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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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An adolescent -parent conflict resolution skills training program for ethnically diverse families: A program evaluation study
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An adolescent -parent conflict resolution skills training program for ethnically diverse families: A program evaluation study
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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, som e thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., m aps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand com er and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ProQ uest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M l 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AN ADOLESCENT-PARENT CONFLICT RESOLUTION SKILLS TRAINING PROGRAM FOR ETHNICALLY DIVERSE FAMILIES A PROGRAM EVALUATION STUDY By Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H. A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (EDUCATION-COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY) May 2000 Copyright 2000 Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3018031 ___ ® UMI UMI Microform 3018031 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007 This dissertation, written by D ebra Anne S o b o l under the direction of h£I. Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re quirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Dean o f Graduate Studies F eb ru ary 9 , 2000 DISSERTATION C O M M I TTEE Chairperson Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been generously supported throughout my years at graduate school. I would like to thank the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation for the financial support to make Project FUN possible. I am grateful to the middle schools and faculty who eagerly opened their doors and hearts to Project FUN. Many school people worked long hours to make Project FUN possible and comfortable for its participants. I would especially like to thank the many FUN families who enthusiastically responded with a willingness to participate and cooperate with all program needs. I have learned so much about how families work together to be the best they can be. I want to express my deep appreciation to my committee chairperson, Joan Rosenberg, Ph.D., for her invaluable guidance, support, and friendship. Her tireless efforts on my behalf and great sense of humor cheered me on throughout the dissertation process. Another committee member, Gretchen Guiton, Ph.D., is also owed a world of gratitude. She believed in the potential that Project FUN could have when she invited me to join her on the larger violence prevention program. She has given countless hours of her time, energies and support to the program and to me. I have truly been blessed with two mentors who have expertly guided my personal and professional development. A special thanks as well goes to my outside committee member, Constance Ahrons, Ph.D., for her support, expertise, and unerring flexibility in accommodating schedule needs. I have also enjoyed her friendship over these years. Three other individuals made significant contributions to Project FUN: Cha Chi Fung, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iii Celina Cardenas for her meticulous translations into Spanish, and Engel Polousky. I am very grateful. Project FUN is about families and I have been blessed with wonderful family. I am most deeply grateful for the love and support of my children and my husband throughout this long process. My children, Erica and Gianna, have grown from young children into independent young women in the years of my studies. They have been supportive and patient watching their mother pursue her passion. As I have cheered them on at soccer games and dance performances, so too have they helped me to feel on top of the world as I faced the many challenges along the way. Lots of love and thanks for helping me to understand how important negotiation is to the health and happiness of family life. Most of all, I would like to express my deep appreciation and love to my husband and best friend, Phil, for his invaluable support, encouragement, love, caring, and belief in me throughout this process. His generosity of spirit, time, and accomplishments on my behalf have allowed me to pursue my dream while our family remained first and foremost in our lives. I cannot begin to count the great many times that he has represented both of us when my schedule would not allow. And he has done so with great heart and a terrific sense of humor. Our family is small in number but large in heart and presence. For the love, support, and enthusiasm shown throughout the years, I would like to thank my parents and my sister Sue. My entire family from coast to coast has cheered me on. Finally, I have been blessed with a family of friends who are “as good as it gets.” They have Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cheered me on, cheered me up, and participated in each step along this process. Realizing that this dissertation symbolizes the culmination o f a life dream, a very thank you to all who have made this possible. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................ii List of Tables......................................................................................................................... vii List of Appendices................................................................................................................ viii Abstract....................................................................................................................................ix Chapter I. Introduction....................................................................................................... I Current Study................................................................................................... 6 Chapter II. Review o f the Literature..................................................................................9 Conflict in the Family......................................................................................9 Theoretical Consideration............................................................................. II Parenting Style................................................................................................17 Frequency o f Conflictual Interaction Between Adolescents and Their Parents......................................................................................20 Conflict Resolution........................................................................................22 Gender Differences in Conflict Resolution.................................................24 Toward an Integrative Resolution of Adolescent-Parent Conflict............27 Family-Based Interventions..........................................................................28 Methodological Issues...................................................................................30 Summary.........................................................................................................31 Research Questions and Hypotheses............................................................32 Chapter III. Methodology.................................................................................................. 34 Subjects...........................................................................................................34 Recruitment of Families................................................................................36 Program Implementation.............................................................................. 37 Project FUN................................................................................................... 39 Instruments.....................................................................................................40 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ).....................................................41 Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II)..........42 The Family Satisfaction Scale............................... 43 The Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30).............44 The Issues Checklist (IC)..............................................................................45 The Parental Stress Scale..............................................................................46 The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents...............................................46 The Demographic Questionnaire..................................................................48 Statistics..........................................................................................................48 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VI Chapter IV. Results............................................................ 51 Testing of Hypotheses................................................................................... 51 Other Normative Information........................................................................59 Summary......................................................................................................... 62 Chapter V. Discussion....................................................................................................... 75 Description of the Sample............................................................................. 76 Implications of the Study...............................................................................84 Theoretical Implications................................................................................ 86 Clinical Implications......................................................................................87 Limitations of the Study................................................................................ 90 Clinical Observations.....................................................................................91 Recommendations for Future Research....................................................... 92 Summary and Conclusions. .........................................................................95 References............................................................................................................................... 97 Appendices............................................................................................................................ 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. vii LIST OF TABLES 1. Number of Project FUN Participants by Ethnicity and Family Position................ 49 2. Number of Project FUN Participants by Marital Status, Parental Position and Ethnicity....................................................................................................................... 49 3. Number of Project FUN Participants by Occupation and Ethnicity........................50 4. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ).......................................... 64 5. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ)........................................................65 6. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II).......................................................................................................66 7. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II)............ 67 8. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Family Satisfaction Scale...................................................................68 9. Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Family Satisfaction Scale................................................................................ 69 10. Means and Standard Deviations on the Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30).................................................................................................70 11. Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30).............................................................71 12. Frequency and Percentage of Authoritative and Nonauthoritative Parenting Styles on the Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30)............72 13. Means and Standard Deviations on the Parental Stress Scale.................................. 73 14. Mean Scores of Adolescent Males and Females on the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents '......................................................................................................74 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. viii LIST OF APPENDICES A. Family Recruitment Letter........................................................................................107 B. Consent Letter...........................................................................................................112 C. Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ)................................................................. 117 D. Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II)......................124 E. Family Satisfaction Scale.............................. 129 F. The Child’s Report of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30)........................... 134 G. The Issues Checklist (IC)......................................................................................... 143 H. The Parental Stress Scale..........................................................................................153 I. Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents..................................................................158 J. The Demographic Questionnaire.............................................................................172 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ix ABSTRACT Few studies have focused on conflict resolution skills programs for enhancing adolescent development and family relations, and even fewer have included ethnically diverse families in their sample population. This exploratory evaluation study investigated the feasibility and effectiveness of providing preventive conflict resolution skills training for parents and their adolescent children. The intent of this investigation was to (a) provide a diverse sample population (i.e., Hispanic, African American and Caucasian), (b) include youth from a nonclinical sample, and (c) utilize a contextual framework to provide much-needed normative developmental information on adolescent development and family interactions among ethnically diverse families. The identification of both universal and culturally specific issues that confront adolescents and parents as part o f the conflict resolution experience was o f particular interest. The potential for partnering with middle schools to implement mental health programming was also explored. Project FUN, Families Utilizing Negotiation, was a culturally sensitive, structured skills training program emphasizing communication, anger management, and negotiation skills. Implementation occurred over four bi-weekly sessions and was provided in both English and Spanish to 30 ethnically diverse families. A treatment and wait-list control design v/as employed. It was hypothesized that participation in Project FUN would (a) reduce conflictual interaction, (b) increase family adaptability and cohesion, and (c) increase family satisfaction. Also, it was hypothesized that an authoritative style of parenting would be associated with less conflict in the home. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. X battery of instruments administered included the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire, Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES II), Family Satisfaction Scale, and Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30). One-way analyses of variance, paired sample r-tests, and Pearson correlations found limited support for treatment gains. Perceived conflictual interaction decreased between father and daughters, family adaptability increased for mothers, and particular dimensions within parenting style were associated with reduced conflict in the home. Both universal findings (e.g., issues that cause parent-teen arguments) and culture- specific findings (e.g., greater involvement in conflictual interaction among Hispanic fathers) emerged. Findings were viewed in terms of their theoretical implications and clinical relevance. Recommendations for culturally sensitive, theoretically-based prevention- oriented programming in naturalistic settings are offered. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The expression and resolution of conflict play a critical role in adolescent-parent relationships. It was believed at one time that conflict in family relations, brought on by the physical, social, cognitive, and physiological changes o f puberty, caused great intrafamilial storm and stress (Steinberg, 1990). Recently, the focus on conflict as detrimental to family relations has shifted to an emphasis on the central and positive force conflict can exert in developmental change throughout the lifespan, and especially in adolescence (Shantz & Hartup, 1992). Other researchers describe the transition to adolescence as a time o f realignment and redefinition of family ties, one in which most families enjoy warm and pleasant relations (Smetana, 1988; Steinberg, 1990). The effective management o f conflict is thought to increase autonomous thinking and interpersonal negotiation skills (Cooper, 1998; Rubenstein & Feldman, 1993), identity development (Cooper, 1988), and ego development (Hauser, Powers, Noam, & Jacobson, 1984). Furthermore, the acquisition of conflict management skills, believed to become part of one’s general coping style, has been related to enhanced resilience (Van Slyck, Stem, & Zak-Place, 1996). Most of the research that discusses how effective conflict management can enhance family relations and positive adolescent developmental outcomes has been conducted with middle-class Caucasian adolescents from intact families (Steinberg, 1990). In contrast, Hill (1995) noted that information on adolescent development in ethnically diverse families has largely centered on discussing problem behaviors (e.g., Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 teen pregnancy, drug use, and/or juvenile delinquency) that come to the attention of school personnel, mental health clinicians, or legal authorities. This “problem” orientation to research is more commonly seen in research with ethnically diverse families. However, it not only hampers our understanding of what normative functioning is for them, it also fails to inform us about adaptive strategies these families may have developed in response to various cultural and environmental challenges (Harrison, Wilson, Pine, Chan, & Buriel, 1990). In fact, there is scant research literature describing any normative family interactions among ethnically diverse teens and their parents (Feldman & Elliot, 1990; Hill, 1995). As a consequence, how cultural influences may act to intensify conflict in these families, as teens face normative tasks of adolescence (e.g., identity development in a bicultural world, individuation from parents where strong familial ties pervade) is not well understood. Given the changing demography o f youth, whereby nearly half of our youth will be either Hispanic (23%) or African American (21%) by the year 2010 (Dryfoos, 1990), the field of psychology needs to critically address both the unique and common concerns regarding conflict resolution with adolescents that all families eventually face. Optimal growth in conflict management occurs when conflicts are experienced as mutual problems with optimal solutions achieved through cooperative problem solving efforts (Van Slyck et al., 1996). A review o f the current conflict resolution literature does not support such a problem-solving orientation in families. Overwhelmingly, adolescents submit to parental wishes, or they disengage from the dispute, in which case no resolution is reached. Laursen (1993) conducted a meta Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 analysis of research investigations from the years 1974 through 1991, and compared conflict resolution strategies that adolescents employed with close peers as opposed to parents and others. Laursen found that adolescents submitted and disengaged in disputes with parents, whereas parents tended to utilize power assertion as their dominant resolution strategy. Compromise between adolescents and their parents was employed less than 20% o f the time. Thus, it appears that the opportunities for positive growth through conflict negotiation and resolution are not being potentiated. However, it does appear that adolescents are developmentally ready to engage in negotiating strategies, as evidenced through interactions with friends and romantic partners; here, negotiation and compromise are the norm. How these negotiating strategies relate to effective conflict resolution in multiculturally diverse families begs investigation. The ineffective management o f conflict in the family is increasingly linked to negative child outcomes that extend beyond the family. High parent-child conflict appears to result in adolescents who (a) exhibit aggressive behaviors with peers, (b) associate with deviant peer groups, and (c) participate in problem behaviors (Metzler, Biglan, Ary, & Li, 1998). Researchers focused on the influence of the family environment, particularly by exploring parenting style, and found that parenting style contributed to both positive and negative outcomes among ethnically diverse adolescents. For instance, there were disturbing findings of ethnic differences in school performance (Baumrind, 1991; Steinberg, Dombusch, & Brown, 1992; Steinberg, Mounts, Lambom, & Dombusch, 1991) which noted that African American and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 Hispanic students lagged behind their Caucasian counterparts, whereas the performance of Asian American students exceeded all three groups. A great many investigations have since addressed parenting style among ethnically diverse families (e.g., Forehand, Miller, Dutra, & Chance, 1997; Hill, 1995). And, the relationship between parenting style and developmental outcomes appears to be affected by moderating variables, such as high- or low-risk environments (Baldwin, Baldwin, & Cole, 1990) and level of problem behavior in peer group (Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, & Hiraga, 1996). For instance, the positive effects of authoritative parenting (Baumrind, 1991), characterized by warmth, psychological autonomy, and demandingness, were moderated by peer values and norms. Baumrind (1972) noted how an authoritarian parenting style in African American families produced the most assertive females, whereas in Caucasian families an authoritative style produced the most positive outcomes. Parenting styles, which were based upon Caucasian middle- class samples, may have different implications for a child’s development when applied to other ethnic groups (Hill, 1995). Families have often come to the attention o f clinicians in response to adolescent behavioral problems. Thus, much of the programmatic research detailing the benefits of using various approaches to negotiating conflict in families (e.g., behavioral-family systems approach; Robin & Foster, 1989) has been therapeutic in focus. Unfortunately, this focus on the remediation of problem behavior has led to what Newcomb (1996) calls “the pathologizing of adolescence” (p. 482). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 In addition, the attention to the influence of culture on the development and maintenance of parenting behaviors, and on factors that influence parental involvement in parent training programs, has been limited (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996). Understanding the parental goals of socialization which are influenced by cultural values (e.g., family solidarity among Hispanics) and the mechanisms that underlie parenting practices (e.g., less direct supervision o f adolescent Hispanic males; Smith & Krohn, 1995) is critical in designing culturally sensitive interventions to promote positive family outcomes. These interventions can be subsequently utilized to design effective conflict management programs to enhance family relations between parents and their adolescent children. Conflict resolution education has been espoused as a proactive tool empowering youth not only to find alternatives to violence, but to foster the development of essential life skills, including communication skills, problem-solving skills, and relationship skills (Bodine & Crawford, 1998). Quite promising conflict resolution programs are being incorporated into the schools across America. Most of these programs, however, do not involve parents. The few that do involve parents provide parent education in the form of training workshops to teach and reinforce within the home the principles of effective conflict resolution. They do not appear to provide collaborative “hands-on” experience for parents and teens to work together on specific problematic issues. The middle school years have not attracted a great many intervention efforts despite the recommendation of prevention experts that the transition to middle school is a particularly important time for potentiating behavioral change (Dryfoos, 1990). Also, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 physically locating prevention programs in schools was identified as a core element in successful programs. Partnering with middle schools to provide a conflict resolution skills training program for teens and parents thus holds great promise. Current Study The current study investigated the effectiveness of an educative intervention program designed to teach adolescents and their parents from ethnically diverse families to negotiate their differences. The sample population included Hispanic, Caucasian and African American families. The program, Project FUN (Families Utilizing Negotiation), provided skills training in a number of core areas deemed essential, to promote competent negotiation among adolescents and their parents. These core areas included skill development in communication, anger management control, and negotiation. The communication skills component included training in active listening, the importance of nonverbal communication, and specific techniques (e.g., “I Messages”; Lantieri & Patti, 1996) to encourage mutual satisfaction in parent-adolescent interaction. The anger management control component was designed to prevent the automatic aggressive response that often curtails communication. Families learned anger triggers, physiological signs o f anger, and appropriate responses to anger which included techniques that constructively deal with anger (e.g., self-talk reminders to “stay cool”; Yung & Hammond, 1995). Negotiation skills were presented as a step-by- step problem-solving process that sets out to achieve the most satisfying solution, particularly a win-win solution wherever possible (Bodine, Crawford, & Schrumpf, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 1994; Fisher & Ury, 1991). Parents and adolescents were brought together to work on a real problem that all involved parties desired to resolve peacefully. Specifically, this investigation sought to understand the parent-adolescent conflict resolution experience within a multicultural and contextual framework. Contextualism asserts that behavior cannot be understood outside of the culture within which it occurs (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1993). Although Project FUN had a clear standardized structure and prevention-oriented skills training, the content of communication, the issues addressed by anger management tools, and the negotiation that resulted in a behavioral contract were determined by individual family needs and socialization goals. Sensitivity to the cultural context and primacy of individual family issues was therefore maintained while providing much-needed information on what appear to be unique and universal issues across cultural milieus. An intent o f this study was to identify culturally specific results which could be used for developing and implementing additional parent training programs. It is the author’s hope that conflict resolution or negotiation skills training for parents and their teenage children can facilitate a smoother and more beneficial move through adolescence. The frequency of occurrence of particular types of issues that arise between parents and teens has not been documented among nonclinical ethnically diverse families. The most commonly reported issues, derived again mostly from studies of Caucasian middle-class families, concern autonomy, authority, and responsibilities (Collins & Laursen, 1992). Thus, this investigation explored similarities and differences between parent and teen issues across cultural settings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 This study also explored parenting style across ethnic groups. Recently, researchers have recommended distinguishing the three dimensions that underlie parenting style to better understand their independent contributions to different aspects of youth development (Barber, 1997; Herman, Dombusch, Herron, & Herring, 1997). Parental acceptance, psychological control, and behavioral control were examined separately both across and within cultures with a particular focus on the intersection of gender and culture within families. Individual parenting dimensions and overall parenting styles were related to conflict resolution gains. It was hypothesized that all three dimensions, which relate to the give and take in communication among family members, as well as the amount of behavioral restrictions placed upon autonomy, would be related to the amount of conflict present between all parents and teens. This study contributes to the existing literature on adolescent-parent conflict resolution behavior by investigating the feasibility and effectiveness of preventive programs, specifically that of negotiation skills training for parents and their teenage children, among an ethnically diverse population. This investigation provides much- needed normative developmental information about ethnically diverse families. Not only does this research effort identify parenting styles across ethnic groups, it also demonstrates the potential for partnering with middle schools as a way to implement mental health programming for students and their families. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 CHAPTER H REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE' Conflict in the Family There is consensus among scholars that opposition, often behavioral, is a central feature of conflict (Laursen & Collins, 1994). Conflict is described as an interpersonal disagreement (Laursen, 1995) and is distinguished from negative affect and aggression, which may or may not be present during a conflict. Furman and McQuaid (1992) differentiate between constructive and destructive conflict. Constructive conflict remains focused so the issue is negotiated through mutual problem solving. Destructive conflict occurs when threats and coercion result in an expansion and escalation beyond the initial issue. Whereas the former encourages ongoing exchange, the latter usually ends the interaction. Patterson (1982) identified coercive interactional patterns that encourage the reoccurrence of conflict. He found that parents trapped in a cycle of either acquiescing to children's wishes or forcing compliance negatively reinforce behavior and invite conflict. Emery (1992) notes how family conflict is distinct from other forms of conflict in three major ways. First, physical proximity, shared tasks, and long-term commitment contribute to frequent unavoidable conflict. Second, conflict is central to the transition and development of individual family members and relationships. Finally, conflict in families carries added importance because of the essential social, emotional, and practical functions it serves. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 0 To date, much o f the research on family conflict applies broadly to mainstream Western cultures. Consequently, the findings reported here reflect those found in the literature and apply to Caucasian middle-class families, unless otherwise noted. As research extends our understanding of children and adolescents to include ethnically diverse families, the importance of culture and ethnicity in determining parental beliefs and behaviors toward their children becomes readily apparent (McDade, 1995). The dynamics of family conflict in Caucasian families cannot be assumed to relate to African American or Hispanic families, particularly as family values and socialization goals introduce a host o f issues not addressed within the traditional European American framework. At the most basic level, the definition of family varies across groups, from the more intact nuclear family to the wider network of kin and community evident in both African American and Hispanic families (McGoldrick, Pearce, & Giordano, 1982). Children in Hispanic families learn early on that familism, which includes a strong identification and attachment with individual family members, is a core value (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996). Whereas the values of European American culture encourage teens to strive for independence and self-advancement as they negotiate greater autonomy, the Hispanic teen’s culture places family above self (Mirande, 1986). The amount of perceived support that one may either expect to obtain or that one can be relied upon to extend to other family members especially distinguishes Hispanics from white non- Hispanics (Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, VanOss Marin, & Perez-Stable, 1987). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 Thus, we might that expect parent-child relationships vis a vis conflict development and conflict management may be similarly influenced by these important family values. McAdoo (1998) notes how the “extended families” in African American families function as familism does for Latinos. The supportive social networks and the flexible relationships within the family contribute to the great resiliency of African American families (McAdoo, 1998). These families expect and accept reliance on one another (Hines & Boyd-Franklin, 1982). The extended family o f an African American is often involved in child socialization practices, including disciplining children. Although the extended family provides a rich socialization experience for African American children, it can also prove problematic if multiple caretakers are not in agreement about important child-rearing goals (Franklin & Boyd-Franklin, 1985). Regardless of whether the parenting unit or family is defined as an intact nuclear family, a single-parent family, or any of the extended arrangements more evident in both Hispanic and African American cultures, an enhanced understanding of the relationship among family, culture, and adolescent development is paramount to understanding parent-teen conflict within these families. Theoretical Considerations Various theoretical approaches can inform one's understanding of the significance of adolescent-parent conflict. The relevance o f current theories to adolescent development in multiethnic families is highlighted. Developmental theory stresses individuation from parents coupled with a number o f critical developmental tasks of adolescence, including (a) adjusting to the physical changes of puberty and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 2 growth and the psychological changes of sexual maturity, (b) developing a system of values and a sense o f identity, (c) establishing effective social and working relationships with same- and opposite-sex peers, and (d) preparing for a vocation or career (Robin & Foster, 1989/ The developmental tasks o f adolescence introduce additional challenges for ethnic adolescents. Identity formation is both complicated and enriched (Baumrind, 1991). The identity development process for ethnic adolescents requires that each one build a sense of self that includes a personal and a cultural or racial self, and how he or she feels about his or her place in society (Baruth & Manning, 1999). As these adolescents are figuring out who they are and how they fit into the world, they must also deal with the negative appraisals of their ethnic group by the majority culture (Spencer & Dombusch, 1990). In this identity development process, these ethnic youth can be enriched by strong family ties, religion, sense of community, and strong identification with their racial group (McCubbin, Thompson, Thompson, & Futrell, 1998; Paniagua, 1994). As ethnic adolescents negotiate a balance between the two cultures in which they interface, additional challenges for teens and parents in the conflict arena are introduced. Biculturality, this ability to function comfortably in two cultures, is adaptive (Pinderhughes, 1982) when teens and parents are able to negotiate differences that arise. For example, intergenerational conflict can be a challenge for families where teens may assimilate more quickly than their parents (Szapocznik, Rio, Perez-Vidal, Kurtines, Hervis, & Santisteban, 1986). However, it is important to keep in mind the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 great intracultural diversity that exists within various ethnic groups (e.g., Hispanics and African Americans; Paniagua, 1994). The differences in such aspects as socioeconomic status, regional geographic differences within the United States, and acculturation level will impact the cultural values and effect on the developing adolescent. As adolescents are trying to “fit in” to both worlds, they face challenges unique to the cultural values o f their ethnic group. More specifically, in the Hispanic culture, the cultural value of machismo influences adolescent identity formation. For males, a strong sense of masculine pride is very much a part o f identity formation (Baruth & Manning, 1999). Machismo also includes a respect for family and elders. Males are not only awarded more privileges, they are awarded them at earlier ages than females. Among Hispanics, marianismo dictates that women be submissive, dependent, obedient and gentle. In addition, women are expected to remain a virgin until marriage (Paniagua, 1994). The rigidly defined sex roles can create identity problems for adolescent women living in two different cultures. Language is also tied to issues o f biculturalism for Hispanic youth. The majority (78%) of Hispanic youth do not speak English in the home but do speak English in school. Thus, problems with proficiency and allegiance to one language over the other can occur (Baruth & Manning, 1999). Underachievement and disproportionate rates o f school failure are also serious problems among these youth (Henderson, 1997). African American adolescents must reject stereotypes of their race and culture as they forge a strong self-identity. Language is tied to biculturalism here, too. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 African American dialect, Black English, expresses the uniqueness o f the culture and acts to bind African Americans together. Language differences and particularly the devaluation of nonstandard English has the potential to damage one’s self-concept (Baruth & Manning, 1999). The lower achievement level of African American children is well documented (Wilson, Cooke, & Arrington, 1997) and is often attributed to a lack o f motivation or intelligence (Baruth & Manning, 1999). Low-income African American adolescents must often make decisions about work and educational goals at younger ages, and appear to have fewer non-self-defeating ways o f acting out their anxieties and frustrations with a racist society that thwarts their occupational options (Hines & Boyd-Franklin, 1982). Vocational development introduces challenges for African American and Hispanic adolescents who have fewer opportunities to leam about careers through observation of significant others and have greater difficulty getting part-time work. However, the experience of employment has been linked to several positive developmental outcomes. Not only is there integration of work into a life plan, but early successes in employment are linked to later successes and vocational choices (Wagner, 1996). Cognitive developmental models posit that intellectual maturity spurs the adolescent's understanding of the self and relationships (Laursen & Collins, 1994), and compromise and negotiation are considered cognitively sophisticated resolution strategies requiring advanced cognitive abilities (Selman, 1981). Cognitive models are quite relevant for contributing to our understanding of the conflict experience among Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 ethnic adolescents; however, it appears this area is not well explored. Research has shown that failure to gain fundamental literacy and mathematical skills in childhood impairs the development o f critical thinking in adolescence (Santrock, 1995). Both literacy and school achievement present obstacles for ethnic adolescents. If cognitive competencies to negotiate conflict are compromised, the potential for conflicts to escalate or go unresolved in families exists. Bilingualism in children, on the other hand, has been linked to greater cognitive flexibility. Bilingual children, as an indicator of biculturalism, have been shown to understand multiple meanings of words and to do well on problem-solving tasks that were presented in varied as opposed to unvaried formats (Harrison et al., 1990). The influence of other sociocultural socializing forces (e.g., family, one’s peer group) on adolescent thinking has been identified as an important area for investigation (Keating, 1990). The impact of adolescent cognition on conflict resolution capabilities and actual conflict management behaviors between teens and parents needs further exploration. The behavioral-family systems model provides a conceptual framework for understanding parent-teen conflict; the family is seen as a social system of members held together by affection and mutual control. The family takes on as its goal the preservation, growth, and nurturance of its members (Robin & Foster, 1989). Families tend to display a recurring pattern of interaction in which all members participate. The independence seeking of adolescents often serves to disrupt the balance in the family system. Family boundaries must become more flexible to permit adolescents to move easily in and out of the system (Carter & McGoldrick, 1988). A number of factors Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 which may include poor problem-solving and communication skills, unreasonable beliefs, function served by behavior within the family system, and family structure may all move the family beyond a normative developmental phase into a clinical one. Empirical investigations do support the short-term effectiveness o f interventions that include a behavioral-family systems approach to conflict resolution among parents and adolescents (Robin & Foster, 1989). However, these same researchers note that the theory guiding their model has been derived from Western mainstream culture. Thus, the opportunities of using their theoretical conceptualization for African American and Hispanic families, as they make the transition through adolescence, is yet to be . determined. Another theoretical framework that can inform one’s understanding of adolescent-parent conflict is a contextual one. Szapocnik and Kurtines (1993) emphasize the idea of embeddedness o f contexts; this means the individual is best understood within the context of the family, which is, in turn, embedded in a larger cultural context. The theoretical foundation for this contextual approach is derived in the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979). He was concerned with looking at the ways in which developmental processes vary as a function of the broader context in which they occur. For instance, Falicov (1995) presents a multidimensional comparative framework that begins with the assumption that people in a multicultural society are raised and influenced by a number of cultural subgroups. She specifies four parameters that guide culturally patterned interactions: (a) ecological context, which notes the diversity in where and how the family lives; (b) migration and acculturation, which highlight Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 diversity in where family members came from and future aspirations; (c) family organization, or diversity in preferred family values and organization; and (d) family life cycle, or diversity in developmental stages and transitions. Although the terminology may reflect a different manner o f organizing across researchers, they share in common a concern for understanding the complexities in relationships both within families and across environments in a culturally diverse society. There is a growing body o f empirical literature that supports both the theory and the application of this theory with culturally diverse groups (Szapozcnik & Kurtines, 1993). Parenting Style The tasks facing parents of adolescents today are difficult. Parenting style is one family characteristic that has been responsible for positive and negative outcomes for children (Hill, 1995). Baumrind was the first to identify and label rearing styles associated with positive outcomes for children. She found that adolescents growing up in authoritative homes characterized by warmth or acceptance, psychological autonomy, and demandingness scored higher on many indices of psychological development and mental health (Baumrind, 1991). The authoritative style is contrasted with two other styles: (a) an authoritarian style, which is characterized by low levels of warmth and psychological autonomy but high levels of demandingness; and (b) a permissive style, which is characterized by high levels o f warmth, low levels of psychological autonomy, and low levels of demandingness (Steinberg, 1990). There has been an increase in research looking at parenting style among culturally diverse groups. A main concern in this research has been to determine Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 whether authoritative parenting, which has been linked to positive outcomes among Caucasian middle-class children, results in similar outcomes for ethnically diverse families (Hill, 1995). Recent investigations on parenting style and family environment among Caucasian youth do not appear to generalize easily across groups. The literature on parenting style and family environment presents mixed results both within and across ethnic groups. Steinberg et al. (1991), in an investigation of over 10,000 ethnically diverse students, found that an authoritative parenting style was linked to positive outcomes for children across ethnicity and socioeconomic levels. Hill (1995) also noted in her work with African American families that authoritative parenting was linked to positive family environments (e.g., less conflict), whereas authoritarian parenting was not linked to similarly positive outcomes. This finding by Hili stands in partial contrast to Baldwin, Baldwin, and Cole (1990), who that found high parental control among African American families, which is a more authoritarian like style, was associated with positive outcomes in high-risk environments. McLoyd (1990) also presents evidence from a number of studies that contrasts African American parents with Caucasian parents of similar socioeconomic levels as being more severe, punitive, and power assertive in disciplining their children. It appears that environmental risks (e.g., ecological setting, peer group influence) have been identified in a number of studies as moderating the relationships .between parental behaviors and child outcomes. Forehand et al. (1997) report that the amount o f monitoring necessary to decrease deviant adolescent behaviors among Hispanics and African Americans appears to vary by setting. Mason et al. (1996) found Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 that a positive peer group influence appeared to moderate parental control among African Americans. Ongoing research on parenting style will likely clarify the complex relationships among ethnic groups, parenting behaviors, child outcomes, and the many moderating variables. Gender and family role intersect in such a manner that within-groups differences are also apparent. The monitoring of Hispanic males as opposed to females appears to be less direct (Smith & Krohn, 1995). Also, authoritative fathers in one study (Hill, 1995) allow for more expressive input from their children than do mothers. It has been suggested that if each separate parenting practice were more clearly identified (e.g., socializing activities, parenting style, or the emotional atmosphere in which a parent’s behavior is expressed), then one could more capably elucidate the effect of each family process (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Also, it is hoped that by looking at the independent effects of each of the parenting dimensions (e.g., monitoring), the mechanisms under which parental behaviors relate to particular child outcomes will be clarified. Barber (1996) believes that such an approach will lend itself to identifying parenting strategies that are effective in promoting positive child outcomes. However, the methodological limitations of the parenting style research (e.g., cross sectional vs. longitudinal) limit the investigation of the reciprocity of socialization practices. For instance, it would be worthwhile to learn whether parenting practices precede or follow from child behaviors (Steinberg et al., 1991). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 Frequency of Conflictual Interaction Between Adolescents and Their Parents Reports o f daily conflict vary considerably depending upon how conflict is defined, which relationship is being assessed, and who is doing the reporting (Shantz & Hartup, 1992). Most of the information on frequencies o f conflictual interaction is derived from predominately Caucasian middle-class samples or from samples where ethnicities are not reported. One exception is noted. Adolescents report an average of seven disagreements per day, with rates varying according to the relationship (Laursen, 1993). Smetana (1988), in interviews with over 100 adolescents, found conflicts to occur with parents once or twice a week, over an average o f 3.68 issues. Vuchinich (1987) reports on verbal conflicts taken from 64 family dinners recorded in the homes o f 52 families. His sample reflects greater diversity in ethnicity (75% Caucasian and 25% African American), socioeconomic status (61% middle class, 27% lower class, and 12% upper class), and geographic locale (70% urban, 30% rural). There was an average of 3.3 conflict episodes per dinner. In another study, adolescents reported one disagreement every hour of interaction with mothers (Laursen, 1995). The lower estimates provided by Smetana's work, which asked family members to share issues that cause conflicts or disagreements, may in part be accounted for by the methodology of recall, which greatly underestimates conflict rates (Laursen & Collins, 1994). Conversational interruptions are commonly used as an indicator in observational studies (Collins & Laursen, 1992). These same authors note that interruptions may or may not indicate opposition, thus overestimating the incidence of conflict. Whether ethnic families experience similar rates of conflictual interactions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 is not known. How one measures conflictual interaction also becomes complicated in settings where conflict styles differ; that is, the kind of expressed affect is likely to vary within different communities (Garvey & Shantz, 1992). Despite the varying frequency estimates, which may be misleading unless one takes into account the proportion of conflictual interaction (Furman & McQuaid, 1992), there is agreement that the general trend is for conflict interactions to increase from early to mid-adolescence (about age 15) and then subside during late adolescence (Canary, Cupach, & Messman, 1995). Furthermore, it appears that the issues about which adolescents and their .parents argue have changed little over the past 60 years. Montemayor (1983), in a review of 17 studies done between 1929 and 1982, notes the same problems of daily family functioning. Males and females repeatedly describe the primary causes of disagreement as “the time I get in at night,” “the number of times I go out during school nights,” and “grades at school.” It is not known if different issues between parents and teens have become more salient during the past 10 years. Also, within and across ethnic communities, it would be important to compare parent-adolescent issues. Gehring, Wentzel, Feldman, and Munson (1990), in an investigation of over 300 adolescents and 100 parents, found the content of conflicts to vary by age. Early adolescents (mean age of 11.5 years) reported conflicts over discipline and time, whereas mid-adolescents (mean age of 16.3 years) most often reported time and autonomy issues. Autonomy- related issues increased significantly with age, from 3% to 23%. Douvan and Adelson Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 (1966) also report topic variations among parent-child conflicts to be strongly age related. In an attempt to understand the meaning participants assign to their conflicts, Smetana (1989) completed an extensive series of interviews with parents and children (ages 10 to 18) and reports that, although parents and children agreed as to which issues caused conflict in their relationship, they did not agree about the meaning o f the conflict. Adolescents understand but reject their parents’ conventional interpretation (e.g., “In this family we make our beds every morning”), and instead reinterpret them as issues of personal control (e.g., “Since it’s my bed, I’ll decide how often I’ll make it”). Similarly, parents understand but reject their children's position. How the meaning of conflict weighs into the overall experience of conflict has not been determined. Research indicates that parent-child conflict involves more than noncompliance to parental requests, although clearly the conflicts concern routine activities (Canary et al., 1995). The meaning of conflict among ethnically diverse youth may vary across communities according to cultural beliefs and values (Garvey & Shantz, 1992). Conflict Resolution Although considerable research has explored the genesis o f conflict in Caucasian middle-class families, particularly by researching the frequency and issues of conflict between adolescents and their parents (Laursen, 1995), little is known about their capacity for conflict resolution (e.g., how conflict is negotiated or whether the outcome is growth enhancing or destructive; Montemayor, 1983). The literature on conflict resolution, with the exception of Rubenstein and Feldman (1993), reveals that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 adolescents tend to use a limited range of strategies in conflictual interactions with parents (e.g., Montemayor & Hanson, 1985; Smetana, 1988). The meta-analysis reported earlier found adolescents to submit or disengage in disputes and parents to exert their authority (Laursen, 1993). Vuchinich (1987), in the dinner analyses described earlier which included a somewhat ethnically diverse sample, reported on the frequency that different conflict resolution strategies were employed. Conflicts with parents most frequently ended in standoffs (61%), which involved dropping the conflict without resolution, and submission (21%), which involved giving in. Compromise was evidenced only 14% of the time. Several other investigations have produced similar results. For example, Montemayor and Hanson (1985) found that 47% of 10th graders reported walking away from conflicts with their parents, rather than negotiating (15%). Smetana (1988) found 56% of children gave in to parental demands, with parents acceding only 18% of the time. Rubenstein and Feldman (1993) investigated self-reported conflict resolution behaviors of avoiding, attacking, and compromising, in a school-based longitudinal study of lOth-grade boys. This sample included Caucasians (69%), Asians (12%), Hispanics (8%), and others (11%). The results, unfortunately, are not broken down by ethnic group. Nonetheless, these boys reported that they more frequently used compromise in response to parent-adolescent conflict than either o f the avoiding or attacking strategies. Youths who dealt with conflict by compromise reported more adaptive functioning in school, including better grades, greater effort in school, less Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 distress, and less depression. Boys who responded to conflict with avoidant behavior reported a higher incidence o f internalizing problems (depression, distress, and psychosomatic complaints) and displayed lower effort at school. Attacking strategies were associated with the least adaptive functioning, characterized by both internalizing and externalizing problems (misconduct and low restraint) and poorer school outcomes. This study used multiple informants (sons, fathers, mothers) and there was significant agreement in describing the son's behavior in response to conflict. It is interesting to note that the use o f several conflict resolution behaviors by the same person was common. At this age (93% were 15 or 16), it is not apparent that an individual adopts a particular style of resolving conflict. Thus, it would be important to investigate the circumstances under which similarly aged boys utilize less effective strategies. That these findings stand in contrast to the others (e.g., Smetana, 1988; Vuchinich, 1987) invites further investigation into how adolescents utilize the conflict resolution strategies of either avoidance, attack, or compromise. Gender Differences in Conflict Resolution The research suggests there are gender differences in conflict resolution behavior for teens from middle-class Caucasian families. For adolescent females, one finds reports of more conflictual behavior (Laursen, 1995), greater skill in reaching amicable solutions that reflect more mature interpersonal negotiation strategies (Collins & Laursen, 1992; Selman, Beardslee, Schultz, Krupa, & Podorefsky, 1986), and more intervention to mediate conflict. Research findings suggest that adolescent males interrupt their parents more and explain themselves less (Steinberg & Hill, 1978), and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 are more likely to report that disagreements do not affect their relationship (Shantz & Hartup, 1992). Conflict appears to be more often left unresolved in families with boys than girls (Smetana, Yau, & Hanson, 1991). Cowan, Drinkard, and MacGavin (1984) did not find gender differences in an investigation that looked at strategies adolescent females and males use to resolve conflict. Differences in resolution strategies, whether direct or indirect, bilateral or unilateral, strong or weak, were based upon the power inequality of the relationship with parents. They did not differ by gender. Females did use more strategies, with older females utilizing more positive affective strategies. Canary et al. (1995), in reviewing survey and observational studies, found more similarities than differences in conflict behavior among males and females. However, once again, studies that explore gender, ethnicity, and conflict resolution behavior between parents and teens are scarce. There is, though, a small group of studies that point to different roles played by mothers and fathers when resolving conflicts with their sons and daughters. Fathers tended to be involved in conflicts centered on school performance, whereas the focus of conflicts with mothers tended to be household chores (Youniss & Smollar, 1985). The frequency o f conflict was greatest for mothers (Laursen, 1995), with fathers being verbally attacked less often than mothers during conflictual interaction (Vuchinich, 1987). Although conflict seemed to occur less often with fathers, it had significant effect and resulted in decreasing cohesion (closeness) more so than conflict between mothers and teens. Mothers created twice as many compromise and standoff closings, supporting the mother’s role as peacekeeper (Vuchinich, 1987). Leaper, Hauser, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 Kremen, Powers, Jacobson, Noam, Weiss-Perry, and Follansbee (1989), in an investigation of communication patterns between fathers and mothers, reports some sex-typing in parental interactions with their children. They note communication to emphasize interpersonal closeness and intimacy with daughters and encourage separation and autonomy with sons. Also, fathers were more likely than mothers to distinguish between sons and daughters in their communication patterns. Research literature supports the observation that fathers may more consistently differentiate their children based upon gender (Kerig, Cowan, & Cowan, 1993). Gender similarities and differences appear to surface in conflict resolution behavior, yet little is known about how ethnicity and gender would impact conflict behavior. The research literature does offer some suggestions of possible differences. One might expect to see differences as cultural values introduce different socializing forces. For example, one might expect to find Hispanic sons more vocal with fathers and fathers vocal with both sons and daughters based upon the father’s more pronounced role in disciplining children in the family (Falicov, 1982). One might also expect to see fewer gender differences in conflicts between African American teens and their parents due to the more egalitarian sex-role orientation in the culture (Swanson & Spencer, 1997). Further, one might expect to find greater differences in more acculturated Hispanic females versus males due to the greater restrictions placed upon the female’s autonomy, especially in relation to dating (Paniagua, 1994). The significance of gender, ethnicity, and other intervening factors such as stress, acculturation level, or family structure have not been systematically examined as they Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 relate to conflict patterns and conflict resolution strategies between parents and their adolescent children. One study with young children (3.5 to 4 years) finds marital dissatisfaction to influence father-daughter and mother-son interactions and children’s interactions toward their mothers (Kerig et al., 1993). Toward an Integrative Resolution of Adolescent-Parent Conflict The existing literature in this area clearly identifies how important it is for parents to facilitate adolescent growth in conflict resolution. An uneven distribution of power invites one side to take advantage o f the other. Promoting negotiation between parents and their adolescent children holds distinct advantages. Negotiation involves a decision-making process in which people decide how to allocate scarce resources (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975). There has been broad interest in the study of negotiation behaviors in the fields of business, law, psychology, industrial relations, and organizational behaviors. In the legal arena, alternative dispute resolution (ADR) is increasingly utilized to avoid costly trials. It employs mediation and arbitration by nonpartisan experts jointly selected by both parties (Andelman, 1995). The process allows each disputant a chance to share the problem and feel that his or her viewpoint is taken into consideration. Dispute resolution in institutional settings has been facilitated through the concept of the ombudsperson (Waxman, 1987). Such an in- house system ensures that an independent office oversees conflict resolution in a creative and flexible manner. Although there are no absolute rules set forth to settle disputes, several themes have been identified: (a) confidentiality safeguarding the rights of the grievant and alleged offender, (b) institutional informality which results in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 recommendations rather than formal actions, (c) feedback for parties involved, (d) objectivity to facilitate fair and equitable solutions, and (e) access to the whole organization as needed to get the job done. Managerial third-party dispute interventions have proposed a number of models to accomplish resolution of differences among employees (e.g., Elangovan, 1995). Negotiation and conflict skills training have now moved out of organizational settings to impact the function of the family. It has been suggested that integrative solutions in the negotiation process maximize joint gain (Thompson, 1990). An integrative process is one in which bargainers discover new options that are better for both parties than the ones under previous consideration (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975). Fisher and Ury (1991) refer to this process as “principled negotiation.” The key elements are (a) the process, which decides the issue on its own merits, and (b) the outcome, which is likely to achieve “the greatest good for the greatest number” (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975, p. 621). This form of negotiation is strongly contrasted with compromise both in terms of process and outcome. The process of mutual concession, which may or may not be equitably distributed, leaves a negotiator at times feeling exploited and unsatisfied (Fisher & Ury, 1991). And although the outcome may be settled, the truce may be shaky (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975). Conflict resolution, as it relates to adolescent conflict, has much to leam from this growing body of information from other academic disciplines. Family-Based Interventions Family-based interventions designed to decrease parent-child conflict have differed in their treatment focus. Relationship enhancement training (Guemey, Coufal, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 & Vogelsong, 1981), which targeted communication skills and the general quality o f the relationship among mothers and adolescent daughters, provided effective skills training in specific modes of interpersonal behavior. An interactional modeling approach based upon the principles of behavioral therapy, which included modeling and problem solving, was effective in changing conflict behavior between adolescents and their single parents (Houser, Daniels, D’Andrea, & Konstam, 1993). A self-esteem enhancing program demonstrated promise as well (Bredehoft & Hey, 1985). Two comprehensive family therapy approaches, Functional Family Therapy (FFT) and Problem Solving Communication Training (PSCT), based on an integration of family systems and cognitive-behavioral approaches (see Furman & McQuaid, 1992), were shown to improve the management of parent-adolescent conflict. Szapocznik and Kurtines (1993), utilizing a contextual framework, developed a program called Bicultural Effectiveness Training (BET). In their work with troubled Hispanic adolescents and their families, they successfully enhanced bicultural skills among family members by facilitating respect for both values systems; in this instance, it involved a less acculturated Cuban parent and more acculturated Cuban youth. These results are encouraging given that these programs successfully targeted demographically diverse populations in a clinical setting. The present review of family-based treatment for adolescent problem behaviors indicates that intervention programs can (a) retain adolescents and their families in treatment, (b) significantly reduce problem behaviors such as drug use (Liddle, 1996) and adolescent-parent conflict (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1993), (c) change parenting Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 behaviors (Taylor & Biglan, 1998), (d) demonstrate in-session changes of parent- adolescent conflict (Schmidt, Liddle, & Dakof, 1996), and (e) address the needs of a culturally diverse population (Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1993). Results gleaned from the research literature provide evidence for understanding that parenting is malleable and also that family intervention programs are associated with positive changes in parents and adolescents. The research also demonstrates that complex multicomponent interventions can be standardized and defined in precise ways (Liddle, 1996). Despite these advances, there continues to be a critical need for (a) attention to the types of problems that arise in multicultural contexts, and (b) programs or interventions that are delivered in a culturally sensitive manner and are also designed to encourage ethnic participation (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996). Methodological Issues There are a number o f methodological concerns in the present investigations. First, laboratory studies o f conflict resolution force a solution (Laursen & Collins, 1994) when respondents are given a task to complete or a conflict to resolve. How reflective this is of true conflict behavior remains to be seen. Also, recall methods tend to greatly underestimate conflict levels (Vuchinich, 1987), with angry interactions more often recalled than the "garden variety type." Having families work on conflicts with which they are struggling will go a long way towards removing the artificiality of the laboratory. Second, there are methodological issues that relate specifically to multiethnic families. These include issues such as sensitive and valid instrumentation and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 appropriate language translation for both materials and actual verbal translation. Attention to the factors that may help encourage ethnic families to participate in program delivery are clearly important considerations. Summary A review o f the literature examined previous investigations concerned with adolescent-parent conflict resolution. Limited information was available on ethnically diverse youth and their families. Although the research reveals that the promotion of conflict resolution among adolescents and their parents is an important arena for the optimization of adolescent development, little attention has focused upon “normal” youth. Previous research has tended to focus on subjects who had come to the attention of clinicians because of some type o f problematic behavior. And overall, information on the conflict resolution experience of ethnically diverse families is scarce. This study took a positive focus in recognizing adolescence as a time of tremendous growth. In this vein, this research explored the feasibility and effectiveness of providing preventive conflict resolution skills training for parents and their adolescent children with a particular intent to (a) include youth who came from a nonclinical population, and (b) provide a more representative sample population including parents and teens from ethnically diverse backgrounds (i.e., African American, Hispanic, Caucasian). The present research is an attempt to examine the potential for a family preventive education intervention, Project FUN (Families Utilizing Negotiation), to reduce conflict, increase family adaptability and cohesion, and increase family Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 satisfaction. This study contributes important information on normative adolescent development and family interactions among ethnically diverse families by describing the types of issues that cause arguments between parents and teens, parenting styles and their relationship to conflictual interaction in the home, self-perceived adolescent competencies, and parental stress associated with the parenting role. What may also be of particular interest to future researchers was the unique partnering arrangement that allowed Project FUN to be conducted in school settings. As such, it was intended as an exploratory research effort conducted in a naturalistic setting (i.e., public middle schools). Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Question I: Can parents and adolescents be effectively taught to resolve their differences peacefully? Hypotheses related to this broader research question are: Hypothesis I: Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater reduction in conflictual interaction than control families who do not receive the program. Hypothesis II: Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater gains in family adaptability and family cohesion than control families who do not receive the program. Hypothesis HI: Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater gains in family satisfaction than control families who do not receive the program. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 Research Question II: Does parenting style relate to the amount o f conflictual interaction in the home? A hypothesis related to this broader research question is: Hypothesis IV: Reduced conflictual interaction will be related to a more authoritative style of parenting. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 CHAPTER m METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the subjects who participated in the study, family recruitment procedures, basic information about the designed intervention program (Project FUN), and the measures employed to carry out the study. This dissertation is a quasi-experimental program evaluation study. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the statistical procedures used for analysis. Subjects Twenty-nine families from three public middle schools in the Los Angeles area completed Project FUN. The ethnic composition of the families included Hispanic (n = 13; 44.8%), Caucasian ([n = 9; 31.0%), African American (n = 4; 13.8%), and multiethnic (rt = 3; 10.3%). The sample included 62 individual family members representing 27 mothers, 5 fathers, 1 stepfather, 13 daughters, and 16 sons. All fathers participating in Project FUN were Hispanic. The ethnic distribution by role in the family is provided in Table 1. Table 2 shows the marital status of Project FUN participants. Mothers were married (n = 11; 42.3 %), divorced (n = 9; 34.6 %), separated (« = 3; 11.5%), or single (« = 3; 11.5 %). One mother’s marital status could not be determined. Most of the fathers were married (« = 4; 80%), and one was divorced (20%). The one stepfather was married. The ethnic composition by marital status reveals that the Hispanic participants were more likely to be married (46.7%) than Caucasians (25%) were, whereas none of the African American participants was married. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 Three two-parent families attended Project FUN together, but the vast majority attended with one parent. There were 12 mother-daughter, 11 mother-son, 1 father- daughter, and 2 father-son participant combinations. The majority of family members (« = 55; 87.3%) completed the instruments in English, and 8 (12.7%) completed the instruments in Spanish. There were 10 families who agreed to participate but who did not complete Project FUN for a variety of reasons, ranging from parental illness requiring surgery (« = 1), apartment eviction (« = 1), children not wanting to participate/complete the program despite parental interest (n = 3), time commitment conflicts (n = 3), and job conflicts (n = 1). In one case, a family was referred for counseling as more serious problems were evident in the home. Six Hispanic, two Caucasian, and two African American families are represented in this group. These families provided important descriptive information on multiethnic teens and parents but are not included in any program analysis. Project FUN participants represent the full spectrum o f occupational levels. Using the Hollingshead Occupational Scale (Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958), where positions representing higher executives correspond to a score of 1 and unskilled employees correspond to a score of 7, the sample median occupation of parents is 3.0. The median occupation by ethnicity is 5.0 for Hispanics (skilled manual positions), 3.0 for Caucasians (administrative-level personnel), and 2.5 for African Americans (between business-level managers and administrative-level personnel). Occupational Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 levels by ethnicity are provided in Table 3. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no occupational differences by ethnicity. Recruitment of Families Project FUN was part o f a larger violence prevention investigation undertaken by Gretchen Guiton, Ph.D., at the University o f Southern California in an effort to determine violence prevention needs at several ethnically diverse middle schools in the Los Angeles area. Project FUN was offered to school principals and the teachers or counselors involved in conflict mediation in four study schools. The number of schools selected (n = 3) was determined by Project FUN personnel limitations. Meetings were held with school personnel in the spring and early fall, 1997, to work out project logistics. This included addressing family recruitment, what hours to conduct the program and research, room location, and project needs for confidentiality. Recruitment of families was similar in two schools. Letters introducing the program as a school-supported activity, co-signed by the school principal and Project FUN director, were sent out to every seventh-grade family (see Appendix A). Seventh grade was chosen for several reasons. As conflict appears to increase from early to mid-adolescence (Canary et al., 1995), it was felt that families of seventh versus sixth graders might respond with increased interest for developing better conflict resolution skills. The desire for accessibility to follow-up data was also part of this consideration. Families responded to the introduction letter by calling project headquarters at USC. The project director, who also was the program facilitator, responded to each family to ascertain interest and needs. Those interested families, which were all but Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 one, were asked to indicate their availability for a series of session dates. Based upon the school and project goals of servicing the most families possible within scheduling limitations, families were assigned to either immediate program implementation or to a wait-list control group, scheduled to participate in the coming months. Letters of confirmation were sent to each family. The program was made available in both English and Spanish. Seventeen families from one school and eight from the other participated. In the third school, families coming to the attention of school counselors were recruited to participate. In this case, the school requested that the program service those children and families who were experiencing academic and/or behavioral issues. The Project FUN director visited the school and families prior to program implementation to explain the program goals. Again, school and project personnel and implementation needs determined who would be assigned to immediate program implementation or to a wait-list group. As implementation could not begin until the middle of the spring semester, 1998, due to project personnel limitations, the wait-list control group was scheduled to receive the intervention program from school personnel following facilitator training. Three of the four families from this school completing Project FUN were Spanish speaking. Program Implementation Families attended four bi-weekly sessions. The first two sessions were set up as individual family sessions; during these two sessions the teen and the parent(s) met alone with the Project FUN director. The third session was a group session; teens and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 parents met separately to facilitate discussion and support. While one group was meeting with the facilitator, the other was watching two relevant conflict resolution videos that were geared to the appropriate audience. Dr. Guiton acted as facilitator, providing teens and parents with Project FUN worksheets to complement the educational media. Dinner was provided for the families. The final session was an individual family session. Sessions were scheduled both during and after school and on Saturdays. Sessions lasted about one and a half hours and took place at school in a predesignated locale. Prior to participation, each family member reviewed and signed a consent form detailing the project needs, goals, and requirements for participation (see Appendix B). Families in distress were screened out of Project FUN and referred to appropriate agencies for needed care. All families were assured o f confidentiality. Data collection took place prior to the first session and at the conclusion of the last session. The wait list group provided an extra set of data at the time that the program intervention group got underway. Data collection took anywhere from 45 minutes to several hours depending upon the individual needs, level of detail provided, and the reading level of the teens or parents. Although every attempt was made to keep the data collection procedures uniform across all groups and individuals, unique situations did present; that is, people were late or could not remain for the last session at the scheduled time so that an additional time was needed to complete the necessary materials. It is not believed that adjustments in data collection sacrificed the overall data quality. Project implementation was delayed wherever necessary so as to not contaminate the findings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Families were paid for their participation and for costs incurred as a result of child care needs. Families were paid $50 for participation: $15 at session one, $20 at session three, and $15 at session four. The spacing o f funds was an incentive to encourage program completion. Those wait-listed families were also paid $15 to cover the additional data collection visit. How families allocated the funds to individual members was variable. For instance, some parents shared with their teens, and one family used the money to celebrate program completion. The principal at the third school, with the counselor-referred families, felt strongly against setting any type of precedent of reimbursement for participation related to school programs. Teens were given a T-shirt from the University of Southern California as a memento of the program upon completion. Project FUN Parents and adolescents were brought together to work on real problems as they learned and practiced the core conflict resolution skills: communication, anger management control, and negotiation. After a careful review o f exemplary conflict resolution programs (see Bodine & Crawford, 1998; Robin & Foster, 1989; Yung & Hammond, 1995), core elements were adapted for use with parents and teens. Families were provided with the explanation that Project FUN goals were to (a) teach families skills that encourage peaceful conflict resolution; (b) open lines o f communication between parents and teens that encourage a sharing of thoughts, feelings, and concerns; and (c) increase positive feelings between family members. In providing training to parents, a particular emphasis was placed on the essential function they serve as role Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 models for their children. A similar emphasis was placed on helping parents understand that the home is a training ground for their children’s acquisition of important life skills. When parents and teens did choose an issue to negotiate that would culminate in a signed behavioral contract, two requirements helped to maintain standardization. First, the issue had to relate to some dissatisfaction between Project FUN participants only. Issues that involved the actions of others (e.g., siblings or other parents) would not be negotiated without them. Second, the issues had to fall within the prevention- oriented scope of Project FUN. More serious issues were referred to other agencies. The intervention program was highly interactive. Training strategies included modeling, role-play techniques, and active engagement in the completion of between- session homework assignments that involved working together with family members to reinforce program skills. Instruments The battery of tests administered varied for the adolescents and parents. The adolescents were asked to complete The Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ), The Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II), The Family Satisfaction Scale, The Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30), The Issues Checklist, and The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents. Parents were asked to complete the CBQ, FACES II, The Family Satisfaction Scale, The Issues Checklist, The Parental Stress Scale, and a Demographic Questionnaire. The CRPBI-30, the SeLf- Perception Profile for Adolescents, and the Parental Stress Scale were completed one Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 time only. The other instruments, which both parents and teens completed, represent preprogram and postprogram measures and were administered at multiple times. Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) The Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (see Appendix C) is a 20-item instrument developed by Prinz, Foster, Kent, and O’Leary (1979) to assess perceived communication and conflict between parents and adolescents. The present version represents a shortened revision yielding a single summary score that correlates .96 with scores from the original 75-item CBQ for parents and 73-item CBQ for adolescents. Parents and adolescents respond to true/false statements that tap the family member’s perceptions of the other’s behavior (e.g., “My mother listens when I need someone to talk to”) and the dyadic interaction (e.g., “The talks we have are frustrating”). The questions to which the teen responds about mother and father are identical except for adjustment made for the parent’s gender. The questions to which the parent responds include identical questions to the teen version and additional items with some variation. E n scoring the CBQ, points are added to particular questions to weight items that reflect more negative communication. Higher scores reflect more negative communication. The Chronbach alpha reported is .90 and above for mothers and adolescents on the original CBQ version but has not been examined for fathers. The test-retest reliabilities calculated over a six- to eight-week period for two small samples on the original CBQ, which contained two separate scores for appraisal of behavior and appraisal of the interaction, are .57 and .61, respectively, for mothers and .84 and .85, respectively, for the adolescent version regarding father. The CBQ in its original Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 version has been used in studies that differentiate conflict in distressed and nondistressed families (Prinz et al., 1979) and measure treatment gains in a problem solving communication training program for teens and parents (Robin, 1981). Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES ID FACES II (see Appendix D) was developed by Olson, Portner, and Bell (1982). Although there is a FACES DI version available, recent reliability and validity comparisons support the author’s recommendation for use o f the earlier version. The 30-item scale contains 16 items that assess cohesion (i.e., the degree to which family members are separated from or connected to their family) and 14 items that assess family adaptability (i.e., the ability of a family system to adapt its power structure, role relationships, and relationship rules in response to situational and developmental stress). There are two items each for eight concepts related to cohesion: emotional bonding, family boundaries, coalitions, friends, decision making, .time, space, and interests and recreation. There are two to three items each for the six concepts related to the adaptability dimension: assertiveness, leadership, discipline, negotiations, roles, and rules. FACES II asks members to describe their family (e.g., “Family members are supportive of each other during difficult times”) on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always. The method of scoring of FACES II is as follows: The items that relate to the cohesion dimension are tallied in such a way (i.e., both addition and subtraction operations) to yield a total cohesion score. The same procedure is conducted with the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 items that relate to the adaptability dimension. Higher scores reflect greater adaptability and cohesion. The reported Chronbach alpha is .87 for cohesion and .78 for adaptability. The test-retest reliability over a four- to five-week period is .83 for cohesion and .80 for adaptability. This measure has been used in a number of studies evaluating behavioral program effectiveness (e.g., Bredehoft & Hey, 1985) and cross-ethnic equivalence with Hispanic and Anglo-American families (e.g., Knight, Tein, Shell, & Roosa, 1992). The Family Satisfaction Scale The Family Satisfaction Scale (see Appendix E) is a 14-item instrument developed by Olson, McCubbin, Bames, Larsen, Muxen, and Wilson (1982) to directly assess family satisfaction on the dimensions and subscales of family cohesion and family adaptability. Although the scale provides subscales for satisfaction on each dimension, the authors report that the total score is more valid and reliable. Family members are asked to describe their level of satisfaction on such questions as “How close do you feel to the rest of the family?” Their answers are scored on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = dissatisfied to 5 = extremely satisfied. A question was added to the original version of the questionnaire to reflect those family situations in which a father or mother is absent from the family’s life but instead another partner is living with the custodial parent. Questions are identical for teens and parents with adjustments made to reflect role/gender differences. A total score across the 14 items is obtained by summing the items. Higher scores reflect greater family satisfaction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Chronbach’s alpha is .92 for the total score. The five-week test-retest reliability is .75 for the total score. This measure has been used in a behavioral parent education program concerned with adolescent self-esteem (Bredehoft & Hey, 1985). The Child’s Report o f Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30) The CRPBI-30 (see Appendix F) was originally designed by Schaefer (1965) and revised by Schludermann and Schludermann in 1970 and 1988. The CRPBI-30 is a shortened version o f the 108-item self-report instrument designed to assess children’s and adolescents’ perceptions of their parent’s child-rearing behaviors. CRPBI-30 has 30 questions describing the father and 30 questions describing the mother. Children are asked to rate, on a three-point scale, whether their parent is “like,” “somewhat like,” or “not like” a list of statements (e.g., “My mother is a person who makes me feel better after talking over my worries with her”). The items describing mothers and fathers are almost identical except for word adjustments that relate to parental gender. Mothers and fathers are rated separately. Three dimensions—acceptance versus rejection (A- 30), psychological autonomy versus psychological control (P-30), and firm control versus lax control (F-30)— are identified. Test-retest reliability of the CRPBI-30 dimensions range from .79 to .89 for both mothers and fathers on the three dimensions. The alpha coefficients have been found to range from .63 to .76 on the three dimensions for both mothers and fathers. The three factors have been replicated across different age and cultural groups (Knight et al., 1992; Schwarz, Barton-Henry, & Pruzinsky, 1985). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 The A-30 (acceptance) and P-30 (psychological autonomy) dimensions are scored by summing the items that refer to those dimensions. The F-30 (firm control) score involves reverse scoring o f the lax control items and adding them to the scores of the firm control items. The dimensions have a minimum of 10, a neutral of 20, and a maximum of 30. Higher scores reflect greater acceptance and control. A typology of parenting styles was also calculated utilizing the method Steinberg et al. (1991) used for determining an ordinal measure o f “authoritativeness.” Families scoring above the sample median on acceptance, behavioral control, and psychological autonomy were assigned a score of 4. Families scoring below the median on all three dimensions received a 1. Families scoring above the mean on one or two dimensions were assigned a score of 2 or 3, respectively. The Issues Checklist ( IC) The Issues Checklist (see Appendix G) was developed by Robin (1975) and adapted by Robin and Foster (1989). The IC is a 44-item list of issues that lead to disagreements between parents and adolescents. The parent and adolescent complete parallel versions by recalling discussion o f issues and responding either “yes” or “no” to issues that may have been brought up during the previous two weeks (e.g., curfew or chores). Although the checklist potentially provides information on the frequency and anger intensity of the discussions, concerns about the reliability of the measure (e.g., test-retest reliability for intensity is .37 to .49 for teens) and administration-related concerns precluded its use. The IC was included in this study to provide much-needed information on the types of issues that arise between teens and parents. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 The Parental Stress Scale The Parental Stress Scale (see Appendix H) is an 18-item instrument developed by Berry and Jones (1995) to measure the stress associated with the parenting role. Parents are asked whether they agree or disagree with statements such as “I am happy in my role as a parent” or “I feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of being a parent.” These are scored on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. A total score across the 18 items is obtained by summing the items. Eight items are reverse scored before they are summed. High scores reflect greater parental stress. The reported Chronbach’s alpha is .83. Test-retest correlation over a six-week period was .81. The Parental Stress Scale has been used in recent dissertation studies that looked at parental stress and flexibility at work (Meyer, 1996) and stress in response to children with disabilities (Patterson, 1997). The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (see Appendix I) is a self-report extension o f the Self-Perception Profile for Children (1985) developed by Susan Harter (1988). The original children’s version was designed to provide a measure of children’s perceptions o f their competencies and self-adequacy across a number of specific domains, such as scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, and behavioral conduct. It was intended as well to provide a measure o f a child’s global perceptions of one’s worth as a person. The original six domains have been kept with only minor changes to make it appropriate for this age Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 group. In addition, in the adolescent version, three domains have been added: adolescent concerns about job competence, close friendship, and romantic appeal. A structured alternative format is presented with 45 statements that describe “two kinds” of teenagers (e.g., “Some teenagers do very well at their class work BUT other teenagers don’t do very well at their class work”). The adolescent is first asked to decide which teen is most like him or her, and then is asked to decide if this is only sort of true or really true for him or her. Each o f the nine subscales contains five items. The method of scoring the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents is as follows: The items are scored on a scale o f 1 to 4 from low to high perceived competency or adequacy. The teen who indicates, for example, that he or she does well at class work (scholastic competence) and that this is really hue would receive a 4. The teen responding that the statement is sort of true would receive a 3. The teen not doing well, who describes this as sort of true, would receive a 2. The teen not doing well, who describes this as really true, would receive a 1. Chronbach’s alpha has been reported to range from .81 to .91 for scholastic competence, .86 to .92 for athletic competence, .77 to .90 for social acceptance, .79 to .85 for close friendship, .75 to .85 for romance, .84 to .89 for appearance, .58 to .78 for behavioral conduct, .55 to .93 for job competence, and .80 to .89 for global self-worth. Behavioral conduct and job competence subscales have since been revised to yield higher reliabilities. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 The Demographic Questionnaire The Demographic Questionnaire v/as designed for this study (see Appendix J). The questionnaire includes the following descriptive variables: ages of parent(s), ethnic background, marital status, occupation, and number and ages o f other children in the home. Statistics Descriptive statistics will be utilized to report means and standard deviations for the CRPBI-30, CBQ, FACES II, The Family Satisfaction Scale, Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, IC, and Demographic Questionnaire. F-tests will be performed comparing program and wait-list families and comparing pre- and postprogram gains across roles (mother, father, son, daughter) and ethnic groups (Hispanics, Caucasians, and African Americans). Analysis of variance will examine program effectiveness measures by ethnic group and role in the family. Pearson product moment correlations will be used to assess the strength of relationship between independent and dependent measures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 Table 1 Number o f Project FUN Participants by Ethnicity and Family Position Ethnicity Mothers Family Position Fathers Daughters Sons Total Hispanic 11 5 4 9 29 Caucasian 11 l a 4 5 21 African American 4 0 3 1 8 Asian American 1 0 0 0 1 Multiethnic 0 0 2 1 3 Total 27 6 13 16 62 a Includes one stepfather who was later dropped from analysis. Table 2 Number of Project FUN Participants by Marital Status, Parental Position, and Ethnicity Parental Position and Ethnicity Married Marital Status Divorced Separated Single Mothers Hispanic2 j 5 2 0 Caucasian 3 6 2 1 African American 0 4 0 0 Asian American 0 0 0 1 Fathers Hispanic 4 1 0 0 Caucasian5 1 0 0 0 Total 11 16 4 2 aOne mother’s marital status could not be determined. b Includes one stepfather who was later dropped from the analysis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 Table 3 Number o f Project FUN Participants by Occupation and Ethnicity Occupation Hispanic Ethnicity Caucasia African n American Asian American Total Higher Executive 1 1 0 0 2 Business Manager 3 3 2 0 8 Administrative Personnel 3 4 1 0 8 Clerical/Sales Worker 0 1 0 1 2 Skilled Manual Employee 1 0 0 0 I Machine Operator/Semi- Skilled Employee 3 0 0 0 -> Unskilled Employee 5 3 1 0 9 Total 16 12 4 1 33 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 CHAPTER IV RESULTS The following chapter contains the results of the study, both those that apply to the hypotheses and those that provide normative information on ethnic differences (i.e., Hispanic, Caucasian, and African American) and differences based on role or position in the family (i.e., mother, father, son, and daughter) across dependent measures. Testing of Hypotheses In analyzing the relationships between treatment and wait-list control groups, and within and across ethnic group and family role differences in the treatment - condition, analysis o f variance is first used to determine if differences exist at pretest between treatment and control groups on each o f the dependent measures. Following the initial pretest treatment versus control group comparisons, paired-sample t tests are used to compare across role and ethnic groups in the treatment condition on the dependent measures. Paired-sample t tests are also performed to determine whether pretest to posttest treatment gains are larger than in the control group on the dependent measures. Finally, Pearson product moment correlations were utilized to assess the associations and strength of relationship between independent and dependent variables. The criterion level o f statistical significance was set at .05. Estimates of internal consistency reliability using coefficient alpha were analyzed and reported for each o f the measures. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, and to the difficulty in detecting differences with a small sample size, nonsignificant but important patterns in the findings will be highlighted. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Hypothesis I: Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater reduction in conflictual interaction than control families who do not receive the program. Two one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) reveal no significant differences across role or ethnicity between treatment and control groups at pretest on the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (see Tables 4 and 5). In the treatment condition, the paired-sample t test reveals that perceived conflict and negative communication decrease from pretest to posttest for all role groups with the exception of sons’ perceptions of their interactions with fathers. Daughters report a decline in conflict and negative communication with their fathers that is statistically significant; t = 3.13, p < .05. Thus, results indicate that perceived negative communication with fathers is reduced for daughters and increased for sons. In pretest versus posttest comparisons across treatment and control groups, the paired-sample t test provides evidence for some decline in the control group in parental perceptions about negative interaction with their teens. Compared to the treatment group, the percentage decline in the control group is smaller for mothers but larger for fathers. Control group daughters report an increase in negative interaction with both parents whereas sons report a decline in negative interaction with both mothers and fathers, albeit a smaller decline with mothers compared to the treatment group. In both treatment and control groups, sons report greater perceived negative communication with mothers versus fathers whereas daughters report the reverse pattern. In summary, the hypothesis that larger reductions in perceived negative conflict and negative communication would result for the treatment versus the control group is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 partially supported. Reductions in perceived negative conflict and negative communication result for mothers but not fathers, daughters with both parents, and sons with their mothers only. Although a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no statistically significant differences across ethnic groups in the treatment condition at pretest on the CBQ, paired-sample t tests reveal different trends from pretest to posttest across groups. Perceived negative communication and conflict is reduced for all roles in the Hispanic and Caucasian groups. This is not the case with African American families. African Americans actually witness an increase in conflict within all roles. In other words, Project FUN appears to reduce conflict for Caucasians and Hispanics while creating more perceived negative communication and conflict for African Americans. Role comparisons reveal that all parents report greater perceptions of negative communication and conflict than did teens. Hypothesis II: Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater gains in family adaptability and family cohesion than control families who do not receive the program. Two one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) reveal that there are no significant differences across role or ethnicity between treatment and control groups at pretest on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES II) (see Tables 6 and 7). Looking at the Adaptability subscale in the treatment condition, the paired- sample t test supports treatment effects for one group only. Mothers exhibited an increase in perceptions o f family adaptability that is statistically significant, t = -2.04, p Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 < .05. In the treatment condition, gains are revealed for mothers and sons, but declines are noted for daughters and fathers. In pretest versus posttest comparisons across treatment and control groups on the Adaptability subscale, the paired-sample t test reveals gains in the control group for fathers and daughters but declines appear for sons. Mothers report little change. On the Cohesion subscale in the treatment condition, the paired-sample t tests do not support treatment effects. Declines are noted in all groups in the treatment condition. In the control group, increases are noted for mothers and sons, but declines are witnessed for fathers. Daughters report little change. In summary, the hypothesis that larger gains in perceived family adaptability and cohesion will result for the treatment versus control group is supported only for mothers’ perception of family adaptability. Gains in family cohesion are not supported. Although a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no statistically significant differences across ethnic groups in the treatment condition at pretest on FACES H, paired-sample t tests reveal different trends both across and within groups on both subscales from pretest to posttest. Results indicate that Hispanic and Caucasian parents experienced an increase in perceived family adaptability. African American parents, however, experienced a decline in perceived adaptability. Teens across all ethnic groups report an increase in perceptions o f family adaptability. On the Cohesion subscale, paired-sample t tests reveal that Hispanic parents report an increase whereas their teens report a decline. Caucasian parents report a very slight decline whereas their teens report an increase. In African American families, both teens and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 parents report a decline. It appears that Project FUN may have differential effects based upon ethnic and role group membership. Hypothesis E H : Families attending Project FUN will demonstrate greater gains in family satisfaction than control families who do not receive the program. Two one way analyses of variance (ANOVA) reveal that there were no significant differences across role or ethnicity between treatment and control groups at pretest on the Family Satisfaction Scale (see Tables 8 and 9). Looking at the treatment condition, the paired-sample t test reveals that satisfaction increases from pretest to posttest for all roles except fathers. None of the findings are significant. Fathers’ satisfaction declines by 7.57%. Treatment effects are larger for mothers (3.75%) and sons (3.48%) than for daughters (0.33%). In the control group, all roles increase in family satisfaction from pretest to posttest, with quite large increases for mothers (7.22%) and daughters (9.02%). Sons show a slight increase (1.41%). None o f the findings is significant. In summary, the hypothesis concerning gains in family satisfaction in the treatment group versus the control group is not supported. Although a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no statistically significant differences across ethnic groups in the treatment condition at pretest on the Family Satisfaction Scale, paired-sample t tests reveal different trends across groups from pretest to posttest, with treatment gains highest for African Americans (13.76%) and Caucasians (3.04%). Hispanic families witness a slight decline in family satisfaction (0.49%). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Hypothesis IV: Reduced conflictual interaction will be related to a more authoritative style of parenting. Paired-sample t tests and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted on the CRPBI-30 to first determine if role or ethnic differences emerge on perceived parenting behavior for the three dimensions: acceptance versus rejection, psychological control versus psychological autonomy, and firm versus lax control. Overall, on the acceptance-rejection dimension, mothers are perceived as more accepting than fathers for both sons and daughters. The difference between parents is significant; t = — 2.11, p < .05 (see Table 10). Also, fathers are perceived as significantly more accepting of sons than daughters, F — 9.17, p < .001. On the psychological control dimension, both mothers and fathers are perceived as more controlling with sons than daughters, although the difference is not statistically significant. On the firm-lax control dimension, mothers and fathers are perceived as similarly controlling with sons and daughters. Fathers are perceived as more firmly controlling than mothers with all teens. In sum, perceptions about parental behavior vary by gender of the child and parental role; in general, mothers are perceived as more accepting and sons report greater perceptions of both acceptance and control. One-way analysis o f variance (ANOVA) reveals ethnic differences across groups on the three parenting dimensions. The one significant finding across ethnic groups relates to the firm-lax control dimension. African American fathers are perceived as less firmly controlling than Hispanic fathers; F = 5.69,p = .009. Caucasian fathers fail in between the two. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 Looking at within-ethnic group differences, paired-sample t tests reveal that Hispanic mothers are perceived as significantly more accepting than fathers, whereas both parents are perceived as more accepting of sons than daughters. Sons’ perceptions of their fathers on this dimension was significantly different than daughters’ perceptions, F = 8.42, p < .05 (see Table 11). On the other two dimensions, fathers are perceived as more controlling than mothers, whereas both parents are perceived as more firmly controlling of daughters than sons. In Caucasian families, fathers are perceived as more accepting of sons than daughters, whereas the reverse is true for mothers. On the control dimensions, both parents are perceived as more controlling with sons than daughters. The difference between sons’ and daughters’ perceptions about their mothers’ control in the psychological arena is significant, F = 7.56,p < .05. In African American families, both parents are perceived as more accepting of sons than daughters. On the psychological control dimension, mothers are perceived as similar across teens, whereas fathers are perceived as more controlling with sons. On the firm control dimension, mothers are perceived as more controlling with daughters whereas fathers are perceived as more controlling with sons. None of these relationships reach statistical significance. Overall, perceptions of parental behavior vary somewhat both across and within ethnic groups dependent upon one’s gender and role in the family. Using the CRPBI-30 to look at the typology of parenting styles, from nonauthoritative to very authoritative, most families fell between the two (see Table Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 12). Over 80% were either somewhat authoritative or somewhat nonauthoritative. A one-way analysis of variance reveals no significant ethnic differences across parenting styles. Across groups, both African American and Hispanic parents are perceived as more authoritative than the Caucasian parents. In this study it appeared that Hispanic parents presented a wider variety of parenting styles, including the only “very authoritative” ones. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that, in the relationship between parenting style and conflictual interaction in the home, comparing first the individual parenting dimensions and conflictual interaction, acceptance by mothers and fathers is related to decreased perceived conflict reported by teens on the CBQ both at pretest, F = 4.81, p < .01, and posttest, F = 6.75, p < .01, for mothers, and at pretest for fathers, F = 4.16, p < .05. The only other dimension and role to be related to teen- reported perceived conflictual interaction were firm behavioral control by mothers. The relationship between behavioral control and conflict appears to be curvilinear. Eta Squared is .74, indicating that 74% of the variance for teen-perceived conflictual interaction preprogram with mothers (CBQ) is explained by mother’s firm behavioral control. Mother’s firm behavioral control is also related to conflictual interaction with fathers posttreatment. The Eta Squared is .76, indicating that 76% of the variance in teen-perceived conflictual interaction with fathers is related to mother’s firm behavioral control. In summary, the hypothesis that reduced conflictual interaction will be related to a more authoritative style o f parenting is not supported. Reduced perceived conflictual Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 interaction is related to the dimensions o f increased acceptance for both mothers and fathers and firm behavioral control for mothers. Other Normative Information The number o f issues or topics discussed between parents and teens during the two weeks prior to the session provide an indication of the frequency of discussions about difficult issues. Mothers report the greatest number of issues with both sons and daughters (M = 22.3), followed by sons with mothers (M = 20.6), fathers with both sons and daughters ( M = 19.0), and sons with fathers ( M — 14.5). Daughters report the fewest number o f issues with both parents (M = 12.5 for mothers; M = 7 for fathers). There are no significant differences across ethnic groups on the number of issues that arose in the two-week period. The most frequent issues reported by daughters (as a group) with mothers are cleaning up the bedroom and doing homework. For sons (as a group) the most frequent issues are the same but in the reverse order. The most frequent issues for mothers reporting on teens include cleaning up the room, putting away the clothes, and getting up in the morning. For fathers, the most frequently reported issues with teens include telephone calls, time for going to bed, cleaning up one’s room, and helping out around the house, all evenly tied in frequency. Looking at the number of issues by ethnic group reveals that issues with mothers are more frequently reported than issues with fathers. Hispanic sons and daughters have the greatest number of issues with fathers, in fact more than any other group. Caucasian sons have the greatest number of issues with mothers. Although not significant, sons Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 are more likely than daughters to name autonomy-related topics as issues with mothers. These include such issues as “going places without parents,” which appeared particularly relevant for Hispanic sons. Also, “making purchases” and “coming home on time” were common issues for sons. The most frequently reported topics for sons, as a group, with fathers included “fighting with siblings” for Caucasians and “doing homework” for Hispanics. The African American teen sample was too few in number and was more evenly dispersed across topics. For daughters reporting on fathers, the topics included “doing homework” for Hispanics and “fighting with siblings” for Caucasians. Hispanic mothers are equally likely to report topics with their teens to include “cleaning up the bedroom,” “doing homework,” “putting away clothes,” and “helping out around the house.” The fathers, all of whom are Hispanic, report “telephone calls,” “time for going to bed,” “cleaning up the bedroom,” and “helping out around the house.” Thus, not only do the same type of challenges continue to repeat themselves, they point to what is universal rather than culture specific in the adolescent experience. There are two culture-specific findings. Hispanic fathers appeared to be more involved in conflictual interactions with their children. And, cross-gender conflict was more prevalent in Caucasian families in this study. Two one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted on the Parental Stress Scale to evaluate role and ethnic variation. Results on role variation show no significant differences between mothers and fathers, regardless of marital status (see Table 13). Mothers do report more stress than fathers, with stress greatest among Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 divorced, separated, single, and married parents, respectively. Results from the ANOVA on ethnic variation suggest that there is ethnic variation. Hispanic parents report significantly less stress than either African American or Caucasian parents, F = 5.14, p < .01. African Americans report the greatest stress, with Caucasian parents falling closely behind. The Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents was used to compare teens across gender and ethnic groups to provide information on perceived competency in eight different domains (see Table 14). An assessment of one’s global self-worth is also provided. Overall, females rated themselves as more competent on global self-worth than did the males (M = 3.12 for females and 2.87 for males). Although this is not significant, it does stand in contrast to norms provided from two samples of middle schools (Harter, 1988) that find males to rate themselves higher than females (M = 3.22 for males and 2.98 for females). Females rate their competency in friendship (M = 3.34) and social acceptance (M = 3.31) most highly. Males rate friendship (M =3.03) and athletic competence (M = 2.92) most highly. The only domain to reach statistical significance is in job competence, F = 4.50, p < .05, with males rating themselves more highly. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there were no significant differences across ethnic groups. Intercorrelations among subscales, in particular global self-worth and domain-specific perceptions of competence, point out which domains are most related to one’s evaluation of self-worth. Ethnic differences are apparent here. For Hispanic teens, scholastic (r = .65, p < .01), romantic (> = .59, p < .05), friendship (r Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 = .59, p < .05), and social acceptance (r = .57, p < .05) competencies are most relevant in one’s self-worth evaluation. For Caucasian teens, behavioral conduct (r = .86, p < .01), scholastic competence (r = .83, p < .01), and appearance (r = .72, p < .05) weigh in most heavily. For African American teens, the only subscale to be significantly related to global self-worth is social acceptance (r = .98, p < .05). None of the parenting dimensions was significantly related to global self-worth. Summary In summary, the results that apply to the hypotheses indicate that there is support, although limited, for treatment gains. Conflictual interaction is significantly reduced between daughters and fathers, mother’s adaptability increases significantly, and parenting style dimensions (e.g., acceptance by both parents and mother’s firm behavioral control) are significantly related to conflictual interaction between teens and parents. Family satisfaction and family cohesion gains are not supported. Ethnic, role, and gender variation is evident across dependent measures. Descriptive normative data on the type of issues that arise between parents and teens reveal that little has changed over the years. Mothers report and are involved in more conflicts than fathers, although Hispanic fathers are more involved in conflict than Caucasian or African American fathers. Cross-gender variation is evident among Caucasian families. Teens’ self-perceived competencies reveal that most teens are feeling competent, with gender differences across domains, and ethnic differences in perceived competencies related to perceptions o f global self-worth. Parental stress is Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 significantly less for Hispanics than Caucasians or African Americans. Parental stress is also significantly related to perceived conflictual interaction with teens. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Table 4 Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard D eviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) Treatment Group Control Group CBQ Measure N Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change n Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change Alpha Mothers About Teens 27 9.96 8.43 -15.36 13 10.19 10.03 - 1.57 .85 Fathers About Teens 5 6.30 6.20 - 1.59 3 5.00 4.48 - 10.40 .86 Daughters About Mothers 1 3 5.54 (3.70) 4.96 (5.05) - 10.47 8 6.19 (2.67) 6.86 (3.98) + 10.82 .79 Daughters About Fathers 9 9.44 (5.74) 7.11* (6.60) -24.68 5 7.40 (6.15) 10.40 (7.54) + 40.54 .91 Sons About Mothers 16 7.88 (4.92) 6.19 (4.45) -21.45 6 9.17 (3.86) 8.17 (4.62) -10.91 .93 Sons About Fathers 12 4.54 (2.86) 5.08 (5.07) + 11.89 4 5.76 (3.77) 5.50 (3.32) - 4.51 .82 Note. Highers cores reflect more negative corr munication. *p < .05. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 Table 5 Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ) Ethnic Group and CBQ Measure N Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change Alpha Total Hispanic .85 Parents About Teens 16 8.25 (4.76) 6.40 (3-39) -22.42 Teens About Mothers 13 6.38 (4.70) 4.30 (2.36) -32.60 Teens About Fathers 12 6.46 (4.26) 5.50 (5.56) - 14.86 - Caucasian .81 Parents About Teens 12 11.83 (4.30) 10.17 (4.98) -14.03 Teens About Mothers 9 8.22 (5.19) 7.00 (5.98) -14.84 Teens About Fathers 5 5.40 (4.10) 5.20 (6.01) - 3.70 African American .88 Parents About Teens 4 8.13 (6.22) 8.25 (6.60) + 1.48 Teens About Mothers 4 5.62 (3.54) 9.75 (5.90) + 73.49 Teens About Fathers 2 4.50 (6.36) 5.50 (3.50) + 22.22 Note. Because of the small sample sizes in each ethnic group, mothers and fathers were combined as parents, and sons and daughters were combined as teens. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 Table 6 Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES) II Treatment Group Control Group FACES n Subscale n Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change n Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change Alpha Adaptability Mothers 27 40.71 (6.49) 42.81* (6.15) + 5.16 13 42.03 (6.43) 42.04 (4.86) + 0.02 .42 Fathers 5 42.60 (3.91) 41.00 (5.61) -3.76 3 43.34 (4.04) 44.67 (1.53) + 3.07 .48 Daughters 12 39.93 (7.04) 38.50 (6.64) -3.58 9 34.67 (6.78) 37.22 (8-39) + 7.36 .73 Sons 15 36.53 (7.42) 40.07 (8.53) + 9.69 5 34.20 (4.66) 32.80 (9-65) -4.09 .76 Cohesion Mothers 27 57.29 (11.32) 57.16 (10.85) -0.23 13 59.89 (7-81) 60.23 (9.75) + 0.57 .37 Fathers 5 59.28 (7.65) 58.20 (11.09) - 1.82 3 63.67 (4.51) 58.80 (10.74) -7.65 .69 Daughters 12 50.13 (9.39) 48.60 (10.26) -3.05 9 47.64 (8.18) 47.67 (10.43) + 0.06 .70 Sons 15 52.73 (10.85) 52.60 (6.72) -0.25 5 45.60 (8.32) 51.20 (10.85) +12.28 .74 * p < .05. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 Table 7 Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES) II FACES II Subscale Pretest Posttest % and Group n M SD M SD Change Adaptability Parents Hispanic 16 41.00 7.73 42.00 6.79 + 2.44 Caucasian 11 41.39 4.83 44.18 5.70 + 6.74 African American 4 40.73 3.11 39.50 3.11 — 3.02 Teens Hispanic 12 36.92 6.76 39.00 5.20 + 5.63 Caucasian 9 36.91 7.80 39.11 8.94 + 5.96 African American 3 43.33 5.69 47.33 8.74 + 9.23 Cohesion Parents Hispanic 16 56.90 11.60 57.69 12.14 + 1.39 Caucasian 11 56.98 9.28 56.65 9.99 — 0.58 African American 4 59.50 13.77 56.50 10.34 — 5.04 Teens Hispanic 12 51.83 10.35 51.60 6.55 — 0.44 Caucasian 9 46.84 6.22 49.44 9.40 -t- 5.55 African American 3 64.67 9.29 58.00 . 1.73 — 10.31 Note. Because of the small sample sizes in each ethnic group, mothers and fathers were combined as parents, and sons and daughters were combined as teens. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 8 Table 8 Pre- and Posttest M eans and Standard Deviations for Treatment and Control Groups on the Fam ily Satisfaction Scale Treatment Group Control Group Group n Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change n Pre M (SD) Post M (SD) % Change Alpha Mothers 27 41.04 (10.83) 42.58 (10.57) + 3.75 12 39.76 (9.46) 42.63 (10.55) + 7.22 .89 Fathers 5 48.60 (3-96) 44.92 (8.77) -7.57 3 49.21 (2.23) 49.93 (1.36) + 1.46 .82 Daughters 13 44.94 (10.58) 45.09 (10.17) + 0.33 8 39.33 (9.46) 42.88 (10.61) + 9.02 .87 Sons 15 41.99 (11.48) 43.45 (9.65) + 3.48 5. '38.17 (8.66) 38.71 (8.77) + 1.41 .85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 Table 9 Pre- and Posttest Means and Standard D eviations A cross Ethnic Groups on the Family Satisfaction Scale Ethnic Group N Pretest M (SD) Posttest M (SD) % Change Alpha Hispanic 29 44.88 (10.79) 44.66 (9.39) - 0.49 .86 Caucasian 21 41.40 (9.55) 42.66 (10.88) + 3.04 .86 African American 7 37.57 (12.50) 42.74 (10.43) + 13.76 .89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 Table 10 Means and Standard D eviations on the Child’s Report o f Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30) Child’s Report CRPBI-30 Dimension Mother’s Behavior Father’s Behavior M SD Alpha M SD Alpha Acceptance Daughters 23.66* 3.72 19.00** 5.40 Sons 24.45* 4.42 23.99** 3.63 Total 24.11* 4.09 21.83 5.06 Psychological Control Daughters 18.82 3.99 18.85 4.76 - Sons 20.23 4.39 19.65 3.86 Total 19.61 4.22 19.30 4.21 Firm Control Daughters 21.76 3.53 22.91 4.78 Sons 21.80 4.18 22.09 4.91 Total Total CRPBI-30 21.78 3.86 22.45 .83 4.79 .79 * p < .05; **/?<.01. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 Table 11 M eans and Standard Deviations Across Ethnic Groups on the C hild’s Report o f Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI-30) Group Acceptance By Father By Mother M M (SD) (SD) CRPBI-30 Dimension Psychological Control By Father By Mother M M (SD) (SD) Firm By Father M (SD) Control By Mother M (SD) Hispanic Daughters 17.28* 22.00 20.00 19.50 25.26 22.50 (4.50) (4.00) (4.80) (4.64) (2.37) (2.07) Sons 23.29* 25.38 20.40 19.69 23.00 21.69 (3.99) (4.17) (4.03) (4.89) (3.77) (4.09) Caucasian Daughters 20.67 24.17 17.33 17.00* 20.00 19.17 (3.21) (3.54) (5.86) (3.58) (3.61) (3-37) Sons 23.75 21.60 18.50 21.80* 21.40 23.12 (2.75) (4.93) (3.87) (1-64) (7.05) (2.91) African American Daughters 22.00 23.07 16.00 19.33 13.00 26.00 ( ) (2.60) ( ) (3.21) ( ) (2.65) Sons 26.67 26.33 18.67 19.00 20.00 19.33 (3.05) (3.79) (4.04) (6.25) (6.56) (7.09) * p < .05. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 Table 12 Frequency and Percentage of Authoritative and Nonauthoritative Parenting Styles on the CRPBI-30 Group Nonauthoritative Parenting Style Somewhat Nonauthoritative Somewhat Authoritative Very Authoritative Frequency African American 0 1 3 0 Hispanic 1 4 6 3 . Caucasian 1 7 3 0 Total 2 12 12 3 Percentage 6.9 41.3 41.3 10.3 Note. N = 29. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Table 13 Means and Standard Deviations on the Parental Stress Scale Parents N M SD Alpha Gender All mothers 33 44.47 9.15 .79 All fathers 7 39.43 9.80 .85 Ethnicity Hispanic 21 39.50* 7.67 .74 Caucasian 13 47.08* 6.68 .66 African American 6 50.33* 13.50 .88 Marital Status1 Married 17 41.33 9.55 Divorced 12 47.33 10.13 Separated 4 44.25 12.01 Single 4 43.80 9.63- Note. The sample includes parents who did not complete Project FUN. “ Three parents’ marital status is unknown; they are not included in this portion of the analysis. */?<.0l. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 Table 14 Mean Scores of Adolescent Males and Females on the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents SPPA Domain Adolescent Males Adolescent Females Scholastic competence 2.68 2.8 Social acceptance 2.91 3.31 Athletic competence 2.92 2.49 Physical appearance 2.45 2.63 Behavioral conduct 2.67 2.66 Job competence 2.84 2.39 Close friendship 3.03 3.34 Romantic appeal 2.57 2.47 Global self-worth 2.87 3.12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION Few studies have focused on the potential that effective conflict resolution skills programs would have on enhancing adolescent development and family relations. Even fewer research endeavors have included ethnically diverse families. A review of existing literature identified a critical need for the accumulation of normative descriptive information on family processes among ethnically diverse families. The current study attempted to address these several gaps in the research literature. The purpose of the present study was to examine the feasibility and effectiveness o f providing a prevention-oriented conflict resolution skills training program for Hispanic, African American, and Caucasian parents and adolescents. The original sample of 39 families scheduled to participate in Project FUN (Families Utilizing Negotiation) was reduced to 29 in the final program analysis. All families provided descriptive information which allows us to have data about certain aspects of family functioning in ethnically diverse families. It was hypothesized that participation in Project FUN would result in reduced conflict between parents and teens, gains in feelings of adaptability and cohesion among family members, and gains in family satisfaction. The influence of parenting style on conflict in the family also was examined. It was hypothesized that more authoritative parenting would be related to reduced conflictual interaction. An emphasis on understanding both the universal and culture-specific dynamics of conflict occurrence and resolution among ethnically diverse families was provided. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 Description of the Sample It is difficult to compare this sample of ethnically diverse families to others in the literature since so few prevention-oriented parent training programs have been conducted. Forehand and Kotchick (1996), in a recent review o f empirical research on parenting training programs, failed to find any data-based studies comparing the effectiveness of parent training with different ethnic groups. It is clear from the mean scores provided on a number of variables that this sample differs from those on whom study norms have been established. On the CRPBI-30 dimensions (for which norms reflect 286 data sets for males and 307 data sets for females), Project FUN daughters report lower perceived acceptance than the norm from both mothers (M = 23.66 vs. 25.03) and fathers (M = 19.00 vs. 21.55), whereas sons report higher perceived acceptance than the norm from mothers ( M = 24.45 vs. 24.17) and fathers (M = 23.99 vs. 20.49). On the psychological control domain, sons and daughters report higher perceived psychological control and behavioral firm control for both mothers and fathers. FACES II reports parent and teen means for adaptability (M = 49.9 and 45.4, respectively) and cohesion (M = 64.9 and 56.3, respectively) that are much higher than those found in Project FUN (M = 41.3 and 38.2 for adaptability and 58.2 and 51.4 for cohesion). The Project FUN sample also differs from the published norms for the Self- Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1988), with Project FUN females reporting higher global self-worth than males. It is most often the case that testing or survey norms have been developed primarily with children from European American backgrounds. Family, culture, and societal processes that contributed to the differences Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 noted in Project FUN highlight the need to extend samples beyond Caucasian middle- class families. Families were recruited from three public middle schools in the Los Angeles area. A comparison of the three schools on the program measures—CBQ, FACES II, Family Satisfaction Scale, CRPBI-30, global self-worth on the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, and Parental Stress Scale—does not reveal any significant differences across schools. Although not significant, conflict (CBQ) reported by parents upon completion o f Project FUN for one of the schools was lower than the other two schools (Af = 5.2 vs. 9.7 and 8.8; p =.069). The recruitment policy differed in one predominately Spanish-speaking school. Families were referred by the school counselors and were not paid for their participation. How this sample was different from the others is not known. The project director delivered the program both in English and Spanish, with material available in both languages. How the language affected the program delivery or outcome variables also is not known. This study predicted that participation in Project FUN would reduce negative conflictual interaction between parents and teens. Though not statistically significant, Project FUN did reduce the negative conflictual interactions across all groups between parents and teens, except in one situation—sons’ reports of their interactions with fathers. The change between daughters’ reported perceptions of reduced conflict with fathers was substantial and statistically significant. That the largest percent reduction in perceived negative conflictual communication is realized in the most conflicted relationships is important to consider. If some negative affect is to be expected at this Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 developmental juncture, and since most families do argue from time to time (Richardson, Galambos, Schulenberg, & Petersen, 1984), it may be that such a skills training program is able to skim from the top the excess conflictual interaction that could potentially prove deleterious in the long run to both the parent-child relationship and child outcomes. Overall, mothers report the most perceived negative conflictual interaction with their children, daughters report the most with fathers, and sons report the most with mothers. These findings are in keeping with the literature that finds conflicts to increase in early adolescence for mothers with both sons and daughters, and for daughters and fathers (Wagner, 1996). It should be noted that negative conflictual interactions did decrease in the control group, except for daughters who report increased conflicts with both parents. At the initial meeting with all families, the goals o f Project FUN and requirements for attendance were reiterated. Questions about the program were addressed before interested families proceeded with the first data collection round. It may be that both the discussion of conflict in the home during the presentation o f Project FUN needs, and the experience answering the instrument questions about conflict with family members, served to open lines o f communication for the wait-list group, even without a treatment session. However, this would not account for the increase for daughters. Ethnic and role differences do emerge in perceived amount of conflict, to whom it is addressed most often, and program gains. Caucasian parents report substantially more conflict than do other parents. Hispanic teens report more conflict with fathers, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 whereas Caucasians and African Americans report greater conflictual interaction with mothers. As fathers’ influence in the Hispanic culture is great (Baruth & Manning, 1999), this finding that father-teen interaction reflects greater conflict may be consistent with family structure in the Hispanic community. Conflictual interaction for all African Americans was higher following Project FUN. This is a problematic finding that warrants further investigation. One must keep in mind that the numbers were so small that both the findings and explanations are at best suggestive. However, it may be that such a skills training program, or some aspect of its organization or delivery, instigated family relations or did not suit the needs of this group. Another interpretation is possible. It may be that Project FUN did open the lines of communication and, in this case, the style of communication among African Americans as a group is more often high keyed, animated, heated, and confrontational (Sue & Sue, 1990), resulting in greater reported conflictual interactions. A better understanding of the outcomes attached to the conflict resolution, whether constructive or destructive, is needed to evaluate these interactional patterns. This study also predicted that family members would experience gains in family adaptability (including assertiveness, leadership, discipline, negotiation, roles, and rules) and cohesion (including emotional bonding, family boundaries, coalitions, time, space, friends, decision making, and interests and recreation). Results from this study confirmed gains in the adaptability dimension for mothers and sons only. Cohesion declined across time for all family members. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 Similarities and differences are evident across ethnic groups and across roles within ethnic groups. On the adaptability dimension, African American teens report the highest adaptability and both African American teens and parents report the highest cohesion preprogram o f all groups. African American teens report both the largest gain at the end of the treatment program in adaptability (9.2%) and both African American teens and parents report the largest drop in cohesion (10.3% and 5%, respectively). Caucasian teens stand out as having the only gain in cohesion posttreatment intervention. Also, it appears that Caucasian and Hispanic parents are more alike than different on initial measures. Further, it may be that FACES II is not sensitive enough to detect changes that one might expect related to a four-session conflict resolution program for families. The mixed results both across roles in the family and across and within ethnic groups may be less problematic to interpret when one looks at the individual item analysis. Those concepts within adaptability that one might expect to change do increase from preprogram to postprogram (e.g., “Family members say what they want” and “In solving problems the children’s suggestions are followed”). It is interesting to note that parents report gains in the negotiation area (e.g., “When problems arise, we compromise” and “Family members discuss problems and feel good about the solutions”), whereas teens do not. Teens report higher gains in the assertiveness domain (e.g., “In our family, it is easy for everyone to express his/her opinion”). One could speculate that each family member might take away from a skills training program what he/she needs most. Why cohesion-related concepts decline is not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 1 apparent. The fact that family members report a decline in feeling close to each other over the course of Project FUN warrants further investigation. It is possible that bringing issues and negotiation to the foreground might potentially produce discomfort in family members. Whether these results continue long term remains an unanswered empirical question. This study predicted that participation in Project FUN would increase family satisfaction more in the treatment than control group. This hypothesis was not supported. Since the Family Satisfaction Scale is based upon satisfaction along the same dimensions as FACES H—adaptability and cohesion—one could offer the same potential explanations to account for the absence of significant findings. Two interesting findings, however, are noteworthy. Fathers, as a group, reported a rather significant decline in family satisfaction whereas African Americans, as a group, reported the largest gain in family satisfaction, 14% comparing pre- and postprogram measures. The interpretation of these findings is unclear. Vuchinich (1987) noted the more deleterious effect conflict with teens had on fathers. The possibility that the meaning attached to conflict may differ based upon role in the family or ethnic group membership is important to consider. For instance, increased conflictual interaction may have positive results for African Americans. These results highlight the need to better understand the meaning behind its occurrence. This study provided information on three dimensions of parental behaviors— acceptance versus rejection, psychological autonomy versus psychological control, and firm behavioral control versus lax behavioral control—as perceived by sons and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 daughters, across ethnic groups. Mothers were perceived to be significantly more accepting of both sons and daughters (p < . 05) and fathers were significantly more accepting o f sons than daughters (p < . 01). Ethnic comparisons reveal some interesting variations. The gender literature has reported that both parents tend to be more attentive and controlling toward the same-sex children (Swanson & Spencer, 1997). Although this did emerge for Caucasian daughters and sons on the acceptance dimension, this was not the case in the other two groups. Both mothers and fathers are perceived as more accepting for African American and Hispanic sons. Non-Caucasian parents were more behaviorally controlling with daughters whereas Caucasian parents reflected the opposite pattern. These findings again highlight the need to examine family processes within multiethnic populations. Looking at authoritativeness across families, results emerged that stand apart from most research that finds Caucasians more likely than African Americans to be authoritative, and African American and Hispanic households less likely to be perceived by their teens as authoritative (Steinberg et al., 1991). These findings may be unique or spurious, or they may reflect changes that our society is experiencing across all ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups. This study also predicted that an authoritative parenting style would be related to reduced conflictual interactions in families. This hypothesis was also not supported. There is evidence, however, that individual dimensions within parenting style are related to reduced perceived reductions in conflictual interaction. Acceptance by both parents and firm control for mothers were Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 related to reduced conflict. This finding supports the benefit of both a dimensional and typological approach to an understanding of parenting behavior. The issues that families argue about appear not to have changed in the past 10 years. Both adolescents and parents report the most common topics to be related to chores and schoolwork. Also, teens and parents are in agreement as to the topics that cause issues at home. Issues across ethnic groups appear more similar than different, although Hispanic fathers are more likely to be involved in conflictual interactions than all other fathers. The only gender difference, although not significant, appeared with autonomy-related topics more likely to be reported by sons than daughters. It is interesting to note that daughters report the most conflictual interactions and yet the fewest number o f issues with fathers. That things have not changed much points to what is more universal rather than culture specific in the adolescent experience. Descriptive information on perceived self-competencies of these teens reveals that overall the teens report a fairly high global self-worth (M = 3.0). Females rate themselves more highly than males do, which stands in contrast to most studies that find the reverse to be true (Harter, 1988). There were no statistically significant findings except for males’ higher perceived competency in the job readiness arena. What is particularly noteworthy across ethnic groups is the variation in competencies most related to one’s global self-evaluation. Perceived scholastic competency was significant for Hispanic and Caucasian teens, but not for African American teens. Social acceptance was the only significant domain to relate to global sense of worth for African Americans and was important for Hispanic teens too. Caucasian teens include Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 appearance whereas the other two groups do not. The interrelationships have important implications when planning interventions to impact both the level and perceived importance of competencies among ethnically diverse youngsters. Parental stress among parents of teens varied by gender and ethnicity. African American mothers report being significantly more stressed than Caucasian or Hispanic parents. Caucasians also report being significantly more stressed than Hispanics. Marital status reveals an association with stress in the expected direction with married parents reporting the least stress and divorced parents reporting the most stress. Single and separated parents fell between the two. Although the number of African Americans who participated in Project FUN was small (n = 6), it is not readily apparent why they, more than the other parents, report increased stress. Marital status did not account for the difference. Implications o f the Study Twenty-nine families participated in a four-session, 10-hour curriculum (including data collection) spread over a two-month period. Although there were many scheduling changes due to illness, job, or other conflicts that arose after the initial scheduling, it was clear to the project director that the families were invested in both learning the skills and in making a commitment to their child or parent. The program was very well received by teens, parents, and administration from the middle schools. Partnering with middle schools to provide a prevention-oriented parent training program is quite feasible; thus, I encourage others to attempt this approach. The administrators from the schools were extremely supportive, providing access and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 mailings to families, physical space suitable for required privacy, and whatever support personnel was needed to ensure that the program ran smoothly. Schools complied easily with the privacy obligation Project FUN made to families to ensure open discussions about potential problem areas. In the two schools that solicited parental involvement, children were excused from classes to join their parents in predesignated rooms to make service delivery to families as easy as possible. For sessions that ran later in the evenings, administrators also made sure that staff was available to unlock doors and provide proper security. Bringing parents onto the school grounds was beneficial in several respects. Parents often reported feeling isolated by knowing only a small number of families with same-age children. Their presence on campus gave them a glimpse of how other teens dress, conduct themselves, and socialize. School was also a comfortable and known entity, reducing potential anxieties about participation in a parent training program. The school’s endorsement of Project FUN increased its credibility and attractiveness. Both adolescents and parents reported benefiting a great deal from their involvement with Project FUN. The individual family sessions gave families a chance to leam new skills while they shared positive and negative aspects about their relationships. The group session gave parents a chance to commiserate with others on the challenges of raising their adolescent children. Parents and teens were relieved to leam that others were experiencing similar situations in their homes. As teens and parents shared their stories, many reevaluated their positions based upon the more extreme hardships of others. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 6 It was very evident from the hours of listening to parents that parents of today’s teens are clearly stressed by life’s demands. This study found that greater stress was related to the level o f conflict in the home. The more highly stressed parents were more likely to report conflictual interaction with their children at pretest ( r = .49, p < .01) and posttest (r = .63, p < .01). Many parents spoke o f the lack of resources available to assist their efforts to rear adolescent children. Parents may also be struggling with their own developmental needs. The middle years of the parenting experience, when children are negotiating the transition to adolescence and parents themselves are not yet elderly, is the longest but least studied in the developmental cycle of parenting (Ryff & Seltzer, 1996). Research in adult development has identified this time as introducing unique issues, varying from a reexamination o f life goals to any number of family structural changes (e.g., divorce, single parenting or blended family needs) (Hammer & Turner, 1996). The research available also points to different challenges for mid-life parents depending upon racial/ethnic, socioeconomic, and environmental contexts (Ryff & Seltzer, 1996). A better understanding of the mid-life parental experience for ethnically diverse parents can help to identify measures to support and enrich parental development. Theoretical Implications Contextualism offers the most promise in understanding how an adolescent living in a multicultural society is affected by the cultures of family, peer group, and the greater society in which he or she lives. If one hopes to impact adolescent development to encourage positive outcomes, such an approach that incorporates this theoretical Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 perspective is imperative. For example, the work of Szapocznik and colleagues (1986) with Cuban adolescents from immigrant families demonstrates how these ethnic families are operating in multiple cultures. The older parent generation holds the values o f origin while their children acculturate more rapidly. As reported by Szapocznik et al., the effectiveness of reducing the intergenerational conflict was accomplished through an understanding, for both children and parents, of the positive aspects of each set of values and cultures. Forehand, Miller, Dutra, and Chance (1997) looked at the role of parenting behavior in the development o f problematic behaviors among African American and Hispanic youth. Using this idea of contextualism, the role of monitoring and communication was being examined in four different settings. Although increased monitoring was most predictive of reduced adolescent deviance, the location (e.g., high- or low-risk urban setting) provided a moderating effect. To have an impact on academic achievement for African American youth, teens may need to learn how to handle doing well without losing face in their peer groups (Fordam & Ogbu, 1986). A contextual approach provides a framework within which to understand the interplay among the various cultures that teens traverse (e.g., family, peer group, and the greater multicultural society). Contextualism can guide the development of culturally sensitive programmatic efforts to produce positive change. Clinical Implications Culturally sensitive parent training programs can be effective in producing positive outcomes for parents and teens. Project FUN demonstrated that ethnically diverse parents and teens will participate in a skills training program geared to promote Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 8 competent negotiation in the family. However, in planning the more widespread use of behavioral family interventions, important factors warrant consideration in the planning, recruitment, and implementation phases of such program delivery. First and foremost is the sensitivity to and knowledge of important cultural factors that impact adolescent development, family interaction, and parenting behaviors. This is best accomplished as a collaborative process with the families serviced by these programs. What comes to be defined as problematic behaviors, and for whom, must be examined within the cultural milieu. Skills introduced must have relevance and respect for the cultural needs to which the programs are addressed. Throughout Project FUN, families educated this researcher as to what parent/teen issues were important and what behavioral techniques worked better than others. For example, “I Statements” were introduced as a technique to help family members express their needs and desires without blame. The structure provided in this technique was not comfortable for everyone. It required family members to complete sentences such as “I f e e l. . . (one states a feeling) when . . . (one states the action that is disturbing) because . . . (one states the reasons). I would really like it if. .. (future goals are stated).” Some individuals accomplished the same communication that described their feelings, described the problematic behavior without blame, and described the desired response for the future without the imposed structure. Sensitivity to relevant communication styles and family needs greatly aided the acceptance and acquisition of important skills. The behavioral contracting, on the other hand, was universally well received and effective among this group of ethnically diverse families. Both parents and teens Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 valued the contracting process, which combined the communication, negotiation, and anger management skills of the program, and the outcome, which brought about desired changes in behaviors. Consideration of unique factors that may influence parental involvement in parent training among ethnically diverse families is important. The provision of funds or child care arrangements was the most important incentive for participation in an investigation that looked at Latino involvement in parent training (Forehand & Kotchick, 1996). The availability of a Spanish-speaking facilitator and program materials also was essential in the communities serviced by Project FUN. In addition, a certain flexibility in scheduling sessions is essential in working with families and schools where life demands often introduced unpredictable circumstances. Finally, there is evidence to suggest that the focus on parenting issues generalized to other arenas and, in turn, it seemed that the effect of this was an overall increase in one’s sense of parental efficacy. Thus, a focus on nonparenting issues—the other stressors with which parents are wrestling—can enhance parental effectiveness (Taylor & Biglan, 1998). One example involves the potential to extend the behavioral skills learned in one relationship, such as between parent and child, to other relationships, such as parent and co-worker. Parents repeatedly remarked about how helpful the anger management techniques were in the work setting. The generalization of skills training across settings and relationships has already been shown to beneficial (Taylor & Biglan, 1998). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 Limitations o f the Study In examining the results of the study, there are several limitations that need to be considered. Four sessions were enough to effect some change but limit the scope of the skills acquisition possible. The scope was further limited in that the conflict resolution skills were geared toward Project FUN participants only. Issues that involved other family members (e.g., siblings or other nonpresent parent) were not addressed. Some of the families needed assistance with the questionnaires either through explanation or interpretation from English to Spanish. It is possible that measures designed for Caucasian samples are not adequate for cross-ethnic research (Knight et al., 1992). Also, bias in the results may have occurred for these particular subjects; they may have felt that they had to portray themselves in a favorable light. Important family information was not obtained in this investigation. Information on the family’s cultural background and values, especially regarding level of acculturation, was not measured in this study. In one investigation, lower stress levels were reported by less acculturated individuals (Vega, 1990). It would have been useful to have had this information during the study. Also, environmental variables (e.g., community-level risk factors and peer group membership) would have been helpful in elucidating multiple contextual variables. In addition, intracultural variability was not adequately measured. Finally, the sample size was extremely small, especially for African American families. Families were recruited from three schools in different manners and were not randomly assigned to treatment versus wait list control groups. Self-selection problems Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 existed in the two schools where families volunteered to participate. Thus, this clearly limits the generalizability of the results. Although these findings may be considered preliminary and suggestive at best, important insights can be gleaned from the clinical experience working with these diverse families. Clinical Observations Project FUN provided an important forum for communication between parents and teens. Repeatedly, participants would share how difficult the exchange of thoughts and feelings would be in the family. In particular, parents hungered to hear more from their children and teens hungered for their parents to be better listeners. In the first session, parents and teens listened to each other describe how they believe that communication occurred between them, both conflictual and positive. Parents and teens repeatedly noted how much they had learned by listening to the other’s perspective on family interaction. This exchange proved particularly helpful in educating family members as to individual member wishes for communication as well as factors that encourage and discourage the communication flow. In debriefing families at the program’s conclusion, participants highlighted meaningful changes that resulted from the improvement in communication. In one family, a mother shared how her daughter now went out of her way to kiss her goodnight, something she had mentioned as important positive communication. In another family, a mother commented on how she was learning to be a better listener. Her style had always been to respond to her son’s frustrations by suggesting how he could handle given situations. He was able to share with her how angry her response would make him feel. She was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 learning that their communication was much improved and more plentiful if she simply listened. Parents greatly appreciated the parenting skills embedded in the communication, negotiation, and anger management skills training. Parents often commented about how helpful these tools had been in various situations. One mother, who tended to respond to her daughter’s misbehaving by taking away all privileges, was able to reevaluate this type of response as a result of the behavioral contracting. Once the conditions were set that detailed how privileges could be earned and lost, the mother tried hard to adhere to the contract. In one session, she opened her wallet and took out a large piece of paper that had been folded many times. She explained that her tendency toward global punishment was so ingrained and automatic, that she carried the contract to remind herself of the obligation she had to comply with the conditions of the contract. Also, many parents noted how helpful the anger management tools were in preventing further escalation of a given problem with their teen, especially taking time out to cool off. Parents were able to model the struggle of being able to maintain “one’s cool” in the face of anger. Recommendations for Future Research The results of this study suggest that there are a number of issues related to the implementation of a skills training program for ethnically diverse families which should be investigated more thoroughly. First, there remains a great need for empirically based prevention-oriented behavioral training programs that are geared toward ethnically diverse families. Future Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 research could be directed toward (a) elucidating both the culturally specific and universal conditions under which to encourage both parent and teen program participation; (b) strengthening school partnerships while identifying other community- level settings for parent/teen involvement; (c) including other siblings, especially for conflict reduction programs in families; and (d) identifying program-specific components that contribute to positive outcomes. Accumulating a greater theoretical base of knowledge about conflict development among ethnically diverse families will assist both development and implementation o f effective programming. Second, engaging in an exploration o f both the independent contribution o f parenting dimensions (e.g., acceptance, psychological autonomy, and firm behavioral control) and the overall style o f parenting would clarify many of the complex relationships that exist both within and across ethnic groups. Parental behaviors need to be more clearly specified (e.g., how monitoring is defined). In this way, the impact on child outcomes can be more clearly understood. Once the mechanism underlying parental behaviors is understood, both within and across ethnic groups, parenting programs can be more effectively designed to promote positive child outcomes. Third, an exploration o f the developmental needs of parents during this phase of life is of the utmost importance. Knowledge o f the parental experience during this developmental phase is sorely needed. For instance, how do children promote or hinder adult development? What needs do parents have, both in their role as parent and in the many roles they occupy? How are ethnically diverse parents and families similar and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 different from each other? How can program interventions effectively address parental needs? Finally, greater refinement in the measurement of conflict and culturally relevant variables among ethnically diverse families is needed. More comprehensive and sensitive assessment measures are needed. The capacity of measures to detect and adjust for variations in meaning across groups requires investigation (Florsheim, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 1996). Also, it remains questionable whether measures developed for use with Caucasian middle-class families are actually relevant to use across other ethnic groups. Evaluation measures should include important indicators of behavioral change. It would be important to measure actual skills acquisition. For instance, were individuals able to master the skills in a short-term behavioral intervention? Did families actually use the skills outside of the sessions? What specific skills encourage a reduction in conflict? Does behavioral contracting increase the likelihood o f desired outcomes? It would be important to examine the association between the completion of outside Project FUN assignments and outcomes achieved. That the Project FUN skills training program reduced conflict and opened the lines of communication for many was apparent, but what it was about the program that helped to accomplish this is not apparent. Factors decreasing desired outcomes should be identified as well. The inclusion of multiple sources of information, which could include observational techniques, would support the validity and enrich the quality o f the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 information derived. Longitudinal designs would enable an exploration of the reciprocal socialization effects between parents and teens. Summary and Conclusions This study tested the effectiveness o f a school-based intervention program designed to teach ethnically diverse adolescents and their parents to negotiate their differences more effectively. Project FUN, Families Utilizing Negotiation, is unique in several important ways: (a) its emphasis on understanding the conflict resolution experience among ethnically diverse families which contributed much-needed normative information on adolescent development and family relations; and (b) its emphasis on a nonclinical sample, which (c) brought prevention programming into the school setting by (d) responding to the need for developing effective adolescent and parenting life skills. This particular program focused on teaching conflict resolution by teaching negotiation, communication, and anger management skills, in an effort to promote better relationships between parents and their teenage children and to facilitate growth (and positive outcomes) for these teens. This study has demonstrated that the implementation of a prevention-oriented conflict resolution skills training program is feasible though, in this study, only somewhat effective in reducing conflictual interactions between parents and teens. The program was, however, well received by parents, teens, and school administration. As a result of this program’s intervention, two out of three schools participated in a facilitator training workshop to continue the implementation of Project FUN with their own school personnel. This study provided important information on the relationship between Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 parenting style and conflict in ethnically diverse families. This research endeavor offers a glimpse into the complexities o f parent-teen relationships across three sociocultural groups, as they engaged in negotiation skills training to enhance their relationship with one another. It is hoped that future research efforts will continue to focus on the potential for effective conflict resolution to enhance adolescent development and family relations among ethnically diverse families. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 REFERENCES Andelman, D. A. (1995). Dispute settlement: Arbitration at 50 paces. M anagem ent R eview , 84(1), 49-51. Baldwin, A. L., Baldwin, C., & Cole, R. E. (1990). Stress-resistant families and stress-resistant children. In J. Rolf, A. Masten, D. Chicchetti, K. Nuechterlein, & S. 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C hild D evelopm ent, 60, 1052-1067. Smetana, J. G., Yau, J., & Hanson, S. (1991). Conflict resolution in families with adolescents. Journal o f R esearch on Adolescence, /(2), 189-206. Smith, C., & BCrohn, M. D. (1995). Delinquency and fam ily life among male adolescents: The role of ethnicity. Journal o f Youth an d A dolescence, 24(1), 69-93. Spencer, M. B., & Dombusch, S. M. (1990). Challenges in studying minority youth. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), A t the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 123-146). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflict and harmony in the family relationship. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), A t the threshold: The developing adolescent, 255- 276. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Steinberg, L., Dombusch, S. M., & Brown, B. B. (1992). Ethnic differences in adolescent achievement. A m erican Psychologist, 6, 723-729. Steinberg, L. D., & Hill, J. P. (1978). Patterns of family interaction as a function of age, the onset of puberty, and formal thinking. D evelopm ental Psychology, 14(6), 683-684. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 Steinberg, L., Mounts, N. S., Lambom, S. D., & Dombusch, S. M. (1991). Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across varied ecological niches. J ou m alofR esearch on A dolescen .ee, /(l), 19-36. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Swanson, D. P., & Spencer, M. B. (1997). Developmental considerations of gender- linked attributes during adolescence. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Social and em otional adjustm ent an dfam ily relation s in ethnic m inority fa m ilies (pp. 181- 200). Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Szapocznik, J., & Kurtines, W. (1993). Family psychology and cultural diversity: Opportunities for theory, research, and application. American Psychologist, 48(4), 400-407. Szapocznik, J., Rio, A., Perez-Vidal, A., Kurtines, W., Hervis, O., & Santisteban, D. (1986). Bicultural Effectiveness Training (BET): An experimental test of an intervention modality for families experiencing intergenerational/intercultural conflict. H ispanic Journal o f B ehavioral Sciences, 5(4), 303-330. Taylor, T. K., & Biglan, A. (1998). Behavioral family interventions for improving child-rearing: A review of the literature for clinicians and policy makers. Clinical Child and F am ily Psychology Review, 1, 41-60. Thompson, L. (1990). Negotiation behavior and outcomes: Empirical evidence and theoretical issues. Psychological Bulletin, 705(3), 515-532. Van Slyck, M., Stem, M., & Zak-Place, J. (1996). Promoting optimal adolescent development through conflict resolution education, training and practice: An innovative approach for counseling psychologists. Adolescence, 24(2), 433-461. Vega, W. A. (1990). Hispanic families in the 1980s: A decade of research. Journal o f M arriage an d the Family, 52, 1015-1024. Vuchinich, S. (1987). Starting and stopping spontaneous family conflicts. Journal o f M arriage an d the Family, 49, 591-601. Wagner, W. G. (1996). Optimal development in adolescence: What is it and how can it be encouraged? Adolescence, 24(3), 360-399. Waxman, M. (1987). A nonlitigational approach to conflict resolution: The medical center as a model. A rbitration Journal, 42(1), 25-34. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 Wilson, M. N., Cooke, D. Y., & Arrington, E. G. (1997). African American adolescents and academic achievement: Family and peer influences. In R. D. Taylor & M. C. Wang (Eds.), Social and em otional adjustm ent a n d fa m ily relations in ethnic m inority fa m ilie s (pp. 145-158). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relation s with mothers, fathers, and friends. Chicago: University o f Chicago Press. Yung, B. R., & Hammond, W. R. (1995). P A C T P o sitive adolescent choices training. Program guide. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A FAMILY RECRUITMENT LETTER Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 PROJECT F.U.N. Dear Seventh Grade Parents, Do you struggle with these problems with your teens(s)? Teens talking back, arguments about spending time with friends, grades at school, watching TV, cleaning up or going out? Are there times when the screaming becomes so loud that you wonder what your neighbors are thinking? YOU ARE NOT ALONE! Being a parent in today’s world is no easy job. Being a teen today is not easy either. Kids are constantly put in situations that can put them at risk - to use drugs, to hang out with the wrong friends, or to become involved in dangerous activities. These influences make the ordinary battles between parents and kids even harder. Your family and all of the seventh grade families at Wilson Middle School have a unique chance to join in on a new and exciting program. Project F.U.N. (Families Utilizing Negotiation) is designed to help you and your teen settle conflicts more easily, more quickly and more peaceably. Parents and teens work together in this skills training program and learn to: • problem solve family differences • find ways to keep anger under control • talk so that family members can listen • listen so that family members want to talk. Actually, learning to resolve differences peaceably is an important life skill that will benefit your kids as they grow into healthy adults. As parents, you will walk away from Project F U N. having A CLOSER RELATIONSHIP W ITH YOUR TEENS, with the skills to keep the communication lines open through these trying years. Project F.U.N. wants to support your efforts to be the best parents that you can be. And as we recognize that families come in many shapes and sizes, every effort has been taken to meet the unique needs of individual families at Wilson Middle School. Project F.U.N. is being offered to your school through funding provided by the Haynes Foundation to the University of Southern California. If you are interested in joining in or getting additional information on the program, please contact Mr. Boccia at 792- 1683. You will later be contacted by Debra Sobol, Project F.U.N. Director. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Project F.U.N. will pay you to participate but space is limited. Call and get the details. Sincerely yours, Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H., Principal Project F.U.N. Director Middle School Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 PROYECTO F.U.N. Estimados Padres del Septimo Grado, Tiene estos problemas con sus hijos adolescentes? Jovenes rezongandole, discusiones sobre el tiempo que se pasa con sus amigos, calificaciones en la escuela, viendo television, recogiendo sus pertenencias o saliendo a la calle? Hay momentos en que los gritos son tan fiiertes que usted se pregunta que pensaran los vecinos? USTED NO ESTA SOLO! Ser padre en el mundo de hoy no es tarea facil. Tampoco es facil ser joven hoy en dia. Constantemente los jovenes son puestos en situaciones en las cuales corren riesgo de — usar drogas, a juntarse con amistades equivocadas, o a involucrarse en actividades peligrosas. Estas influencias hacen que las batalles entre padres e hijos sean aun mas acaloradas. Su familia al igual que todas las familias del septimo grado de la escuela Wilson Middle School tienen una oportunidad linica de ser parte de un nuevo y exitante programa. El Proyecto F.U.N. (Families Utilizing Negotiation — Familias Utilizando Negociacion) esta designado a ayudarle a usted y a su hijo a resolver conflictos de una manera amistosa. Padres e hijos trabajan juntos en este programa aprendiendo tecnicas para: Resolver problemas familiares Mantener su ira bajo control Hablar de manera para que otros miembros de su familia lo escuchen Escuchar cuando otros miembros de su familia quieren hablar De hecho aprender a resolver sus diferencias de manera amistosa es una tecnica importante en la vida de sus hijos que les ayundara conforme crecen a ser adultos responsables. Como padres al terminar el proyecto F.U.N. saldran del programa teniendo una RELACION MAS CERCANA A SUS HIJOS, manteniendo las vias de comunicacion abiertas durante estos anos dificiles. El Proyecto F.U.N. desea apoyar sus esfuerzos para que ustedes sean los mejores padres que puedan ser. Reconociendo que las familias vienen en todos tamanos y medidas la escuela Wilson Middle School ha hecho todo esfuerzo para cumplir con las necesidades individuales de cada familia. El Proyecto F.U.N. se ofrece a su escuela por medio de University of Southern Califormia con fondos donados por Haynes Foundation. Si esta interesado en ser parte del proyecto u obtener mas informacion sobre el programa porfavor comuniquese con el Senor Boccia al 792-1683. Mas adelante se comunicara con usted Debra Sobol, Directora del Proyecto F.U.N. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l El Proyecto F.U.N. le pagara por su participacion en el programa pero el espacio es limitado. Llame para mas detalles. Sinceramente, Debra Aime Sobol, M.S.P.H. Principal Directora del Proyecto F.U.N. Middle School Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B CONSENT LETTER Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 Participant Informed Consent Project FUN is a research project by Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H., which is under the direction and supervision o f Joan I. Rosenberg, Ph. D. from the Department of Counseling Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles. The purpose of this program is to leam more about teaching adolescents and parents to resolve conflicts more easily and peaceably. The hope is that you will have a closer relationship with your child while your teens leam important skills they can use throughout their lives. I need your help in this study. You have been asked to attend four sessions with your teens. Attendance at each and every session is critical. The sessions last about 1-/4 hours. Debra Anne Sobol, an advanced doctoral level counseling psychology student, will conduct all of the sessions. You and your child will participate together in each session, with the exception of the third session, where parents meet with other parents, and adolescents meet with other adolescents, to discuss successes and struggles in learning to resolve conflicts. While parents are meeting, the teens will be supervised and will watch an important educational video. The parents will watch the same video while adolescents meet in their group. You will be asked to fill out some short questionnaires both at the beginning of the program and at the end of Project FUN. Your children will be asked to fill out some short questionnaires as well. It will take approximately 45 minutes for each family member to complete. However, if you need more time to complete the forms, you can have as much time as needed. You will be paid S50.00 in the following installments: S15 at the first session, $20 at the third session, and $15 at the final session. Assistance with childcare costs that result from your attendance at any of the sessions is available. Please answer all of the items as best as you can. However, your participation in this study is voluntary and you are free to stop at any time or refuse to answer any question. Should any of the questions or discussions during the sessions make you uncomfortable, I will be available for questions and support. Should participation in the program bring out the need for additional help or support, I will assist your efforts to make contact with an appropriate agency for low cost counseling or other services. Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 All of your answers will be confidential and all o f your answers provided by your teen(s) will be confidential. This means that no one outside the study will be allowed to see your specific questionnaires, or leam about information exchanged during the sessions. Your family will be assigned a code number in order that your names can not be identified with your answers. Results from the study may be published in professional journals, but no participant will be identified by name in any such publication. My staff and I will be here at all times when you fill out the questionnaires to ensure confidentiality o f your information and to answer any questions and/or concerns that you may have. If I observe or have reasonable suspicion that a child has been abused <1 am mandated to report this information to the appropriate authorities. The University of Southern California and I are not responsible should negative reactions to the questionnaires or program participation occur. If you would like to know how this study turns out, please call me or contact me at the address below. Any questions about this consent form or the research project should be directed to: Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H. USC School of Education Division of Counseling Psychology Waite Phillips Hall 503 Los Angeles, California 90089-0031 (213) 740-2365 I have read the consent form and fully understand it. I agree to be a part of the study. I understand that answers will be used for research purposes only and that only Debra Sobol will know the identity of any of my family members. Signed_____________________________________________________________ Witness____________________________________________________________ Date Participant Informed Consent Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN.. .Project FUN... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 Consentimiento Informado Para El Participante El Proyecto F.U.N. es un estudio realizado por Debra Ann Sobol, M.S.P.H. bajo la direccion y supervision de Joan I. Rosenberg, Ph.D. del Departamento de Asesoria y Sicologia de University of Southern California, Los Angeles. El proposito de este programa es ensenar a los adolescentes y a sus padres a resolver sus conflictos de una manera mas facil y amigable. El deseo es que usted tenga una relacion mas cercana a sus hijos y que ellos aprendan tecnicas que puedan usar de por vida. Yo necesito su ayuda para este estudio. Se la ha pedido a usted y sus hijos que asistan a cuatro sesiones. Su asistencia a todas y cada una de estas sesiones es muy importante. Las sesiones duran una hora y media. Las sesiones seran conducidas por Debra Anne Sobol una estudiante con un doctorado a nivel avanzado en sicologia y asesoria. Usted y sus hijos participan juntos en cada sesion a excepcion de la tercera sesion cuando padres se reunen con otros padres y los jovenes se reunen con otros jovenes para discutir cuales fiieron sus triunfos y batallas mientras aprendian a resolver conflictos. Mientras que los padres se reunen, los jovenes seran supervisados mientras que observan un video educacional muy importante. Los padres veran el mismo video mientras que los adolecentes se reunen con su grupo. Se le pedira que Uene unos cuestionarios pequeiios al inicio y al final del proyecto FUN. A sus hijos tambien se les pedira que llenen otros cuestionarios pequenos. A cada miembro de familiar le tomara 45 minutos Uenar los cuestionarios. Sin embargo, si necesita mas tiempo para llenar las formas se le dara el tiempo necesario. Se le pagara S50.00 de la siguiente manera: S I5.00 en la primera sesion, S20.00 en la tercera sesion y SI5.00 en la ultima sesion. Si tuviese que pagar para que le cuiden sus ninos mientras usted participa en las sesiones se le rembolsaran por estos gastos. Por favor conteste a cada pregunta lo mejor que pueda. Sin embargo siendo voluntaria su participacion en este estudio, es libre de dejar de contestarlo en cualquier momento o rehusar a contestar cualquier pregunta. Si durante las sesiones algunas de las preguntas o discusion la pone incomoda, yo estare disponible para darle apoyo y contestarle cualquier pregunta. Si durante su participacion en el programa usted llegara a necesitar ayuda o apoyo adicionales yo le ayudare a ponerse en contacto con agencias apropiadas para ofrecerle consejeria a un bajo costo. Todas sus respuestas y las respuestas de sus hijos serin confidenciales. Esto quiere decir que no se permitira a nadie que sea ajeno a este estudio ver sus cuestionarios o saber la informacion que se intercambio durante las sesiones. A su familia se le asignara un numero clave que podra identificar sus respuestas mas no sus nombres. Los resultados Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 de este estudio se publicaran en documentos profesionales pero ningun nombre sera identificado en tales publicaciones. Mis asistentes y yo estaremos presentes en todo momento para cualquier pregunta que pueda tener y para asegurar la confidenciaiidad de su informacion. Si yo Uego a observar o sospechar que algun niiio es victima de abuso estoy obligada a reportarlo a las autoridades encargadas. Ni yo ni la University of Southern California seremos responsables de cualquier reaction negativa que estos cuestionarios o su participacion en ella puedan tener. Si quisera saber los resultados de este estudio por favor comumquese conmigo a la direction que esta a continuation. Si tuviese alguna pregunta sobre este consentimiento o sobre el estudio de este proyecto por favor dirijase a: Debra Anne Sobol, M.S.P.H. USC School o f Education Division of Counseling Psychology Waite Phillips Hall 503 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031 (213)740-2365 He leldo y entendido completamente este consentimiento. Estoy de acuerdo en ser parte de este estudio. Entiendo que las respuestas seran usadas solamente para propositos del estudio y que unicamente Debra Anne Sobol conoce la identidad de cualquier miembro de mi familia. Firma _ Testigo Fecha Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX C CONFLICT BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE (CBQ) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Adolescent Version MORE ABOUT OUR CONFLICTS.... Again, think back over the past two weeks at home. The statements below have to do with you and your father. Read the statement, and then decide if you believe that the statement is true. If it is true, then circle TRUE, and if you believe the statement is not true, circle FALSE. You must circle either true or false, but never both for the same item. Please answer all items. Answer for yourself, without talking it over with anyone. True False 1. My dad doesn’t understand me. Tme False 2. My dad and I sometimes end our arguments calmly. True False 3. We almost never seem to agree. Tme False 4. I enjoy the talks we have. Tme False 5. When I state my opinion, he gets upset. Tme False 6. At least three times a week, we get angry at each other. Tme False 7. My father listens when I need someone to talk to. Tme False 8. My dad is a good friend to me. Tme False 9. My dad says I have no consideration for him. Tme False 10. At least once a day we get angry at each other. Tme False 11. My father is bossy when we talk. Tme False 12. My dad understands me. Tme False 13. The talks we have are frustrating. Tme False 14. My dad understands my point o f view, even when he doesn’t agree with me. Tme False 15. My dad seems to be always complaining about me. Tme False 16. In general, I don’t think we get along very well. Tme False 17. My dad screams a lot Tme False 18. My dad puts me down. Tme False 19. If I run into problems, my dad helps me ou t. Tme False 20. I enjoy spending time with my father. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Adolescent Version MORE ABOUT OUR CONFLICTS.... Again, think back over the past two weeks at home. The statements below have to do with you and your mother. Read the statement, and then decide if you believe that the statement is true. If it is true, then circle TRUE, and if you believe the statement is not true, circle FALSE. You must circle either true or false, but never both for the same item. Please answer all items. Answer for yourself, without talking it over with anyone. True False 1. M y mom doesn’t understand me. True False 2. My mom and I sometimes end our arguments calmly. True False 3. We almost never seem to agree. True False 4. I enjoy the talks we have. True False 5. When I state my opinion, she gets upset. True False 6. At least three times a week, we get angry at each other. True False 7. My mother listens when I need someone to talk to. True False 8. My mom is a good friend to me. True False 9. My mom says I have no consideration for her. True False 10. At least once a day we get angry at each other. True False 11. My mother is bossy when we talk. True False 12. M y mom understands me. True False 13. The talks we have are frustrating. True False 14. M y mom understands my point o f view, even when she doesn’t agree with me. True False 15. M y mom seems to be always complaining about me. True False 16. In general, I don’t think we get along very well. True False 17. M y mom screams a lot. True False 18. M y mom puts me down. True False 19. If I run into problems, my mom helps me out. True False 20. I enjoy spending time with my mother. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Adolescent Version Nombre ___________________ Fecha Reflexiona sobre las ultimas dos semanas. Las declaraciones a continuacion tienen que ver con tu padre. Lee cada declaracion y decide si esta es verdadera. Si es verdadera entonces pon un circulo en verdadero si esto es falso entonces pon un circulo en /a lso . Solamente puedes contestar verdadero o falso pero nunca la misma respuesta para cada declaracion. Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero V'erdadero Verdadero Verdadero Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso 1. Mi padre no me comprende. 2. Algunas veces mi padre y yo terminamos nuestras discusiones tranquilamente. 3. Casi nunca discutimos. 4. Disfruto de las platicas que tenemos. 5. Cuando digo mi opinion el se molesta. 6. Por lo menos tres veces a la semana nos disgustamos. 7. Mi padre me escucha cuando yo necesito hablar. 8. Mi padre es un buen amigo conmigo. 9. Mi padre dice que no le tengo ninguna consideracion. 10. Por lo menos una vez en el dia nos enojamos. 11. Mi padre es muy mandon cuando hablamos. 12. Mi padre me comprende. 13. Las platicas que tenemos son frustrantes. 14. Mi padre entiende mi punto de vista aun cuando no esta de acuerdo conmigo. Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso 15. Tal parece que mi padre siempre se esta quejando de mi. 16. En general no creo que nos llevemos bien. 17. Mi padre grita mucho. 18. Mi padre siempre me pone por los suelos. 19. Si me veo en problemas mi padre me ayuda. 20. Disfruto el tiempo que paso con mi padre. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Adolescent Version Nombre ________________________ Fecha Reflexiona sobre las ultimas dos semanas. Las declaraciones a continuacion tienen que ver con tu madre. Lee cada declaracion y decide si esta es verdadera. Si es verdadera entonces pon un circulo en verdadero si esto es falso entonces pon un circulo en falso. Solamente puedes contestar verdadero o falso pero nunca la misma respuesta para cada declaracion.* Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Verdadero Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso Falso 1. Mi madre no me comprende. 2. Algunas veces mi madre y yo terminamos nuestras discusiones tranquilamente. 3. Casi nunca discutimos. 4. Disfruto de las platicas que tenemos. 5. Cuando digo mi opinion el se molesta. 6. Por lo menos tres veces a la semana nos disgustamos. 7. Mi madre me escucha cuando yo necesito hablar. 8. Mi madre es un buen amiga conmigo. 9. Mi madre dice que no le tengo ninguna consideracion. 10. Por lo menos una vez en el dia nos enojamos. 11. Mi madre es muy mandona cuando hablamos. 12. Mi madre me comprende. 13. Las platicas que tenemos son frustrantes. 14. Mi madre entiende mi punto de vista aun cuando no esta de acuerdo conmigo. 15. Tal parece que mi madre siempre se esta quejando de mi. 16. En general no creo que nos Uevemos bien. 17. Mi madre grita mucho. 18. Mi madre siempre me pone por los suelos. 19. Si me veo en problemas mi madre me ayuda. 20. Disfruto el tiempo que paso con mi madre. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Parent Version MORE ABOUT OUR CONFLICTS.... Again, think back over the past two weeks at home. The statements below have to do with you and your child. Read the statement, and then decide if you believe that the statement is true. If it is true, then circle TRUE, and if you believe the statement is not true, circle FALSE. You must circle either true or false, but never both for the same item. Please answer all items. Answer for yourself, without talking it over with anyone. True False 1. My child is easy to get along with. True False 2. My child is well behaved in our discussions. True False 3. My child is receptive to ( able to receive) criticism. True False 4. For the most part, my child likes to talk to me. True False 5. We almost never seem to agree. True False 6. My child usually listens to what I tell him/her. True False 7. At least three times a week, we get angry at each other. True False 8. My child says I have no consideration o f his/her feelings True False 9. My child and I compromise during arguments True False 10. My child often doesn’t do what I ask. True False 11. The talks we have are frustrating. True False 12. My child often seems angry at me. True False 13. My child acts impatient when I talk. True False 14. In general, I don’t think we get along very well. True False 15. My child almost never understands my side o f the argument. True False 16. My child and I have big arguments about little things. True False 17. My child is defensive when I talk to him. True False 18. My child thinks my opinions don’t count. True False 19. We argue a lot about rules. True False 20. My child tells me he/she thinks I am unfair. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 Conflict Behavior Questionnaire Parent Version MAS ACERCA DE CONFLICTOS . . . Nombre___________________________________ Fecha_________________ Yo soy la/el madre padre. Estoy ilenando esta forma que pertenece a mi hijo hija ella/el tiene anos. De nuevo reflexione sobre las ultimas dos semanas en casa. Estas declaraciones tiene que ver con usted y con su hijo. Lea cada declaracion y decide si esta es falsa o verdadera. Si la declaracion es verdadera entonces ponga un circulo en verdadero si cree que la declaracion esto es falsa entonces ponga un circulo en falso, pero nunca ponga falso y verdadero para la misma declaracion. Porfavor conteste cada declaracion. Conteste por si mismo y sin hablar con nadie acerca de esto.* Verdadero Falso 1. Me llevo bien con mi hijo(a). Verdadero Falso 2. Mi hijo(a) se comporta bien cuando estamos discutiendo. Verdadero Falso 3. Mi hijo(a) es capaz de recibir criticas. Verdadero Falso 4. La mayor parte del tiempo a mi hijo(a) le gusta hablar conmigo. Verdadero Falso 5. Casi nunca parece que estamos de acuerdo. Verdadero Falso 6. Mi hijo(a) siempre escucba lo que yo digo. Verdadero Falso 7. Por lo menos tres veces en la semana estamos enojados el uno con el otro. Verdadero Falso 8. Mi hijo(a) dice que no tengo consideracion con sus sentimientos. Verdadero Falso 9. Mi hijo(a) y yo cedemos durante alguna disputa. Verdadero Falso 10.. Con frecuencia mi hijo(a) no hace lo que yo le pido. Verdadero Falso 11.. Las conversaciones que tenemos son frustrantes. Verdadero Falso 12.. Con frecuencia mi hijo(a) esta enojado conmigo. Verdadero Falso 13.. Mi hijo(a) se comporta impaciente cuando you hablo. Verdadero Falso 14. En general no creo que mi hijo(a) y yo congeniemos tan bien. Verdadero Falso 15.. Cuando discutimos mi hijo(a) no entiende mi punto de vista. Verdadero Falso 16.. Mi hijo(a) y yo tenemos grandes discusiones sobre cosas pequenas. Verdadero Falso 17. Mi hijo(a) esta a la defensiva cuando le hablo. Verdadero Falso 18. Mi hijo(a) piensa que mis opiniones no cuentan. Verdadero Falso 19. Discutimos mucho sobre las reglas que se han de seguir. Verdadero Falso 20. Mi hijo(a) dice que yo soy injusto. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 APPENDIX D FAMILY ADAPTABILITY AND COHESION EVALUATION SCALE (FACES II) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 FACES n ABOUT OUR FAMILY. . . (Those people you live with) My family consists of: (Please indicate who you live with, e.g., mother, 3 sisters and 1 brother) (For teens: If you live in two houses, please fill out this form for each family in each house.) Place the number that best describes your family next to each statement. l=A lm ost never 2=O nce in a w hile 3=Som etim es 4 = Frequently 5=Alm ost always 1. Family members are supportive of each other during difficult times.__________ 2. In our family, it is easy for everyone to express his/her opinion.__________ 3. It is easier to discuss problems with people outside the family than with other family members.__________ 4. Each family member has input regarding major family decisions.___________ 5. Our family gathers together in the same room.__________ 6. Children have a say in their discipline.___________ 7. Our family does things together.__________ 8. Family members discuss problems and feel good about solutions.__________ 9. In our family, everyone goes his/her own way.___________ 10. We shift household responsibilities from person to person.__________ 11. Family members know each other’s close friends.__________ 12. It is hard to know what the rules are in our family.__________ 13. Family members consult other family members on personal decisions.__________ 14. Family members say what they want.__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 Place the number that best describes your family next to each statement. l=AImost never 2=Once in a while 3-Sometiines 4= Frequently 5=Almost always 15. We have difficulty thinking of things to do as a family._________ 16. In solving problems, the children’s suggestions are followed.__________ 17. Family members feel very close to each other.__________ 18. Discipline is fair in our family.__________ 19. Family members feel closer to people outside the family than to other family members.__________ 20. Our family tries new ways of dealing with problems.___________ 21. Family members go along with what the family decides to do.__________ 22. In our family, everyone shares responsibilities.__________ 23. Family members like to spend their free time with each other.__________ 24. It is difficult to get a rule changed in our family.__________ 25. Family members avoid each other at home.___________ 26. When problems arise, we compromise.___________ 27. We approve of each other’s friends.__________ 28. Family members are afraid to say what is on their minds.__________ 29. Family members pair up rather than do things as a total family.__________ 30. Family members share interests and hobbies with each other.__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 FACES n SOBRE NUESTRA FAMILIA ...(ESAS PERSONAS CON LAS QUE VIVES) Mi familia consiste d e _______________________________ Por favor indique con quien vive. Ejemplo: Compafier (a),tres hijos y una hija. Cerca de cada declaracion pon el numero que mejor describa a tu familia. l=Casi nunca 2=Alguna que otra vez 3=Algunas veces 4=Regularmente 5=Casi siempre 1. Miembros de nuestra familia se apoyan unos a otros durante tiempos dificiles.__________ 2. En nuestra familia es facil que el/ella expresen su opinion.__________ 3. Es mas facil hablar con personas ajenas a nuestra familia que con miembros de la familia.__________ 4. Cada miembro de la familia tiene su opinion sobre decisiones familiares mayores.__________ 5. Nuestra familia se reune en un mismo cuarto. ._____ 6. Los ninos tienen algo que decir en su disciplina.__________ 7. Nuestra familia hace cosas juntas. __________ 8. Miembros de nuestra familia discuten problemas y se sienten bien sobre las desiciones.__________ 9. En nuestra familia cada quien se va por su lado. __________ 10. Los quehaceres de la casa se pasan de uno a otro.__________ 11. Los miembros de nuestra familia conocen los amigos de unos y otros.__________ 12. En nuestra familia es dificil saber cuales son las reglas.__________ 13. Miembros de nuestra familia consultan con otros miembros sobre desiciones personales.__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Cerca de cada declaracion pon el numero que mejor describa a tu familia. l=Casi nunca 2=Alguna que otra vez 3=Algunas veces 4=Regularmente 5=Casi siempre 14. Miembros de nuestra familia dicen lo que quieren.__________ 15. Se nos dificulta pensar que podemos hacer como familia.__________ 16. Cuando se resuelven problemas se toman en cuenta las sugerencias de los hijos._____ 17. Miembros de nuestra familia se sienten muy unidos unos con otros.__________ 18. La disciplina es justa en nuestra familia.__________ 19. Miembros de nuestra familia se sienten mas unidos a personas ajenas a la familia que con los mismos miembros de la familia.__________ 20. Nuestra familia intenta formas nuevas para resolver los problemas.__________ 21. Miembros de nuestra familia siguen las decisiones que se han tornado.__________ 22. En nuestra familia se comparten las responsabilidades.__________ 23. Miembros de nuestra familia disfrutan pasando sus ratos libres con otros miembros de la familia.__________ 24. Es dificil cambiar una regia en nuestra familia.__________ 25. Miembros de nuestra familia evitan verse con otros de la familia.__________ 26. Cuando surge un problema nosotros nos comprometemos.__________ 27. Estamos de acuerdo con las amistades de unos y otros.__________ 28. Miembros de nuestra familia temen decir lo que tienen en mente.__________ '29. Miembros de nuesta familia se apartan entre dos en vez de unimos como familia.___________ 30. Miembros de nuestra familia comparten unos con otros los mismos intereses y pasatiempos.___________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX E FAMILY SATISFACTION SCALE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 Family Satisfaction Scale Adolescent Version PLACE THE NUMBER THAT BEST DESCRIBES HOW SATISFIED YOU ARE NEXT TO EACH STATEMENT. l=Dissatisfied 2=Somewhat Dissatisfied 3=Generally Satisfied 4=Very Satisfied 5=ExtremeIy Satisfied HOW SATISFIED ARE YOU: 1. With how close you feel to the rest of your family?__________ 2. With your ability to try new things?__________ 3. With your family’s ability to try new things?__________ 4. With how often parents make decisions in your family?__________ 5. With how much mother and father argue with each other?__________ 6. If another adult lives in your home, with how much your mother or father argues with that person?_____ 7. With how fair the criticism is in your family?__________ 8. With the amount of time you spend with your family?__________ 9. With the way you talk together to solve family problems?__________ 10. With your freedom to be alone when you want to?__________ 11. With how strictly you stay with who does what chores in your family?__________ 12. With your family’s acceptance of your friends?__________ 13. With how clear is it what your family expects of you?__________ 14. With how often you make decisions as a family, rather than individually?__________ 15. With the number of fun things your family does together?__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 Family Satisfaction Scale Adolescent Version PON EL NUMERO QUE MEJOR DESCRIBE LO SATISFECHO QUE ESTAS CON CADA DECLARACION.* l=Insatisfecho 2=Algo Insatisfecho 3=Generalmente Satisfecho 4=Muy Satisfecho 5=Extremadamente Satisfecho QUE TAN SATISFECHO ESTAS? 1. i,Con tu acercamiento con el resto de tu familia?________ 2. ^Con tu habilidad de decir lo que quieres dentro de tu familia?________ 3. ^Con la habilidad que tiene tu familia de hacer cosas nuevas?________ 4. i,Con la frecuencia en que tus padres toman desiciones dentro de la familia?________ 5. ^Con las veces en que tu padre y madre discuten?________ 6. ^Con las discusiones que tiene tu padre o madre con el otro(a) adulto que vive en casa?________ 7. ^Con lo justo que son las criticas dentro de tu familia?________ 8. i,Con la cantidad de tiempo que pasas con tu familia?________ 9. < r,C on la manera en hablan unos con otros para resolver los problemas familiares?________ 10. i,Con la libertad que tienes para estar solo cuando asi lo deseas?________ 11. i,Con lo estricto que eres cuando se trata de quien hace que deberes en casa?________ 12. i.Con la manera en que tu familia acepta tus amistades?________ 13. i,Con el entendimiento sobre lo que tu familia espera de tx?________ 14. i,Con la frecuencia en que se toman desiciones como grupo familiar en vez de individualmente?________ 15. ^Con el numero de cosas divertidas que hacen como familia?________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Family Satisfaction Scale Parent Version PLACE THE NUMBER THAT BEST DESCRIBES HOW SATISFIED YOU ARE NEXT TO EACH STATEMENT. l=Dissatisfied 2=Somewhat Dissatisfied 3=Generally Satisfied 4=Very Satisfied 5=Extremely Satisfied HOW SATISFIED ARE YOU: 1. With how close you feel to the rest of your family?__________ 2. With your ability to try new things?__________ 3. With your family’s ability to try new things?__________ 4. With how often parents make decisions in your family?__________ 5. With how much you argue with your child’s mother or father?__________ 6. With how much you argue with your spouse or boyfriend (if other than the child’s father)?_______ 7. With how fair the criticism is in your family? . _____ 8. With the amount of time you spend with your family?__________ 9. With the way you talk together to solve family problems?___________ 10. With your freedom to be alone when you want to?__________ 11. With how strictly you stay with who does what chores in your family?__________ 12. With your family’s acceptance of your friends?__________ 13 - With how clear is it what your family expects of you?__________ 14. With how often you make decisions as a family, rather than individually?__________ 15. With the number of fun things your family does together?___________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Family Satisfaction Scale Parent Version PON EL NUMERO QUE MEJOR DESCRIBE LO SATISFECHO QUE ESTAS CON CADA DECLARACION* I=Insatisfecho 2=Algo Insatisfecho 3=G eneralm ente Satisfecho 4=M uy Satisfecho 5=Extrem adam ente Satisfecho QUE TAN SATISFECHO ESTAS? 1. ^Con tu acercamiento con el resto de tu familia?________ 2. t,Con tu habilidad de decir lo que quieres dentro de tu familia?________ 3. ,j,Con la habilidad que tiene tu familia de hacer cosas nuevas?________ 4. ,j,Con la frecuencia en que tus padres toman desiciones dentro de la familia?________ 5. ^Con las discusiones que tienes con el padre de tu hijo(a)?________ 6. i,Con las discusiones que tienes con tu pareja (si este no es el padre de tu hijo)?________ 7. ^Con lo justo que son las criticas dentro de tu familia?________ 8. ^Con la cantidad de tiempo que pasas con tu familia?________ 9. ^Con la manera en hablan unos con otros para resolver los problemas familiares?________ 10. ^Con la libertad que tienes para estar solo cuando asi lo deseas?________ 11. <jCon lo estricto que eres cuando se trata de quien hace que deberes en casa?________ 12. oCon la manera en que tu familia acepta tus amistades?________ 13. c,Con el entendimiento sobre lo que tu familia espera de ti?________ 14. £Con la frecuencia en que se toman desiciones como grupo familiar en vez de individualmente?________ 15. ^Con el numero de cosas divertidas que hacen como familia?________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 APPENDIX F THE CHILD’S REPORT OF PARENT BEHAVIOR INVENTORY (CRPBI-30) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 CRPBI-30 As children grow up they learn more and more about their parents and how their parents are bringing them up. Please read each statement on the following pages and circle the answer that most closely describes the way each of your parents acts toward you. Be sure to mark each answer for each parent If you think that the statement describes a person who is not like your MOTHER, circle NL. If you think that the statement describes a person who is somewhat like your MOTHER, circle SL. If you think that the statement describes a person a lot like your MOTHER, circle LL. MY MOTHER IS A PERSON W HO... 1. .. .makes me feel better after talking over my worries with her. NL SL LL 2. .. .tells me of all the things she had done for me. NL SL LL 3. .. .believes in having a lot o f rules and sticking to them. NL SL LL 4. .. .smiles at me very often. NL SL LL 5. .. .says, if I really cared for her, I would not do things'that cause her to worry. NL SL LL 6. ...insists that I must do exactly as I’m told. NL SL LL 7. .. .is able to make me feel better when I am upset. NL SL LL 8. ...is always telling me how I should behave. NL SL LL 9. .. .is very strict with me. NL SL LL 10. ..enjoys doing things with me. NL SL LL 11. ...would like to be able to tell me what to do all of the time. NL SL LL 12. .. .gives hard punishment. NL SL LL 13. .. .cheers me up when I am sad. NL SL LL Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 If you think that the statement describes a person who is not like your MOTHER, circle NL. If you think that the statement describes a person who is somewhat like your MOTHER, circle SL. If you think that the statement describes a person a lot like your MOTHER, circle LL. MY MOTHER IS A PERSON WHO... 14. .. .wants to control whatever I do. NL SL LL 15. ...is easy with me. NL SL LL 16. .. .gives me a lot of care and attention. NL SL LL 17. .. .is always trying to change me. NL SL LL 18. . ..lets me off easy when I do something wrong. NL SL LL 19. ...makes me feel like the most important person in her life. NL SL LL 20. .. .only keeps rules when it suits her. NL SL LL 21. .. .gives me as much freedom as I want. NL SL LL 22. .. .believes in showing her love for me. NL SL LL 23. ... is less friendly with me, if I do not see things her way. NL SL LL 24. ...lets me go any place I please without asking. NL SL LL 25. .. .often praises me. NL SL LL 26. .. .will avoid looking at me when I have disappointed her. NL SL LL 27. ...lets me go out any evening I want. NL SL LL 28. ...is easy to talk to. NL SL LL 29. .. .if I have hurt her feelings, stops talking to me until I please her again. NL SL LL 30. ...lets me do anything I like to do. NL SL LL Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 CRPBI-30 As children grow up they learn more and more about their parents and how their parents are bringing them up. Please read each statement on the following pages and circle the answer that most closely describes the way each of your parents acts toward you. Be sure to mark each answer for each parent. If you think that the statement describes a person who is not like your FATHER, circle NL. If you think that the statement describes a person who is somewhat like your FATHER, circle SL. If you think that the statement describes a person a lot like your FATHER, circle LL. MY FATHER IS A PERSON WHO... 1. .. .makes me feel better after talking over my worries with him. NL SL LL 2 . ..tells me of all the things he had done for me. NL SL LL 3. .. .believes in having a lot o f rules and sticking to them. NL SL LL 4. .. .smiles at me very often. NL SL LL 5. .. .says, if I really cared for him, I would not do things that cause him to worry. NL SL LL 6. .. .insists that I must do exactly as I’m told. NL SL LL 7. .. .is able to make me feel better when I am upset. NL SL LL 8. .. .is always telling me how I should behave. NL SL LL 9. .. .is very strict with me. NL SL LL 10. ...enjoys doing things with me. NL SL LL 11. ...would like to be able to tell me what to do all of the time. NL SL LL 12. .. .gives hard punishment. NL SL LL 13. .. .cheers me up when I am sad. NL SL LL Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 If you think that the statement describes a person who is not like your FATHER, circle NL. If you think that the statement describes a person who is somewhat like your FATHER, circle SL. If you think that the statement describes a person a lot like your FATHER, circle LL. MY FATHER IS A PERSON WHO... 14. .. .wants to control whatever I do. NL SL LL 15. ...is easy with me. NL SL LL 16. .. .gives me a lot o f care and attention. NL SL LL 17. .. .is always trying to change me. NL SL LL 18. .. .lets me off easy when I do something wrong. NL SL LL 19. .. .makes me feel like the most important person in his life. NL SL LL 20. .. .only keeps rules when it suits him. NL SL LL 21. .. .gives me as much freedom as I want. NL SL LL 23. .. .believes in showing his love for me. NL SL LL 23. ... is less friendly with me, if I do not see things his way. NL SL LL 24. .. .lets me go any place I please without asking. NL SL LL 25. .. .often praises me. NL SL LL 26. .. .will avoid looking at me when I have disappointed him. NL SL LL 27. .. .lets me go out any evening I want. NL SL LL 28. .. .is easy to talk to. NL SL LL 29. ...if I have hurt his feelings, stops talking to me until I please him again. NL SL LL 30. .. .lets me do anything I like to do. NL SL LL Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 CRPBI-30 Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que NO ES PARECIDA a sus padres ponga un circulo en NP. Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que es ALGO PARECIDA a sus padres ponga un circulo en AP. Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que es MUY PARECIDA a sus padres ponga un circulo en MP. FORMA PARA LA MAD RE MI MADRE ES UNA PERSONA QUE . . . 1) .. .me hace sentir mejor despues de platicar mis preocupaciones con ella. NP AP MP 2) .. .me dice todas las cosas que ha hecho por mi.. NP AP MP 3) .. .cree en mantener muchas reglas y apegarse a ellas. NP AP MP 4) .. .se sonrie conmigo con frequencia. NP AP MP 5) .. .dice que si en realidad la quisiera no haria cosas que la preocuparan. NP AP MP 6) .. .insiste en que yo haga exactamente como se me ha dicho. NP AP MP 7) .. .es capaz de hacer que me sienta mejor cuando estoy disgustada. NP AP MP 8) .. .me esta diciendo siempre como debo comportarme. NP AP MP 9) .. .es muy estricta conmigo. NP AP MP 10) ...disfruta haciendo cosas conmigo. NP AP MP 11) ...quisiera poder decirme lo que debe hacer todo el tiempo. NP AP MP 12) ...impone castigo severos NP AP MP Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 NP = No es parecido AP = Algo parecido MP = Muy parecido MI MADRE ES UNA MUJER QUE . . . 13) ...me alegra cuando yo me siento triste. NP AP MP 14).. .quiere controlar todo lo que hago. NP AP MP 15) .. .es facil conmigo. NP AP MP 16) .. .me da mucha atencion y carino. NP AP MP 17) ...siempre esta tratando de cambiarme. NP AP MP 18) ...me deja salirme con lam ia cuando hago algo mal. NP AP MP 19).. .me hace sentir la persona mas importante en su vida. NP AP MP 20).. .solo cumple con las reglas cuando a ella le conviene. NP AP MP 2 1 )...me da la libertad que yo quiero. NP AP MP 22).. .cree en mostrar su amor por mi. NP AP MP 23) ...es menos amlstosa conmigo si no veo las cosas a su manera. NP AP MP 24).. .me deja ir a donde me plasca sin tener que avisar. NP AP MP 25)... me alaba con frequencia. NP AP MP 26) .. .evita mirarme si la desilusiono. NP AP MP 27).. .me deja salir cualquier noche que yo quiera. NP AP MP 28).. .inspira confianza al hablarle.. NP AP MP 29).. .si he lastimado sus sentimientos me deja de hablar hasta que la complasco de nuevo. NP AP MP 30).. .me deja hacer lo que yo quiera. NP AP MP Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 CRPBI-30 Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que NO ES PARECIDA a sus padres ponga un circulo en NP. Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que es ALGO PARECIDO a sus padres ponga un circulo en AP. Si usted cree que la declaracion describe a una persona que es MUY PARECIDA a sus padres ponga un circulo en MP. FORMA PARA EL PADRE MI PADRE ES UNA PERSONA QUE . . . 1) .. .me hace sentir mejor despues de platicar mis preocupaciones con el. NP AP . . MP 2) .. .me dice todas las cosas que ha hecho por mi. NP AP MP 3) .. .cree en mantener muchas reglas y apegarse a ellas. NP AP MP 4) .. .se sonrie conmigo con frequencia. NP AP MP 5) .. .dice que si en realidad lo quisiera no haria cosas que lo preocuparan. NP AP MP 6) .. .insiste en que yo haga exactamente como se me ha dicho. NP AP MP 7) .. .es capaz de hacer que me sienta mejor cuando estoy disgustado. NP AP MP 8) ...me esta diciento siempre como debo comportarme. NP AP MP 9) .. .es muy estricto conmigo. NP AP MP 10) ...disfruta haciendo cosas conmigo. NP AP MP 11).. .quisiera poder decirme lo que debo hacer todo el tiempo. NP AP MP 12) ...impone castigo duros. NP AP MP Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 NP = No es parecido AP = Algo parecido MP = Muy parecido MI PADRE ES UNA PERSONA Q UE... 13) ...me alegra cuando me siento triste. 14)... quiere controlar todo lo que hago. 15)...es facil conmigo. 16).. .me da mucha atencion y carino. 17)...siempre esta tratando de cambiarme. 18).. .me deja salirme con la mia cuando hago algo mal. 19).. .me hace sentir la persona mas importante en su vida. 20)...solo cumple con las reglas cuando a el ie conviene. 21).. .me da la libertad que yo quiero. 22).. .cree en mostrar su amor por mi. 23)...es menos amistoso conmigo si no veo las cosas a su manera. NP 24).. .me deja ir a donde me plasca sin tener que avisar. 25).. .que me alaba con frecuencia. 26)...evita mirarme si lo he desilusionado. 27).. .me deja salir cualquier noche que yo quiera. 28)...me inspira confianza al hablarle. 29)...si he lastimado sus sentimientos me deja de hablar hasta que lo compiasco de nuevo. 30).. .me deja hacer lo que yo quiera. NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP NP AP MP Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G THE ISSUES CHECKLIST (IC) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 Issues Checklist Date Your name Your parent’s/ child’s name (s) School_____________________ Below is a list of things that sometimes get talked about at home. We would like you to look carefully at each topic on the left-hand side of the page and decide whether the two of you together have talked about that topic at all during the last 2 weeks. If the two of you together have discussed it during the last two weeks, circle YES to the right of the topic. If the two of you together have not discussed it during the last 2 weeks, circle NO to the right of the topic. Go through the entire list of topics first. Now, we would like you to go back over the list of topics. For those topics for which you circled YES, please answer the two questions on the right-hand side of the page. 1. How many times during the last two weeks did the topic come up? 2. How hot are the discussions? Circle the numbers that illustrate how calm or angry the discussions were. HOW HOT ARE THE DISCUSSIONS? HOW MANY A LITTLE TOPIC TIMES? CALM ANGRY ANGRY 1. Telephone calls Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 2. Time for going to bed Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 3. Cleaning up bedroom Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 4. Doing homework Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 5. Putting away clothes Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 6. Using the television Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 7. Cleanliness (washing, showering, brushing teeth) Yes No 1 ' 2 3 4 5 8. Which clothes to wear Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 9. How neat clothing looks Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 This form involves my mother my father ______________ ____ my child other, ______________ please name Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 HOW HOT ARE THE DISCUSSIONS? HOW MANY A LITTLE TOPIC_______________________________________ TIMES? ■ CALM ANGRY ANGRY 10. Making too much noise Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 at home 11. Table manners Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 12. Fighting with brothers or Yes No I 2 3 4 5 sisters 13. Cursing Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 14. How much money is spent Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 15. Picking books or movies Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 16. Allowance Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 17. Going places without parents Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 (shopping, movies, etc.) 18. Playing stereo or radio Yes No I 2 3 4 5 too loudly 19. Turning o ff lights in house Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 20. Drugs Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 21. Taking care o f records. Yes No I 2 3 4 5 games, toys and things 22. Drinking beer or other liquor Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 23. Buying records, games. Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 toys and things 24. Going on dates Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 25. Who should be friends Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 26. Selecting new clothing Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 27. Sex Yes No I 2 3 4 5 28. Coming home on time Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 29. Getting to school on time Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 HOW HOT ARE THE DISCUSSIONS? HOW MANY A LITTLE TOPIC_______________________________________TIMES?_______ CALM ANGRY ANGRY 30. Getting low grades in school Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 31. Getting in trouble in school Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 32. Lying Yes No I 2 3 4 5 33. Helping out around the house Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 34. Talking back to parents Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 35. Getting up in the morning Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 36. Bothering parents when they want to be alone Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 37. Bothering teenager when Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 he/she wants to be left alone 38. Putting feet on furniture Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 39. Messing up the house Yes No I 2 3 4 5 40. What time to have meals Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 41. How to spend free time Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 42. Smoking Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 43. Earning money away Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 from house 44. What teenager eats Yes Other issues, please list.. .(i.e., pagers) No I 2 3 4 5 45. Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 46. Yes No I 2 3 4 5 47. Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 48. Yes No 1 2 3 4 5 CHECK TO SEE THAT YOU HAVE CIRCLED YES OR NO FOR EVERY TOPIC !!!!!!!!!!!!! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 Issues Checklist-Adolescent Version Fecha____________________________________ Esta forma describe: ______ madre Su nombre________________________________ ______ padre ______ otra persona Escuela en casa A continuation hay una lista de temas que algunas veces se discuten en casa. Queremos que observes cuidadosamente cada tema que se encuentra del lado izquierdo de la hoja y decidas si este tema se ha discutido entre ustedes dos durante los ultimas dos semanas. Si ustedes dos han discutido estos temas durante las ultimas dos semanas entonces ponga un circulo en SI del lado derecho de la hoja. Si ustedes dos no han discutido este tema durante las ultimas dos semanas entonces ponga un circulo en NO del lado derecho de la hoja. Primero vea los temas que hay en toda la lista. Ahora queremos que revise todos los temas y en aquellos temas en los que su respuestafue SI por favor conteste las dos preguntas del lado derecho de la hoja. 1. Cuantas veces durante las dos ultimas semanas se toco este tema? 2. Que tan acaloradas son las discuciones? Ponga un circulo en el niimero que demuestra que tan calmadas o enojadas son las discuciones. QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS U N P O C O TEMA VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 1. Llamadas por telefono Si No 1 2 3 4 5 2. Hora de ir a la cama . Si No I 2 3 4 5 3. Limpiar su recamara. Si No I 2 3 4 5 4. Hacer tarea. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 5. Guardar su ropa. Si No I 2 3 4 5 6. Usar la television. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 7. Limpieza (lavando, banos, lavandose los dientes). Si No 1 2 3 4 5 8. Que ropa usar. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 9. Que tan presentable se ve la ropa Si No 1 2 3 4 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS UNPOCO TEMA_______________________________________ VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 10. Haciendo mucho ruido en casa. Si No I 2 *> 4 5 11. Su comportamiento en la mesa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 12. Peleando con sus hennanos o Si No I 2 3 4 5 hermanas. 13. Maldiciendo. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 14. Como se gasta el dinero. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 15. Escogiendo libros o peliculas. Si No I 2 3 4 5 16. Mesada o Raya Si No 1 2 3 4 ’ 5 17. Llendo a lugares sin sus padres Si No 1 2 3 4 5 (de compras, al cine, etc.). 18. Tocar el radio o estereo muy alto. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 19. Apagando las luces en la casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 20. Drogas. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 21. Cuidando sus juegos, discos, Si No 1 2 3 4 5 juguetes y otras cosas. 22. Tomando cerveza u otro Iicor. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 23. Comprando juegos, discos, juguetes y otras cosas. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 24. Saliendo en una cita. Si No 1 ' 2 3 4 5 25. Quienes deberan ser sus amigos. Si No I 2 3 4 5 26. Escogiendo ropa nueva. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 27. 28. Sexo. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 28. Vininedo a casa a tiempo. Si No I 2 3 4 5 29. Llegando a la escuela a tiempo Si No 1 2 3 4 5 30. Sacando buenas calificaciones. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS UNPOCO TEMA_______________________________________ VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 31. Metiendose en problemas en la Si No I 2 3 4 5 escuela. 32. Mintiendo. Si No I 2 3 4 5 33. Ayudando en casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 34. Contestandole a los padres. Si No I 2 3 4 5 35. Levantandose en la manana. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 36. Molestando a sus padres cuando Si No 1 2 3 4 5 estos quieren estar solos. 37. Molestando al adolescente Si No 1 2 3 4 5 cuando este quiere estar solo. 38. Poniendo los pies sobre los muebles. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 39. Desordenando la casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 40. A que hora se deben tomar los Si No I 2 3 4 5 alimentos. 41. Como usar el tiempo libre. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 42. Fumando. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 43. Ganando dinero fiiera de casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 44. Que debe comer el adolecente. Si No Por favor liste otros temas que no se mencionado (beepers) 1 2 3 4 5 45. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 46. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 47. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 48. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 ASEGURESE HABERMARCADO SI O NO PARA CADA TEMA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! DIGALE AL ENTREVISTADOR QUE YA TERMINO Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 Issues Checklist-Parent Version F echa___________________________________ Su nombre_______________________________ El nombre de su hijo_______________________ Escuela_________________________________ A continuacion hay una lista de temas que algunas veces se discuten en casa. Queremos que observes cuidadosamente cada tema que se encuentra del lado izquierdo de la hoja y decidas si este tema se ha discutido entre ustedes dos durante los ultimas dos semanas. Si ustedes dos han discutido estos temas durante las ultimas dos semanas entonces ponga un circulo en SI del lado derecho de la hoja. Si ustedes dos no han discutido este tema durante las ultimas dos semanas entonces ponga un circulo en NO del lado derecho de la hoja. Primero vea los temas que hay en toda la lista. Ahora queremos que revise todos los temas y en aquellos temas en los que su respuesta fue SI por favor conteste las dos preguntas del lado derecho de la hoja. 1. Cuantas veces durante las dos ultimas semanas se toco este tema? 2. Que tan acaloradas son las discuciones? Ponga un circulo en el numero que demuestra que tan calmadas o enojadas son las discuciones. QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS UNPOCO TEMA_______________________________________VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 1. Llamadas por telefono Si No I 2 3 4 5 2. Hora de ir a la cama . Si No 1 2 3 4 5 3. Limpiar su recamara. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 4. Hacer tarea. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 5. Guardar su ropa. Si No 1 2 3 4 6. Usar la television. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 7. Limpieza (lavando, banos, lavandose los dientes). Si No 1 2 3 4 5 8. Que ropa usar. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 9. Que tan presentable se ve la ropa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS UNPOCO TEMA_______________________________________ VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 10. Haciendo mucho ruido en casa. Si No I 2 3 4 5 11. Su comportamiento en la mesa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 12. Peleando con sus hermanos o Si No 1 2 3 4 5 hermanas. 13. Maldiciendo. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 14. Como se gasta el dinero. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 15. Escogiendo libros o peliculas. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 16. Mesada o Raya Si No 1 2 3 4' 5 17. Llendo a lugares sin sus padres Si No 1 2 3 4 5 (de compras, al cine, etc.). 18. Tocar el radio o estereo muy alto. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 19. Apagando las luces en la casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 20. Drogas. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 21. Cuidando sus juegos, discos, Si No 1 2 3 4 5 juguetes y otras cosas. 22. Tomando cerveza u otro licor. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 23. Comprando juegos, discos, juguetes y otras cosas. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 24. Saliendo en una cita. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 25. Quienes deberan ser sus amigos. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 26. Escogiendo ropa nueva. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 27. 28. Sexo. Si No 1 2 3 4 3 28. Vininedo a casa a tiempo. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 29. Llegando a la escuela a tiempo Si No 1 2 3 4 5 30. Sacando buenas calificaciones. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 QUE TAN ACALORADAS SON LAS DISCUSIONES? CUANTAS UNPOCO TEMA_______________________________________ VECES CALMADO ENOJADO ENOJADO 31. Metiendose en problemas en la Si No 1 2 3 4 5 escuela. 32. Mintiendo. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 33. Ayudando en casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 34. Contestandole a los padres. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 35. Levantandose en la man ana. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 36. Molestando a sus padres cuando Si No I 2 3 4 5 estos quieren estar solos. 37. Molestando al adolescente Si No 1 2 3 4 5 cuando este quiere estar solo. 38. Poniendo los pies sobre los Si No 1 2 3 4 5 muebles. 39. Desordenando la casa. Si No I 2 3 4 5 40. A que hora se deben tomar los Si No 1 2 3 4 5 alimentos. 41. Como usar el tiempo libre. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 42. Fumando. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 43. Ganando dinero fuera de casa. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 44. Que debe comer el adolecente. Si No 1 Por favor liste otros temas que no se mencionado (beepers) 2 3 4 5 45. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 46.’ Si No 1 2 3 4 5 47. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 48. Si No 1 2 3 4 5 ASEGURESE HABER MARCADO SI O NO PARACADA TEMA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! DIGALE AL ENTREVTSTADOR QUE YA TERMINO Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX H THE PARENTAL STRESS SCALE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 Parental Stress Scale ABOUT PARENTING... PLACE THE NUMBER THAT BEST DESCRIBES WHETHER YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS: l=STRONGLY DISAGREE 2=DISAGREE 3=NEITHER DISAGREE NOR AGREE 4=AG REE 5=STRONGLY AGREE 1. I am happy in my role as a parent.__________ 2. There is little or nothing I wouldn’t do for my child(ren) if it was necessary.__________ 3. Caring for my child(ren) sometimes takes more time and energy that I have to give.__________ 4. I sometimes worry if I am doing enough for my child(ren).__________ 5. I feel close to my child(ren).__________ 6. 1 enjoy spending time with my child(ren).__________ 7. My child(ren) is (are) an important source of affection for me.__________ 8. Having child(ren) gives me a more certain and optimistic view for the future.____________ 9. The major source of stress in my life is my child (ren).__________ 10. Having child(ren) leaves little time and flexibility in my life.__________ 11. Having child(ren) has been a financial burden.__________ 12. It is difficult to balance different responsibilities because of my child(ren).__________ 13. The behavior of my child(ren) is often embarrassing or stressful to me.__________ 14. If I had to do it over again, I might decide not to have child(ren).__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 PLACE THE NUMBER THAT BEST DESCRIBES WHETHER YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS: l=STRONGLY DISAGREE 2=D IS AGREE 3=NEITHER DISAGREE NOR AGREE 4=AGREE 5=STRONGLY AGREE 15.1 feel overwhelmed by the responsibility of being a parent.__________ 16. Having children has meant having too few choices and too little control over my life.__________ 17.1 am satisfied as a parent._________ 18.1 find my child(ren) enjoyable.__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 Parental Stress Scale SOBRE SER PADRES... PONGA EL NUMERO QUE MEJOR DESCRIBA SI ESTA EN ACUERDO O EN DESACUERDO CON LAS SIGUIENTES DECLARACIONES. l=ESTOY EN TOTAL DESACUERDO 2=EN DESACUERDO 3=NO ESTOY NI DE ACUERDO NI EN DESACUERDO 4=ESTOY EN ACUERDO 5=ESTOY DE ACUERDO TOTAL 1. Estoy contento con mi papel como padre.__________ 2. Hay muy poco o nada que yo no haria por mi hijo(os) si iiiera necesario.__________ 3. El cuidado de mi hijo(os) toma mas tiempo y energia del que que yo puedo dar.__________ 4. A veces me preocupa si estoy haciendo lo suficiente por mis hijos.__________ 5. Me siento muy unido a mis hijos. __________ 6. Yo disfruto pasando tiempo con mis hijos.__________ 7. Mi hijo(os) es (son) una fiiente importante de afecto para mi.__________ 8. Teniendo hijos me da mas certeza y optimismo para ver el futuro.__________ 9. La mayor fuente de estres en mi vida son mis hijos.__________ 10. Teniendo hijos deja muy poca flexibilidad y tiempo libre en mi vida.__________ 11. Teniendo hijos ha sido una carga flnanciera.__________ 12. A causa de mis hijos me es diflcil equilibrar ciertas responsabilidades en mi vida.__________ 13. Con frecuencia el comportamiento de mis hijos me es bochomoso o estresante para mi. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 PONGA EL NUMERO QUE MEJOR DESCRIBA SI ESTA EN ACUERDO O EN DESACUERDO CON LAS SIGUIENTES DECLARACIONES. l=ESTOY EN TOTAL DESACUERDO 2=EN DESACUERDO 3=NO ESTOY NI DE ACUERDO NI EN DESACUERDO 4=ESTOY EN ACUERDO 5=ESTOY DE ACUERDO TOTAL 14. Si tuviera que erapezar de nuevo talvez hubiera decido no tener hijos.___ 15. Me siento abrumado con la responsabilidad de ser padre.__________ 16. El tener hijos ha significado tener pocas opciones y poco control sobre mi vida.__________ 17. Estoy satisfecho como padre.__________ 18. Mis hijos son agradables.__________ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX I SELF-PERCEPTION PROFILE FOR ADOLESCENTS Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 Self Perception Profile for Adolescents PLEASE LET US KNOW W HEN YO U REACH THIS POINT SO THAT WE M AY EXPLAIN HOW THE QUESTIONS W O R K . THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ASK WHAT YOU ARE LIKE. THEY ASK ABOUT THE KIND OF PERSON THAT YOU A RE- ONCE YOU GET THE IDEA OF HOW THE QUESTIONS W ORK IT WILL GO QUICKLY AND EASILY. THINK OF THIS AS A SURVEY. THERE ARE NO RIGHT AND WRONG ANSWERS. IF YOU WANT INSTRUCTIONS TO LOOK BACK ON AFTER IT IS EXPLAINED TO YOU: • LOOK AT THE SAMPLE QUESTION. READ IT TO YOURSELF. • SO, FIRST I WANT YOU TO DECIDE WHETHER YOU ARE MORE LIKE THE TEENAGER ON THE LEFT SIDE WHO WOULD RATHER GO TO THE MOVIES OR WHETHER YOU ARE MORE LIKE THE TEENS ON THE RIGHT SIDE WHO WOULD RATHER GO TO A SPORTS EVENT. DON’T MARK ANYTHING YET. • NOW, THE SECOND THING I WANT YOU TO THINK ABOUT, NOW THAT YOU HAVE DECIDED WHICH BUND OF TEENS ARE MOST LUCE YOU, IS DECIDE WHETHER IT IS ONLY SORT OF TRUE FOR YOU, OR IT IS REALLY TRUE FOR YOU. IF IT IS ONLY SORT OF TRUE, THEN PUT AN X IN THE BOX UNDER SORT OF TRUE; IF IT IS REALLY TRUE FOR YOU, THEN PUT AN X IN THAT BOX, UNDER REALLY TRUE. • FOR EACH SENTENCE YOU ONLY CHECK ONE BOX. SOMETIMES IT WILL BE ON ONE SIDE OF THE PAGE, ANOTHER TIME IT WILL BE ON THE OTHER SIDE OF THE PAGE, BUT REMEMBER YOU CAN ONLY CHECK ONE BOX FOR EACH SENTENCE. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 Self Perception Profile for Adolescents WHAT I AM LIKE Really Sort o f Sort o f Really True True True True for Me for Me for Me for Me SAMPLE SENTENCE a) DD Some teenagers like to go BUT Other teenagers would rather □ □ to movies in their spare time. go to sports events. 2. 3. 4. 0. 6. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Some teenagers feel that they are just as smart as others their age. Some teenagers find it hard to make friends. Some teenagers do very well at all kinds o f sports. Some teenagers are not happy with the way they look. Some teenagers feel that they are ready to do well at a part-time job. Some teenagers feel that if they are romantically interested in someone, that person will like them back. Some teenagers usually do the right thing. BUT Other teenagers aren’t so sure and wonder if they are as smart □ □ BUT For other teenagers it’s pretty easy. BUT Other teenagers don’t feel that they are very good when it comes to sports. □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers are happy with the way they look. BUT Other teenagers feel that they are not quite ready to handle a part-time job. BUT Other teenagers worry that when they like someone romantically, that person won’t like them back. BUT Other teenagers often don’t do what they know is right. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 Really Sort o f True True for Me for Me Sort of Really True True for Me for Me 8 . 9. □ □ □ □ 10. □ □ Some teenagers are able to make really close friends. Some teenagers are often disappointed with themselves. Some teenagers are pretty slow in finishing their school work. BUT Other teenagers find it hard to make really close friends. BUT Other teenagers are pretty pleased with themselves. BUT Other teenagers can do their school work more quickly. □ □ □ □ □ □ 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Some teenagers have a lot o f friends. Some teenagers think they could do well at just about any new athletic activity. Some teenagers wish their body was different. Some teenagers feel that they don’t have enough skills to do well at a job. Some teenagers are not dating the people they are really attracted to. Some teenagers often get in trouble for the things they do. Some teenagers do have a close friend they can share secrets with. BUT Other teenagers don’t have very many friends. □ □ BUT Other teenagers are afraid they □ □ might not do well at a new athletic activity. BUT Other teenagers like their body the way it is. BUT Other teenagers feel that they do have enough skills to do a job well. □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers are dating those people they are attracted to. □ □ BUT Other teenagers usually don’t do things that get them in trouble. □ □ BUT Other teenagers do not have a really close friend they can share secrets with. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 Really Sort of True True for Me for Me 18. □ □ Some teenagers don’t like the way they are leading their life. Sort o f Really True True for Me for Me BUT Other teenagers do like the way they are leading their life. □ □ 19. □ □ Some teenagers do very well at their classwork. BUT Other teenagers don’t do very well at their classwork. □ □ 20. 2 1 . 22. □ □ □ □ □ □ Some teenagers are very hard to like. Some teenagers feel that they are better than others their age at sports. Some teenagers wish their physical appearance was different. BUT Other teenagers are really easy to like. BUT Other teenagers don’t feel that they can play as well. □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers like their physical appearance the way it is. □ □ 23. 24. 25. 26. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Some teenagers feel that they are old enough to get and keep a paying job. Some teenagers feel that people their age will be romantically attracted to them. Some teenagers feel really good about the way they act. Some teenagers wish they had a really close friend to share things with. BUT Other teenagers do not feel that they are old enough, yet, to really handle a job well BUT Other teenagers worry about whether people their age will be attracted to them. BUT Other teenagers don’t feel that good about the way they often often act. □ □ □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers do have a close friend to share things with. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 Really Sort o f True True for Me for Me Sort o f Really True True for Me for Me 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Some teenagers are happy with themselves most o f the time. Some teenagers have trouble figuring out the answers in school. Some teenagers are popular with others their age. Some teenagers don’t do well at new outdoor games. Some teenagers think that they are good looking. Some teenagers feel like they could do better at work they do for pay. Some teenagers feel that they are fun and interesting on a date. Some teenagers do things they know they shouldn’t do. Some teenagers find it hard to make friends they can really trust. Some teenagers like the kind of person they are. BUT Other teenagers are often not happy with themselves. BUT Other teenagers almost always can figure out the answers. □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers are not very popular. BUT Other teenagers are good at new games right away. BUT Other teenagers think that they are not very good looking. BUT Other teenagers feel that they are doing really well at work they do for pay. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers wonder about how fun and interesting they Are on a date. □ □ BUT Other teenagers hardly ever do things they know they shouldn’t do. □ □ BUT Other teenagers are able to make close friends they can really trust. BUT Other teenagers often wish they were someone else. □ □ □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 Really Sort of True True for Me for Me Sort of True for Me Really True for Me 37. GD Some teenagers feel that they are pretty' intelligent. BUT Other teenagers question whether they are intelligent. □ □ 38. DG Some teenagers feel that they are socially accepted. BUT Other teenagers wished that L _ 1 L J more people their age accepted them. 39. n o Some teenagers do not feel that they are very athletic. BUT Other teenagers feel that they are very athletic. □ □ 40. O O Some teenagers really like their looks. BUT Other teenagers wish they looked different. □ □ 4 i. O E G Some teenagers feel that they are really able to handle the work on a paying job. BUT Other teenagers wonder if they L J L J are really doing as good a job at work as they should be doing. 42. OO Some teenagers usually don’t go out with the people they would really like to date. BUT Other teenagers do go out with the people they really want to date. □ □ 43. OO Some teenagers usually act the way they know they are supposed to. BUT Other teenagers often don’t G I — 1 act the way they are supposed to. 4 4 . 0 0 Some teenagers don’t have a friend that is close enough to share really personal thoughts with. BUT Other teenagers do have a close friend that they can share personal thoughts and feelings with. □ □ 45. O O Some teenagers are very happy being the way they are. BUT Other teenagers wish they were different. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165 HOW IMPORTANT ARE EACH OF THESE THINGS TO YOU? Really Sort of True True for Me for Me 1 . 3. 4. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 6. □ □ □ □ 7. 8 . □ □ □ □ Some teenagers think it is important to be intelligent. Some teenagers don’t think it’s all that important to have a lot o f friends. Some teenagers think it’s important to be good at sports. Some teenagers don’t really think that their physical appearance is all that important. Some teenagers don’t care that much about how well they do on a paying job. Some teenagers think it’s important that the people they are romantically interested in like them back. Some teenagers don’t think it’s that important to do the right thing. Some teenagers think it’s important to be able to make really close friends. BUT BUT BUT BUT BUT BUT BUT BUT Sort o f True for Me Other teenagers don’t think it is important to be intelligent. Other teenagers think that having a lot o f friends is important. Really True for Me □ □ □ □ Other teenagers don’t care much about being good at sports. □ □ Other teenagers think that their physical appearance is important. □ □ Other teenagers feel it’s important that they do well on a paying job. Other teenagers don’t really care that much about whether someone they are interested in likes them that much. □ □ □ □ Other teenagers think that doing the right thing is important. □ □ Other teenagers don’t think making close friends is all that important. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 166 Really Sort of True True for Me for Me 9. □ □ 10. 11. 12. 13. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 14. □ □ 15. 16. □ □ □ □ Some teenagers don’t think that doing well in school is really that important. Some teenagers think it’s important to be popular. Some teenagers don’t think that being athletic is that important. Some teenagers think that how they look is important. Some teenagers think it’s important to do their best on a paying job. Some teenagers don’t care that much whether they are dating someone they are romantically interested in. Some teenagers think it’s important to act the way they are supposed to. Some teenagers don’t care that much about having a close friend they can trust. Sort o f Really True True for Me for Me BUT Other teenagers think that doing well in school is important. □ □ BUT Other teenagers don’t care that much about whether they are popular. □ □ BUT Other teenagers think that being athletic is important. □ □ BUT Other teenagers don’t care that much about how they look. BUT Other teenagers don’t think that doing their best on a job is all that important. □ □ □ □ BUT Other teenagers think it’s important to be dating someone they are interested in. □ □ BUT Other teenagers don’t care that much whether they are acting the way they are supposed to. □ □ BUT Other teenagers think it’s important to have a really close friend they can trust. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 Self Perception Profile for Adolescents COMO SOY YO Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi Muy Mas o menos 1 . □ □ 2. 3. 4. 5. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes sienten que son tan inteligentes como otros jovenes de su edad. Para algunos jovenes no es facill tener amigos. Algunos jovenes Ies va muy bien en toda clase de deportes. Algunos jovenes no estan contentos con su apariencia. Algunos jovenes sienten estar listos para trabajar medio tiempo. Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi PERO Otros jovenes no estan tan seguros y se pregun tan si seran inteligentes. □ □ PERO Para otros jovenes es facil tener amigos. PERO Otros jovenes sienten que no les va tan bien cuando se trata de deportes. □ □ □ □ PERO Otros jovenes se sienten contentos con su apariencia. PERO Otros jovenes siente que aun no estan preparados para un trabajo de medio tiempo. □ □ □ □ 6 . □ □ 8. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes sienten PERO que si estan romanticamente interesados en una persona esta les correspondera. Algunos jovenes PERO usualmente hacen lo correcto. Algunos jovenes son PERO capaces de tener amigos intimos. Otros jovenes se preocupan cuando una persona que les interesa romanticamente no les corresponde. Otros jovenes con frecuencia no hacen lo correcto. Para otros jovenes es duro tener amigos intimos. □ □ □ □ □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi 9. 10. 11. □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes estan desilucionados con ellos mismos. Algunos jovenes son lentos para terminar su trabajo en clase. Algunos jovenes tienen mucbos amigos. Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi PERO Otros jovenes estan satisfechos con ellos mismos. PERO Otros jovenes hacen su trabajo rapido en clase. PERO Otros jovenes no tienen tantos amigos. □ □ □ □ □ □ 12. □ □ Algunos jovenes creen PERO que les puede ir bien en cualquier actividad deportiva nueva. Otros jovenes tienen miedo que que no les vaya tan bien en una actividad deportiva nueva. □ □ 13. □ □ Algunos jovenes quisieran que su cuerpo fuera diferente. PERO Otros jovenes les gusta su cuerpo tal como es. □ □ 14. □ □ 15. 16. 17. □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes sienten que no tienen las suficientes destrezas para que les vaya bien en un trabajo. Algunos jovenes no salen con las personas que les atraen. Algunos jovenes con frecuencia tienen problemas por las cosas que hacen. Algunos jovenes dene un amigo ultimo en quien confiar sus secretos. PERO Otros jovenes si tienen las destrezas suficientes para que les vaya bien en un trabajo. PERO Otros jovenes si salen con las personas que los atraen. PERO Otros jovenes usualmente no tienen problemas con lo que hacen. PERO Otros jovenes no tienen amigos intimos con los que puedan platicar sus secretos. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 169 Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi 18. □ □ Algunos jovenes no les gusta Iaforma de vida que llevan. Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi PERO Otros jovenes estan conformes con su forma de vida. □ □ 19. □ □ Algunos jovenes les va muy bien con su trabajo en clase. PERO Otros jovenes no les va bien con su trabajo en clase. □ □ 20. 21. 77 □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes son dificil para darse a querer. Algunos jovenes sienten que son mejores en los deportes que otros jovenes de su edad. Algunos jovenes quisieran que su apariencia flsica fiiera diferente. PERO Otros jovenes son faciles para darse a querer. PERO Otros jovenes sienten que no juegan tan bien. PERO Otros jovenes estan conformes con su apariencia flsica. □ □ □ □ □ □ 23. 24. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes sienten que tienen edad y pueden mantener un trabajo pagado. Algunos jovenes sienten que personas de su edad se sienten se sienten atraidos a ellos. PERO Otros jovenes consideran no tener la suficiente edad para tener un trabajo pagado. PERO Otros jovenes se preocupan si otros personas se sentiran atraidos a ellos. □□ □□ 25. 26. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes se sienten bien con la manera en que se comportan. Algunos jovenes quisieran tener un amigo intimo a quien contarle sus cosas. PERO Otros jovenes no se sienten bien con su comportamiento. □ □ PERO Otros jovenes si tienen un amigo intimo a quien comparle sus cosas. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 170 Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi 27. 28. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes estan contentos con si mismos la mayor parte del tiempo. Algunos jovenes les es diflcil saber las respuestas en la escuela. Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi PERO Otros jovenes con frecuencia □ □ no estan contentos con si mismos. PERO Otros jovenes casi siempre saben las respuestas en la escuela. □ □ 29. 30. 31. □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes se sienten admirados al igual que otros jovenes de su edad. Algunos jovenes creen que son bien parecidos. Algunos jovenes no son tan buenos para aprender juegos nuevos. PERO Otros jovenes no se sienten que son admirados. PERO Otros jovenes creen que que no son bien parecidos. PERO Otros jovenes aprenden juegos nuevos rapidamente. □ □ □ □ □ □ 32. 33. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes sienten que podrian hacer un trabajo mejor aun siendo pagados. Algunos jovenes sienten que son interesantes y divertidos sus citas. PERO Otros jovene sienten que que hacen buen trabajo. □ □ PERO Otros jovenes se preguntan si sera interesantes y divertidos en sus citas. □ □ 34. □ □ Algunos jovenes hacen cosas que saben que no deberian hacer. PERO Otros jovenes casi nunca hacen cosas indebidas. □ □ 35. □ □ Algunos jovenes se les hace diflcil hacer amigos en quien puedan conflar. PERO Otros jovenes pueden hacer amigos en los cuales puedan conflar. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 171 Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para mi 36. 37. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes estan contentos con la clase de persona que son. Algunos jovenes sienten ser bastante inteligentes. Muy Mas o menos Verdadero Verdadero para mi para ml PERO Otros jovenes quisieran ser otra persona. PERO Otros jovenes se preguntan si son inteligentes. □ □ □□ 38. 39. □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes se' sienten socialmente aceptados. Algunos jovenes sienten que son buenos atletas. PERO Otros jovenes quisieran ser que personas de su edad los aceptaran mas. PERO Otros jovenes sienten que no son tan buenos atletas. □ □ □ □ 40. 41. 42. 43. □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ Algunos jovenes realmente estan contentos como se ven. Algunos jovenes sienten que pueden sobre llevar el trabajo donde les pagan. Algunos jovenes no salen con con personas que les interesan. Algunos jovenes se comportan como es debido comportarse. PERO Otros jovenes quisieran verse diferente. PERO Otros jovenes se preguntan si estan haciendo el trabajo tan bien como deberian. □ □ □ □ PERO Otros jovenes si salen con las personas que les interesan. PERO Otros jovenes no se comportan como se supone que deberian. □ □ □ □ 44. □ □ 45. □ □ Algunos jovenes no tiene PERO amigos intimos con quien compartir sus sensamientos personales. Algunos jovenes estan PERO contentos con su manera de ser. Otros jovenes si tienen amigos intimos con quien compartir sus sentimientos personales. □ □ Otros jovenes quisieran ser ser diferentes. □ □ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX J THE DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Demographic Questionnaire PROJECT FUN FAMILY INFORMATION SHEET Your name _____________ Last Middle First Address Telephone number(s): home work Is it OK to call at work? Best time to be reached Marital status (Please circle): Married Divorced Separated Single How many other children do you have? Please list their age(s). _________ ages______ , _______ , _______ , _______ , _______ Occupation__________________________________________________________ Which best describes you? (Please check) ______ African American ______ Hispanic ______ White, Non-Hispanic ______ Asian American Please share a few words about your interest in Project FUN. Native American Biracial, multiethnic Other (please list) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 174 Demographic Questionnaire PAPEL DE INFORM AC ION FAMILIAL DEL PROJECTO FUN Su Nombre Apellido Nombre Domocilio _____ Numero de Telefono: Casa_________________ Trabajo_______________ Se puede llamar a trabajo? Si No El mejor tiempo de llamar? Estado de matrimonio (Indique con un circolo): Casado Divorciado Separado Soltero/Soltera Cuantos hijos mas tiene? Por favor indique las edades. edades_____ , _______ , _______ , ________, ______ Clase de trabajo_________________________________________________ Que mejor lo describe? Indique con un cheque. ______ Afro Americano ______ Americano Nativo ______ Hispano____________________________ Multiethnico ______ Blanco, No-Hispano__________________ Otro, por favor indique ______ Aseatico American ________________________ Por favor comparta algunas paiabras sobre su interes en el Projecto FUN. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Sobol, Debra Anne
(author)
Core Title
An adolescent -parent conflict resolution skills training program for ethnically diverse families: A program evaluation study
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Graduate School
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
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Education - Counseling Psychology
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University of Southern California
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OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, developmental,psychology, social,sociology, ethnic and racial studies
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English
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Rosenberg, Joan (
committee chair
), Ahrons, Constance (
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), Guiton, Gretchen (
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psychology, developmental
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