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Correlates of job satisfaction among high school principals

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Correlates of job satisfaction among high school principals

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Content CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
By
Lupe L. Delgado
A Dissertation Presented to the
. FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfdlment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May, 2001
Copyright 2001 Lupe L. Delgado
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UMI Number: 3027711
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School of Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
Lupe L. Delgado
tender the direction of h ^-Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members of the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
of Education in partialfulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of
D o c to r o f E d u c a t io n
D e e m
Dissertation Committee
Chairpersoi
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Dedication
I dedicate this professional accomplishment to my family: my ever-supportive husband,
Manuel; my cheerleading children, Matthew, Mark, Steven, and Sarah; and my mother
Lucy, who taught me that strength comes in all sizes.
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Acknowledgments
I acknowledge all of the professors who provided much welcomed support
during my various studies at USC. I especially thank:
Dr. Robert Ferris, for agreeing to be a member of my committee and for the insightful,
valuable input you provided. Your recommendations added a qualitative dimension to
my work.
Dr. Robert Baker, for your patience, your depth of instruction, and your keen sense of
humor. I thank you for engendering in me an enthusiasm for statistical analysis and for
helping me refine the prism through which I view my profession.
Dr. Stuart Gothold, for the magical gift that guarantees success in whomever you
touch. You not only had the vision to establish the L.A. Cohort at USC; you have the
belief that everyone can succeed. I could not ask for a more caring, supporting, patient
mentor.
I acknowledge my fellow L. A. Cohort members. I carry fond memories of each
and every one of you. Without you, the learning would have been less relevant, the
discussions would have been less passionate, and the accomplishments would have been
less joyful. Fight on!
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Table of Contents
DEDICATION ........................................... ................. i'i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................. vi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................. vi
ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER
1. Overview of the Study .............................................................. 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Limitations of the Study
Delimitations of the Study
Importance of the Study
Definitions
2. Review of the Literature ............................................
Introduction
Job Satisfaction
Educational Environment
Community Demographics
Principal Shortages
Preservice, Induction, Professional Development
Summary
3. Methodology and Procedures............................................
Introduction
Sample Population
Design of the Study
Instrumentation
Procedures for Data Collection
Data Analysis
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43
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Table of Contents (continued)
CHAPTER
4. Results and Discussion ......................................................... 58
Survey Responses
General Interpretation of the Empirically Derived Scales
Statistical Analysis of the Identified Variables
Discussion of Findings
5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ......................... 78
Problem
Findings and Conclusions
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 87
APPENDICES 94
A. Job Satisfaction Survey .............................................................. 95
B. Internet Web Site 101
C. Letter to Superintendents .............................................................. 104
D. First Letter to Principals .............................................................. 105
E. Second Letter to Principals' ......................................................... 106
V
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List of Tables
Table Page
1. Empirically Derived Scales: Alpha Reliabilities
and Likert Items 61
2. Gender Profile 64
3. Scale Means and Standard Deviations ...................................... 65
4. ANOVA of Scales with Gender as the Factor..................................... 67
5. Correlational Matrix of Study Variables ...................................... 69
6. Regression Analysis -Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction 72
7. Regression Analysis -Dependent Variable:
Organizational Effectiveness ............................................................. 72
8. Regression Analysis -Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction 72
9. Factor Analysis Rotated Component Matrix ...................................... 73
List of Figures
A. A path analysis demonstrating the relationship between the core
self-evaluation constructs and job satisfaction mediated by job
complexity and perceived job characteristics ...................................... 46
B. A pictorial analysis of the current study demonstrating the
relationship between the core self-evaluation constructs and
job satisfaction mediated by job complexity and perceived
job characteristics 76
vi
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ABSTRACT
CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Problem: There is national shortage of candidates for high school principal positions;
studies cite alarming decreases in candidate pools that will worsen in the future.
Contributing to this shortage are large numbers of principals retiring or leaving the
profession to pursue other goals. The numbers of this latter group are exacerbated by
socio-political demands placed on high school principals today: high stakes
accountability, site-based restructuring, and mandates for educational renewal.
Purpose of the study: Job satisfaction has been tied to job retention and other
constructs. The purpose of this study was to identify factors related to job satisfaction
among high school principals. Information would be used to develop strategies in the
areas of training, selection, and on-going professional development to assist with
principal selection and retention. Dispositional factors (self-esteem, command/ efficacy,
conscientiousness) and job characteristics (organizational effectiveness, training
opportunities, and use of school teams) were identified as independent variables; job
satisfaction was the dependent variable
Procedures: High school principals were invited to respond to a survey measuring
perceptions for each of the variables. Several statistical analyses were utilized to
identify relationships among the variables and job satisfaction.
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Selected Conclusions: 1) The dispositional factors had the highest predictive values
relative to job satisfaction; job characteristics and organizational effectiveness were
found to mediate the relationship between dispositional factors and job satisfaction; 2)
Males had significantly higher scores on perceptions of training opportunities and use of
teams, and higher scores and less variance across all variables; 3) Principals’ years of
experience, student achievement, and SES did not correlate significantly with job
satisfaction.
Selected recommendations: Strategies that strengthen self-esteem, command/ efficacy,
and conscientiousness, such as problems-based learning, strategic thinking, and goal
setting may positively impact perceptions of job satisfaction. Findings that job
characteristics and school organizational effectiveness are mediators of job satisfaction
indicate the importance of principal preparation and on-going professional development
that focus on building change-facilitation and transformational leadership skills and
abilities. Aggressive mentoring and teams-based approaches to learning may help
minimize the gender gap found in the study.
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CORRELATES OF JOB SATISFACTION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
In recent history, the role of the educational administrator was that of setting
goals and leading staff towards those goals. Today, it is “facilitating from the center”
(Lashway, 1996). The need to find administrators who can be visionary leaders,
productive managers, and effective facilitators is increasing as the ranks of current
administrators decline through retirement and career shifts. Additionally, the pool of
potential administrators is diminishing as teachers and other educators find the
challenges of administration too great and the benefits too few (Heller et al., 1993).
While shortages exist in several educational administrative areas, secondary schools
principals, especially, are in short supply in many areas of the country (Rodda, 1999;
Ferrandino and Tirozzi, 2000).
As education moves through different stages of reform, renewal, and
restructuring, it is important to identify those conditions and elements that support the
leadership required to move our schools through those stages. Today’s educational
leaders must be collaborators, coaches, and developers of school-community
partnerships, in addition to instructional leaders, plant managers, and overseers of the
school budget (Bennis, 1997; Marsh, 1992). The job of principalship requires
individuals who can stay focused on the school goals, and who can utilize effective
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strategies in moving the educational community towards the goals. Principals need to
have broad knowledge of sound pedagogical practices, and have the skills needed to
assist teachers in their own professional growth (Theobald and Rochon, 1999).
The resourcefulness required of principals today is not limited to their abilities
as instructional leaders. Duke (1987), Drake and Roe (1994), and others have studied
daily practices of principals and provide a scenario of daily conflict resolution sessions,
completion of necessary central office requirements, and meeting demands for instant
information on the part of the public sector. Murphy reports on “an increasing turbulent
environment” for the principal, triggered by calls for school reform and state mandates
(1994). With a national emphasis on accountability, the product of the principal’s work-
that is, student successes or failures- has never been as scrutinized. Yerkes and
Guaglianone also report on the impact on the principal due to an increasingly complex
society with its social problems. Their interviews with human resource administrators
cite not only paperwork demands and lack of support, but also stress and salary as
reasons that principal positions go unfilled (1998).
Job satisfaction has been positively correlated to productivity and retention
(Colquitt et al., 1998) in various work settings. Opposite of this situation is “burnout,”
the term used to describe the reasons that educators leave the teaching and
administrative profession. Bumout is viewed as a syndrome encompassing emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (van Dierendonck,
Schaufeli, and Buunk, 1998). This results in lowered productivity, high absenteeism,
and more importantly, departure from the profession.
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Determining if there are factors that relate to job satisfaction among principals
could be a useful process in the identification and retention of people in this position.
Knowledge of these factors could also assist in recruitment efforts by human resource
personnel in their search for, and development of, potential future administrators.
Job Satisfaction
Researchers have used job satisfaction extensively as a tool for determining
factors related to job selection, retention and productivity. These studies have their
historical roots in the work of Frederick Taylor, Frederich Herzberg, and Elton Mayo
(Gruneberg, 1979). The work by Mayo was pivotal in the landmark Hawthorne Studies
(Hannon, 1996; Gruneberg, 1976), which analyzed the external variables related to job
satisfaction. Among the analysis of the psychosocial needs of the worker was the role of
job satisfaction in relation to rewards, informal social systems, and productivity. Mayo,
and others, used their studies to correlate job satisfaction with contextual factors, such
as pay, job security, work groups, supervision, participation, role conflict and
ambiguity, and organizational structures.
Internal Factors
Other behaviorists, meanwhile, have studied the process nature of job
satisfaction (Gruneberg, 1979; Barber, 1998; Duffy, 1998). Process theorists see job
satisfaction as an interaction of the contextual factors of the job with the needs, values,
and expectations that an individual brings to the job. Colquitt et al., (1998), Salgado
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(1997), Cellar (1996) and Barrick (1996), have done extensive work in the area of job
satisfaction as it relates to personality factors, such as openness to experience,
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.
Supporting this is the current work by Judge et al., (1997, 1999, 2000) which
proposes that job satisfaction is the result of the individual’s core self-evaluations, such
as self-efficacy, self esteem, locus of control, and non-neuroticism, as they relate to
perceived situational, and contextual job attributes.
Environmental and Cultural Factors of Job Satisfaction
External variables have also been extensively correlated with job satisfaction
(Salgado, 1997). External factors that can have a direct influence include the culture of
the organization; the structure that governs the policies and procedures at the place of
work; and the amount of influence that any individual can have on those policies and
procedures, (Stall et al., 1990). Also included in research on job satisfaction in relation
to the environment is work by Barrick (1996) that related member ability and
personality to work team processes and team effectiveness. Nurturing mutual trust and
open discussion among team members, focusing on problem solving, role definition,
and goal setting requires specific skills and abilities.
Although research on environmental factors and their effects on principal job
satisfaction is sparse, there is ample documentation on the workload of principals, and
the difficult working conditions faced by individuals in this profession daily
(Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000; Murphy, 1994; Liethwood, 1994; Sergiovanni, 1991,
Daresh, 1987). High school principals, especially, face challenges involving class
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scheduling, school safety, issues with school morale, inter-departmental conflicts,
pressure from parents concerned about their children’s inability to meet graduation
requirements. Challenges also include nurturing a team concept approach in an
environment that has previously operated as independent departments (Lyons, 1999;
Marsh, 1988).
Team leadership is a concept growing in favor among high impact organizations
(Sundstrom, De Meuse, and Futrell, 1990). Among the many leadership skills required,
Lashway (1997) points to the principal’s ability to set a direction in which every
member feels that they are part of the school team. Relating this concept to the
departmental nature of high schools, how does the role of the secondary school
principal, and his/her ability to develop, maintain, and effectively lead teams impact his
or her job satisfaction level?
Other environmental factors that have been associated with high school
principals’ job satisfaction are the size of the school and its educational community. In
interviews with principals and superintendents in both rural and suburban settings,
Rodda (1999) reports on the advantages of working in small communities, although size
of the school or community has not been clearly researched as a factor related to job
satisfaction. In a recent job satisfaction study involving over 150 California elementary
school principals, Jolly found notable differences in the job satisfaction levels of
principals when using student reading level, the number of students per school, and the
number of students on free or reduced lunch as variables (1999). Respondents at schools
with higher student reading levels scored higher on job satisfaction ratings, as did
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respondents at schools that had lower school enrollment. The opposite was true in
relating job satisfaction to school populations with students on free or reduced lunch;
the higher the numbers in this area, the least satisfied were the principals.
Studies also point to the effect that the leader has on his/her subordinates.
Heller (1992) conducted research to determine the effects of supervisor leadership
styles on job satisfaction. He found that job satisfaction was closely related to the
principal’ s friendliness/warmth, support, and rapport. What role does a high school
principal’s leadership style have in determining his/her job satisfaction, if any?
Statement of the Problem
The challenges that high school principals face today are well-documented:
complex societal issues that are transposed into the high school setting, sometimes with
tragic results; national and state calls for school reform and restructuring that require
persons to lead a cadre of school and community stakeholders towards a predetermined
vision; and constant accountability on the part of the principal that demonstrates to all
within earshot that all students in the school successfully meet local and state standards
(Smith, 1999). With these conditions imposed on high school principals, human
resource administrators are finding shortages of persons willing to fill these positions.
As larger numbers of principals approach retirement, the importance of recruitment and
retention becomes even more critical. Recent studies by the National Association of
Elementary Schools Principals (NAESP) and the National Association of Secondary
Schools Principals (NASSP) has confirmed that the smaller number of candidate pools
for increasing vacant principal positions is cause for serious concern (2000).
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Job satisfaction has been used extensively as a research tool to identify factors
related to job recruitment, retention and productivity. Research has focused only
minimally on the educational community and has been primarily environmental and/or
contextual in nature. There is minimal research of the high school principalship as it
relates to the relationship between internal and environmental factors related to the
perception of job satisfaction.
Purpose of the Study
Gruneberg (1996) states that most people spend a large part of their day at work,
therefore, understanding the factors related to job satisfaction is important to improving
the well being of individuals in an important aspect of their every day lives. Job
satisfaction has been linked to job retention, work productivity, and creativity
(Gruneberg, 1979; Duffy, Ganster, and Shaw, 1998). In the theoretical model posited by
Judge, the interplay between dispositional characteristics, such as conscientiousness,
neuroticism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, are related to perceived job characteristics
and job and life satisfaction (1999, 2000).
The purpose of this study is to determine which factors, and combination of
factors, are related to perceived job satisfaction among high school principals. This
study will include dispositional factors of self-efficacy, conscientiousness, locus of
control, and self-esteem. Environmental variables that will be studied are the school’s
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organization effectiveness; support received from supervisors via training; school
approach to teamwork; socioeconomic status of the school community; and size of
school. Demographic variables include administrative and principal years of experience
and gender.
Research Questions
1. Are there core self-evaluation factors and/ or personality traits that relate to
higher job satisfaction among high school principals?
2. Do job characteristics, such as organizational effectiveness; the use of teams
versus an individual emphasis; the SES of school community, play a role in the
perceived job satisfaction among administrators?
3. Are there demographic characteristics that correlate to job satisfaction among
secondary school principals, such as school size, principals’ years of experience,
and gender?
4. Using Judge’s model relating an individual’s core self-evaluations and perceived
job characteristics, is there a combination of factors that can predict an
administrator’s perception of his/her job satisfaction?
Limitations- Delimitations of the Study
Limitations beyond the scope of the study
1. This is a closed study not anchored with any external validity.
Delimitations of the study
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1. Sample population is limited to principals at comprehensive high schools in
21 school districts within four counties in Southern California.
2. While studies have correlated job satisfaction to job performance, retention,
and creativity, this study is limited to identification of selected variables that
relate to perceived job satisfaction.
Importance of the Study
Recruitment, selection, and retention of high school principals are challenges
faced by human resource administrators. The identification of external and internal
variables related to job satisfaction among secondary school principals is important to
school districts looking for recruitment and retention strategies of high school
principals.
The findings of this study, and their implications, are also important to human
resource administrators and institutions of higher education in the areas of higher
education preservice, induction and professional development practices as they prepare
future high school principals, or develop the strengths of current high school principals.
Lastly, this study is important for the career implications it has for individuals
interested in becoming high school principals. Factors found to be associated with job
satisfaction in this study may assist a person in determining his/her compatibility with
the position.
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Definitions
Conscientiousness- Measures the extent to which individuals are hardworking,
organized, and dependable (Salgado, 1997).
Core Self-Evaluations - Comprised of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of
control, and non-neuroticism.
Dispositional Factors - Factors within the individual which affect the degree of life
and job satisfaction.
Environmental Factors - factors related to job satisfaction that are external to the
individual, such as size of the school, compensation, socioeconomic status of the
community, work hours.
External Locus of Control - The degree to which individuals believe that the
environment or fate controls events.
Internal Locus of Control - The degree to which individuals believe they can control
the events in their lives.
Job Satisfaction - A pleasurable or positive state resulting from the appraisal of one’s
job or job experience; the difference between some valued outcome some person
receives, and the amount of the outcome he feels he should receive.
Leadership Behaviors - the acts or behaviors leaders do to bring about change in a
group; behaviors that transforms followers through vision setting, role modeling, and
individualized attention; the process whereby an individual influences a group of people
to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 1997).
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Personality Factors - an individual’s traits that are characterized by various factors.
Frequently used factors are extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
School Governance - The structure utilized to govern a school community, from
classical to social, to open systems.
Self-Efficacy - The assessment by individuals that they are capable of carrying out
certain desirable courses of action.
Self-Esteem - Basic appraisal individuals make of themselves; the overall value that
one places on oneself as a person.
Team Approach- Small groups of interdependent individuals who share responsibility
for outcomes for their organizations (Sundstrom et al., 1990).
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Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature
Correlates of job satisfaction have been researched extensively in relation to
many different job occupations. Findings have been used to identify and develop
specific practices and strategies that employers can implement in order to assist with the
recruitment and selection of employees, and once hired, with the employees’ production
and retention on the job. Determining correlates of job satisfaction among high school
principals is important in light of increasing shortages of candidates for this position,
both locally and nationally.
This section will review the research on job satisfaction as it relates to an
individual’s dispositional characteristics, to factors related to job characteristics, and to
the interaction between these two areas. A supportive literature review that relates job
satisfaction to the educational environment, principal leadership qualities, and
community demographics will also be presented. Finally, data describing the decreasing
pools of principal candidates, accompanied by general trends in the area of
administrative support related to higher education preservice, induction and professional
development tied to the position of high school principal, will be presented.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction, as it relates to employee production and retention, has its
historical roots in the work of Frederick Taylor, Frederick Herzberg, and Elton Mayo.
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The latter was pivotal in the landmark work of the Hawthorne Studies (Hannon, 1996;
Gruneberg, 1979; Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, 1959), which analyzed the external
variables related to job satisfaction. Among the analysis of the psychosocial needs of
the worker was the role of job satisfaction in relation to rewards, informal social
systems, and productivity. Mayo used his studies to correlate job satisfaction with
contextual factors, such as pay, job security, work groups, supervision, participation,
role conflict and ambiguity, and organizational structures.
Colquitt et al., (1998), Salgado (1997), Cellar (1996) and Barrick (1996), among
others, have done extensive work in the area of job satisfaction as it relates to
personality factors, such as openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness, and neuroticism. Goffin found that personality testing was as
successful as an assessment center in predicting job performance and satisfaction
(1996).
Other behaviorists, meanwhile, have studied the process nature of job
satisfaction (Gruenberg, 1979; Barber, 1998; Duffy, 1998.) Process theorists see job
satisfaction as an interaction of the contextual factors of the job with the needs, values,
and expectations that an individual brings to the job. Supporting this is the current work
by Judge, and Judge et al., (1997, 1999, 2000) which proposes that one’s perceptions of
job satisfaction is the result of the interplay between core self-evaluations, such as self-
efficacy, self esteem, locus of control, and non-neuroticism; and situational, contextual
job attributes.
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Internal Factors of Job Satisfaction
Research on dispositional factors on job satisfaction has been successful in
establishing a connection between job satisfaction and one’s affective temperament
(Salgado, 1997; Judge, 1998). Studies that identify the makeup of dispositional
characteristics have led to a broader definition of internal factors that impact one’s job
and life satisfaction. Job satisfaction as it relates to internal factors within the
individual was researched by Judge et al., (1998); and Parker (1998). Data indicate that
self-esteem, inner locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and nonneuroticism have
direct and indirect effects on job and life satisfaction. Judge reports that these four core
evaluations are “fundamental, subconscious conclusions that people reach about
themselves, other people, and the world” (1998, p. 18). These core self-evaluations
result in ideas such as “I can handle this” “Isn’t this exciting?” “What a mess we are
in!” that can influence how one feels about his/her job.
In researching dispositional factors, Judge et al., (1998) proposes that traits
constituting core self-evaluations are positively related to job satisfaction. One of these
traits is inner locus of control- the confidence an individual has in being able to control
outcomes. Relative to this, Weld (1998) stated that the perception of lack of control
relative to school operations was a universal reason among educators for leaving the
profession.
Self-efficacy, another core self-evaluation, is defined as an individual’s feelings
on how capable he is in completing a task, given his skills and abilities (Bandura, 1984).
“Self-efficacy is an important motivational construct that influences individual choices,
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goals, emotional reactions, effort, coping, and persistence” (Parker, 1998). More
recently, Judge et al., (1998), has begun to research the effects of generalized self-
efficacy on one’s choices, controls, and cognitive resources needed to exercise “general
control over one’s life.” Parker, further differentiating between task-specific self-
efficacy and role breadth self-efficacy, studied the effects of role breadth self-efficacy
(RBSE) on job enrichment and job satisfaction, and found positive correlations in two
cross sectional studies (1998). Whereas task-specific self-efficacy pertains to an
individual’s confidence in being able to do a job, RBSE is the confidence that an
individual has in carrying out a broader, more proactive role.
RBSE is important for today’s educational leader for a number of reasons. As
the role of the administrator becomes more complex, there is a need for an individual to
feel confident that he/she has the generic competencies to accomplish a variety of
activities. Looking at the change process, as an example, a high school principal must
have positive interpersonal skills, some knowledge of problem solving, excellent
communication skills, experience with group decision making, and abilities to work
interdependently within and outside of the school environment (Ferrandino and Tirozzi,
2000; Murphy, 1994). RBSE refers to the leader’s belief that he is able to successfully
perform the many activities of organizing, coaching and mentoring, and integrating and
leveraging existing resources. Self-efficacy, which builds on a person’s experiences and
successes, is seen as dynamic, and can change over time.
Whereas self-efficacy is an individual’s confidence in his ability to carry out a
task or series of tasks, self-esteem is the individual’s estimation of how well he can
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perform the task. Research points to considerable evidence connecting self-esteem with
job satisfaction (Judge, et. al., 1998). Unlike self-efficacy, self-esteem has been seen as
a constant, and less likely to change with the daily course of events and experiences
(Parker, 1998).
Closely tied to the core evaluations factors discussed above, job satisfaction has
also been positively correlated with personality constructs. Examples of these constructs
are those that are consolidated in the Five Factor Model (FFM): neuroticism (relates to
the individual’s insecurities, anxieties, emotional states versus calmness, cool, and self
confidence); extraversion (the extent that an individual is gregarious, assertive, sociable
versus reserved, timid, quiet); open to experience (creative, curious, and cultured versus
practical with narrow interests); agreeableness (degree to which a person is cooperative,
warm, and agreeable versus cold, antagonistic); and conscientious (hardworking,
organized, dependable, and persevering versus lazy, disorganized, and unreliable)
(Salgado, 1997).
In his analysis of the Five Factor Model constructs, Salgado found varying
positive correlations between the measures and job satisfaction. Conscientiousness
showed the highest validity and was generalized across all of the occupations studied.
Openness to experience was a high predictor of training proficiency, and a high
correlation was found between extroversion and manager-type occupations. Other
research has supported similar findings obtained by Salgado (Parker, 1998; Duffy,
Ganster, and Shaw, 1998; Judge, 1997). As with self-esteem, these measures of
personality are less dynamic, and not influenced heavily by day-to-day experiences.
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Environmental and Cultural Factors of Job Satisfaction
Gruneberg (1996) states that most people spend a large part of their day at work,
thus, an understanding of factors related to job satisfaction is relevant to improving the
well being of individuals in an important aspect of their lives. Job satisfaction has been
linked to job retention, work productivity, and creativity. Correlates of job satisfaction
have been positively identified as those attributes of the job/ work environment that are
external to the individual. Examples discussed in the work by Gruenberg include
governance structures, support from supervisors, teamwork approaches, and leadership
characteristics.
There are many variables that can foster or detract from the job satisfaction of
secondary school principals. External factors that can have a direct influence include the
educational culture of the organization; the structure that governs the policies and
procedures of the school; and the amount of influence that any individual can have on
those policies and procedures. Stall et al., (1990), attempted to determine whether
principals’ job satisfaction was tied to their participation in the managerial process-
specifically to their handling of the school budget. In comparing results to a similar
study conducted in 1973, there was more job satisfaction attributed to this activity ten
years ago. They found that current administrators did not have an increase in job
satisfaction due to more control of the budgeting process.
Additional research on job satisfaction in relation to the environment is work by
Barrick (1996) that relates member ability and personality to work team processes and
team effectiveness. Sundstrom et al., states that work teams have a pivotal role in what
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has been described as a management transformation paradigm shift, and corporate
renaissance (1990). Impressed by the work of W. Edward Demming, and the positive
impact that his management principles have had on corporate structure, U.S. educators
are looking at ways to incorporate his ideas in our nation’s schools (Nidds and
McGerald, 1994). Demming’s work has been prolific in the corporate world and
stresses individual worker empowerment and a job environment that focuses on
freedom and fulfillment through a team approach. The ability of the educational leader
in establishing well functioning teams, and maintaining positive, productive work
environments for school staff is a necessary commodity in today’s educational
structures (Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000).
Nurturing mutual trust and open discussion amongst team members, focusing on
problem solving, role definition, and goal setting requires specific skills and abilities
(Sergiovanni, 1991). Many studies reference the effect that the leader has on his/her
subordinates. Heller conducted research to determine the effects of supervisor
leadership styles on job satisfaction (1992). He found that job satisfaction was closely
related to the principal's friendliness, warmth, support, and rapport. More recently, van
Dierendonck, Schaufeli, and Buunk conducted a study that generated similar findings
amongst human service professionals (1998). The authors stated that employee turnover
is highly predicted by burnout signs, such as increased absenteeism, non-compliance of
work directives, and withdrawal from social interactions at work, and that social support
interventions by supervisors can mediate feelings of inequity and low job satisfaction.
Secondary school principals are not at the top of the decision/ policymaking process.
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They report to supervisors, just as their subordinates report to them. Thus, their job
satisfaction may be influenced by support interventions from their supervisor’s as well.
Environmental factors and job attributes can have a significant impact on job
satisfaction and productivity. “Burnout,” the term used to describe the reasons that
educators leave the teaching and administrative profession, is viewed as a syndrome
encompassing emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal
accomplishment, per van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, and Buunk, (1998) This results in
lowered productivity, high absenteeism, and more importantly, departure from the
profession. In looking at ways to minimize “burnout,” various intervention programs
are being researched and implemented by employers.
Educational Environment
Leadership Style
Fifteen years ago, the role of the educational administrator was that of setting
goals and leading staff towards those goals. Today, it is “facilitating from the center”
(Lashway, 1996). The need to find administrators that can be visionary leaders,
productive managers, and effective facilitators is becoming greater as the ranks of
current administrators decline through retirement and career shifts. In addition, the
recruitment pool of potential administrators is diminishing as teachers and other
educators find the challenges of administration too great and the benefits, such as
salary, too few (Heller et al., 1993). Secondary schools principals, especially, are in
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short supply in many areas of the country. (Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000; Ed Cal,
1999).
As education moves through different stages of reform and restructuring, it is
useful to identify the changing roles of the site administrator and identify the connection
that might exist between those roles and the reasons that people stay in or leave the
profession.
Classical Educational System and the School Administrator
The role of the site administrator has changed significantly from the early stages
of public education. From the mid-1800’ s, when public education was made available
only to selected members of society, to the 1920’ s, its governance structure closely
paralleled the industrial model. Under this classical system, an organization operates
best as a bureaucracy, with definitive "top down" control of decision making (Flanson,
1996). Max Weber described this system as the most efficient organizational form in
the complex organizations of that time period (1956). In this structure of governance,
there is a specific span of control, a division of labor, goal definition, and formal rules
for staff. The goal of the leader of a district or school site is to maintain order, solve
problems in a prescribed manner, and make certain that well-thought-out rules of the
system are adhered to by all. The leader is obligated to have all available information
pertinent to school functions, and use the information to best motivate staff, monitor the
school’s operations, and solve problems as they arise. While a classical organizational
structure may bring forth "law and order" it does have some inherent limitations relative
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to today’s demands for site based decision-making, stakeholder inclusion, and
empowered staff (Block, 1987).
Stogdill discusses the essential traits necessary for a person to become
successful as a leader in a closed system environment: intelligence, self-confidence,
determination, integrity, and sociability (1974). To meet his goals and school
objectives, there must determination and self-confidence. Determination allows the
leader to demonstrate his dominance in moving forward in the direction he feels is best
for the school, and the self confidence assures him that his directions are appropriate
and correct (Northlouse, 1997).
Terrence Deal describes four frames, or lenses, that dictate how individuals
respond and interface with one another (1994). Some overlap is evident among the four
individual frames and the organization’s governance framework. Deal’s work is
anchored in the premise that people- educators, students, parents, support staff,
community members- play various roles that are determined not only by the governance
structure of an organization, but also by “unwritten rules and scripts.” The
administrative leader has a role, and that is to maintain order, coordinate and control the
work, and build high performance teams that will accomplish the work as efficiently as
possible.
Socio-Political System and the School Administrator
Deal and Jenkins write that "the first step in harnessing the potential and
creativity of individuals in an organization is to abandon rational and mechanistic views
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that see organizations as erector sets" (1994, page 2). In the early 1930’ s, there
developed a strong influence of politics, and organizational systems began to identify
the influence of the individual and group social perspectives on decision making
(Hanson, 1996).
The goal of the leader in a sociopolitical system is to have all subgroups moving
towards the identified organizational goal. The school leader must possess strong
interpersonal skills, must know how critical it is to have a working knowledge of the
staff, and must understand the spheres of influence that dictate the daily operations of
his school. The leader uses information in order to motivate and support staff in their
endeavors to teach students as effectively as possible.
The school principal practices a transactional approach to leadership,
emphasizing persuasive influence rather than coercive power and compliance
(Hollander and Offerman, 1990). As Fullan states, the leader knows that he cannot
dictate change, but rather must work through the staff to affect change (1996). Relating
the socio-political organization to Deal’s four frames; the site leader needs to be
cognizant of the different political structures at his school site. He values the importance
of maintaining trust. Northouse (1997) describes the leadership qualities needed in trust
building as visionary and empathic, and as having consistency and integrity.
The Open Educational System and the School Administrator
Analyzing behaviors of persons within an organization and the impact of
relationships that flow back and forth through the different tiers of decision making
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does not necessarily take into consideration external factors that contribute to the
success of an educational system. In the 1950’ s, a new conceptual model was proposed.
This “new” structure, known as an Open System, did not evolve from the social system,
however (Hanson, 1996). Educators may not have been tuned into to the influences that
the environment had on the educational system, but its community has always impacted
the educational organization.
This becomes more evident as the third wave hits society in the twenty first
century, and demands are high for individuals who can function in an information
world, where technology is seen as a major tool utilized for communications, business,
and social play and where the term “global economy” is part of everyday language
(Hanson, 1991). The school administrator must be aware of the importance of scanning
the environmental forces affecting his school, must have a broad scope and knowledge
of his stakeholders and focus much of his energy on community engagement. Referring
to Northouse (1997), Bennis and Goldsmith (1997) and others, the school leader in the
current era of accountability, inclusion, shared governance, and bottom line results that
stress success for all students must have additional skills and abilities than those of the
leader in a closed system of governance. Whereas our earlier leader needed to have as
much information on all aspects of the school so that he/she could direct all activity, the
leader of an open system must have as much information as possible on all aspects of
the school and environmental forces so that he/she can influence activities.
The leader in an open system should be familiar and comfortable with behaviors
and strategies that describe the transformational process, which centers on moving,
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assisting, and influencing staff and stakeholders towards desired results. In the case of
the leader, the desired results are usually based on a strategic plan and vision of what
constitutes a successful student.
As noted in Hanson, strategic planning involves defining the school’s mission,
and developing methods and strategies to achieve that mission in the most effective
ways possible (1996, p. 238). Strategic planning enables the leader to envision the
future. Working together, he utilizes resources available, seeks outside resources, and
puts forth energies in the direction set by and for the school. As principal, the leader is
the primary facilitator of this open system, taking the responsibility to ensure that the
communications, evaluation, and accountability systems necessary for success are all in
place.
The leader in an open system sees himself/herself within the system, not set
apart at the top of a hierarchical structure. His/her style is best defined as coach and
mentor, and environmental scanner. The leader is well versed with assessment tools and
leadership applications, which are abundantly provided in the literature. Examples of
these tools are those generated by Bennis and Goldsmith (1997), Meyers-Briggs (1996),
and Hall and Hord (1984).
The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator Step II, an application based on Carl Jung’s
theory of personality types, provides the principal and staff the opportunity to identify
an individual’s areas of strengths and weaknesses through an assessment based on
Jung’s four personality preference areas and his extroversion-introversion attitude
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profiles. Information derived from the assessments can assist the principal determine the
optimum team configurations when given a task or problem that needs solving.
In Learning to Lead, Bennis and Goldsmith (1997) provide practical exercises
that focus on reflection and inquiry ranging from major projects to the daily events at
the school. Based on patterns of established leaders, the activities are centered on the
“self’ and can be used individually or by the group to foster leadership development.
Because the effective educational organization must react and interact with the
environment, the leader in an open system must have the knowledge and ability to
facilitate the change process. This is especially true in large, urban settings. The work
by Hall and Hord focuses on assisting the organization recognize the contributions that
individuals make towards the educational change process (1984). Their concems-based
approach places emphasis on “...understanding teacher attitudes and skills so that
support activities, such as staff development, coaching, provision of materials, and so
on, can be directly related to what teachers perceive they need” (1984, p. 5). Because
the effective educational organization must react and interact with the environment, the
leader in an open system must have the knowledge and ability to facilitate the change
process. This is especially true given the complexities of large, urban settings.
Apropos to Senge’s concept of a learning organization, instruments, such as the
one developed by Baker and Matakovich, can be used for faculty participation in school
reform and improvement planning (1999). Their School Status Survey is comprised of a
series of scales that align with California Distinguished High School Criteria and
Western Association of California criteria.
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Additionally, Ferrandino and Terrozi (2000), Murphy (1994), Marsh (1992),
Sergiovanni (1991), and Senge (1990) describe the instructional leader as assertive, a
resource provider, clearly focused and visionary on student outcomes, adept at parent
and community relationships, strong supporter to the teaching staff, practitioner of
effective conflict resolution skills, team builder, and leader in transforming the school in
relation to its vision.
Senge describes the leader in a learning organization as a designer, steward, and
teacher, and states that the leader instills a responsibility for learning among all
members of the organization (1990).
Community Demographics
The nature of the community has strong effects on the role of the high school
principal. In one study, interviews with principals and superintendents of small school
districts, in both rural and suburban settings, reported perceived advantages of working
in small communities (Rodda, 1999). Respondents stated that smaller communities
facilitate community engagement, communication, and beneficial board relationships.
Recent news stories point to the issues faced by larger, urban educational
settings: increasing gang affiliation, higher school dropout rates, higher amounts of
violent activities- directed both at students and the teaching staff. Poverty is another
major obstacle preventing people from leading productive lives, and the percentages of
persons below the poverty line is greatest in large urban areas. A recent study
completed in Los Angeles County indicated that although the number of jobs has
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increased by 300,000 in the last six years, the salary range of those jobs has been
substantially below average wages (National Association of Business, 1999). High
school drop out rates are highest in lowest socio-economically-depressed areas (Time
Magazine, 2000). Currently, a class action lawsuit has been brought forth against the
California K-12 educational system because of the dearth of available Advanced
Placement classes in schools within low SES communities. The lack of these classes is
said to be a direct link to the inability of graduates from these school sites to gain
entrance to four-year UC schools (Los Angeles Times, 2000).
Principal shortages
The importance of identifying correlates of job satisfaction among
principals becomes more critical as the number of candidates for vacant positions
decreases. This shortage is a matter of concern for school district human resource
administrators. In 1997, Educational Research Service (ERS) conducted national
interviews and found that fifty-five percent of the superintendents surveyed reported a
shortage of principal candidates for vacant positions at the high school level. Factors
attributed to the diminishing pools of viable candidates are attributed to an increased
number of administrative retirements and a decreased number of students entering the
educational administrative field (Muse and Thomas, 1991).
The recruitment pool of potential administrators is also diminishing as teachers
and other educators find the challenges of administration too great and the benefits,
such as salary, too few (Heller et al., 1993). Ed Cal reports that secondary schools
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principals, especially, are in short supply in many areas of the country (1999). Yerkes
cited a preliminary study by the National Associations of Elementary and Secondary
School Principals which confirmed nationwide applicant shortages, and cautioned that
the job of the high school principal must be redesigned if schools want to attract enough
qualified applicants (1998, p. 10).
Ensuring Adequate Numbers of Principals
Given the demands that are placed on school administrators today, coupled with
the current shortage of school administrators, especially in urban settings (EdCal, 1999;
Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000) it is more important than ever to design programs that
will attract individuals to enter the field of administration. The day-to-day
responsibilities placed on educators, and especially principals, necessitate selection
processes that are vigorous and discriminating. Induction into the role of administrator
requires a supportive transition period. Finally, maintaining and increasing positive
behaviors and building new skills and abilities requires a sound professional
development plan (Smith, 1999). Collaborative efforts among universities, business and
community, local school districts, and local and state governments can generate
increased efficiency and cost savings, and result in a seamless web of professional
experiences (Erlandson, 1997).
The educational literature is replete with descriptions of what constitutes an
effective leader. Peter Block writes on the entrepreneurial spirit and positive politics of
the empowered manager (1997); Covey describes effective leaders as individuals who
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are principle-centered, who look at situations through a win-win mentality and who
form habits out of the consistent use of positive behaviors (1989). Bennis talks of
leadership that is empowering, supportive, visionary, problem solving, creative, and
shared (1997). Deal states the importance of "heart, hope, and faith, rooted in soul and
spirit, are necessary for today’ s managers to become tomorrow’ s leaders" (1995, p. 12).
Spitzer and Tice provide characteristics of leadership behaviors in terms of
dignity, and actions for the common good (1996). Concepts such as freedom for, and of
working with people not against or over them are essential constructs of effective
leaders. They describe freedom for as self-efficacious behaviors that lead an individual
to be free to become and do that which he/she has committed to or chosen. When
leaders work with people, rather than through or against them, they see them as valuable
contributors to a common cause, rather than as potential threats. This aligns with the
concept of the principal as a coach, mentor, and teacher noted previously.
Northouse (1997), in writing on the transformational leader, discusses the
charismatic, intuitive nature of leadership, and the emphasis on the followers’needs,
values, and morals. Accompanying the literature on leadership is research that
correlates dispositional factors to effective leadership traits. These include
conscientiousness, openness to new experiences, and agreeableness (Bandura, 1984).
Additionally, work by Parker (1998) and Judge et al., (1998), among others, points to
the importance of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and inner locus of control as core self-
evaluations that impact performance.
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In today’ s educational systems that espouse the need for schools to be responsive
to community needs; workforce preparation; across the board standards; and above all,
success for all students, the school site administrator must meet a number of challenges
in order to be successful (Odden, 1995, Bennis and Nanus, 1985, Murphy, 1994). This
is especially true of the leader in an urban school environment, which has similar issues
that plague smaller, rural and suburban schools, but on a more intense, broader scale
(“The Condition of Public Education in Los Angeles County,” 1997). Some of these
issues, such as school safety, changing demographics, community demands for
accountability, and intense lobbying from business and industry for a better prepared
workforce, require individuals having leadership abilities, skills, and traits that can lead
educational organizations towards mandated outcomes and transformed schools.
Previous discussion has focused on those aspects that might be found to
correlate with job satisfaction among high school principals. The following literature
review will address current efforts and practices that focus on producing adequate pools
of well-trained and capable school administrators. These efforts are usually undertaken
with the intent of building effective school leaders. They are presented here as worthy
examples of strategies on how to increase principal retention and recruitment numbers.
Preservice
Preservice programs that prepare individuals to become administrators vary
among the hundreds of colleges and universities that provide training. There are
universal program elements, however, that assist in preparing future administrators to
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successfully work in urban settings. Some of these elements include: understanding the
change process and learning the critical nature of the school leader’ s role in that process;
a strong foundation and knowledge of the development and implementation of school
policies and procedures; identification of leadership skills, abilities, and styles that can
be used to motivate, influence, and support staff and community in meeting school
goals; understanding the impact and value of diversity and inclusion in staffing,
instruction, and community membership; and the importance of environmental scanning
in assessing the political, business, and global trends impacting short term and long
term student success (Yerkes, 1998).
Additional elements of successful preservice programs include the development
of strategic thinking skills in future administrative students (Lumsden, 1993); the
application of problem-based learning (students learn leadership skills by jointly
deciding how to deal with "real life" problems); and awareness and application of
strategies to use in team development and maintenance (Smuck, 1993).
Successful formats used by institutes of higher education in school
administrative preservice programs include the use of cohort groups. Bason found that
this format gives students a greater feeling of participation, encouraged shared learning,
and assisted in modeling collaborative characteristics valuable in the change and reform
process (1995). Peer coaching and mentors are also seen as beneficial to student success
(Roberts, 1993). There are training programs for individuals-usually superintendents,
principals, and central office staff-that are selected to fill the mentor role. The training
provides strategies on using effective methods that provide support, hands-on
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experiences, and networking opportunities to college students in educational
administration. Along these same lines, Geltner described the importance of cognitive
apprenticeship, similar to coaching, with an emphasis on reflective practice between the
student and the coach (1993).
Higher education preservice programs that focus on the development and
training of administrators in urban settings are in initial stages of development and not
as widespread as needed to meet the demands of today’ s urban educational settings. One
example which focuses on urban issues is the Urban Leadership Program at the
University of Southern California (2000). The program and format elements include all
of those described above. In addition, there is a deliberate application of lecture content
and literature review related to urban issues, with reflection and emphasis on potential
solutions. The Ford Foundation, which invests in innovative, promising projects that
appear to have potential for strong impact on education, is supporting this LA Cohort
Leadership program with financial resources (Ford Foundation, 1998).
Induction
Three major reasons to support personnel staff through an induction process are
to create an initial favorable impression, enhance interpersonal acceptance, and aid in
adjustment to the new environment (Mathis and Jackson, 1988). Creating a favorable
impression provides the new employee with the comfort level that facilitates "buy-in" to
the organization’ s goals and vision. Additionally, effective induction has been found to
minimize long-term absenteeism and turnover (Wanous, 1980). Peterson also states that
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first stage-mediated entry (induction) can be an important aspect in overall socialization
to the organization, with the potential of increasing the individual’s sense of a shared
educational philosophy (1985). He states that during the induction period, a new
administrator develops a sense of personal self-efficacy, learns what superiors expect of
him, and develops the personal ties that provide support and knowledge of school
operations.
In their discussions of career development, Hall and Parkay offer a five-stage
model that illustrates the concerns an administrator has as he moves through his
professional career (1992). Their five stages are:
1) Survival (the shock of finding himself as the leader of the school);
2) Control (setting priorities, and handling situations);
3) Stability (handles problems and as they become routine, he increases his
effectiveness and efficiency);
4) Educational leadership (curriculum and instruction is the primary focus);
5) Professional actualization (confirmation comes from within the individual).
A successful induction focuses on providing support, training, and orientation through
the first two phases of this developmental process.
Daresh found that effective induction programs have components that include
pre-planning, mentoring, and evaluation (1992). With respect to the mentor role, its
effectiveness as a teaching tool, support system, and network builder spans across the
scope of the entire administrative training experience, from preservice (Van Berkum,
1994; Geltner, 1993; Lumsden, 1993), to induction (Lumsden, 1993; Daresh, 1992), and
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finally, to professional development (Murphy, 1994; Joyce and Showers, 1982).
Structuring the workload, instituting buddy systems, giving feedback, and developing
professional growth plans were also seen as critical components of effective induction
programs (Anderson, 1989).
Typically, induction programs will cover school and district policies, rules, and
procedures, clarify and strengthen the definition of the roles and responsibilities of the
new administrator, and orientate the newcomer to organizational benefits and
networking opportunities (Mathis and Jackson, 1988). One example of educational
organizations following the lead of business and industry, is the Los Angeles County
Office of Education, which has developed an orientation video and handbook to present
relevant information regarding its organization to new employees. It has also
established the initial stages of a mentoring program into its induction process for all
new employers-management and non-management staff alike (LACOE, 1999).
Knowledge of the community in which the school is located is critical to
understanding the potential issues and concerns that an administrator may have to face
on a day-to-day basis. Community profiles are useful in orienting the administrator on
the demographics and economic status of the school’ s surrounding environment.
Profiles help to define the role of business and industry, and the important school
partnerships that the principal needs to nurture. It also provides a picture of what is not
in place, thus leading him/her towards activities to fill in the gaps. Induction must also
include a complete understanding of the district and/ or school’s strategic plan, if
available, and its history and progress. Staff and colleagues can assist in this orientation
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phase. Mentors are a valuable resource in orientating the new administrator to the
"hidden organization" as discussed in Deal (1994).
Professional Development
Mathis and Jackson define training as the activities necessary “to enhance an
employee’s capacity to handle greater responsibilities successfully” (1988). It is usually
concerned with increasing the individual’s knowledge base, emotional abilities, and
self-awareness of leadership styles. In a successful professional development plan,
similar to induction, there are strong planning, implementation, and evaluation
components. Referring to the discussion on Hall and Parkay’s career development
stages, professional development is responsive to building the stability, educational
leadership, and professional actualization of the administrator (1998). In this successful
endeavor, there is support from top management and the boards of education; there is an
interrelationship between the selection process, induction, and professional
development plans.
The scope and sequence of the professional development plan is developmental
in nature, ties into the vision, goals and objectives of the school, and is based on a needs
assessment evaluation. Connections with external training institutes, such as universities
and think tanks, are established in order to leverage resources, combine efforts, and
meet expected outcomes (Daresh, 1992).
Wilma Smith, an educational consultant working with the Institute for
Educational Inquiry, states that today’s administrative leaders are required to 1)
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establish a shared mission, 2) work as change agents, 3) collaborate with colleagues, 4)
think inclusively about all constituents, and 5) perceive and make explicit the
connections between theory and practice (1999). Yet, relative to professional
development for administrators, Murphy talks about the severe limitations of training
provided, especially in the areas of transformational leadership. Principals have a
difficult time envisioning the future other than in terms of their own current views of
educational structures and usually view opportunities for change within a limited scope
of vision (1994).
Hallinger states that principals need training in order to develop and increase
their own skills and strategies as they are asked to lead the change process (1992). They
need to learn how to influence staff and community into transforming their educational
institutions into more effective organizations that can result in increased student
learning. In an executive summary on “Schools of the Future,” Caldwell reported that
when asked about previous professional development activities, principals rated general
management skills, including management of finance as the most valuable received.
However, when given a list of potential professional development areas for future
training, principals selected leadership, team development, and interpersonal
effectiveness as the three top priorities (1996).
Zinner, in The Policy Studies Association in Washington D.C. (1998), has
developed a list of six attributes, along with success indicators, that local professional
infrastructures can use to support the quest for school transformation:
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1 . The local education community requires and agrees that professional
development is a cornerstone of school reform
2. All staff has the basic knowledge and skills to help all students achieve
3. School staff have sufficient experience and training to make informed
decisions about engaging in school transformation
4. District policy assigns responsibility for planning, paying for, and
conducting professional development in support of school transformation.
5. The district incentive system encourages and supports participation in school
transformation efforts and related professional development activities
6. There is a continuous evaluation of professional development. The results
are used for review, planning, and feedback to providers.
In response to the need for relevant, practical, successful professional
development, several programs have become available that address the knowledge,
skills, and strategies needed by today’s educational administrators. The Association of
California School Administrators (ACSA) is responding by providing opportunities for
“life long learning” (Zinner, 1998). These include academies, during which time a
cohort of administrators meet over a short term period; and summer institutes that
include residential experiences and nationally renowned guest lecturers. Institutes of
higher education also provide summer professional development experiences. These
institutes are generally for individuals who self-select the experiences, therefore they do
not generally target the systemic change discussed by Smith (1999).
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There are programs, however, that educational institutions can avail for their
staff in order to make a systemic impact. The California Department of Education and
County Offices of Education provide professional development in the areas of
instruction and curriculum that are critical to the understanding and application of
today’s state standards and expectations of success for all students.
Thomas indicates that there is basic information related to educational standards
that all school leaders in California should know (2000). These basics include
knowledge of the state standards; knowing how to align instructional programs to the
standards; knowing the state assessment system and schedule, such as the Standard
Achievement Test-9 (SAT-9), the High School Exit Exam, and the State Testing and
Reporting Program (STAR). Basics also include knowing how to analyze and use
disaggregated data; understanding and interpreting scores on student achievement tests,
and zeroing in on the principal’s responsibility to be accountable to student success.
Specific skill building in the area of frontline management is available through
programs such as Developing Frontline Leaders (Zenger-Miller, 1990). These programs
are involved with process, and target skills and strategies that principals need in order to
reach the stability phase in their career development, as described earlier by Parkay and
Hall. The California School Leadership Academy, offered by the Los Angeles County
Office of Education, and other educational agencies in California, provide intensive,
long-term professional development to school principals and other educational
administrators.
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Professional development programs that focus on professional actualization, the
last stage of Hall and Parkay’s career development, are available through organizations
such as The Pacific Institute. Investment in Excellence utilizes a curriculum for
professional development that centers on techniques to increase personal and
professional self-efficacy (Tice, 1992). Purpose in Life: Ethics and Organizational
Success focuses on an “educational process that is concerned with enhancing spirit,
promoting the greatest good possible, and achieving a higher point of view” (Spitzer,
1996, Page 1).
Although relevant, practical, content is critical to a successful professional
development program, Showers, Joyce et al., (1987) discuss the importance of process
in training programs. They point out that it is critical to be aware of how people respond
to training, and the degree of “buy-in” that trainees have to the process. The role of
trainers, where the training is held, and the time allotted for training is less critical than
the substance, process, and social context. One of the traits that leads to increased job
satisfaction among administrators is openness to’ new ideas (Bandura, 1984). In
providing training to administrators, knowledge of their dispositional characteristics
would be useful in determining the different approaches to take in order to maximize
results (Parker, 1998).
Gall and Acheson (1997); Daresh and Playko (1997); and Joyce and Showers
(1980) include modeling and coaching as two important components of successful
training. Mentors can assist in the professional development process by modeling
behaviors, providing structured and open-ended feedback, and coaching for application.
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This is a valuable process when coupled with the study of theory, research, and
observations (Mathis and Jackson, 1988).
Effective professional development programs that will systemically move
education in the direction of transformed schools requires a holistic approach that
includes all stakeholders associated with administrative training. In this day, when
professional training for administrators is often an afterthought (ERS, 1997),
collaboration must include institutes of higher education, school districts, professional
organizations, education service centers, and the business community (Erlandson,
1997). Matching Hall and Parkay’s career development stages to discreet areas of
responsibilities would create a seamless web of professional experiences.
One example of such a collaborative is cited by Ferrandino and Tirrozi (2000).
California State University, Hayward (CSUH), designed a Diversity Leadership
Program. Local districts nominate potential students from the ranks of assistant
principal and coordinator positions. The districts provide release time for the staff to
attend seminars provided by CSUH. Students also participate in team projects that focus
on “real world” educational problems. Another example is a collaborative between
Norfolk Public Schools and Old Dominion University in Virginia. The curriculum
reflects principal performance standards identified by the school district. Four key
objectives of the program are 1) to have participants examine issues impacting student
achievement in urban schools, 2) to help students acquire the knowledge and leadership
skills needed in an urban environment, 3) to prepare candidates for leadership positions
through emphasis on strategic planning, communication skills, cultural diversity, and
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technology application, and 4) to provide participants with meaningful applications of
research and theory in an effective on-the-job format (2000, p. 63).
Summary
Factors related to job satisfaction are multiple, interrelated, and complex.
Researchers have linked it to productivity and job retention, and have attempted to
identify those variables that correlate to a positive state of job satisfaction. Dispositional
and environmental factors have been studied, as have contextual factors that take the
person’s perceptions into account. The majority of studies have been tied to business
and the public sector, and there is only minimal research relating job satisfaction to the
educational environment. Among studies of job satisfaction which relate to the principal
role, findings include a positive correlation between smaller schools, suburban
environments, and higher socioeconomic communities. A scant amount of research has
found that principal leadership style may impact subordinate job satisfaction. There was
no research evident that tapped into the high school principal’s dispositional factors or
leadership style related to job satisfaction.
The literature review found that education faces increasing shortages in principal
candidate pools-especially high school principals-due to a surge in retirements and to a
decrease of candidates entering educational administration training programs.
Anecdotal references to the shortages describe the situation as critical and alarming. As
principal ranks decrease, educational reform and school accountability are increasing
the pressures and challenges that high school principals face daily. Social-political
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pressures exerted by the surrounding school community add to the complexity of the
skills and abilities required of the principal.
Thus, as the candidate pools of high school principals decrease and their
pressures on the job increase, it is important to know which variables relate to job
satisfaction in order to maximize job recruitment and retention efforts. Research has not
clearly identified those variables, however. Identification of internal or external
variables could assist with preservice, recruitment, and selection practices. They could
also assist in identifying best practices in the areas of induction and professional
development for existing principals. The following three chapters will attempt to
identify specific factors related to job satisfaction among high school principals that
would assist in identifying strategies to prepare, recruit, and retain persons in these
positions.
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Chapter 3
Methodology and Procedures
The purpose of this study was to identify those factors associated with job
satisfaction among high school principals. Identification of these factors can lead to
possible recommendations that would be useful in recruitment, selection, and retention
of persons in these positions. A review of the literature related to job satisfaction
included dispositional factors, such as personality and core self evaluations; contextual
factors, such as school environment, community demographics, school organizational
structure and principal support; and personal characteristics of principals. This chapter
will describe the methodology used to identify those factors that might be associated
with high school principal job satisfaction, and is divided into the following sections: 1)
Research Questions; 2) Sample Population; 3) Design of the Study; 4) Instrumentation;
5) Procedures for Data Collection; and 6) Data Analysis.
Research Questions
1. Are there core self-evaluation factors and/ or personality traits that relate to higher
job satisfaction among high school principals?
2. Do job characteristics, such as organizational effectiveness; the use of teams versus
an individual emphasis; the SES of school community, play a role in the perceived
job satisfaction among administrators?
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3. Are there demographic characteristics that correlate to job satisfaction among
secondary school principals, such as school size, principals’ years of experience,
and gender?
4. Using Judge’s model relating an individual’s core self-evaluations and perceived job
characteristics, is there a combination of factors that can predict an administrator’s
perception of his/her job satisfaction?
Sample Population
The pools of high school principal candidates are decreasing as higher numbers of
current principals are reaching retirement age (Educational Research Service, 1997;
Muse and Thomas, 1991). Furthermore, in this educational era of school reform,
restructure, and renewal which is focused on improving student achievement, the role of
the principalship has been identified as the single most contributing factor in school
success (Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000; Murphy, 1994). For these reasons, the
population selected for this study was high school principals.
The sample population chosen for this study was composed of 115 principals
from 95 comprehensive high schools within 21 school districts in Southern California.
Ten high schools within two districts had co-principals. All comprehensive high school
principals from each district were selected to allow for analysis of variability in the area
of years of experience and gender. Alternative education sites, charter schools, and
combination middle school-high schools were excluded in order to control for role and
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responsibility of the principals. A total of 118 principals were identified as the sample
population.
The principals were selected from within 16 unified school districts (includes
both elementary and high school educational levels) three union high school districts
(includes two or more districts) and two joint union high school districts (includes
territory from more than one county, and two or more districts.)
Sixteen of the districts selected were within Los Angeles County, three were
within Orange County, and one each was from Riverside and San Diego Counties.
Geographical locations of the districts provided variance in relation to community SES
demographics. This variance is important when collecting data regarding job
satisfaction given that the literature states that job satisfaction among educators is
related positively to smaller, suburban school districts (Jolly, 1999; Ed Cal, 1999).
Design of the Study
The design of this study is modeled after work by Judge et al., (1998, 2000). As
discussed in a previous section of this paper, Judge et al., poses that core self-
evaluations (locus of control, self-esteem, nonneuroticism, and generalized self-
efficacy) have a direct effect on job and life satisfaction (1998).
More recent work by Judge, Bono, and Locke, report on mediating factors
which are related to job characteristics and job environment (2000). The authors
propose that these factors contribute to a person’s core self-evaluations in predicting job
satisfaction.
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The following diagram indicates the constructs studied by Judge et al., and
demonstrates the path analysis, including the mediating factors, that lead to an
individual’s perception:
Perceived Job
Characteristics
Job
Satisfaction
Job
Complexity
Self Esteem
Locus of
Control
Generalized
Self-Efficacy
Neuroticism
Core self-
Evaluations
Figure 1. A path analysis demonstrating the relationship between the core self-
evaluation constructs and job satisfaction mediated by job complexity and perceived job
characteristics. Judge et al., 2000.
Applying the work by Judge to this current study, a survey has been developed
that will tap into core self evaluation constructs of self-esteem, conscientiousness, locus
of control, and general efficacy; as well as perceived organizational effectiveness,
opportunities for training, and the use of school teams among the sample population.
Correlates, if any, will be determined between these variables and the perceived job
satisfaction of the same sample population of the study. Results will be utilized to make
recommendations that may impact the general population in order to assist with high
school principal recruitment, selection, and retention.
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Instrumentation
A survey was developed that included questions or statements related to several
variables. The first part of the survey requested data regarding principal and school
characteristics. The number of years in administration and number of years in the
principal role were asked, as was the gender of the principal to determine if there was a
correlation between these variables and job satisfaction. Duffy, Ganster, and Shaw
researched the impact of tenure on job satisfaction (1998). At higher tenures,
individuals with higher positive affectivity (extent to which a person feels enthusiastic,
alert, and active) appeared to become increasingly frustrated with dissatisfying jobs,
demonstrating “acting out” behaviors and manifesting physical problems. Findings of a
positive relationship between job satisfaction and years of experience may indicate
intervention strategies to assist more experienced principals with burnout prevention.
Principals were also asked the percentage of high school seniors continuing onto
higher education, and the percentage of the high school student dropout rate. These
latter two questions were asked in order to assess the school’s academic record, and
were used in conjunction with the schools’ Academic Performance Index scores,
discussed later in this chapter. Jolly (1999) reported that elementary school level
principals reported higher rates of job satisfaction when working in schools where
students were most successful, academically; and less job satisfaction when working in
schools where there was a higher percentage of students on free or reduced lunch.
The remainder of the survey instrument was composed of sixty-two statements;
each followed by a five-point Likert scale. Principals were asked to mark the responses
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that best described their feelings about each of the statements, starting with “ strongly
disagree, disagree, not sure, agree, and strongly agree. ” ERS, in a publication on study
methods, recommended listing the lower level response to the higher level response, in
a left to right order, when response categories represent a progression (1998). The
survey also required responses to both positive and negative statements in order to
minimize the potential for a response set (ERS, 1998; Gall, Borg, and Gall, 1996).
Examples of this strategy are “ When I make plans, I am certain I can make them
work,” and “I am not totally secure about my ability to face difficult challenges.”
An invitation to log onto a specified web page was sent to the 115 high school
principals in the population sample. The home page of the site provided a description of
the study and a link to the survey. Principals were asked to respond to questions and
statements on the survey and submit their responses via electronic mail. Variables
included in the survey were those identified in the research questions. Analysis to
identify variables related to job satisfaction were conducted.
Research on job satisfaction is among the most prolific in the organizational
sciences, both in the number of studies and the number of related variables studied
(Cranny et al., 1992). This survey was limited to specific dispositional and contextual
variables discussed in the earlier literature review, in addition to the above mentioned
school and principal characteristics. Statements for each category ranged from 5-10
items in order to make the survey more manageable in length. The variables are
presented in the following section, beginning with job satisfaction as the dependent
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variable, proceeded by self-efficacy, self-esteem, locus of control, conscientiousness,
school organization, use of teams, and training opportunities for the principal.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is among the most researched variable in the social sciences.
Initial studies focused on job satisfaction as it related to job productivity and retention,
with research aimed at external factors, such as pay, work environment, and extrinsic
rewards (Gruenberg, 1979). Salgado (1997) looked at job satisfaction in relation to a
person’s disposition, including personality constructs such as conscientiousness,
openness, and agreeableness. Recent work has looked at the interplay between these
two major factors, resulting in complex layers of interaction between the “self’ and the
environment (Parker, 1998; Judge et al., 1998)
Job satisfaction levels among educational administrators, especially principals,
is minimal. Given the increasing national shortages of candidates for this position,
tapping into related factors could assist with the development of strategies for
recruitment, selection, and retention of high school principals (Ferrandino and Terrozi,
2000; Ed Cal, 1999). Survey statements related to job satisfaction in this study were
taken from work compiled by Baker (1998), and include “ Ifeel I am paid a
commensurate salary to the work I perform, ” and “There is opportunity fo r personal
growth in my job. ”
Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy is noted in the literature as a variable that is dynamic and can be
influenced by day-to-day experiences (Judge, 1998, Parker, 1999). Finding a positive
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correlation between high school principal job satisfaction and self efficacy would
support the development of intervention strategies to increase a principal’s level of an “I
can do it” attitude, a valuable approach in meeting the many challenges he faces on a
daily basis. Statements were modified from those used by Porter in a dissertation
measuring self-efficacy and self-esteem in a group level process (1992). Examples of
statements in this area are “When I decide to do something, I stick to it until I am
finished, ” “ I consider myself able to ‘ energize ’ others, ” and “When unexpected
problems occur, I don’t handle them well. ”
Self-esteem
Self-esteem relates to an individual’s self-appraisal, how he feels about himself
in his environment. Statements for the survey were taken from Rosenberg (1965) and
modified for principal-level responses. Although self-esteem is seen as a static
construct, identification of self-esteem, relative to job satisfaction may be an effective
tool during principal recruitment and selection practices to screen out unsuitable
candidates. As Duffy, Ganster, and Shaw note, after much investment has been made,
and the availability (or lack) of alternative employment is in doubt, an individual may
find it difficult to leave a position, but may instead remain in a frustrating, low
satisfying job, demonstrating ineffective behaviors or manifesting physical problems
(1998). Examples of survey questions, modified from the original for a more principal-
friendly approach, are “ I feel I do not have too much to be proud of, ” and “ I consider
myself a person easy to like. ”
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Locus of control
This construct relates to the amount of control a person feels that he has on his
behaviors and on his environment. Relative to educational leaders, Davis states that
principals view their failures or successes as a reflection of their own ability, degree of
effort, or motivational level (1998, p. 7). Principals with a strong locus of control are
not afraid to seek assistance from colleagues and supervisors when confronted by
complex problems. Conversely, administrators with an external locus of control are
more likely to attribute their success or failure to task difficulty, luck, or the influence
of others. There are numerous societal influences on a school’s day-to-day activities; a
stress on top down reform movements directed from national and state levels; and
disparities in community SES that might impact the school environment. Findings
relating inner locus of control as a measurement of job satisfaction among high school
principals might lead to the development of strategies to assist principals in developing
a stronger sense of their own abilities and effectiveness in handling the responsibilities
of the job.
Statements related to locus of control in the survey include “If a person does not
think I am bright or clever, I can usually change their minds,” “If I solve a problem
quickly, it is because it was not very difficult,” and “Good results I achieve at school are
a direct result of my efforts.” Statements were modified from Lefcourt (1991) to assure
for principal-level appropriateness.
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Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness measures the extent to which individuals are hard working,
organized, dependable, and persevering (Salgado, 1997, p. 30). Among measurements
related to personality and job satisfaction, conscientiousness related highly with job
proficiency and training (Barrick and Mount, 1991). In research conducted by Salgado,
it also related highly with job performance for all occupations studied, including
management (1997). The descriptions of this construct are frequently used in the
literature when describing principals’ characteristics (Marsh, 1996; Bennis, 1996;
Davis, 1998). Survey statements were collected, with minimal modification from Baker
(1991). An example is “ I believe I have good self discipline on the job. ”
School Organizational Effectiveness
The shift towards student learning and achievement has becomes the major
focus of accountability in all educational settings (Sweeny, 2000; Ellerbee and Miller,
2000). In a study on school organization related to school reform and improvement
efforts, Matakovich aligned a school planning framework with published state and local
standards (1999). Subsequent work by Matakovich and Baker led to the development of
a School Status Survey that aligns a school survey with six major areas of school
organization which focus on school leadership, culture, powerful teaching and learning,
student support, and a reflective school community (1999). Statements from the School
Status Survey were used in this study to determine if a relationship exists between the
school’s organization and job satisfaction. Because the original Matakovich- Baker
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scale was intended for school teachers responses, questions for this study were that were
most applicable to high school principals’ perceptions of school effectiveness.
Survey statements include “The school’ s vision and goals are reviewed
regularly to ensure that changing needs of students are addressed, ” “There are
favorable, cooperative attitudes throughout my school with mutual trust and
confidence, ” and “ Teachers are provided staff development opportunities that directly
support the school’ s goals and priorities for student learning. ”
Teamwork
Teamwork is highly related to the school organization construct, discussed
previously. Sunderstrom, Meuse, and Futrell note that work teams are small groups of
interdependent individuals who share responsibility for outcomes for their organizations
(p. 120, 1990). Demming’s work, stressing the role of the leader in inculcating a
teamwork approach in successful organizations, has been adopted across educational
settings (Nidds and McGerald, 1994.) The corporate world has seen the impact that
teams make on organizations, and as teams become more pivotal in education, the role
of the principal in selecting, managing, and supporting teams will increase in scope.
Determining the relationship of teamwork to principal job satisfaction in today’s
educational milieu is important as it relates to identifying a support and training
stmcture in this area for principals, leading to a win-win situation for the principal and
the organization. Statements referring to teamwork in the survey were taken from
(Lefcourt, 1991). Examples are “ All team members are encouraged to participate in
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discussion and problem solving situations, ” and “ Everyone on the school team does a
fair share of the work. ”
Professional Development/ Training Opportunities
“ It is well known that policy initiatives are often introduced rapidly, with little
thought or time given to consider implementation.” This statement by Fullen in 1982 is
equally applicable to education in 2000 (p. 8 ). Not just new, but experienced principals
require on-going professional development in order to meet the demands placed on
administrators today (Ferrandino and Terrozi, 2000). Although research on high school
principal job satisfaction related to professional development has not been extensively
studied, the literature abounds with those necessary life-long-leaming practices that
help to develop effective administrators, such as reflection, inquiry, and the critical
ability to make the connection between research and application (Smith, 1999).
Statements for the survey instrument used in this study were adapted from
Lefcourt. Examples are “ Principals in my district have access to learning new skills
and information, ” and “Our district has an effective induction program for new
administrators. ”
In order to decrease the number of responses required of the sample population,
separate data was collected independent of the survey, including the total school student
population as a measure of school size; percentage of students identified on free or
reduced lunch program as a measure of the school community’s socio-economic
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standing (SES); and the school Academic Performance Index (API) scores as measures
of student achievement in comparison to state rankings.
Ed Cal (1999) reports that in 1999-2000, the California Department of
Education used free and reduced percentage rates as a basis for determining the school’s
SES. This data is readily accessible and is available for all schools in California. The
API has been initiated in California for every school in the state. The API for high
schools are based on the Stanford 9 scores in Reading, Language, Mathematics,
Science, and Social Science, with the weight for the API evenly distributed among all
subject areas (California Department of Education, 2000).
Procedures for Data Collection
Upon completion of the survey instrument, a web site was developed and the
instrument was formatted for Internet application using Microsoft Front Page 2000, a
web site creation and management tool (2000). Finding an Internet provider which had
the capabilities required for posting Front Page developed form proved challenging.
After several attempts, discussions with Microsoft, various Internet providers, and the
university’s technology division, the form, along with an introductory description of the
research, was published on a no-fee-based server. In addition to the questions and
statements, a “Feedback” dialogue box was provided. By pressing on a “submit” button
at the end of the survey, the results were automatically posted on a designated e-mail
destination belonging to the author.
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The initial survey, which included seventy-four statements, was sent to 30
administrators within two school districts. The administrators were invited to log onto
the survey web site, take, and submit the survey. Based on feedback from the field-
testing and from educational experts, modifications were made to the questions to make
them more “principal-friendly” (Appendix 1). The survey was revised and re-published
on the web site (Appendix 2).
Letters were sent to each of the 21 superintendents requesting permission to
survey the high school principals in their districts (Appendix 3). Follow-up calls were
made to each of the superintendents. In two cases, e-mail messages were sent on
recommendations of the superintendents’ secretaries, and in one case, a face-to-face
interview was held. Upon receipt of approval, letters were sent to each of the respective
district principals, describing the study and inviting them to log onto the web site
(Appendix 4). A University of Southern California bookmark was included with the
letters, as a token of gratitude for their time and effort.
After a three-week period, a second set of letters was sent to the principals who
had not responded to the survey, with a hard copy of the survey and a self-addressed
stamped envelope (Appendix 5). E-mail reminders were also sent to those principals
whose high schools had web sites posted on the Internet.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, factor analysis, Pearson Correlations, and regression
analysis were computed for each of the responses on the Likert Scale survey items.
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Years of experience, gender, training, characteristics of the school and community
setting, and job satisfaction ratings were also computed. An analysis of the
relationships among these factors and possible effects on job satisfaction were
completed. The findings and analysis are presented in the next chapter of this paper.
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Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine whether dispositional factors
(conscientiousness, self-esteem, inner locus of control, and self-efficacy,) or external
factors (school organizational effectiveness, use of teams, training opportunities
provided to administrators,) correlated with job satisfaction among high school
principals. Since research on job satisfaction has correlated this construct with job
retention and production, findings of this study could be used to assist with principal
recruitment, selection, and retention. The survey instrument used was designed to assess
principals’ self-perceptions of the internal dispositional and external factors listed
above, and job satisfaction. Questions were also included that asked for school and
principal characteristics.
The survey instrument was posted on the web site. One hundred and fifteen high
school principals were invited, through the mail, to log onto the web site, fill out the
survey, and submit it to the examiner through the Internet. This chapter will focus on 1)
survey responses, 2) general interpretation of the empirically derived scales, 3)
statistical analysis of the identified variables, and, 4) discussion of findings.
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Survey Responses
Within the first week after invitations were sent, four principals contacted the
author of the study to report that they were unable to access the survey web site. Upon
exploration, it was found that some school districts have “firewalls” that limit the users’
access to specified Internet sites. When calls were made to various districts to determine
the extent of “firewall” use, the responses varied in sophistication and information
provided. A second mailing was sent out, with a hard copy of the survey. Principals
were encouraged to access the Internet through some other source if available.
Sixty-five surveys were returned: 28 were submitted electronically through the
Internet and 37 were returned through the mail. This amounted to a 57 percent return,
which is considered adequate for the correlational purposes of the present study (Gall,
Borg, and Gall, 1996). While a thorough analysis of the non-respondents was not
conducted, there appears to be no systematic differences between the two groups.
Empirical Assignment of Items to Scales
The original instrument contained 10 items which included questions related to
principal and school background characteristics, and 61 Likert-type statements.
Responses to the Likert items were recorded in an SPSS data file. While the items used
were part of intact scales that had been used previously, it was deemed necessary to
empirically determine their underlying dimensions. Through a series of overlapping
factor analysis, the items were assigned to seven scales. Alpha reliability coefficients,
computed for each scale, ranged from .60 to .78; all within the range of acceptability.
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Table 1 shows the empirically derived scales, along with each scale’s alpha reliability
and constituent items. The items originally assigned to Leadership Style and efficacy
were so highly correlated (r = .78) that the two scales were combined into one labeled
command/efficacy. Inner locus of control was eliminated as a variable due to an
unacceptably low alpha reliability coefficient.
General Interpretation of the Empirically Derived Scales
Scale 1: General Job Satisfaction. The five items in this scale centered on principals’
perception of general job satisfaction.
Scale 2: Command/ Efficacy. The common thread in this seven-item scale is the
principals’ perception of how well he/she is able to accomplish the tasks and role
requirements of the job. The seven items were collapsed from those in the initial
variables measuring Leadership Style and Self-Efficacy. Although these were initially
treated as separate variables, the scale analysis picked up the common elements that
result in a principal’s perceptions of how well he/she does on the job.
Scale 3: Conscientiousness. This 5-item scale focused on the perceptions of principals
on their organization, dependability, and perseverance on the job. As a personality
construct, conscientiousness has been related highly with job satisfaction and
performance (Salgado, 1997).
Scale 4: Teams. The statements included in this 5-item scale focused on principal
perceptions of how well teams function in the overall school milieu. This included
perceptions of the school teams’ abilities to accomplish tasks and to support and assist
individual team members. Although teams is utilized in this study as an external
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Table 1.
Empirically Derived Scales: Alpha Reliabilities and Likert Items
Scale Alpha Scale Descriptors
Items
1 .65
General Job
Satisfaction
5. My job allows me the authority to do what I
think is right.
11. I feel fairly well satisfied with my present
job.
17. I consider my job rather unpleasant (reversed
score).
26. I feel worthwhile accomplishment in my job.
59. I feel I am paid a salary commensurate to the
work I perform.
2 .78 Command/Efficacy 2. When I make plans I am certain I can make
them work.
40. At work I am typically as productive, or more
so, than others.
41. I function well in cooperative or team
activities.
46. My previous employers or teachers would
describe me as energetic and persistent.
47. When I decide to do something, I quickly get
to it.
51. When there is something unpleasant to do at
work, I stick to it until I finish.
56. I consider myself very social.
3 .70
Conscientiousness 4. I believe I have good self-discipline on the
job.
28. For most assignments, I have effective
follow-up skills.
52. I am a very well organized person at work.
57. Overall, I consider myself most reliable in
doing what needs to be accomplished.
61. I tend to be task-oriented and like to get the
job finished.
4 .68
Teams 6 . It is easy to talk openly and candidly with all
members of the school team.
13. All team members are encouraged to
participate in Discussion and problem-solving
situations.
15. Most members of our school team know each
other’s jobs.
27. Our school team does not function very well
together as a unit (reverse score).
62. Everyone on the school team does a fair share
of the work.
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Table 1 (continued).
Empirically Derived Scales: Alpha Reliabilities and Likert Items
Scale Alpha Scale Descriptors Items
5 .60 Self-Esteem 9. On the whole, I am satisfied with my efforts
at facilitating change.
16. I feel I am a person of worth, at least on an
equal basis with other administrators.
25. I consider myself a leader among my teachers
and co-workers.
40. I often wish I were someone else (reverse
score).
48.1 consider myself a person easy to like.
6 .70 Organizational
Effectiveness
8 . Personnel at all levels feel real responsibility
for organizational goals and behave in ways to
implement them.
12. The school’s vision and goals are reviewed
regularly to ensure that the changing needs of
students are addressed.
20. High levels of management feel responsibility
for achieving organizational goals while rank
and file usually feel relatively little
responsibility.
23. Teachers are provided staff development
opportunities that directly support the school’s
goals and priorities for student learning.
30. At my school, emphasis is placed on ensuring
that students and staff accept joint
responsibility for student and school
performance.
36. There are favorable, cooperative attitudes
throughout my school with mutual trust and
confidence.
40. The school’s vision of what all students
should know and be able to do upon
graduation is clearly understood by all
segments of the school community.
49. A high-level core curriculum is provided for
all students at our school.
55. The entire school community supports the
school in achieving its vision and goals.
7
Training 3 7 .1 have had opportunities to continue my
professional growth and development while in
my principal position.
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variable, the principals’ perceptions of how well group processes are operating within
the school is an extension- or proxy- of his/her job satisfaction.
Scale 5: Self-Esteem. This 5-item scale centered on the principals’ overall appraisal of
themselves and their self-worth. Like conscientiousness, research has found a high
correlation between this variable and job satisfaction and job performance (Salgado,
1997).
Scale 6: Organizational Effectiveness. This nine-item scale centers around the
principals’ perception of the overall effectiveness of the total school program, and how
well the school population (administrators, staff, students) is functioning in relation to
the school’s vision, goals, and core curriculum.
Scale 7: Training. This was the only single-item measure that resulted from factor
analysis of the Likert items. Although single item-measures are discouraged in research,
exceptions can be made when the item is sufficiently narrow or is unambiguous to the
respondent (Wanous et al.,1997). In this case, the author suggests that the single item,
“ I have had opportunities to continue my professional growth and development while in
my principal position, ” meets both criteria, and can validly be used to relate training
perceptions to principal job satisfaction.
Statistical Analysis
The scales which resulted from the factor analysis were put through a series of
analysis through the use of the SPSS Statistical program. First, descriptive statistics
were computed for all of the scales measured in the sample population (means and
standard deviations.) Secondly, a correlational analysis was conducted to determine
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whether relationship(s) existed between the various independent variables studied and
the dependent variable, job satisfaction. Thirdly, a second order factoring was used to
determine if there were clusters of the identified scales, which intercorrelated, strongest
with job satisfaction. Lastly, a multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine
if combinations of variables in the study could be used to predict principal job
satisfaction.
Sixty-five principals responded, 42 were males and 23 were female. The highest
percentage of respondents had been principals for 2-6 years (31 of the 64) and had been
administrators. for
respondents:
11-15 years (26 of the 64). Table 2 provides a profile of the
Table 2.
Gender Profile
Gender Frequency Percent
Female 23 35.4
Male 42 64.6
Total 65 1 0 0 . 0
Statistical mean and standard deviation of scales
Means and standard deviations for each scale are shown in Table 3. The mean
for Organizational Effectiveness was considerably lower in relation to the other scales
(M = 37.4) indicating overall low scores amongst the respondents in this area.
Reviewing the questions that comprise the Organizational Effectiveness scale provides
a possible explanation. With education a national priority, schools are under pressure to
undergo reform and/or restructuring. Stakeholders are working under "public mandates"
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to improve the achievement of all students (Clinchy, 1998). The respondents’ scores
might well be a reflection of where the principals see their schools in this very complex
process.
The Training scale had the largest skewed value (SD = 6 .6 ) indicating a wide
variance in responses among the principals in this area. In contrast, the Self-Esteem
scale demonstrated very modest skewness (SD = 3.78), indicating less deviation,
overall, from the mean in this area, which was second highest of the scales (M = .44).
Training experiences vary from district to district, as do principal perceptions of the
value received given the investment of time. In later discussion, we will see that the
variance in the training scale is attributed to the wide span of responses provided by
females in the sample n, to be discussed in the next section.
Table 3.
Scale Means and Standard Deviations
SCALE MEAN
STANDARD
DEVIATION N
Command/Efficacy 42.61 4.44 65
Conscientiousness 43.96 4.04 65
Job Satisfaction 43.04 5.20 65
Organizational Effectiveness 37.4 5.86 65
Teams 40.56 5.75 65
Training 44.21 6.62 65
Self Esteem 44.06 3.78 65
One-way analysis of variance was also computed to determine if differences
existed between male and female respondents relative to the formulated scales. Table 4
indicates the means and standard deviations for each of the scales, by gender. In
contrast to their male counterparts, females scored significantly lower in two areas,
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Training, and Teams. The total mean for the Teams scale was 40.5. Female mean score
for the Teams scale was 38.5, with a SD of 6.1; while the male mean score was 41.6,
with a SD of 5.3. This finding supports the commonly held notion that males are more
comfortable and adept with team processes, both as participants and as leaders. While
the literature on corporate managers and administrators report on strengths in the areas
of collaboration among women, in general, the use of teams is seen as strength among
male managers.
Training was the second scale in which a significant difference was noted,
respective to gender. Total mean for this scale was 44.2. Females had a mean score of
41, with a SD of 7.5; males had a mean score of 46.5, with a SD of 5.4. The Likert
statement making up this scale score was “I have had opportunities to continue my
professional growth and development while in my principal position.” With no
additional statements regarding training, we are relying on a single-item measure.
Nonetheless, results support previous studies comparing gender differences in this area.
For example, in a study among 120 executives, Irby found that men reported that their
leadership styles evolved from innate abilities and on-the-job training; women
executives said that they were influenced by mentors and formal training (1995).
Although Training and Teams were the only scales which demonstrated
significant levels of differences relative to gender, women respondents had lower mean
scores in all scales, with a wider variance than men, in all cases. The possibility
certainly exists that the statements that made up the survey were inherent with gender
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bias. A cursory comparison of research in this area, however, supports the findings of
this study.
Table 4.
ANOVA of Scales with Gender as the Factor
Variable Gender N Mean S.D. Sig.
1. Job Satisfaction Female 23 42.39 5.59 .467
Male 42 43.39 5.02
Total 65 43.05 5.20
2. Organizational Effect Female 23 36.95 5.33 .086
Male 42 38.99 5.40
Total 65 38.23 5.43
3. Teams
Female 23 38.55 6.14 .041*
Male 42 41.62 5.31
Total 65 40.56 5.75
4. Training Female 23 40.91 7.50 .003*
Male 42 45.95 5.44
Total 65 44.21 6.62
5. Self Esteem Female 23 43.04 4.26 .106
Male 42 44.61 3.38
Total 65 44.06 3.76
6 . Command/Efficacy Female 23 41.99 4.42 .545
Male 42 42.86 4.44
Total 65 42.55 3.32
7. Conscientiousness
Female 23 43.82 3.32 .831
Male 42 44.05 4.41
Total 65 43.97 4.04
In the Irby study, for example, both male and female respondents perceived
women as giving more attention to detail. Males, on the other hand, demonstrated a “big
picture” perspective, and delegated the details to others (1995). In another study, also
with a sample of corporate executives, Lyness and Thompson found that women
reported gaps in the areas of “culture” fit, and reported exclusion from informal
networks (1995). Career success was positively related to breadth of experience and
developmental assignments. The study found differences in this latter factor.
Developmental assignments differed by gender, with men given roles of authority more
so than women. Although these studies have involved sample populations from
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corporate structures, there may be parallel implications with regard to training and
mentoring in the educational setting.
Correlation Analysis
Correlation analysis was computed for all of the scales to determine the
relationship between the independent variables of the study and job satisfaction, as well
as on school characteristics which included student achievement and socio-economic
status. Neither of these last two variables demonstrated any significant levels relative to
principal job satisfaction levels. There was the expected correlation among some of the
independent variables studied. For example, Academic Performance Index (API) Scores
correlated highly with the percentage of students going on to higher education (r = .52,
P < .0 0 1 ), whereas school drop-out rates correlated highly with the percentage of
students on reduced lunch (r = .39, g < .001).
Self-Esteem (r = .45), Organizational effectiveness (r = .42), Conscientiousness
(r = .36), Teams (r = .33) all related significantly with the Job Satisfaction scale (g <
.01), while Training (r = .28), and Command Efficacy (r = .26) correlated to the Job
Satisfaction scale at a lower level of significance (g < .05). Thus, each of the scales
proved to be correlated positively with job satisfaction. It is interesting to note that
while the mean score on Organizational Effectiveness was the lowest among all of the
scales, this same variable correlated highest to job satisfaction, second only to the Self
Esteem scale (r = .45, .42.) It is possible that organizational effectiveness could be seen
as a mediating factor between self esteem and job satisfaction. As discussed in previous
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sections of this paper, Judge et al., poses that core self-evaluations (locus of control,
self-esteem, nonneuroticism, and generalized self-efficacy) have a direct effect on job
and life satisfaction (1998) and are mediated by job characteristics (2000).
Further analysis was conducted to assess the role of organizational effectiveness,
relative to job satisfaction.
Table 5.
Correlational Matrix of Study Variables (N = 65)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Job Satisfaction .423** .332** 278* .449** .259* .360**
2. Organ/ Effect — .732**
4 9 4 **
.435** .395** .483**
3. Teams
—
.695** .433** .421** .416**
4. Training
—
.559** .344** .456**
5. Self Esteem — .616** .548**
6 . Command/Efficacy
—
.503**
7. Conscientiousness
—
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
Multiple Regression Analysis
A series of multiple regressions was conducted to determine if a combination of
variables could be identified that best predict job satisfaction. There was also an effort
to determine if organizational effectiveness, which correlated highly to job satisfaction,
acts as a factor in predicting job satisfaction. Table 6 . shows the results of a regression
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that was computed when organizational effectiveness, self-esteem and
conscientiousness were entered into the analysis, with job satisfaction as the dependent
variable. While self-esteem was the best predictor of job satisfaction (B = .409.),
organizational effectiveness added to self-esteem as the predictor (B = .230). The t
scores of 2.193 and 1.996, respectively, indicate that these variables were in the
significant range.
Applying these findings Judge’s model, organizational effectiveness can be seen
as a mediating factor between self-esteem and job satisfaction, increasing the predictive
value of self-esteem. Again, tying this into the results we have received in the previous
analysis, organizational effectiveness has a strong influence on a principal’s job
satisfaction. Organizational effectiveness centers around the principals’ perception of
the overall effectiveness of the total school program, and how well the school
population (administrators, staff, students) is functioning in relation to the school’s
vision, goals, and core curriculum. By accepting that job satisfaction can be predicted
by one’s self-esteem, and that the prediction is influenced by the job’s characteristics
and complexity, it is rational to accept organizational effectiveness as a mediating
factor.
In the second regression, command/efficacy, conscientiousness, and self-esteem
were entered into the analysis. Organizational effectiveness was entered as the
dependent variable in a further effort to clarify its role as a variable. Conscientiousness
was the best predictor of organizational effectiveness, with a Beta of .466, at .021 level
of significance (Table 7).
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The definition for conscientiousness presented earlier in this study is that “it
measures the extent to which individuals are hard working, organized, dependable, and
persevering” (Salgado, 1997, p. 30). Clearly, the ability to “stick to it” until the job is
accomplished is exactly what is required to meet the comprehensive task of moving all
school units towards the goal of student achievement. None of the other variables added
predictive value to the conscientiousness scale.
When Teams, Conscientiousness, Command/Efficacy, and Self-Esteem were
entered into the regression analysis, only Self-Esteem was needed to predict Job
Satisfaction (B = .504.) As can be seen in Table 8 , Command/Efficacy demonstrated a
slight negative Beta (-.126.) Overall, self esteem, and conscientiousness demonstrated
the highest predictive value of job satisfaction.
Among the principals in this study, self-esteem was the variable that correlated
highest with job satisfaction. In multiple regression analysis, it was highest as a
predictor for job satisfaction, with job complexity (organizational effectiveness) as a
mediating factor. As noted earlier, this 5-item scale centered on the principals’ overall
appraisal of themselves and their self-worth. Positive self-esteem results in a principal
feeling good about himself and his work. The strong connection between this variable
and job satisfaction is supported in previous research by Salgado (1996), Judge et al.,
(1998, 2000), and Parker, (1998) among others.
This finding is not surprising when one considers the role of the high school
principal, and the perseverance that is needed to overcome the many challenges faced
daily. Logic supports the inference that positive perceptions of one’s self is highly
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desirable for success, especially at a time when public criticism prevails at all
educational levels.
Table 6.
Regression Analysis - Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients
B Std. Error t Sig.
1 (Constant) 12.381 7.390 1.675 .099
Organ/
effectiveness .409 .186 2.193 .032
Self Esteem 9.2320E-02 .180 .514 .609
Conscientiousness .230 .115 1.996 .050
Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction
Table 7.
Regression Analysis - Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients
•
B Std. Error t Sig.
1 (Constant) -2.416 8.324 .290 .773
Self Esteem .285 .229 1.245 .218
Conscientiousness .466 .196 2.376 .0 2 1
Command/ .159 .189 .842 .403
Efficacy
Dependent Variable: Organizational Effectiveness
Table 8.
Regression Analysis - Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients
B Std. Error t Sig.
1 (Constant) 12.105 7.67 1.578 . 1 2 0
Teams .504 .214 2.355 .0 2 2
Conscientiousness -.126 .177 -.711 .480
Command/Efficacy .190 .184 1.032 .306
Self Esteem .142 .119 1.195 .237
Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction
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Second-order factor analysis
To further clarify the relationship between job satisfaction and the variables in
this study, a second order factor analysis was conducted. Unlike the initial factor
analysis, which was primarily conducted to determine an empirical basis for grouping
the Likert items into scales, the second order factor analysis was conducted in order to
identify possible relationships among the scales themselves; and, to identify if the
variables could be grouped into smaller clusters. The fact that organizational
effectiveness (an external variable) continued to be a major factor throughout the series
of analysis was particularly intriguing.
Clustering the variables into smaller factors might provide information that
could result in more clearly defined strategies for supporting principal job satisfaction.
The factor analysis of the seven scales utilized a principal component with Varimax
rotation. Results are shown in Table 9.
Table 9.
Factor Analysis: Rotated Component Matrix3
Variable Component 1 Component 2
Self Esteem .820
Command/ Efficacy .804
Conscientiousness .717 .316
Job Satisfaction .537
Teams .907
Organizational Effectiveness .314 .793
Training .311 .766
Extraction method: Principal Component Analysis.
a. Rotation converged in 3 iterations.
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Results of the second order factor analysis clearly demonstrate that the scales
clustering into Component 1 are the dispositional variables that make up this study
(self-esteem, command/ efficacy, and conscientiousness). Scales clustering under
Component 2 are those dealing with the external factors-the job characteristics-of the
study (use of teams, organizational effectiveness, and training opportunities). Job
satisfaction loaded moderately with component 1 but not with Component 2. Note that
organizational
effectiveness, which had the second highest correlation with job satisfaction, and which
had a high predictive value of the dependent variable, was not in the component that
loaded with job satisfaction. This strongly supports work by Judge et al., that job
satisfaction is a result of one’s core self-evaluations. Organizational effectiveness, as
did teams and training, mediates the strength of one’s dispositional perceptions (1999,
2000).
Discussion
An analysis of the findings in this study support the work by Judge et al., (1998;
2000), Parker, (1998), Salgado, (1977). Principal job satisfaction is correlated to one’s
dispositional factors (self-esteem, conscientiousness, and command/ efficacy.) These
factors also demonstrated, at significant levels, an ability to predict an individual’s
perceived job satisfaction. Further, organizational effectiveness was seen as a mediating
factor that contributed to self-esteem as a predictor.
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The dispositional variables studied were the principals’ own perceptions of their
self-worth, their perceptions of their ability to “stick to the job and do whatever it takes
to succeed,” and their perceptions of how efficacious they are in their leadership roles.
The principals who had a higher perception of their own self-worth, their ability to
handle situations and to do whatever is necessary on the job also responded highest in
the area of job satisfaction. None of the school characteristics (SES, drop out rate,
student achievement levels) related significantly to job satisfaction.
Second order factor analysis clearly demonstrated the relationship between the
core self-evaluation variables (self-esteem, conscientiousness, and command/efficacy)
and principal job satisfaction. This finding supports work by several researchers that
dispositional factors contribute heavily to job satisfaction.
Although this was not a causality study, the second order factoring conducted
also suggests that a certain amount of directionality may exist among people who
demonstrate higher job satisfaction, based on their core self-evaluations. As noted in
Judge et al., “people who consider themselves worthy and able to cope with life’s
exigencies bring a positive frame to the situations and events they encounter" (p. 31,
1997).
Applying the work of Judge, et. al., to these results, it may well be that the
principals’ views of how well teams are operating, and their views on opportunities for
training may well be a result of their “dispositional” prism, that is, the tendency to view
the glass as half full, rather than half empty (1998.) A principal may face the same
environmental barriers and political challenges as his/ her counterpart in an adjacent
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community, but may have a higher sense of job satisfaction if she/he tends to have a
stronger self- perception of worth, efficacy, and conscientiousness.
We can demonstrate the relationship of the factors of this study by reviewing the
earlier figure by Judge. By interjecting the variables from this study into his model,
organizational effectiveness, use of teams, and training opportunities can be seen as
mediating factors which contribute to one’s perception of job satisfaction (Figure 2).
These areas become important considerations when developing programs in order to
increase principal job satisfaction.
Training, Use of
Teams, and
Organizational
Effectivess
Self Esteem
Perceived Job
Characteristics
Command/
Efficacy
Job
satisfaction
Core self-
Evaluations
Conscien
tiousness
Job
Complexity
Figure 2. A pictorial analysis of the current study demonstrating the relationship
between the core self-evaluation constructs and job satisfaction mediated by job
complexity and perceived job characteristics. (Based on Judge, et. al., 2000.)
A comparison of scale means and standard deviations demonstrated that women
scored lower in all of the variables in the study. Although only two factors, training and
teams, were at the significant level, the fact that the sample n was divided across all
variables by gender is noteworthy. Regardless of societal views of what skills and
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abilities constitute leadership, the results of this study indicate that the female sample
population, as a whole, had lower self-perceptions of their abilities, self-worth, and
effectiveness than their male counterparts. They also had a lower self-rating in the area
of perceived general job satisfaction. There are clear implications for putting practices
into place based on these gender differences.
In the next chapter we will use the results from this study to generate potential
strategies and practices that might assist with principal recruitment, selection, and
retention.
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Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Problem
Public schools are under intense scrutiny relative to student achievement of state
and locally established performance standards. Legislators and non-educational policy
makers have joined parents and school board members in focusing on performance and
results as school accountability takes center stage in various political platforms. Recent
state requirements that all students must meet in order to graduate have intensified
pressures on the part of secondary school principals. They are expected to provide the
leadership required for the restructuring and reform mandates being promoted
nationally. In fact, several studies have identified the school principal as the single most
important person at the school responsible for making things happen, or not.
At the same time that the role of the principal is being touted as the single most
important force in the school, principal shortages are being reported across the country.
Superintendents have reported an alarming decrease in the number of principal
candidate pools needed to replace persons leaving the position due to retirements or
dissatisfaction with the profession. Incentives are often perceived as too low for the
many challenges facing principals today. These perceptions contribute to the
increasingly difficult task that human resource offices face in their efforts to recruit
principal candidates for any setting, and more so, for the high school level.
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Employers throughout the last century have utilized research on job satisfaction
heavily as a variable in order to impact job retention and productivity. The intent of this
study was to determine if there are variables correlated to high school principal job
satisfaction that also can be used to formulate strategies that can assist with selection,
and increased job retention, and productivity. Variables in this study were both internal
in nature (self-esteem, command/ efficacy, conscientiousness) and external (perceived
organizational effectiveness, opportunities for training and use of school teams). School
and principal characteristics were also included as variables (school community SES,
student achievement levels, gender, and years of administrative experience.)
Findings and Conclusions
Self-esteem, command/ efficacy, conscientiousness, perceived organizational
effectiveness, opportunities for training, and use of school teams were translated into
scales, which were then processed through various statistical analyses. Findings of this
study, relating these variables to principal job satisfaction are:
1. SES, student achievement and years of experience did not correlate significantly
with job satisfaction of high school principals.
2. Each of the scales listed above correlated with high school principal job
satisfaction at statistically significant levels.
3. Dispositional factors (self-esteem, command/ efficacy, and conscientiousness)
had the highest predictive values of job satisfaction in the multiple regression
analysis.
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4. Perceptions of organizational effectiveness, training opportunities, and use of
school teams were found to be mediating factors of the internal variables, which
related to job satisfaction among high school principals.
5. Gender differences were noted in that males scored significantly higher than
women on perceptions of training opportunities and the use of school teams,
relative to job satisfaction. Although means of the remaining scales were not
statistically significant, males had higher scores and less variance, overall, than
their female counterparts across all variables studied.
6 . Self esteem, command/ efficacy, and conscientiousness clearly clustered
together, loading with job satisfaction, reinforcing the strong relationship that
these four variables have with one another. The external variables, perceptions
of organizational effectiveness, training opportunities, and use of school teams,
clustered together, but did not load with job satisfaction. This result adds strong
support to finding # 4 that these latter variables are contextual factors that
mediate the predictive role of the internal disposition factors in the study,
relative to job satisfaction.
A major conclusion related to these findings is that strategies that enhance the
perception of self esteem, command efficacy, and conscientiousness can be used to
increase high school principals’ perception of job satisfaction, and should be built into
the various stages of a professional development plan. Because findings also indicate
that organizational effectiveness, training opportunities, and use of school teams are
external factors that mediate the dispositional constructs related to an individual’s
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perception of job satisfaction, it is concluded that these areas should be included when
developing professional development strategies. Training opportunities should stress
previously identified behaviors which are practiced by effective educational leaders:
collaborative, setting clear expectations, having well defined goals, leading by example,
and transformational in nature.
Lastly, the finding that females, as a group, scored consistently lower than their
male counterparts relative to all of the variables studied, especially in relation to
perceived training opportunities and the use of school teams, strikes a discordant note
that needs to be addressed. As noted previously, findings of this study support other
gender-related research that show a gap between the perceptions of job satisfaction
among male and female administrators. This perceptual gap is also evident in studies
related to perceptions of job performance. Because the purpose of the current study is to
generate strategies that support variables leading to increased perceptions of job
satisfaction among high school principals, it would be helpful to reflect on the high
school milieu, and those elements which might contribute to the gender gap found in
this study.
The average high school setting has traditionally been surrounded by major
doses of political influence; its success has been measured by the competitive abilities
of its sports program; and it has had a healthy amount of bartering and camaraderie
within the school and community. Not only do these elements continue today, but
stakes have been raised that extend their depth and scope. As an example, elected
officials, from local to state to national levels, have made education their number one
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priority. Team rankings are still important, but with state-imposed high school
graduation requirements, the competition on the field has extended beyond the sports
arena. Student achievement and test result scores are posted not only in the daily papers,
but are also on the Internet for all to see and compare. In previous times, the high school
principal, along with other key players, was referred to as part of “the good old boys
network.” Although this may no longer be the case, the majority of high school
principals today continues to be males.
If the high school milieu includes those elements in our society in which males
have always been expected to excel, the role that networking has played in education
has been critical to that success. Findings from various studies, including the current
one, indicate that women still perceive some exclusion from networking and training
opportunities. The last conclusion of this study is that at least to a some extent,
perceptions of male-dominated and controlled high schools continue to be the norm; in
order to counteract this perception, professional development should include strategies
that address this area.
Recommendations
Based on the three major conclusions listed above regarding perceptions of job
satisfaction relative to the interplay between core self evaluations and mediating
external factors, the following preservice, selection, induction, professional
development, and gender-related recommendations are proposed:
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Preservice
The findings indicate that those programs which offer support structures that
benefit and enhance the development of both the internal and external variables of this
study would be beneficial in promoting the future job satisfaction of high school
principals. One example of this type of structure is the university cohort group
experience. Cohort groups allow for individual and group development, addressing the
internal variables of this study as well as providing an environment that nurtures
collaboration, teamwork, and networking.
Two other university preservice practices that would optimize preparation of
high school principals are utilizing problems-based learning (PBL), and teams-based
approaches in the program. The former provides real-life educational challenges and
case studies that students can address and solve, and helps them to understand the
challenges of the principalship. At the same time, PBL helps build the individual’s “can
do it” attitude important to success. Using a teams approach to PBL would support the
use of teams to solve problems, and would strengthen this practice among future
principals. This is similar to the corporate arena, where graduate business schools use a
teams-based approach as one effort to build future leaders in management.
Students aspiring to be principals would also benefit from preservice programs
that stress analytical and reflective practices. If we can generalize the findings from this
study that organizational effectiveness mediates dispositional factors in predicting job
satisfaction, the ability to reflect and practice metacognitive analysis will serve students
well when they are assigned to principal positions which requires strategic thinking.
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Lastly, institutes of higher education must interface more consistently and intensely
with school districts in order to identify real-life challenges for students to utilize when
applying theory to practice. Effective, practical analytic skill building would support
efficacious behaviors, and thus, lead to higher job satisfaction. This partnership could
also support existing district career ladder programs.
Selection and recruitment process
Human resource personnel and upper level management are prudent to take a
holistic approach when recruiting candidates or when identifying individuals to mentor
and promote into administration, within legal parameters. Appraisal of a candidate’s
dispositional makeup is as important as determining his/ her skill and ability levels. This
assessment battery should not be practiced with the intent of screening interested
persons out of the profession, but with an eye towards developing appropriate support
systems during the induction period of the selected individuals. A holistic assessment
might also be useful as a tool that individuals could use to self-select out of the process
if they deemed appropriate.
Induction and Professional Development
Although induction and professional development practices provide support
during different stages in a principal’s career, findings from this study strongly suggest
that focus be placed on those skills and strategies that will inculcate a “big picture”
strategic vision. Similar to preservice strategies, professional development that develops
and/ or enhances metacognitive analysis is essential. Organizational effectiveness
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requires the garnering of all forces needed to move in the direction of success for all
students.
If training is accepted as a mediating factor in the relationship between
dispositional forces and job satisfaction, as findings in this study indicate, then
education must demonstrate the same commitment to professional development as does
business. Businesses spend over 60 billion dollars annually to ensure that management
has the tools to reach its bottom-line. In like manner, focused, selective, and relevant
training for principals can positively impact organizational effectiveness. It will foster
efficacious behaviors in meeting the bottom line of student achievement, which closely
relates to job satisfaction. Anyone who has been successful at a given task knows that
his/her self-efficacy, and in turn, self-esteem, builds as that success is repeated.
Aggressive, in-house mentoring has been identified as a major force that can
assist with the development of an individual in many areas. Mentoring can be utilized to
assist female principals develop strong networking ties, as well. As with professional
development, mentoring/ coaching should be relevant, focused, and selective. School
districts must include technical skills training of mentor and coaches as part of the
overall professional development plan for principals.
Gender-related
On a surface level, findings from this study strongly suggest that at least for the
sample n, a strong mentoring approach could assist the female principals with
networking and team building. Mentors might suggest which training courses to take in
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order to become more well-versed with the rigors and requirements of the principalship
and they might assist with designing an aggressive supportive infrastructure for their
mentees. The outcomes could, in turn, relate to increased job satisfaction by giving
female principals a sense of inclusion, increased self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Any
recommendation on a more introspective level would require further study to determine
the causes and remedies for the differences in perceptions held by the males and
females in this study.
In summary, the implications of this study are that through a systemic approach,
which includes preservice practices, focused, relevant professional development, and
aggressive in-house coaching/ mentoring, progress can be made towards increasing
principal job satisfaction. In all cases, a holistic approach that centers on enhancing an
individual’s skills and abilities, as well as his/her core self-evaluations is essential.
Further research that would build on this study might focus on a replication
using a larger sample to support the findings. Additional studies that focus on assessing
gender differences among high school principals would also be of significant value.
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Appendices
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JOB SATISFACTION SURVEY
Spring 2000
1. Please enter your identification code:
2. Years as a principal:
3. Years in administration:
4. Gender: Female Male
5. Percentage of students continuing on to higher education:
6. School drop out rate:
Please continue by marking the response which best describes your feelings about
each o f the following statements:
1. If a person does not think I am bright or able, I can usually change their mind.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
2. When I make plans I am certain I can make them work.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
3 .1 usually do more than my share of work in group or team projects.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
4 .1 believe I have good self-discipline on the job.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
5. My job allows me the authority to do what I think is right.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
6 . It is easy to talk openly and candidly with all members of the school team.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree S trongly A gree
7 .1 am not totally secure about my ability to face difficult challenges.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree S trongly A gree
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8 . Personnel at all levels feel real responsibility for organizational goals and behave in ways to
implement them.
S trongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
9. On the whole, I am satisfied with my efforts at facilitating change.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
10. If I know something that others don’t, I want them to learn it too.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
1 1 . 1 feel fairly well satisfied with my present job.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree S trongly A gree
12. The school’s vision and goals are reviewed regularly to ensure that changing needs of
students are addressed.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree S trongly A gree
13. All team members are encouraged to participate in discussion and problem solving
situations.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
14. The principals in my district participate in collegial activities by providing information and
insight to each other.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree S trongly A gree
15. Most members of our school team know each other’s jobs.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree S tron gly A gree
16.1 feel I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with other administrators.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree S trongly A gree
17.1 consider my job rather unpleasant.
S trongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A g ree S trongly A gree
18.1 can solve a conflict quickly but only if it is not too difficult.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree S tron gly A gree
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19. One of my problems is that I cannot get down to a task when I should.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
20. High levels of management feel responsible for achieving organizational goals; while rank
and file usually feel relatively little responsibility.
Stron gly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Stron gly A gree
21. Compared to most adults, I get along very well with young people.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
22. Principals in my district have access to learning new skills and information.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Stron gly A gree
23. Teachers are provided staff development opportunities that directly support the school’s
goals and priorities for student learning.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
24.1 make sure team members understand the problem they are to solve and are familiar with
S tron gly A gree
Stron gly A gree
S tron gly A gree
Stron gly A gree
S tron gly A gree
S tron gly A gree
the rules governing their work.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree
25.1 consider myself a leader among my teachers and co-workers.
Stron gly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree
26.1 feel worthwhile accomplishment in my job.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree
27.1 can usually obtain desired results at work through my efforts.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree
28. For most assignments, I have effective follow-up skills.
S trongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree
29. Our school team does not function very well together as a unit.
S trongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree
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30. At my school, emphasis is placed on ensuring that students and staff accept joint
responsibility for student and school performance.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
31. When I solve a problem at work, it is because I applied sound problem solving strategies.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
32. When I set important goals for myself, I find it a challenge achieving them.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
33. Each day of work seems like it will never end.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree S trongly A gree
34.1 often seek feedback from those I am working with.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
35. Overall, I would not select education as a career if I were starting over.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
36. There are favorable, cooperative attitudes throughout my school with mutual trust and
confidence.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
37.1 consider myself able to "energize" or motivate others.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
38.1 have had opportunities to continue my professional growth and development while in my
principal position.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
39. The position of principal has prestige outside of education.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
40. At work I am typically as productive, or more so, than others.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
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41.1 function well in cooperative or team activities.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
42.1 often wish I were someone else.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Not Sure Agree Strongly Agree
43. The school’s vision of what all students should know and be able to do upon graduation i
clearly understood by all segments of the school community.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
44. There is opportunity for personal growth in my job.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
45.1 frequently use a consultative approach in decision making.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
46. My previous employers or teachers would describe me as energetic and persistent.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
47. When I decide to do something, I quickly get to it.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
48.1 consider myself a person easy to like.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
49. A high-level core curriculum is provided for all students at our high school.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
50.1 can apply difficult concepts at work because I focus on the situation.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
51. When there is something unpleasant to do at work, I stick to it until I finish.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
52.1 have the opportunity to give help to other people through my job.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
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53.1 am a very well-organized person at work.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
54. When I try to learn something new, I will give up if I am not initially successful.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
55. The entire school community supports the school in achieving its vision and goals.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
56.1 consider myself very sociable.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree .
57. Overall, I consider myself most reliable in doing what needs to be accomplished.
Strongly D isagree D isagree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
58. Principals receive training on how to transfer new skills and information into professional
practices.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
59.1 feel I am paid a salary commensurate to the work I perform.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
60. Our district has an effective induction program for new administrators.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N o t Sure A gree Strongly A gree
61.1 tend to be task oriented and like to get the job finished.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
62. Everyone on the school team does a fair share of the work.
Strongly D isagree D isa g ree N ot Sure A gree Strongly A gree
Please provide feedback on taking this survey:
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Survey Web Site
Welcome to my Web Site:
Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among High School Principals
Overview
Thank you for logging onto my web site. You will have the opportunity to assist me
with doctoral research work I am conducting in the area of job satisfaction related to
high school principals. Job satisfaction has long been related to productivity and job
retention through countless studies.
In the area of education, the high school principalship is among the most challenging.
Identification of those factors, or groups of factors, that can best predict job satisfaction
among this group of educators can assist in determining potential strategies in the areas
of recruitment, induction, and professional development for principals.
Your responses will be kept confidential, and information provided will be used only in
an aggregated form. Identification numbers will be used solely to confirm that the
respondent is part of the sample population. Please provide all information requested.
Feel free to use the feedback box for any comments regarding the survey. Statistical
data will be posted on this site upon completion of the study.
Please click below to begin survey:
Idsurvev.htm
Details
University of Southern California Information Sheet Regarding Research
I. Title: Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among High School Principals
You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Lupe Delgado, M.A.,
from the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California. The
results of this study will contribute to the completion of a doctoral dissertation. You
have been selected as a participant in the study because of your position as a high
school principal. Information will be used in aggregate form, and all responses will
remain confidential. Completion and return of the survey will constitute consent to
participate in this research project.
http://members.tripod.com/HSSurvev/Survev%20HP.htm
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II. Purpose o f the Study:
Job satisfaction has been related to job retention and productivity. This study is
designed to assess if a correlation exists between job satisfaction and high school
principals’ perceptions in areas related to administrative training, school governance
structures, school organization, and internal dispositional factors. Results of the study
could assist in identifying practices, strategies and intervention programs in the areas of
recruitment, training, and professional development of high school principals. Further,
results could assist in determining if there are school environments and governance
structures that correlate with job satisfaction.
III. Procedures:
Should you decide to participate as a member of the sample population of this study,
please do the following:
1. Please respond to all questions in the survey.
2. Please enter the identification number you were sent in the mail. Identification will
be used solely to make certain that the respondent is part of the sample population.
3. The time required to take the survey through the Internet is approximately 5-8
minutes.
4. Please submit your responses through the link on the web site; or, if responding by
mail, return the survey in the self-addressed stamped envelope.
IV. Potential Risks and Discomforts:
No reasonable risks, discomforts, or inconveniences are anticipated in the filing of the
survey instrument. All individual surveyed information is confidential and is not
identifiable to any particular subject in the sample population.
V. Potential Benefits to Subjects and Society:
The inferential statistical analysis of the data will provide potential benefit to subjects
participating in the study by identifying practices and strategies that can enhance job
satisfaction. Research has affirmed that job satisfaction is closely related with job
retention and productivity. Because the role of the high school principal is one of the
most challenging in education today, identification of job satisfaction variables would
be extremely useful in determining strategies that may assist with recruitment practices,
induction, and the on-going professional development of persons in this profession.
VI. Payment fo r Participation:
Subjects from the sample population will not receive any payment, renumeration, or
other means of compensation for participation in the study. However, subjects may
102
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indicate a request to receive a copy of summarized findings resulting from the study for
their personal interest.
VII. Confidentiality:
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study that can be identified
with you or your agency will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your
permission or as required by law. In the event that results of this research are published
or discussed in conferences or public forum, no information will be included that would
reveal any particular individual’s identity. Data generated from the survey instrument
will be treated statistically, analyzed, and presented in a manner that does not reflect or
identify any specific individual in the sample population. Reference to size and scope of
the high school principal population participating in the study will be made as opposed
to the identification of the specific high school or school district. Data compiled for the
survey instrument in this research will be coded by number to protect confidentiality of
participants in the sample and stored in a locked facility to prevent access by
unauthorized personnel.
Responses to survey questionnaires shall be shredded and destroyed six months after
completion of the defense of the dissertation, written approval by the University of
Southern California, and bound as a complete dissertation document.
VIII. Participation and Withdrawal o f Subjects in the Sample Population:
Participation in this study is strictly voluntary. If you volunteer to participate in this
study and wish to discontinue your involvement, no penalty shall result. You are not
waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies because of your participation in this in this
research study. Should you have any questions regarding your rights as a research
subject, you may contact: University of Southern California, Office of the Vice Provost
for Research, Bovard Administration Building, Room 203, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
4019, Telephone: (213) 740-6709.
IX. Identification o f Investigators:
Should you have any questions or concerns regarding this research, please feel free to
contact the individuals listed in the letter sent to your school site.
http://members.tripod.com/HSSurvey/Survey%20HP.htm
103
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Letter to Superintendents
« n am e h ere» , Superintendent
« n am e h e re » High School District
Street Address
City and State
Dear Superintendent « n a m e h ere» :
The purpose of this letter is to request your permission to ask the high principals within
your district for their assistance in completing a survey through the use of the Internet.
The survey is part of my dissertation, in fulfillment of graduate requirements at the
University of Southern California. I am currently an educational administrator,
interested in the job satisfaction of valued administrators with whom I work, and the
relationship of their job satisfaction to productivity and retention. I am specifically
interested in those elements related to how individuals feel about their jobs, particularly
those which can be manipulated. I selected a dissertation topic that was of high personal
interest to me and that would provide me with insight into those potential elements. The
title of my dissertation is Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among High School Principals.
I selected high school principals as the sample population of my study because the
principalship is one of the most challenging positions in education today. With the daily
emphasis on student achievement, standards-based assessment, and accountability
scores, principals are being held responsible for facilitating the change required to make
sure that all students succeed. At the same time, they are being required to implement
policies and procedures set at state and local levels over which they often have minimal,
or no, control. The objective of my study is to identify potential strategies that could be
used in the areas of recruitment, induction, and professional development of principals
that would result in higher job satisfaction for that population.
I will be asking principals to log onto my web page, at
http://members.tripod.com/HSSurvev, to take the survey. Their responses will be kept
confidential, and information provided will be used only in aggregated form.
Identification numbers will be used solely to determine that the respondent is part of the
sample population. The approximate time required to take the survey, through my Web
Page, is 5-8 minutes. An abstract, which will include my findings, will be available
upon completion of the dissertation. I will be calling your office within the next two
weeks for your response to my request, and would be happy to provide additional
information, as requested.
Sincerely,
Lupe Delgado, Doctoral Student
University of Southern California
104
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
First Letter to Principals
Date:
Principal «nam e here»
«nam e here»High School
Street Address
City/ Zip/ State Identification Number:
Dear Principal «nam e here»:
Your district superintendent has given me permission to ask for your assistance in completing a
survey through the use of the Internet. The survey is part of my dissertation, in fulfillment of
graduate requirements at the University of Southern California. I am an educational
administrator, interested in the job satisfaction of administrators with whom I work, and the
relationship of that job satisfaction to productivity and retention. I am specifically interested in
those elements related to how individuals feel about their jobs, particularly those that can be
manipulated. I selected a dissertation topic that was of high personal interest and that would
provide me with insight into those potential elements. The title of my dissertation is Correlates
of Job Satisfaction Among High School Principals.
I have selected high school principals as the sample population of my study because the
principalship is one of the most challenging positions in education today. With the daily
emphasis on student achievement, across-the-board use of standards-based assessment, and
accountability scores, principals are being held accountable to facilitate the change required to
make sure that all students succeed. At the same time, they are being required to implement
policies and procedures set at state and local levels over which they often have minimal, if any,
control. The objective of my study is to identify potential strategies that could be used in the
areas of recruitment, induction, and professional development of principals that would result in
higher job satisfaction for that population.
Please log onto my web page at http://members.tripod.com/HSSurvev, and then click on Survey
HP.htm to take the survey. If you cannot access the server on which my web page is posted
through your district, and you do not have access to the Internet through another source, I will
gladly send you a hard copy of the survey. The time required to take the survey through the
Internet is approximately 5-8 minutes. Your responses will be kept confidential, and
information provided will be used only in aggregated form. Identification numbers will be used
solely to make certain that the respondent is part of the sample population. Please provide all
information requested. An abstract, with statistical data, will be posted on the same site upon
completion of the study.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and effort,
Lupe Delgado, Doctoral Student
University of Southern California
105
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Date:
Follow-up Letter to Principals
Principal « n a m e h e re »
« n a m e here»H igh School
Street Address
City/ Zip/ State ID Number:
Dear « n a m e h ere» :
I previously sent a request asking for your assistance with a survey on Principal Job
Satisfaction. This work is in partial completion of my dissertation entitled “Correlates
of job satisfaction among high school principals.” I have received communication from
some principals informing me that they could not access the server on which my web
site is posted.
I am enclosing a hard copy of the survey in the event that you also have been unable to
access the web site. I would appreciate your filling out the survey and returning it in the
enclosed envelope. The time to take the survey is approximately 5-8 minutes. If you’re
willing to give my web site another attempt, and have access to the Internet through
another source- perhaps through your own home computer- 1 have listed the web
address below. If you do log onto the site, please be sure to include the identification
code listed above. It is also typed onto the letter sent previously. In either case, I do
thank you in advance for your assistance.
Sincerely,
Lupe Delgado
Web Site: http://members.tripod.com/HSSurvey
Then click onto the survey item on the second line of the Index.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Delgado, Lupe L. (author)

Core Title Correlates of job satisfaction among high school principals

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, industrial

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart (committee chair), Baker, Robert (committee member), Ferris, Robert (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-95900

Unique identifier UC11326997

Identifier 3027711.pdf (filename),usctheses-c16-95900 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 3027711.pdf

Dmrecord 95900

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Delgado, Lupe L.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA