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An analysis of teachers' perceptions of the efficacy of an instructional method for English language development using music and singing paired with movement

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An analysis of teachers' perceptions of the efficacy of an instructional method for English language development using music and singing paired with movement

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AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE EFFICACY OF
AN INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT USING MUSIC AND SINGING PAIRED WITH
MOVEMENT
by
Kathryn A. Short
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2001
Copyright 2001 Kathryn A. Short
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UMI Number: 3054805
Copyright 2001 by
Short, Kathryn A.
All rights reserved.
___ ®
UMI
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
______________ Kathryn Ann Short___________
under the direction o f hJ2LJ)issertation Committee, and
approved by a ll members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
o f Education in partialfulfillm ent o f the requirementsfor
the degree o f
D o c to r o f e d u c a t i o n
'B ate
Dissertation Committee
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family for their support and love. I
dedicate this work in memory of my mother who always believed I could
accomplish anything I put my mind to. And to my husband, Bob Short, my life
partner, and a man I can always lean on and know he is continually there for
me. And, finally to my children, Kristin and Timothy, I wish to impart the
wisdom that my dear mother spoke to me, you can be anything you desire. I
love you.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was made possible by the opportunity to associate with
many educators of vision, intelligence and outstanding leadership. I would
like to express my sincere appreciation to my dissertation committee
consisting of Michael Genzuk, Stuart Gothold, and Robert Baker from the
Rossier School of Education.
Additionally, I would like to thank the principals and teachers for their
willingness to participate in the study.
And, I would be remiss if I did not again thank my husband and
children who sustained me emotionally through this process of graduate
school and dissertation writing. There were times when I wondered if I could
accomplish this endeavor but with their support they inspired me to fulfill my
dream. Thank you.
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iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES viii
ABSTRACT ix
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Introduction 1
Background of Language Learning Strategies 4
Effectiveness of Second Language Programs 6
Staff Development 7
Movement Towards Standards-Based Instruction 9
Program Design for Enhancement ofSecond Language
Acquisition 10
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 16
Importance of the Study 17
Limitations 18
Delimitations 18
Assumptions 19
Definition of Terms 20
Organization of the Study 26
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 27
Richards and Rodgers' Model for the Description, Analysis
and Comparison of Language Teaching Methods 28
Current Major Approaches and Teaching Methods for
Language Learning 34
The Oral Approach 35
The Audiolingual Method 41
Communicative Language Teaching 48
Total Physical Response 53
The Silent Way 58
The Natural Approach 62
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V
The Lozanov Method 73
Summary of Language Teaching Approaches and Methods 75
Learning Through Music, Singing and Movement 76
Learning Through Music and Songs 76
Summary of Learning Through Music and Songs 82
Learning Through Actions and Gestures 83
Summary of Learning Through Actions and Gestures 89
The Use of Music, Singing Paired with Kinesthetic
Learning 89
Summary of Music and Singing Paired with Kinesthetic
Learning 92
English Language Learning Through ELD and SDAIE Programs 92
Definitions of ELD and SDAIE Programs 93
Program Designs 94
Goals of the Programs 95
Program Operation 96
Summary of ELD and SDAIE Programs 103
Educational Reform and Staff Development 104
Characteristics of Educational Reform 104
Effective Staff Development Models 107
Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration Program 112
Summary of Educational Reform and Staff Development 115
Analysis of the Literature 116
Curriculum Development Specific to the P.L.A.Y. Method 119
Background of P.L.A.Y. Method 119
P.L.A.Y. Program- Method for Second Language
Acquisition 120
P.L.A.Y. Language Curriculum Development Processes 128
Summary of the Literature Review 133
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 134
Sample and Population 136
District Setting 136
Description of the Five Schools in the Study 138
School A 139
School B 140
School C 140
School D 140
School E 141
Population 141
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Teacher Participants 143
Principal Participants 143
Instrumentation 146
Framework for Instrument Design 146
Framework for Research Question 1 147
Framework for Research Question 2 148
Framework for Research Question 3 149
Framework for Research Question 4 150
Data Collection Framework 151
Written Response Data Collection Instruments 152
Teacher Questionnaire and Self-Report 153
Interview Data Collection Instruments 154
Lead Teacher Interview Guide 155
Site Principal Interview Guide 157
Data Collection 158
Data Analysis 159
Summary 160
CHAPTER 4:ANAYSIS AND INTERPRETATION DATA AND THE
FINDINGS 161
Research Question 1 162
Framework for Research Question 1 162
Summary of Data for Research Question 1 165
Summary of Research Question 1 Data 166
Research Question 2 172
Framework for Research Question 2 172
Summary of Data for Research Question 2 173
Summary of Research Question 2 Data 174
Research Question 3 178
Framework for Research Question 3 178
Summary of Data for Research Question 3 182
Summary of Research Question 3 Data 183
Research Question 4 184
Framework for Research Question 4 184
Summary of Data for Research Question 4 189
Summary of Research Question 4 Data 190
Summary of Data Analysis and Findings 208
Research Question 1 208
Research Question 2 208
Research Question 3 209
Research Question 4 210
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Discussion
Summary
211
212
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS,
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 213
Research Problem 213
Purpose of the Study 215
Methodology 216
Sample 217
Data Collection and Analysis 217
Framework for Research Question 1 218
Framework for Research Question 2 218
Framework for Research Question 3 219
Framework for Research Question 4 219
Discussion of Findings 220
Research Question 1 221
Research Question 2 221
Research Question 3 222
Research Question 4 223
Three Themes of the Findings of the Study 224
The P.L.A.Y. Program as an Effective Second Language
Acquisition Model 225
The P.L.A.Y. Program Corresponds with Effective SDAIE
Strategies 225
The P.L.A.Y. Program is an Effective Staff Development
Model 226
Conclusions 227
Recommendations for Educators and Suggestions for Additional
Research 230
BIBLIOGRAPHY 233
APPENDIX: TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 255
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viii
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 1(
Table V
Table 1 2
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Summary of Elements and Subelements that Constitute
a Method
Representation of Stimulus-Response Chain
Chomsky's Universal Grammar Theory
Schematic Representation of the P.L.A.Y. Method
Adapted From Richards and Rodgers Analytical Model
of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches
Language Curriculum Development Processes
Characteristics of the Sample
Data Collection Instrumentation
Interview Format: Types of Interview Questions Used in
Study
Teacher Questionnaire Results: P.L.A.Y. Program's
Correspondence to Effective Second Language Models
Teacher Questionnaire Results: P.L.A.Y. Program's
Correspondence to Effective SDAIE Strategies
Teacher Questionnaire Results: P.L.A.Y. Program's
Correspondence to the Beginning Proficiency Level of
the CA ELD Standards
Self-Report-Positive Comments- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 1:
Inservice Training
Self-Report-Positive Comments- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 2:
Teacher's Manual
Self-Report-Positive Comments- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 3:
Demonstrated Lessons
Self Report-Suggestions- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 1:
Inservice Training
Self Report-Suggestions- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 2:
Teacher's Manual
Self Report-Suggestions- Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y.
Program's Staff Development Model Component 3:
Demonstrated Lessons
Page
36
43
47
127
130
144
153
156
169
175
185
190
193
196
200
202
203
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ix
ABSTRACT
AN ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE EFFICACY OF AN
INSTRUCTIONALMETHOD FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
USING MUSIC AND SINGING PAIRED WITH MOVEMENT
The purpose of this study was to analyze teachers' perceptions of the
efficacy of an instructional method entitled P.L.A.Y. (Physical Learning
Activities for Youngsters™). This program is designed for K-2 limited English
proficient students. The premise of this study is to advance the concept of
using music and singing paired with movement as a means for English
language acquisition. This study supports research that states that English
language development can be readily acquired when it is made
comprehensible. In this case when it is presented through music, singing and
physical actions.
The study used four research questions to focus the data collection: 1)
What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective second language
models? 2) What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective SDAIE strategies? 3)
What are the participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the state of California's Beginning Proficiency Level of
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X
the English Language Development Standards? and 4) What are the
participating teachers' believed strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y.
staff development model in terms of inservice training, teacher's manual and
demonstrated teaching lessons?
The study was conducted at five elementary schools in Southern
California selected on the basis of the following criteria: a) the student body
is ethnically diverse consisting of at least 40% second language learners; b)
the schools are identified as recipients of Title I/Title VII funding, c) the
kindergarten - second grade teachers have been involved in extensive staff
development training in the P.L.A.Y. program. The participants in this study
include kindergarten - second grade teachers assigned to Alternative and/or
SEI classrooms. All teachers were asked to complete a written questionnaire.
Embedded in the survey was a three-question self-report. One teacher from
each school site and the five school principals were interviewed using
interview guides designed to obtain data pertaining to the research
questions.
The data indicated that the participating teachers believe that the
P.L.A.Y. program corresponds to effective second language acquisition
models, provides practical ELD and SDAIE strategies and encompasses a
successful staff development model.
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1
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
With the beginning of the new millennium, all across the nation, many
educators are being placed in schools where classrooms reflect a broad
range of cultural and linguistic diversity, with minority populations increasing
in numbers (Pettus & Anselmini Allain, 1999). In 1976, 24% of the total
enrollment in U.S. public schools was non-white. It is projected that by the
year 2020, the non-white population will account for 46% of the public school
enrollment (Cushner, McClelland, & Stafford, 1992). Estrada (1993) and
Hodgkinson (1995) note the increased number of immigrants since 1980
coming from Mexico, other Latin American nations and Asian countries who
are non-English speakers and the increased number of children who are
living below the poverty line.
California's students also reflect diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds. In California's 1999 Language Census, 1.48 million students
were identified as English learners (formerly referred to as limited-English
proficient students), approximately 41% of the English learners reported in
the U.S. in 1996 (National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 2000). This
number represents about 25% of California's 5.9 million students and 36% of
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the 4,148,997 English learners estimated for the U.S. in 1999 (California
Department of Education, 2001b). Based on 1999-00 enrollments, Hispanic
students comprise 42.2% of the school population. White students make up
36.9%, Asian and Pacific Islander 11, African American 8.6, and American
Indian .9. Together with the 791,283 fluent-English proficient students
identified, schools enroll 2,271,283 students with a native language other
than English, 38% of California's students. According to California's
Department of Finance, public school enrollments will continue to diversify.
For example, between 1997 and 2007, numbers of white students are
expected to decline by 16% while other groups will increase by the following
percentages: Hispanic (35), Pacific Islander (30), and Asian (15). These
trends reflect population changes throughout the state where currently no
ethnic group constitutes a majority of California's population. These
demographic changes are creating instructional and administrative difficulties
associated with issues in diversity in linguistic backgrounds as well as in
economic and family patterns (Pettus & Anselmini Allain, 1999).
These changes create what James Banks (1991) refers to as the
"demographic imperative," a situation that requires classroom practitioners to
be more responsive to an increasingly diverse population. This demographic
imperative has implications for reformed curricular program designs that
address the unique needs of the diverse student population. Programs also
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need to be provided that prepare teachers who can effectively instruct
students of diverse backgrounds and cultures. 2.1 million school children in
the United States have limited English language skills, which affects their
ability to participate effectively in education programs (U.S. Department of
Education, 1992), 1.4 million of these children attend California schools. This
equates to one-third of all the students speak another language other than
English. As a result, our public school system faces enormous challenges to
ensure that these students receive the education they deserve in an
understandable manner (California Department of Education, 1999a).
Clearly, students who arrive in the United States with little to no English
language proficiency must learn the language. Academic instruction must be
tailored so that it is comprehensible and leads to successful transition and
acquisition of English as well as content matter attainment. Continued
research is needed to ascertain how students best acquire the academic
English skills to be successful in school (California Department of Education,
1999a). The multilingual, multicultural reality of today's classrooms makes it
crucial that researchers examine the conditions and contexts that enhance
learning among second language learners (Zuniga-Hill & Yopp, 1996).
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4
Background of Language Learning Strategies
Contemporary research into second language learning strategies
began in the 1960s. In most research on language learning strategies, the
primary concern has been on identifying what good language learners report
they do to learn or are observed doing while learning a second or foreign
language (Wenden & Rubin, 1987). Bialystok (1990), Chamot and O'Malley
(1994), Fedderholdt (1998), Garcia (1991), Naiman (1996)), Nunan (1999),
Rubin and Thompson (1982), and others have studied strategies used by
language learners during the process of second and foreign language
learning. Wenden and Rubin (1987, p. 19) define learning strategies as:
“...any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to
facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information.”
Richards and Platt (1992, p. 209) state that learning strategies are:
“Intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to
better help them understand, learn, or remember new information.”
Faerch and Kasper (1983, p. 67) maintain that a learning strategy is:
“ An attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target
language.”
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According to Stern (1992, p. 261), T h e concept of learning strategy is
dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities
to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly
conceived intentional directions and learning techniques.u
No matter the definition, all language learners use language learning
strategies either consciously or unconsciously (Hismanoglu, 2000).
Language learning strategies have been classified by many
researchers (Fedderholdt, 1998; O’Malley et al., 1985; Oxford, 1990; Stem,
1995; Wenden & Rubin, 1987); however, most reflect the same
categorizations and make the distinction between strategies contributing
directly and indirectly to learning. These include: learning strategies,
communication strategies and socio-affective strategies. The learning
strategies involve cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies. The
cognitive learning strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning
or problem solving such as clarification, guessing, inductive inference,
deductive reasoning, practice, memorization and monitoring. The
metacognitive strategies are used to self-direct language learning and
involve planning, prioritizing, setting goals and self-management.
Communication strategies are less directly related to language learning since
the focus is on participating in conversation. Social strategies are activities
learners use to gain opportunities to practice their knowledge and include
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cooperating with classmates, friends, teachers or speaking English with other
speakers of English. Cooperation and questioning are the main
socioaffective strategies (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990).
Learners use different language learning strategies in performing the
tasks and processing of new input. According to Fedderholdt (1998), the
language learner that is capable of using a wide variety of language learning
strategies correctly can improve his/her language skills in a more effective
way. Development of cognitive, metacognitive and socioaffective skills can
help the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy
(Hismanoglu, 2000).
Effectiveness of Second Language Programs
Effectiveness of second language programs varies among schools.
Several research efforts have focused on identifying second language
program requirements fundamental to second language effectiveness and
language learning and teaching. An examination of one successful program,
Into English! (Villamil Tinajero & Schifini, 1997), and other language
programs (Collier & Thomas, 1999) reveal some common fundamental
characteristics of these successful programs. In a Report of the California
Proposition 227 Task Force Principal 4.a (1999a, p. 26) recommends that,
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All English learners receive English Language
Development (ELD) instruction daily.
Comprehensive ELD instruction must be part of the
structured English immersion process, the English-
language mainstream classroom, and any
alternative course of study. This instruction will
ensure that all English learners learn English
efficiently and effectively.
Though designing a second language program with these
characteristics should greatly increase the probability of success, the role
and ideal nature of program implementation is still a large and less settled
variable. Principal 4.b of the California Task (1999a, p. 26) states
Districts need to have a curriculum for English
learners who are developing a second language.
The ELD curriculum needs to follow a defined
sequence of proficiencies for second-language,
academic and social purposes. The curriculum must
be relevant to the ages and grade levels of English
learners.
Staff Development
Professional development is key to implementation of any program.
The staff development model must be evaluated for its part in second
language program effectiveness and opportunities for best practices
especially with regard to second language learners and their specific needs.
In the Report of the California Proposition 227 Task Force (1999a),
Education Code Section 305 states that the issue is not so much how long it
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takes to become reasonably fluent in English, but rather how to find effective
ways for all English learners to acquire a good, working knowledge of
English. The task force recognized that all educators including district and
school administrators need sustained and specialized training in structuring
curriculum and instruction for English learners. School districts need to
redesign staff development offerings for teachers, administrators and
paraeducators. The Report by the task force goes on to state,
The trainings must be enhanced and extended to
include accelerated English language learning that
goes beyond the foundation provided in the Cross
Cultural Language and Academic Development
(CLAD) Certificate...Staff development offerings
must be intensified to provide instruction in
structured English immersion (SEI) and specially
designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE)
settings (p. 14).
As more and more teachers face classrooms of students from a
variety of linguistic and cultural backgrounds, it becomes necessary to not
only examine the second language models but we need to study practices of
those teachers who work effectively with second language learners. Zuniga-
Dunlap and Yopp-Edwards (1996) identified five such practices including
high teachers' expectations, activation of prior knowledge coupled with
general knowledge, incorporation of current instructional strategies and
techniques in language arts, engagement of what Diaz, Moll and Mehan
(1986) describe as mutual accommodation, where the teacher and student
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work toward a common goal and reflective practice to ensure that they are
using the best language learning strategies for language learning.
Movement Towards Standards-Based Instruction
Another change in education that has influenced the development and
use of second language programs is the movement towards standards-
based education. In a standards-based education system, standards,
accountability, and results are critical (Tucker & Codding, 1998). Schools are
being compared and contrasted by use of test scores and student
performance. Some schools are producing fluent English language students
while others are allowing their students to be set up for failure (Haycock,
2001). Hill and Crevola (1999) state that low standards can be elevated by
refining and implementing an approach for improvement. Standards-based
reform includes assessments that match the standards (Tucker & Codding,
1998). The standards need to be clear and specific. They need to be
appropriate for the students' linguistic ability if given in English. The
standards also should be expressed in a way to motivate students. Student
results are collected and used to decide on curricula and instructional
programs designed to get their students to the targeted standards
(Schmoker, 1999).
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10
Program Design for Enhancement of Second Language Acquisition
Grant (1985) notes that 82% of a child's capacity to learn is formed
during the early childhood education years of preschool through third grade
(Grant, 1985). The importance of teaching primary English language learners
using creative methods of instruction warrants continuing investigation.
Based on the varying needs of students today to learn English, P.L.A.Y.
(Physical Learning Activities for Youngsters) is a program design that pairs
singing with a kinesthetic approach to teaching and learning that relies on the
students’ active, physical participation. This multi-sensory method's goal
using visual, auditory and tactile stimulation is to enable children to receive
new material through many channels, thus permitting them to form a large
foundation in English acquisition. A primary goal of this program design is to
build an understanding that music and movement can function as
internalizing devices for English language development. Music is utilized as
a vehicle to mentally imprint and then vocally express English vocabulary
and acquisition. Music and movement together attempts to provide an
impetus for learning in this program. This study hopes to show that through
the coupling of music and movement learning becomes stress-free,
enjoyable, and thus comprehensible. Both mediums have a force and
positive energy that transcends written expression. The combination of music
and movement can offer a dynamic camaraderie. The energy can originate
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11
with the song and then carried through by the movement and gestures that
ultimately solicits language. The songs can be viewed as a "vehicle" for
transporting students acquiring that "aha" experience. The beauty of
learning in a dynamic fashion is the ownership that it can afford. Children are
not passively reciting but actively and openly committed to the song and
participatory movements. Unlike the traditional, listen and repeat method of
the audiolingual language learning model (Fries, 1945), music and
movement can offer a personal recall of the content through effective
internalization. Students can enthusiastically embrace the catchy melodies
and rhythms oftentimes unaware that they lead to purposeful acquisition.
This idea fits within the parameters of the Din Phenomenon (Krashen, 1983)
and involuntary rehearsal of a song long after the music stops.
There has been much criticism of the listen and repeat method;
however, the use of mnemonic devices, those messages that are
pronounced, repeated, rhymed, chanted and sung help to reinforce learning.
By using the repetitive lyrics from a song and accompanying gestures,
students have the opportunity for repeated practice. They get to get better.
They discover a joy of learning through participation. This style of learning
demonstrates the educational concept of internalization through vocalization.
Put simply, this refers to a process of learning where content is reinforced by
inducing a vocal and physical response to the information the students' are
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12
mentally processing (Wilson, 1966). This is similar to Asher's (1966, 1977,
1993,1996) theory of total physical response. In both instances the child is
gaining information in multisensory ways through listening, mentally
processing, singing and then physically demonstrating understanding. All
pathways reinforce each other to produce a meaningful response that is
memorable to the child, which aids in greater retention of the acquired
language. The learning is a gestalt experience involving thinking, feeling,
speaking, moving and ultimately sharing. This fits with Krashen's input
hypothesis (1985) that states: 1) we acquire (not learn) language by
understanding input that contains structures that are just beyond our current
level of competence (1 + 1); 2) speech is not taught directly, but "merges” on
its own. Early speech is typically not grammatically accurate; 3) if input is
understood, and there is enough of it, I + 1 is automatically provided. We do
not have to deliberately program grammatical structures into the input.
Krashen further states that we can understand language that we do not know
by utilizing context, extra-linguistic information like realia, visual aids and our
basic knowledge of the world.
Loye's (1982) work supports this theory stating in order for learning to
be absorbed, information should be presented verbally and pictographically.
Many scholars have suggested that traditional education is inadequate since
most instruction focuses on analytically thinking. Current research suggests
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13
that curriculum should be designed to accelerate the right hemisphere
development as well (Caine, Caine, & Crowell, 1994; Diamond, 1988;
Hannaford, 1995; Loye, 1982; Raina, 1979). The memory of music is stored
in both sides of the brain (McDonald, 1974). Music is an activity that is
accessed by ways of the senses. Use of the tactile, auditory and kinesthetic
senses activates the mind, further illustrating the concept of internalization
and vocalization (Brocklehurst, 1971; Gardner, 1983; Hannaford, 1995).
Statement of the Problem
As educators look at the rapidly changing demographics in the United
States, with language minorities predicted to be 40% of the school-age
population by the decade of the 2030s, it is clear that educators have much
to accomplish. U.S. schools are currently under serving English language
learners, and this school population will continue to grow, challenging
schools to continue to change. Educators and administrators have a huge
responsibility to rise to this challenge of educating the diverse population
(Collier & Thomas, 1999). In California alone more than one in three students
is not a native English speaker. Children from cultures in which collectively,
more than 80 different languages are spoken enter California schools every
year. As cited previously, approximately 1.4 million English learners were in
California public schools in 1998, and 904 of 1, 052 school districts reported
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14
the enrollment of English learners. In the past 10 years, the English learner
population kindergarten through grade twelve has more than doubled, and
over 90% of those English learners speak one of five languages: Spanish,
Vietnamese, Hmong, Pilipino, or Cantonese. Eighty-one percent are Spanish
speakers (California Department of Education, 1999a, p. 4). As a result, the
California public school system faces an enormous challenge to ensure that
these students receive the education that they deserve; however,
determining the appropriate method of instruction for English learners is not a
simple task. Teachers are often unsure about evaluating a student's
language abilities and/or making sense of the student's previous educational
experience. In the past, ELLs were placed in mainstream classes, known as
the "sink or swim" approach (California Department of Education, 1999a).
Students received no special support for acquiring English and oftentimes
had little academic language abilities operating on informal, playground
English. The beginning of the 1998 school year was a tumultuous time for
California schools. In September 1998, Proposition 227 (1998) was
implemented. This voter approved proposition mandated that all students
were to be taught through English language instruction even though many of
the children had recently arrived from other countries and continued to speak
their native language. The passage of this proposition brought English
language teaching and learning to the top of the state's political and
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15
educational agendas. Because of Proposition 227, many classrooms now
use a Structured English Immersion (SEI) designation that stipulates that
nearly all instruction is in English. SEI is not mainstream English rather it
makes less use of the non-English language for instruction than does
bilingual education (Baker, 1998). In light of this problem, U.S. Secretary of
Education Richard W. Riley (1999) has acknowledged that America's first
challenge is to make the education of all children in this nation our first
priority. English learners need to develop comprehensive literacy skills
needed to meet the requirements for high school graduation. In multilingual
classrooms in California English language acquisition and academic
achievement are complex issues with no quick or easy solution (California
Department of Education, 1999a).
In summer 1999, the five elementary schools in this study were cited
by the State of California as being below state standards for the last two
years and needed to take steps to improve their performance. This was
based on low Stanford 9 test scores in 1998 and 1999. The state encouraged
the schools to apply for state grants to improve their curriculum. Schools
requesting the funding needed to submit a plan by September 1, 1999. The
district was looking at a number of options to improve outcomes for the
students at the impacted schools. The major concern was how to educate
these children to make learning meaningful. The obvious answer was to
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16
insure that English language learners (ELLs) were indeed learning strategies
for English language acquisition.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to present an analysis of teachers’
perceptions of the efficacy of P.L.A.Y., an instructional program designed for
English language development that uses music and movement as a catalyst
for language acquisition. The focus of this study is to ascertain if the P.L.A.Y.
program is viewed by the teachers in the study as a viable approach for
second language learners, specifically listening, speaking and English
language vocabulary development.
Research Questions
1. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective second
language models?
2. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective SDAIE
strategies?
3. What are the participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the state of California's Beginning Proficiency
Level of the English Language Development Standards?
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17
4. What are teachers' believed strengths and weaknesses of the
P.L.A.Y. staff development model in terms of inservice training,
teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?
These questions are the subjects of the data analysis and are further
discussed in the conclusions and recommendations portion of this study.
Importance of the Study
This study is important to educational researchers and practitioners.
California is shifting towards a standards-driven system that values
accountability and results. Programs that can motivate and encourage
children to learn and teach to the standards are necessary. Teachers need to
know that each lesson they teach has meaning and implications for results.
In this study, this equates to increased language acquisition including,
listening and speaking skills and English language vocabulary development.
Through this study, elementary principals will gain an increased
understanding of how their school site can use the P.L.A.Y. program to
improve the effectiveness of their school's ELD program. District level
administrators will gain an increased understanding of the P.L.A.Y. program
and the role of pairing internalization through vocalization with kinesthetic
learning to aid in second language acquisition. Administrative leadership
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18
programs might also use the findings from this study to prepare teachers.
This could include development of a workshop series for Beginning Teachers
Support and Assessment (BTSA) and Mentor Academies. This study will
contribute to better understanding of second language acquisition using a
music and movement-based approach.
Limitations
Data collection will be completed during a two-month association with
the five selected school sites. Others issues of student improvement
unrelated to ELD may exist and may not be expressed in this study.
Delimitations
This study will use qualitative data in a descriptive format. The data to
be gathered will be limited to five Southern California elementary schools that
have shown low performance on standardized test scores and district
multiple measures. The size of the sample is small and may limit the ability to
accurately generalize from the results obtained. The sample for this study
was not randomly selected, but purposefully selected in order to maximize
the value of the data obtained. The sample consists of fifty-one elementary
school teachers, and one administrator from each of the five sites.
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19
Assumptions
The teachers selected for this study have been involved in ongoing
staff development training and implementation of the P.L.A.Y. program. The
five site principals are fully cognizant of the program's design and goal for
second language acquisition. The teacher questionnaire, and interview
guides for both teachers and school site administrators will provide valid
data. The respondents to the study instruments are expected to be honest.
The data collected will be used to identify the teachers' perceptions of the
efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. program for second language acquisition, specifically
the use of pairing singing with movement.
Conceptual Assumptions of the Study: The following conceptual
assumptions were implicit in the study:
1. Teachers do not need to be gifted dancers or singers to implement
Project P.L.A.Y.
2. Teachers can implement Project P.L.A.Y. when given the proper
staff development training.
3. Teachers will be fully committed to improvement and enhancement
of their current teaching strategies for ELL.
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Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as
specified below:
Academic language. Language used in the teaching and learning of
academic subject matter in formal schooling. This type of language is
strongly associated with literacy and academic terms or technical languages
related to a field of study.
BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills). The language ability
required for face-to-face communication. This is often times referred to as
"playground English." BICS are generally more easily acquired than is
academic language proficiency.
BTSA (Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment Program). A
program that began in 1992 with passage of Senate Bill 1422. The program
identifies each new teacher's strengths and areas for growth through an
assessment process. Using the assessment results, the beginning teacher
and a support provider design an Individual Induction Plan to improve the
new teacher's skills.
CLAD/BCLAD. (Cross-cultural, language and academic
development/Bilinaual cross-cultural language, and academic development).
Education Code sections 44253.3 and 44253.4 require the California
Commission on Teacher Credentialing to issue certificates to teachers
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authorizing them to provide instruction to limited-English-proficient students.
There are two types of certificates: CLAD and BCLAD. These certificates
require applicants to take the following tests: Test 1- Language Structure and
First and Second Language Development; Test 2 - Methodology of Bilingual,
English Language Development and Content Instruction; Test 3 - Culture and
Cultural Diversity; Test 4 - Methodology for Primary Language Instruction;
Test 5 - The Culture of Emphasis; and Test 6 - The Language of Emphasis.
Teachers who pass the first three tests receive a CLAD Certificate. Those
who pass all six tests receive a BCLAD Certificate in one of the following
languages of emphasis: Armenian, Cantonese, Filipino, Hmong, Khmer,
Korean, Mandarin, Punjabi, Spanish or Vietnamese.
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). The language
ability required to perform academic tasks, such as comprehend classroom
lectures and reading assignments.
CSRD Program - Comprehensive School Reform Development
Program. CSRD Program is designed to enable all children, particularly
those enrolled in low-performing schools, meet content standards adopted by
the California State Board of Education. The USDE Guidance encourages
the Department to "target CSRD Title I funds on Title I schools that have
been identified as in need of improvement under section 1116(c)" of Title I. In
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22
California, these schools are referred to as Program Improvement (PI)
schools.
ESL (English as a Second Language). The teaching and learning of
English in communities where it is widely used for communication by the
population at large. Content-based ESL is a teaching approach used to
develop English language proficiency through concepts and themes from
various subject areas. There are several reasons for incorporating contents
in ESL instruction. First, content allows students to acquire important
knowledge in different subjects. Second, students can practice the language
functions and skills needed to understand, discus, read, and write the
concepts developed (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994)
ELD (English Language Development). This term is used
interchangeably with ESL.
English-Language Mainstream Classroom. A classroom in which the
pupils are native English language speakers or pupils who already have
acquired reasonable fluency in English.
ELL (English Language Learner). A student whose first language is
not English and who is learning English. Unlike other terms such as limited-
English proficient, the term English learner highlights a student's
accomplishments rather than his or her temporary deficits.
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FEP (Fluent-Enalish Proficient). A term applied to students whose
primary language is not English and who have met district criteria for
proficiency and literacy in English.
Internalization Through Vocalization. Used interchangeably with
singing.
K-2 Teacher. A teacher that teaches kindergarten, first, or second
grade.
Kinesthetic Learning. As used in this study, it describes fine and
gross muscular movements in response to visual, auditory and tactile
stimulation. It is used interchangeably with actions, gestures, and a
movement-based approach to learning.
LEP (Limited English Proficient). A term applied to students for whom
a primary language other than English is reported on the Home Language
Survey and who have been determined through state-approved oral
language testing (in kindergarten through grade 12) and literacy assessment
(grades three through 12) to lack the clearly defined English language skills
of listening comprehension, speaking, reading, and writing necessary to
succeed in the school's regular instructional program.
Performance Standards. Statements that attempt to specify the quality
of student performance at various levels of competency in the subject matter
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24
of the content standards. These standards specify how students must
demonstrate their knowledge skills and at what level.
P.L.A.Y.™ (Physical Learning Activities for Youngsters). A program
designed by this doctoral student that targets K-2 grade ELLs. P.L.A.Y.
employs the combination of music and movement for English language
development.
Sheltered English. In the law "structured English immersion" and
"sheltered English immersion" are used interchangeably.
SDAIE (Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English). The
teaching of grade-level subject matter in English specifically designed for
speakers of other languages. It is most appropriate for students who have
reached an intermediate or advanced level of proficiency in English
(speaking, comprehension, reading and writing) and who possess basic
literacy skills in their own language.
SEI (Structured English Immersion). A teaching process in which
most of the instruction ic conducted in English but delivered in a curriculum
structured so that communication is at the level the child can understand.
Lessons in mathematics and reading, for example, are conducted in English
but always at a level appropriate for the students. If necessary, teachers or
instructional aides define words, or repeat instructions in both English and
the child's native language (Baker & de Kanter, 1983).
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25
Title I. The U.S. Department of Education allocates Title I funds to
states based on U.S. Census estimates of children in poverty. California's
1998 Title I allocation was about $830 million, 11% of the $7.3 national Title I
budget. Approximately 4,800 schools (58%) in 833 (83%) of California's
school districts receive Title I funds. Title I funds are allocated by districts to
schools based on numbers of low-income students according to free and
reduced price meals and/or CalWorks (formerly known as Aid to Families
with Dependent Children). Title I is part of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), and is designed to help disadvantaged children meet
challenging content and student performance standards (California
Department of Education, 2001a).
Title VII. The United States Congress passed the Bilingual Education
Act in 1968 in recognition of the growing number of linguistically and
culturally diverse children enrolled in schools who, because of their limited
English proficiency, were not receiving an education equal to their English-
proficient peers. Now a part of the (ESEA), Title VII encourages the
development of programs in bilingual education, Emergency Immigrant
Education, and foreign language assistance. This is in an effort to provide
resources to assist in assuring that limited English proficient students have
the same opportunities to achieve high educational standards as all other
students (California Department of Education, 2001a).
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Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 has summarized the foundation for and the importance of
studying the link between second language acquisition and the use of a
music and movement-based approach. The following chapter, Chapter 2,
carefully reviews the current literature surrounding second language models,
kinesthetic learning paired with singing for second language acquisition,
SDAIE strategies and effective staff development models. The following
chapters, 3 and 4, then explain the design and execution of the study and
present the data collected by the study and the findings of the study. The
final chapter, Chapter 5, analyzes the data and addresses the four research
questions introduced in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents the literature reviewed for this study and
provides the foundation for the data collection and analysis in later chapters.
The chapter begins with an examination of Richards and Rodgers' (2000)
model for the description, analysis and comparison of language teaching
methods and presents an overview of the major approaches and methods of
current second language learning. The second section reviews learning
through music, singing and movement. The third section examines English
language learning through ELD and SDAIE programs. The fourth section
explores educational reform and staff development. Finally, an analysis of
the literature is provided which sets the stage for an inquiry into the link
between the theoretical and conceptual frameworks for the P.L.A.Y. program
design and implementation.
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28
Richards and Rodgers Model for the Description, Analysis and Comparison
of Language Teaching Methods
Throughout the history of language acquisition, different
methodologies have come into fashion, oftentimes, based on reactions to the
preceding method or theory. Current literature is sated with reference to
innovative methodologies such as those listed under the umbrella of the
communicative approach. Despite this evolutionary nature of one method
supplanting the predecessor, many different methodologies are being
practiced concurrently. Some have evoked a greater influence on the
teaching of language than others. Language acquisition theories fall into five
general categories: 1) those attempting a behavioristic explanation,
emphasizing the role of conditioning; 2) those attempting an interactionist
explanation, emphasizing communicative/social need, purpose and milieu; 3)
those attempting a cognitive explanation, emphasizing logical, intellectual
processes; 4) those attempting a nativist or biological explanation,
emphasizing inborn genetic abilities; and 5) those emphasizing the learner
and learner strategies (Schulz, 1991).
Second language learning has continually been a realistic concern. It
has been estimated that approximately 60 percent of today's world
population is multilingual. Both from a current and historical standpoint,
bilingualism and multilingualism is the norm rather then the exception
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(Richards & Rodgers, 2000). In 1963, American applied linguist, Edward
Anthony identified three levels of conceptualization and organization for the
understanding of the differences between a philosophy of language teaching
and procedures for teaching a language. The philosophy of language
teaching has theoretical roots while the later is procedural. According to
Anthony (1963) the arrangement is hierarchical. "The organizational key is
that techniques carry out the method which is consistent with the
approach...An approach is the set of correlative assumptions dealing with
the nature of language teaching and learning...A method is an overall plan
for the orderly presentation of language material...A technique is
implementational....Techniques must be consistent with a method, and
therefore in harmony with an approach (Anthony, 1963, p. 63-7).
Although Anthony's original proposal is simplistic in design and easy
to understand, according to Richards and Rodgers (2000) it fails to give
adequate attention to the nature of the method itself including the role of
teachers, learners, instructional materials and how an approach comes to
fruition through a method. Consequently, they revised Anthony's model
especially the terms method and technique and they refer to procedures for
the implementation phase or what Anthony termed technique.
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30
The original study by Anthony (1963) and the revised model (Richards
& Rodgers, 2000) for the description, analysis and comparison of language
teaching methods serve as the theoretical models for the purpose of this
research.
Approach
Approach refers to melding of theories about the nature of language
and language learning with practical application. Richards and Rodgers
(2000) list three different theoretical views of language. They include: 1) the
structural view; 2) functional view; and 3) interactional view. The structural
view is the most traditional and posits that language is a system of
structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. Phonological and
grammatical units and lexical operations are the target of language learning.
Audiolingualism, Total Physical Response and The Silent Way embrace the
structural view. The functional view depicts language as an instrument of
expression of functional meaning. This theory includes semantic and
communicative dimensions. Emphasis is on meaning and function rather
than grammatical characteristics. Communicative approaches fits within this
theory. The interactional view sees language as a conduit of interpersonal
relationships. Language becomes a device for the formation and
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preservation of social relationships. Interaction analysis and conversation
analysis embody the interactional viewpoint. Although the three viewpoints
provide the theoretical framework for individual methods, for a
comprehensive understanding of language learning they need to be
combined with language learning theories. A learning theory underlying an
approach or method is interested in the psycholinguistic and cognitive
processes involved in language learning and in the conditions that need to
be met in order for the process of learning to be activated. There are two
theory orientations: 1) process-oriented; and 2) condition-oriented. Process-
oriented theories are structured on learning processes that include habit
formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing and generalizations.
Condition-oriented theories stress a humanistic viewpoint (Richards &
Rodgers, 2000).
An approach focuses on theoretical principles. Language theory
focuses on a language competency model and the basic features of linguistic
organization and use of language. Learning theory concentrates on an
account of central processes of learning and the circumstances needed to
uphold successful language learning. Richards and Rodgers (2000) caution
that an approach does not stipulate a procedure nor does theory determine a
particular set of teaching techniques. It is their belief that the design is what
links theory with practice or approach with procedure.
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Design
Before an approach can lead to a method, an instructional systematic
design must be developed and needs to focus on: 1) method objectives; 2)
language content and organization; 3) types of learning tasks; 4) roles of
teachers, learners, and instructional materials (Richards & Rodgers, 2000).
Objectives for a language learning approach vary according to the
individual language learning theories. The specification of individual learning
objectives is a product of design, not of an approach. Objectives can be
process-oriented or product-oriented. Language content and organization
refers to the syllabus model the method employs. All language-learning
methods include the use of target language. Content issues involve the
principles of selection that comprise the syllabus adopted in a course or
program and include the instructional materials and grading process
(Mackey, 1965). Objectives are brought to fruition through the direct
interaction of the teachers, learners and instructional materials used in the
classroom, however, different philosophies at the level of approach will
dictate the use of different kinds of activities and different uses of the said
activities. Two different methods could possibly use the same type of activity
but be targeted for completely different objectives. Richards and Rodgers
(2000) cite the use of interactive games. In an Audiolingual classroom these
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33
games could be used as a break from the monotony of the pattem-practice
drill while in a communicative method, the interactive games could be used
to solicit a social interaction. Again, based on the method, both teachers and
learners' roles are closely linked and dictated by the language learning
assumptions at the level of approach. Depending on the method, the teacher
can be viewed as a facilitator, model, or in some instances, a program
design can attempt to "teacher-proof the instructional content and direction
into texts or lesson plans (Richards & Rodgers, 2000, p. 23). The role of
instructional materials mirrors decisions about the major goal of the materials
such as presentation and practice of the content and facilitatation of
interactional dialog). This also includes the form the materials take such as
text, audiovisual, computer software etc. Goals of the materials also reflect
the abilities of the teachers with regard to language competency, training and
experience.
Procedure
Procedure is the last level of conceptualization and organization
within a method. Procedure consists of the daily techniques, practices and
behaviors that occur in language teaching and learning. Procedure involves
the integration of tasks and activities into language lessons as a basis for
teaching and learning. There are three dimensions to a method at the level of
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34
procedure: 1) the use of teaching activities including drills and dialogs; 2) the
ways a specific teaching activity is used to practice the targeted language;
and 3) procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners.
Procedure highlights the manner a method carries out the presentation,
practice and feedback segments of teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2000).
The elements and sub elements that comprise a method and are
described under the rubrics of approach, design and procedure are
summarized in Figure 1 (Richards & Rodgers, 2000, p. 28). This model will
be used to examine the current language learning approaches as well as the
innovated method for this study.
Current Major Approaches and Teaching Methods for Language Learning
When most children enter the public school system, nearly all of them
are able to speak at least one language fairly fluently. They are able to ask
questions, speak in complete sentences, voice opinions and chatter on
seemingly endlessly using the proper syntactical, morphological, semantic
and phonological systems of their native language despite the fact that their
caregivers have not enlisted them in language learning courses, taught them
pattern drills or instructed them in the intricacies of subject-verb agreement.
There are several approaches and methods on how children acquire their
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35
first language including those that rise from the behaviorist and the
mentalist/nativist philosophies to those in the more recent communicative
approaches.
The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching (SLT)
The origins of this approach began in the 1920s and 1930s by British
applied linguists, Harold Palmer (1917) and A.S. Hornsby (1950). Both were
familiar with the Direct Method (Titone, 1968) of language learning that
utilized naturalistic principles of language learning including classroom
instruction conducted in the targeted language with emphasis on everyday
vocabulary and sentences, oral communication skills built on a careful
progression organized around a question and answer format, grammar was
taught inductively, concrete vocabulary taught through demonstration,
objects, and pictures, speech and listening comprehension was taught and
correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized. They sought to build
a more scientific foundation for an oral approach to teaching English then
were demonstrated in the Direct Method. The Oral Approach was further
developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s (Richards
& Rodgers, 2000). Although few teachers today are familiar with the Oral
Approach, this approach has shaped the design of many widely used ESL
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Figure 1
Summary of Elements and Subelements that Constitute a Method
Richards and Rodgers. 2000. p. 28
a. A theory of the nature of
language
• an account of the
nature of language
proficiency
• an account of the basic
units of language
structure
b. A theory of the nature of
language learning
• an account of the
psycholinguistic and
cognitive processes
involved in language
learning
• an account of the
conditions that allow for
successful use of these
processes
METHOD
APPROACH PROCEDURE DESIGN
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
The general and specific methods of the objectives
A syllabus model
• criteria for the selection and organization of
linguistic and/or subject-matter content
Types of learning and teaching activities
• kinds of tasks and practice activities to be
employed in the classroom and in materials
Learner roles
• types of learning tasks set for learners
• degree of control learners have over the content
of learning
• patterns of learner groupings that are
recommended or implied
• degree to which learners influence the learning
of others
Teacher roles
The roles of instructional materials
• primary function of materials
• the form materials take (e.g., textbook,
audiovisual)
• relation of materials to other input
• assumptions made about teachers and learners
Classroom techniques,
practices and behaviors
• Resources in terms of
time, space, and
equipment used by the
teacher
• Interactional patterns
observed in lessons
• Tactics and strategies
used by teachers and
learners when the method
is used
co
o >
37
programs, texts and courses, many still in use today (Alexander, 1967; Coles
and Lord, 1975; Hartley and Viney, 1979; Hubbard et al, 1983; O’Neil, 1973).
This approach continued to be popular in the 1980s because of the strong
emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns. The Oral
Approach can be characterized at the levels of approach, design and
procedure.
The Oral Approach or SLT embraces a type of British structuralism
that underlies the theory of language (Richards & Rodgers, 2000). Speech is
regarded as the basis of language and structure is viewed as being at the
heart of speaking ability (Richards & Rodgers, 2000, p. 35). The British
linguists view of structuralism is based on the notion of situation, thus the
approach became more widely known as the Situational Language Teaching
method. The idea is to present language as a purposeful activity related to
situations in the real world (Frisby, 1957).
The theory of learning underlying SLT is a type of behaviorist habit-
learning theory. Palmer (1957) stated that there are three processes in
language learning: 1) receiving the knowledge or materials, 2) fixing it in the
memory by repetition; and 3) using it in actual practice until it becomes a
personal skill (p. 136). Furthermore, explanation of word meaning is
discouraged. The learner is expected to deduce the meaning of the
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vocabulary from the situation in which it is presented and to also be able to
apply the language learned to situations outside of the classroom instruction
(Billows, 1961).
Like most language learning approaches, the objectives of the SLT
method stress the practical learning of the four basic skills of language
(listening, speaking, reading, writing) however; the skills are approached
through a structural hierarchy. Pittman (1963) explained, "Only when the
teacher is reasonably certain that learners can speak fairly correctly within
the limits of their knowledge of sentence structures and vocabulary may he
allow them free choice in sentence patterns and vocabulary (p. 188).
A structural syllabus and wordlist are key components to the teaching
of the SLT method. A structural syllabus is a list of basic structures and
sentence patterns of English, arranged according to the order in which the
sentences and vocabulary are presented (Frisby, 1957). Although the name
suggests that the language is taught basic to the situation, rather situation
refers to the manner of presentation and practice of the targeted language
(Richards & Rodgers, 2000). For example, a first lesson sentence pattern
might include, "This is ..." where the vocabulary might be, a book, pencil,
ruler etc (Frisby, 1957). The idea of "situation" then reflects the manner in
which the situation of language teaching is approached. In this case, it is
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39
carefully and methodically controlled. Pittman (1963) describes situation as
the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia combined with actions and
gestures to demonstrate the targeted language's meaning. Common
practice techniques involve guided repetition including chorus repetition,
dictation, and drills. Oral practice techniques are sometimes used and
include both partner and group work (Richards & Rodgers, 2000).
In SLT in the beginning learning stages the learner's responsibility is
to simply listen and repeat what the teacher says. The learner has no control
over the content. It is completely teacher-directed. In the later stages, the
learners can pair-up to participate in question and answer sessions in the
targeted language (Davies, Roberts, & Rossner, 1975). The teacher's role is
that of a model, facilitator and manipulator (Bryne, 1976). The teacher is
fully in charge setting the pace and presentation of the material(s) to be
learned. One of the teacher's main functions is to organize a review of the
lesson. This includes timing, oral practice, listening for grammatical errors
and correcting the mistakes.
Although the Situational Language Learning method s reliant on
textbook materials and visual aids, the teacher is essential for the success of
the method. The textbook only describes the activities for the teacher to
accomplish in the lesson focus. The textbook contains highly organized
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lessons planned around different grammatical structures. A variety of visual
aids are used including charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figures, etc. The
intent of this method is to move the learner from controlled to freer practice of
structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to a more automatic use in
speech, reading, and writing (Pittman, 1963). A typical lesson plan consists
of five parts: 1) pronunciation; 2) revision; 3) presentation of new structure or
vocabulary; 4) oral practice drill; and 5) reading of material on the new
structure or written exercise (Pittman, 1963, p. 173). In the following example
the structure being taught is "This is a ..." The teacher holds up a packet of
matches and says, "This is a packet of matches." The sentence is repeated
two to three times. The students are then directed to repeat the sentence
numerous times chorally and then individually. An essential component to
this method is the teacher's kit of realia that is used in the situational
language practice. Davies et al (1975) describe the sequence of activities
about teaching procedures for this method. They include: 1) listening
practice, 2) choral imitation; 3) individual imitation; 4) isolation of words,
sounds or groups of words that appear problematic for the learners; 5)
question and answer sessions to solicit new language learning patterns
based on prior patterns learned; 6) teacher elicitation of new patterns by the
use of actions, gestures, pantomime and prompt words; 7) substitution
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drilling using cue words, pictures and numbers to elicit students to move to a
new pattern; 8) question-answer drills; and 9) teacher correction.
The decline of the Situational Language Teaching method occurred in
the mid-1960s when British applied linguists began to question the
theoretical assumptions underlying this method. This stems in part from
American linguist Chomsky's classic book, Syntactic Structures (1957).
Audiolingual Method
The Audiolingual approach was also developed from the Direct
Method and was introduced in the 1950s. It was built on the theories of
language acquisition that are based on structural linguistics, behavioral
psychology and an oral-based approach to the learning of a second
language. This method encompasses a reaction against unscientific theories
such as the traditional grammar methods that preceded them. This reaction
was prompted by the an increased interest in non-European languages.
Linguists became immersed in a more practical interest in language study
including phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax development
(Richards & Rodgers, 2000). The Audiolingual methodology is founded on
grammatical sequence, with mimicry and the memorization of pattern driils,
but without the heavy grammatical analysis of the grammar-translation
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approach (Chastain, 1975). Language is viewed as the structured
progression of distinct linear units that are described in a pyramid-like
structure with phonemic systems leading to morphemic systems that lead to
the higher-level system of phrases, clauses and sentences (Richards &
Rodgers, 2000). A central principle of structural linguistics is the primary
medium of language is oral. Speech is language. This was in direct
opposition to the popular views of the relationship of the spoken and written
forms of language (Brooks, 1964). This scientific approach to language
analysis appeared to offer the foundation for a scientific approach to
language teaching. American linguist, William Moulton (1961) believed that
the linguistic principles on which language teaching methodology should be
built is speech, not writing. He stated that language is a set of habits and
encourages the teaching of the language, not about the language (Moulton,
1961).
Coupled with the structural empirically based approach of the theory
of language for the Audiolingual method is the behavioral psychology theory
of learning that was prominent during the 1950s. Behavioral psychologists
believe that humans as organisms are knowledgeable of an extensive gamut
of behaviors. Behavioral theory of learning is dependent on three critical
elements: 1) stimulus, which facilitates an elicitation of behavior; 2) response,
triggered by a stimulus; and 3) reinforcement, which serves to denote
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43
whether the response is positive or negative. If the response is positive in
most likelihood, the behavior will be repeated. However, if the response is
negative the behavior is suppressed or not likely to occur again (Brown,
1980; Skinner, 1957). In applying this theory of learning to the Audiolingual
method of language learning, the organism would be identified as the
language learner, the stimulus would be the target language, the response
would be signified by the learner's reaction to the stimulus and the
reinforcement constitutes the extrinsic approval and encouragement of the
teacher and/or classmates (see Figure 2). In this method, the approach is
seen through the lens of behavior psychology principles of stimulus-response
chains (Richards & Rodgers, 2000).
Figure 2
Representation of Stimulus-Response Chain
(Richards & Rodgers. 2000. p. 50)
Reinforcement
(behavior likely to occur again and
become a habit)
Stimulus -► Organism -♦ Response
Behavior
No reinforcement or
negative reinforcement
(behavior not likely to occur again)
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Audiolingualists approached the design of this method through a
complete reorientation of the second language curriculum. The objectives
were constructed around oral production and proficiency while rejecting the
study of grammar. The objectives in the Audiolingual method include
listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech
symbols as graphic signs on the printed page and ability to reproduce these
symbols in writing (Brooks, 1964, p. 111). Audiolingualism is a structure-
based approach to language teaching, therefore the starting point for the
criteria selection and organization of linguistic and subject matter content
contain the key items of phonology, morphology and syntax of the targeted
language. Language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking,
reading and writing (Fries, 1961).
The task of the teacher is to instill in the learners the grammatical patterns
existing in the targeted language. For children learning their first language
this is seen as fairly simplistic in that the child's mind (captured through this
approach) is a tabula rasae. Ultimately, with exposure to the language, adult
modeling and positive reinforcement, children will have ample opportunities
to acquire the habits of their first language (Larsen-Freeman, 1979). Second
language learning is more difficult. The habits from the first language having
been acquired must be overcome. The Audiolingual approach uses the
concept of overlearning; that is pattern-practice, structural drills, and dialogue
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memorization are used extensively to aid in building a new habit response
(Larsen-Freeman, 1979). This approach is characterized by the following: 1)
it is based on the unconscious mastery of sequenced grammatical forms; 2)
learning is the result of teaching patterned oral drills; 3) the emphasis is on
correct oral production of grammatical forms in response to oral stimuli; 4)
language skills are acquired in the natural sequence of listening, speaking,
reading and writing; and 5) there is no reference to the primary language
during instruction; 6) there is much use of tapes, language labs and visual
aids; 7) there is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the
course; 8) cultural background of the target language is stressed; 9)
successful responses are immediately reinforced; 9) great effort to prevent
student failure and; 10) there is a tendency to manipulate language and
ignore content (Finocchiaro, 1974; Praetor & Celce-Murcia, 1979).
Some behaviorists, specifically from the Audiolingual approach,
believe that children are like parrots- they listen then simply imitate. This
method uses the concept of overlearning; that is pattern-practice, structural
drills, and dialogue memorization are used extensively to aid in building a
new habit response (Larsen-Freeman, 1979). Children do in fact learn from
imitation, however, that does not explain the infant's early babblings or the
child's inability to imitate structures for which they have not yet developed
linguistic competence. Other behaviorists believe that children begin to
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46
produce correct utterances because they receive positive reinforcement for
saying something correctly and negative reinforcement for saying something
incorrectly. A large problem with this theory is that for the most part,
caregivers rarely reinforce grammar at all. Parents and caregivers generally
respond to the content of the message, not the grammatical form (Dulay,
Burt, & Krashen, 1982; Fromkin & Rodman, 1978).
Audiolingualism was most popular in the 1960s, however the decline
of this method was both from practical and theoretical standpoints.
Practitioners found that the results fell short of expectations. Furthermore,
students had trouble transferring the structural behavioristic learning tasks to
real communication outside of the classroom and many found the material
and procedures boring (Richards & Rogers, 2000). The theoretical assault
resulted from the changes in American linguistic theory specifically lead by
Noam Chomsky's theory of transformational grammar (Linguistic Universals
or Universal Grammar Theory) which posits that the fundamental properties
of language derive from innate aspects of the mind and from how humans
process experience through language (Chomsky 1957/1965). Through this
lens, language development is viewed as a creative construction, aligned
with mentalist/nativist tradition. The Transformational-Generative
Grammatical theory explains language acquisition by hypothesizing a
shared, innate, biological, linguistic component in the genetic make-up of
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humans that accounts for universally shared linguistic features. Stated simply
it recognizes that language is limited to humans and it is a function of the
human brain. Chomsky challenged behavioristic language acquisition
theories and phrase-structure grammars by stating that language learning is
not a matter of habit and conditioning but more a creative, rationalistic,
cognitive activity rather than a response to an outside stimuli (Chomsky,
1965). He believed the child is born already knowing a great deal of
language. The child is not a tabula rasae but is already pre-wired for
language acquisition. This theory holds that a child is born with all the
mechanisms of universal grammar available and that the right environmental
input at the right time furthers the acquisition process (McLaughin, 1987;
Schulz, 1991). Chomsky hypothesized that in acquiring the first language,
people possess a language acquisition device (LAD) that contains a
universal grammar. Language acquisition proceeds when the child gets the
right input (see Figure 3) (Chomsky, 1965).
Figure 3
Chomsky's Universal Grammar Theory
Input + Language Acquisition Device (LAD) + Competence
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Chomsky argued that the learning theory that the Audiolingual method
was based on was not a true model of how humans learn. He believed that
learning was not imitated behavior but rather created anew from underlying
knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not learned by imitation and
repetition but "generated" from the learner’s underlying "competence"
(Richards and Rodgers, 2000, p. 59). With this theory, the Audiolingual
paradigm of pattern-practice, drill and memorization was challenged.
Practitioners and students alike recognized that language-like behaviors did
not result in competency. Between the theoretical and practical concerns of
Audiolingualism, American language teaching has led to a period of
adaptation, innovation and experimentation. Some are new methods
independent of current linguistic and second language theory such as Total
Physical Response (TPR) and the Silent Way while others are derived from
contemporary language theories and include The Natural Approach and
Communicative Language Teaching.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
During the early-1970s communicative models of language acquisition
were introduced. At first these methods were not widely adopted. Language
teachers were disillusioned with past unsuccessful methods, or they simply
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49
didn't understand the technique or they were disenchanted with having to
learn yet another new method (Hammond, 1988b). However this method
gained popularity as more and more language teachers from elementary
grades to adult education began refusing to accept the inefficacy of
grammar-based approaches turning increasingly to communicative
instruction. The origins of CLT come from changes in the British methods of
language learning. At about same time as American linguists began
questioning the Audiolingual approach, British linguists began to doubt the
theoretical principles of SLT (Howatt, 1984). Besides the interest in
Chomsky's Universal Grammar Theory, British linguists began to embrace a
functional and communicative prospective of language. This is an
antistructural view of a more general learning perspective often referred as
"learning by doing" or "the experience approach" (Hilgard & Bower, 1966).
Central to this method is the notion of direct rather than delayed practice of
communicative acts. Common to all versions of CLT is a theory of language
teaching that starts from a communicative model of language and language
use and that seeks to translate this into a design (Richards & Rodgers,
2000).
CLT starts from a theory of language as communication (Brumfit, &
Johnson, 1979; Candlin, 1976; Firth, 1957; Halliday, 1970; Johnson, 1982;
Littlewood, 1981; Widdowson, 1978). Proponents of this method see CLT as
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a linguistic means to perform different functions such as using language to
get things, to control the behavior of others, as a means of verbal interaction
and expression of feelings, to learn and discover and to communicate
information (Halliday, 1970). At the level of language learning, CLT has a
diverse theoretical foundation. Some of the characteristics include: 1)
language is paramount to the expression of meaning; 2) the primary function
of language is interactive communication; 3) the structure of language
considers its functional and communicative uses; and 4) the key element of
language is functional and communicative meaning (Richards & Rodgers,
2000).
Although CLT has a rich and varied theory of language learning, little
has been written about the learning theory behind this method, however
three principles of an underlying theory can be determined. These include: 1)
communicative principle- activities that involve real communication promote
learning; 2) task principle- activities which language is used for carrying out
meaningful tasks; and 3) meaningful principle-language that is meaningful to
the learner supports the learning process (Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981).
According Piepho (1981), CLT holds the following objectives: 1)
language is a means of expression; 2) language is an object of learning; 3)
language is a means of expressing values and judgments; and 4) language
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provides remedial learning. The syllabus for this method embraces a
communicative task or procedural design that reflects types of tasks to be
attempted in the classroom and suggests an order for the complexity of the
tasks, task specification and task organization (Prabhu, 1983). The types of
learning and teaching activities revolve around communicative processes
such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction
(Allwright, 1977; Byrne, 1978; Geddes & Sturtridge, 1979; Johnson, 1982;
Wright, 1976). The emphasis is on communication processes not the
mastery of language forms. According to Breen and Candlin (1980) the
learner's role is that of a negotiator-between self, the learning process and
the classroom. Since the learner is expected to interact with other learners
rather than the teacher, this method has received criticism based on the lack
of texts, lack of grammar rules, lack of opportunities for grammatical
correction, all which can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-
Stanchina & Riley, 1978) In CLT, the teacher's primary roles are that of a
facilitator of the interactive communicative process and participant in the
learning-teaching group. Other roles include needs analyst, counselor and
group process manager (Breen & Candlin, 1980).
CLT uses three types of instructional materials: 1) text-based; 2) task-
based; and 3) realia. Text-based materials are unlike the traditional textbook
and offer guidance and activities for pair-share communication. Task-based
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materials follow the ideas set forth in the text by offering a variety of games,
role plays, simulations and other task-based communication activities. Realia
refers to authentic real-life materials. These might include signs, magazines,
newspapers, maps, pictures, models and graphs (Morrow & Johnson, 1979;
Watcyn-Jones, 1981)
The foundation of CLT is based on concepts, theories, and
hypotheses that have converged around the interaction of constructivist
notions about making meaning. Although Vygotsky is not a key theorist of the
communicative approach, his theory of the zone of proximal development
(ZPD) (1978) fits within this approach. ZPD is defined as "’the distance
between the actual development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined
through problem solving under adult guidance in collaboration with more
capable peers" (Crawford, 1994, p.79). The communicative approach also
borrows another key concept from Vygotsky called scaffolding. Teachers
using the communicative model utilize scaffolding as a base to support and
encourage language learners. This model looks at language acquisition
through a constructivist lens whereby the student acquires the language in a
meaningful context, not in a fragmented, systematic fashion (Crawford,
1994).
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Swan (1985) takes a critical look at CLT and raises some interesting
questions about teaching training, materials development and testing and
evaluation. Most pressing is the question about the vast chasm between the
suitability of CLT procedures and the reality that students are still being
tested on grammar-based examinations.
Total Physical Response (TPR)
Asher’s (1966) Total Physical Response (TPR) technique is another
well-known second language instruction method used in the communicative
approach. It is a language teaching method that couples the coordination of
speech with physical actions. Language teachers for years have relied on
TPR as one of the most effective methods for long-term retention of
vocabulary. Popularized in the 1960’s and 1970's, TPR allows students to
acquire vocabulary in a manner similar to how a child learns his or her first
language. All language input is immediately comprehensible, oftentimes
hands-on, and allows students to pass through a silent period whereby they
build a comprehension base before ever being asked to speak. Once
language is internalized, production emerges, thus setting TPR apart from
traditional "listen-and-repeat" Audiolingual methods. To date the TPR
program has been researched extensively and is used worldwide for second
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language fluency. Some results have shown that the TPR students not only
achieve greater listening comprehension but also greater reading
comprehension than control groups despite the fact that reading is not
specifically taught. In one study the TPR students acquired these skills five
times faster than the control group (Krashen, 1998b).
The learning theory behind TPR is formulated through three learning
hypotheses: 1) There exists a specific innate bio-program for language
learning which defines an optimal path for first and second language
development. 2) Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the
left- and right-brain hemispheres. 3) Stress intervenes between the act of
learning and what is to be learned; the lower the stress, the greater the
learning (Richards & Rodgers, 2000, p. 90)
Bio programming refers to Asher's beliefs that TPR infuses current
brain research and brain-compatible learning with the importance of a
kinesthetic response. The brain is hard-wired to acquire language. Asher
calls this language-body-language conversations. TPR follows a
developmental hypothesis starting with the way in which a baby learns
language (Asher, 1977). The infant first listens to the caregiver’s speech and
then responds with the appropriate physical action. This signals
comprehension by the child. For example, when the caregiver says, “Look at
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mommy,” the baby responds by turning their eyes towards the voice. This
behavior is evidenced in other actions like reaching and grasping for a rattle,
smiling, pointing etc. There is also the emotionally factor. Think of the delight
of the caregiver when they say, “ Touch my nose,” and the baby responds
appropriately. Although the child does not utter English language, (s)he is
internalizing the sounds and patterns. Asher goes on to state that in all
cultures and recorded history there is no deviation to this pattern for
language acquisition. Language production always lags behind
comprehension. There is neurological evidence that the blueprints or neural
pathways are the same for all ages. Because of this, TPR can be an
advantageous method during the initial or preproduction stage of language
acquisition. Students can internalize the second language through language-
body-language conversations. The skill of listening first may be a blueprint or
linguistic map for directions to actual speech. He also believes that the
Audiolingual method is not student friendly and frequently may be an
unlearnable task for many students (Asher, 1972).
His latest research infuses the brain hemisphere theory of right and
left-brain. He contends that traditional textbook learning for language
involves left-brain hemisphere learning that is analytical, logical and
mathematical. He believes second language learning should first be
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processed with the right hemisphere by learning that involves images,
feelings, spatial concepts and music (Asher, 1981).
Asher further postulates that one cannot teach a child to learn a
language. A child learns language when they are ready. His contention is
that production-driven approaches (teaching children to talk, read or write)
do not work. He believes that TPR is effective because it is aptitude free,
requires no age barriers and is stress-free. His work includes research with
multiply languages. An alarming study of voluntary students enrolled in a
foreign language class supports this theory. Only 4% of students retained
foreign language fluency over time while 96% of the students gave up or
didn’t think that they could learn a foreign language (Asher, 1993).
Unlike the pattern-practice Audiolingual method, TPR involves having
students listen to a command(s) in the foreign language and then
immediately respond with the appropriate physical action. Asher contends
that second language acquisition follows the same rules of first language
acquisition. That is, a child first comprehends the language and later, much
later, actually produces it.
TPR can continue to be valuable after students have transitioned to
speaking, reading and writing because this strategy continues to aid in
internalization of vocabulary terms and grammatical features. Also with this
approach, there is long-term language retention, which in turn is a motivator
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57
for both the teacher and the student. This fits with the guidelines of integrated
or infusion of the main learning modalities of visual (I see it), auditory (I hear
it) and kinesthetic (I do it). Once a child “captures" the learning, (s)he owns it.
Activities using the TPR technique reflect this philosophy through stages of
comprehensible input (teacher’s yes/no questions, guided practice,
independent practice, challenge and expansion). It is recommended that
students internalize with TPR all the words and phrases possible.
Asher (1984) recommends six criteria for evaluating innovative
instructional strategies. The first is survival of the normal curve. Generally,
TPR instruction has resulted in higher motivation and level of language
proficiency. Second, there must be representative data. He suggests that the
data is drawn from public schools because the results would be more
generalizable. Almost all the studies with TPR were conducted in the
laboratory or in public schools and universities. The third criterion is
replication. It must be simple enough to replicate. TPR has been replicated
around the world because of the simplicity. The fourth criterion is
uniqueness. TPR is unique because it simulates the process of first language
acquisition, but at a speeded-up rate. This is called language-body
transactions. The fifth criterion is commonality. It is important that the
innovative strategy share some common traits with other learning strategies.
Although TPR is more right-brained while traditional language strategies are
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Audiolingual and left-brain oriented, TPR shares a commonality with other
right-brain strategies including the various communicative approaches, The
Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972), Suggestopedia (Lozanov, 1978), and The
Natural Approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). The final criterion is
effectiveness based on formal studies. The formal study aspect keeps the
study from pitfalls of “ selective perception." TPR has been researched and
studied for over 25 years.
TPR has enjoyed popularity because of its support by theorist like
Krashen who embrace the concept of reduction of stress and
comprehensible input, however criticism of this method include the fact that
TPR seems to attend to only the beginning stages of second language
learning. The criticism often springs from the lack of relevance of the
classroom procedures to real-life. To be noted, Asher himself states that TPR
should be used in association with other methods and techniques and is
justly compatible with other language learning approaches.
The Silent Way
The Silent Way, (Gattegno, 1972) is a method of language teaching
that reflects the influence of the cognitive theory of learning. Gattegno is
known for his use of cuisenaire rods (colored wooden sticks) and for his
approach to the teaching of reading. The Silent Way is a misnomer in that
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59
students do in fact produce oral statements however the level and amount of
responses is less than in the traditional Audiolingual approach. Instead of
repeating words and phrases, the students are motivated to think and say the
appropriate sentence(s) to complement actions executed under the teacher's
tutelage. The silent spaces void of language are meant to be filled with the
mental activity of thinking in the targeted language and mentally rehearsing
words and phrases to create new sentences. The main characteristic of this
seemingly metaphysical approach is the intense concentration the students
employ in watching their peers and instructor's actions and listening intently
to their speech. The benefit of the Silent Way is that it unites a high level of
mental involvement and interest with authentic use of the language (Newton,
1979). This approach has much in common with other learning theories and
educational philosophies. Three learning hypotheses that Gattegno follows
are: 1) learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather then
remembers and repeats way is to be learned. This approach follows closely
the work of educational psychologist and philosopher, Jerome Bruner (1966).
Bruner's influence is noted in Gattegno's discovery learning style. The Silent
Way views learning as a problem solving, creative, discovering activity in
which the learner is an active participant. 2) Learning is facilitated by
accompanying physical objects. The rods and color-coded pronunciation
charts provide physical foci for student learning and memory. Stevick (1976)
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noted that these rods serve as associative mediators for learning and recall.
These associative mediators produce better results than repetition (p. 25).
3) Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be
learned. The Silent Way is a problem-solving approach and embraces the
words of Benjamin Franklin: Tell me and I forget, teach me and I remember,
involve me and I learn. A guiding principle is respect for the students'
capacity to work out language problems and recall information on their own
with no verbalization and minimal help from the teacher. The teacher does
not answer any questions, which stimulates students to engage in
cooperative learning, guiding and assistance from one another. Gattegno
believes students should make mistakes and through these mistakes learn.
Gattegno intently avoids repetition thus allowing students to concentrate and
become responsible, independent and autonomous learners (Gattegno,
1976).
The Silent Way takes a structural approach to the language learning.
Language is seen as groups of sounds associated with specific meanings
and organized into sentences, or meaningful grammatical units. Language is
taught through artificial situations and symbolically illustrated through the use
of the colored rods. Vocabulary is the central element of this approach.
Gattegno departs from the theory of learning that states first and second
language learning is similar. He believes that the second language learner
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cannot leam another language in the same manner as the first. Because of
this, he suggests an artificial environment that is strictly controlled (Gattegno,
1972). Artificial environment is based on the principle that the second
language learner first begins with silent awareness and then progresses to
active trial.
The general objective of the Silent Way is to give beginning level
students oral and aural competence in basic elements of the target language.
The syllabus assumes a structural pattern with lessons planned around
grammatical items and related vocabulary. Learning and teaching activities
focus on encouraging student oral responses. Charts, rods and other visual
aids may be used to solicit learner responses. The learner's role is to be a
responsible and independent learner. Interaction between peers is
encouraged, as is a cooperative rather than a competitive spirit. The
teacher's role is interesting in that there is little modeling. Matter-of-fact, they
must demonstrate a great deal of self-restraint. Stevick (1980) characterizes
the teacher's task as to teach, test and then get out of the way (p. 56). The
teacher's main function is as a neutral observer, however the teacher can
use charts, gestures, manipulatives and other realia along with creative
gestures, drama and pantomime to elicit student responses and learning.
The lesson plans follow a standard format. The first part focuses on
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62
pronunciation. At first the teacher models the sounds, and later simply points
to the symbol on the chart.
Although this method seems like a departure from traditional language
learning methods, The Silent Way reflects SLT and Audiolingual qualities
with a strong emphasis on accurate repetition of modeled words and
sentences. What distinguishes this method is the manner in which classroom
activities are organized and the silence required by the teacher in
disseminating the material and the learner's responsibility to figure out and
discern how the language works.
The Natural Approach
One of the best-known communicative approaches for language
acquisition is the Natural Approach originally formulated by Terrell (1977).
This approach is defined as traditional in nature and is based on the use of
language in communication situations with no reference to grammatical
analysis, correction or grammar theory. The Natural Approach is believed to
conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful second language
acquisition (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). This approach has three major
characteristics: 1) classroom activities focus on acquisition, consisting of
subconscious absorption of language rather than explicit knowledge of
grammar; 2) oral errors are not directly corrected; and 3) learners have the
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choice of responding in the target language, native language or a mixture of
the two. Terrell later collaborated with Krashen (1983) to build a theoretical
foundation for the Natural Approach and includes the following four
principles: 1) comprehension precedes production; 2) production emerges in
stages ranging from non-verbal responses to complex discourse. Students
speak when they are ready. Errors are not corrected. Grammar is not
corrected; 3) the curriculum consists of communicative goals such as topics
of interest to the students; and 4) these activities must lead to low-anxiety in
an effort to lower the students' affective filter.
Krashen and Terrell believe communication is the primary function of
language. Although they reject earlier language teaching methods such as
Audiolingualism, they view language learning as mastery of structures by
stages. Krashen (1983) adds to this by stating that "we acquire in only one
way, by understanding messages in the second language that utilize
structures we have not yet acquired. If an acquirer proceeds along an order
of acquisition of structures; 1 2 3 4 ...I, where I is his or her current stage
of development, he or she can proceed to the next structure 1+1 by
understanding input that contains 1 + 1" (p. 43). Richards & Rodgers (2000)
equate Krashen's concept of structures to what other linguists such as Fries
(1945) meant by structures. The Natural Approach can be seen as a
linguistic hierarchy of structural intricacy that a student would master as they
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proceeded through experiences with input containing structures at the I + 1
level.
The theory of learning for this approach is embedded in Krashen's
view of second language acquisition. Krashen's Monitor Model is one of the
most widely known and controversial theories. It consists of five key system
of beliefs: 1) Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis - It is Krashen's belief that
learners have two ways to develop language. First is through acquisition and
the second is by learning. Acquisition is subconscious and happens through
natural interactions. Learning requires conscious effort, thought and analysis.
This is typically done during formal instruction; 2) The Monitor Hypothesis
holds that formal learning has no effect on acquisition except as a monitor for
the learner's output and provided, a) there is ample time; b) the focus is on
form rather than meaning; and c) the learner knows the grammatical rule in
question; 3) The Natural Order Hypothesis was inspired by Universal
Grammar and Interlanguage Theory. It maintains that we acquire
grammatical structures in a predictable fashion not determined by the order
in which they are taught (Krashen, 1994); 4) The Input Hypothesis refers to
his belief that humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding
messages. Krashen (1982) calls this comprehensible input (Cl). He states
that we acquire language when we understand what people tell us or what
we read when we absorb the message. He further postulates that we acquire
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language when we understand messages containing aspects of language
that we are developmental^ ready to acquire but have not yet acquired
(Krashen, 1997); 5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis - Coupled with the
comprehensible input aspect, Krashen argues that certain affective factors
are conducive to acquiring language. Put simply, acquisition progresses best
when the acquirer's level of anxiety is low and self-confidence is high. In
other words, when the acquirer's affective filter is down they are best
prepared to acquire the new language. Cl content is based on activities and
lessons that students find interesting and comprehensible (Crawford, 1994).
The Natural Approach is for beginning second language learners and
is built around the learner's needs, skills and level being taught (Richards &
Rodgers, 2000). The syllabus includes goals that develop basic oral and
written communication skills. Content selection and delivery should be
presented in an environment that creates a low affective filter by being
interesting and cultivates a friendly, relaxed milieu (Krashen & Terrell, 1983).
The techniques for learning are often borrowed from other methods and
include command-based activities from TPR; Direct Method activities
including mime, gesture and context used to elicit questions and answers,
and situation based practices of structures and patterns. Cooperative group
work that is similar to CLT is also employed.
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In the Natural Approach, the learner's role is viewed as a language
acquirer that processes comprehensible input and seen to change according
to their linguistic developmental stage. Language learning is a complex
process that encompasses academic and cultural knowledge as well as
basic communicative skills. Learners progress through various
developmental stages in a predictive manner (Terrell, 1977). In the beginning
stages, students are not expected or required to respond in the second
language. This is considered a time of absorption. If they do respond and
make mistakes, their errors are not corrected. Speech is allowed to emerge.
According to the language acquisition theory, speech is the result of
acquisition, not the cause (Krashen, 1997, p. 10). In natural approach
activities, students are not called on individually. The method uses what
Terrell calls random volunteered responses (Krashen, 1997). Students can
respond at any time, sometimes in unison with other students.
Stage One is Pre-Production. In this stage the student is simply trying
to make sense of the language and gain familiarity with the sounds, rhythms
and patterns. They may understand chunks of the language. They often
respond non-verbally by using various gestures like pointing and nodding.
They rely on pictures in books for their understanding of the story. The
second stage is Early Production. It is characterized by increased confidence
with the new language including listening with greater comprehension, and
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the repetition of memorable language. The third stage is Speech Emergence.
In this stage the student shows evidence of increased understanding and
speaks with less hesitation. In stages four and five, the Intermediate and
Advanced Fluency stages, the student uses a more extensive vocabulary,
demonstrates increased levels of accuracy in writing and speaking, and can
explore concepts in subject matter in depth. As the student progresses
through the stages (s)he demonstrates higher order thinking skills. For
example, in the Early Production Stage, the student can identify people,
places and objects while in the Speech Emergence Stage, they can explain,
describe, compare and retell information. In the final stages they can
persuade, evaluate and critique (Krashen, 1997).
The Natural Approach teacher has three distinct roles. 1) The teacher
is the primary source of comprehensible input in the target language; 2) The
teacher creates an environment that is student-friendly; and 3) The teacher
must present rich and varied classroom activities including changing group
sizes content and context. The main purpose of instructional materials is to
make learning meaningful-make it comprehensible. Materials are derived
from realia that is common rather than using textbooks. Pictures, charts,
maps, and other visual aids are used-all to solicit communication. The
procedures used in this method are not unique and follow those from SLT,
CLT, TPR and other methods already described. What is central to the
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68
procedures is that throughout all activities the teacher supplies a continuing
flow of comprehensible input.
Krashen (1982) also hypothesized that there is an involuntary
rehearsal process that is the result of the language acquisition device (LAD)
at work, it is caused by comprehensible input which contains at least some
I + 1 structures. Din in the Head is described by Barber (1980) as an
involuntary rehearsal of second language words and phrases that occurs
with exposure to a second language in natural situations. The Din is a
widespread phenomenon that occurs in second language learners who are
still in the process of acquiring but will be less prevalent in highly competent
second language users. There are numerous empirical studies supporting
the Din Phenomenon (Bedford, 1985; de Guerrero, 1987; Parr & Krashen,
1986; Sevilla (1996). Bedford (1985) found that involuntary rehearsal was
reported more frequently after aural comprehensible input (conversations in
class, classroom drills and after listening to the targeted language and less
frequently after grammar study. In de Guerrero's (1987) study one of the
questions solicited was if the participants heard the Din in other situations?
One of the most frequent answers was "after hearing songs in English" (p.
541). de Guerrero stated that overall the study showed that involuntary
mental rehearsal of the second language has positive effects on the acquirer.
This may have occurred because of the practical aspect of providing the
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students with more practice time. Or it may stem from an emotional aspect
where the students have greater confidence in speaking the language, are
less afraid and more desirous to use it (p. 554)
Sevilla (1996) conducted a study about involuntary rehearsal with
children in grades 4-6, ages 8-12 who was recently reclassified as fluent
English proficient. When interviewed a child told a story that included that by
the first week of school she started hearing English words and sentences
swimming in her head. Words and sentences increased each day and she
began to discover that speaking English became easier (p. 102).
Further, Krashen reports that the Din doesn't just happen in language
acquisition. There is also a Din Phenomenon in music. Jingles and songs
often stick in one's head. There is also a visual Din. Artists have been known
to say that they cannot get their paintings out of their head. And, there is the
kinesthetic Din that an athlete or dancer experiences as they practice the
moves inside their head.
Much research has been conducted on the comprehensible input
hypothesis. Krashen and others have found that students in comprehensible
input-based classes typically perform better then the traditional methods on
all measures involving communication (reading comprehension,
conversation) and do as well or slightly better, on form-based tests (see
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70
Asher's studies, summarized in Asher, 1994; Hammond, 1988a; Nicola,
1989; Nikolov, 1995; Swaffer & Woodruff, 1978; Wolfe & Jones, 1982.
The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis is the opposite of The
Instruction Hypothesis that states that we acquire language by first learning
rules and vocabulary items consciously and then practicing them until they
become automatic. Krashen disputes this hypothesis for three specific
reasons. First, the system of grammar that needs to be acquired is too
complex to be learned "consciously." Second, there are many cases of
people who have developed high levels of proficiency in both second
language and literacy without instruction and third, studies support the facts
that grammar teaching is limited and short-term (Krashen, 1992, 1993).
The second rival hypothesis is the Comprehensible Output (CO)
Hypothesis developed by Swain (1985). Krashen (1998a) quotes Swain's
declaration that CO claims that we acquire language when there is a
communicative breakdown and we are pushed to use alternative means to
get across...the message...precisely, coherently, and appropriately (Swain,
1985, pp. 248-249). This is in direct opposition to the Input Hypothesis in that
in order to produce output, one needs to speak, read and write the targeted
language. Oftentimes in language classes students actually speak
infrequently and write even less (Krashen, 1998a, 1997, 1994). Furthermore,
Krashen (1998a) cites various studies that clearly show that pushing
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students to speak is unpleasant and one of the most anxiety-provoking tasks
in foreign language classes (Loughrin-Sacco, 1992; Price, 1991; Young,
1990).
Nonetheless, Higgs and Clifford (1982) make strong claims about
second language acquisition, among them the grammatical accuracy
hypothesis (GAH) which states that grammatical accuracy must be stressed
and presumably taught deductively from a cognitive approach and learned
(not acquired) by students, before communicative modes of language
instruction can be safely undertaken yet there are numerous studies that
dispute this method (Chastain, 1987; Duiay, Burt & Krashen, 1982; Horwitz,
1986; Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Lightbrown, 1983; Stevick, 1983). It must be
noted that there is definitely a place for grammatical explanation and
grammatical accuracy but it is not in the beginning or intermediate classes
(Stevick, 1983, p. 16). Higgs and Clifford go so far as to state that language
teaching methodology that stresses communicative activities before students
have learned (not acquired) grammar may lead to the development of a
pidginized or fossilized grammatical interlanguage, what they describe as
terminal 2/2+, a score certain applicants receive on the 5-point Foreign
Service Institute (FSI) scale of language mastery which is characterized by
high vocabulary and low grammatical competence. Such learners find it
difficult if not impossible to advance beyond this stage and are hence
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72
classified as terminal. They base their ideas on the psychological principle of
proactive interference and believe that because of this fossilized incorrect
patterns of language, the students will be doomed to terminal 2/2 +
(Hammond, 1988b). Unfortunately, for Higgs and Clifford there is little data
to support their notions. There are however, numerous factors that could
produce the terminal 2/2+ besides fossilization. There are a number of
studies that illustrate that many affective variables are critically important for
second language acquisition (Guiora et al, 1975; Krashen, 1982; Krashen &
Terrell, 1983; Lozanov, 1978). Additionally, developmentally errors are far
more important in second language acquisition then interference errors
caused by the structure of a student's first language (Dulay & Burt, 1974;
Ervin-Tripp, 1974; LoCoco, 1975; Politzer& Ramirez, 1973; White, 1977).
And, finally one has to consider the concept of "linguistic planning" that is
observed in language students who advance at a rapid rate only to plane at a
certain level and in some cases actually decrease in their language
acquisition (Hammond, 1988b).
Despite all the controversy that surrounds The Natural Approach it is
not really a revolutionary method but rather evolutionary in its choice of
procedures. Where the approach is unique is in the method that emphasizes
comprehensible and meaningful practice activities rather than on adherence
to strict grammatical perfection.
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73
The Lozanov Method
The Lozanov Method (Lozanov, 1978) often referred to as
Suggestopedia is a communicative approach developed by Bulgarian
educator, Georgi Lozanov. Major features of this method include a relaxed
learning environment with teachers trained as actors and psychologists who
suggest the meaning of words through actions and gestures (Crawford,
1994). In an effort to reduce anxiety, the focus of the approach is similar to
Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis.
There is no expressed theory of language for this method however
there is a strong allegiance to communication and vocabulary memorization
(Lozanov, 1978). Suggestion is the focal point of Suggestopedia. Suggestion
is distinguished from hypnosis in that it refers to the loading of memory banks
with desired and facilitating memories. The objective of Suggestopedia is to
deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly (Richards & Rodgers,
2000). The most important goal for this approach is the memorization of
vocabulary pairs. The syllabus consists of ten units and lasts thirty days.
Learning through this approach is built on a particular type of music
and a particular rate of presentation. Suggestopedia utilizes a slow steady
beat (sixty beats per minute) preferring Baroque music, which he insists
causes the body to relax, and the mind to become alert (Ostrander et al,
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74
1979). The learner’s role is one of commitment to the course and activities.
The mental state of the learners is crucial to success. Stress is de-
emphasized- learning is meant to be relaxing. The learner is to participate
completely in the concept of infantilization. This is a process that assumes
the teacher-student relationship to be one more like a parent to child. The
learners engage in a variety of activities and games to stimulate self-
confidence, spontaneity and the receptivity of the child (Bancroft, 1978).
Groups of learners sit in a circle to encourage face-to-face interaction and
participation. The teacher's role is to create situations where the learner is
likely to be receptive to learning. A Lozanov trained teacher is expected to be
skilled in acting, singing and psychotherapeutic techniques (Bancroft, 1978).
Materials include texts, audiotapes and music. Unlike other language
learning methods, the learning environment plays an instrumental role in
Suggestopedia. Reclining chairs arranged in a circle are a customary fixture
in the classroom. Central to this method is music and musical rhythm to
learning. Through this communicative approach Lozanov introduced a
learning strategy called concert reading. This technique incorporates
purposeful use of music as a carrier of planned content by creating an effect
like a movie soundtrack. Content is presented in accompaniment with
dramatic background music. Lozanov discovered that concert reading opens
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75
learning pathways, reaching the nonconscious while activating long-term
memory (Jensen, 2000b).
Scoval (1979), a critic of Suggestopedia wrote in the TESOL Quarterly
that little will be learnt from the pseudo-science of suggestology (p. 265).
Scoval maintains that this approach lacks scholarly research and scientific
credibility and takes special offense to Lozanov's claims and misuse of
scholarly citations and terminological jargon.
This approach is not widely used in elementary and secondary
schools but is included in the review of the literature because it supports the
use of music and relaxed learning.
Summary of Language Teaching Approaches and Methods
Seven language-learning models were examined in terms of
background, approach, design and procedure. The use of a common
analytical model allowed for an understanding of the similarities and
differences of each of the approaches. One level of application of this model
is in the comparison of methods. For this study, it will compare the various
methods to P.L.A.Y. in the analysis section of this chapter. Next, the review
examines learning through music, singing and movement-based studies.
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Learning Through Music, Singing, and Movement
Learning Through Music and Songs
Central to any given culture is music and dance. Since the beginning
of time, humans have used music and movement to convey meaning and
emotions. Music is an activity that is accessed by ways of the senses. Use of
the tactile, auditory and kinesthetic senses activates the mind, illustrating the
concept of internalization and verbalization (Brocklehurst, 1971; Gardner,
1983; Hannaford, 1995). Throughout history, singing has been used as a tool
for learning. In early Greek culture, Aristotle, Plato and Pythagoras were
cognizant of the powerful effects of music on the mind. Choral singing groups
oftentimes competed in contests. There was a natural extension to include
sports and athletics to these contests. Both involved similar skills requiring
training and preparation for a performance or event. Both demanded
concentration and focused effort. Today one can easily understand the
power of songs generated by commercial industries through "jingles" that
once heard stay embedded in one's brain, much like the Din in the Head
Phenomenon (Barber, 1980; Krashen, 1983). It's that catchy melody that
keeps echoing in one's mind.
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Music has become a respected tool in theoretical design and practical
application of English language learners. There are cognitive functions
common in processing both language and music that are necessary for
second language acquisition. Natural processes occur in the mind without
learner awareness. Schunk (1999) compares this to the Din Phenomenon.
Religion also uses this powerful method. Sunday school and church hymns
are filled with religious songs concerning Biblical activities. Even events in
history are marked through playful verses and rhymes (e.g., Ring Around the
Rosy -this popular action song really tells the story of the Black Plague in
Europe). In an effort to help their students to recall and remember facts,
innovative teachers have put complicated mathematical formulas and lists to
music (Armstrong, 1994; Jensen, 2000b;). These mnemonic devices help to
imprint the information through rhythm and melody, the essence of music
and song. Previous research on music and language development indicates
that music and language are closely related, both neurologically and
developmentally (Crosswhite, 1996; Homburg, 1980; Levman, 1992; Zierer,
1985). Some researchers theorize that music and language follow similar
developmental patterns in adjacent areas of the brain (Radocy & Boyle,
1974). Leutenegger and Mueller (1964) suggest that musical aptitudes-pitch,
loudness, rhythm, time, timbre and tonal memory might be important in
second language acquisition with tonal memory the most significant
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78
predictor. Abrate (1983) advocates other benefits of music including the fact
that songs: 1) hold the attention and interest of students; 2) introduce native
and colloquial language as well as pronunciation variants; 3) present cultural
phenomena and points of view; 4) provide a context for language learning
and; 5) offer an entertaining alternative to textbook study.
Wilcox (1995) further proposes that music may aid language learners
in acquiring the prosody (rhythm, tone and stress patterns) of the target
language. This seems to be mediated by: 1) the creation of prosodic
framework, which increases recall and retention of vocabulary and may affect
pronunciation in a positive way; 2) the melody, which may aid the learner in
the direction and focus for retrieval from memory and; 3) residual learning, or
the involuntary rehearsal of a song long after the music stops.
Music also has therapeutic value. Gaston (1968) defines three
functions of music in therapy: 1) to facilitate the establishment and
maintenance of personal relations; 2) to bring about increased self-esteem
through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance; and 3) to use the
unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order. This last function
seems to fit with Lozanov's method of Suggestopedia (1978). Music is used
to relax learners as well as to structure, pace, and punctuate the presentation
of linguistic materials.
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Graham (1989) contends that music can be used to establish a mood,
to lessen anxiety, to encourage calmness, to ease loneliness and soothe
irritability (p. 3). Furthermore, the language of emotions is commonly
encoded in songs and this language can support the acquisition of the target
culture. Graham further postulates the vocabulary fluency people learn in
song allows a fluency of emotion and a communication of their most sincere
feelings (p. 3).
Many similarities have been discovered between speech and music.
Both are forms of expression and music is often referred to as a nonverbal
means of communication (Hoskins, 1988). A musical setting is conducive to
the encouragement of vocalizing and speech production (Wylie, 1983). Music
incorporates many of the behaviors and skills needed for speech and can
facilitate development of many of the skills necessary for speech production
(Miller, 1982). Several studies have been conducted utilizing music as a
catalyst for speech production. Many of these have been investigations of the
use of music with speech delayed and special needs children. Lathom,
Edson and Toombs (1965) used the combination of music therapy and
speech therapy with a severely speech delayed child and reported
improvement in body awareness and sentence constructs. Seybold (1971)
used musical activities to reinforce and enhance teaching of specific
concepts and language patterns and to stimulate spontaneous speech in
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80
speech delayed preschool children. The results indicated that the children
participating in the music therapy sessions demonstrated greater
improvement in the use of spontaneous speech than the control groups.
Cartwright and Huckaby (1972) described a preschool music program
designed in part to improve verbalization. All participants showed significant
gains on the Verbal Language Development Scale and Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test. These studies help to explain the importance of the use of
singing to develop language skills (Hoskins, 1988).
Persellin (1993) conducted a study to ascertain if there is a melodic
and rhythmic retention difference when learners are presented with visual
versus auditory versus kinesthetic versus multi-modal approaches. Sixty-one
preschool children were pre- and post-tested. The visual group saw cue
cards that provided music background information; the auditory group
consisted of singing and listening; the kinesthetic group moved to the music
and the multimodal group was exposed to all three conditions. The
multimodal group outperformed the auditory group, however the auditory
group and the multimodal group outperformed the visual and kinesthetic
groups. In another study, a group involving cognitively delayed two-five year
olds, ten weeks of singing and musical activity increased their vocabulary
and language test scores (Hoskins, 1988).
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Carl Orff, a contemporary German composer-conductor created Orff-
Schulwerk which was developed from the concept that rhythm comes from
people in their speech and physical activity and the way they join together in
doing things (Bitcon & Ball, 1974). The data analysis of special needs
children reveals that generalized imitation and repetition is generated through
the Schulwerk method (Baer, Peterson, Sherman, 1967). Elemental music is
defined as one's own contribution to learning through discovery by using
music, rhythm, voice, speech, movement or silence. Orff-Schulwerk is
composed of four phases: germ idea, development, exploration and closure.
The form is simple so that all children can experience, learn and succeed.
This is a group process that involves the use of music, movement and
language through playful creative expression. Orff-Schulwerk is generally
performed in a rondo form. This is a musical form consisting of a main
theme, “ A,” alternated with several contrasting, yet supportive “B,” “ C,” “D”
developments. Parts other than the “ A” or the theme, consists of the
student's creative contribution expanded from the theme. The rondo provides
structure and a natural opportunity for creativity. It also provides a tool for
teaching skills through numerous opportunities of repetition, imitation and
modeling, yet it still allows for a variety of responses (Ponath & Bitcon, 1972).
Lovaas, Berberich, Perloff and Shaeffer (1966) state that this imitative and
repetitive method can be utilized in language training. This method fits with
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the theoretical frameworks of Audiolinguialism, TPR, and The Natural
Approach. The methods used employ pattem-practice with physical
movements in a friendly, stress-free environment.
Summary of Learning Through Music and Songs
There is little difficulty in justifying the singing of songs in the language
acquisition classroom. The songs reinforce teaching by helping to introduce,
practice and review vocabulary. Singing also can effectively teach
pronunciation of individual sounds or stress and rhythm patterns in words
and sentences including idiomatic expressions, sentence patterns,
pronunciation, and intonation, all without recourse to barren drill (Rees,
1977). Aside from the potential pedagogical value of songs or games,
enjoyment for its own sake is an important part of language learning, a fact
which is often overlooked by the instructor focusing on presentation and
repetition (Gasser & Waldman, 1979; Heaton, 1979; Rees, 1977).
According to Kihmerker (1969), songs can serve the function of
speech or written material in the language arts program, both in reading
readiness and comprehension skills. Songs have clear beginnings and
endings, relate a sequence of events and often have a repeated chorus that
can aid the English learner in repetitive practice which can lead to
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comprehension while reducing the tedium of repetition and drill but retaining
the importance of repeated listening.
Learning Through Actions and Gestures
The kinesthetic approach to learning relies on the students' active,
physical participation allowing them to discover their education and individual
capabilities (Grant, 1985). Kinesthetic is described as muscular movement in
response to visual, auditory and tactile stimulation. The teaching method
combines the ideas and concepts set forth by Dewey (1966), Montessori
(1964), Piaget (1952) and Vygotsky (1978). Dewey's philosophy follows that
education equates to learning by doing. Montessori also believed the key to
learning is the student and the teacher served as a facilitator to the child
understanding the information Piaget proposed that children create and learn
about their world through play and Vygotsky understood play as the leading
factor in a child's development. The notion of the body as a form of
intelligence is for some difficult to understand. Over time, there has been a
societal prejudice that tends to downplay physical learning as unimportant or
at best something performed to fill time (Hannaford, 1995). In1864, German
physicians Hitzig and Fritsch discovered that the area in the brain
responsible for movement originates in the cerebral cortex, the province of
higher thinking. This stunned the scientific world because it was thought that
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the brain's function was that of scholarly pursuits such as thinking and
voicing ideas. There was tremendous objection to the thought of the brain
embracing movement activities, which were viewed as nothing but frivolous
behavior (Hannaford, 1995). This assertion continues to persevere to date
and is addressed in Gardner's (1983) explanation of the bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence. He contends that in today's modern world we continue to dispute
the importance of the body as a form of intelligence. Society at large
traditionally share the value of mental activities over physical not fully
understanding that the body for some individuals can be vehicle of
expression that describes an emotion or concept where mere words are not
enough or possibly unable to be expressed verbally.
The brain/body connection has been baffling researchers for years but
as more studies are conducted and as we become more technologically
advanced researchers can peer inside the brain imaging through PET scans.
They have discovered an emerging theme-movement is essential to learning.
Earlier in endeavors in brain studies identified the motor cortex in the parietal
lobe and the cerebellum as responsible for movement (Calvin, 1996; Gao, et
al, 1996; Jennerod, 1997; Parsons & Fox, 1997). It's no longer mind or body.
It is now known that there is the complex interplay between mind and body
that engage the learning brain. The body frames the learning context for the
mind. (Jennerod, 1997; Jensen, 2000a;; Hannaford, 1995).
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There are a variety of reasons that have been suggested for
incorporating movement-based learning in the curriculum. Studies show that
physical activity increases heart rate, circulation, and arousal. Increased
performance follows arousal activities (Tomporowski & Ellis, 1986).
Stretching activities increase oxygen to key brain areas and also provide an
opportunity for the eyes and musculo-skeletal system to relax (Henning, et al,
1997). Movement allows learners to gain a different perspective seeing from
an altered view (Jensen, 2000a). Kinesthetic learning also aids in the
concept of spaced interval learning. This is the idea of using physical playful
breaks and/or physical practice of cognition during the school day (Pellegrini
& Smith, 1998).
A number of researchers have sought to understand the importance of
kinesthetic learning. Hannaford (1995) explains the necessity of movement in
the development of learning and word recognition. She states that before
entering school, three-dimensional and peripheral vision allow the greatest
environmental learning. Young children integrate the visual with the
kinesthetic to understand shapes, movements of natural forms and spatial
awareness. "When children enter school, they are often expected to quickly
develop up close, two-dimensional paper work. The transition from three-
dimensional and peripheral to foveal focus is very abrupt and in many cases
unnatural" (p. 103). Grant (1985) compared the success of the kinesthetic
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86
approach with the success of conventional auditory-visual instruction for
reading, writing and spelling. The longitudinal study supported the
importance of the all-inclusive method of kinesthetic/tactile, visual and
auditory instruction.
Studies in neurophysiology have shown that physical experiences
create unusually strong neural pathways in the brain (Calvin, 1996; Gao, et
al, 1996; Jennerod, 1997; Parsons & Fox, 1997). Piaget (1952) also
believed that the origin of thinking is found in sensorimotor activity. Druyan
(1997) conducted three separate studies that demonstrated the efficiency of
the kinesthetic-cognitive conflict (bodily experiences that contradict cognition)
in promoting the understanding of three scientific concepts among children
aged 5-12. The results supported Piaget's theory that determines that
scientific thinking begins with the sensormotoric experiences of the physical
milieu.
Other leaders in the field agree that learning is not just in your head.
Jensen (2000a) confirms that physical activity is essential in promoting
normal growth of mental function. More and more neuroscientists are
concluding that movement activities facilitate language development, boost
reading readiness and foster a positive attitude towards school (Gerber,
1996). Sylwester (1995) embraces Piaget’s suggestion that play is the
serious business of childhood and attests to the important developmental
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and maintenance roles that such activities take in problem solving, that is,
children must physically interact with objects in their environment in order to
understand them.
There have been numerous studies that pair kinesthetic learning with
language acquisition (See Asher, cited references). The language
methodologies that focus on listening and activate the right hemisphere and
involve language acquisition generally require a listen-than-do approach.
Asher's TPR is an example of this language method. It is based at first on
simple one-word commands intended to elicit a physical response. This
activity involves primarily the activation of the right hemisphere of the brain.
Victims of Wernicke's aphasia whose left brain thought processes are
disordered and who have little to no understanding of spoken language can
understand and obey physical body commands (Blakeslee, 1980).
Other studies cited varying degrees of kinesthetic learning including
the significance of theatre and drama in the use of English language
acquisition (Turecek, 1997). Bancroft (1996) suggested using the
Suggestive-Accelerative Learning Techniques (SALT) Method, which
combines Lozanov’s Suggestopedia with such American methods as Asher’s
Total Physical Response and Galyean's Confluent Education (1979). This
study argues that students trained with the SALT Method have higher
achievement scores and better attitudes than others.
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Still, other studies describe alternative elementary school curriculums
which offer innovative curricula using dance and a strong fine arts program
as a complement to the traditional three-Rs approach (Gerber, 1996; Gilbert,
1977; Goldberg and Bossenmeyer, 1998; Riley and Cardillo, 1996).
Rumley and Sharpe (1993) described generalisable game activities in
modern language learning. They state that the game format carries all the
advantages of games: they foster interest and motivation, they provide
opportunities for real communication in a meaningful setting, and they
facilitate plenty of repetition without it seeming tedious. They also carry a
tremendous additional advantages when new language is encountered it can
be practiced in these game formats which are already known, understood
and enthusiastically enjoyed by students.
Additionally, a movement-base approach to language development
has been studied with children who are deaf and blind. VanDijk (1966)
created a set of teaching strategies described as coactive movement to
assist children with deaf-blindness relate to their world. Coactive movement
emphasizes a meaningful entrance into the lives of these children by
caregivers. This is accomplished through sensory intervention including
touch and joint motor activities (Wheeler & Griffin, 1997). The movement-
based approach allows the teacher to enter the child's world by joining in
their interactions with their environment (VanDijk, 1986).
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Summary of Learning Through Actions and Gestures
Many educators continue to disregard active learning as important.
Our attitudes about movement-based learning are mixed and heavily
dependent upon the cultural norms of our experience in life, however,
learning through actions and gestures can be a vehicle for effective learning.
By redefining the value of all forms of movement in the teaching and learning
process, educators can use the body as a catalyst for language. The use of
facial expressions, body movements, and gestures can assist in making
concepts, vocabulary and story text more comprehensible.
The Use of Music and Singing Paired with Movement to Facilitate Language
Learning
Music and singing paired with kinesthetic learning or movement can
be an effective way to solicit English language acquisition. Four studies in
particular advanced the concept of singing paired with movement (Buday,
1995; Madsen, 1991; Schunk, 1999; Wolf Cohen, 1994).
Madsen (1991) coupled gestures with and without singing to assess
new vocabulary acquisition with first grade children. Students in the gestures
paired with singing made significantly greater gains in learning of new
vocabulary then in the gestures only or the no-rehearsal condition.
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In the study conducted by Buday (1995), vocabulary words were
paired with manual signs. Autistic children were taught spoken and signed
words in two formats: singing versus rhythmic speaking. The results
indicated that the sung condition paired with signs was significantly more
effective than the rhythmic speaking.
As a music educator, Wolf Cohen (1994) uses movement as a
pedagogical tool - both for herself as a means of self-expression and as a
way for the students to express musical ideas. She developed a concept
called mirrors (p. 2). She would create movements as a mirror of her musical
thoughts for a specific piece of music to be played. She carried this theme to
another level by having the students play a game of mirrors whereby they
mirror her movements to experience her musical thought processes. She
discovered that children were very insightful in their analysis of the musical
sequences and the realization that they could get in touch with their
organizing schemes by way of movement (p. 4). Some of the typical
responses of the paired musical piece and the movement analogue include
rising (falling) melodies expressed by rising (falling) physical movements;
climactic musical points expressed by extending hands overhead and;
closure to the musical piece represented by hands resting flat in lap or head
loosely falling on the chest (p. 5). This approach is similar to TPR but on a
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different level. It also fits with the concept of teaching language with action
songs that elicit active gestures.
Schunk (1999) studied the effect of singing paired with signing on
receptive vocabulary skills of elementary ESL students. Pre- and posttest
data were analyzed to determine gains in vocabulary identification. Students
were assigned one of the following groups: sung text paired with signs,
spoken text paired with signs, sung text, and a control group of spoken text
only. Children in the sung text paired with signs and those in the spoken text
paired with signs made significantly greater gains in vocabulary recognition
than those in the control group. These findings advocate the benefits of
integrating signs into second language rehearsal to provide visual cues and
to engage students in meaningful physical participation. The top yielding
condition was singing paired with signing, indicating there may be
advantages to using a combination of the two for language acquisition
(Schunk, 1999). Singing paired with signing is a scaffold of Asher's
language-body hypothesis that begins with listening then responding with an
appropriate gesture. In Schunk's study the students actually voice or sing the
words while engaging in the physical gesture.
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Summary of Music and Singing Paired with Kinesthetic Learning
There are also emotional reasons for using singing. Foreign language
students have reported that learning songs in English was one of the most
pleasurable experiences they had in using the targeted language (Gasser
and Waldman, 1979). Singing paired with movement goes beyond
entertainment and the "fun factor." The dual potential of simultaneous
enjoyment and instruction qualifies singing and movement as a viable
approach to language acquisition (Gasser and Waldman, 1979). These
studies offer promise for the use of singing paired with movement for
language acquisition. It was in this spirit that a gestalt approach to language
instruction for ESL children was initially investigated (Schunk, 1999).
English Language Learning Through ELD and SDAIE Programs
As educators prepare English language learners for
mainstream instruction, they must ensure that these students develop
high levels of English proficiency, access grade-level content, and
maintain a positive identity. In order to accomplish this responsibility, it
is crucial that educators understand how two instructional programs -
ELD and SDAIE - can help English language learners achieve both
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personal and academic success (Baker, 1998; Cummins, 1996;
Lessow-Hurley, 1996).
Definitions of ELD and SDAIE Programs
For many years, English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction
emphasized oral language development, however, over time, ESL shifted its
focus toward content instruction and began to include an emphasis on
literacy as well as oral language. What resulted was an evolution of ESL into
English Language Development (ELD), a program that focuses on academic
content and literature as vehicles through which to teach language (Freeman
& Freeman, 1994). The emphasis was still on developing language, but this
was accomplished through content. As students moved beyond ELD
programs, teachers created programs that were termed "sheltered
instruction" or "sheltered English" (Freeman & Freeman, 1987; Schifini, 1985;
1994). Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) borrowed
from ELD/ESL strategies and emphasizes the concept of comprehensible
input. This is accomplished through the use of realia (real objects and
materials); manipulatives (drawings, posters, brainstorming-clusters, graphs,
tables, maps, props, multimedia presentations, storyboards, story maps);
visuals (study-prints, text book-illustrations, overhead-projected prints,
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reproductions of paintings, and documents); graphic organizers (matrices,
Venn diagrams, and webs); planned opportunities for interaction between all
individuals in the classroom (creating a skit and acting it out, co-operative
learning, collaborative learning, and student-generated stories based on
personal experiences (Schifini, 1994).
While ELD uses academic content to teach language, the content
does not drive the instruction. The focus of ELD programs remains on the
development of language. In contrast, SDAIE is driven by the content or
academic subject matter instruction. In SDAIE, the goal is to teach content.
The fact that students also are refining language skills is a secondary benefit.
This section of the literature review will explore the commonalities and
differences of ELD and SDAIE programs, highlighting the key features of
each.
Programs Designs
Students at all levels of language development, from early
beginners to the most advanced learners, can be found in ELD
classrooms. There are no entry-level criteria for ELD programs
(Peregoy, & Boyle, 1997). In SDAIE programs, however, the
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participating students' level of English language development should
range from intermediate to advanced. Other prerequisites for full and
effective participation in a SDAIE classroom include prior knowledge
of grade-level topics, as well as some literacy in English and/or the
student's primary language. Unfortunately, schools do not always
adhere to these entry-level criteria for student participation in SDAIE
classrooms. As a result, the content is frequently sacrificed when the
minimum student qualifications for participation in a SDAIE program
are ignored (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995).
Goals of the Programs
ELD programs, including content-based ESL, lay the linguistic
foundation students need to use language for academic purposes.
ELD instruction also provides for a smoother transition into the SDAIE
classroom, where language is used to learn new content. While ELD
attempts to bring students to an intermediate level of English, it has a
secondary function: bridging students to grade-level language arts and
eventually grade-level English proficiency. Thus, language developed
in ELD classrooms includes both social (i.e., conversational) English
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96
as well as academic language associated with grade-level literature
and writing (Peregoy & Boyle, (1997).
SDAIE helps students access grade-level curriculum while developing
the more complex dimension of language associated with intellectually
demanding tasks. Cummins (1989) refers to this dimension of
language as proficiency or cognitive academic language. Academic
language is a by-product of SDAIE instruction, yet crucial for
academic success. An additional function of SDAIE is to facilitate
students in building "metacognition" - learning how to learn. Increasing
students' awareness about the kinds of strategies they need to study
and learn on their own helps them develop learner autonomy. This
occurs in SDAIE classrooms when students reflect on their learning
and how and what enabled them to access the content (Diaz-Rico &
Weed, 1995).
Program Operation
ELD and SDAIE programs look and sound very much alike
when observing the learning environments in which they are
implemented. This is because the ELD and SDAIE classroom
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environments are structurally the same. There are no orderly rows of
desks with a teacher standing at the front of the room. Frequently,
there are tables or desks clustered together so that students can
interact with each other as they exchange information, solve
problems, or complete a task. Cooperative learning is an integral part
of both ELD and SDAIE programs. Group work and paired learning
activities lead to less "teacher talk" and more student-student
interaction. It is not unusual to find students out of their seats for a
variety of interactive activities (Peregoy & Boyle, 1997).
In addition to the active use of language in ELD and SDAIE
classrooms, students in these programs are engaged in learning
activities that are multisensory in nature, enabling them to activate all
of their senses while learning (Peregoy & Boyle, 1997). Both programs
incorporate all of the learning modalities - visual, kinesthetic, and
auditory providing reinforcement of the materials being learned. Both
learning environments are rich with contextual clues in the form of
visual and media support, such as pictures, photographs, charts,
graphs, maps, props, manipulatives, and other tangible materials. The
environments are also print-rich, with student work displayed on the
walls to serve as reference material and emphasize student-centered
work and instruction (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995).
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The English language modeled by the ELD and SDAIE
teachers is made more comprehensible through the use of
comparisons and contrasts, anecdotes, vivid descriptions, examples,
and animated story-telling. The syntax is rich and varied, not watered
down. This exposes students to language in a meaningful context,
which fosters linguistic and cognitive growth. In addition, the language
is delivered at a normal pace, enabling students to acquire the natural
intonation and cadence of English (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995).
Assessment is a tool to facilitate each student's academic
development, not to compare one student to another. Portfolios are a
significant part of assessment. Each student's work is collected over
time; progress can be noted by comparing growth weekly, monthly,
and over an entire semester. Interactive and reflective journals are
another source of student evaluation in the ELD and SDAIE settings.
Student task-based activities result in the creation of artwork, maps,
graphs, charts, dioramas, and other student-made objects, all of which
can be used to measure student progress (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995;
Peregoy & Boyle, 1997).
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Within the context of both programs, the teacher makes an
effort to validate and affirm students' primary language and cultural
background. This may be accomplished by providing supplementary
material in students' primary language to support learning, by
assigning tasks that involve family members, and by encouraging
students and parents to maintain their primary language while they
learn English. A positive attitude toward one's native language and
culture, as well as the target language and culture, will help foster
students' success in the academic world (Lessow-Hurley, 1996).
The shift in thinking with respect to how a second language is
acquired has brought with it new and exciting opportunities to change
instruction for all students. Fortunately, new directions in teaching subject
matter reflect methods that emphasize critical and creative thinking
processes rather than rote memory. Subjects are now beginning to be taught
coherently and with interrelated themes rather than as isolated and
independent disciplines. Collaborative projects and interactive activities are
replacing workbook exercises. This shift is consistent with current research
on how students acquire a second language and is further supported by
present day views on how students-young or old-learn and develop
cognitively (see Section One of this review)
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Current second-language theory rests on two basic tenets: One is that
language is acquired when we understand what is said or read, not how it is
said or written. According to Krashen language is acquired by understanding
or getting comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985). The other assumption is
that we acquire language when we do something with it such as problem
solving or using language to think, to get new ideas, and to find out new
information (Halliday, 1970; Howatt, 1984; Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981;
Piepho, 1981). Based on these two assumptions about language acquisition,
a learning environment and instructional practices that embrace these views
should promote language acquisition as well as conceptual development.
Instruction that is delivered in context is more likely to be understood than
that which is presented in an abstract way where there are no support clues
such as props, pictures, graphs, charts, maps, or realia to support the oral or
written words. Therefore, manipulative, based-instruction makes the lesson
more meaningful for understanding and learning. The more contextualized
the delivery of a lesson, the more comprehensible the lesson will be and the
more English will be acquired (Krashen, 1982) Contextualized instruction
needs to be supported by active-student involvement in a multisensory
setting. As students interact with the information and with each other, the
more all modalities of learning will be utilized in the learning process. Ideal
educational settings are very much like real life in that they are highly
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engaging and involve the use of all the senses for learning. A multisensory
delivery facilitates comprehensibility as well as long-term memory.
Students must experience language on an oral level in order to
be able to make the connection to print (Asher, 1977; Gattegno, 1972;
Reading and writing must be presented as natural partners to listening
and speaking. Lessons that follow a natural progression of meaningful
listening and authentic speech interaction supported by print and
opportunities for output with written work facilitate students'
development of literacy (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 1995; Lessow-Hurley,
1996).
Communicative-based instruction provides students with the
opportunity to acquire language in a natural social context where they are
using language for a real purpose such as problem-solving or negotiation for
meaning The focus on meaning and content rather than language form
insures the use of language for authentic communication. Interaction and
negotiation for meaning are crucial for language acquisition (Krashen, 1982;
Littlewood, 1981).
Another characteristic of effective instruction for second language
learners is the establishment of a low-anxiety environment. Research shows
students need to have the freedom to risk and experiment with language if
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they are going to develop fluency and proficiency (Asher, 1977; Krashen,
1982; Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Lozanov, 1978). Focusing on content and
meaning reduces the pressure of the student to produce "prefect" language
right away, but instead focuses attention on communicating. Opportunities for
students to use language in pairs and small-group activities enhance
language acquisition by providing a low-anxiety situation where students
have maximum opportunities to express themselves without immediate
correction in front of a classroom of students. Students will further be
performing some of the more sophisticated functions of language traditionally
reserved for the teacher such as explaining, clarifying, paraphrasing,
questioning, and summarizing.
Instruction needs to be student-centered to allow students to use their
own background knowledge, experiences, and insights to generate authentic
and meaningful language (Crawford, 1994). Instruction that is student-
centered naturally results in students interacting with each other, with the
language, and with the information contained in a lesson. Establishing an
optimal second language environment and implementing interactive activities
within that context will strengthen not only the learning of students whose
second language is English but the learning of students who speak English
as their first language too.
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Summary of English Language Learning Through ELD and
SDAIE Programs
Education policies for LEP students must be grounded in sound
pedagogical principles. There has been a prominent shift within the field of
language learning and teaching over the last twenty years with greater
emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers and
teaching. In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new
information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or
remember the information has been the primary concern of the researchers
dealing with the area of second language learning. ELD and SDAIE
methodology emphasizes the concept of comprehensible input - very simply,
making concepts understood by the learner. This is accomplished through
the use of realia, visuals, graphic organizers, and planned opportunities for
interaction between all individuals in the classroom.
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104
Educational Reform and Staff Development
Characteristics of Educational Reform
The existing reform movement in American education is more than a
fleeting whim. It represents a major transition in thinking about the formal
education of all students. In describing the process of education reform,
Bernhardt (1994) states the schools' staffs must understand from the
beginning that major elements for reform are internal rather than external,
requiring a transformation of all individuals' thinking about school, students,
teaching, and learning. Within this context, the language of education reform,
expressed by words such as "bottom up," "continuous progress,"
"collaboration," "inclusion," "vision," and "commitment," begins to take on a
new meaning, one premised on individual empowerment and a shared vision
of and commitment to the academic achievement of all students. This
represents a dramatic paradigm shift in the management and delivery of
public education sen/ices in the United States (Miramontes et al, 1996).
Because of this, educators are in the perplexing stage of devising
implementation strategies. Of particular concern is the identification of those
practices of reform that result in success for poor students, those at risk, and
those with linguistic differences. Although a strong research base has been
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105
established on effective practices for linguistically and culturally diverse
students, this knowledge does not appear to have been integrated into the
reform agenda (Garcia, 1988, 1991). August, Hakuta, and Pompa (1994)
identify issues related to the inclusion of LEP students in the reform effort,
issues such as the need for academic standards that address primary and
secondary language development, assessment of and accountability for LEP
students, and equitable organizational structures. Their discussion points to
the need for the reform process to incorporate these and other key variables
that specifically relate to the instruction of language minority students.
The majority of studies on school reform, however, do not include
issues related to language minority students (Gandara, 1994; Miramontes et
al, 1989; Zehler et al., 1994). In a literature review on institutional change and
services to limited English proficient students, Zehler et al. (1994) found that
typically there is an assumption about the "universal" teacher and the
"universal" student. The implication of this finding is that language acquisition
and dual language instruction research have not entered the reform picture-
that the "universal" connotation assumes an overriding solution inherent in
the innovations, without attention to research and practical wisdom related to
issues of second language acquisition and bilingualism.
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The contemporary educational reform movement is concerned with
fundamental issues that transform schools into learning organizations where
people work together to solve problems cooperatively. This involves more
than adopting a new curriculum or textbook series. It is about thinking
through how the content and processes of learning can be redefined in ways
that engage students and teachers in active pursuit of learning goals
(Lieberman, 1995). In the current age of educational reform, many educators
are faced with conflicting messages concerning how students learn best.
Chamberlin and Chambers, (1991) state that the educational environment of
the standard-graded school does not fit the brain’s approach to learning.
They suggest that we need to develop concepts, methods and programs that
help students to grow and develop (pg. 231). One of the challenges for
educators is that our nation is culturally and linguistically diverse. In this state
it is not uncommon to have children attending school from every continent,
many who enter without English language skills. How then are we to teach
them? What strategies are we to employ? How can we make learning
meaningful?
Learning theorists (Dewey 1966; Montessori; 1964; Vygotsky, 1978)
discovered that the way teachers learn is the same way children learn - by
actively participating. This includes hands-on instruction and discussions
involving reflection about what has been learned. Processes, practices and
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policies must be erected to take into consideration this critical viewpoint of
learning. Policy makers must understand the connection between teacher
learning and school development.
Effective Staff Development Models
The power of professional development and staff development lies in
the varied opportunities to provide teacher learning an integral part of the
school milieu. This includes peer coaching, staff expertise to provide “in-
house” workshops, focus study groups, and curriculum planning across
subject areas and with team leaders. Many of the staff development trainings
are formal in nature and away from the site. The ideas imparted can
oftentimes be abstract and stripped of meaning with regards to actual
classroom life. By contrast, the conception of teacher development that is
geared to action learning or a constructivist approach is becoming a popular
approach. The paradigm shift is from teaching to learning. Teacher
development is a learning process similar to student learning. Staff
development will look different as teachers will no longer remain passive
listeners but instead they will become actively involved in decision-making
about what they want to learn, the process involved, the staff development
opportunities and follow-up (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995).
The challenge for policy makers and educators is to realign the
existing signals and incentives that shape school organizations, teachers’
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practices, role expectations, and assumptions so that they support student
and teacher learning (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995). Significant
and enduring school improvement can only occur in an appropriate climate
and must be characterized by commitment based on sound research about
collaborative working styles and outcome-based education and strong
leadership. Leaders in the school improvement process should be
continuously prepared to deal with the unexpected. But how does a school
administrator determine and measure the proper climate for change? Without
question, the first steps in any effort toward school improvement are the most
critical. To develop and maintain the proper climate for change the first steps
must be non-threatening. An informal discussion with key staff members may
be appropriate first step. Another approach may be a school improvement
team. Stevens (1990) states that leaders of reform movements need to have
an understanding that improvement programs must be research-based, not
opinion-based. Four variables that are related to school climate are teacher
efficacy, collegiality (as promoted by the principal, shared decision-making,
and staff development), student achievement and parent involvement. Any
school attempting educational reform should consider how each of these
variables can contribute to a positive school climate and improve the
chances for continuing and significant reform (Peterson, 1997). Furthermore,
programs are more successful when teachers have considerable latitude in
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program planning. When teachers have time for reflection, experimentation
and choice, their practices are enhanced (Fitzgerald & Bass, 1997; Langer &
Colton, 1994). Frequently, teachers feel like they are not in control of own
teaching and consequently, feel disempowered and reflect this by being
unsupportative of externally imposed measures (Fitzgerald & Bass, 1997). If
teachers are to play a meaningful role in the planning, development and
implementation of school reform, we must provide certain measures of
support: staff development, materials an organizational arrangement that
supports innovation, time (including preparation time, release time, stipends
and additional nonschool time for meetings) and administrative support.
Workshops must be scheduled judiciously and in a manner sensitive to
teacher’s schedules (Fitzgerald & Bass, 1997). Teacher development must
focus on deepening teachers’ understanding of the processes of teaching
and learning. Effective staff development must couple the concept of the
teacher as both teachers and learners. According to Darling-Hammond and
McLaughlin (1995) professional development needs to create new images of
what, when, and how teachers learn. The paradigm shift is from
administrators and policy makers directing teachers to strategies intended to
develop schools and teachers capacity to be responsible for student learning.
To accomplish this the following professional development characteristics
must be in place: 1) Teachers must be engaged in the tasks of teaching,
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assessing observing and reflecting; 2) They must be allowed to experiment
and change roles of teacher to learner; 3) They must have opportunities to
work collaboratively; 4) They must be sustained by modeling and coaching;
and it must be connected to other aspects of school change.
Dufour (1998) chronicles a progression of staff development models
from the traditional stand and deliver to in-depth focus on content and
process. He came to the conclusion that neither content of the topic nor the
process used to provide the training, but rather the context of the school was
the most critical factor in determining the ultimate impact of a staff
development program. Researchers both inside and outside of the
educational milieu suggest that the best avenue for sustained organizational
improvement is that schools are most effective when they function as
professional learning communities. This includes a shared vision of values,
collaborative teams, willingness to experiment and commitment to
continuous learning (Dufour, 1998).
The primary reasons for a school to develop, implement and maintain
a program of staff development and training is to improve the performance of
teachers and administrators; with the ultimate goal of improving the
educational environment and productivity of the school district’s students.
This process of staff development can best be developed and maintained by
realizing that: (1) staff development should be directed at the individual
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employee, (2) it should address the needs of the individual, wherein a need
is defined as a gap between what is and what should be, (3) needs are best
identified through the periodic assessment of evaluation o f the work of the
individual employee, (4) the needs which have been identified by the
combined efforts of the individual employee and assessor or evaluation can
best be met by a Personal Improvement Plan (PIP) of staff development, (5)
in order to be truly effective, there should be continual two-way feedback and
overlap between the assessment or evaluation and development activities
and, (6) adults come to both evaluation and development functions with: ( a )
a wealth of background learnings and experiences, (b) a desire to be actively
involved in their own evaluation and development activities, (c) a requirement
that staff development activities relate directly to their job responsibilities and
their identified needs, (d) a desire to be self-directed and empowered
(Herman & Herman, 1995).
Direct teaching or stand and deliver models of staff development are
outdated. Staff development for the 21s t century offers a broader conception.
Professional development needs to be long-term and continuous with context
of school, classroom and collegiality. Staff development is not about a one-
shot meeting. Staff development and evaluation needs to be a lifelong
commitment for the teacher and the school. Policy makers and
administrators need to become aware of these new paradigms for
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professional development. Staff development can no longer be thought of as
a transferable package of bite-sized knowledge pieces. For educational
reform to occur, teachers need to be able to change the way they behave. To
implement educational reform plans, teachers need opportunities to interact,
to discuss, think about, practice and perfect new teaching strategies,
methods and techniques. They must be intrinsically involved in the process
from start to finish and be willing to take on new roles -mentors, coaches,
and researcher. They can also create infrastructures of problem-solving
teams and focus groups. (Lieberman, 1995).
The Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration Program
The Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration (CSRD) Program
is designed to enable all children, particularly those enrolled in low-
performing schools, meet content standards adopted by the California State
Board of Education (California Department of Education, 2000). The USDE
Guidance encourages the Department to "target CSRD Title I funds on Title I
schools that have been identified as in need of improvement under section
1116(c) of Title I. In California, these schools are referred to as Program
Improvement (PI) schools.
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According to USDE Guidance, a CSRD program is one that
integrates, in a coherent manner, all nine of the following components: 1)
Innovative strategies and proven methods for student learning, teaching, and
school management that are based on reliable research and effective
practices, and have been replicated successfully in schools with diverse
characteristics; 2) Comprehensive design for effective school functioning,
including instruction, assessment, classroom management, professional
development, parental involvement, and school management, that aligns the
school's curriculum, technology, professional development into a schoolwide
reform plan designed to enable all students to meet challenging state content
and performance standards and addresses needs identified through a school
needs assessment; 3) High-quality and continuous teacher and staff
professional development and training; 4) Measurable goals for student
performance and benchmarks for meeting those goals; 5) Support from
school faculty, administrators and staff; 6) Meaningful involvement of parents
and the local community in planning and implementing school improvement
activities; 7) High-quality external technical support and assistance from a
comprehensive school reform entity (may be a university) with experience or
expertise in schoolwide reform and improvement; 8) Plan for the evaluation
of the implementation of school reforms and the student results achieved; 9)
Other resources (federal, state, local, private) available to the school for
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114
coordinating services to support and sustain the reform effort. The following
elements drawn from the USDE Guidance should be considered in selecting
an effective research-based model(s) that supports a CSRD program. The
most effective models are those that can provide the strongest evidence for
each of the four elements. Models vary in the extent to which they contain all
nine components. Elements of effective research-based models include: 1)
Theoretical or research foundation for the program: Theory or research
findings explain why a comprehensive model and the practices included in
the model work together to produce gains in student performance; 2)
Evaluation-based evidence of improvements in student achievement:
Evidence of educationally significant improvement is shown through reliable
measures of student achievement in major subject areas before and after
model implementation; 3) Evidence of effective implementation:
Implementation is a description of what it takes to make the model fully
operational in schools; and 4) Evidence of replicability: Replicability means
that the program has been implemented in more than one school (California
Department of Education Task Force on Selected LEP Issues, 1991).
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Summary of Educational Reform and Staff Development
The primary reasons for a school to develop, implement and maintain
a program of staff development and training is to improve the performance of
teachers and administrators; with the ultimate goal of improving the
educational environment and productivity of the school district’s students.
The reform agenda in education and the practical wisdom and
research related to the instruction of language minority students need to
come together to form a comprehensive agenda (Miramontes et al, 1996).
Two intersecting factors, practices and premises effect decisions that are
needed to formulate systemic, innovative programs that involve educators in
planning, training and implementing high standards for all students. The
decisions, however, must take into account appropriate pedagogy,
assessment and socio-cultural factors related to the instruction of
linguistically diverse students.
A part of this study will specifically examine the participating teachers'
beliefs about the staff development model for the P.L.A.Y. program for
second language learners.
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Analysis of the Literature
While there is extensive research on second language learners and
English language acquisition, the literature on paired music and singing with
movement appears to be limited. Besides the Orff Schulwerk musical
method, only Buday (1995); Madsen, (1991); Schunk (1999); and Wolf
Cohen (1994) reported studies using song with gestures or with sign
language for language achievement. However, several researchers (Brink,
1995; Hannaford, 1995; Jensen, 2000a; Romijn & Seely, 1982; Turecek,
1997) advocate active learning and environments that are academically
challenging. Given the fact that ELLs experience difficulty with traditional
grammar-based school instruction, it bears importance that the environment
is enriched with brain-compatible strategies to enhance learning. Krashen
(1982) corroborates this belief by suggesting an interesting hypothesis that
we acquire language best when the pressure is off, when anxiety is zero,
when the acquirer's focus is entirely on communication; in short, when the
interchange or input is so interesting that the acquirer forgets that it is in a
second language (p.43).
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MacLean (1990) elaborated on Krashen's Monitor Model by stating
the following principles: 1) stress and threat impact the brain in many ways
reducing capacity for understanding, meaning and memory; 2) emotions run
the brain; 3) negative emotions flavor all attempts at learning; 4) positive
emotions create an excitement and love of learning; 5) we learn in a multi-
path, simultaneous style-the three most important ways are the visual,
auditory and kinesthetic modalities; 6) we do more poorly when we
“ piecemeal” learning into linear, sequential facts; 7) all learning is mind-
body; 8) the learner's physiology, state, posture, and breathing all affect
learning; 9) challenge, novelty and feedback stimulate our brains-creating
these kinds of experiences and conditions is critical to brain growth; 9) ritual
is a way for the reptilian brain to have a productive expression; and 10)
positive and productive rituals can lower the perceived stress and threat.
Multiple factors influence second language acquisition rates including
the individual's educational background, first language and literacy level in
that language, learning style, cognitive style, motivation and personality.
Education policies that impose artificial time limits on programs and services
fail to account for these factors and may actually result in lower levels of
academic achievement (Collier & Thomas, 1999; Crawford, 1994; Cummins,
1989). Historically, programs for English as a second language have focused
on teaching social language. Such communication is vital if LEP students are
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to avoid the negative social and economic consequences of low proficiency
in English and to participate as responsible United States citizens. In the past
decade, research has shown that content-based instruction that focuses on
the development of CALP is critical for success in school. LEP students are
expected to learn academic content in English in order to compete
academically with their native English-speaking peers. For most LEP
students, two years is the general timeframe for acquiring basic interpersonal
conversational skills (BICS), however, CALP is more demanding and takes
LEP students from six to nine years to achieve parity with their native English
language peers (Cummins, 1996).
One of the fundamental goals of language acquisition is
communicative competence (Allwright, 1977; Brumfit & Candlin, 1980;
Halliday, 1970; Hymes, 1972; Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Watcyn-Jones, 1981).
Communicative competence refers to the ability of people to speak
meaningfully so that native speakers of the language can understand the
messages being sent and respond with a meaningful message. The ideal
goal of language acquisition is literacy, which refers to the ability to use the
full range of language arts, listening, comprehension, speaking, reading and
writing.
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119
Curriculum Development Specific to the P.L.A.Y. Method
The body of the literature review examined an analytical model for
language learning. The use of a one model lent a sense of commonality and
enabled the reader to define elements that are common to all approaches
and methods and to distinguish those that differ. Another application of this
model is in the comparison of methods. As an example of this (See Figure 4)
and to operationalize the P.L.A.Y. method it will be compared in this section
with some of the models discussed earlier.
Background
P.L.A.Y. (Physical Learning Activities for Youngsters) is a program
using a music, singing and movement-based approach for second language
acquisition. It is intended to serve English language learners in kindergarten
through second grade primarily located in Title I and Title VII schools.
Typically, the students come from communities living below the poverty level
and over 60% limited English proficient (California Department of Education,
2001a). P.L.A.Y. serves both the children and the teachers of second
language learners by providing inservice training for the teachers and in-
class demonstrative lessons. The P.L.A.Y. staff development training is
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aimed at meeting the needs of teachers of second language learners in
acquiring innovative SDAIE methodology through a music, singing and
movement-based program. The program guidelines fits within the parameters
of the ELD standards approved by the State of California as well as The
District adopted ELD text, Into English! All lessons are coordinated with both
the ELD and the Into English! philosophy. Both the training and
demonstrative lessons are designed to effect lasting change and improve
learning opportunities for children to be successful in school. The key
component is comprehensible input of English by lowering the affective filter
in attempt to produce learning in a stress-free playful environment. The
anticipated outcomes are the development of oral language and increased
English language vocabulary.
P.L.A.Y. Program as a Method for Second Language Acquisition
The P.L.A.Y. approach in language teaching starts from a theory of
language as communication. P.L.A.Y. is heavily grounded in the
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the theorists involved
(Halliday, 1975; Hymes, 1972; Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981; Widdowson,
1978;) and follows the goal of teaching developed initially by Hymes (1972)
called communicative competence (p. 281). P.L.A.Y. is built on the following
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three CLT principles: 1) Communicative principle: Activities that involve real
communication promote learning; 2) Task Principle: Activities that involve
meaningful tasks promote learning; and 3) Meaningful Principle: Language
that is meaningful promotes learning (Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981).
Additionally, the P.L.A.Y. approach follows a functional and natural
theory of language, much like The Natural Approach postulated by Krashen
and Terrell (1983). On a secondary level, P.L.A.Y. follows the doctrines set
up by the Audiolingual approach and TPR but with a twist. Where the
traditional structural behavioristic approaches can be viewed as sterile and
difficult to transfer from classroom to real world, P.L.A.Y. uses pattem-
practice but this is accomplished through a playful method using repetitive
lyrics and phrases found in active singing games and picture books.
Like The Natural Approach, the theory of learning is embedded in
Krashen's view of second language acquisition following the five hypotheses
stated in the Monitor Model: 1) Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis - It is
Krashen's belief that learners have two ways to develop language. First is
through acquisition and the second is by learning. Acquisition is
subconscious and happens through natural interactions. Learning requires
conscious effort, thought and analysis. This is typically done during formal
instruction; 2) The Monitor Hypothesis holds that formal learning has no
effect on acquisition except as a monitor for the learner's output and
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provided, a) there is ample time; b) the focus is on form rather than meaning;
and c) the learner knows the grammatical rule in question; 3) The Natural
Order Hypothesis was inspired by Universal Grammar and Interlanguage
Theory. It maintains that we acquire grammatical structures in a predictable
fashion not determined by the order in which they are taught (Krashen,
1994); 4) The Input Hypothesis refers to his belief that humans acquire
language in only one way-by understanding messages. Krashen (1981) calls
this comprehensible input (Cl). He states that we acquire language when we
understand what people tell us or what we read when we absorb the
message. He further postulates that we acquire language when we
understand messages containing aspects of language that we are
developmentally ready to acquire but have not yet acquired (Krashen, 1997);
5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis - Coupled with the comprehensible input
aspect, Krashen argues that certain affective factors are conducive to
acquiring language. Put simply, acquisition progresses best when the
acquirer's level of anxiety is low and self-confidence is high. In other words,
when the acquirer's "affective filter" is down they are best prepared to acquire
the new language. Cl content is based on activities and lessons that students
find interesting and comprehensible (Crawford, 1994).
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Also like The Natural Approach, P.L.A.Y. is designed for beginning
second language learners and is built around the learner's needs, skills and
level being taught. The syllabus includes goals that develop basic oral and
written communication skills. Content selection and delivery is presented in
an environment that creates a low affective filter by being interesting and
cultivates a friendly, relaxed milieu. Students are always out of their seat and
on their feet. They know the lessons are fun and enjoyable. The techniques
for learning are often borrowed from other methods and include command-
based activities from TPR; Direct Method activities including mime, gesture
and context used to elicit questions and answers, and situation based
practices of structures and patterns. Cooperative group work that is similar to
CLT is also employed. What makes P.L.A.Y. unique is the focus of delivery.
The learning environment is contextualized through multisensory methods
using all learning modalities- visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile. All
lessons include the use of music, singing and active learning. Most include
the reading of a colorful picture book that corresponds to the lyrics of the
song and actions to be performed. For example, in one lesson two children's
picture books, Pizza for Everyone (Barnes, 1998) and Pizza Pokev (Stoodt,
1998) are read first. The Pizza Pokev follows the rhythm and rhyme from the
Hokey Pokey, an age-old children's singing game and allows the children to
sing and act out the chorus as the instructor reads the story. Afterward, a
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124
song called I Am a Pizza (Diamond, 1985) is introduced. Children have an
opportunity to sing the song and/or perform the actions that accompany it.
Rhythm and rhyme is an important component to the teaching materials.
Many of the activities incorporate songs, actions and books that afford the
opportunity to practice the language and the movement. For this specific
activity this researcher wrote a poem about pizza that uses rhyming words
and actions.
In the P.L.A.Y. method, learners progress through various
developmental stages in a predictive manner following The Natural Approach
(1983) stages of acquisition. In the beginning stages, students are not
expected or required to respond in the second language. This is considered
a time of absorption. If they do respond and make mistakes, their errors are
not corrected. In P.L.A.Y. activities, students are not called on individually.
This method uses what Terrell calls random volunteered responses
(Krashen, 1997). Students can respond at any time, sometimes in unison
with other students.
Stage One is Pre-Production. In this stage the student is simply trying
to make sense of the language and gain familiarity with the sounds, rhythms
and patterns. They may understand chunks of the language. They often
respond non-verbally through the use of actions and gestures. They rely on
pictures in books for their understanding of the story. Using the Pizza Pokev
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125
book as an example, students in this stage may simply perform the actions
that they see the teacher and other students doing.
The second stage is Early Production. It is characterized by increased
confidence with the new language including listening with greater
comprehension, and the repetition of memorable language. The song, I Am
a Pizza, offers an imitative chorus that is easy to learn and remember. First,
the students listen as the teacher sings the lyrics and then echo the lyrics on
the second time it is sung.
The third stage is Speech Emergence. In this stage the student
shows evidence of increased understanding and speaks with less hesitation.
In the P.L.A.Y. method the teacher can read the book and then can elicit
more conversation. Some of the questions may only require one and two
word answers, however, depending on the student's proficiency they may
answer in more complete sentences. The question and answers are open-
ended and informal.
In stages four and five, the Intermediate and Advanced Fluency
stages, the student uses a more extensive vocabulary, demonstrates
increased levels of accuracy in writing and speaking, and can explore
concepts in subject matter in depth. Most students in the P.L.A.Y. program
are at stages one, two or three.
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The P.L.A.Y. teacher follows the guidelines set forth in The Natural
Approach and has three distinct roles. 1) The teacher is the primary source
of comprehensible input in the target language; 2) The teacher creates an
environment that is student-friendly; and 3) The teacher must present rich
and varied classroom activities including changing group sizes content and
context. The main purpose of instructional materials is to make learning
meaningful and to make it comprehensible. The P.L.A.Y. method does not
require a textbook, however, there is a comprehensive teacher's manual
divided by thematic chapters detailing each lesson's activities. ELD and
SDAIE materials are primarily music compact disks, colorful picture books,
and other props for playful learning such as animal-shaped beanbags, plastic
fruit, puppets etc. The procedures used in this method follow those from The
Natural Approach, SLT, CLT, TPR and other methods already described.
What is central to the procedures is that throughout all activities the teacher
supplies a continuing flow of comprehensible input through singing, actions
and modeling.
Because of the repetitive lyrics and catchy music, P.L.A.Y. solicits the
concept that Barber (1980) initially described as the Din in the Head, an
involuntary rehearsal of second language words and phrases that occurs
with exposure to a second language in natural situations. Bedford (1985)
found that involuntary rehearsal was reported more frequently after aural
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Figure 4
Schematic Representation of the P.L.A.Y.™ Method
Adapted from Richards and Rogers' (2000)
Analytical Model of Language Teaching Methods and Approaches
APPROACH
Functional-Natural
PROCEDURE
Music, Singing & Movement
DESIGN
Specific to Beginning English Language Learners
METHOD-P.L.A.Y.™
(Physical Learning Activities for Youngsters)
a. A Theory of the Nature of Language a.
(Halliday, 1975; Johnson, 1982;
Littlewood, 1981;Widdowson, 1978)
Language as communication (CLT)
Hymes (1972)
"Communicative Competence" b.
b. A Theory of the Nature of Language
Learning
Condition- oriented-humanistic
Communication Principle c.
Activities that involve real
communication promote learning
1. Task Principle
Activities that involve meaningful d.
tasks promote learning
2. Meaningful Principle
Language that is meaningful e.
promotes learning
Krashen's Language Acquisition Theory
1. Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
2. Monitor Hypothesis
3. Natural Order Hypothesis f.
4. Input Hypothesis
5. Affective Filter Hypothesis
The General and Specific Goals & Objectives
of the Method
Goals- Based on CA ELD Standards (1999)
Objectives- To increase oral language,
comprehension and vocabulary development
A syllabus model
Specific to beginning English language learners
Teacher's manual is divided into nine thematic
chapters
Types of learning and teaching activities
Singing, active learning, simple sentence responses
"Learning by doing”
Multisensory-visual, kinesthetic, tactile, auditory
Learner roles
Whole group, small group, partner
Learner is viewed as a processor & performer
Teacher roles
Teacher-directed
Provide comprehensible input by teaching songs,
reading books, modeling actions
Spirit of camaraderie to lower students' affective filter
The roles of instructional materials
Music CDs, picture books and other realia of
interest to children (puppets, toys, animal figures)
a. Classroom techniques, practices
and behaviors
• Open play space to allow for
singing and movement
• Interactional patterns include
whole group, small group and
pair-share
• Teaching and learning is
conducted in a playful movement-
based environment
contextualized through the use of
visuals, realia, singing and
physical actions
ro
128
comprehensible input (conversations in class, classroom drills and after
listening to the targeted language) and less frequently after grammar study.
In a study by de Guerrero (1987) participants stated that they heard the Din
after hearing songs in English. Sevilla's (1996) study demonstrated similar
results. When interviewed a child stated that words and sentences swirled
around inside her head. The more she heard the words the easier it was for
her to speak English. She further commented that she could not control the
words tumbling around inside her head. Din has been evidenced in the
children involved in P.L.A.Y.. Oftentimes after learning a song, teachers will
report that the students are humming and singing the words days after the
lesson is over.
P.L.A.Y. Language Curriculum Development Processes
Before a method can be decided upon a firm basis for curriculum
development is required. This includes a needs analysis, formulation of
objectives, selection of teaching and learning activities, and evaluation
(Richards & Rodgers 2000). Much has been written about the design of
language teaching courses, methods, syllabuses and materials but little has
been published about the impact on learners of programs, approaches,
methods, instructional strategies and materials. The relationship of the
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129
different components of language curriculum development is summarized in
Figure 5.
Needs analysis is concerned with identifying general and specific
language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives and
content in a language program and focuses on what the learner's present
level of proficiency is and on what the learner will be required to use the
language for on completion of the program (Richards & Rodgers, 2000).
P.L.A.Y. program goals contain measurable objectives and activities
intended to provide teachers with the tools and skills they need to teach
English language learners. The goals of the P.L.A.Y. program are based on
the English Language Development Standards adopted by the State of
California (July 1999b) and target the following identified needs of English
Language Learners (ELLs): 1) Assist children of limited English proficiency in
reaching their highest potential as learners; 2) Assist teachers in developing
and implementing innovative SDAIE. With regard to the P.L.A.Y. program's
needs analysis it was established that the Kindergarten- second grade
students at five schools in one district were second language learners and
needed multiply strategies to assist them in learning English. Prior to the
P.L.A.Y. program The District employed one ELD program.
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130
Figure 5
Language Curriculum Development Processes
(Richards & Rodgers. 2000. p. 159)
Administrative Instructional
Considerations
\ /
Considerations
/
Logistical
Considerations
Needs
Assessment
Learning
Objectives
Psychosocial
Considerations
Methodology
\
4
Materials
\
Program Design
Method
Approach
Design
Procedure
Evaluation
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Information obtained from needs analysis is used in developing,
selecting or revising program objectives. Objectives detail the goals of the
language program. They identify the kind and level of language proficiency
the learner will attain in the program (if the program is successful) (Richards
& Rodgers, 2000,156). P.L.A.Y. has clear and concise objectives that match
with realistic learner outcomes for both the students and the teachers:
Through the course of the P.L.A.Y. program, students will increase oral
language, comprehension and vocabulary development assessed through
anecdotal observations and state testing. By implementing the P.L.A.Y.
program, teachers will learn innovative SOAIE strategies demonstrated
through observations, interviews and student improvement.
Once decisions have been made about the kinds and levels of
language proficiency the program is designed to produce, teaching and
learning activities can be chosen (Richards & Rodgers, 2000,157). P.L.A.Y.
activities are designed to engage the learner in acquiring language through
playful interactions. Children will have the opportunity to sing, dance,
pantomime, use puppets, and other props for playful learning that embrace
all learning modalities- aural, visual, tactile and kinesthetic.
Evaluation refers to procedures for gathering data on the dynamics,
effectiveness, acceptability, and efficiency of the language program for the
purposes of decision-making (Richards & Rodgers, 2000,158). This
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132
evaluation design addresses two questions that focus on what occurs in the
program through internal evaluation as well as project outcomes in external
evaluation: 1) Was the project implemented as per plan (formative
evaluation)?
2) Did the project produce the intended positive results (summative
evaluation)?
Formative evaluation is supported by observation and by
documentation. The P.L.A.Y. consultant, principal, Title 1 and/or Title VII
coordinator and the teachers worked together to determine what additional
questions will be asked and what data will be collected. Quantitative
instrumentation was designed to aid in this endeavor. Qualitative measures
will include teacher observations, interviews, surveys and other anecdotal
data. This will be used to provide the basis for an accurate report on what is
implemented. Evaluation will include a component designed to assess the
degree to which the consultant was effective with the teachers and ELLs that
she trained and instructed. Effectiveness will be determined by but not limited
to the learning demonstrated by the participants.
A summative evaluation design includes a description of the
evaluation questions, the population, the instrumentation, data collection,
creation and management of the data file, data analysis and reporting. The
questions addressed in the principal evaluation that can be answered by the
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133
summative phase of the evaluation indicate the teachers' ability to implement
P.L.A.Y. and the students' gains in English language acquisition.
Evaluation will keep the project focused by identifying strengths and
areas of improvement.
Summary of the Literature Review
This chapter presented the literature reviewed for this study. The
examination of the various second language approaches and methods
provided the background for an explanation of the use of a music, singing
and a movement-based approach for second language acquisition. The
components for effective second language and staff development models
were investigated as well. The literature review demonstrates a need to
analyze teachers' perceptions about the efficacy of P.L.A.Y., a
comprehensive instructional method that uses a combination of music,
singing and movement for second language acquisition. The next chapter
explains the research methods used for this investigation.
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134
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the design, sample, population and methods of
data collection and instrumentation for the study. The purpose of this study is
to analyze teachers' perceptions of the efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. program using
a music, singing and movement-based approach for second language
acquisition in five designated Title I/Title VII elementary schools in one
medium-sized Southern California school district. In addition, the study
examines the staff development model utilized in P.L.A.Y., the extent of
implementation and the participating teachers' perceived impact of the
program on their students' English language acquisition.
Four research questions addressed this purpose:
1. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective second
language models?
2. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective SDAIE
strategies?
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135
3. What are the participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y.
program's correspondence with the state of California's Beginning
Proficiency Level of English Language Development Standards?
4. What are teachers' believed strengths and weaknesses of the
P.L.A.Y. staff development model in terms of inservice training,
teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?
The research methods used for this study were descriptive in nature.
A questionnaire (see Appendix) and follow-up formal interviews provided
data for an analysis of the teacher’s perceptions of the efficacy of the
P.L.A.Y. program. Data about the perceived benefits of the P.L.A.Y. program
including successful second language acquisition models, effective SDAIE
strategies and the extent to which the teachers believed the program
interfaces with the California English Language Development Standards
were gathered and analyzed in a two-month period.
The instruments for this study were developed based on conceptual
frameworks that were designed to identify the key elements addressed in the
research questions.
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136
Sample and Population
The five elementary schools in this study follow a traditional school
calendar beginning in September and ending in June. The grades consist of
kindergarten through sixth grade. For this study, the researcher focused on
kindergarten through second grade teachers assigned to Alternative and/or
SEI classrooms that have been implementing the P.L.A.Y. method for ELD.
District Setting
Residential areas augmented by light industry create a diverse
community in which this school district is located. The community is a
microcosm of Southern California. Within the community there are pockets of
extreme poverty, coupled with areas of affluence creating a varied
population. The District encompasses two cities, areas of three neighboring
cities and sections of unincorporated county land. The District serves 25,000
students in 19 elementary schools, 5 middle schools, 3 comprehensive high
schools, 1 continuation high school and 2 programs for middle and high
school aged at-risk students. The ethnic population of The District includes
64% White, 25% Hispanic, 8% Asian, 3% American Indian, Pacific Islander,
Filipino and Black (California Department of Education, 2001a).
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The student population has increased rapidly over the past 20 years
in the eastern area of the district primarily due to the development and
construction of new homes. Simultaneously, population has steadily
increased in the western and southern parts of the district due to growing
numbers of immigrant and multi-generational families. In conjunction with the
burgeoning population, class size reduction (CSR) in first through third grade
has presented the district with challenges related to student housing. It is
projected that the dramatic growth in the student population that has
occurred will continue in the near future.
The percentage of minority students has also steadily increased.
Many of these students are learning English as a second language. The
District maintains an assessment center to determine English language
proficiency upon which the student’s educational program is predicated at the
school site. The various languages present include English, Spanish, Farsi,
Vietnamese, Tagalog, Mandarin, Cantonese and Korean. The primary
languages are English and Spanish.
The assignment of teachers in their credentialed area continues to be
a priority for The District. Every effort is made to assign personnel with the
appropriate credential to a teaching position. When this is not possible,
following the guidelines set forth in the California Education Code, an
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138
emergency credential, a limited assignment credential or school board
approval is obtained for those teaching outside their credentialed area.
The District has implemented class-size-reduction in first through third
grades so that no class at those grade levels has more than 20 students and
endeavors to limit kindergarten class size to 32 students and grades four
through six to 36 students.
Description of the Five Schools in the Study
The five schools in the study are atypical for The District. For the most
part, The District is an Anglo upper middle class district with tiny areas of
lower-income housing.
According to the 2001 figures, of the 4,615 students at the five
selected elementary schools, native English speakers make up 37% of the
student population, 11% are Fluent English Proficient and 52% of students
are Limited English Proficient. All five schools receive Title I and Title VII
funding and participate in the National School Lunch Program with 58% of
the student population recipients of Free or Reduced Lunch (FRL).
All five schools offer a fully articulated English Acquisition program for
those students who are limited in their use of English. The district adopted
ELD program is Into English! (Villamil Tinajero & Schifini, 1997). Beginning in
the kindergarten classes, English Language Learners receive a rigorous
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139
curriculum and participate in daily lessons of English Language
Development.
The teachers have a clear understanding that academic excellence for
all students is reached by working toward a common vision, setting goals,
and redefining curriculum and instruction. A variety of resources and
outstanding teachers with knowledge of high quality instructional methods
and strategies provide challenging learning experiences for all students.
The schools in this study offer an assortment of after school activities
including the Homework Club, computer classes, small group tutoring. In
addition, one of the local cities provides recreational activities and a local
church group provides self-esteem building Kid's Clubs that include drama,
dance, games, sports and arts and crafts.
School A
School A is comprised of a total student enrollment of 517 students.
The two largest ethnic groups are Hispanic (46.0% ) and White (42.6%). Also
included are Asian (8.1%), African American (2.9% ), and American Indian
(0.2%). One hundred fifty two or 29.4% of students are English language
learners. One hundred thirty eight or 26.7% of the ELLs are Spanish
speakers. A small percentage of the population represented is Vietnamese
(1.0%) and Arabic, Mandarin, Thai, and Farsi collectively characterizes 1.7%.
Two hundred nine or 40.7% of the students receive the free or reduced price
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140
meals provided by the federal government for students who come from
financially disadvantaged families.
School B
School B is the largest school in the study with a population of 1486
students in kindergarten through sixth grades. The largest ethnic group
represented is Hispanic with an enrollment of 1187 or 79.9%. Other ethnic
groups represented are White (13.1%), Asian (2.8%) and African American
(3.0%). Collectively, Pacific Islanders and Filipinos make up a small
percentage (1.2%). Nine hundred twenty six students or 62.3% are ELLs.
Approximately, one thousand one hundred ninety eight or 80.3% of the
students participate in the free or reduced price meals.
School C
School C serves 631 kindergarten through sixth grade students. The
largest ethnic group represented is Hispanic (72%). Other groups
represented are White (18.5%), African American (2.7%) and Asian (6.8%).
Two hundred ninety three or 46.4% are ELLs and 377 or 59.5% participate in
the free or reduced price meals.
School D
School D currently has a population of 744 students, kindergarten
through sixth grade. The primary ethnic group represented is Hispanic
(84.5% ). Whites represent 9.8% of the enrollment while Asian (2.6% ), African
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141
American (2.2%), Pacific Islander (0.1%), and Filipino (0.8%) characterize
the remaining population. There are a total of 574 or 77.2% ELLs with
Spanish speakers representing the highest percentage (75.7% ). Six hundred
seventeen or 81.6% of the students receive free or reduced price meals.
School E
School E is unique in the diversity of its student body. The educational
program serves students from preschool through 6t h grade - in regular as
well as special education programs. Currently there are approximately 1095
students -1051 regular education and 44 special education students. The
primary ethnic group represented is Hispanic (71.7%). Whites represent
19.8% of the enrollment while Asian (6.5%), African-American (1.4% ),
American Indian (0.1%), and Filipino (0.5% characterize the remaining
population. Of the total population, 51.1% are ELLs with Spanish (49.3% ) as
their primary language. Six hundred seventy three or 62.0% of the students
receive free or reduced price meals.
Population
This study is limited to 43 kindergarten - second grade teachers of
Alternative and/or SEI designated classrooms at five elementary schools and
its supporting school district. The forty-three kindergarten - second grade
teachers at the five selected schools are comprised of 7 emergency permits,
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142
5 standard credential, 9 CLAD or similar credential, 5 BCLAD or similar
credential, 5 credential + units and 11 masters. One teacher is listed as a
long-term substitute.
The District and five elementary schools selected for this study met
the following criteria: a) of the nineteen elementary schools in the district, the
student body at these five schools is ethnically diverse consisting of at least
40% second language learners; b) they are identified as Title I/Title VII
schools and; c) the kindergarten - second grade teachers have been involved
in extensive staff development training in the P.L.A.Y. program. The
participants in this study include school site leaders and kindergarten -
second grade teachers assigned to Alternative and/or SEI classrooms.
The study was limited to the forty-three kindergarten - second grade
teachers at the five designated elementary schools that have received
training in the P.L.A.Y. program. Additionally, the site principals and selected
lead teachers participated in formal interviews. Forty-three kindergarten -
second grade teachers in designated Alternative and SEI classrooms
completed the teacher questionnaire. The number of teachers interviewed
was limited to five to ensure that intensive data collection could be
undertaken with each participant. Information about the P.L.A.Y. program
was gathered through the teacher questionnaire. Intensive data collection is
generally in educational research (Gall, Borg, & Gall; 1996). Table 1
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143
demonstrates characteristics of the sample and their involvement with the
data collection process.
Kindergarten - Second Grade Teacher Participants
Kindergarten - second grade teachers that utilize the P.L.A.Y. program
for English language development were invited to participate in the study by
completing the Teacher questionnaire. Forty-three out of the fifty-one
teachers, or 85% completed the Teacher questionnaire. Eight questionnaires
were not returned and no explanation was given. Of the participating
teachers in the study, 5 primary teachers, one from each site was selected
for a formal interview session. The teachers were individually asked
questions to assist the researcher in collecting data on the P.L.A.Y. program
and particularly on how they went about teaching the program.
Principal Participants
Each of the five principals from the five selected school sites
participated in formal interviews. The interview guides were similar to the
teacher interview guides with questions focusing on the efficacy of the
P.L.A.Y. program.
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144
Table 1
Characteristics of the Sample
Participant
Group
Number
Sampled
Location Instrument
Completed
Teacher 6/7 School A
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher 14/16 School B
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher 10/11 School C
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher 8/10 School D
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher 5/7 School E
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Lead Teacher 1/1 School A
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher Interview
Lead Teacher 1/1 School B
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher Interview
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145
Table 1 Continued
Lead Teacher 1/1 School C
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher Interview
Lead Teacher 1/1 School D
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher Interview
Lead Teacher 1/1 School E
Classroom
Questionnaire
Self Report
Teacher Interview
Principal 1/1 School A
School Office
Principal Interview
Principal 1/1 School B
School Office
Principal Interview
Principal 1/1 School C
School Office
Principal Interview
Principal 1/1 School D
School Office
Principal Interview
Principal 1/1 School E
School Office
Principal Interview
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146
Instrumentation
Data collection was designed using frameworks for each research
question. Three data collection instruments were used to collect data for this
study. This section describes the theoretical basis for the organizational
design of the data collection instruments and the contents and structure of
each instrument.
Framework for Instrument Design
Several conceptual frameworks provided the theoretical foundations
for the data collection instruments. The questions in the instruments probed
for and obtained information to be categorized and summarized. The
instrumentation used to collect data for this descriptive research study
evolved through several phases. Initially, this researcher met with University
of Southern California Professor, Michael Genzuk, over the summer of 1999
to discuss the initial concept of the study and to envision the data collection
process. Additionally it was discussed with key administrators at the district
where the potential research was to be studied. In fall 2000, the five
principals of the selected schools in the study reviewed the questionnaire.
The instruments went through a series of revisions.
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The conceptual framework and data collection organization focused
on the four research questions that address the purpose for this study. For
each research question, relevant literature provided the foundation for
creating the framework. The conceptual framework, in turn, allowed for the
development of appropriate instrumentation and inquiry strategies to guide
the data collection. Below, the framework for each research question is
explained followed by an explanation of the instruments. Richards and
Rodgers (2000) revised model of Anthony's (1963) analytical model of
language teaching methods and approaches provided the conceptual and
theoretical framework for each research question.
Framework for Research Question 1
The first research question asked," What are participating teachers'
ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the key components
of effective second language models?" According to Richards and Rodgers
(2000) effective second language models need to have a solid theoretical
foundation that incorporates the method with an approach, design and
procedure. This question addresses the approach or functional nature of the
method and includes the theory of the nature of language and the theory of
the nature of language learning. P.L.A.Y. embraces the communicative
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approach to language learning and Krashen's monitor model for English
language acquisition.
Framework for Research Question 2
The second research question asked," What are participating
teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the
key components of effective SDAIE strategies?" Richards & Rodgers
(2000) state that for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary
to develop a design for an instructional system. Incorporated in the
design are certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of
theoretical assumptions about language and learning. At the level of
procedure, a method realizes its approach and design through tasks
and activities used as the basis of teaching and learning. Peregoy, &
Boyle, (1997) and Diaz-Rico, & Weed, (1995) identify SDAIE
strategies as multisensory in nature, enabling students to activate all
of their senses while learning. SDAIE strategies utilize all of learning
modalities - visual, kinesthetic, and auditory providing reinforcement of
the materials being learned. The learning environment is rich with
contextual clues in the form of visual and media support, such as
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149
pictures, photographs, charts, graphs, maps, props, manipulatives,
and other tangible materials.
Framework for Research Question 3
The third research question asked," What are the participating
teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the state of
California's Beginning Level of the English Language Development
Standards?" The ELD Standards list expectancy and achievement at the
Beginning, Early Intermediate, Intermediate, Early Advanced, and Advanced
proficiency levels for ELL students. These standards address skills ELLs
must acquire in initial English learning to enable them to become proficient
on the English Language Arts (ELA) Standards (1999b). The ELD Standards
are designed to supplement the ELA Standards to ensure the ELLs develop
proficiency in both English language and the concepts and skills contained in
the ELA Standards (CDE, 1999c).
Following Hall and Hord's (1987) innovation configuration guidelines,
an innovation configuration was developed for Part Four of the teacher
questionnaire for ratings about the Beginning Proficiency Level of ELD.
These include components identified by the state of California in the adopted
ELD standards (1999c). In addition, Schmoker (1999) emphasized
establishing measurable goals and standards and utilizing frequent
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150
assessments as being fundamental to continuous school improvement.
Interview questions were designed to evaluate the status of these elements
as secondary means of measuring students' English language development.
Framework for Research Question 4
The fourth research question asked," What are teachers' believed
strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. staff development model in terms
of inservice training, teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?
This question takes a closer look at Richards and Rodgers' (2000) model
with respect to the design and procedure of a given method. The design of
the P.L.A.Y. program focuses on objectives for second language learners
specifically the four goals of ELD and SDAIE; listening, speaking, reading
and writing. Content material is driven by Krashen's Monitor Model and
adherence to the five hypotheses postulated; 1) Acquisition/Learning
Hypothesis that states we have two ways to develop language. First is
through acquisition and the second is by learning. Acquisition is
subconscious and happens through natural interactions. Learning requires
conscious effort, thought and analysis; 2) The Monitor Hypothesis holds that
formal learning has no effect on acquisition except as a monitor for the
learner's output and provided, a) there is ample time; b) the focus is on form
rather than meaning; and c) the learner knows the grammatical rule in
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151
question; 3) The Natural Order Hypothesis maintains that we acquire
grammatical structures in a predictable fashion not determined by the order
in which they are taught (Krashen, 1994); 4) The Input Hypothesis that states
we acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages. Krashen
(1981) calls this comprehensible input (Cl); 5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis
stipulates that acquisition progresses best when the acquirer's level of
anxiety is low and self-confidence is high.
This question also addresses views on staff development concerning
the benefits of ongoing professional development and staff development
training. According to the literature, teacher development must focus on
deepening teachers’ understanding of the processes of teaching and
learning. Effective staff development must couple the concept of the teacher
as both teachers and learners. (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995;
Fitzgerald & Bass, 1997; Lieberman, 1995; National Staff Development
Council, 1995).
Data Collection Framework
The conceptual frameworks for the research questions provided the
blueprint for developing the data collection instrumentation. The
instrumentation was selected and developed to cover the four research
questions' data requirements. Table 2 presents the four data collection topics
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152
related to the data collection instrumentation. The table serves as a
reference point to the relationship between the four instruments and the four
research questions for this study. The data collection instrumentation is listed
on the left column; the research questions are listed on the top row. A
relationship between them is indicated with an "X" on the intersecting cell.
The three data collection instruments used in this descriptive research
study fall into two categories. One of the data collection instruments was a
written response, questionnaire and self report type instrument: Teacher
Questionnaire. Embedded in The teacher questionnaire was a self-report
requiring a brief written response to three selected questions. The second
data collection instrument included formal interviews from a) five selected
lead teachers in the study and b) the five site principals. Each of the data
collection instruments is described in the following subsections and a copy of
each is provided in the appendix.
Written Response Data Collection instruments
One of the data collection instruments required written responses.
This was in the form of a questionnaire.
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Table 2
Data Collection Instrumentation
The relationship of the data collection instrument to the research questions
Data Collection Instrumentation RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3 R Q 4
Teacher Questionnaire X X X X
Teacher Self Report X
Lead Teacher Interview X X X X
Principal Interview X X X X
Teacher Questionnaire. The teacher questionnaire was a two-page
questionnaire designed purposefully by this researcher to gather data
specific to the P.L.A.Y. program and its efficacy as deemed by the teachers
implementing the program. Instructions for the questionnaire were
standardized and concise. Major areas addressed in the questionnaire
included; demographic questions, effective second language models,
effective SDAIE strategies, California English Language Development
Standards and effective staff development models.
The questionnaire utilized a Likert scale. A Likert scale is an attitude
scale that asks individuals to check their level of agreement with various
statements (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). The questionnaire required responses
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154
in varying degrees of intensity on a scale ranging between extremes. A scale
of five positions was used in Part Two and Three. A scale of four positions
was used in Part Three. In Part Two this five-point scale ranged from
"uncertain" (1) to "strongly agree" (5). In Part Three the five-point scale
ranged from "not addressed" (1) to "excellent" (5). In Part Four, the four-point
scale ranged from "successfully met" to "not met at all." Embedded in the
questionnaire, in Part Five, was a self-report where the participants had the
opportunity to provide three written responses concerning the P.L.A.Y. staff
development model. The three areas addressed the inservice training,
written materials and demonstrated teaching lessons. This instrument was
designed solely to have teachers evaluate the three main components of the
P.L.A.Y. program in an attempt to provide an overall perspective concerning
the success of the program for second language acquisition. Specifically,
these items asked for a report of the positive comments and suggestions for
the P.L.A.Y. staff development model concerning inservice training, the
teacher's manual and the 30-minute demonstrated lessons.
Interview Data Collection Instruments
Two of the data collection instruments consisted of interview guides.
Miles and Huberman (1994) recommend using face-to-face interviews in
order to obtain specific information regarding elements, issues, or other
significant concepts. They note that prior instrumentation for using interview
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155
guides, helps ensure that all needed data is collected when complex or
interwoven issues must be investigated. Patton (1980) structured interview
questions using three categories. The first type of question, experience-
behavior questions, reflected a person's activities and experiences. The
second type of question, opinion-value and values. The third type of
question, background-demographic questions, was concerned with personal
characteristics of the individual. The majority of the questions in the series of
interviews used in this study focused on experience-behavior and opinion-
value, but all three types were present. Table 3 correlates the question types
with the two interview guides. Each of the two interview guides included
prompts, suggestions and topical guidance to assist the interviewer in
obtaining all needed data.
Lead teachers interview guide. The lead teacher interview guide
addressed all four research questions: (a) effective second language models,
(b) SDAIE strategies, (c) English Language Development Standards, and (d)
strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. staff development model including
the Inservice Training, Teacher's Manual and Demonstrated Teaching
Lessons.
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Table 3
Interview Format: Types of Interview Questions Used in Study
Interview Format Primary Teachers
implementing the
P.L.A.Y. Program
Principals at the schools
implementing the
P.L.A.Y. Program
1. Experience-
Behavior
Questions
X X
2. Opinion-Value
Questions
X X
3. Background-
Demographic
Questions
X X
The interview guide was broken down into four sections. Each section
addressed one of the research questions. The specific questions for each
section were derived from the literature review for this study and the
framework developed for collecting data on each research question. Specific
topics investigated included second language acquisition models, English
language development standards, ELD and SDAIE strategies as they
correlate with the goals and objectives of the P.L.A.Y. program and the staff
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157
development model for the P.L.A.Y. program. The interviews were structured
by guiding questions that were focused yet open-ended. The interview guide
was developed for one teacher at each of the five schools identified by the
principal as providing leadership in the P.L.A.Y. program. Teachers were
interviewed during their conference periods in their classrooms and were
assured confidentiality of information shared during the interviews.
Site principal interview guide. The principal interview guide
addressed all four research questions as well. The guide contained four
questions addressing the four research questions but from the perspective of
the principal's observations of the teachers in implementing the P.L.A.Y.
program. The focus of the principal interview was linking theory to practice. It
was also important to obtain the principal's perceptions regarding
professional development and its relationship to P.L.A.Y. program model.
The interview was conducted in each of the five respective school sites
allowing the principal access to evidence that supported the interview.
In early March 2001, the fifty-one teachers were given the teacher
questionnaire. Completed questionnaires were sealed in an envelope and
then placed in a marked manila envelope located at the school secretary's
desk to protect anonymity.
All interviews included the following structure: (a) the general aim of
the study was presented to the respondent; (b) assurance of anonymity was
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158
provided; (c) concise instructions were given to each participant; and (d)
focused questions were asked of each participant followed by open-ended
questions to encourage elaboration.
Data Collection
All data was collected in February and March 2001. The school
district assistant superintendent and superintendent received a written
explanation of the entire study to ensure understanding and comfort with the
instruments and the purpose of the study. The assistant superintendent in
charge of educational services then granted permission for the study. Next,
the school principals of the five designated schools received a written
summary of the study and copies of the data collection instruments. The
school principals also received an overall schedule of the data collection
timeline. The school sites selected were operating on a traditional calendar
commencing in September and ending in June. Archival data was collected
from the school sites and district office of Educational Services.
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Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to analyze teachers' perceptions of the
efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. program design that uses a music and movement-
based approach for English language development. The data analysis
structure followed the four research questions. The teacher questionnaire
was tallied by grade level for each question/section. The data was divided
into four segments for reporting: (a) kindergarten teachers, (b) first grade
teachers, (c) second grade teachers and, (d) others, ie. special needs and
resource. The data was averaged for each of these groups and overall.
Then, the data was entered into tables to present responses for analysis of
the four groups. The tables were organized by research question. The data
depicted the perceived strength and weakness of the various aspects of the
P.L.A.Y. program for second language acquisition.
Next, the information from the formal interviews was analyzed by
selecting important highlights from the interviews that directly addressed
each research question. The interview data was reviewed to reveal
similarities and differences among the participants' responses and additional
data was then added to the research question sections.
The information from the interviews was then compared and
contrasted with information gathered from the other data collection
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160
instruments. The interview and questionnaire data were merged at this time.
The last step was to analyze the collected data in terms of the four research
questions and their conceptual frameworks. This allowed the researcher to
identify important components, strategies and relative features of a
successful second language program. Each research question was in turn
considered and findings were determined.
Summary
This chapter discussed the research methods used in this study,
including descriptions of the research design, the sample, the instruments,
the procedures, and the methodology. The instruments were comprised of a
teacher questionnaire and a series of interviews. Procedures involved
obtaining permission from the superintendent, assistant superintendent in
charge of educational services and the five principals of the school sites
selected for the study, collecting questionnaires and self-reports, and
conducting formal interviews with note taking. The analysis and findings of
the research are presented in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA AND THE FINDINGS
This chapter presents and analyzes the data collected in the study.
The data consist of a questionnaire and self-reports completed by the
teachers that use the P.L.A.Y. program as a supplement for ELD and the
results of interviews with five lead teachers and the five principals at each
schooi in the study.
The four research questions to be answered by this study concerned
a) the correspondence of the P.L.A.Y. program with the key components of
effective second language models; b) the correspondence of the P.L.A.Y.
program with the key components of effective SDAIE strategies; c) the
correspondence of the P.L.A.Y. program with the Beginning Proficiency Level
of the California English Language Development Standards; and d) the
effectiveness of the staff development model for the P.L.A.Y. program. The
data is organized and presented topically using these four research
questions as topics.
The four research questions addressed in this study were:
1. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective second language
models?
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162
2. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective SDAIE strategies?
3. What are the participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the state of California's Beginning Level of the
English Language Development Standards?
4. What are teachers' believed strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y.
staff development model in terms of inservice training, teacher's manual
and demonstrated teaching lessons?
Research Question 1
Participating Teachers' Ratings of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Correspondence
with the Key Components of Effective Second Language Models
Framework for Research Question 1
The first question asked," What are participating teachers' ratings of
the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the key components of effective
second language models?" The Communicative Language Teaching (1976)
Approach coupled with the theory of language learning postulated in the
Natural Approach (1977/1983) and Krashen's Monitor Model (1982) provided
the primary data available for the theoretical framework for this question.
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163
The P.L.A.Y. approach in language teaching starts from a theory of
language as communication. P.L.A.Y. is heavily grounded in the
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the theorists involved
(Halliday, 1975; Hymes, 1972; Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981; Widdowson,
1978) and follows the goal of teaching developed initially by Hymes (1972)
called communicative competence (p. 281). P.L.A.Y. is built on the following
three CLT principles: 1) Communicative principle: Activities that involve real
communication promote learning; 2) Task Principle: Activities that involve
meaningful tasks promote learning; and 3) Meaningful Principle: Language
that is meaningful promotes learning (Johnson, 1982; Littlewood, 1981).
In addition, the P.L.A.Y. approach follows a functional and natural
theory of language, much like The Natural Approach postulated by Krashen
and Terrell (1983).
Krashen's Monitor Model consists of five key system of beliefs: 1)
Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis - It is Krashen's belief that learners have two
ways to develop language. First is through acquisition and the second is by
learning. Acquisition is subconscious and happens through natural
interactions. Learning requires conscious effort, thought and analysis. This is
typically done during formal instruction; 2) The Monitor Hypothesis holds that
formal learning has no effect on acquisition except as a monitor for the
learner's output and provided, a) there is ample time; b) the focus is on form
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164
rather than meaning; and c) the learner knows the grammatical rule in
question; 3) The Natural Order Hypothesis was inspired by Universal
Grammar and Interlanguage Theory. It maintains that we acquire
grammatical structures in a predictable fashion not determined by the order
in which they are taught (Krashen, 1994); 4) The Input Hypothesis refers to
his belief that humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding
messages. Krashen (1982) calls this comprehensible input (Cl). He states
that we acquire language when we understand what people tell us or what
we read when we absorb the message. He further postulates that we acquire
language when we understand messages containing aspects of language
that we are developmentally ready to acquire but have not yet acquired
(Krashen, 1997); 5) The Affective Filter Hypothesis - Coupled with the
comprehensible input aspect, Krashen argues that certain affective factors
are conducive to acquiring language. Put simply, acquisition progresses best
when the acquirer's level of anxiety is low and self-confidence is high. In
other words, when the acquirer's affective filter is down they are best
prepared to acquire the new language. Cl content is based on activities and
lessons that students find interesting and comprehensible.
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The teacher questionnaire, lead teacher interview guides and the
principal interview guides were constructed to follow the philosophy of both
the CLT, the Natural Approach and Krashen's Monitor Model that are specific
to key components of effective second language models.
Summary of Data for Research Question 1
Part 2 of the teacher questionnaire was designed to answer Research
Question 1. Ten fundamental characteristics of effective second language
models were presented in ten statements for the teachers to compare with
the P.L.A.Y. program's effectiveness for second language learning. Table 4
presents the results from the teacher questionnaire. In the questionnaire, the
participants were instructed to circle one number on a scale of 1-5. Number 1
represented "not certain" and 5 represented "strongly agree." The results
indicate that all the participating teachers believe that the P.L.A.Y. program
provides visuals for comprehensible input, uses gestures and other physical
movements, uses repetition and review, provides simple syntax and short
sentence structures while emphasizing high frequency vocabulary use in an
environment that maintains low student anxiety while fostering enthusiasm
for learning. All teachers either answered that they agreed or strongly
agreed. The last question in Part 2 provided the most varied responses. The
statement presented on the questionnaire read, 'The P.L.A.Y. program
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166
fosters academic language functions.” While 40 participants responded
favorably with an answer of agree or strongly agree, 2 teachers disagreed
while 1 was uncertain.
The interview guides designed for the lead teacher and school site
principals corroborated the fact that the teachers believe P.L.A.Y. solicits
characteristics of effective second language models. Question 2 of the
interview guides asked both the teachers and the principals their opinion
about the correspondence of the P.L.A.Y. program with effective second
language models.
Summary of Research Question 1 Data
All five lead teachers interviewed emphatically voiced that the P.L.A.Y.
program is a prime example of an effective second language model. A
common theme that was articulated by all five teachers is that P.L.A.Y.
directly correlates to effective second language models by providing
comprehensible input, using movement, repetition, and review. The lead
teacher at School B mentioned:
I have noticed that P.L.A.Y. maintains low student
anxiety levels and creates an environment of
enthusiasm. The students can hear the songs and
then couple physical movements and gestures to
make the language comprehensible. The songs are
repetitive and also foster Cl.
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167
Several said it’s just "good teaching." The lead teacher at School E
stated: “P .L A Y . hits all components. It is easy to response to and expands
students' knowledge base. P.L.A.Y. lends itself to different levels of
language. Students have the chance to respond through ail learning
modalities-kinesthetic, tactile, visual and auditory. “
The lead teacher at School A stated: “ The P.L.A.Y. program fits
perfectly with an effective SLA model. My students are saying words they
normally wouldn't use. P.L.A.Y. gives them the opportunity to develop their
vocabulary. All lessons utilize visuals, which again supports Cl.”
The lead teacher from School B stated that it is significant to note that
because of the relaxed atmosphere of the P.L.A.Y. lesson:
Students can take chances with speaking in English,
even compared with the district adopted ELD
program, Into English! They are less afraid that they
will make an incorrect response. There is a different
feeling than during regular classroom instruction.
During the P.L.A.Y. lessons, the students solicit varied
responses. They are more creative- the artistic side
of their personality emerges.
The lead teacher from School D stated: “I am a visual kinesthetic
learner. P.L.A.Y. fits perfectly with my teaching style, but the best part is that
it provides the teaching modality that I am most uncomfortable w ith-
auditory.”
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She further stated that she would have never used music or thought
about using music to teach content-based instruction. Now she is
incorporating P.L.A.Y. lessons into her lesson plans. For example she stated:
When I taught a lesson on shapes, CALP was easily
developed in reading and math. The children were
learning about geometric shapes in a low anxiety
setting, with no reservations of singing or speaking. The
students love the songs and love the chance to dance
and move and best of all they were learning content-
based instruction in a fun way.
All five administrators concurred with the lead teachers in expressing
that the P.L.A.Y. program directly relates to effective second language
models. All principals earnestly stated that P.L.A.Y. definitely meets the
characteristics of an effective SLA model. Each repeated the same belief.
P.L.A.Y. provides Cl, physical movement, repetition, low anxiety and
enthusiasm for learning. P.L.A.Y. also allows for an increase in higher
academic language development.
The principal at School E stated: “P.L.A.Y. absolutely is an effective
SLA model. Each lesson is filled with Cl, gestures, physical movement, low
anxiety-this is critical. It also fosters academic language given that the
teacher applies with academic language use in the classroom.”
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169
Table 4
Teacher Questionnaire Results
The P.L.A.Y. Program's Correspondence to Effective Second Language
Models
Statement on the 1 = 2= 3 = 4 = 5=
Teacher Questionnaire Not Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly
Certain Disagree Agree
1. T h e P .L A Y . 10 33
Program provides
visuals for
comprehensible
input.
2. T h e P .L A Y . 1 42
Program uses
gestures and other
physical movement.
3. T h e P .L A Y . 7 36
Program uses
repetition and
review.
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170
Table 4 Continued
4. T h e P .L A Y .
Program uses
simple syntax.
15 28
5. T h e P .L A Y . 16 27
Program uses short
sentences.
6. T h e P .L A Y . 15 28
Program
emphasizes high
frequency
vocabulary use.
7. Th eP .LA .Y . 5 38
Program maintains a
low student anxiety
level.
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Table 4 Continued
8. The P.L.A.Y.
Program creates an
environment of
enthusiasm.
4 39
9. The P.L.A.Y. 15 28
Program fosters
communicative
language functions.
10.The P.L.A.Y. 1
o
C M
C M
20
Program fosters
academic language
functions.
N = 4 3
The principal at School A mentioned that P.L.A.Y. is a SLA model that
allows physical TPR in multiply ways-it is a multi-modal model and the
principal at School B is impressed with the visuals and realia that comes
packaged with the program. The principal at School D echoed the lead
teacher from School B who mentioned that often time ELLs afraid to speak.
In P.L.A.Y. they lack inhibition. The students speak freely.
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172
Research Question 2
Participating Teachers' Rating of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Correspondence
with the Key Components of SDAIE Strategies
Framework for Research Question 2
The second research question asked, "What are participating teachers' rating
of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with key components of SDAIE
strategies? ELD programs, including content-based ESL, lay the linguistic
foundation students need to use language for academic purposes. ELD
instruction also provides for a smoother transition into the SDAIE classroom,
where language is used to learn new content. While ELD attempts to bring
students to an intermediate level of English, it has a secondary function:
bridging students to grade-level language arts and eventually grade-level
English proficiency. Thus, language developed in ELD classrooms
includes both social (i.e., conversational) English as well as academic
language associated with grade-level literature and writing (Peregoy,
& Boyle, 1997).
SDAIE helps students access grade-level curriculum while
developing the more complex dimension of language associated with
intellectually demanding tasks. Cummins (1989) refers to this
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173
dimension of language as proficiency or cognitive academic language.
Academic language is a by-product of SDAIE instruction, yet crucial
for academic success. An additional function of SDAIE is to facilitate
students in building "metacognition"-learning how to learn. Increasing
students' awareness about the kinds of strategies they need to study
and leam on their own helps them develop learner autonomy. This
occurs in SDAIE classrooms when students reflect on their learning
and how and what enabled them to access the content (Diaz-Rico &
Weed, 1995).
Summary of Data for Research Question 2
Part 3 of the teacher questionnaire and Question 4 of the interview
guides were designed to answer Research Question 2. In Part 3 of the
teacher questionnaire, nine fundamental characteristics of effective SDAIE
strategies were presented in nine statements for the teachers to compare
with the P.L.A.Y. program's effectiveness for second language learners.
Table 5 presents the results from the teacher questionnaire. In the
questionnaire, the participants were instructed to circle one number on a
scale of 1-5. Number 1 represented "not certain" and 5 represented "strongly
agree." The results indicate that with the exception of five teachers, most of
the participating teachers believe that the P.L.A.Y. program incorporates
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174
SDAIE strategies especially for their more proficient students. One teacher
was uncertain about P.L.A.Y. providing instructional scaffolding and one
teacher was uncertain about the P.L.A.Y. program's objectives and
evaluation. Three teachers do not believe that P.L.A.Y. develops CALP and
one teacher disagrees that the P.L.A.Y. program is thematically designed.
One teacher elected to not answer Part 3 of the teacher questionnaire.
Summary of Research Question 2 Data
Overall, the majority of the teachers agrees or strongly agrees that the
P.L.A.Y. program provides effective SDAIE strategies. They believe that the
P.L.A.Y. program provides opportunities for instructional scaffolding,
modeling, bridging into other curricular areas, content-based ESL, and the
development of BICS. With the exception of three teachers, the participating
teachers felt that P.L.A.Y. develops CALP. All but one teacher believes the
program is thematically designed and objectives and evaluation are based on
English skills and function.
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Table 5
Teacher Questionnaire Results -
P.L.A.Y. Program's Correspondence to Effective SDAIE Strategies
Statement on the 1 = 2 =
n
ii
C O
5=
Teacher Questionnaire Not Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly
Certain Disagree Agree
1. The P.L.A.Y. Program 1 2 20 19
provides opportunities
for instructional
scaffolding.
2. The P.L.A.Y. Program 5 37
provides opportunities
for modeling.
3. The P.L.A.Y. Program 10 32
provides opportunities
for bridging into other
curricular areas.
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Table 5 Continued
4. The P.L.A.Y. Program
provides opportunities
for content-based ESL.
11 31
5. The P.L.A.Y. Program
develops BICS.
13 29
6. The P.L.A.Y. Program
develops CALP.
3 24 15
7. The P.L.A.Y. Program
is thematically designed.
1 5 36
8. The P.L.A.Y. Program
is experiential.
8 34
9. The P.L.A.Y. Program 1
objectives and
evaluation are based on
English skills and
function.
17 24
N = 4 2
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177
The interview guides provided additional insight into Research
Question Two. The lead teacher at School A stated:
SDAIE strategies are embedded in every lesson. This
program fits nicely with the teacher who is teaching
ELLs. The content is in English but the activities utilize
a hands-on approach and variety of realia enhanced
with physical gestures that helps the students
understand the language.
The lead teacher at School B remarked:
Instructional scaffolding in evident as I build on units I
have already done, and depending on the level of my
students I can balance back forth and use a hierarchy
of sequences. For example I began a nutrition unit
with a P.L.A.Y. lesson, and then built upon it with
existing curriculum to contextualize content-based
instruction. BICS and CALP is a natural part of the
program as the students build basic and academic
vocabulary development. P.L.A.Y. is wonderful
because it is important that we are consciously made
aware of the importance of listening, oral language,
and speaking skills.
The lead teacher at School D affirms that P.L.A.Y. provides a lot of
opportunities for early production stages of language development. She
mentioned:
The manipulatives and realia help the students to
comprehend English. At first they can simply point or
answer with one or two words. As students progress
in language development the activities lend
themselves to the questioning strategies that need to
be used for English language proficiency. There is a
lot of repetition, singing, and movement-lots of TPR.
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178
The lead teacher at School E stated that the P.L.A.Y. program uses
both ELO and SDAIE strategies. She further noted: u lt also works on both
BICS and CALP. It takes our teaching to another level.”
All five principals stated that the P.L.A.Y. program effectively meets
the requirements for SDAIE strategies. The principal at School B stated: “ The
lessons are cross-curricular. A teacher can begin a unit with P.L.A.Y. and
develop with lessons from P.L.A.Y. to other curricular content areas."
The principal at School D affirmed: “It’s everything. Beginning
language becomes easier for ELLs. They sing songs; the words get
repeated, and then explained. It's total repetition in a friendly non-stressful
environment.”
Research Question 3
Participating Teachers' Rating of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Correspondence
with the Key Components of the Beginning Proficiency Level of the
California ELD Standards
Framework for Research Question 3
The third research question asked, "What are the participating
teachers' rating of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the California
Beginning Proficiency Levels of the English Language Development
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179
Standards?" In April 1999, a group of educators representing 28 Orange
County school districts met to begin the development of the ELD Standards
Matrix based on ongoing and increasing educational needs of ELLs. This
group became known as the Orange County ELD Task Force. It was the goal
of this group to design a matrix to be used as a tool by school districts as
they continue to build their ELD programs. The Mission Statement was also
developed to articulate the goal of this work. During the summer of 1999, the
ELD Task Force began to develop the matrix, which would guide the districts
in the implementation of the adopted ELD Standards (OCDE, 2000).
The ELD Standards list expectancy and achievement at the
Beginning, Early Intermediate, Intermediate, Early Advanced, and Advanced
proficiency levels for ELL students. The ELD standards address skills ELLs
must acquire in initial English learning to enable them to become proficient
on the English Language Arts (ELA) Standards. The ELD Standards are
designed to supplement the ELA Standards to ensure that ELLs develop
proficiency in both English language and the concepts and skills contained in
the ELA Standards (CDE, 1999c).
The ELA Standards reflect a comprehensive and specific vision of
what all California's students actually need to know and to be able to do in
language arts (CDE, 1999b).
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180
The ELD Standards are written as pathways, or benchmarks to the
California ELA Standards. At the early proficiency levels, one ELD Standard
may be a pathway to several ELA Standards. At the more advanced
proficiency levels, the skills in the ELD Standard more closely approximate
those of the ELA Standards and represent the standards at which an ELL
has attained academic proficiency in English (CDE, 1999c).
The ELD Standards integrate listening, speaking, reading, and writing
and create a distinct pathway to reading in English rather than delaying the
introduction of English reading (CDE, 1999c).
To begin the process of aligning Standards to instruction, it is
necessary to have an overview of the Standards and how they will ensure
student success. The matrix is organized by grade spans and ELD
proficiency levels. The grade spans are: K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12. Each grade
span is further divided into the domains of language: listening and speaking,
reading and writing. The ELD Proficiency Levels are divided by Beginning,
Early Intermediate, Intermediate, Early Advanced and Advanced. The matrix
is organized by: 1) ELD level; 2) Standards aligned to the ELA
strands/standards; 3) Assessment and Monitoring; 4) Instructional and/or
Management Strategies; and 5) Instructional Materials.
Acquiring another language is a developmental process (Collier &
Thomas, 1999; Cummins, 1996), consequently, the standards display
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181
patterns of language development which range from the student's initial
contact with formal instruction in English to the point at which their use of
English is comparable to that of their native English-speaking peers. The
standards are organized by language proficiency level, then by grade span.
ELLs enter California schools and begin the process of learning English at
any grade level.
The ELD Standards are designed to develop communicative
competence in English. It should be noted that each proficiency level
description encompasses the many aspects of language proficiency such as
grammar, fluency, functions, pronunciation, and syntax that contribute to
overall proficiency in English (OCDE, 2000).
There are distinctions in the activities indicating ELD progress. For the
purpose of this study, it will concentrate on the Beginning Level only. ELLs
at the Beginning Level of English language proficiency demonstrate dramatic
growth. They progress from having little or no receptive or productive English
skills to possessing a basic use of English. Students exiting the Beginning
Level are able to: 1) comprehend high-frequency words and basic phrases in
immediate concrete surroundings; 2) produce learned words and phrases; 3)
use gestures to communicate basic needs; 4) interact with frequently used
English print in a limited fashion; 5) demonstrate initial English print
awareness; 6) follow classroom routines and schedules; 7) express basic
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182
personal and safety needs; 8) respond to questions with one-to two-word
answers and gestures; and 9) demonstrate and use basic social conventions
(CDE: 1999c).
Part 4 of the teacher questionnaire, and question 3 of the interview
guides were formulated to answer Research Question 3.
Summary of Data for Research Question 3
Overall, most of the teachers felt that the P.L.A.Y. program
corresponded to the key components of the Beginning Proficiency Level of
the California ELD Standards. All the teachers believe that the P.L.A.Y.
program successfully or generally met the standards of comprehension of
high frequency words, production of learned words and phrases, use of
gestures for communication of basic needs, adherence to classroom
procedures, and demonstration and use of basic conventions. Four teachers
believe that the P.L.A.Y. program does not meet too well the standards of
interaction with frequently used English print, demonstration of print
awareness or expression of basic personal and safety needs. Table 6
presents these results.
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183
Summary of Research Question 3 Data
Research Question 3 sought to determine if the P.L.A.Y. program
corresponded to key components of the Beginning Proficiency Levels of the
ELD Standards. Of the California Department of Education's (1999c) nine
standards for the beginning proficiency level of ELD, there was evidence that
the teachers for the most part, believe that P.L.A.Y. aligns with these
standards.
The lead teacher at School C commented:
The beginning proficiency level standards are
addressed in the P.L.A.Y. program. The students are
learning quicker and in a game-type format. Stress is
off. They are enjoying learning. Kids are not afraid to
speak. Sometimes they enthusiastically shout out
words, phrases and answers. The materials are easy
to use and print rich.
The principal at School B reported: “P.L.A.Y. meets the Beginning
Proficiency level and more. A good teacher can take it up to a higher level.
My belief is that programs need to start at the beginning— that is where there
is a greater need.”
The principal at School E added: “P.L.A.Y. is directly aligned with the
Beginning Proficiency Levels of the ELD standards. I think it also meets the
requirements of the intermediate levels as well."
The lead teacher at School C spoke to this point as well. It is her belief
that the P.L.A.Y. program should also be formally aligned with the
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184
intermediate levels of the ELD standards as well. She realizes that the
program isn't currently keyed to the intermediate levels but believes the
program does in fact correlate. She mentioned this is a critical point to
consider in that second grade SEI students are more suited for proficiency at
the higher levels and these students can greatly benefit from the P.L.A.Y.
program.
In discussing and interviewing the principals, all five concurred that
P.L.A.Y. aligns with the ELD standards. The principal at School B succinctly
summed it up by stating, P.L.A.Y. meets all the beginning levels and makes
the standards accessible.
Research Question 4
Participating Teachers' Rating of the P.L.A.Y. Program's
Staff Development Model
Framework for Research Question 4
The fourth research question asked, "What are teachers' believed
strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. staff development model in terms
of inservice training, teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?"
Direct teaching or stand and deliver models of staff development are
outdated. Staff development for the 21s t century offers a broader conception.
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185
Table 6
Teacher Questionnaire Results
of the California ELD Standards
Standard Successfully Generally Not Met Not
Students exiting the Met Well Met Too Well Met
Beginning Level are able At All
to:
1. Comprehend high- 20 22
frequency words and
basic phrases in
immediate concrete
surroundings
2. Produce learned 28 14
words and phrases
3. Use gestures to 35 7
communicate basic
needs
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186
Table 6 Continued
4. Interact with frequently
used English print in a
limited fashion
21 17 4
4. Demonstrate initial
English print
awareness
20 19 3
5. Follow classroom
routines and
schedules
24 18
6. Express basic
personal and safety
needs
22 19 1
7. Respond to questions
with one-to two-word
answers and gestures
29 13
8. Demonstrate and use
basic social
conventions
31 11
N = 4 2
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187
Professional development needs to be long-term and continuous with context
of school, classroom and collegiality. Most importantly, it is not about a one-
shot meeting. Staff development and evaluation needs to be a lifelong
commitment for the teacher and the school. Staff development can no longer
be thought of as a transferable package of bite-sized knowledge pieces. For
educational reform to occur, teachers need to be able to change the way
they behave. To implement educational reform plans, teachers need
opportunities to interact, to discuss, think about, practice and perfect new
teaching strategies, methods and techniques. They must be intrinsically
involved in the process from start to finish and be willing to take on new
roles-mentors, coaches, and researcher. They can also create
infrastructures of problem-solving teams and focus groups (Darling-
Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Lieberman, 1995;)
The contemporary educational reform movement is concerned with
fundamental issues that transform schools into learning organizations where
people work together to solve problems cooperatively. This involves more
than adopting a new curriculum or textbook series. It is about thinking
through how the content and processes of learning can be redefined in ways
that engage students and teachers in active pursuit of learning goals
(Lieberman, 1995). Chamberlin and Chambers, (1991) state that the
educational environment of the standard-graded school does not fit the
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brain’s approach to learning. They suggest that we need to develop
concepts, methods and programs that help students to grow and develop
(p. 231). One of the challenges for educators is that our nation is culturally
and linguistically diverse. In this state it is not uncommon to have children
attending school from every continent, many who enter without English
language skills. How then are we to teach them? What strategies are we to
employ? How can we make learning meaningful?
Learning theorists (Dewey 1966; Montessori; 1964; Vygotsky, 1978)
discovered that the way teachers learn is the same way children learn~by
actively participating. This includes hands-on instruction and discussions
involving reflection about what has been learned. Processes, practices and
policies must be erected to take into consideration this critical viewpoint of
learning. Policy makers must understand the connection between teacher
learning and school development.
Teacher development must focus on deepening teachers’
understanding of the processes of teaching and learning. Effective staff
development must couple the concept of the teacher as both teachers and
learners. According to Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (1995)
professional development needs to create new images of what, when, and
how teachers learn. The paradigm shift is from administrators and policy
makers directing teachers to strategies intended to develop schools and
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189
teachers capacity to be responsible for student learning. To accomplish this
the following professional development characteristics must be in place: 1)
Teachers must be engaged in the tasks of teaching, assessing observing
and reflecting; 2) They must be allowed to experiment and change roles of
teacher to learner; 3) They must have opportunities to work collaboratively;
4) They must be sustained by modeling and coaching; and it must be
connected to other aspects of school change.
Summary of Data for Research Question 4
Embedded in Part 5 of the teacher questionnaire was a self-report
designed to answer Research Question 4. Three key components of effective
staff development were presented in a self-report format. The results are
expressed in comments and beliefs listed by teachers from each of the five
schools. Table 7 presents the results from the first component, Inservice
Training. Table 8 presents the results from the second component,
Teacher's Manual and Table 9 presents the results from the third component,
Demonstrated Lessons. Table 10 presents the results of the self-reports for
improvement for the inservice training. Table 11 presents the results of self-
reports for improvement of the teacher's manual and Table 12 presents the
results of the self-reports for improvement of the demonstrated teaching
lessons.
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190
The interview guides designed for the lead teacher and the school site
principals supported the teachers' opinions about the believed strengths and
weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. program's staff development model including
inservice training, teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons.
Summary of Research Question 4 Data
All five lead teachers and principals interviewed ardently expressed
that the three components of the staff development model complements
each other. All identified the need for multi-modal teaching and learning and
embrace the words of Benjamin Franklin: T e ll me and I forget, teach me
and I remember, involve me and I learn."
Table 7
Self-Report-Positive Comments
Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 1:
Inservice Training Model
School A
Easy to follow and implement in the classroom.
Very helpful and informative. The training made it easier to understand
the materials in the T.M.
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191
Table 7 Continued
The full 2 hours after school were hands-on. We weren't told what to do,
but experienced it, which makes it easier to teach.
Works into my schedule. Provides staff development on a continual
basis. Keeps the energy going for the P.L.A.Y. program.
School B
It is extremely important to see the lessons fully modeled. Kathryn has
so many ideas to make the lessons more meaningful, also tips for
visualizing each lesson.
Kathryn's training was always informative and fun. The program seems
to be designed to meet students' academic, physical and social needs.
Fun and informative and the scheduling was good.
Excellent lessons, necessary for class presentations.
Very helpful in learning how to utilize the materials. Also very
motivating. Keeps P.L.A.Y. in my focus of plans.
The inservice training was excellent in demonstrating several strategies
for the children to understand the material.
Works great! Terrific, very well presented. Got me energized to teach
the P.L.A.Y. program.
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Table 7 Continued
School C
A solid basis for P.L.A.Y. is presented. It is good to have interaction
with other teachers and Kathryn Short, especially for ideas and
suggested implementation. Enthusiasm is bred here.
The half-day before the school year is a great way to start! You feel
motivated and ready to start the program!
Training was excellent and necessary to understand how to implement
program. Lots of good ideas including modeling and participation.
The after school meetings give us hands-on training that we can use for
the next day. Some lessons follow a seasonal pattern while others fit
with curricular content presented throughout the year.
Great to see lessons modeled and receive additional suggestions on
themes and learning.
School D
Energetic and fun.
Very thorough training, however two hours after school is too long.
The training has been very effective. Instructor always does an
excellent job. Inservice training day are very appropriate.
Good, well organized. She brings lots of fun ideas.
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193
Table 7 Continued
School E
The training was hands-on and the techniques were very effective.
Very effective model
They were extremely entertaining and useful. The after school meetings
allowed us to "touch base" with Kathryn
Table 8
Self-Report-Positive Comments
Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 2:
Teacher's Manual
School A
Great!
Explicit directions
Lessons short, clear and effectively written.
I love it!
Very complete.
I refer to the manual often. It has great ideas and resources.
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Table 8 Continued
School B
I really appreciated having all the blackline masters necessary to do the
activities.
Absolutely necessary. What a great SEI and ELD tool. The book and
lessons contained have helped my ELD students to use English in ways
I never thought possible at this stage. Organized very well. Themes
easily fit into all curricular areas.
Lesson format is great. It is cross-referenced and color coordinated.
Nice information.
A little overwhelming to follow without any training on the topic.
Great resource! I think the organization is great. The chapters are easy
to work with. Each lesson is clear and teacher-friendly.
The manual can be a little difficult to understand if you didn't see it done
but it is a great resource when you don't remember everything covered
in the training.
Beautiful!
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Table 8 Continued
School C
I love it and use it constantly for ideas. The contents are well organized,
complete, and concise. Every teacher needs a copy.
I like how the manual is set up and goes along with the curriculum.
Very easy to read and use. All necessary items are listed.
Good resource. All there for us! All the lessons are easy to follow.
Very teacher-friendly. Great ideas and themes students can relate to.
School D
I love the way it's divided into themes. All the materials are provided.
Well presented and very thematic.
The manual is great! It is full of resources and ideas.
Easy to follow. Easy to modify for different students' levels
Table 8 Continued
Excellent
Great manual-couldn't do the activities without it. It is very teacher-
friendly.
School E
Well-organized and easy to use.
Teacher-friendly
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Table 9
Self-Report-Positive Comments
EfRcacv of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 3:
Demonstrated Teaching Lessons
School A
Super! Kids looked forward to it.
Excellent, kept the children's attention and kept them involved.
Very helpful to see the lessons modeled.
I love it!
School B
My students got so excited every month when I told them about
Kathryn's upcoming visit. They could hardly wait!
Table 9 Continued
Excellent resource. These helped me also by integrating with
curriculum.
Always wonderful.
These were as helpful for the teacher as for the students. It provided an
opportunity for us to observe our students ad how they processed new
information from each lesson.
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Table 9 Continued
Simply wonderful! Kids and teachers really look forward to them and
have just too much fun!
I enjoy seeing these lessons modeled.
Very special for the class. A non-threatening welcome space to learn.
Wonderful! This is where other programs fail. We need to see it in
action. This is one of the best parts!
These were excellent because the children are allowed and
encouraged to interact throughout the whole lesson.
Very good modeling for teachers.
My students loved going to these demonstrations. They got my
students excited about learning English.
Excellent and inspiring!
School C
Seeing how Kathryn and English learners actually implement specific
P.L.A.Y. lessons has helped me be more aware of students' needs
during my own teaching times.
Excellent!
These were excellent! The students were always excited for a "new"
song with Mrs. Short.
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Table 9 Continued
Children really enjoy it.
Awesome! We need more! It was wonderful watching the lesson and
observing Kathryn.
Students love the lessons and feel successful.
The students enjoyed and were enthusiastic during the lessons. The
language vocabulary was repetitious and used with physical actions,
which helped instill understanding.
School D
The children were very excited and they truly loved her lessons. It
helped me as a teacher to sit down and absorb her.
Excellent and more of them. Students respond very well and forward to
Mrs. Short's lessons.
Table 9 Continued
These are great! I enjoy watching Mrs. Short deliver a lesson and how
she accommodates for different levels of language acquisition. This s a
wonderful learning experience.
Excellent!
The Best!! Should be continued.
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Table 9 Continued
Great! Ms. Short makes the lessons look so easy. It makes me feel
they'd be easy to add to my curriculum.
School E
The demonstration lessons were well organized and well timed.
Very well liked by students and useful for teacher.
These have been very helpful in seeing how to use the program
effectively with my students.
The children thoroughly enjoyed the lessons. It helped me to better
learn how to present them.
Fabulous. Very helpful as I present lessons to my class. I remember
how Kathryn presented her lessons to my class.
Table 10 presents the results from the self-report embedded in the
teacher questionnaire. In this part of the self-report, the participants were
instructed to provide any suggestions and or improvements that they felt
would make the P.L.A.Y. program better with regard to the inservice training,
the first component of the P.L.A.Y. program's staff development model.
Table 11 presents the results from the self-report embedded in the
teacher questionnaire. In this part of the self-report, the participants were
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instructed to provide any suggestions and or improvements that they felt
would make the P.L.A.Y. program better with regard to the teacher's manual,
the second component of the P.L.A.Y. program's staff development model.
Table 12 presents the results from the self-report embedded in the
teacher questionnaire. In this part of the self-report, the participants were
instructed to provide any suggestions and or improvements that they felt
would make the P.L.A.Y. program better with regard to the demonstrated
teaching lessons, the third component of the P.L.A.Y. program's staff
development model.
Table 10
Self-Report-Suaoestions
Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 1:
Inservice Training Model
School A
An option between after school meetings and Saturday morning
meetings. Sometimes we just have too many commitments after school
to attend P.L.A.Y.
School B
Offer a list of lessons that are covered in the training and specify where
they are located in the manual.
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Table 10 Continued
Training needs to be all year long. It is great and keeps us focused.
School C
I am completing my credential, it was difficult for me to attend all the
after school meetings. Consider dedicating a weekend or a few days in
the summer for training.
Perhaps vary the day given for training. I was unable to attend all the
meetings because of other commitments.
After school meetings were difficult to attend to due to my classes.
Perhaps sub hours could be used.
Table 10 Continued
Offer a whole day before the school year begins or even a two-day
training.
Offer one hour after school meetings rather then two hour and offer all
through the year.
School D
It's hard to have a half-day before school because we are overwhelmed
with getting school started.
Change two-hour after school training to one hour.
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Table 10 Continued
School E
It would have been helpful if the sessions could have been offered twice
to accommodate uncontrollable scheduling conflicts. I hated to have to
miss a session!
Table 11
Self-Report-Suggestions
Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 2:
Teacher's Manual
School A
Offer software for the colored graphics for the reproducible masters.
School B
It would be nice to see a key vocabulary list with each lesson.
A video of lesson to see the program in action in those non-trained or
demonstrative lessons.
I am an index user. I think various levels of indexes would be nice, ie.
by CD, indoor/outdoor activity, props or no props.
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Table 11 Continued
School C
More, More!
School D
During the course of the year, I forgot where each lesson was located.
Perhaps you could include an index by subject.
Table 12
Self-Report- Suggestions
Efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. Program's Staff Development Model Component 3:
Demonstrative Teaching Lessons
School A
Do more!
School C
Vary the days that you come to our school. I have a district commitment
on some Thursdays and have missed several of your lessons.
Offer the P.L.A.Y. program to special education teachers. These are
good lessons for special education children who require vocabulary
development.
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Table 12 Continued
Come more often!
School D
More often!
School E
The only way I can think to make better is to offer more. I think the
whole program should be made available to English Only (EO) classes.
Most have many students who would benefit from P.L.A.Y.!
The lead teacher at School A stated:
The inservice training shows us how to do the lessons
and gives us the confidence that we can do and apply
to other lessons. The manual supports the training
and the demonstrative lessons gives us the
opportunity to see you teach the lessons that we saw
in the training and also it gives us insight into our class
and best of all we get to observe outstanding
modeling.
The lead teacher at School E summed up the teacher self-reports:
The staff development model was wonderful. If for
nothing less, it kept the teachers' energy level up...we
got to see what was coming up and we got to some of
the lessons demonstrated. I think it needs to be once
a month for every month. The manual is great. It is
broken down and categorized for us. The themes fit
with the content that we are supposed to be teaching
in the primary grades. The demo lessons are key. No
one does demo lessons anymore. By observing you,
the teachers got more involved. There was more buy-
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in. Also by modeling the lessons we also got to see
management strategies for teaching in an "out of the
box” fashion. By attending the inservice training and
seeing the demo lessons, my retention level is better. I
also have the confidence to try and teach the lessons.
I like teaching the lessons I see you demonstrate. It is
that idea of "tried and try...that sense of
comfortability.”
I think it is a great program. P.L.A.Y. has brought
something back into the classroom that has been
lacking-creativity paired with content.
It also satisfies the physical education requirements.
Yes, we all have a physical education teacher, but that
is only for one day a week. That time is still less than
we are supposed to teach. With the activity level in
P.L.A.Y. we can teach content and satisfy the state
requirement of 200 minutes of physical education
every two weeks. It is active learning.
A common thread that weaved through the self-reports and the
interviews is the time factor. Many teachers stated that there just isn't enough
time to attend ail the meetings and fulfill all their commitments after school.
The lead teacher at School C confirmed this stating:
I love the idea of the staff development model, but for
me personally, I wish the training were offered two
times a week. I had university course work on the day
that was designated for the P.L.A.Y. training so I had
to miss several meetings in a row. I think it would be
better if we had a half-day release time for staff
development or even a summer institute.
All five administrators concurred with the lead teachers in expressing
that the P.L.A.Y. program offers an excellent example of an effective staff
development model.
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The principal at School A remarked:
The staff development model is the best.
Intellectually, they attend the inservice where they can
discuss and ask questions. The demo lessons give
them the courage to try different lessons. They have a
model to observe good teaching and the reactions
their students have to the program.
The principal at School B confirmed this saying:
The staff development model is wonderful. Teachers
would rather miss university classes than the inservice
training. The manual is effective because it is easy to
use and matches the instruction in the inservice. The
demo lessons are the key component. Teachers have
the opportunity to see how the program works in an
applied setting with their specific students.
The principal at School C commented:
The staff development model is excellent. For veteran
teachers it is valuable. Many have not had formal
CLAD training. They get to see applied strategies in
the demonstrated lessons. For new teachers that have
all the education the demonstrated lessons effect how
they teach. They are sharing with me that the
strategies that they see you use in the P.L.A.Y.
program can be applied to any lesson. They are
utilizing these techniques when preparing and
presenting other lessons.
I would like to see it go to the next level where you
offer a coaching component. I think the inservice
training where you model the lesson and the teachers
have an opportunity to ask questions is excellent, but I
would like to see you begin to analyze their lessons or
teach teachers how to conduct peer analysis.
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The principal at School D agreed with the other principals about the
demonstrated lessons being the key feature of the program. She
commented:
The staff development model is very practical and the
demonstrated lessons are key...really fantastic for
teachers. The inservice training is student-friendly.
Our API met all three parts of growth (individual,
school and total). I attribute a lot of this to the P.L.A.Y.
program.
The principal at School E summed up the P.L.A.Y. staff development
model stating:
The staff development model is an ideal model. The
teachers see it in action in the inservice training where
they can learn it. They become familiar with each
lesson by using the teacher's manual then the demo
lesson reinforces what they learned in the training,
plus they can see you in action and they can observe
their class-putting it in play with the students. The
book is extremely easy to use. Having the props
available is a key component. Everything is pre
packaged and ready for teachers to teach.
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Summary of Data Analysis and Findings
In analyzing the data regarding the four research questions, several
findings developed from each research question.
Research Question 1
The data from Research Question 1 illustrate that the participating
teachers' believe that the P.L.A.Y. program is an effective program for
second language acquisition. All participating teachers (n = 43) indicated that
the program met nine of the ten characteristics of an effective second
language model. Only a small percentage (n= 2) disagreed that P.L.A.Y.
does not foster language functions.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 evaluated the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence to effective SDAIE strategies. The data indicated several
strengths and a few weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. program.
For the most part, teachers viewed the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence to effective SDAIE strategies. However, a small amount
(n = 2) believed that P.L.A.Y. does not provide opportunities for instructional
scaffolding. Some (n =3) believed P.L.A.Y. does not develop CALP.
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Research Question 3
Research Question 3 sought to determine the participating teachers'
opinions about the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence to the Beginning
Proficiency Level of the California ELD Standards. Of the California
Department of Education's (1999c) nine beginning proficiency level
standards, there was a strong belief system that the P.L.A.Y. program
generally and successfully met these standards. A small percent of the
teachers (n =4) thought that Standard 4, Interaction with frequently used
English print in a limited fashion was not met too well. A few teachers (n =3)
thought that Standard 5, Demonstration of initial English print awareness,
was not met too well and one teacher did not think the P.L.A.Y. program met
too well Standard 7, expression of basic personal and safety needs.
The lead teacher at School C and the principal at School E remarked
that P.L.A.Y. should also be keyed with the intermediate levels as well. It is
their belief that the program is definitely aligned and does in fact correlate
with the intermediate levels. Both mentioned this is a critical point to consider
in that second grade SEI students are more suited for proficiency at higher
levels and SEI students can greatly benefit from the P.L.A.Y. program.
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Research Question 4
Research Question 4 examined the P.L.A.Y. program's staff
development model. The data offered insights into the three main
components: 1) inservice training; 2) teacher’s manual; and 3) demonstrated
teaching lessons.
For the most part the teachers are most pleased with the P.L.A.Y.
program's inservice training although there was a bit of a discrepancy about
the time of the training. Some preferred after school while others maintained
that a workshop prior to the school year would be sufficient. Still others opted
for a summer institute or Saturday morning trainings.
All the teachers found the teacher's manual to be helpful, informative,
concise, teacher-friendly and well organized. Many wrote that they enjoyed
the thematic organization and felt it aligned with other curricular areas.
Several suggested an index that could assist them in locating lessons by
topic, subjects, props, no props, etc. One teacher from School A suggested
offering computer software to complement the blackline masters that could
be available for full color sentence strips and flash cards already used in the
program.
Overwhelmingly, the third part of the staff development model,
demonstrated teaching lessons, received the most praise. All teachers at all
five schools wrote that this part of the model was the best. They agreed that
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211
the seeing the lessons modeled aided them in understanding the program
while observing how their students processed new information from each
lesson. They also commented that the lessons were very special to their
classes. Some wrote that it was very helpful to see the lessons in action with
their classes because it assisted them in remembering how it was presented
to the class. Another teacher reported that this is where other programs fail.
We need to see it in action.
Discussion
In analyzing the four research questions, three themes evolved. These
three themes are essentially major findings of the study supported by the
findings specific to each question:
1. The teacher questionnaire and interviews indicated that teachers
perceived the P.L.A.Y. program to be an effective model for second
language acquisition. The principal interviews supported this data.
2. The teacher questionnaire, embedded self-report and interviews
indicated that teachers perceived that strategies utilized in the
P.L.A.Y. program correspond to effective SDAIE strategies. The
principal interviews supported this data.
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3. The embedded self-report in the teacher questionnaire and the
interviews indicated that the teachers perceived the staff development
model for the P.L.A.Y. program as corresponding to research that
illustrates models of effective staff development.
Summary
The data provided answers for all four research questions. The
findings from each research question led to several key findings focused
around three themes. These three themes suggested implications regarding
the efficacy of the P.L.A.Y. program as an effective model for second
language acquisition. In the final chapter, Chapter 5, the study is summarized
and the findings lead to several important suggestions and
recommendations.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Research Problem
As educators look at the rapidly changing demographics in the United
States, with language minorities predicted to be 40% of the school-age
population by the decade of the 2030s, it is clear that educators have much
to accomplish. U.S. schools are currently under serving English language
learners, and this school population will continue to grow, challenging
schools to continue to change. Educators and administrators have a huge
responsibility to rise to this challenge of educating the diverse population
(Collier & Thomas, 1999). In California alone more than one in three students
is not a native English speaker. Children from cultures in which collectively,
more than 80 different languages are spoken enter California schools every
year. Approximately 1.4 million English learners were in California public
schools in 1998, and 904 of 1, 052 school districts reported the enrollment of
English learners. In the past ten years, the English learner population
kindergarten through grade twelve has more than doubled, and over 90
percent of those English learners speak one of five languages: Spanish,
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214
Vietnamese, Hmong, Pilipino, or Cantonese. Eighty-one percent are Spanish
speakers (California Department of Education, 1999a, p. 4). As a result, the
California public school system faces an enormous challenge to ensure that
these students receive the education that they deserve; however,
determining the appropriate method of instruction for English learners is not a
simple task. Teachers are often unsure about evaluating a student's
language abilities and/or making sense of the student's previous educational
experience. In the past, ELLs were placed in mainstream classes, known as
the "sink or swim" approach ((California Department of Education, 1999a).
Students received no special support for acquiring English and oftentimes
had little academic language abilities operating on informal, playground
English. The beginning of the 1998 school year was a tumultuous time for
California schools. In September 1998, Proposition 227 (1998) was
implemented. This voter approved proposition mandated that all students
were to be taught through English language instruction even though many of
the children had recently arrived from other countries and continued to speak
their native language. The passage of this proposition brought English
language teaching and learning to the top of the state’s political and
educational agendas. Because of Proposition 227, many classrooms now
use a Structured English Immersion (SEI) designation that stipulates that
nearly all instruction is in English. SEI is not mainstream English rather it
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215
makes less use of the non-English language for instruction than does
bilingual education (Baker, 1998). In light of this problem, U.S. Secretary of
Education Richard W. Riley (1999) has acknowledged that America's first
challenge is to make the education of all children in this nation our first
priority. English learners need to develop comprehensive literacy skills
needed to meet the requirements for high school graduation. In multilingual
classrooms in California English language acquisition and academic
achievement are complex issues with no quick or easy solution (California
Department of Education, 1999a).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to present an analysis of teachers'
perceptions of the efficacy of P.L.A.Y., an instructional program designed for
English language development that uses music and movement as a catalyst
for language acquisition. The focus of this study was to ascertain if the
P.L.A.Y. program is viewed by the teachers in the study as a viable approach
for second language learners, specifically listening, speaking and English
language vocabulary development.
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Four research questions defined the problem and guided the
procedures for this study:
1. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective second
language models?
2. What are participating teachers' ratings of the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence with the key components of effective SDAIE
strategies?
3. What are the participating teachers’ ratings of the P.L.A.Y.
program's correspondence with the state of California's Beginning
Proficiency Level of the English Language Development
Standards?
4. What are teachers' believed strengths and weaknesses of the
P.L.A.Y. inservice training model in terms of inservice training,
teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?
Methodology
The research methods used for this study were primarily qualitative in
nature. The approach used was based on principles of instrument design and
qualitative data collection from Gall, Borg, And Gall (1996), Hall and Hord
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217
(1987), Patton (1980) and Yin (1989). The use of survey instruments, self-
reports, and interview guides produced triangulation of the data,
strengthening the validity of the data and the findings, thus eliminating bias.
Sample
This study was limited to 43 kindergarten - second grade teachers of
Alternative and/or SEI designated classrooms at five elementary schools and
its supporting school district.
Data Collection and Analysis
Due to the volume of data from the teacher questionnaire, teacher and
principal interviews, the first step of the analysis was to reduce the data to a
more manageable size. After coding the teacher questionnaire, interview
guides were created to contextualize the responses from the questionnaire.
All interviews were transcribed for clarity and accuracy of analysis. The next
step was to further reduce the data in such a way that similarities and
differences could be seen among participants' responses. The teacher
questionnaire and embedded self-report responses were tallied for each
question/section. The next step was to analyze the collected data in terms of
the four research questions. Each research question was in turn considered
and findings determined.
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Framework for Research Question 1
The first question asked, "What are participating teachers' ratings of
the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the key components of effective
second language models?" The Communicative Language Teaching (1976)
Approach coupled with the theory of language learning postulated in the
Natural Approach (1977/1983) and Krashen's Monitor Model (1982) provided
the primary data available for the theoretical framework for this question.
The teacher questionnaire, lead teacher interview guides and the principal
interview guides were constructed to follow the philosophy of both the CLT,
the Natural Approach and Krashen's Monitor Model that are specific to key
components of effective second language models.
Framework for Research Question 2
The second research question asked, "What are participating
teachers' rating of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with key
components of SDAIE strategies? The teacher questionnaire, lead teacher
interview guides and the principal interview guides were designed to answer
Research Question Two. In Part Three of the Teacher Questionnaire, nine
fundamental characteristics of effective SDAIE strategies were presented in
nine statements for the teachers to compare with the P.L.A.Y. program's
effectiveness for second language learners. These include characteristics
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identified by Cummins (1989), Diaz-Rico & Weed (1995) and Peregoy and
Boyle (1997).
Framework for Research Question 3
The third research question asked, "What are the participating
teachers' rating of the P.L.A.Y. program's correspondence with the California
Beginning Proficiency Levels of the English Language Development
Standards?" The elements and characteristics of the ELD Standards
described in the Orange County Matrix (OCDE, 2000) were those identified
as being characteristics of the beginning level standards based on the CDE
ELD standards (CDE, 1999c).
Framework for Research Question 4
The fourth research question asked, "What are teachers' believed
strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. staff development model in terms
of inservice training, teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching lessons?"
Effective staff development must couple the concept of the teacher as both
teachers and learners. According to Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin
(1995) professional development needs to create new images of what, when,
and how teachers learn. The paradigm shift is from administrators and policy
makers directing teachers to strategies intended to develop schools and
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teachers capacity to be responsible for student learning. To accomplish this
the following professional development characteristics must be in place: 1)
Teachers must be engaged in the tasks of teaching, assessing observing
and reflecting; 2) They must be allowed to experiment and change roles of
teacher to learner; 3) They must have opportunities to work collaboratively;
4) They must be sustained by modeling and coaching; and it must be
connected to other aspects of school change. Embedded in Part Five of the
Teacher Questionnaire was a self-report designed to answer Research
Question Four. Three key components of effective staff development were
presented in a self-report format. The self-report solicited written responses
about the three components of the P.L.A.Y. program s staff development
model: inservice training, teacher's manual and demonstrated teaching
lessons.
Discussion of Findings
Analysis of the data revealed findings relative to each research
question. These specific findings from the research questions fit into three
themes. Below, the findings fro each research question are briefly explained
followed by a discussion of the three themes that weave these findings
together.
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Research Question 1
The data from Research Question 1 showed that the teachers in the
study perceived the P.L.A.Y. program as corresponding to effective second
language acquisition models. During an interview with the principal at School
B she mentioned that this summer at The District there would be a summer
school program targeted for ELIL (English Language and Intensive Literacy).
The teachers have unanimously decided to use the P.L.A.Y. program for
ELD.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 examined the P.L.A.Y. program's
correspondence to effective SDAIE strategies. Overall, the participating
teachers believe that the P.L.A.Y. program provides SDAIE strategies
important for teaching ELLs including opportunities for scaffolding, modeling,
bridging into other curricular areas, content-based ESL and the development
of BICS. With the exception of three teachers, the teachers felt that P.L.A.Y.
develops CALP as well. Principals at each site were interviewed and
corroborated the teachers' beliefs about the correlation between P.L.A.Y. and
effective SDAIE.
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The principal at School A stated:
All the Alt and SEI teachers chose to teach a P.L.A.Y.
lesson for their formal observation. They were great.
The children loved the lesson. The teachers were very
prepared. It helps that all the materials are ready-
packed and available for them to use.
The principal at School B stated that she observed P.L.A.Y. lessons
for formal evaluations and reported that specifically in one observation she
noted:
The lesson was well developed and the students were
very interested. The materials and pictures were easy.
Vocabulary was specific. There was consistent
vocabulary taught in a poem, book, hands-on props
and the music repetition using instruction. Together,
this lesson provided an excellent example of SDAIE
strategies.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 sought to determine the correspondence of the
P.L.A.Y. program with the state of California's Beginning Proficiency Level of
ELD Standards. There was significant data showing that both the teachers
and principals interviewed believe that P.L.A.Y. meets the beginning levels,
however there was some discrepancy as well. In one of the interview
questions, I asked the principals to evaluate this incongruity. The principal at
School A stated: "In all fairness to the teachers, they haven’t been formally
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223
trained on the ELD standards. This will begin in the fall. They will be more
informed about the standards and how they interface with P.L.A.Y."
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 evaluated the teachers' opinion about the
P.L.A.Y. staff development model. The data provided insight into the
teachers' beliefs about the strengths and weaknesses of the P.L.A.Y. staff
development model in terms of inservice training, teacher's manual and
demonstrated lessons. According to the literature, staff development for the
21s t century must be ongoing and more than the development of a new
program. It is about thinking through how the content and processes of
learning can be redefined in ways that engage students and teachers in
active pursuit of learning goals. Overwhelmingly, he teachers rated the
P.L.A.Y. program as an effective staff development model. The component,
demonstrated teaching lessons, received the highest praise. The teachers
appreciated having the opportunity to attend staff development training
including the written teacher's manual but stated that what brought the
program to life were the demonstrated lessons. It gave them the opportunity
to observe the modeled lesson and observe their students learning. Many
voiced that it helped them to remember how to teach the lesson later. Others
mentioned that they were able to take the strategies observed and modeled
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224
and use those same strategies in other lessons, sometimes not even a
P.L.A.Y. lesson, but part of the content-based instruction.
Three Themes of the Findings of the Study
In analyzing the four research questions, three themes evolved. These
three themes are essentially major findings of the study supported by the
findings specific to each research question,
question:
1. The teacher questionnaire, and interviews indicated that teachers
perceived the P.L.A.Y. program to be an effective model for
second language acquisition. The principal interviews supported
this data.
2. The teacher questionnaire, embedded self-report and interviews
indicated that teachers perceived that strategies utilized in the
P.L.A.Y. program correspond to effective SDAIE strategies. The
principal interviews supported this data.
3. The embedded self-report in the teacher questionnaire and the
interviews indicated that the teachers perceived the staff
development model for the P.L.A.Y. program as corresponding to
research that illustrates models of effective staff development.
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225
The P.L.A.Y. program as an effective second language acquisition model.
The teachers viewed the P.L.A.Y. program as a highly effective
second language model. Analysis of the data revealed that the teachers
rated P.L.A.Y. favorably in agreeing and strongly agreeing that it meets the
criteria of an effective second language acquisition model. Out of the 10
characteristics for effective second language models, only two teachers
disagreed that one characteristic, fostering academic language functions,
was provided in the P.L.A.Y. program. It is interesting to note that in looking
more closely at these two surveys in Part Three, Effective SDAIE, both of
these teachers rated the P.L.A.Y. program at the highest level for CALP.
The principals also concur with the majority of the teachers concerning
the efficacy of P.L.A.Y. for second language acquisition. The principal at
School D commented:
P.L.A.Y. relaxes children. Current brain research is
showing that low anxiety aids learning. The teachers
love it and the students love it more. It provides all the
important components of an effective second
language model while allowing the children to have
fun while learning.
The P.L.A.Y. program corresponds with effective SDAIE strategies.
P.L.A.Y. provides lessons that are contextualized through ELD and
SDAIE strategies. Effective ELD and SDAIE strategies interface with
effective second language models. According to the literature a sound
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226
second language model must incorporate a myriad of ELD and SDAIE
strategies including a program that is designed to provide strategies and
techniques through the use of realia, manipulatives, props, multimedia
presentations, storyboards, visuals and planned opportunities for interaction
between all individuals in the classroom. The P.L.A.Y. program provides a
variety of these techniques in each lesson. All children are up and active,
moving and singing their way to learning.
The P.L.A.Y. program is an effective staff development model.
This study found that the P.L.A.Y. program is a highly effective staff
development model. Besides having the important component of ongoing
staff development training, the third component, demonstrated lessons, is
key to this program's success. This is where the teachers "bought into" the
program. When they were able to see the enthusiasm generated by the
demonstrating teacher as well as the excitement that the children had for the
program and the anticipation that they exhibited prior to the demonstrated
lessons, the teachers earnestly stated that it was easy to teach the lessons.
Many commented that the teacher's manual is teacher-friendly, they received
coaching in the training and then they had the opportunity to observe the
modeled lesson in an applied practical setting. They stated that with all three
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227
components in place it made their teaching a positive experience because
they felt like they could do it.
In discussing the staff development component with the principal at
School C she added to this by saying:
I would like to see it go to the next level where you
offer a coaching component. I think the inservice
training where you model the lesson and the teachers
have an opportunity to ask questions is excellent, but I
would like to see you begin to analyze their lessons or
teach teachers how to conduct peer analysis.
It is this researcher's intention to begin the coaching component with
regards to peer analysis. Beginning in the fall, videotaped analysis will be
endeavored with volunteer teachers. The taped lessons will be examined at
designated staff development training days. Additionally, videotapes of each
lesson will be produced as part of a video library for staff development
training.
Conclusions
The teacher questionnaires, lead teacher interviews and principal
interviews indicated that the P.L.A.Y. program corresponded successfully
with effective second language models. Consistent evidence was given
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228
through the teacher questionnaire and interviews regarding P.L.A.Y.'s
correspondence with effective SDAIE strategies and the California Beginning
Proficiency Level of the ELD standards. The self-report and interviews
showed that P.L.A.Y. is believed to be an effective staff development model.
Because the P.L.A.Y. program is the creation of this researcher, I was
concerned that the teachers rated the program so favorably because of the
halo effect - that tendency for a general impression of a person to influence
our perception of any aspect of that person. In this case, this program is my
life work. I deliver the staff development training and demonstrated lessons
with passion. I believe intensively in the program but still I wanted to design a
study that would reflect the essence of the program and also teachers'
honest opinions and beliefs about the efficacy of P.L.A.Y.. After collecting the
teacher questionnaires, I was both pleased and concerned that the ratings
were so positive. Because of this I crafted an interview question for the site
principals that read, "Given that the teachers rated the program so highly do
you believe there is a halo effect?" The principal at School A stated
emphatically that she did not believe there was a halo effect. She added by
saying: 'The formalized training that the teachers receive in the university
CLAD and BCLAD classes help them to understand the value of the
P.L.A.Y."
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229
The principal at School E also firmly attested that the teachers could
have an educated opinion about the P.L.A.Y. program whether they like me
or not. She built on what the principal at School A stated by affirming that
many of the teachers have formal CLAD and BCLAD training and can easily
recognize a program that uses effective SDAIE strategies and embodies a
successful second language acquisition model. She also added that although
no formal observations were conducted using the P.L.A.Y. lessons, she
noted that besides the ALT (Alternative) and SEI (Structured English
Immersion) teachers, English Only (EO) teachers were using the songs and
movement activities from the P.L.A.Y. program. She noticed that the students
were actively engaged. She stated:
It was obvious that the lesson was targeting
vocabulary development. I don't think the students
were aware that they were learning. They were having
a wonderful time. And, for your theory about the halo
effect, these teachers don't even know you. They have
just seen the other teachers using the materials and
believed that they would work with their students as
well.
The principal at School C added to this by saying:
The program is effective. Sure the teachers like you,
but the program did not receive high marks because
of the halo effect. It is teacher-friendly and does not
require a lot of preparation. Teachers are grateful to
have something in their hands. They don’t have to
gather all the materials. That has already been done
for them. It is ready to be implemented.
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230
The principal at School C echoed this sentiment stating:
Yes, the teachers like you, but I do not think they rated
the program highly because of the halo effect.
Teachers are at different places in their education. If
their training has been in CLAD, they are intensively
aware of ELD and SDAIE strategies. Their formal
education is designed to raise their awareness of
SDAIE and they can certainly recognize P.L.A.Y. as a
comprehensive program for ELLs. Whether they like
you or not, the program meets their needs. The
materials are awesome.
Recommendations for Educators and Suggestions for Additional Research
The findings and conclusions of this study have led to the following
recommendations:
1. To combat the halo effect or bias, the means of evaluating the
P.L.A.Y. program's effectiveness should be explored in terms of
data available to conduct such evaluations. The value and
accuracy of using standardized tests to compare year-to-year and
school-to-school performance should be explored and tested.
During the time period that this study was conducted, The District
was in a state of flux with regard to their testing materials. The new
ELD test was available in May 2001, however this was after the
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231
time that the study was conducted, furthermore, The District
elected to wait and begin testing in the summer and fall of 2001.
2. This study found the P.L.A.Y. program to be successful under the
tutelage of this researcher. Additional studies need to be
conducted to see if the results for the program are as favorable.
3. This study was conducted in a school district where the primary
English language learner speaks Spanish as the native language.
It would be of interest to see if the program is viewed as a
successful model for English language learners of other native
linguistic groups.
4. Asher (1984) recommends six criteria for evaluating innovative
instructional strategies. The first is the survival of the normal curve.
The P.L.A.Y. program is in its neophyte stages. Additional
research needs to be conducted to ascertain if the program
illustrates results in higher motivation and language proficiency.
Second, there must be representative data. He suggests that the
data is drawn from public schools because the results would be
more generalizable. The third criterion is replication. It must be
simple enough to replicate. The teacher questionnaire designed by
this researcher is simple, concise and may be used to reproduce
this study. The fourth criterion is uniqueness. P.L.A.Y. is unique.
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232
To this researcher's knowledge this is an innovative model. The
fifth criterion is commonality. It is important that the innovative
strategy share some common traits with other learning strategies.
Although P.L.A.Y. is an innovative program, the theoretical
framework is grounded in CLT, The Natural Approach and
Krashen's Monitor Model. The final criterion is effectiveness based
on formal studies. The formal study aspect keeps the study from
pitfalls of "selective perception." Other then this study, P.L.A.Y.
lacks empirical research. This researcher would welcome any new
studies concerning the efficacy of P.L.A.Y.
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233
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255
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE* Page 1 of 3: A MATTER OF OPINION
AN EVALUATION OF THE PROGRAM, ELD THROUGH P.L.A.Y.
PART 1: Demographic Questions
1. Gender Male Female
2. Age:______25 years or under ______26- 30 31-35 36-40______ 41 +
3. Ethnicity African American A s ia n Caucasian Hispanic Other
4. Years as a teacher:_____ 1-3 years _____ 4-7 years more than 7 years
5. Type of position: K-2 teacher 3- 6 Resource Special Day Class
6. Level of education:____ emergency credential_____credential credential ♦ units
masters
7. Total number of students in your assigned classroom:______
8. Total number of students in your assigned classroom that are:
English Language Learners (E L L) Fluent English Proficient (F E P ) English Only
9. How long have you been implementing the P.L.A.Y. program? 3 yrs 2 yrs
1 yr _____6 mos.
10. How often do you utilize the materials in the P.L.A.Y. program located at your school site?
Daily 4 times a w eek 3 times a w eek 2 times a w eek _1 time a week
PART 2: Effective Second Language Models
Please respond to the following statements regarding your opinion of how the P.L.A. Y. program fits
within the guidelines of effective Second Language Acquisition models. Circle the ONE response that
best describes your opinion. There are five possible responses to each statement:
SD = Strongly Disagree
D = Disagree
NC = Not Certain
A = Agree
SA = Strongly Agree
1. The P.L.A.Y. program provides visuals for comprehensible input. SD D NC A SA
2. The P.L.A.Y. program uses gestures and other physical movement. SD D NC A SA
3. The P.L.A.Y. program uses repetition and review. SD D NC A SA
4. The P.L.A.Y. program uses simple syntax. SD D NC A SA
5. The P.L.A.Y. program uses short sentences. SD D NC A SA
6. The P.L.A.Y. program emphasizes high frequency vocabulary use. SD D NC A SA
7. The P.L.A.Y. program maintains a low student anxiety level. SD D NC A SA
8. The P.L.A.Y. program creates an environment of enthusiasm. SD D NC A SA
9. The P.L.A.Y. program fosters communicative language functions. SD D NC A SA
10. The P.L.A.Y. program fosters academic language functions SD D NC A SA
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256
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE- Page 2 of 3: A MATTER OF OPINION
AN EVALUATION OF THE PROGRAM, ELD THROUGH P.L.A.Y.
PART 3: Effective SDAIE (Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English)
Please respond to the following SDAIE questions as to how you feel the P.L.A. Y. program incorporates
SDAIE especially with regards to your more proficient English language learners. There are five
possible responses:
E = Excellent
G - Good
A = Average
P = Poor
NA =Not Addressed
1. P.L.A.Y. provides opportunities for instructional scaffolding. E G A P NA
2. P.L.A.Y. provides opportunities for modeling. E G A P NA
3. P.L.A.Y. provides opportunities for bridging into other curricular areas. E G A P NA
4. P.L.A.Y. provides opportunities for content-based ESL.
(English as a Second Language). E G A P NA
5. P.L.A.Y. develops BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills). E G A P NA
6. P.L.A.Y. develops CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). E G A P NA
7. P.L.A.Y. is thematically designed. E G A P NA
8. P.L.A.Y. is experiential. E G A P NA
9. Objectives and evaluation are based on English skills and (unction. E G A P NA
PART 4: California English Language Development Standards
Listed below are nine standards of the Beginning Proficiency level of the English Language
Development Standards adopted by the State of California. Considering your experience with the
P.L.A.Y. Program, indicate the extent to which you think each standard has been met. For each
standard, place a check on the grid in the column that best expresses your experience.
STANDARD
Students exiting the Beginning Level are able to:
Met
very well
Generally
well met
Not met
too well
Not
met
at all
1. comprehend high-frequency words and
basic phrases in immediate concrete
surroundings
2. produce learned words and phrases
3. use gestures to communicate basic needs
4. interact with frequently used English print in
a limited fashion
5. demonstrate initial English print awareness
6. follow classroom routines and schedules
7. express basic personal and safety needs
8. respond to questions with one-to two-word
answers and gestures
9. demonstrate and use basic social
conventions
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257
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE- Page 3 of 3: A MATTER OF OPINION
AN EVALUATION OF THE PROGRAM, ELD THROUGH P.L.A.Y.
PART 5; Effective Staff Development Models
Listed below are three areas of effective staff development. Please comment briefly, but only for those
areas about which you have significant feelings on the efficacy o f the P.L.A. Y. staff development
model.
• A positive comment is one supportive of existing practice.
• A suggestion is aimed at improving existing practices.
AREA POSITIVE COMMENTS SUGGESTION
1. INSERVICE TRAINING
(Half day before the school year
began and seven after school
meetings)
2. TEACHER'S MANUAL
ELD THROUGH the POWER of
P.L.A.Y.
3. DEMONSTRATIVE
TEACHING LESSONS
(One 30-minute lesson per
month)
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Interfacing with a digital archive (ISLA) in enhancing elementary school geography instruction and learning

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An analysis of program planning in schools with emerging excellence in science instructional design

Asset Metadata

Creator Short, Kathryn A. (author)

Core Title An analysis of teachers' perceptions of the efficacy of an instructional method for English language development using music and singing paired with movement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,education, elementary,education, language and literature,Education, Music,Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Genzuk, Michael (committee chair), Baker, Robert (committee member), Gothold, Stuart (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-163713

Unique identifier UC11338959

Identifier 3054805.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-163713 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3054805.pdf

Dmrecord 163713

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Short, Kathryn A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA