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The associations among family stress, friendship quality, and romantic quality

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The associations among family stress, friendship quality, and romantic quality

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Content THE ASSOCIATIONS AMONG FAM ILY STRESS, FRIENDSHIP QUALITY, AND
ROMANTIC QUALITY
Copyright 2004
by
Emily Beth Fine
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment o f the
Requirements for the Degree
M ASTER OF ARTS
(PSYCHOLOGY)
August 2004
Emily Beth Fine
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UMI Number: 1422388
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1 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List o f Tables iv
List of Figures v
Abstract vi
Introduction 1
Family Stress and Friendship Quality 3
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship Quality 6
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship Quality 1
Socioeconomic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship 8
Quality
Friendship Quality and Romantic Relationship Quality 9
Ethnic Differences in Friendship Quality and Romantic Relationship Quality 12
Family Stress and Romantic Relationship Quality 13
Method 16
Procedure 16
Measures 16
Family chronic stress 16
Best-friend relationship quality 17
Romantic relationship quality 18
Results 18
Sex and Ethnic Differences fo r the Variables 18
Family Chronic Stress and Friendship Quality 19
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iii
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Chronic Stress and Friendship 20
Quality
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Chronic Stress and 22
Friendship Quality
Friendship Quality and Romantic Quality 25
Sex Differences in the Relation between Friendship Quality and Romantic 26
Quality
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Friendship Quality and Romantic 27
Quality
Family Stress and Romantic Quality 31
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Romantic Quality 32
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Romantic 32
Quality
Discussion 33
References 40
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Descriptive statistics fo r dependent variables by ethnicity and sex.
Table 2: Means of, standard deviations o f and correlations among the
variables fo r all participants.
Table 3: M ultiple Regression Equations Predicting Best Friendship Quality
From Sex by Chronic Stress with D ad Interaction.
Table 4: Multiple Regression Equations Predicting Best Friendship Quality
Intimate Exchange from Ethnicity by Chronic Stress with D ad Interaction.
Table 5: M ultiple Regression Equations Predicting Romantic Intimate
Exchange from Ethnicity by Best Friendship Intimate Exchange.
Table 6 : M ultiple Regression Equations Predicting Romantic Conflict and
Betrayal from Ethnicity by Best Friendship Conflict and Betrayal.
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V
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship 21
conflict and betrayal as a function o f sex.
Figure 2: The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship 22
intimate exchange as a function o f sex.
Figure 3: The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship 24
intimate exchange as a function o f ethnicity.
Figure 4: The relation between friendship intimate exchange and romantic 29
intimate exchange as a function o f ethnicity.
Figure 5: The relation between friendship conflict and betrayal and romantic 30
conflict and betrayal as a function o f ethnicity.
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ABSTRACT
The associations among family chronic stress, friendship quality, and romantic
quality were examined cross-sectionally in a sample o f 175 adolescents from a Los
Angeles high school. It was predicted that relationship quality in one domain would be
associated with relationship quality in other domains. Indeed, relationship qualities were
associated across domains. More specifically, chronic stress with fathers was negatively
associated with friendship intimate exchange and positively with friendship conflict and
betrayal. Sex and ethnic differences were found in these relations. For males but not
females, chronic stress with fathers was negatively associated with friendship intimate
exchange and positively with friendship conflict and betrayal. Chronic stress with fathers
and friendship intimate exchange were negatively correlated for Flispanic but not African
American participants. The results suggested that chronic stress with fathers was
particularly detrimental for males and Hispanics. More research is needed to further
explore this relation.
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Introduction
The initiation o f romantic relationships has been considered a normal part o f
development in adolescence in W estern cultures. Research has shown that although
teenagers may be novices in romantic relationships, their conceptions o f the salient
characteristics o f cross-sex friendships and romantic relationships have been quite
accurate (Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler, 1999). Adolescents described romantic
relationships in terms o f passion and commitment and opposite-sex friendships in terms
o f affiliation (Connolly et al., 1999). They also perceived romantic relationships to have
higher levels o f intimacy and emotional involvement in comparison to friendships
(Shulman & Scharf, 2000). Therefore, adolescents have been quite knowledgeable about
cross-sex relationships.
These perceptions o f romantic relationships positively influenced adolescents’
lives in many ways. Adolescents’ romantic relationships have been important sources of
affiliation, attachment, and care-giving (Furman, 2002). Romantic relationships have
also negatively influenced adolescents’ lives via associated physical abuse, psychological
abuse, and psychopathology. More than 25% o f male and female high school students
reported having experienced some form o f physical abuse in the context o f a dating
relationship (Wolfe & Feiring, 2000). Also, a recent adolescent romantic relationship
break-up significantly increased the likelihood o f a first episode o f M ajor Depression
(Monroe, Rohde, Seeley, Lewinsohn, 1999). In addition, there have been particularly
potent associations between involvement in romantic relationships and various indices o f
dysfunction in those adolescents who had poorer general social functioning. More
specifically, having a romantic partner has been related to poorer emotional and
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behavioral adjustment in unpopular adolescents (Brendgen, Vitaro, Doyle, Markiewicz,
& Bukowski, 2002). Similarly, adolescents with reduced social competence relative to
their peers who had more romantic partners at age 16 were more likely to experience
poorer emotional health, more internalizing and externalizing behaviors, poorer academic
performance and motivation, and poorer self-perception o f their behavioral conduct
compared to adolescents with increased social competence (Zimmer-Gembeck,
Siebenbruner, & Collins, 2001). Therefore, romantic relationships were associated with
negative outcomes for adolescents with reduced social competence.
W ith all o f the problems that have been associated with romantic relationships, it
was necessary to study the factors that influenced the initiation and development of
healthy as well as unhealthy romantic relationships in adolescents. Furman and W ehner
(1994) found that cross-sex encounters evolved over time. Members o f the opposite sex
first acted as companions and friends and then developed into attachments, replacing
parents as the most important figures in their lives. At first, partners provided
cooperation and reciprocity. This then progressed to support, comfort, care, and sexual
fulfillment. As a result, the partner became a major figure by late adolescence and early
adulthood.
Prior to the time that romantic relationships developed, family and friends were
sources o f support for children and adolescents. Therefore, since friends and family
played an important role in the initiation and development of romantic relationships and
because romantic relationships had profound positive and negative effects as described
previously, it was necessary to study the influence o f friends and family on these
relationships.
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Family Stress and Friendship Quality
Research conducted on the relation between family chronic stress and friendship
quality has found that parent-child relationships play an influential role in the quality of
adolescent friendship in Caucasian samples. For example, Gold and Y anof (1985)
studied the influence o f mother-daughter relationships on daughter-friend relationships in
one hundred and thirty-four 1 1th and 1 2 th grade girls, the vast majority o f whom were
Caucasian. They found that mother-daughter and daughter-friend relationships were
significantly correlated in terms o f affection, democratic treatment, and identification, the
degree to which girls wanted to be like their friends and mothers.
Likewise, Black (2002) explored the associations between mother-adolescent and
adolescent-best friend relations in thirty-nine adolescents who ranged in age from 13 to
18 years o f age. Nearly all o f the participants were from white, middle-class families.
The authors found that m others’ conflict, withdrawal, communication skills, support-
validation, and problem-solving scores with adolescents were correlated with
adolescents’ conflict, withdrawal, communication skills, support-validation, and
problem-solving scores with best friends. Mothers who exhibited more conflict with
adolescents had adolescents who withdrew more from best friends than adolescents
whose mothers exhibited less conflict. Mothers who withdrew more from their
adolescent had adolescents who engaged in less problem solving with best friends than
adolescents whose mothers did not withdraw. Adolescents who had increased
communication with mothers were more likely to engage in more communication,
support-validation, and problem solving with best friends compared to adolescents who
did not communicate with their mothers. Lastly, mothers who showed support-validation
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had adolescents who exhibited less withdrawal and more support-validation and problem
solving with best friends. Therefore, considerable continuity was seen between mother-
child and best friend relationships.
Engels, Finkenauer, Meeus, and Dekovic (2001) examined the relation between
parent-adolescent and adolescent-friend relationships in 508 12-18 year olds and assessed
quality o f attachment to parents in terms o f dimensions o f tm st in accessibility and
responsiveness, as well as communication. The authors found that having a high quality
attachment to parents was associated with improved social skills, which in turn was
associated with romantic and peer relational competence.
Nada Raja, McGee, and Stanton (1992) also studied attachment to parents and
peers in 935 fifteen-year old European adolescents. They found that parent trust and
communication correlated with peer trust and communication. Also, parent alienation
correlated positively with peer alienation and negatively with peer trust and
communication. Therefore, adolescents demonstrated comparable attachments to parents
and peers.
Similarly, Van Wei (1994) examined the link between parent-adolescent bonds
and adolescent-best friend bonds in 644 adolescents, ages 13-17. Parent-adolescent
bonds were determined by the following: 1 . similar opinions, 2 . similar taste and
preferences, 3. plans for similar child-rearing practices, 4. plans to adopt parents’ way o f
living, 5. taking to heart parents’ criticism, 6 . willingness to learn from parents, 7.
consideration o f parents’ as best friends, and 8 . communication. Adolescent-best friend
bonds were determined by a subset o f these items. Overall, adolescents with stronger
parental ties had stronger ties with their best-friends.
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In a two-part study, Armsden and Greenberg (1987) studied 179 16-20 year-olds,
the vast majority o f whom were Caucasian and middle class. In study one, the authors
found significant positive correlations between parent-adolescent trust and adolescent-
peer trust and communication and a negative correlation between parent-adolescent trust
and adolescent-peer alienation. In addition, parent-adolescent communication and
adolescent-peer trust and communication were positively correlated, and alienation was
negatively correlated with parent-adolescent communication. Lastly, parent-adolescent
alienation was negatively correlated with adolescent-peer trust and communication, and
adolescent-peer alienation was positively correlated with parent-adolescent alienation. In
the second part o f the study, the authors concluded that family cohesion, expressiveness,
conflict, independence, organization, and control were all significantly related to
adolescent-peer attachment. Therefore, family relationships were strongly associated
with adolescent-peer relationships.
Iacovetta (1975) explored the association between the quality o f adolescent-adult
interaction and frequency o f peer interaction, dependence on peers, and autonomy of
interaction with peers. Quality o f adolescent-adult interaction was defined by support,
understanding, and quality o f advice given by adults to adolescents. Dependence on
peers was measured in terms o f the importance o f peers in solving life’s problems. The
last variable o f interest, autonomy o f interaction with peers, was evaluated in terms of
parents’ knowledge and control o f adolescents’ activities with peers. The population
studied was 623 Caucasian, male, high school students. The author found that quality o f
adolescent-adult interaction was inversely related to frequency o f interaction with peers,
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dependence on peers, and autonomy o f interaction with peers. Therefore, having a high
quality relationship with adults was correlated with healthier behaviors with peers.
Lastly, Greenberg, Siegel, and Leitch (1983) studied 213 Caucasian, middle class
adolescents, ranging in age from 12-19 years, to evaluate the nature and quality o f their
attachment to parents and peers. They found that family and peer utilization were
significantly related. In other words, adolescents who were likely to go to their parents
for help were also likely to seek help from their friends.
Thus, the literature pertaining to family and friend relationships indicated that
quality and characteristics o f these relationships were correlated. However, the literature
discussed thus far only examined boys and girls combined. The qualities o f boys and
girls relationships tended to differ in that girls were more affectionate than boys and
required more affection in return (Romig & Bakken, 1992). Therefore, it is likely that
boys and girls were affected in different ways by the level o f these qualities in their
family relationships. The following studies have evaluated and found sex differences in
the relation between family and friendship quality.
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship Quality
Romig and Bakken (1992) found sex differences in their study o f 207 middle
adolescents with a mean age o f 16.3, who were predominantly Caucasian (95%). For
females, but not males, higher levels o f family cohesion correlated with higher levels of
companionship and intimacy in relationships. Also, for females only, family cohesion
positively correlated with inclusion expressed, inclusion wanted, affection expressed, and
affection wanted from others, including peers. Accordingly, these results suggested that
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family support was a more important variable for friendship quality for females than for
males.
Rice and M ulkeen (1995) also found sex differences in the relation between
intimacy with parents and quality o f relationships with peers. They studied 335
Caucasian adolescents between the ages o f 13 and 21 and found that intimacy (advice
seeking, understanding, and sharing o f feelings) with both mothers and fathers was
positively correlated with quality o f peer relationships (comfort and enjoyment with
peers) for girls. For boys, however, intimacy with mother was the only significant
predictor o f peer relationships. This study suggests that sex differences existed in the
way that parent-child relationships influenced current and later relationships with peers.
The research on sex differences, however, has been extremely limited, and warrants
further investigation.
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship Quality
Although it has been concluded that friendship and family quality were correlated
in Caucasian adolescents, it was uncertain whether they showed similar associations in
other ethnic groups. Very few studies have examined qualitative differences in
friendships among adolescents o f different ethnic groups. In one o f the few studies o f the
topic, Way, Cowal, Gingold, Pahl, & Bissessar (2001) examined friendships in African
American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents from low-income families and
determined whether friendships were indeed different in these populations compared to
Caucasian adolescents. The participants were divided into four friendship categories,
which were as follows: 1) disengaged, characterized by the lowest scores on affection,
reliable alliance, companionship, intimacy, and satisfaction and intermediate scores on
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antagonism and conflict; 2 ) ideal, characterized by the highest scores on affection,
reliable alliance, intimacy, and satisfaction, the second highest score on companionship,
and the lowest scores on conflict and antagonism; 3) average, characterized by
intermediate scores on affection, reliable alliance, companionship, intimacy, and
satisfaction, and the second lowest scores on conflict and antagonism; 4) engaged,
characterized by the second highest scores on affection, reliable alliance, intimacy, and
satisfaction, and the highest scores on companionship, antagonism, and conflict. The
authors found categorical differences in friendship based on sex and ethnic identity.
Students in the ideal cluster were predominantly Latino and female. Therefore, Latino
adolescents formed more reliable alliances with their friends and experienced higher
levels o f affection, intimacy, and satisfaction in comparison to adolescents from other
ethnic groups.
W ay and Chen (2000) also found that Latino and Black girls reported more
general friendship support than Asian girls and Asian, Black, and Latino boys. The
authors concluded that Latino adolescents had the most supportive friendships o f all
ethnic groups. Also, both close and general friendship support were associated with
family support for all ethnicities. The relation was strongest in Black adolescents and
least pronounced in Latinos. However, the literature in this area was extremely limited
and warranted further investigation to determine whether ethnic minorities and Caucasian
populations demonstrated similar relations between friendship and family quality.
Socioeconomic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Friendship Quality
In addition to a relative neglect o f ethnic minority adolescents, teens in lower SES
families and communities have also been comparatively underrepresented in research on
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social relationships. Indeed, SES played an important role in adolescent peer
relationships. For instance, Cui, Conger, Bryant, and Elder (2002), studied the influence
o f socioeconomic status, measured in terms o f income and parental education, on parental
behaviors towards adolescents and adolescent friendship quality with close friends. In
their study o f 451 Caucasian families with adolescents in the 7th grade, they found that
family structure, parents’ education, and family per capita income were all factors that
influenced parental support, which in turn influenced adolescent-friend support and
friendship quality. Thus, adolescents reared in a context o f socioeconomic stress were
especially be at risk for difficulties in peer relationships as a function o f the increased
stress on the parent-child relationship. Accordingly, the first goal o f this study was to
examine the relation between family and peer relationships among minority youth in a
high-stress, low SES urban environment. The association between friendship and family
relationships was examined, and the role o f ethnicity and sex as potential moderating
variables was explored.
Friendship Quality and Romantic Relationship Quality
In addition, the association between intimacy and conflict in friendships and
romantic relationships was explored because friendships have been an important
contributor to the development o f healthy romantic relationships. Friendship networks
served as a means to meet members o f the opposite sex, which led to romantic
involvement. For example, Connolly, Furman, and Konarski (2000) examined 174 high
school students who were in the 1 0 th or 1 1th grade to understand the role o f their peers in
the emergence o f romantic relationships. They found that, although both boys and girls
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had more same-sex friends, the number o f other-sex peers in their networks was
positively correlated with having a romantic relationship.
Similarly, Feiring (1999) examined 92 white middle-class participants’
descriptions o f their friendship networks from childhood to late adolescence as well as
their romantic relationships from middle to late adolescence. They found that having
larger other-sex friendship networks in early adolescence was related to affiliative
qualities in romantic relationships and the maintenance o f longer relationships.
Therefore, adolescents who had a larger number o f opposite-sex peers in their social
circle were more likely to be involved in romantic relationships.
Adolescent friendships were not only important in facilitating the initiation of
romantic relationships, but they were also related to the quality o f romantic relationships.
For example, Connolly et al. (2000) found that perceptions of friendship and romantic
relationship qualities (social support-instrumental aid, intimacy, nurturance, affection,
reliable alliance, and admiration; negative interaction-conflict and punishment) were
significantly correlated in 9th through 11th graders. Also, friendship characteristics at
Year 1 significantly predicted romantic characteristics at Year 2 for both support and
negative interactions. Therefore, friendship quality and romantic quality were correlated
in this adolescent population.
Similarly, Shulman and Scharf (2000) studied 168 Israeli high school students to
determine the relation between adolescent friendship and romantic quality. They found
that affective intensity (a desire to be with or share events with romantic partners that
cause positive and negative emotions) was significantly correlated for both relationships
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with friends and romantic partners. Therefore, emotional intimacy appeared to be related
in these types o f relationships.
Adolescent friendships and romantic relationships were also related in terms o f
perceptions o f social support. In a study o f 535 boys and 514 girls between the ages of
13 and 19, who were predominantly Caucasian, Connolly and Johnson (1996) found that
regardless o f the duration o f the romantic relationship, adolescents demonstrated similar
levels o f perceived social support (companionship, instrumental aid, intimacy,
nurturance, affection, reliable alliance, and admiration) in their friendships and romantic
relationships. Therefore, friendships and romantic relationships were similar in this
aspect o f quality.
Creasey, Kershaw, and Boston (1999) also studied similarities in friendships and
romantic relationships with 140 late adolescent females (mean age=19.7 years).
Attachment was measured in terms o f personal ratings o f avoidance o f relationships,
negative views o f others, individual beliefs about worthiness o f self as an attachment
figure, and ambivalence about relationships. The authors found that adolescents with
more insecure attachments were more likely to report having difficulties managing
conflict and had less confidence in ability to regulate negative mood with friends and
romantic partners.
Thus, the available literature has demonstrated significant links between the
qualities o f friendships and romantic relationships among adolescents. However, as in
the case o f examinations o f parent-child relationships, the vast majority o f the existing
research has focused on middle-class Caucasian youth, leaving important gaps in our
understanding o f these processes among teenagers in higher-stress circumstances.
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Therefore, the current study focused on the influences o f friends and family on the
development o f romantic relationships in ethnic minority adolescents, who have been
historically understudied and considered particularly at-risk for a variety o f negative
outcomes.
Ethnic Differences in Friendship Quality and Romantic Relationship Quality
M inority adolescents have been at-risk for maladaptive romantic relationships in
terms o f a variety o f dimensions. Over one half o f high school students engaged in
sexual intercourse, but estimates were even higher for minority adolescents and
adolescents o f lower socioeconomic status (Kann, Warren, Harris, Collins, Williams,
Ross, & Kolbe, 1995). More importantly, consistent use o f condoms was lower for
minority adolescents than Caucasian adolescents (Brown, DiClemente, & Park, 1992).
Furthermore, minority adolescents tended to engage in sexual activities in relationships
that were short in duration and had many partners, which increased their likelihood of
contracting sexually transmitted diseases (STD’s) (Overby & Kegeles, 1994). As the
research demonstrated, low SES, ethnic minority adolescents were more likely to engage
in harmful behaviors with romantic partners. However, the quality o f romantic
relationships in ethnic minority couples has received less attention than their sexual
behavior. Therefore, it was important to better understand the social factors that
influenced their behaviors and relationships. Accordingly, the current study examined
the relations between friendship and romantic relationship qualities among low SES,
urban, minority adolescents.
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Family Stress and Romantic Relationship Quality
In addition to their importance in the development of friendship qualities, as
described previously, families have also played an important role in the development and
quality o f adolescent romantic relationships. Parental care-giving and attachment have
been thought to influence adolescent romantic relationships by providing internalized
expectations to children as to the quality o f care they should expect to receive from
romantic partners and how to reciprocate (Bowlby, 1980). For example, children who
received insensitive care-giving (e.g. rejection and over-control) found it difficult to trust
others and themselves, and as a result, they either clung to romantic partners or relied on
themselves, have difficulty resolving conflicts (Hazan & Shaver, 1994), and were more
likely to use physical aggression against romantic partners (Breslin, Riggs, O ’Leary, &
Arias, 1990; White & Humphrey, 1994; Magdol, Moffitt, Caspi, & Silva, 1998; O ’Keefe,
1997). Likewise, adolescents who had an avoidant attachment history with parents
preferred short-term romantic relationships with low levels of closeness and commitment
and were more likely to engage in casual sex (Feeney, Noller, & Patty, 1993). In
contrast, children who received sensitive care-giving had parents who provided closeness
and independence (Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Kobak & Sceery, 1988; Furman & Simon as
cited in Furman & Brown, 1999) as well as warmth, structure, emotional availability, and
autonomy granting (Shulman & Mayseless, 2001). As a result, as adolescents, these
youngsters who have experienced a high level o f intimacy in their relationships, were
more trusting and confident o f their interactions with others (Hazan & Shaver, 1994), and
had higher levels o f closeness, separateness, and commitment (Scharf & Mayseless,
2001). Also, if adolescents were securely attached to their parents, they tended to prefer
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long-term, highly committed romantic relationships without an obsessive need for
closeness or commitment (Feeney et al., 1993). Lastly, perceptions o f social support in
parent-child relationships were predictive o f social support in romantic relationships
(Connolly & Johnson, 1996). Therefore, the quality o f parent-child attachments clearly
influenced the quality o f romantic relationships in adolescence.
In order to further examine the influence o f family on quality o f adolescent
romantic relationships, Feldman, Gowen, and Fisher (1998) studied a predominantly
Caucasian, middle-class sample o f adolescents who were 13-18 years o f age at Time 1
and 19-25 years o f age at Time 2. Family cohesion predicted young adults’ intimacy with
romantic partners. Also, flexible family control, which was defined as the flexibility o f
the family’s rules, roles, and relationships, predicted romantic attachment style for
women but not for men. More specifically, females with the highest level o f flexible
family control were more likely to be secure in their relationships. Males, however, were
most likely to be detached in their relationships when they experienced a high level of
flexible family control. Therefore, family cohesion had the same effects for both sexes,
but flexible family control influenced males and females in opposite ways.
Seiffge-Krenke (2003) studied 103 participants in Germany and examined the
association between parental support and romantic relationships at age 13, 15, and 17.
She found that a bonded romance, which was a long term, exclusive, committed
relationship with a romantic partner, was positively correlated with mother support at
ages 15 and 17 and father support at 13, 15, and 17. Therefore, parent-adolescent and
adolescent-romantic partner relationship quality were related.
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Taradash, Connolly, Pepler, Craig, and Costa (2001) also studied the links
between adolescent parents and romantic partners. Nine hundred and five high school
students between the ages o f 13 and 18 participated in the study. The sample
composition was as follows: 70% Caucasian, 13% Asian, 7% Black, 5% South Asian,
2% Hispanic, and 3% Other. The authors found that romantic autonomy was positively
correlated with autonomy in the mother-adolescent relationship. Autonomy was assessed
in terms o f comfort with differences from others and resilience o f the self-concept in
relationships with others. Therefore, parent-child and adolescent romantic relationships
were qualitatively similar in terms o f autonomy.
Lastly, Doyle, Brendgen, Markiewicz, and Kamkar (2003) studied the association
between family factors and romantic relationships in a sample o f 244 adolescents, ages
13-14 years o f age, who were 34% English Canadian, 4% French Canadian, 17%
European, 1.5% Latin American, 1.5% African, 1.5% Asian, and 38% mixed. They
found that attachment to mother predicted social preference. More specifically, better
maternal attachments were associated with greater likelihood o f having been nominated
by peers as someone they would have liked to befriend.
Overall, the research showed that adolescents with poor parent-child relations had
lower quality romantic relationships. However, the relation between qualitative aspects of
family and romantic relationships among urban, ethnic minority adolescents has been
relatively neglected. Accordingly, the current study examined this question.
To summarize, this paper examined the following hypotheses:
1) Sex and ethnic differences for the variables were examined.
2) Family chronic stress was negatively correlated with friendship quality.
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3) Best-friendship quality and romantic quality were positively correlated.
4) Family chronic stress was negatively correlated with romantic relationship
quality.
5) The role o f sex as a group differences variable o f the above relations was
examined.
6 ) The role o f ethnicity as a group differences variable o f the above relations was
examined.
Method
Procedure
As part o f an ongoing study, 271 enrolled tenth grade students in a single track
(one o f three year-round school tracks) at a public, inner-city high school were recruited.
Signed positive parental consent forms were returned by 176 students, 175 o f whom
completed the Time 1 (T l) questionnaire packet during four consecutive homeroom
periods. Upon completion o f the T l questionnaires, students were paid $5 each for their
participation. Four o f the questionnaire packets were excluded from analyses because of
suspect responses. The 171 participants did not differ from the non-participants in terms
o f ethnicity, X 2 (2, N = 257) = 2.95, ns, sex, X 2 (1, N = 257) = .85, ns, age, t (255)= .45,
ns, or standardized test scores, t (215) = 1.02, ns. O f the 171 participants, 8 6 were female
(50%), 123 were Hispanic (72%), 47 were African-American (27%), 1 was Asian, and
the mean age was 16.29 years.
Measures
Family chronic stress. The Child Chronic Stress Questionnaire (CCSQ; Rudolph,
Kurlakowsky, & Conley, 2001) assessed stress in four relationship domains in the last 6
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months: school, friendships, father, and mother. The parent related questions were
utilized for the purpose o f the current study. The items pertained to the following:
getting along with parents, difficulty talking with parents, availability o f parents to help
when needed, parents’ willingness to listen when child wanted to talk about his or her
feelings, arguments and fights with parents, amount o f yelling, and parents too busy to
spend time with child. Participants rated their responses from not at all (I) to very much
(5). Internal consistency for the CCSQ was acceptable, a = .76.
Best-friend relationship quality. The Friendship Quality Questionnaire (FQQ;
Parker & Asher, 1993) was designed to assess adolescents’ perceptions o f qualitative
aspects o f their relationship with their best friend. The Friendship Quality Questionnaire
contained 40 items and six subscales identified through performing a principal-
components analysis (Parker and Asher, 1993). For the purposes o f this study, only the
Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange subscales were utilized. Participants
indicated on a 5-point scale how true an item was o f their relationship with their friend.
Examples o f questions on the Conflict and Betrayal subscale included, “My best friend
and I get mad a lot,” and “M y best friend sometimes says mean things about me to other
kids.” The Intimate Exchange subscale included items such as, “M y best friend doesn’t
listen to me,” and “M y best friend and I tell each other secrets.” The scale ranged from
not at all true (0) to a little true (1) to somewhat true (2) to pretty true (3) to really true
(4). Internal consistency for the FQQ was acceptable, a = 78.
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18
Romantic relationship quality. The Friendship Quality Questionnaire scale was
adapted to assess Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange in current romantic
relationships. Internal consistency was acceptable, o c = .79.
Results
Sex and Ethnic Differences fo r the Variables
It was predicted that sex and ethnic differences for the variables would be
found. The mean differences based on ethnicity and sex were presented in Table 1. The
mean scores for friendship intimate exchange were significantly different for males and
females, t = 16.16, p < .01. In addition, the mean scores for chronic stress with father
were significantly different for Hispanics and African Americans, t = 6.90, p < .01. The
mean values o f the other variables did not significantly differ based on sex or ethnicity.
Table 1.
Male
Mean
(SD)
Female
Mean
(SD)
Male vs.
Female (t)
African-
American
M ean
(SD)
Hispanic
Mean
(SD)
Hispanic
vs.
African-
American
Chronic Stress with 13.05 15.31 2.27 13.54 14.36 -1.59
mother (5.56) (7.28) (4.76) (7.11)
Chronic Stress with 14.67 18.01 3.34 17.19 15.93 -5.40**
father (7.79) (8.36) (8.50) (8 .1 2 )
Friendship Conflict 6.71 5.50 - 1 .2 1 6.40 6 . 0 2 -.47
and Betrayal (4.69) (3.98) (4.63) (4.29)
Friendship Intimate 10.35 18.67 8.32** 14.76 14.41 -2 .2 1
Exchange (7.16) (5.18) (7.13) (7.67)
Romantic Conflict 7.60 7.55 -.04 7.51 7.60 -1.74
and Betrayal (5.63) (4.64) (5.91) (4.61)
Romantic Intimate 13.97 14.28 .31 14.11 14.17 1.09
Exchange (6.63) (7.10) (6.26) (7.20)
C orrelatio n is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
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19
Family Chronic Stress and Friendship Quality
It was predicted that family chronic stress would be negatively correlated with
friendship quality. The relations between family chronic stress and friendship quality
were presented in Table 2. Chronic stress with Mom was significantly positively
correlated with Friendship Conflict and Betrayal. Chronic stress with M om was not
significantly related to Friendship Intimate Exchange.
Chronic stress with Dad was significantly positively correlated with Friendship
Conflict and Betrayal and negatively correlated with Friendship Intimate Exchange.
Thus, in three o f four analyses, there were significant associations between parental
relationship quality and friendship quality, as expected, although the magnitude o f these
associations was modest, with effect sizes in the small range.
Table 2.
Means of, standard deviations o f and correlations among the variables fo r all
participants.
1 2 3 4 5
Mean
(SD)
1. Chronic Stress with 14.19
mother (6.56)
2. Chronic Stress with
3 9 **
16.27
father (153) (8 .2 1 )
3. Friendship Conflict
2i**
.17* 6 . 1 0
and Betrayal (171) (153) (4.38)
4. Friendship Intimate -.13
_ 2 3 **
.1 0 14.54
Exchange (171) (153) (171) (7.49)
5. Romantic Conflict .36** .01 .13 -.05 7.57
and Betrayal (79) (70) (79) (79) (5.04)
6 . Romantic Intimate .09 .14 -.0 1 .23* .26* 14.15
Exchange (79) (70) (79) (79) (79) (6.87)
*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
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20
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Chronic Stress and Friendship Quality
Because the correlations between family chronic stress and friendship quality
were not especially large, it was predicted that sex differences in the relation between
family chronic stress and friendship quality might exist. Four multiple regressions were
performed to examine this possibility. In the first and second tests, chronic stress with
mother and father (analyzed in separate tests) and sex (dummy coded -1 and 1) were
entered in the first step, and the product o f these two predictors (chronic stress x sex) was
entered in the second step to predict Friendship Conflict and Betrayal scores. Two more
regressions were performed in the same manner, with the dependent variable being
Friendship Intimate Exchange. As shown in Table 3, the interaction term o f sex by
chronic stress with Dad added significantly to the prediction o f higher levels o f
Friendship Conflict and Betrayal and lower levels o f Friendship Intimate Exchange.
Linear regressions were run to further explore this relation by alternately selecting for
males and then females. It was found that for males, the relation between chronic stress
with Dad and Friendship Conflict and Betrayal was significantly positively correlated,
r=.32,p=.003 (see Figure 1), and the relation between chronic stress with Dad and
Friendship Intimate Exchange was significantly negatively correlated, r= -.29,p= .0l (see
Figure 2). For females, the relation between chronic stress with Dad and Friendship
Intimate Exchange, r=.04, ns, and the relation between chronic stress with Dad and
Friendship Conflict and Betrayal, r=.05, ns, were not significant. These effect sizes were
so small, it is unlikely that these null findings were simply a result o f limited power.
Therefore, sex moderated the relation between chronic stress with Dad and Friendship
Intimate Exchange and Conflict and Betrayal scores. More specifically, boys, but not
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21
Table 3.
Multiple Regression Equations Predicting Best Friendship Quality from Sex by Chronic
Stress with D ad Interaction
Variable Beta t
Change in RA 2
for step
Change in
F for step
Predicting Friendship Conflict and
Betrayal
Step 1
Chronic Stress with Dad .2 0 2.50*
.06 4.36*
Sex .17 2.05*
Step 2
Chronic Stress with Dad X .36 2 .0 0 *
.08 4.30**
Sex
Predicting Friendship Intimate
Exchange
Step 1
Chronic Stress with Dad .13 1.83
.32 35.98**
Sex -.53
-7.74**
Step 2
Chronic Stress with Dad X .35 2.30*
.35 26.43**
Sex
* Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level.
Figure 1. The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship
conflict and betrayal as a function of sex.
.21
-10
‘■ - — Entire Sample
Males
* • " F e m a le s
One SD above and below the centered mean for
chronic stress with father
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22
Figure 2. The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship
intimate exchange as a function o f sex.
30
25
20
15
w
10
' J E
< S l
C
5
< L >
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
- 8.21 8.21
— Entire Sample
n r n rj^'nmnnni
Fcmslcs
One SD above and below the centered mean for
chronic stress with father
girls, who had high levels o f stress with their fathers, had significantly higher levels o f
conflict and betrayal and lower levels o f intimate exchange with their best friends. The
relations between chronic stress with Mom and Friendship Conflict and Betrayal, step 2,
A R =.08, AF=4.65, ns, and chronic stress with M om and Friendship Intimate Exchange,
step 2, AR2 = z.3\, AF=25.30, ns, did not demonstrate any sex differences.
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Chronic Stress and Friendship
Quality
It was predicted that ethnic differences in the relation between family chronic
stress and friendship quality would exist. Four multiple regressions were performed to
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23
examine this possibility. In the first and second tests, chronic stress with mother and
father (analyzed in separate tests) and ethnicity (African American and Hispanic, dummy
coded -1 and 1), were entered in the first step, and the product o f these two predictors
(chronic stress x ethnicity) was entered in the second step to predict Friendship Conflict
and Betrayal scores. Two more regressions were performed in the same manner, with the
dependent variable being Friendship Intimate Exchange. As shown in Table 4, the
interaction term o f ethnicity by chronic stress with fathers added significantly to the
prediction o f lower levels o f Friendship Intimate Exchange. Linear regressions were run
to further explore this relation by alternately selecting for Hispanic and then African
American participants. It was found that for Hispanics, chronic stress with fathers and
Friendship Intimate Exchange were significantly negatively correlated, r= -.3 4 ,p = 0 0 (see
Figure 3). For African American participants, this relation was non-significant, r=.06, ns.
Therefore, ethnicity moderated the relation between chronic stress with Dad and
Friendship Intimate Exchange. More specifically, Hispanic participants, who had high
Table 4.
Multiple Regression Equations Predicting Best Friendship Quality Intimate Exchange
from Ethnicity by Chronic Stress with D ad Interaction ______________________
Variable Beta t
Change in R A 2
for step
Change
in F for
step
Predicting Friendship Intimate
Exchange Step 1
Chronic Stress with Dad
Ethnicity
Step 2
Chronic Stress with Dad X
Ethnicity
.23
- .0 2
.41
2.92
-.26
2.31
.06
.0 2
4.36*
4 7 7 **
* Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level.
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24
Figure 3. The relation between chronic stress with father and friendship
intimate exchange as a function o f ethnicity.
w
t— i
ft
S
c /d
T 3
C
U -
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
A
m
- 8,21 8.21
J t
■ — “ Entire Sample
A* Hispanic
• African American
One SD above and below the centered mean for
chronic stress with father
levels o f stress with Dad, had significantly lower levels o f intimate exchange with their
best friends, an association that was not found for African American participants. For the
relations o f chronic stress with Mom and Friendship Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AR
=.05, AF=3.05, ns, chronic stress with Mom and Friendship Intimate Exchange, step 2,
AR2=.02, AF=1.08, ns, and chronic stress with Dad and Friendship Conflict and Betrayal,
step 2, AR =.04, AA=1.96, ns, no significant ethnic differences were found.
As demonstrated, ethnicity moderated the relation between chronic stress with
fathers and friendship intimate exchange. It is possible, however, that the relation
between chronic stress with fathers and friendship intimate exchange was due to family
composition, and not ethnicity. Accordingly, a chi-square was run to determine if family
composition was related to ethnicity. The results concluded that Flispanic participants
were significantly more likely to come from a family, where the father lived in the home,
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25
^ = 5 .9 3 , df= 1, /7= 123, /?=.02. African American participants were significantly less
likely to come from a family, where the father lived in the home, rf= \ 1.26, d/= 1, «=47,
/?=.()008. Therefore, it is possible that who lives in the home and not ethnicity really
influenced the relation between chronic stress with fathers and friendship intimate
exchange for Hispanic adolescents. To examine this possibility, a multiple regression
was mn. Chronic stress with father and ethnicity (African American or Hispanic, dummy
coded -1 and 1), were entered in the first step, and the product o f these two predictors
(chronic stress x ethnicity) was entered in the second step to predict Friendship Intimate
Exchange scores. In addition, whether the father lived at home was entered in Step 1 to
determine a possible role as a confound. The role o f ethnicity as a moderator was still
significant, AR2=.09, AF=3.61,/f=.02. Therefore, whether a father was living at home did
not explain the relation between chronic stress with fathers and friendship intimate
exchange. 1
Friendship Quality and Romantic Quality
Friendship quality and romantic relationship quality were related, as predicted.
The relations between friendship quality and romantic quality were presented in Table 1.
First, Romantic Intimate Exchange and Conflict and Betrayal were significantly
positively correlated. Therefore, at higher levels o f conflict and betrayal in romantic
relationships there were higher levels o f intimate exchange and vice-versa. Second,
Friendship and Romantic Intimate Exchange were significantly positively correlated. In
other words, at higher levels o f intimate exchange with best-friends there were higher
1 The possible role of father in the home as a mediator or moderator for the relationship between chronic
stress with fathers and friendship intimate exchange was also examined and found to be non-significant.
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26
levels o f intimate exchange with romantic partners and vice-versa. The relations between
Friendship Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange were not significant. Thus,
within platonic friendships, the degree o f conflict and intimacy were unrelated. The
relation between Friendship and Romantic Conflict and Betrayal did not achieve
significance either. Thus, across friendships and romantic relationships, there was no
apparent consistency in the level o f conflict and betrayal.
Sex Differences in the Relation between Friendship Quality and Romantic Quality
Four multiple regressions were performed to examine the possibility o f significant
sex differences in the relation between family chronic stress and friendship quality. In
the first and second tests, Friendship Intimate Exchange and sex (dummy coded -1 and 1)
were entered in the first step, and the product o f these two predictors (Friendship Intimate
Exchange x sex) was entered in the second step to predict Romantic Conflict and
Betrayal and Intimate Exchange. Two more regressions were performed in the same
manner, with the independent variable being Friendship Conflict and Betrayal. The
interaction term o f sex by Friendship Conflict and Betrayal did not add significantly to
the prediction o f Romantic Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AR =.04, AF=1.15, ns, or
Intimate Exchange, step 2, AR =.001, AF=.03, ns. The interaction term o f sex by
Friendship Intimate Exchange did not add significantly to the prediction o f Romantic
Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AR2=.007, AF=. 17, ns, or Intimate Exchange, step 2,
AR2=.06, AF=\ .6 8 , ns. Therefore, sex did not moderate the relation between friendship
and romantic quality.
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27
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Friendship Quality and Romantic Quality
It was predicted that there would be ethnic differences in the relation between
friendship quality and romantic relationship quality. Four multiple regressions were
performed to examine this possibility. In the first equation, Friendship Intimate
Exchange and ethnicity (African American or Hispanic, dummy coded -1 and 1), were
entered in the first step, and the product o f these two predictors (Friendship Intimate
Exchange x ethnicity) was entered in the second step to predict Romantic Intimate
Exchange. A second regression was performed in the same manner, with the dependent
variable and independent variables being Romantic Conflict and Betrayal and Friendship
Intimate Exchange, respectively. A third regression was performed with Friendship
Conflict and Betrayal as the independent variable and Romantic Conflict and Betrayal as
the dependent variable. Lastly, a fourth regression was performed with Friendship
Conflict and Betrayal and Romantic Intimate Exchange as the independent and dependent
variables, respectively. As shown in Table 5, the interaction term o f ethnicity by
Friendship Intimate Exchange added significantly to the prediction o f higher levels of
Romantic Intimate Exchange. Linear regressions were run to further explore this relation
by alternately selecting for Hispanic and then African American participants. It was
found that for African Americans, the relation between Friendship Intimate Exchange and
Romantic Intimate Exchange was significantly positively correlated, r=.63, p=.001 (see
Figure 4). The relation between Friendship Intimate Exchange and Romantic Intimate
Exchange was not significant for Hispanics, r=.07, ns. Therefore, ethnicity moderated
the relation between Friendship Intimate Exchange and Romantic Intimate Exchange.
More specifically, for African American participants, level of intimate exchange with
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28
best-friends more strongly predicted level o f intimate exchange with their romantic
partners than for Hispanic participants. As shown in Table 6 , the interaction term of
ethnicity by Friendship Conflict and Betrayal also added significantly to the prediction of
increased Romantic Conflict and Betrayal. Linear regressions were run to further explore
this relation by alternately selecting for Hispanic and then African American participants.
It was found that for Hispanics, Friendship and Romantic Conflict and Betrayal were
significantly positively correlated, r= 3 l,p = .0 3 (see Figure 5). This relation was non
significant for African Americans, r=-.17, ns. Therefore, ethnicity moderated the
association between Friendship and Romantic Conflict and Betrayal. More specifically,
for Hispanic participants, level o f conflict and betrayal with best-friends more strongly
predicted level o f conflict and betrayal with romantic partners than for African American
participants. For the relations o f Friendship Intimate Exchange and Romantic Conflict
and Betrayal, step 2, AR2=.03, AF=.64, ns, as well as Friendship Conflict and Betrayal
Table 5.
Multiple Regression Equations Predicting Romantic Intimate Exchange from Ethnicity by
Best Friendship Intimate Exchange________________________________________ ________
Variable Beta t
Change in R A 2
for step
Change
in F for
step
Predicting Romantic Intimate
Exchange
Step 1
Friendship Intimate Exchange
Ethnicity
Step 2
Friendship Intimate Exchange
X Ethnicity
.23
-.003
- .6 6
2.04*
- .0 2
-2 .2 0 *
.05
.1 1
2.08
3.06*
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level.
*Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
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29
Figure 4. The relation between friendship intimate exchange and romantic
intimate exchange as a function o f ethnicity.
25 - - ....
-20
One SD above and below the centered mean for
friendship intimate exchange
• Entire Sample
A ~ Hispanic
" African American
Table 6 .
M ultiple Regression Equations Predicting Romantic Conflict and Betrayal from Ethnicity
by Best Friendship Conflict and Betrayal _________ _______________ ____________
Variable Beta t
Change in RA 2 Change in
for step F for step
Predicting Romantic Conflict and
Betrayal
Step 1 .0 2 .6 6
Friendship Conflict and .13 1.15*
Betrayal
Ethnicity .0 1 .09
Step 2 .07 1.79
Friendship Conflict and .43 -2 .0 0 *
Betrayal X Ethnicity
** Correlation is significant at the .01 ' evel.
*Correlation is significant at the .05 level.
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30
Figure 5. The relation between friendship conflict and betrayal and romantic
conflict and betrayal as a function of ethnicity.
“ * ■ “ “Entire Sample
Hispanic
African American
One SD above and below the centered mean for
friendship conflict and betrayal
and Romantic Intimate Exchange step 2, Ai?2=.01, AF=.24, ns, ethnicity had no
significant moderating effects.
As demonstrated, ethnicity moderated the relation between friendship intimate
exchange and romantic intimate exchange as well as friendship conflict and betrayal and
romantic conflict and betrayal. It was possible, however, that the relations between
friendship intimate exchange and romantic intimate exchange and friendship conflict and
betrayal and romantic conflict and betrayal were due to one ethnic group’s increased
likelihood o f involvement in romantic relationships, and not ethnicity itself.
Accordingly, a chi-square was run to determine if romantic involvement was related to
ethnicity. The results demonstrated that Hispanics, ^ = 1 .6 3 , d /= 1, «=120, ns, and
10
6
4
■ v 2
§ m n
g o 0
o
o d ,
-2
-4
-6
-4.38 4.38
ni|ii |
1 A
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31
African Americans, ^ = 1 .0 9 , d /= 1, n=45, ns, were equally likely to be involved in a
romantic relationship. Therefore, whether a participant was involved in a romantic
relationship did not explain the associations between friendship intimate exchange and
romantic intimate exchange or friendship conflict and betrayal and romantic conflict and
betrayal.
Family Stress and Romantic Quality
It was predicted that family stress would be negatively correlated with romantic
relationship quality. The relations between family stress and romantic quality were
presented in Table 1. In order to test this hypothesis, a Pearson correlation was used,
entering chronic stress with mother and father and Romantic Intimate Exchange. A
second Pearson correlation was used, entering chronic stress with mother and father and
Romantic Conflict and Betrayal. Chronic stress with M om was positively correlated with
conflict and betrayal in romantic relationships. In other words, at higher levels o f stress
with Mom, there were higher levels o f conflict and betrayal in romantic relationships and
vice-versa. No significant association existed between chronic stress with Mom and
Romantic Intimate Exchange. The effect size for this relation was less than what Cohen
(1992) considered to be a small effect. Therefore, it is unlikely that these null findings
were simply a result o f limited power. In addition, chronic stress with Dad was not
significantly correlated with either Romantic Intimate Exchange or Conflict and Betrayal.
However, an examination o f the effect size revealed that the sample size may not have
been large enough to allow the detection o f a significant relation between chronic stress
with Dad and Romantic Intimate Exchange.
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32
Sex Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Romantic Quality
Four multiple regressions were performed to examine the possibility that sex
moderates the relation between family stress and romantic quality. In the first and second
tests, chronic stress with Mom and sex (dummy coded -1 and 1) were entered in the first
step, and the product o f these two predictors (chronic stress x sex) was entered in the
second step to predict Romantic Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange. Two
more regressions were performed in the same manner, with the independent variable
being chronic stress with Dad. The interaction term o f sex by chronic stress with Mom
did not add significantly to the prediction o f Romantic Conflict and Betrayal, step 2,
AR2=.13, AF=3.86, ns, or Intimate Exchange, step 2, AR2=.02, AF=.52, ns. The
interaction term o f sex by chronic stress with Dad did not add significantly to the
prediction o f Romantic Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AR2=.0l, A F=30, ns, or Intimate
Exchange, step 2, AR =.02, AT=.48, ns. Therefore, sex did not moderate the relation
between family chronic stress and romantic quality.
Ethnic Differences in the Relation between Family Stress and Romantic Quality
Four multiple regressions were performed to examine the possibility that ethnicity
moderated the relation between family stress and romantic relationship quality. In the
first two equations, chronic stress with Mom and ethnicity (African American and
Hispanic, dummy coded -1 and 1), were entered in the first step, and the product o f these
two predictors (chronic stress with Mom x ethnicity) was entered in the second step to
predict Romantic Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange. Two more regressions
were performed in the same manner, with the independent variable being chronic stress
with Dad. The interaction terms o f ethnicity by chronic stress with Mom did not add
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33
significantly to the prediction o f Romantic Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AR =.15,
AF=4.55, ns, or Intimate Exchange, step 2, AR2=.03, AF=.80, ns. The interaction terms
o f ethnicity by chronic stress with Dad did not add significantly either to the prediction of
Romantic Conflict and Betrayal, step 2, AF2=.007, AF=. 15, ns, or Intimate Exchange,
step 2, AR2=.03, AF=.58, ns. Therefore, ethnicity did not moderate the relations between
family chronic stress and Romantic Conflict and Betrayal and Intimate Exchange.
Discussion
This study o f ethnic minority adolescents examined the relations among chronic
stress with parents, best-friend relationship quality, and romantic relationship quality. As
predicted, family chronic stress was negatively correlated with best friendship quality.
More specifically, chronic stress with fathers was associated with higher levels o f conflict
and betrayal and lower levels o f intimate exchange with best friends. These results were
in line with the conclusions o f the existing literature on Caucasian adolescents (Engels et
al., 2001; Nada Raja et al., 1992; Van Wei, 1994; Armsden & Greenberg, 1987;
Greenberg et al., 1983; Iacovetta, 1975) and extended such findings to ethnic minority
youth living in an inner-city.
Chronic stress with Mom was associated with increased conflict and betrayal with
best friends but was not correlated with intimate exchange. It is quite possible that stress
with mothers did not influence intimate exchange for males because they only looked to
their fathers for modeling o f this type o f behavior. Stress with mothers may not have
influenced intimate exchange for females because o f a biological need to be affiliated
regardless o f the modeling that was provided. This conclusion follows from a study by
Crowley, Insel, and O ’Keefe (1995) that found that at puberty, a five to ten-fold increase
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34
in the hormone oxytocin led to increased need for affiliation and sexual gratification for
females, but for males, it only led to an increased need for sexual gratification.
Therefore, regardless o f whether the adolescent-parent relationship was stressful,
adolescent females had a biological drive to be affiliative and did so regardless o f the
behaviors that were modeled for them, but males had less o f an affiliative instinct and
required appropriate models. Indeed, females demonstrated significantly higher levels of
intimate exchange in friendships than males in the current study, which further supports
the hypothesis that females have a greater affiliative need.
Sex differences in the relation between family chronic stress and friendship
quality were also found. Males, but not females, who dealt with high levels o f chronic
stress with fathers experienced increased levels o f conflict and betrayal and decreased
levels o f intimate exchange in their best friendships. An explanation for this sex
difference m ay be that chronic stress with Dad was especially detrimental for males
because they looked to their fathers for how to behave. Even if mothers were able to
model adaptive behavior, males may not have been able to identify as well with opposite
sex models. Females, on the other hand, m ay have identified with their mothers, so stress
with Dad did not affect them as much. In addition, stress with Dad may not have
negatively influenced females’ intimate exchange as much as males because again,
females had more o f an innate need for intimacy, affiliation, and relationships, which
may have been a buffer for them.
Ethnic differences were also found in the relation between chronic stress with Dad
and intimate exchange with best friends. More specifically, stress with fathers and best
friendship intimate exchange were negatively correlated for Hispanic participants, but
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35
these two variables were not significantly associated for Black participants. This finding
was in slight contrast to previous findings that concluded that family quality and
friendship quality were positively correlated, more so for Black adolescents (Way &
Chen, 2000). Therefore, based on previous studies, it would have been expected that for
Black adolescents, poor relationships with their parents would have been particularly
detrimental to friendship quality. The current study suggested that stress with Dad had a
worse impact on Hispanic adolescents. One possible explanation for the current finding
was that Black adolescents often had extremely close, supportive relationships with their
extended family members (Cherlin, 1998; Mosley-Howard & Evans, 2000). This
extended family m ay have then compensated for any parental deficiencies, putting Black
adolescents on a positive trajectory to have high quality friendships.
As predicted, intimacy and conflict and betrayal in friendships and romantic
relationships were also correlated. More specifically, as intimate exchange in friendships
increased, so did intimate exchange in romantic relationships. These results supported
the existing literature, which concluded that the presence o f social support, intimacy,
nurturance, affection, reliable alliance, and admiration in high school friendships
predicted these characteristics in romantic relationships (Connolly et al., 2000). In
addition, a desire to be with or share events that caused positive and negative emotions
has been found to be correlated for both relationships with friends and romantic partners
(Shulman & Sharf, 2000). Therefore, these results o f the current study regarding
consistency o f friendship and romantic relationship quality supported the existing
literature.
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36
However, ethnic differences were found in the association between friendship and
romantic relationship intimate exchange. For Black adolescents, high levels o f intimate
exchange in friendships predicted high levels o f intimate exchange in romantic
relationships, more strongly than for Hispanic adolescents. This difference could not
have been explained by the number o f African American and Hispanic participants who
were involved in romantic relationships because both groups were equally likely to have
had a romantic partner. The finding that African American adolescents’ friendship
intimate exchange more strongly predicted romantic intimate exchange was unexpected
based on the current literature, and therefore, further research is needed.
In contrast, conflict and betrayal in friendships and romantic relationships were
not associated. One possible explanation for this finding is that romantic relationships
and friendships are qualitatively different. As discussed previously, romantic
relationships were more passionate and committed, while opposite-sex friendships were
more affiliative (Connolly et al., 1999). Therefore, a topic that caused conflict and
betrayal in a friendship may be different from a topic o f conflict and betrayal in romantic
relationships. For example, a couple may have argued about whether or not to have sex,
but a young woman m ay have been angry at a friend for not returning her favorite skirt.
Therefore, romantic partners dealt with certain issues that friends did not have to face and
vice-versa, so the same issues were not necessarily being discussed in both relationships.
Moreover, conflict and betrayal in these platonic and romantic relationships were
correlated for Hispanic adolescents but not for Black adolescents. This finding was
unexpected as well, based on the existing literature. More research is needed to examine
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37
why Hispanic adolescents’ friendship conflict and betrayal more strongly predicted
romantic conflict and betrayal.
Another surprising finding from the current study was that intimate exchange and
conflict and betrayal in romantic relationships were positively related. Accordingly, as
conflict and betrayal in romantic relationships increased, intimate exchange increased as
well. It seemed that adolescents who were more likely to have had a high level of
negative interactions with their partners were also more likely to have had a high level o f
positive communication tactics as well. It is quite possible that conflict and betrayal
necessitated more positive interaction, such as intimate exchange, in order for the couple
to work through their problems and stay together. If a couple was upset with each other,
in order for them to stay together, they m ay have been more likely to have engaged in
higher levels o f intimate exchange. An alternative explanation might be that couples who
spent more time together were bound to have more positive as well as negative
interactions overall, compared to couples who do not spend as much time together.
However, it would be necessary to explore this relation in future research before more
definite conclusions m ay be formed.
Lastly, it was found that family stress was associated with romantic relationship
quality. More specifically, chronic stress with mothers predicted higher levels o f conflict
and betrayal in romantic relationships. However, stress with mothers did not predict
intimate exchange in romantic relationships, and stress with fathers appeared to have no
effect on the qualities o f romantic relationships examined in this study. One possible
explanation for this finding was that many o f the participants came from non-intact
families, so they did not have a romantic relationship model in their homes. In addition,
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38
it was quite possible that fathers did not influence romantic quality because they were not
around enough during the adolescent years, which was the time that romantic
relationships tended to form. M any o f the adolescents in the study were from single
parent families and rarely saw their fathers. Therefore, it was unlikely that fathers would
have influenced these adolescents’ romantic relationships.
One potential limitation o f the current study was that it only looked at low SES,
ethnic minority adolescents, and the results could not be generalized to the population in
general. However, research on Caucasian adolescents already existed, and low SES,
ethnic minority adolescents were at high risk for a variety of adverse outcomes.
Therefore, it was important to study this group o f adolescents to understand basic
development o f close relationships, as well as for prevention o f many o f the negative
implications discussed previously, such as teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted
diseases.
The main limitation o f this study was the reliance on self-report measures.
Participants may have had particular biases in their reporting styles. Therefore, it would
have been ideal if these self-report measures could have been augmented with reports
directly from informants (e.g., the romantic partners or peers themselves), or external,
objective ratings (e.g., by trained interviewers). However, if shared method variance was
an overriding influence in the current study, all o f the relations tested would have been
significant, which they were not. Therefore, it was unlikely that shared method variance
alone accounted for all o f the present results.
Another key limitation o f the present study was the cross-sectional design.
Although parent-child relationships were assumed to have primacy in the developmental
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39
chain, a longitudinal study would have allowed for an inference regarding the direction o f
effects that was not possible with the present data.
Overall, the current study highlighted the influence of relationships formed early
in life on relationships formed later in development. The results generally suggested that
problems in one interpersonal sphere were predictive o f problems in another. Therefore,
it is o f extreme importance to study potential buffers for adolescents who are “at risk” for
low quality relationships in order to influence the developmental trajectory in a more
positive manner. By taking this proactive approach, m any o f the implications o f early
low quality relationships could be prevented.
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40
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Asset Metadata

Creator Fine, Emily Beth (author)

Core Title The associations among family stress, friendship quality, and romantic quality

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical,psychology, social,sociology, individual and family studies

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-317185

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Rights Fine, Emily Beth

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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