a. economy. b. needs of other societies. c. demands of the society as a whole. d. self-interest of leaders. 202 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 . 21. 22 . 23 . 24. The belief that one's own culture is superior in every way to all others is known as a. cultural relativism. b. ethnocentrism. c. egocentrism. d. culture evolutionism. Archaeology is the study of a. ancient civilizations. b. material remains. c. architecture. d. comparative cultures. The study of cultures from a comparative or historical point of view is known as a. archaeology b. ethnography. c. ethnocentrism. d. ethnology. Systematic description of people in one society based on firsthand observation is the principal activity of a . an ethnographer. b. an ethnologist. c. a physical anthropologist. d. an archaeologist. Ethnographic description is based on a. study of artifacts. b. comparisons of written records. c. participant observation. d. sound recordings. 203 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25. The purpose of ethnography is best described as a. mastering the language and customs of a society. b. comparing similar aspects of different cultures. c. discovering how all parts of a society fit together. d. studying the material objects left behinds by an earlier society. 26. In developing a comprehensive understanding of a present-day culture, anthropologists prefer to use a. prepared questionnaires. b. ethnographic research. c. collections of material objects. d. interviews with key members. 27. A theory is best described as a. a tentative explanation of relationships. b. an assumption that cannot be proven. c. a system of validated hypotheses. d. an explanation so certain that it will probably never be challenged. 28. When formulating a tentative explanation for an observed behavior in a culture, a fieldworker would first ask whether the explanation is consistent with a. observations of other societies. b. all other aspects of the culture. c. earlier research. d. observations in his or her own society. 29. Introduction of modern technology into a traditional society is almost certain to a. harm the culture. b. change the culture. c. improve the culture. d. create resentment in the people. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 . 31. 32 . 33 . 34 . As a general rule, anthropologists studying a culture in the field are expected to a. try to minimize changes occurring as a result of their work. b. introduce helpful knowledge and tools, such as medicine and farm implements. c. introduce one or more new items into the society as an experiment. d. actively discourage the society from any changes. In linguistics. A gesture or sound that has a natural or self- evident meaning is called a a. symbol. b. signal, d. phoneme. In linguistics, a gesture or sound that stands for meaning among a group of people is called a a. symbol. b. signal. c. word. d . phoneme. The study of numerous human languages reveals that a. most languages are very primitive. b. all languages are organized in the same basic way. c. languages have .little in common with each other. d. most languages are based on biological signals. The scientific study of all aspects of language is called a. anthromorphology. b. phonetics. c. language arts. d. linguistics. 205 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35. The branch of language study that examines the relationship between an older language and a present-day one is called a. historical linguistics. b. paralinguistics. c. morphology. d. descriptive linguistics. 36. Phonemes are a . sounds that have the same meaning as other sounds. b. the smallest classes of sounds that make a difference in meaning. c. the smallest units of sound that convey a meaning. d. sounds or gestures that stand for something else. 37. Syntax is the a. study of the smallest units of sound that make a difference meaning. b. rules or principles of making phrases and sentences. c. entire formal structure of a language. d. parts of speech (word categories that work in the same way any sentence in the language). 38. A group of languages that have all descended from a single language is known as a. glottochronology. b . a language subgroup. c. a language family. d. an ethnolinguistic group. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A dialect is a. any language descended from the same roots as another language. b. any varying form of language that reflects regional or social class differences, but is intelligible to other speakers of the language. c. any varying form of a language that would not be understood by those from another region or social class, although both speak the same basic language. d. a language that has borrowed extensively from another language. 40. In studying the languages of various isolated societies, anthropologists have found that a. all of them are able to convey complex and subtle messages. b. some small-scaled societies have primitive languages involving few sounds and gestures. c. all known languages developed from the same primitive language. d. most unwritten languages are restricted to words and gestures that have natural or biological meanings. 41. From an anthropological standpoint, the best definition of personality is the a. distinctive way a person thinks, feels, and behaves. b. manners and appearances of an individual that are perceived by others. c. sum total of the effects of culture upon the behavior of the individual. d. aspects of emotions and behaviors that are determined genetically. 42. Personality is primarily a product of a. individual experience. b. genetic inheritance. c. enculturation. d. chance. 207 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 . 44 . 45. 46. 47 . The process by which culture is passed from one generation to the next is called a. personality development. b. self-awareness. c. patterns of affect. d. enculturation. In learning to identify those parts of the objective environment that are most significant, the young child is most influenced by a. self-awareness. b. genetic inheritance. c. the culture. d. formal education. The objective world is organized through a. language and mediated through culture. b. the senses and mediated through culture. c. culture and mediated through language. d. culture and mediated through the senses. Anthropologists study child-rearing techniques because those practices a. reveal inherited personality traits. b. show parenting practices are basically the same everywhere. c. have a significant effect on the personality of adults. d. prove Freud's personality theories are universal. Independence training of children is associated with a. relatively less attention. b. relatively more attention. c. reduced problems of adjustment in adolescence. d. encouraging a sense of collective responsibility. 208 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 . 49. 50 . Modal personality refers to a. a mental disorder specific to a particular ethnic group. b. the personality typical of a culturally bounded population, as indicated by the central tendency of a defined frequency distribution. c. how people feel about themselves and others. d. an abnormal personality in any culture. Gathering data on modal personality is best done by a. extensive interviews of individuals. b. psychological tests of a population sample. c. observation from outside the society. d. studying descriptions written by anthropology fieldworkers. One of the reasons national character studies have been criticized is that a. the studies made no attempt to be scientific. b. the studies were not based on psychological principles. c. conclusions based on the studies tend to be highly subjective. d. even if true, the results of the studies are insulting to national groups. 209 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : B2 HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No.99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Distance Learning Project (Faces of Culture) Questions For Term One Final Exam Covers Experimental class: Video Lessons 7-13 (Group One students) Control class: Lecture Lessons 11-20 (Group Two students) (XX) 210 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Term One Final Exam Multiple-choice questions Only one correct answer for each question. Questions 1- 5 are 1 point each - 5 Questions 6-45 are 2 points each - 80 Questions 46-50 are 3 points each - 15 Total possible points - 100 1. The process through which humans meet their basic survival needs is a. physical adaptation. b. cultural adaptation. c. economic adaptation. d. social adaptation. 2. A society's culture determines a. the pattern of individual basic needs. b. the resources available to meet basic needs. c. how resources will be used to meet basic needs. d. the physical needs of the society. 3. Adaptation involves a. only change to the culture. b. change and stability. c. change leading to a static culture. d. only change to the environment. 4. A culture area is a geographical region in which a. a single society lives. b. several societies are bound by a single culture. c. several societies follow similar subsistence patterns. d. a single society borrows practices from several cultures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. The oldest subsistence pattern among human cultures is a. food foraging. b. pastoralism. c. horticulture. d. agriculture. 6. The food-foraging subsistence pattern a. has been practiced by the majority of humans who have ever lived. b. has been unsuccessful when attempted by any society. c. was almost universal for approximately 10,000 years. d. has been practical only in barren or marginal land areas. 7. Today, food-foraging societies are found in a. virtually all types of climates and terrain. b. wet tropical forests. c. marginal areas unable to support agriculture. d. all areas except those where agriculture is essential for survival. 8. Food-foraging groups a. vary greatly in size. b. usually are quite large, more than 1,000. c. are quite small, seldom more than a single family. d. usually include fewer than 100 people. 9. One characteristic of food-foraging societies is that they a. maintain large animal herds. b. exist primarily in arctic regions. c. change location periodically. d. have great differences in accumulated wealth. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . An egalitarian society is one in which a. individual possession of goods and status varies greatly. b. great emphasis is placed on elaborate decoration and costume. c. there is almost no religious belief. d. each family has about the same material goods. The Nuer can be best described as a a. nomadic food-foraging society in the Sudan region. b. nomadic pastoral society in the Sudan region. c. pastoral society of Southwest Asia. d. food - foraging society of Southwest Asia. Pastoral societies differ from food-foraging societies in that pastoral societies a. typically live in a permanent settlement. b. domesticate animals for food. c . are nomadic. d. assign different roles according to sex. The change from food-foraging to food-producing subsistence patterns resulted in a way of life that was more a. settled. b . nomadic. c. pastoral. d. disrupted. As societies shifted to farming, attitudes toward ownership of land probably changed because a. agricultural societies are more egalitarian than others. b. humans have a natural desire for wealth. c. food-foragers needed assurance that they would have access to their hunting grounds. d. farmers needed assurance that they would have year-round access to a particular plot of land. 213 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15. As a result of the change to food production in human societies, a. societies became more structured. b. societies become more egalitarian. c. societies relaxed the rigid social structure of food-foraging groups. d. lineages became less important. 16. Horticulture can be best described as a. gathering of wild plants. b. land cultivation using simple hand tools. c. land cultivation using advanced agricultural techniques. d. worship of plant life. 17. The two general types of environments used by food producers are a. seasonal valleys and tropical deserts. b. seasonal mountains and tropical forests. c. seasonal uplands and tropical wetlands. d. seasonal plateaus and tropical plains. 18. Intensive agriculture and its higher crop yields made possible a. greater diversification and specialization of labor. b. egalitarian society. c. rapid industrialization. d. reduced need for coercive government. 19 . One problem associated with intensive agriculture is a. earthquakes. b. erosion. c. low nutritive value. d. small yields per acre. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 0 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24 . The patterns of social organization to which cities gave rise was a. egalitarianism. b. proletarianism. c. the lineage. d. stratification. An economic system is best defined as a. buying and selling. b. marketplace activities. c. profit and loss. d. production, distribution, and consumption. The specific elements of supply and demand in the economic system of a society are determined by a. basic human needs. b. culture. c. available resources. d. large businesses. Raw materials, labor, and technology are important components of economic systems in a. all types of societies. b. only Western industrialized societies. c. all except food-foraging societies. d. industrialized and intensive agricultural societies. Individual ownership of land is a. considered a form of technology. b. essential when there is division of labor c. common to most known human societies. d. not practiced in many societies. 215 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25. Technology among food-foraging peoples a. includes chiefly tools that are easy to transport. b. typically includes a variety of complex handmade devices. c. is restricted to natural objects, such as sticks or rocks. d. is complex, requiring manufacturing facilities in the camp. 26. Exclusive, individual ownership of tools, such as axes, is found chiefly in a. all types of societies. b. highly developed agricultural societies. c. horticultural societies. d. food-foraging societies. 27. For economic redistribution to take place, there must be a. reciprocity. b. a centralized system of political organization. c. a marketplace. d. a cultural ban on accumulation. 28. For redistribution to take place, an economy must have a. capital. b. labor. c. egalitarianism. d. surplus production. 29. From a cross-cultural perspective, marriage always a. includes a religious ceremony. b. involves lifelong commitment. c. establishes a right to continuing sexual access. d. includes shared responsibility for raising children. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30. In virtually all known societies, sexual relations are prohibited between a. parent and child, and, usually, siblings. b. an individual and siblings, parents, and parents' brothers and sisters. c. anyone who would be related by what the society identifies as "family". d. anyone who is a member of the same clan. 31. Exogamy is a rule that a. limits a person to marriage within his or her group. b. a rule that establishes a category of kin. c. generally is no longer observed, even by non-Western societies. d. limits a person to marriage outside his or her group. 32. Forming or cementing alliances between different groups may be one important reason for the practice of a. endogamous marriage. b. serial marriage. c . exogamous marriage. d. trial marriage. 33. The first and second most frequent marriage patterns in today's world, in that order, are: a. polygyny, monogamy. b. monogamy, polygyny. c. polyandry, monogamy. d. monogamy, polyandry. 217 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34. Marriage in most traditional societies typically results from a. religious requirements. b. personal preference. c. family arrangements. d. teenage infatuation. 35. In many traditional societies, marriage is often a. arranged by families of the mates. b. arranged by the mates-to-be with the approval of their families. c. considered unimportant because divorce is frequent. d. based on a romantic concept of love. 36. Payment of money or other valuables by a groom or his family to a bride's parents is known as a a. dowry. b. bride service. c. bride price. d. groom gift. 37. A dowry is a. compensation paid by the groom to the bride's family. b. period of service the bride gives to the groom's family. c. payment of a woman' inheritance at the time of her marriage, either to her husband or his family. d. a period of service the groom gives to the bride's family. 218 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38. In comparison to divorce rates in Western societies, divorce rates are particularly high in a. patriarchal societies. b. food-foraging societies. c. religious societies. d. matrilineal societies. 39. The unit that has been found universally to provide for functions such as production, consumption, inheritance, and shelter is the a. family b. neolocal residence pattern. c. household. d. nuclear family. Defined cross-culturally, a "family" involves, at the least, a a. husband and a wife. b. father, his child, and a female. c. mother, her child, and a male. d. mother, a father, and their child. 41. A nuclear family includes a a. mother, children, and members of the mother's family. b. mother, children, and members of the father's family. c. mother, father, children, and members of the family of one of the mates. d. mother, father, and children. 42. Nuclear families are typically found in a. industrial societies. b. matriarchal societies. c. non-Western agricultural societies. d. pastoralist societies. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 . 44 . 45. 46. One of the reasons nuclear families are common in industrial societies is the a. need for outside support. b. economic contribution of many family members. c. desire or need for mobility. d. needs of the elderly. The individual families that make up an extended family are related by ties of a. marriage only. b. friendship and marriage. c. politics and marriage. d. blood and marriage. One major advantage of many extended families is that they a. provide housing when housing is scarce. b. provide a large, cooperative work force. c. provide better mutual defense in times of crisis. d. make mobility easier. In matrilocal residence, a married couple a. lives with the family in which the husband grew up. b. lives with the family in which the wife grew up. c. has a choice of living with the family in which either grew up. d. lives with the family of the husband's mother's brother. 220 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 . 48. 49 . 50 . In ambilocal residence, the married couple a. goes to live with bride's mother's brother. b. forms a household in a location independent of either the wife's or husband's relatives. c. goes to live with either the wife's parents or the husband's parents. d. establishes two separate residences. When a married couple lives in the household in which the husband grew up, the residence pattern is known as a. patrilocal. b. ambilocal. c. avunculocal. d. neolocal. In avunculocal residence, the husband and wife live with the a. husband's mother's brother. b. husband's father's sister. c. wife's mother's brother. d. wife's mother's sister. Two potential sources of stress for nuclear families in modern society are a. isolation of husbands and wives from their kin and the impermanence of the family unit. b. lack of mobility and the need to save face. c. deference to decision-making of the oldest spouse and the need for dependence. d. lifelong obligations of children to their parents and the interference of kin. 221 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : B3 HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No.99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Distance Learning Project (Faces of Culture) Questions For Term Two Midterm Exam Covers Experimental class: Video Lessons 14-19 (Group Two students) Control class: Lecture Lessons 21-30 (Group One students) ( I I I ) 222 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Term Two Midterm Exsun Multiple-choice questions Only one correct answer for each question. Questions 1- 5 are 1 point each - 5 Questions 6-45 are 2 points each - 80 Questions 46-50 are 3 points each - 15 Total possible points - 100 1. Kinship refers most directly to a. membership in a band or tribe. b. people occupying a common territory. c. affinal or consaguineal relationship d. relationship through marriage. 2. The criterion for membership in a descent group is a . age. b. descent from a particular ancestor. c. descent from any family who is a member of the group. d. an occupation valued by the society. 3. One basic function of a descent group in many non- industrial societies is to a. conduct religious rituals. b. develop a formal political system. c. assist in the formation of kindreds. d. provide a work force for tasks that require a large labor pool. 4. In industrial societies, many of the functions of the descent group are assumed by a. formal governmental and political systems. b. the immediate family. c. random individuals. d. neighbors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5. Descent groups are often found in a. horticultural and industrial societies. b. horticultural and hunter-gatherer societies. c. pastoral and horticultural societies. d. pastoral and hunter-gatherer societies. 6. If descent-group membership is determined through the father's line, the society has a . double descent. b. ambilineal descent c. patrilineal descent. d. matrilineal descent. 7. In traditional Chinese society, the Tsu was an organization based on descent through a. the male line. b. the female line. c. both male and female lines. d. either male or female lines. 8. The pattern of double descent is best described as one in which a. a family's daughters race descent through the female line, and the family's sons trace descent through the male line. b. an individual may trace descent through either the male or female line for purposes of membership. c. descent is traced matrilineally for some purposes and partrilineally for others. d. the two older sons each trace descent through a different line. 9. A descent group that can actually trace descent from an ancestor through known links is called a. a clan. b. a lineage. c. an extended family. d. a phratry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10. In a society divided into only two major descent groups, each group is called a. a clan. b. a lineage. c. a moiety. d. a phratry. 11. A husband and wife would be most likely to live near the husband's father's residence in a. a patrilineal society. b. a matrilineal society. c. a double descent society. d. an ambilineal society. 12. In traditional rural China, a married son was expected to take up residence near his a. father b. mother c. mother's brother d. father's sister 13. A married woman and her husband are expected to reside with the wife's mother in a. rural Chinese society. b. Navajo society. c. Tikopia society d. Bakhtiari society. 14. In the kindred, ego is the a. center of the kindred. b. leader of the kindred. c. eldest male of the kindred. d. person with the highest status in the kindred. 225 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. The center of the kindred is a. a specific ancestor. b. a mythical ancestor without a line of descent that could be proved. c. an individual termed "ego." d. the eldest male of the group. In kinship diagrams, males are represented by a. triangles. b . squares. c. circles. d. diamonds. In kinship diagrams, females are represented by a. triangles. b. squares. c. circles. d. diamonds. All kinship terminologies a. give distinctive names to the father's brothers and mother's sisters. b. reflect the position an individual occupies within the society. c. give distinctive identifying terms to parents and grandparents. d. identify siblings with distinctive terms. Based on the way cousins are classified, anthropologists have identified a. three kinship terminology systems. b. four kinship terminology systems. c. five kinship terminology systems. d. six kinship terminology systems. 226 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24. A widespread kinship terminology that is usually found in unilineal descent groups is the a. Iroquois system. b. Crow system. c. descriptive system. d. Omaha system. Groupings based on age are a a. type of social organization b. rare system of division of responsibilities in human societies. c. pattern found only in Western societies. d. pattern found only in non-Western societies. Men and women live in separate houses in a. Iroquois society. b. Munduruncu society. c. rural China. d. Hopi society The anthropological term for an organized class of people with membership based on age is a . age grade. b. age set. c. age team. d. age class. As defined by anthropologists, common-interest associations always a. are based on age. b. are voluntary. c. require the act of joining. d. are based on kinship. 227 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25. A key function of common-interest associations formed rapidly changing societies is a. preservation of culture. b. integration of women. c. adaptation to new conditions. d. self-defense 26. Generally, as societies become urbanized and more complex, a. both descent groups and common-interest groups become more important. b. both descent groups and common-interest groups become less important. c. descent groups increase in importance. d. common-interest groups increase in importance. 27. An individual's position in society depends principally on his or her abilities in a. a stratified society. b. a caste system. c. a descent group. d. an egalitarian society. 28. A social structure in which one's ranking for rights and privileges is determined at birth and remains fixed for life is called a. a class. b. a caste. c. a set. d. egalitarian. 29. Generally, mobility in social class structure is easier when the prevailing family organization is a. the extended family. b. matriarchal. c. the nuclear family. d. patriarchal. 228 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30. A desire for prestige may underlie the development of a. common-interest associations. b. age groupings. c. age grades. d. social stratification. 31. The kind of political organization that a nomadic society would be most likely to have is a. an informal kin group. b. a centralized governmental structure. c. none. d. a powerful chieftain. 32. Political organization refers to the way a. external affairs, such as warfare, are managed. b. wrongdoing is punished. c. power is distributed in a society. d. a society's economic structure is managed. 33. Political organization coordinates and regulates behavior related to a. public order. b. government. c. economic concerns. d. prestige. 34. A political system that may feature a concentration of powers in a single hereditary office is the a. tribe. b . band. c. chiefdom. d. age-grade organization. 229 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35. The political system that develops in a society with diverse groups and social classes is the a. state. b. chiefdom. c. hereditary ruler. d. tribe. 36. The least complicated form of political organization is the a. segmentary lineage system. b. clan. c. tribe. d. band. 37. A tribe occupies a single region and shares a common culture and is composed of a. extended families. b. nuclear families. c. bands or villages. d. chiefdoms. 38. A society with a chiefdom is best described as a. uncentralized. b. egalitarian. c. informal. d. a ranked hierarchy. 39. A political system that claims "legitimacy" usually relies less on a. hereditary claims. b. coercion. c. loyalty. d. the election process. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40. In the broadest sense, a claim to legitimacy by political leaders is an attempt to gain a . revenue. b. status. c. loyalty. d . power. 41. In what way is a society's political organization related to social control? a. In most societies, political organization is not concerned with social control. b. Social control is a major function of political organization. c. Social control is the only function of political organization. d. Without political organization, there can be no social control. 42. The best definition of societal control is that it a. prevents riot or rebellion. b. ensures that all members support the political structure. c. ensures that all members behave in acceptable ways. d. enforces laws that punish misbehavior. 43. Beliefs that are ingrained into the personality and influence behavior are called a. internalized controls. b. externalized controls. c. formal controls. d. positive controls. 44. Informal sanctions involve a. specific status or rank. b. written statutes. c. community approval or disapproval. d. prescribed punishment. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45. In human societies as a whole, women a. frequently reach highest positions of political leadership. b. rarely reach highest positions of political leadership. c. never reach highest positions of political leadership. d. usually reach highest positions of political leadership. 46. In societies with an uncentralized political organization, the goal in settling disputes between individuals is most often to a. punish the offender. b. restore social harmony. c. reimburse the victim. d. expel the troublemaker. 47. Settlement of a dispute in which negotiations between the interested parties are assigned by an unbiased third party is called a. adjudication. b. negotiation. c. Compromise d. mediation. 48. A fundamental cause of warfare is thought to result from pressures caused by a. prestige. b. population growth. c . envy. d. land ownership. 49. Among agricultural and horticultural societies, warfare is most often motivated by a desire for a. captives for slave labor. b. treasure. c. land and resources. d. exterminating "foreigners". Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50. The best summary of the following definition worldview is a. the way society perceives the relationship between people and the world. b. how an individual maps out the territory surrounding one's own land or territory. c. the belief of an individual or society concerning ownership of land and resources. d. the perceptions of a society as to the workings of international agencies. 233 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : B4 HAINAN NORMAL UNIVERSITY No.99 Longkun South Road, Haikou, Hainan 571158, People’s Republic of China Distance Learning Project (Faces of Culture) Questions For Term Two Final Exam Covers Experimental class: Video Lessons 20-26 (Group Two students) Control class: Lecture Lessons 31-40 (Group One students) (IV) 234 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Term Two Final Exam Multiple-choice questions Only one correct answer for each question. Questions 1- 5 are 1 point each - 5 Questions 6-45 are 2 points each - 80 Questions 46-50 are 3 points each - 15 Total possible points - 100 1. Which of these statements best reflects an anthropological definition of religion? a. Religion is a means by which people attempt to control the area of the universe that is otherwise beyond their control. b. Religion is any kind of belief in a god or a higher power. c. Rituals and ceremonies that unite a people constitute a "religion". d. Any formula by which attempts are made to control supernatural powers can be defined as "religion". 2. Religion is a feature of a. food-foraging societies. b. all types of societies. c. preindustrial agricultural societies. d. industrialized Western societies. 3. In societies that honor or fear ancestral spirits, the spirits a. closely resemble humans in their emotions and behavior. b. are perceived as having become remote and concerned with controlling the universe. c. are not believed to be able to control events in human societies. d. are usually believed to inhabit natural objects such as rocks and trees. 235 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. The term used to describe a belief in impersonal spiritual powers that influence events in the world is a. Animism b. Spiritualism c. Animatism d. Pantheon 5. In generally, religious rituals serve to a. frighten people with the power of supernatural forces. b. make it possible for people to relate to the supernatural. c. reassure people that practitioners have control over the supernatural. d. provide social occasions for outpouring of emotions. 6. Birth, marriage, and death are examples of those events often marked by religious rituals called rites of a. crisis. b. intensification. c. transition. d. passage. 7. Changes of season, the onset of an epidemic, or the threat of war are examples of events that maybe marked by rites of a. crisis. b. intensification. c. transition. d. passage. 8. Rites of intensification are those religious ceremonies that mark an actual a. crisis in the life of an individual. b. or potential crisis in the life of an individual. c. crisis in the life of the society. d. or potential crisis in the life of the society. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10. 11. 12 . 13. The most accurate definition of magic is that it is a. an attempt to control supernatural forces. b. "religion in action". c. prayers or requests directed to supernatural powers. d. power to work evil on others. Witchcraft is a belief that certain individuals possess the power to a. make supernatural forces behave in a desired way. b. harm others through supernatural means. c. communicate with spirits using specific rituals. d. perceive good and evil spirits. Psychological functions of religion include the a. sanctioning of a wide range of conduct. b. maintenance of social solidarity. c. provision of an orderly model of the universe. d. education of children. A revitalization movement is best defined as a. any ritual that involves the entire community in communication with supernatural forces. b. a social movement, usually based on religion, that seeks to reform a society. c . activities that result in larger membership for existing religions. d. a social movement that seeks to improve the lot of a specific group within the society. Art is a form of communication because it involves the use of a . language. b. symbols. c. creativity. d . beauty. 237 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Anthropological study of the arts of a society may reveal a. the values held by a society. b. the history of the people. c. the worldview of the culture. d. all of the above. How widespread is art among human societies? a. Virtually all basic forms of art are a part of every culture. b. Art apparently appears often in settled cultures, rarely in nomadic cultures. c. Some form of art appears randomly in some, but not all, cultures of every kind. d. Apparently all cultures have at least one form of artistic expression. One of the oldest and most widespread forms of artistic expression is a. literature. b. sand painting. c. body painting. d. weaving. A long oral narrative, sometimes in poetry or rhythmic prose, that recounts glorious events in the life of a real or legendary person is a. a myth. b . an epic. c. a tale. d. a legend. The art form that often aids in instilling pride in one's family, tribe, or nation is the a. tale. b . myth. c. legend. d. dance. 238 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The verbal art form that is basically religious and concerned with the ultimate questions of human existence is 20 . 21. 22 . 23 . a . the legend b . the myth. c. folklore. d. the epic. In addition to providing entertainment, a tale often a. instills pride in one's ancestors. b. records important events from the past. c . provides practical advice or a moral. d. foretells future events. The study of a society's music in terms of its cultural setting is a. folk musicology. b. tonal anthropology. c. form analysis. d. ethnomusicology. All human music is characterized by a. sounds that everyone recognizes as being "in tune." b. tones at irregular intervals. c. either the semitonal or pentatonic system. d. arbitrary systems of measured steps. Music functions a. as a form of individual expression and as a means of sharing feelings and experiences with others. b. almost entirely as a form of individual expression. c. exclusively as a form of religious or inspirational expression. d. basically as an alternative form of verbal expression. 239 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24. In a traditional society, songs often express the society's a. religious beliefs. b. sense of humor. c . myths. d. values. 25. Representational art can also be described as a. schematic. b. stylized. c. naturalized. d. exaggerated. 26. Pictorial art, as a form of symbolic expression a. is easily classified as either naturalistic or abstract. b. can be identified as either universally beautiful or ugly. c. usually contains both abstract and representational elements. d. seldom reflects any aspect of the artist's culture. 27. An example of a stimulus for cultural change that may come from within a culture is a. innovation. b. diffusion. c. acculturation. d. climate change. 28. A primary innovation is one that a. is derived from known principles. b. results from chance discovery. c. is voluntarily adapted from another culture by the society. d. is forced upon the society by another society or group. 240 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29. Secondary innovations a. are those adapted from other societies. b. result only from chance discovery. c. come from the discovery of new basic principles. d. result from applications of known principles. 30. Anthropologists think that the firing of clay probably was invited a. by applying known principles learned from smelting metals. b. by an individual who accidentally dropped unbaked clay into a cooking pit. c. as a byproduct of the development of the forced-draft furnace. d. by individuals who were experimenting with several methods for hardening clay. 31. Voluntary borrowing of cultural elements by one society from another society is called a. innovation. b. acculturation. c. diffusion. d. regression. 32. Cultural loss may be defined as a. the disappearance of a society of culture. b. discontinuation of an old practice if it is replaced by an innovation. c. discontinuation of an old practice without any replacement. d. discontinuation of an old practice under any circumstances. 33. The causes of cultural loss are found in a. changes in environmental conditions. b. many different conditions. c. pressures by another society. d. widespread adoption of a new practice or technology. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The best definition of acculturation is a. major cultural changes that people are forced to make as a result of prolonged contact between societies. b. selective borrowing of traits from another society, modified to fit the values of the society adopting them. c. the disappearance of a substantial portion of a society's culture. d. the replacement of existing practices with others that fulfill the same functions. 35. When a society changes because of prolonged contact with a militarily superior society, a. diffusion occurs. b. revitalization occurs. c. modernization occurs. d. acculturation occurs. 36. Applied anthropology often involves using the skills of an anthropologist on behalf of a group that wishes to a. implement changes in its own society. b. prevent changes in its own society. c. implement changes in another society. d. prevent changes in another society. 37. Anthropologists whose clients want to change aspects of another cultural group a. usually sympathize with the need for modernization. b. are faced with an ethical problem, since the group to be changed usually wants to adopt Western practices too rapidly. c. usually refuse to take part in such activity. d. are faced with an ethical problem, since the group to be changed often lacks power to resist. 242 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38. Forcible change, such as a change initiated by colonial or military conquest, often results in a. more rapid adaptation by the indigenous society. b. widespread mutual sharing of cultural elements. c. severe disruption of traditional life for the indigenous society. d. little significant change in the basic structures of the indigenous society. 39. Indigenous peoples react to forcible change a. by easily blending elements of their culture with foreign elements, a process known as syncretism. b. often by starting a revitalization movement. c. by quickly replacing most of their cultural traditions with new ones. d. in various ways; the reaction of a specific society cannot be predicted. 40. Modernization is any process through which a a. society becomes generally literate and educated. b. society's government applies anthropological principles c. society eliminates or minimizes stratification. d. society acquires some characteristics of Western industrialized society. 41. Of the following historical facts, the one that seems to support the prediction of a one-world culture is that a. few small societies today try to retain a unique cultural identity. b. there has been continuous growth in the number of political units over the past 5,000 years. c. increasing numbers of groups are seeking cultural and political independence today. d. there has been a tendency toward fewer and larger political units over the past 5,000 years. 243 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42. A historical trend that opposes the development of a one-word culture is that a. many traditional societies are being overrun by Western industrial societies. b. there has been a tendency toward fewer and larger political units over the past 5,000 years. c. increasing numbers of groups are seeking to retain their culture and political identity today. d. there are few examples of clashes between cultures in the modern world. 43. Large states have shown a tendency to a. grow larger and assimilate smaller cultural groups. b. break down into smaller states. c. become more tolerant of neighboring societies. d. encourage cultural pluralism. 44. A major criticism of multinational corporations is that a. they are unable to work in cooperation with the major projects approved by a host government. b. they lack the power and resources to effect any changes in the economic or social makeup of third-world regions. c. they are too dependent upon the goodwill and approval of host governments. d. they have sufficient power to ignore or override the policies of many national governments. 45. In the present-day world, multinational corporations have a. become major independent forces. b. shown a tendency to fragment. c. shown increasing concern for welfare of cultural groups. d. come under strict control of their host countries. 244 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46. A major concern of anthropologists who study and work with traditional societies today is in the area of a. human rights. b. genocide. c. physical health. d. failure to modernize. 47. Cultural pluralism can create conflict a. in virtually every state. b. when traditions are dissimilar. c. when traditions are much alike. d. when Western governments are involved. 48. The proportion of the world's population that is classified as nonwhite is a. one-third. b. one-half. c. two-thirds. d. seven-eighths. 49. The wealthiest 25 percent of the world's population uses about a. 40 percent of the world's energy. b. 50 percent of the world's energy. c. 60 percent of the world's energy. d. 7 0 percent of the world's energy. 50. Solutions to the problems of population growth and overpopulation would probably a. quickly eliminate world hunger. b. eliminate most problems of structural violence. c. reduce the gap between wealthy and poor regions. d. make it easier to control other problems. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : B 5 Innfr | t t i « ot foy fii f a n Tmxm On* Ton Two Ton Om Ton TWO Q. H r H r Q. H r M r HO. X XX XXX XV HO. X XX XXX XV C B c A 26 B B D c a B C B B 27 C B D A 3 A A D A 28 B D B B 4 B C A C 29 B C C D 5 A A C B 30 A A D B 6 C A c D 31 B D A C 7 c C A B 32 A C C D 8 D D C D 33 B B A B 9 C C B A 34 D C C A 10 B . D C B 35 A A A D 11 C B A C 36 B C D C 12 A B A B 37 B C C D 13 B A B B 38 C D D C 14 C D A D 39 B C B D 15 D A C D 40 A C C D 16 C B A C 41 A D B D 17 C C C B 42 C A C C 18 c A B C 43 D C A B c B D B 44 C D C D 20 B D A C 45 C B B A 21 B D A D 46 c B B A 22 D B B D 47 A C D B 23 A A A A 48 B A B C 24 C D C D 49 B A C C 23 c A c C 50 C A A D 246 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : C l Town McnilTalmrv T«at ICQgf tor tti FowiflB Emauacw PwgfPTft "f n-iasi 8VD MO pra. •TO NO PTS. 8VD MO 9T8. MTD NO m . am MO PT6. 1 510 26 460 51 450 76 390 101 540 2 500 27 460 52 460 77 580 102 530 3 520 28 480 53 480 78 570 103 520 4 410 29 510 54 480 79 530 104 400 5 450 30 500 55 480 80 510 105 440 6 430 31 540 56 490 81 410 106 600 7 380 32 530 57 470 82 440 107 590 8 470 33 570 58 480 83 360 108 610 9 480 34 500 59 460 84 510 109 570 10 420 35 420 60 490 85 490 110 410 11 400 36 580 61 500 86 470 111 430 12 370 37 510 62 370 87 480 112 390 13 460 38 390 63 360 88 460 113 520 14 490 39 490 64 400 89 450 114 510 15 500 40 510 65 560 90 500 115 480 16 430 41 500 66 530 91 480 116 380 17 510 42 440 67 520 92 380 117 520 18 410 43 430 68 520 93 470 118 400 19 530 44 440 69 500 94 530 119 570 20 450 45 470 70 510 95 520 120 370 21 440 46 530 71 410 96 510 121 470 22 470 47 560 72 520 97 410 122 410 23 410 48 590 73 520 98 420 123 490 24 460 49 450 74 530 99 420 124 420 25 450 50 380 75 420 100 410 125 500 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : C2 WlfL Ecrai'valmcy g>«t Baoxm for tin yog<im Unroaw V*rTr*rrr» ?* Tnr!r«i pni.vr»ity (126-250) STD NO PT8 STD NO PTS STD NO PTS STD NO PTS STD NO PTS 126 500 151 350 176 350 201 410 226 450 127 410 152 400 177 520 202 480 227 480 128 540 153 470 178 370 203 470 228 380 129 540 154 480 179 510 204 510 229 360 130 520 155 450 180 530 205 520 230 470 131 440 156 410 181 460 206 550 231 480 132 430 157 440 182 480 207 540 232 480 133 560 158 390 183 440 208 520 233 460 134 510 159 460 184 470 209 510 234 460 135 470 160 370 185 410 210 490 235 530 136 420 161 420 186 450 211 480 236 510 137 370 162 460 187 450 212 460 237 420 138 490 163 460 188 470 213 510 238 540 139 480 164 480 189 470 214 530 239 520 140 460 165 410 190 510 215 560 240 550 141 450 166 410 191 420 216 520 241 500 142 470 167 520 192 520 217 390 242 510 143 360 168 550 193 530 218 370 243 500 144 350 169 480 194 510 219 580 244 490 145 390 170 460 195 510 220 550 245 450 146 510 171 380 196 570 221 520 246 460 147 570 172 360 197 520 222 510 247 450 148 550 173 540 198 540 223 560 248 470 149 540 174 560 199 560 224 460 249 480 150 520 175 550 200 530 225 470 250 450 248 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : D1 STUDENT INFORMATION - GROUP ONE ST.NO STUDENT NAME SEX AGE________ Y IC _______Y LE 01 2 20 2 8 02 2 22 2 8 03 2 21 2 8 04 2 21 2 8 05 2 21 2 8 06 2 21 2 8 07 2 20 2 8 08 2 21 2 8 09 2 21 2 8 10 2 22 2 8 11 2 21 2 8 12 2 24 2 8 13 2 20 2 8 14 2 21 2 8 15 1 22 2 8 16 2 21 2 8 17 2 22 2 8 18 2 21 2 8 19 2 23 2 8 20 2 23 2 8 21 2 21 2 8 22 2 21 2 8 23 2 21 2 8 24 2 21 2 8 25 1 23 2 8 26 1 21 2 8 27 1 24 2 8 28 2 21 2 8 29 2 21 2 8 30 1 20 2 8 ST.N O = STUDENT NUMBER Y IC = YEARS IN COLLEGE Y L E = YEARS LE A R N IN G E N G L IS H 249 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : D2 STUDENT INFORMATION - GROUP TWO ST.NO STUDENT NAME SEX____ AGE______YIC_____YLE 31 2 20 2 8 32 2 20 2 8 33 2 20 2 8 34 2 22 2 8 35 2 21 2 8 36 2 22 2 8 37 2 22 2 8 38 2 21 2 8 39 1 22 2 8 40 2 21 2 8 41 2 21 3 9 42 1 22 3 9 43 1 21 3 9 44 2 22 3 9 45 2 22 3 9 46 2 22 3 9 47 2 22 3 9 48 2 21 3 9 49 1 22 3 9 50 1 22 3 9 51 1 21 3 9 52 2 23 3 9 53 2 22 3 9 54 2 22 3 9 55 2 24 3 9 56 2 21 3 9 57 1 24 3 9 58 2 20 3 9 59 2 23 3 9 60 2 22 3 9 ST.NO = STUDENT NUMBER YIC = YEARS IN COLLEGE YLE = YEARS LEARNING ENGLISH 250 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX: D3 STUDENT TEST SCORES - GROUP ONE ST# T1MPRE T1MPOST T1FPRE T1FPOST T2MPRE T2MPOST T2FPRE T2FPOST 01 76.. 00 95.. 00 67 ..00 88. 02 64.. 00 93 .. 00 73 ..00 91. 03 64 .. 00 88.. 00 37..00 86. 04 64 .. 00 96.. 00 49 ..00 92 . 05 55,, 00 90., 00 58,,00 81. 06 55.. 00 89 .. 00 52..00 87. 07 64.. 00 89., 00 43 ..00 90. 08 46., 00 85.. 00 58..00 85. 09 67. 00 91. 00 58. 00 87. 10 55 ., 00 86.. 00 58.,00 92. 11 55 ., 00 91., 00 43 ..00 00 t o 12 73 ., 00 93 ..00 70..00 93 . 13 64.. 00 91.. 00 70..00 92 . 14 70 .. 00 94.. 00 31..00 92 . 15 70 .. 00 92 .. 00 61.. 00 87. 16 82 .. 00 96.. 00 55..00 92 . 17 67 ..00 86.. 00 43 ..00 84 . 18 64 .. 00 86.. 00 61..00 85. 19 64 .. 00 88 .. 00 64..00 86. 20 43 .. 00 86.. 00 67 ..00 85. 21 58 ..00 92 .. 00 55..00 93 . 22 73 ,. 00 93 ,. 00 67,.00 89 . 23 61 ,.00 91.. 00 40..00 87 . 24 58 ..00 89 ,. 00 43 ,.00 C O 00 25 34 .. 00 78 ,. 00 28,.00 76 . 26 64 ,.00 89 ,. 00 58 .00 87 . 27 61..00 86 ,. 00 61,. 00 82 . 28 64 ..00 90.. 00 49,. 00 00 00 29 34..00 78.. 00 28.. 00 76. 30 34.. 00 78 .. 00 28.. 00 76 . 58.00 78.00 49 . 00 82 . 00 67 . 00 92 .00 64.00 86 . 00 52 . 00 78 . 00 61.00 70 . 00 64.00 68 . 00 46.0 0 84 . 00 55.00 70.00 58 .00 80 . 00 46.00 70.00 55.00 80 . 00 58.00 68.00 46.0 0 80 . 00 64.00 74.00 52 .00 70 . 00 52 . 00 68.00 43 .00 6 0 .0 0 58.00 74.00 4 9.0 0 6 4 .0 0 52.00 74 .00 52 .00 6 6 .0 0 58.00 70.00 52 .00 70 . 00 7 3.0 0 84 . 00 6 4.00 7 6 .0 0 61.00 7 0.0 0 52 . 00 82 .00 61.00 84 . 00 55.00 74 . 00 64 . 00 80.00 61. 00 74 .00 64.00 72 .00 55 . 00 72 . 00 64.00 80 . 00 40. 00 64 .00 58.00 7 4.0 0 43 . 00 66 .00 52 . 00 7 0.0 0 58 . 00 68 . 00 55.00 72 . 00 4 6 .0 0 66 .00 43 .00 62 .00 2 8 .0 0 52 .00 58 . 00 7 4.0 0 5 8.0 0 78 .00 61.00 7 0.0 0 55 . 00 72 .00 43 .00 62 . 00 2 8 .0 0 52 . 00 43 . 00 62 . 00 2 8 .0 0 52 .00 58.00 68 . 00 4 6 .0 0 68 .00 43 .00 62 .00 2 8 .0 0 52 .00 43 . 00 62.00 2 8 .0 0 52 . 00 43 .00 62 . 00 2 8 .0 0 52 . 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX: D4 STUDENT TEST SCORES - GROUP TWO ST# T1MPRE T1MPOST T1FPRE T1FPOST T2MPRE T2MPOST T2FPRE T2FP0ST 31 34 .. 00 56..00 28.. 00 56. 32 58 .. 00 74 ..00 49., 00 66. 33 70 .. 00 74 .. 00 61., 00 86. 34 70 ..00 84., 00 52 ..00 72 . 35 67 .. 00 70., 00 49.. 00 72. 36 61.. 00 72 ..00 61.. 00 74. 37 70.. 00 82 ., 00 58., 00 76. 38 52 .. 00 78 ., 00 52., 00 72 . 39 43 ..00 68.,00 43. 00 64. 40 64 .. 00 82 ., 00 58.. 00 76. 41 76 .. 00 88..00 58., 00 84. 42 40 ..00 88.. 00 58.. 00 82. 43 64 .. 00 86.. 00 55.. 00 82. 44 67 .. 00 88.. 00 67.. 00 84. 45 76 .. 00 90 .. 00 58 .. 00 80. 46 34 ,. 00 56..00 28.. 00 52 . 47 73 .. 00 78 .. 00 55.. 00 76. 48 85 ..00 92.. 00 70,. 00 86. 49 34 ,. 00 56 ,. 00 28.. 00 52 . 50 34 . . 00 56.. 00 28.. 00 52 . 51 76 ..00 94.. 00 70.. 00 78. 52 55 ,. 00 76.. 00 40.. 00 64 . 53 64 . . 00 88,. 00 64.. 00 82 . 54 67 ,. 00 86.. 00 52 .. 00 82 . 55 85 .. 00 94.. 00 61..00 00 cn 56 70 ,. 00 84,. 00 40.. 00 72 . 57 67 . 00 84..00 67 .. 00 00 o 58 79 .. 00 92 .. 00 73 .. 00 86. 59 76 .. 00 78 .. 00 61.. 00 76. 60 64 ..00 86.. 00 58.. 00 82 . 73 ..00 89.. 00 58 . 00 86. 00 64 ..00 83 . 00 55 . 00 85 . 00 55 ..00 91.. 00 58 . 00 90 . 00 64..00 93.. 00 67 . 00 95. 00 58 ..00 90., 00 55. 00 83 . 00 70 ..00 88.. 00 55 .. 00 90 . 00 61.,00 88., 00 43 . 00 83 . 00 52 ..00 89.. 00 61.,00 89 .,00 52 ..00 86. 00 61. 00 86. 00 55 ..00 91., 00 43 . 00 92 . 00 70 ..00 92 .. 00 61., 00 90..00 61..00 93 .. 00 64 ..00 90..00 70 ..00 96.. 00 58 ., 00 93 ., 00 61..00 93 .. 00 55 ..00 91..00 61..00 91.. 00 61 .. 00 90 .. 00 73 .00 95.. 00 64 .. 00 94.. 00 58 ,.00 87 .. 00 46 .. 00 87 .. 00 67 , .00 93 ,. 00 58,.00 93 ,. 00 73 .00 88 ,. 00 37 .. 00 81.. 00 61 .00 90..00 61,.00 86.. 00 64,.00 96..00 64 .. 00 95 ..00 70..00 85 .. 00 46 ,.00 82 ,. 00 67 .00 91,. 00 46 .. 00 96 . 00 61,.00 94 ,. 00 49 ,.00 92,. 00 73 .00 97 .00 73 .. 00 96 . 00 73 .00 90 . 00 55 . 00 95 . 00 64 .00 88 . 00 64 .00 91 . 00 67 , .00 91,. 00 61,. 00 87 . 00 52 , .00 88 ,. 00 49 ,.00 89,. 00 43 ..00 88 ..00 28 .. 00 90,. 00 252 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : E l Student Information - Original Ora* 1 On* 2 Nmm Bm ■ p Y«n «4or <M*keaBa|»| K m m t a K ■ p f M H b m ^ o t Owblt ethp JL t» 9 ■ x - y • X I / E gis 9. JL J± # • f t X f *• JL. • •' X t + 1 r ' ■ • • . 1 " " ' Y * "R 4 < 4 i . ±L f • • JL H _ L . f t * * »' ' X . * / f • • 1 * / n * • • X J L f • • L X X X • • % E t* r • « w y. jL « • ! ' * 2 1 t • « X • f . R • • * * L f c f . t • % . . Jd h lS i- • • X *!• r • f t X ? . 1 • t • X . * » t f t * X * JL JL X • 1 3 r w n 11 X % %• r • • X * * vt J L x J 3 v_ t « • .X f X 1 « ■ J vT r .. X , 2 s , 2 - «• IL r • f t > » X • • J *x r .. X 4 h f t * y U r • f t *L X »4 . . . i y *1 t H » > • V 4 i£L _ 'IT X - 3 JLJL * •» 2 £ L JL II JL ±L r • • X J L SL X *• J L 21 9 •• I J L % % T •1 5 . _ L 21 t •4 & t JL n y f t f t 3 21 9 •• £_ 2 X • 1 JL • f t X JL JL X •1 3 t f k 24 9 • • X • £L J f c ■ T " X «* 3 JL $ • • % JL w X •» 3 f *L 9 *« X JL 22 T • • 3 — . - e 31JL- \ * V — - E t E • f t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX: E2 Student Test Scores Group One:- Ori«*»al * r m ■&. w t HAINAN TEACHERS COLLEGE * f a ■ f %• a - M .A-Sic JLtX, <4 l C j r $ 1 2 7 6 4£ ^7 . ft? 7X V 1 XI 4\ 74 vt 67 S i A V » L * 6v 4 7. x L y* ^y 70 L V 44. 4 f* 4a h V 6* V L XV A* . w i rj p P/ <r£ 7 n fCX Xo * 7± X 7 7/9 Xt> <*f V 3 1 ? <tr v 6 X o • > > 4 6 S '? _ tT t o d O d o 70 J fj 6 7 7y *7 s* k X u * > 60 k £ 7 41 *rX . 7J *>V < 4 6 X X SI p v K A i* -r* -f* p i > f3 sX ? ° < 4 70 6 V */ n o f* - 7 3 X V 4* 7 6 7 o 3/ f* 70 ■ C 2 fa VT*. * 7° & it X 7 6 ) f t pv jX a % ££ 4A J.V Xo A>t 9 V A r J O 4>i . _ vs X V 64 7A £ 6 n. 2 rhj\ t v X S ioU Xo Vo w **f 6V XL S X 7 V VS fa k *1 < T f SA n o < x *2 4 -> - £ 7 ■f i A S J ? A v 6 • 7 3 hi x 7 V S £ 1 SA 6t */ V o *7 rX ?v £ X 7f < r x ** V S xjt 6/ 7° A S 7A zv & * *3T V S 6 a A X S A Iv Jf XI V S . 6 1 6A t t , 6r < - J > A X v & 6 2 <90 4 V r P > V 3 M 4 3 i J S - + A J i¥ A X A V S . a# s > -fcfc- nr 1 6 > -Jti . / * A . ail,. J &L - . 254 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A P P E N D IX : E3 Student Test Scores Group Two - Original * r m -sfc # > n fc HAINAN TEACHERS CQLLEOB 1 . «J» 3l£ i & t fJil f V M W , 1 3 . , >io : : a 5 lf >Tl * 4 U4 OL oa Jri A-4 T<? 76 74 20 6B _ 91 £2 9 ° M - <z. O f 93 to , 4a VI no v* % •r* - 9o 2b u 1 is. Ll ?4 7o <$ f*? 4 0 .... 7° XA r* no Ot 22 V 3 n <SL ‘ ?* S2 p K3l 24 0 ! gj ... 4* 04 <2 20 U! 20 p . £g yO * 4 . ? l Y3 Js 70 f* P4 90 42 4o 4o A 42 fis ' 0/ 43 % 7° 04 Atf 40 erf fb o n , x b 07 _3v_ L/ 93 64 f/ [ Wj-a yO 9o 0 fio - 7! M ?c .W £ 0 n 42 n f5* y U 7* 7* no > 7 4 0 *1 fyr 1* 7° M f* £2 43 stXfgJ w rO « n 39 fit W AO A* 62 9o <et ft* 90 94 no 7* 90 0 4 *tO 4a f y 70 2£ 9(2 f i s t _. At/ $ 04 • 1*1 4/ 40 fO on. . M #5 f 4 JHT 44 Of U 93 47 7 * 40 1 no M 4o 92 ’ 73 40 66 4S- tsi * 4 oy P F /7 1 0 4 W 4 / 1 9 * 4A 73 H l%l 4 / 0 / 2 7 n K 7* *£■ * 2 29 t S 3 £</ s L .LjGL. 4 3 ■ Jk- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Creator
Zia, Caleb Kai-Mong
(author)
Core Title
China's critical educational access demand and United States higher education distance learning curriculum: An answer?
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Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
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Education
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University of Southern California
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education, administration,education, adult and continuing,Education, higher,education, technology of,OAI-PMH Harvest
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Hagedorn, Linda Serra (
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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