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Emergency shelter study and prototype design
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Emergency shelter study and prototype design
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NOTE TO USERS
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EMERGENCY SHELTER STUDY AND PROTOTYPE DESIGN
by
Xiao Li
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
August 2003
Copyright 2003 Xiao Li
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
UMI Number: 1417928
Copyright 2003 by
Li, Xiao
All rights reserved.
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UMI Microform 1417928
Copyright 2004 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089-1695
This thesis, written by
approved by all its members, has been presented to and
accepted by the D irector o f Graduate and Professional
Program s, in pa rtia l fulfillm ent o f the requirements fo r the
degree o f — ____.___
X'Ao l_\
under the direction o f h I S thesis committee, and
/flflST&g op feUlLPf NO, SjZie-N C S
T
D irector
V\ May
KSl
Thesis Committee
Chair
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who made it possible
for me to complete this thesis. I would like to acknowledge Sreemathi Iyer
and Sanjeev Thanka , former MBS students, for providing me with the
precious fabric patterns and advice for the design concept and schedule.
To all my Committee Members:
Professor G.G. Schierle (Thesis Chair- Advanced Structure)
Professor Dimitry Vergun (Advanced Structure)
Professor Jeff Guh (Advanced Structure)
To all of them, thank you very much for strong guidance, support
with my thesis, and patience. I would especially like to thank Professor G.G.
Schierle for his encouragement, many constructive comments in my thesis,
and helpful advice throughout my graduate study. I would also like to
thank Prof. Douglas Noble for his enthusiasm and help on my thesis. I also
want to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks to my parents
for their concern, encouragement, and support during the most difficult time
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of the prototype construction. Last but not least I would like to thank all
my MBS classmates for helping and encouraging me all the time. Thank you
very much to all.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................ viii
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................... xvii
HYPOTHESIS................................................................................................... xviii
Chapter 1. Introduction...................................................................................1
1.1 Terms and Definitions................................................................ 1
1.2 Background.................................................................................. 3
1.3 Thesis Rationale.......................................................................... 4
1.4 Thesis Objectives......................................................................... 9
1.5 Thesis O rganization.................................................................. 10
1.6 Scope........................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2. Review of Shelter N eed s............................................................ 13
2.1 Introduction............................................................................... 13
2.2 The Importance of Shelter in Emergencies............................ 13
2.3 International Situation and Policy in Shelter........................ 13
2.4 Response to tent in development.............................................22
2.5 Development of Tent Related Shelter.....................................23
2.6 Conclusion - The Needs for Shelter........................................24
Chapter 3. Developing the Design Criteria
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................27
3.2 Criteria Affecting the Shelter Provision.................................28
3.3 Refining the Design C riteria....................................................36
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3.4 Limitations and A ssum ptions..................................................36
Chapter 4. Review of Existing Emergency Shelter...................................... 38
4.1 Introduction............................................................................. 38
4.2 Material Available......................................................................38
4.3 Technology Available................................................................39
4.4 Specific Emergency Shelter Case S tu d y ...................................40
4.4.1 The BubbleDome™ Yurt D om e............................. 40
4.4.2 Tunnel T ent............................................................... 56
4.4.3 Lightweight Military Shelter.................................. 59
4.5 Technical Comparison of Shelter Specifications.................... 69
Chapter 5. Developing the Prototype........................................................... 83
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................83
5.2 Design Guideline........................................................................83
5.3 Design Consideration.................................................................84
5.3.1 Design Concept......................................................... 84
5.3.2 Design M ethod.......................................................... 87
5.3.3 Assembly and Disassembly.................................... 97
5.4 Material Selection....................................................................100
5.4.1 Fabric M aterial........................................................100
5.4.2 Arch M aterial..........................................................104
5.5 Shelter Prototype Construction.............................................105
5.5.1 Introduction..............................................................105
5.5.2 Arches Construction................................................105
5.5.3 Connector................................................................. 110
5.5.4 Fabric........................................................................ 112
5.5.5 Final Product........................................................... 122
Chapter 6. Shelter Performance and A nalysis.......................................... 123
6.1 Introduction................................................................................123
6.2 Shelter Performance............................................ 123
6.3 Shelter performance A nalysis...................................................143
6.3.1 Introduction..............................................................143
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6.3.2 Performance Analysis
vi
143
Chapter 7. Conclusions and Further Research....................................... 152
7.1 Conclusions..............................................................................152
7.2 Further R esearch..................................................................... 153
7.2.1 Research for the Prototype Shelter........................ 153
7.2.2 Research for Specific Design Criteria.................... 154
Bibliography.......................................................................................................155
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1: Comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
.......................................................................................................................... 77 - 82
Table 5-1: Quantifiable design criteria (guideline for prototype).................. 84
Table 6-1: Test data for model fabric................................................................134
Table 6-2: Test data for original fabric................................................................136
Table 6-3: Point A deflection................................................................................141
Table 6-4: Point B deflection................................................................................141
Table 6-5: Point C deflection................................................................................142
Table 6-6: Point D deflection................................................................................142
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viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1-1: This collapsed concrete building in Kobe completely blocked the
Street....................................................................................................... 3
Fig. 1-2: Burned housing in Kosovo.................................................................. 4
Fig. 1-3: UNHCR Tent failure in Djakova district, Western Kosovo,
December 1999....................................................................................... 5
Fig. 1-4: Congolese refugees crossing Burundi's Rusizi National Park after
an arduous trek from their homeland in Dec 2002 (UNHCR) 7
Fig. 2-1: Emergency roof repairs to a lightly damaged property in Prelip
(Peter Manfield, 1999)......................................................................... 16
Fig. 2-2: Convective heat losses at the doorway are minimized by the
creation of plastic porches(Peter Manfield, 1999)........................... 16
Fig. 2-3: A lean-to roof created at first floor level of a damaged two storey
building with no roof (Peter Manfield, 1999)................................... 16
Fig. 2-4: The Standard Winterized UNHCR Centre Pole Tent (Peter
Manfield, 1999)..................................................................................... 19
Fig. 2-5: Family outside their tent in Prelip, W. Kosovo (Peter Manfield,
1999)......................................................................................................... 19
Fig. 2-6: Centre pole tents in Chegrane Camp, FYRO Macedonia (Peter
Manfield, 1999)...................................................................................... 20
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Fig. 2-7: UNHCR Winterised Tent with Capped Flue Pipe (Peter Manfield,
1999)....................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 2-8: Oxfam shelters are in the center of the picture (Peter Manfield,
1999)....................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 2-9: Dinka refugees inside an Oxfam shelter on the Sudanese
border (Peter Manfield, 1999)............................................................. 21
Fig. 2-10 Military tents used in Elbasen Refugee Camps, Albania (Peter
Manfield, 1999)..................................................................................... 22
Fig. 3-1: Inside the UNHCR Tent during winter in Kosovo.......................... 33
Fig. 3-2: Shelter in Kibeho Camp, Rwanda 1994............................................. 33
Fig. 3-3: Oxfam emergency shelter prototype# 1 (Elizabeth Babister, 2001)..35
Fig. 3-4: Oxfam emergency shelter prototype#2(Elizabeth Babister, 2001)..35
Fig. 4-1: The BubbleDome™ Yurt Dome (Shelter System - OL)................... 41
Fig. 4-2: The Tensegrity dome prototype (Shelter System - OL)................... 42
Fig. 4-3: The ziz-zag Tensegrity (Shelter System - OL)................................... 42
Fig. 4-4: A basket weave tensegrity model#l (Shelter System - OL)............ 43
Fig. 4-5: A basket weave tensegrity model#2 (Shelter System - OL)............. 43
Fig. 4-6: Maximum usable space VS minimum footprint
(Shelter System - OL)............................................................................. 43
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X
Fig. 4-7: Sample of the super strong, tear-proof, woven, translucent,
laminated rip stop film (Shelter System-OL)......................................44
Fig. 4-8: Shingling (Shelter System - OL)....................................................... 45
Fig. 4-9: Shingling sketch (Shelter System - OL)........................................... 46
Fig. 4-10: Shingling allows the installation of Ventilation Tubes
(Shelter System - OL).......................................................................... 47
Fig. 4-11: Inside the Yurt Dome showing shingling (Shelter System - OL)...48
Fig. 4-12: Inside the 10' BubbleDome™ Greenhouse (Shelter System - OL)..51
Fig. 4-13: The BubbleDome™ 20 packed up (Shelter System - OL).............. 51
Fig. 4-14: Looking up at the window in the BubbleDome™ 20
(Shelter System - OL)............................................................................52
Fig. 4-15: The 10' Bubble Dome set up as an Open-Arched Yurt Dome™ at a
Trade Show (Shelter System - OL).................................................... 53
Fig. 4-16: Truss sketch (Shelter System - OL)................................................. 53
Fig. 4-17: Clips installation (Shelter System - O L )........................................ 54
Fig. 4-18: show how to erect the structure (Shelter System - OL)............... 55
Fig. 4-19: CrystalCave™ being used on an archeological dig
(Shelter System - OL)........................................................................ 56
Fig. 4-20: CrystalCave™ interior space (Shelter System - OL).....................58
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xi
Fig. 4-21: CrystalCave™ as a garage (Shelter System - OL)......................... 58
Fig. 4-22: The web (Light Structure Unit)........................................................ 61
Fig. 4-23: The hinge (Light Structure Unit)..................................................... 62
Fig. 4-24: Tent folded element (Light Structure Unit)................................... 65
Fig. 4-25: Tent tensioned (Light Structure Unit)............................................ 65
Fig. 4-26: Tent package (JTI-shelter)................................................................ 66
Fig. 4-27: Tank storage (JTI-shelter)........................ 67
Fig. 4-28: Prototype (Light Structure Unit)..................................................... 67
Fig. 4-29: How the structure erects (Light Structure Unit)............................68
Fig. 4-30: Canvas ridge tents (shelterproject.org)........................................... 70
Fig. 4-31: Frame tents (shelterproject.org)....................................................... 71
Fig. 4-32: Center pole tents-high walled (shelterproject.org)....................... 72
Fig. 4-33: Center pole tents - low walled (shelterproject.org)....................... 73
Fig. 4-34: Hooped tents (shelterproject.org).................................................... 74
Fig. 4-35: Tent in development (shelterproject.org)....................................... 75
Fig. 5-1: Tunnel tent............................................................................................ 85
Fig. 5-2: Tunnel tent combined with membrane structure........................... 85
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xii
Fig. 5-3: Cross arch structure............................................................................86
Fig. 5-4: Horizontal and cross arch structure.................................................86
Fig. 5-5: Design scheme N o .l........................................................................... 88
Fig. 5-6: Design scheme No.2........................................................................... 89
Fig. 5-7: Study Frame Model for Design scheme No.2................................. 90
Fig. 5-8: Study Frame Model with fabric for Design scheme No.2.............90
Fig. 5-9: How the fabric, frame and connector work together N o .l........... 91
Fig. 5-10: How the fabric, frame and connector work together No.2..........92
Fig. 5-11: Design Sketch - Tension balanced by fabric...................................93
Fig. 5-12: How the tensioned method works..................................................94
Fig. 5-13: How to attach the fabric to the arch................................................96
Fig. 5-14: Assembly step #1: Tie down the connector....................................98
Fig. 5-15: Assembly step #2: Tighten the small piece of fabric panel.......... 99
Fig. 5-16: Summary diagram of the Advantages and Disadvantages of Five
Insulation Materials for Shelter Insulation.................................. 102
Fig. 5-17: Summary diagram of the Advantages and Disadvantages of three
Optional frame materials................................................................ 104
Fig. 5-18: failure to bend the PVC tubing in first try................................... 106
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xiii
Fig. 5-19: failure position of first try ........................................................... 107
Fig. 5-20: circular frame to support the p ip e ............................................ 107
Fig. 5-21: Pipe on the top of the circular frame.......................................... 108
Fig. 5-22: Failure position of second t r y ..................................................... 108
Fig. 5-23: How the failure tubing looks like................................................108
Fig. 5-24: Aluminum bar................................................................................109
Fig. 5-25: Aluminum bending equipm ent...................................................110
Fig. 5-26: Aluminum connector................................................................... I l l
Fig. 5-27: Full view of arches attached to aluminum connector........... 112
Fig. 5-28: Details of arches attached to aluminum connector................112
Fig. 5-29: The original 3d mesh model draw ing......................................113
Fig. 5-30: Compensated 3d M odel..............................................................113
Fig. 5-31: Footprint....................................................................................... 114
Fig. 5-32: Side elevation................................................................................115
Fig. 5-33: Front elevation..............................................................................115
Fig. 5-34: Pattern for wall panel................. .................................................116
Fig. 5-35: Wall-Pattern position in 3d model............................................. 116
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Fig. 5-36: Pattern for roof panel.....................................................................117
Fig. 5-37: Roof -Pattern position in 3d m odel............................................. 117
Fig. 5-38: Wall - Pattern #1............................................................................ 118
Fig. 5-39: Wall - Pattern #2.............................................................................118
Fig. 5-40: Wall - Pattern #3.............................................................................119
Fig. 5-41: Wall - Pattern #4............................................................................ 119
Fig. 5-42: Roof - Pattern #1........................................................................... 120
Fig. 5-43: Roof - Pattern #2............................................................................120
Fig. 5-44: Roof - Pattern #3........................................................................... 121
Fig. 5-45: Roof - Pattern #4........................................................................... 121
Fig. 5-46: Final Product Perspective View.................................................. 122
Fig. 6-1: Part of side view of the full scale prototype............................... 124
Fig. 6-2: Package............................................................................................ 127
Fig. 6-3: Prototype assembly.........................................................................129
Fig. 6-4: Tools needed.................................................................................... 130
Fig. 6-5: Recreation center for future developm ents................................131
Fig. 6-6: Recreation center for future development#2............................... 131
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Fig. 6-7: E-modulus test for model fabric...................................................... 134
Fig. 6-8: E-modulus chart for model fabric.................................................... 135
Fig. 6-9: E-modulus test for original fabric.................................................... 135
Fig. 6-10: E-modulus chart for original fabric................................................ 136
Fig. 6-11: Picked test p o in ts............................................................................. 138
Fig. 6-12: Close view for load on the fabric................................................... 139
Fig. 6-13: Perpendicular load on the fabric #1................................................ 139
Fig. 6-14: Perpendicular load on the fabric # 2 ............................................... 140
Fig. 6-15: Distance between picked point and reference point without load
on the fabric....................................................................................... 140
Fig. 6-16: Distance between picked point and reference point with load on
the fabric..............................................................................................141
Fig. 6-17: Design consideration for central height of the lowest point 144
Fig. 6-18: Prototype profile................................................................................ 144
Fig. 6-19: Design consideration for connector with the fabric and arch 145
Fig. 6-20: Connector with the fabric and arch in prototype.......................... 146
Fig. 6-21: Fabric to arch attachm ent#l............................................................. 146
Fig. 6-22: Fabric to arch attachment#2............................................................. 147
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xvi
Fig. 6-23: Fabric to ground arch attachment#!............................................ 148
Fig. 6-24: Fabric to ground arch attachment#2............................................ 148
Fig. 6-25: The change for attaching fabric to the horizontal arch............. 149
Fig. 6-26: Attaching fabric to the horizontal arch........................................150
Fig. 6-27: The entrance....................................................................................150
Fig. 6-28: Prototype entrance (closed)............................................................151
Fig. 6-29: Prototype entrance (half opened)................................................ 151
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xvii
ABSTRACT
Emergency shelter is a field which is seldom emphasized by the
nowadays international community. In the limited literature available there
is still not enough information present to solve the living problems of the
affected people after the occurrence of natural and man-made disasters.
The purpose of this thesis research is to find a way to build practical
low-cost emergency shelters which could stay erected for several months or
even a year until people can establish permanent dwellings. The concept
originates from an arch and membrane combined structure. Through the
construction and shelter performance analysis of the prototype, a better
solution to the emergency shelter prototype design maybe found. The study
also includes providing a comparison of design criteria specification for all
existing emergency shelter systems which can be found in the market or
research field.
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xviii
HYPOTHESIS
Under specific circumstances, it is possible to develop a shelter that is
low cost, light-weight, fast and easy to assemble and disassemble by
unskilled workers as temporary housing for the victims of natural and
man-made disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as acts of
war.
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1
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Terms and Definitions
• UNHCR - The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
• FEMA - Federal Emergency Management Agency
• EFSP - Emergency Food and Shelter National Board Program
• RedR - Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
• NGOs - Non-Governmental Organizations
• Host Nation - Nations that host displaced people
• Aid Community - Those organizations involved in humanitarian
assistance
• Humanitarian Assistance
Humanitarian Assistance is provided by the international community
to cope with the sufferings and immediate needs of refugees in an
emergency situation (UNHCR Reintegration and Local Settlement
Section, 1998).
• Displaced Population (DP)
Throughout this dissertation, this term is used to refer to both
international refugees and to internally displaced persons. Reference
to the terms 'Refugee' or 'IDP' which will only be made where there is
need for increased specificity. In the context of this thesis, it is
considered that the problems of both groups, if not the responses to
them, are essentially the same (Chalinder, 1998).
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2
• Internal Displaced People (IDP)
People who, as a result of armed conflict, internal strife, systematic
violations of human rights, natural or human-made disasters, or
development projects have been forced to flee their homes but remain
within the territory of their own country are considered internally
displaced persons. Increasingly, international institutions and
organizations are called upon to protect and assist internally displaced
persons; however, much less institutionalized support is available
(First International Emergency Settlement Conference, 1996).
• Shelter
All shelter concepts include infrastructures of temporary nature (legal
and physical), generally of short to medium terms (3-8 months) with
support infrastructures (sanitation, access, water) and physical
protection from elements (earthquake, rain, wind, snow, etc.), with
minimum protection of private belongings and minimum privacy; as
an initial staging point for recovery after traumatizing events (flight,
etc.). Shelter projects include for instance the provision of essential
materials (e.g. roofs, sheets, timber, etc.) (UNHCR Reintegration and
Local Settlement Section, 1998).
• Durable Shelter
If it is foreseeable that a refugee situation extends (say) beyond 8
months, certain durable shelter design criteria should come into play
from the beginning. In general, planning of shelter concepts should
take the position to make shelter as durable as it is feasible (political
and economic reasons). The more long term the concept for shelter
needs is, the more long term the support infrastructure standards
should be as well. Sometimes very emergency type shelter (very
short-term 2-3 months) can buy time for the provision of more durable
shelter solutions (2-speed approach). Shelter standard in general is
3.5 -4.5 m2 per person (UNHCR Reintegration and Local Settlement
Section, 1998).
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1.2 Background
Emergency shelter plays a fundamental but very important role in the
physical and psychological health of affected people. There are many events
that require emergency shelter, including natural disasters like earthquakes,
hurricanes, floods, and fire; as well as man-made events, such as the recent
conflict in Afghanistan and Kosovo.
EQE
Fig. 1-1: Collapsed concrete building in Kobe completely blocked the street (EQE, 2000).
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4
Fig. 1-2: Burned housing in Kosovo.
In such events many thousands may be left without shelter. With their
homes in ruins or in danger, the infrastructure of the region collapsed, they
need immediate temporary shelter before permanent shelter and the
infrastructure is rebuilt, or before they can return to their own homes. The
traditional solution for temporary shelter is conventional tents. While tents
are short-term solutions, they are not satisfactory for long- term needs for
shelter or a conflict resolution.
1.3 Thesis Rationale
This thesis will explore several basic concerns that may be overlooked
by the aid community. Existing emergency shelter provision was considered
inadequate in recent natural and humanitarian disasters, regarding (1) the
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5
speed of transportation, (2) the living environment and (3) their m edium to
long-term use and future development (Peter Manfield, 2001).
Fig. 1-3: UNHCR Tent failure in Djakova district, Western Kosovo (Peter Manfield, 1999).
These factors were evident at the humanitarian crisis in Kosovo and the
natural disaster (earthquake) in Taiwan. When the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees decided to provide tents to the Kosovar
Albanians in May 1999, it took several months to construct and deliver the
tents to the disaster area. However, in June, the host nation, Yugoslavia?,
required that the IDP must return home. As a result the 20,000 tents, which
cost a total of 11.2 million dollars to supply and deliver, were made
redundant. Also the tents being sent to Kosovo were not climatically
responsive, so could not provide a comfortable living environment (Peter
Manfield, 2000a).
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6
It is also noteworthy that very few shelter designs consider long-term
use such as the reuse of the shelter material for permanent dwellings or future
development of the shelter as a greenhouse, workshop and so on. Thus, an
emergency shelter which is climatically responsive in the short term and
useful in the long term should appeal to both the recipient as well as the
donor.
This thesis will put forward a new emergency shelter design which
could meet the need of displaced people in disaster areas. Before discussing
this, it defines the purpose of shelter. The purpose of shelter is to meet the
physical requirements and primary social needs of individuals, families and
communities for safe, secure and comfortable living space, incorporating as
much self-sufficiency and self-management as possible.
Three possible scenarios dictate the basic shelter needs of people
directly affected by a disaster. These scenarios are determined by the type of
disaster, the number of people involved, the political context and the ability
of the community to cope.
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Scenario A: people stay at home
It is not always true that people are displaced from their homes in a
disaster. People in communities directly affected by a natural disaster almost
always want to stay in or near their homes if possible. In such situations, even
if homes are destroyed or damaged, assistance to people 'where they are' is
more sustainable, and helps restore normality more quickly than assistance
which causes them to move away in search of temporary shelter. Inputs
directed into the area where people live and know each other help them to
maintain social structures and allow them to continue life as normally as
possible (Sphere handbook, 2000, Cha.4, pp4).
Scenario B: people are displaced and stay in host communities
During man-made conflict, and after some natural disasters such as
extensive flooding, entire communities may be forced to flee their homes and
home area. In such situations, displaced people may stay with the local host
community, other family members or people who share historical, religious
or other ties. Assistance in such situations includes responding to the rights
and needs of the disaster-affected population as well as of those who are
secondarily affected by the disaster (Sphere handbook, 2000, Cha.4, pp4).
Fig. 1-4 Congolese refugees crossing Burundi's Rusizi National Park after an arduous trek
from their homeland in Dec 2002/ source: UNHCR
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Scenario C: people are displaced and stay in clusters
Temporary settlement for refugees or displaced populations becomes
necessary when circumstances of natural disaster or conflict make it
necessary for people to leave their homes and local regions, and settle
elsewhere. In these situations populations live as groups, often very large, for
undetermined lengths of time. Assistance requires response to the needs of
people in both self-settled and selected sites (Sphere Project 2000, Chp.4, pp5).
Although every scenario responds differently to the needs of people,
there are still briefs that could fit all these scenarios. This thesis will discuss
this issue in chapter two - Review of Shelter Needs.
It will be of immense help because there is little reference material and
formal literature on this topic. Even aid agencies such as FEMA and EFSP
whose primary focus is disaster assistance, have very little information on
shelter assistance. Other sections such as water supply, electricity supply,
human rights and protection etc. have been well established by
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). The shelter sector is only now
being recognized as an independent sector of humanitarian assistance and
furthermore, only one organization's mandate includes the shelter provision
(UNHCR, 2001).
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1.4. Thesis Objectives
The aims of this thesis are:
• To increase the understanding of the need, delivery, use and
performance of shelter in natural and man-made disasters through
relevant research
• To design a prototype emergency shelter for people affected by
disasters
• To develop and refine design specifications for emergency shelter
systems
• To assist specialists and relevant departments in developing new
policies for appropriate shelters for people affected by disasters
The expected results of the thesis are:
• To design and build a prototype shelter
• To test the prototype regarding ease of erection and transportation
• To compare the design specifications of existing emergency shelter
systems found in the market or research field
The design development of the shelter prototype is based on data from
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1 0
international organizations, including UNHCR and developed by the
review of relevant literature.
There is very little literature comparing existing emergency shelter
systems. This comparison will help to make understandable the existing
shelter system and predict the future trend of shelter systems.
1.5 Thesis Organization
The structure of the thesis is as follows:
Chapter 1. "Introduction", concentrates on the general introduction of
the thesis background. It discusses the thesis rationale, aims, objectives and
limitations.
Chapter 2. "Review of Shelter Needs", introduces the specific needs of
victims or IDP involved in natural or man-made disasters. It also reviews the
contemporary views and policies on shelter of the aid community. It also
analyzes the response of the people affected to tents, which are common
shelter, in order to increase understanding of shelter needs.
Chapter 3. "Methodology", identifies methods to develop design
criteria for the shelter prototype and to test the shelter prototype.
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1 1
Chapter 4. "Developing the Design Criteria", defines specific design
criteria affecting the shelter provision based on the previous research on the
need for shelter. It briefly describes critical and desirable criteria. Finally, it
states the limitations and assumptions of the design criteria in order to
narrow down the scope and provide more specification.
Chapter 5. "Review of Existing Emergency Shelter", describes
literature review and provides the specification of material and technology
available for existing emergency shelter systems. In reference to the design
criteria discussed in Chapter 4, it analyzes some existing shelter prototypes
which fit the design criteria. Finally it provides a comparison of design
specifications for existing shelter prototypes in the market and research field.
Chapter 6. "Developing the Prototype", describes the design and
development of the shelter prototype.
Chapter 7. "Shelter Performance and Analysis", introduces the
performance and analysis of the shelter prototype.
Chapter 8. "Conclusions and Recommendations", presents conclusions
regarding the design project, including limitations of the work. It further
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recommends selection criteria for emergency shelters and identifies areas of
future research.
1.6. Scope
This thesis is only concerned with the humanitarian assistance to meet
the needs of victims of natural disasters and man-made conflict in temperate
climates and to partially meet the needs of victims in cold and hot climates. It
does not address the shelter needs in extreme climates.
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Chapter 2. Review of shelter needs
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the emergency shelter in detail. It starts with the
importance of shelter in emergencies and the recent policies and
developments in this area. It then concentrates on the response of the people
affected by disasters to the tents which are commonly used for shelter in these
situations. This chapter concludes with the needs for shelter.
2.2 The Importance of Shelter in Emergencies
Along with water supply, sanitation, nutrition, food and health care,
shelter is a critical determinant of survival in the initial stage of an
emergency. Beyond survival, shelter is necessary to enhance resistance to
disease and provide protection from the environment. It is also important for
human dignity and to sustain family and community life as far as possible in
difficult circumstances (Sphere handbook, 2000).
2.3 International Situation and Policy in Shelter (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Repairing and rebuilding homes following conflict is usually the first
choice of displaced people. Humanitarian agencies, in this case, can support
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temporary repairs to existing property in lieu of more permanent
reconstruction. This permits families to return home at the earliest
opportunity, regain employment and reestablish social support networks.
Shelter systems have been employed in circumstances where migrants are
able to return home but there is no accommodation suitable for immediate
renovation. This process is currently ongoing in Kosovo and enables
individual families to remain on their property whilst waiting for suitable
conditions and resources for reconstruction.
When migrants are unable to return home, they may try to find
alternative accommodation with friends and family away from conflict.
Where this is not possible, various self-settlement options may be taken.
Migrants may appeal to the charity of nearby communities and opt to stay
with host families. In such circumstances, agencies can support migrants by
supporting the local community through upgrading facilities and physical
resources in order to minimize the impact of migrants. This occurred on a
large scale in Western Macedonia during 1999. This is not always possible,
however, as not every local community is willing, or able, to support large
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numbers of migrants. In such circumstances, migrants may choose to build
homes and livelihoods from scratch. This occurred in Liberia during 1998,
when 10,000 Sierra-Leonean refugees, representing some 15% of the total
refugee population, decided to self-settle along the border region.
In recent years, the aid community advocates sustainable solutions for
the people affected by disasters. It is echoed by UNHCR as a form of durable
shelter. This definition means neither the traditional temporary emergency
shelter which can just sustain life for a very short term nor perm anent
dwellings which never require the displaced people to return to their original
home. Durable shelter should upgrade the shelter conditions and last long
enough from the temporary situation to the permanent phase. However, as
the funding for emergency programs steadily reduces over time, the shelter
provision is the first to suffer as a consequence and is very difficult to
develop.
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Fig. 2-1: Emergency roof repairs to a lightly damaged property in Prelip
( Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 2-2: Convective heat losses at the doorway are minimized by the creation of plastic
porches (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 2-3: A lean-to-wall roof created at first floor level of a damaged two storey building with
no roof (Peter Manfield, 1999)
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Another issue is how to define the period through which the shelter
should last to sustain normal life for the affected people. Generally, there is
an agreement in the aid community that it is 1-3 months as a short term and
3-8 months as a long term in natural disasters. For man-made conflicts, due
to the different scope and situations involved in the conflict, it is very difficult
to define the period. "Figures from 1993 indicate that 50% of refugee
settlements last longer than 5 years with 25% lasting under 2 years." (UNHCR,
1993, pp 1, section 2). This reinforces the view that shelter should last the
duration of the conflict.
Referring to the previous discussion, the aid community presents the
key aims of shelter: "(1) to provide protection from the elements, (2) security
against violence and (3) privacy for personal and group needs." (UNHCR,
1999). Based on these aims, the RedR further advocates that the shelter
assistance should be divided into three phases: emergency phase,
stabilization phase, and recovery phase (Davis, J. and Lambert, 1995). The
emergency phase is the immediate reaction or assistance following the
disaster. The stabilization phase should provide the basic minimum shelter
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requirements to sustain life with dignity. The recovery phase concentrates
on the reconstruction of permanent dwellings. The emergency shelter should
cover the emergency and stabilization phases and provide a sustainable
solution for future developments in the recovery phase.
Some environment health and medicine organizations emphasize the
basic minimum health standard for victims. It includes the minimum space
requirement for each person and adequate light and ventilation to reduce the
risk of disease.
Since many disasters in recent years have occurred in areas having hot
climates, the aid community advocates the self-built shelter programs with
the distribution of tools and construction materials. In urban areas, the
material could come from the damaged buildings; in rural areas, the material
could come from the forests. However, all these materials have proved
unreliable to procure so the aid agencies have turned to other shelter systems.
Under such circumstances, tents became the better choice. Tents are
useful because they are relatively quick and simple to erect and transport.
Tents also remain flexible for future development. However, due to their
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small size and lower durability, tents are not a long term solution for
humanitarian assistance.
M eetivt &ole witt ijnkct
xkmttf h n * i i* n e ttm
Fig. 2-4: The Standard Winterized UNHCR Centre Pole Tent (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 2-5: Family outside their tent in Prelip, W . Kosovo (Peter Manfield, 1999)
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Fig. 2-6: Centre pole tents in Chegrane Camp, FYRO Macedonia (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 2-7: UNHCR Winterised Tent with Capped Flue Pipe (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 2-8: Oxfam shelters are in the center of the picture (Peter Manfield, 1999)
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Fig. 2-9: Dinka refugees inside an Oxfam shelter on the Sudanese border
(Peter Manfield, 1999)
The military tent has played an important role in recent shelter
programs. It has proven to be a fast and reliable solution to meet the needs of
large and sudden movements of refugees in temperate climates or interim
seasons in cold climates. However, the high cost and difficult delivery make
the military tent impossible to use in many other emergency situations.
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Fig. 2-10: Military tents used in Elbasen Refugee Camps, Albania (Peter Manfield, 1999)
2.4 Response to Tent in Development
Although many humanitarian assistant agencies advocate designs
more durable than traditional tents, many circumstances in disasters still rely
on the imported emergency shelter tent. These circumstances include: (1)
large population movements where the local government cannot provide or
afford reliable building accommodation; (2) where the removal of local
available materials is economically unsustainable; (3) where use of local
material will bring long-term damage to the environment; (4) where the
period of time between supply and application of shelters is considered too
long (Peter Manfield, 2001, pp27).
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Unfortunately, existing tents are inappropriate for some
circumstances, such as hot and cold climates with heavy wind and snow,
because of the following reasons: (1) the low insulation covering allows heat
to pass through by conduction very quickly; (2) the tent construction is full of
gaps at the junctions between material sections so that the tents heat up and
cool down very quickly; (3) the Tents lack stability in heavy wind or snow
load. In addition, some fabric materials are not fireproofed. The problem is
even worse in heavy wind conditions which cause fire to spread very quickly.
Even though tents are only suitable for sustaining life in survival
conditions and not as long-term shelter solutions, the use of tents as
emergency shelters cannot be avoided. Tents are lightweight, quick and easy
to erect and transport, and are reasonably cheap. However, tents intended as
a short-term emergency response often serve as a long-term solution which
usually lasts 3-5 years and even longer.
2.5 Development of tent related shelter
Fortunately, the development of new materials and technology
provides possibilities to improve the durability and structural stability of
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tents, while maintaining the low cost. Some commercial companies such as
Shelter System, and academic institutes such as Lightweight Shelter Units,
provide comparatively sophisticated shelter designs. This thesis analyzes
these prototypes in chapter 5.
2.6 Conclusion - The Needs for Shelter
The previous two sections have discussed the various responses to
emergency shelter needs. This section describes the current and future needs
of emergency shelter.
1. Shelter should be portable and easily transported.
The people suffering because of natural disasters cannot wait even one
day for shelter. How to provide their own "housing" as soon as possible
becomes crucial for them. This requires that the shelter should be fast to
acquire. It means that it should be portable and easily transported. It also
means that the package should be as small as possible.
2. Shelter should be built quickly and easily.
When shelters have been sent to the disaster region, how to erect them
quickly and easily becomes another important issue. People should not need
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too much time and too many tools to erect them. The technique for erection
should be as simple as possible.
3. Shelter should last long enough to allow rebuilding perm anent dwellings.
Although the shelter should be portable and easy to build, it doesn't
mean that it is fragile. It should last long enough to allow rebuilding
permanent dwellings. This requires that the design be sturdy enough to resist
lateral (wind) or vertical (snow) loads. Thus the building material and
technology are very important.
4. Shelter should keep people comfortable.
People like to live comfortably. This includes thermal comfort,
adequate lighting and ventilation, a waterproof environment, etc., which
requires the consideration of building materials and technology. The material
should not only be strong enough to resist loads but also damage from the
sun, etc. The material should also provide light for the inside space and
should allow the structure to "breathe", which means enough ventilation.
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5. Shelter should be low cost.
To keep the design low cost becomes very important since the
quantities required usually are huge. This involves the cost of material, labor
and transportation, etc.
6. Specialized shelter should serve different functions.
The shelter should also serve different functions to provide people
with as normal a life as possible. To make the shelter design flexible to serve
different functions becomes another major consideration. This also affects the
future development of shelter.
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Chapter 3. Developing the Design Criteria
3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the development of design criteria. The
criteria are derived from the limited literature of UNHCR, AFH (Architecture
for Humanity) and some other emergency programs.
The comprehensive design criteria are developed from shelter needs.
The UNHCR guidelines and other reference literature seek to present five
primary concerns for disaster shelter (UNHCR, 1999, pp 145):
(1) High unit cost
(2) Long shipping time
(3) Long production time
(4) Cost of transport
(5) Inflexibility
The first four concerns have been discussed in chapter 2. The last
concern refers to the inability of shelter systems to respond to long term
shelter needs. This concern should reflect some social and environmental
responses to shelter.
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3.2 Criteria Affecting the Shelter Provision
Based on reviewing UNHCR guidelines and shelter needs described
earlier, this section develops the criteria affecting the shelter provision below.
• Shelter Cost
The cost of shelter assistance per beneficiary exceeds by far some other
assistant programs such as water supply and electricity supply in the majority
of emergencies. Thus the cost of the shelter is a primary concern for
assistance agencies. The shelter cost per person usually reduces with
increasing shelter size. To cut the cost has been a big issue for the aid
community.
• Shelter weight
The shelter should be light enough to transport by air and to be erected
and transported by a maximum of 3 people. The carrying weight for one
person is approximately 35 kg or 77 pounds as agreed by the aid community.
Hence, the standard shelter weight carried by three people is 105 kg or 231
pounds (Peter Manfield, 2001, pp49). Many assistance organizations, such as
UNHCR, provide tents with approximately this weight.
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• Shelter capacity
The capacity of the regular family group is 4 people. Hence, for
residential functions, the shelter should be sized for 4 people. However, for
hospital or school functions, the shelter should provide enough space for at
least 10 people. The capacity issue is defined by the shelter size in this thesis.
• Shelter packed volume
The shelter should be compact enough to be carried by two to three
people and also be easy to transport by air. One advantage is that low packed
volume could minimize the lead time for transportation. Due to the huge
amount of shelters need in the assistant program (20,000-50,000), the
reduction of time has proved a big saving. Another advantage is that low
packed volume could minimize transportation cost, either by air or by land.
The verified volume of a package is 0.5 m3 or 18.5 cubic feet with insulation
and 0.28 m3 or 10.4 cubic feet without insulation (Peter Manfield, 2001, pp50).
• Living density
Living density is often overlooked by the aid community which
advocates the shelter to hold as many people as it can. However, the living
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density is essential for occupancy comfort, personal privacy and health.
The UNHCR shelter standards recommend 4.5 square meter or 50 square feet
of the floor area per person. Although supported by the aid community, in
reality this standard is not possible to reach in most emergency assistant
programs because of the cost issue. In recent years, this standard has been
reduced to minimum 2 square meter or 22 square feet of the floor area per
person (Peter Manfield, 2001, pp59).
• Assembly and Disassembly time
Assembly and Disassembly time is a very important criterion because
it helps the beneficiaries and assistant agencies or organizations reduce the
processing and operating time for emergency shelter assistant programs.
• Shelter construction technology
This criterion presents the issue to erect and the need for skills and
tools. The consensus understanding of the average building skill levels of the
local occupancy presents the requirement for this criterion (Peter Manfield,
1999). The number of shelters needed in a regular assistance program is
approximately 20,000-50,000. The need for complicated construction skills
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and tools will not only slow down the assistance program but also require
more sophisticated aid staff from the assistant agency. However, in truth it
was almost impossible for assistant agencies to provide enough aid to people
in the emergency field. Hence, ease of erection and minimum need for the
skills and tools are essential for shelter design.
• Future development
This thesis has discussed different emergency program phases in
chapter 2. Tents should continue to be used not only in different phases of
emergencies before widespread reconstruction begins but also in the
post-emergency phase. Although the emergency assistance is essential for
the design of shelter, the variety of functions should also be considered as an
important criterion. For example, in the post-emergency phase, the
Emergency Disaster Relief Tent Shelter made in Shelter System-OL Inc. could
be a greenhouse, trade show space with an open-arch studio and workshop.
The RANGER, which is a lightweight military shelter made by J T Inglis &
Sons Ltd. could serve as a vehicle maintenance area.
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• Environmental comfort
(1) Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is defined as "that condition of m ind in which
satisfaction is expressed with the thermal environment" (ASHRAE, 1989,
Section 8.16.). Thermal comfort affects the refugee health. However, the
conditions affecting thermal comfort vary with different disasters and
specifications of the standardized shelter system. Usually they include the
internal air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative hum idity and air
movement and infiltration.
(2) Natural Lighting and ventilation
Natural Lighting and ventilation not only provide a more comfortable
space inside the shelter but also are energy efficient and so help keep down
the cost for electric equipment and maintenance. This issue involves the
design specifications regarding orientation, number and size of the doors and
windows, etc. It is noteworthy that the gaps between doors or windows and
other components often degrade the quality of thermal comfort. Hence, the
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details dealing with these gaps become very essential not only with regard
to natural lighting and ventilation, but also with regard to thermal comfort.
Fig. 3-1: Inside the UNHCR Tent during winter in Kosovo (Peter Manfield, 1999)
Fig. 3-2: Shelter in Kibeho Camp, Rwanda 1994 (Peter Manfield, 1999)
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• Structure stability
Structure stability is a critical criterion in shelter design not only
because it provides safety for the affected people but also because it makes it
possible to build the shelter as a long-term solution. The conditions affecting
structural stability usually include (1) wind load, (2) seismic load, (3) snow
load and (4) hum an use. Wind load is a critical factor in the prevention of
structural failure. In regions where the average wind speed is relatively low
with sudden, shorter but high speed gusts, structural failure occurred more
often because the standard of the shelter is lower than in other areas. Thus,
defining the maximum load should consider wind gusts. Seismic load is
rarely critical for light weight shelters. Snow load will affect the shelter
design only in relatively cold regions with snow during winter. In these
regions, the snow load is a major consideration. Human load is based on
occupant density and hum an behavior, which is hard to define. However,
using the typical code prescribed live loads provides a reasonable
assumption.
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Fig. 3-3: Oxfam emergency shelter prototype #l(Elizabeth Babister, 2001)
Fig. 3-4: Oxfam emergency shelter prototype #2 (Elizabeth Babister, 2001)
• Material selection
Based on structural and environmental health issues, all considered
material should be strong and "breathing". Material degradation from
various causes should also be counted. For example, all plastics degrade
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when exposed to Ultra-violet light. Therefore, selecting material that does
not degrade significantly under light is essential to shelter design.
3.3 Refining the Design Criteria
Based on the issues identified above, the design criteria are broken into
two parts: (1) critical criteria and (2) desirable criteria.
• Critical Criteria
Recent emergency shelter assistance programs have proven that
light-weight and efficient packing (for low cost transportation), ease and
speed of erection are priority considerations for the operation of such
programs. Critical criteria also include structural strength, stiffness, and
stability.
• Desirable Criteria
Desirable criteria include user comfort, space allocation per user,
disaster resistance and energy efficiency (thermal comfort, natural lighting
and ventilation).
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3.4 Limitations and Assumptions
The shelter should be built in a very short period of time by non-skilled
people with the structure and technology to be both simple and
straightforward. However, in real disasters, it is still necessary to rely on
some aid persons with field experience to monitor the shelter layout and
erection. Furthermore, maintenance of shelter components and health issues
should be provided by the aid agency. The test for prototype shelter
performance should be based on these assumptions.
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Chapter 4. Review of Existing Emergency Shelter
4.1 Introduction
Although the whole world is beginning to care more about living
environments in disaster regions, there are still relatively few people working
on the development of emergency shelters. There is at present no systematic
research and analysis being done on existing emergency shelters, so collecting
the relevant information becomes necessary to study the current situation in
the development of emergency shelters. In this chapter a summary table of
available literature for existing emergency shelters is developed and some
existing shelter prototypes are analyzed.
4.2 Material Available
Based on design criteria, the materials suitable for prototype design
should be lightweight materials. Emergency shelter usually consists of two
elements: the frame and the covering. The frame includes a pole and joint
system that is usually made of aluminum, lightweight steel, or plastic. The
covering is made of fabric or reinforced fabric. Recently, composite materials
which are stronger and more lightweight have become very popular.
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Composite material is a new class of material which combines two or more
chemically distinct materials into one structural form, with a distinct interface
separating the components (CMSC, 2001). The new composite material has
superior properties than his parent constituents. Because its constituents
could be any materials, the composite material could be very thin and
suitable for a covering material; it could also be a lightweight strong metal
and suitable for the frame material.
4.3 Technology Available
Technology could be analyzed as material-making technology and
construction technology. The material-making technology is presented by the
manufacturer. Hence, the technology discussed in this chapter focuses on the
construction technology. As described in chapter 3, the construction
technology presents the difficulties in erection and the need for skills and
tools. Referring to the limited literature, emergency shelters available include
canvas rigid tents, frame tents, center pole tents-high walled, center pole
tents - low walled, hooped tents, tents in development and general purpose
tents. The technology in these cases is usually traditional technology. The
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disadvantages of these technologies include (1) heavy weight, (2) large
packaging volume, (3) weak structural strength and (4) a lower possibility for
future development. The advantage is a relatively low cost.
Compared to traditional shelter structures and forms, new shelters
with advanced structures and technology have been developed by
commercial organizations and academic institutions. Some of them have
been applied in the market. These samples are discussed as case studies in
the following section of this chapter.
4.4 Specific Emergency Shelter Case Study
These case studies represent the latest development in the shelter system.
4.4.1 The BubbleDome™ Yurt Dome (Shelter System - OL)
Fig. 4-1: The BubbleDome™ Yurt Dome (Shelter System - OL)
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Design Considerations
This shelter prototype is an application of the Geotensic dome structure.
This design combines the technology of the Tensegrity and Geotensic
structure. Poles take the shortest distance on a sphere and support the
covering, and resist lateral load with minimum weight. Poles are also
suspended under the frame by fasteners. There is no direct contact between
poles and coverings. This means no punctures are made to the covering by
the fasteners. It also ensures that there are no weak points to tear out the
covering.
Fig. 4-2: The Tensegrity dome prototype (Shelter System - OL)
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Fig. 4-3: The ziz-zag Tensegrity (Shelter System - OL)
Fig. 4-4: A basket weave tensegrity model (Shelter System - OL)
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Fig. 4-5: A basket weave tensegrity (Shelter System - OL)
An attractive idea of this design is to provide efficient interior space to
make people comfortable through more and taller space than regular domes.
Short Poles’
•'Bubble Dome is Tbller
Fig. 4-6: Maximum usable space VS minimum footprint (Shelter System - OL)
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Material
Covering: super strong, tear-proof, woven, laminated ripstop film.
This kind of film is a reinforced fabric, also called plastic copolymer. It
is a compound composed of carbon and hydrogen. It is used stretched to its
maximum strength, woven into a fabric and laminated with other
pre-stretched sheets. This material also incorporates ultra violet inhibitors to
resist the damage from the sun.
Fig. 4-7: Sample of the super strong, tear-proof, woven, translucent, laminated rip stop film
(Shelter System-OL)
Frame: strong, UV-stabilized, 1 l/4"-diameter (3.5 cm.) PVC tubing
PVC, Polyvinyl chloride tubing, is a kind of thermo plastic material
which can resist oxidation, chemicals and bacteria and be easily set up.
Fastener: UV-stabilized, extremely tough and durable copolymer material.
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Technology
This structure has poles on the outside suspended under the frame
through joints or fasteners. There is no direct contact between poles and
coverings and thus there is no weak point in the covering, which makes the
covering super strong to resist lateral loads.
The shelter is constructed with a method called "shingling." Shingling
consists of layering the tarp panels over each other and then fastening the
panels together with special clips.
Fig. 4-8: Shingling (Shelter System - OL)
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Fig. 4-9: Shingling sketch (Shelter System - OL)
Shingling creates a totally waterproof covering for the dome because the
material is not punctured anywhere. It also allows for breathability because
small amounts of air pass between the two overlapping layers. In addition,
shingling permits overhead ventilation by simply inserting a lightweight
object (e.g. an empty soda can) or a 3"-diameter Ventilation Tube between
overlapping panels. Because the two panels overlap each other rain can't get
in. When the ventilation object or tube is removed, the panels snap shut and
are watertight (Shelter System - OL).
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Fig. 4-10: Shingling allows the installation of Ventilation Tubes (Shelter System - OL)
Each panel overlaps the other by 6". The overlaps are secured by certain
specific clips which are placed 2' to 5' apart. The attached clips also serve as
anchoring points for poles and stakes. The overlaid panels are kept under
tension by the poles which are attached to the clips (like a bow string is held
taut by a bow). This constant tension keeps the overlapped panels semi
sealed.
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Fig. 4-11: Inside the Yurt Dome showing shingling (Shelter System - OL)
The non-puncture fastener is another critical technology for this design.
It allows the fabric panels to be tightly attached to each other and the
fasteners make the covering waterproof. Meanwhile, fasteners are also the
anchoring point for poles and stakes.
PVC tubing serves as the poles. They are bendable and strong enough
to make the structure steady. Because of their thermal properties, they could
also be bendable in cold climates.
The advantages of this structure are:
(1) Covering and frame materials are all lightweight materials. The
package is small and easy to transport.
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(2) No puncture for the covering since the poles and covering are not in
direct contact. Tension on the covering is even tension which makes
the structure strong in resisting lateral loads.
(3) The structure is waterproof since the covering is tightly suspended
under the poles.
(4) There is Perfect thermal performance since there is no direct contact
between poles and covering.
(5) Good ventilation through installing the tubes or cans between
overlapping panels.
(6) The translucent film permits the shelter to provide natural lighting
inside.
(7) The unique shape provides efficient and comfortable living space for
people.
The disadvantages of this structure are:
(1) There are too many poles to connect to each other, which increases the
assembly time.
(2) Poles are difficult to maintain in a selected shape under tension.
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(3) Although the covering is super strong, this structure cannot work in
extreme climates especially with external loads such as snow since
there is no direct support underneath the covering.
Shelter Performance
This system consists of super strong woven laminated rip stop film
with fasteners attaching it to the poles. When erecting it, just insert the poles
into the hubs. Because all poles are the same length, there is no need to
consider the inserting position for specific poles. It saves a lot of time in
erection. The system could be erected in 40 minutes and disassembled in 5
minutes. There is no need to use any tools or specific skills to erect the shelter.
There are several different sizes for this design. The BubbleDome 18 could
hold 4 people, the regular number for one family. The dome has a 15.5'
diameter and is 13' high. It weighs approximately 751b. The package for
poles is 9"long, 9"wide and 50" high; the package for covering is 15"long,
15"wide and 32" high. The cost is $5.10/sq ft.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fig. 4-12: Inside the 10' BubbleDome™ Greenhouse (Shelter System - OL)
Fig. 4-13: The BubbleDome™ 20 packed up (Shelter System - OL)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fig. 4-14: Looking up at the window in the BubbleDome™ 20(Shelter System - OL)
Comments
Based on critical design criteria, this structure is a lightweight, efficient
package that is easy to erect but takes too long.
Based on desirable criteria, this is a comfortable design with effective
living space (see figure below), lighting and ventilation. It is also an energy
efficient design since there is no heat transfer between poles and covering. It
also provides variable future usage, such as the trade show space. But it is not
good enough to resist external load.
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Fig. 4-15: The 10' Bubble Dome set up as an Open-Arched Yurt Dome™ at a Trade Show
(Shelter System - OL)
Recommendation
In order to maintain the poles in a selected shape under tension and to
improve the strength and rigidity to the structure, a web could be added to
the poles. The fabric or covering could be fixed underneath the web to make
the whole structure more stable and strong.
• t o o
9 0 9 0
too
Fig. 4-16: Truss sketch (Shelter System - OL)
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Fig. 4-17: Clips installation (Shelter System - OL)
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55
Unpack the package and spread poles and covering on the floor
Connect the poles from the center. Each poles at a time
Bend the poles tightly and erect the structure
Fig. 4-18: show how to erect the structure (Shelter System - OL)
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56
4.4.2. Tunnel Shelters (Shelter System - OL)
Design Consideration
This system is a freestanding, portable tunnel-shaped shelter. The
design is derived from the same technology as the BubbleDome system.
However, it is more suitable for emergency shelter usage because this system
could be put end to end to create a longer enclosure. In this way it will save
production processing time when you need more interior space for different
functions.
Fig. 4-19: CrystalCave™ being used on an archeological dig (Shelter System - OL)
Material
The same with BubbleDome system.
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57
Technology
The construction technology is similar with BubbleDome™. But there
are some unique advantages to this system:
1. Tunnel Shelter has a very big entrance which provides more
convenient accessibility and wonderful ventilation.
2. This system could be put end to end to create a longer enclosure. It
can serve different functions or space needs for emergency shelter. In fact, it
was once used as emergency shelter in Guatemala by the United States
Government.
There are also some disadvantages in this system:
1. The ratio of effective living space to footprint is not very efficient.
2. Due to the first disadvantage, it uses more materials and is also not
as cost-effective as BubbleDome™.
This figure shows what the long enclosure looks like.
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58
Fig. 4-20: CrystalCave™ interior space (Shelter System - OL)
Shelter Performance
It is almost the same as the BubbleDome. There are some different
sized options for selection. The ll'x lT x 7 ' is regular size. It weighs 511b and
costs $5.62/sq ft.
Comments
This design is more flexible than the BubbleDome. It could serve
different functions for emergency shelter such as schools and hospitals just
through creating a longer enclosure. But it is not very cost effective.
Fig. 4-21: CrystalCave™ as a garage (Shelter System - OL)
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59
4.4.3 Lightweight Military Shelter (The Lightweight Structures Unit)
Design Consideration
This shelter was designed by LSU. The design uses the arch support
technology combined with web (truss) technology. It is approximately
20,x30'xl0/ (height) with an elliptical section, which is the result of aesthetic
considerations. The interior space is more efficient than a regular ellipse since
the top is more flat than the bottom. Due to this shape the shelter uses less
material than regular elliptical shelters.
The whole system is made as one piece. It is not necessary to use a
conventional rigid structural frame. The critical idea in this design is the
web/truss. The truss could be folded flat since it has been pre-tensioned
Hence, it makes the whole system possible as one piece and the package size
becomes smaller. The truss maintains the rib in a selected shape so that it
provides the structure with enough strength and stability. The truss also
provides the compression for the rib and is designed to use a minimum
number of rigid parts to reduce the weight, package size and complexities of
transportation. So the truss design is multiple usage design.
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60
The rib is another successful idea of this design. The rib is made of
pultruded composite material combined the special character of this material,
which is low cost and specifically shaped fabric diagram. So the rib could
resist the bending force provided by the truss.
Material
Truss: pultruded composite material chord and fabric panels made of
110 g/m2 tightly woven, balanced weave, polyester sail cloth.
The truss is divided into smaller panels to make the web follow the
curvature of the rib.
Rib: Single piece molding in polyester resin reinforced with
E-glass-fiber, which has a high E? modulus.
Hinge: a boss, four 'jaws' and two spigot sections made with
aluminum alloy.
Membrane: Seven fabric panels including three panels forming the
major body of the shelter, two anchoring panels and two door panels.
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61
Technology
The curved form, which could be folded in one piece, determines the
technology used in this design. Therefore the truss is a very critical design in
this prototype. The truss consists of lightweight pultruded composite
members and special shaped fabric panels made of 110 g/m2 tightly woven,
balanced weave, polyester sail cloth. The pultruded composite members
provide the bending and buckling for the fabric panels so that there is no
need for secondary rigid structure to support the truss. There also is the
slider that could let the truss slide to one side so that the truss could be one
piece with the other part of the shelter (Light Structure Unit).
Fig. 4-22: The web (Light Structure Unit)
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62
The rib is another critical design because it is bendable so that it
could withstand the compression from itself and the reaction to tension from
the truss. The design makes the rib hollow in the center to resist the bending
from the snow and wind. The membrane is continually attached to the rib by
a bolt rope and a slot connects the slider from the web to rib so that the
structure could be made in one piece (Light Structure Unit).
Because the rib is 9.73 m long, there are two hinges connecting three
separate pieces of the rib so that the rib could be easily packed.
Fig. 4-23: The hinge (Light Structure Unit)
The membrane of this design is constructed in seven pieces. They
connect the truss with the luff grooves in order to make the assembly and
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63
disassembly easier. The anticlastic curvature is used to provide even
tension for the fabric and prevent the fabric from flipping.
The structural advantages are:
1. The synclastic membrane makes using lightweight material
possible. At the same time it eliminates the secondary support
for the truss since it could support loads uniformly. The
structure is constructed in one piece, lightweight and easy to
transport.
2. The deformed fabric restrained arch combined with the
web/truss makes the structure strong.
3. This system could be put end to end to create a longer
enclosure. So it is a more flexible design than others.
4. The connection between the membrane and the rib provides a
watertight and weatherproof seal for the structure.
5. Because the structure is constructed in one piece, it saves a lot of
time assembly and disassembly.
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64
6. Wonderful ventilation is provided since there are two doors
on either end of the structure which provide air convection
inside.
7. The structure would still work even if there were 15% of the
parts lost.
8. It is an aesthetically appealing design due to its curved form.
The structural disadvantages include:
1. It is not a freestanding structure so it is not easily movable from
one place to another place as a whole peice (This structure
needs stakes to make it tight).
2. Although the rib could be connected by hinges so that the
overall overlapped length of the rib decreases, the rib size is still
very long for the package.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Fig. 4-24: Tent folded element (Light Structure Unit)
Fig. 4-25: Tent tensioned (Light Structure Unit)
Shelter Performance
The structure weighs approximately 200 lb. The package has a
cylindrical shape with a 12" diameter and is 128" long. It can be transported
by four people. It can be erected in ten minutes by two persons and
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66
dismantled in less time. Because the system is modular, it could be linearly
expanded to meet the need of different functions and emergency situations.
The system could withstand 15% redundancy of its parts. In disaster regions
the damage or failure in parts is very common. Hence, combined with the
minimum tools required to erect it, this structure could survive more easily in
extreme conditions (Light Structure Unit).
Fig. 4-26: Tent package (JTI-shelter)
Comments
Based on critical design criteria, the system is a lightweight structure
and easy to transport. It has a very short deployment time. Minimum tools
are needed to assemble and disassemble it.
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67
Based on desirable design criteria, the structure is strong, and
provides resistance in extreme weather. The interior space is comfortable
with adequate ventilation and natural light.
Fig. 4-27: Tank storage (JTI-shelter)
Recommendation
There should be some way to make the system self supporting. If it
was freestanding, the rib design should be shorter. But this would increase
the numbers of hinges and so increase the weight and cost. Maybe the final
section is a compromise to balance the conflicting constraints.
Fig. 4-28: Prototype (Light Structure Unit)
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68
Fig. 4-29: How the structure erects (Light Structure Unit)
Although these case studies emphasize the advanced structure and
technology in shelter development, it doesn't mean that the thesis doesn't
consider the development of existing conventional shelters. It introduces the
description of existing conventional shelters in the aid community and the
comparison of design specifications for existing shelter prototypes in the
market and research field in the following section of this chapter.
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69
4.5 Technical Comparison of Shelter Specifications
The technical comparison describes and compares the existing
emergency shelter specifications based on the design criteria. The
specifications are taken from the catalogues and detailed specifications from
the various agencies and commercial organizations. The shelters discussed
are designed for different capacity and purpose.
This section also presents an overview of different types of emergency
shelter included in this report. There are many forms and shapes of shelter
divided as followed:
• Canvas ridge tents
• Frame tents - the canvas rests on a solid frame
• Center pole tents - high walled
• Center pole tents - low walled
• Hoop tents
• Tents in development
• General purpose tents (discussed in previous section)
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70
(1) Canvas ridge tents
Canvas ridge tents are currently used by many agencies as the
emergency relief standard. They consist of two roofs. The Outer roof is
usually made of a single layer of 100% cotton canvas and the Inner roof is
made of two layers. The first layer is cotton water and rot-proof canvas and
the second layer is inner dyed cotton sheeting cloth. There are two poles and
one ridge inside to support the whole structure and main guy ropes and pegs
to tension the canvas.
S
Fig. 4-30: Canvas ridge tents (shelterproject.org)
These tents are generally 4mx4mx2m (13.3'xl3.3'x6.7') or 4mx3mx2m
(13.3'xlO'x6.7'). They weigh 75 - 120kg (1651b - 2641b) depending on whether
it is single ply or double ply tent. The packaging is in heavy duty canvas bags
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71
with a volume of 0.2-0.5 cubic meter (7.4-18.5 cubic feet). This is the
standard relief tent for many agencies including ICRC, IFRC, UNHCR, IOM,
UNICEF, MSF, etc.
(2) Frame tents - the canvas rests on a solid frame
Fig. 4-31: Frame tents (shelterproject.org)
Frame tents are not generally issued to be used in the disaster field due
to their relatively heavy weight and higher cost compared to rigid tents. They
need more poles and materials than rigid tents but more interior space. The
new materials make them variable as shelter type for emergency use. The
structure is supported by the rigid frames instead of poles and stakes
(although its rigid frame consists of poles and hinge). Hence, it is not easy to
assemble and disassemble without skills and tools. The materials involved
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72
usually include polyester fly, synthetic insulation, terrylene taffeta liner,
galvanized steel frame.
These tents are generally 4mx4mx2.5m (13.3'xl3.3'x8.3') or
4mx3mx2.5m (13.3'xl0'x8.3'). They weigh 115 (2531b). The package volume
is approximately 0.46 cubic meters (17 cubic foot).
(3) Center pole tents - high walled
Fig. 4-32: Center pole tents-high walled (shelterproject.org)
The significant aspect of this design is its high wall, creating the larger
interior space. It was originally developed by UNHCR. This structure is
mainly supported by the center pole and some side poles with main guy
ropes and pegs to tension the canvas. Materials involved include cotton or
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73
poly-cotton canvas, a centre pole of galvanized steel, painted steel and side
poles made of bamboo.
These tents are generally 4mx4mx3m (13.3'xl3.3'xl0'). They weigh
120kg (2641b). The package volume is approximately 0.29 cubic feet (10.8
cubic feet).
(4) Center pole tents - low walled
Canvas centre pole tents with low sidewalls have reduced head
heights and low doors but have a relatively low weight. The structure is
similar to the high wall center pole tents except for the low sidewall.
Materials involved include Cotton or poly-cotton canvas, poles of galvanized
steel, aluminum, painted steel or in some cases bamboo.
Fig. 4-33: Center pole tents - low walled (shelterproject.org)
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74
These tents are generally 3-4m (10'-13.3') diameter, 2.5m (8.3') high in
the center and 1.25 meter (4.2') high at the sides. Their weights range from
20kg - 85 kg (441b-1871b) depending on the layers of the canvas and sidewall
height. The package volume is not available.
(5) Hoop tents
Fig. 4-34: Hooped tents (shelterproject.org)
Hoop shaped tents have the advantages of increased internal space for
a given ground plan, no external guy ropes and the ability to put several in a
row to extend the structure. However, they require more poles than a ridge
tent, or the use of more high tech materials. Only two versions are known to
currently exist for use in emergencies. The structure is freestanding and
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75
self-supported by the poles and liners. Materials involved include plastics
or PVC tubing, with high technology liners.
These tents are generally up to 4mx4mx2m (13.3'xl3.3'x6.7'). They
weigh 40-115 kg (881b-2531b) depending on shelter. The package volume is
not available.
(6) Tents in development
Fig. 4-35: Tent in development (shelterproject.org)
The tent pictured is the ICRC prototype ridge tent made from sewn
plastic sheeting. It has a ventilated inner tent and a flysheet. It can be
extended at the ends to create an enclosed winter space (ICRC guideline).
These tents are generally 4mx4mx2m (13.3'xl3.3'x6.7'). They weigh
50kg-70kg (1101b-1541b) depending on modules. The package volume is not
available.
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(7) General purpose tents (tents discussed in previous section)
The general purpose tents in this report are of variable sizes serving
different purposes or functions such as hospitals, transit centers, community
shelters, small-scale warehouses, etc. It means that these designs are more
flexible and are considered the future development. They are generally
involved with new material and new technology. They are the future trend of
the shelter development.
The detailed specifications are based on the design criteria including
the critical and desirable criteria discussed in previous chapter. It is hoped
that this report could help the experts in the field of emergency shelter
development improve the design, specification and use of emergency shelters
following conflict and natural disasters.
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Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
Criteria
Prototype
Length Width Center
Height
Side
Wall
Floor Area
sq. ft.
Living Density*
sq. ft./ person
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
Diameter 12' 11' 113 -28
Diameter 15.5’ 13’ 189 -47
Tunnel Shelter (1) 11' 11’ 7' 121 -30
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
Diameter 18' 9' 254 -42
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
10' 13.3' 6.7' 3.3' 133
f t f t
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
13.3' 13.3' 10' 3' 177
* *
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
15' 15' 10' 6' 177
f t f t
IOM Hoop Tent (2) 13.3' 13.3' 6.6’ 177 -35
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent (2)
Diameter 13.3' 8' 2' 200 -40
MSF Frame
with porch (2)
10’ 13.3' 8.3’ 5.3' 177 -35
MSF Ridge Tents (2) 13.3’ 13.3' 6.7' 6’ 177 -35
IFRC Ridge Tents (2) 13.3’ 13.3' 6.7' 3' 177
f t f t
OXFAM Hoop tent (2) 12' 12’ 6.7' n/a 144
f t f t
USAID Frame Kit for
Plastic Sheet (2)
* * ft*
10' 7' 233 -39
1CRC/IFRC Frame Tent (2) 18.3' 16.7' 8.3' 6' 306
ft*
OXFAM Frame Tent (2) 18.3' 16.7' 8.3' 6' 306
f t f t
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
13.3' 13.3' 6.7’ 177
ft*
ICRC Ridge Tent (2) 13' 13’ 6 .7' 4.3’ 170 -34
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent (2) 13.3’ 13.3' 7.3' 6' 177
ft*
MSF Central Pole Tent (2) 13.3’ 13.3' 5.8' 2 .7’ 177 -44
UN/OCHA Frame Tent 18.6’ 16.7 8' 6.2' 310
ft*
Shelter dome Diameterl9.6’ 10' 301 -38
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78
Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
(continued)
Criteria
Prototype
Suggest Max
Capacity
Package
length
Package
width
Package
depth
Package
Volume(ft3)
Weight
(lb)
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
4 (Poles)8" 8" 48" 1.7 50
(Cover)8" 10" 36" 1.7
4 (Poles)lO" 12" 50" 3.5 75
(Cover)16" 16" 32" 4.7
Tunnel Shelter (1) 4 (Poles)8" 8" 48" 1.7 51
(Cover)6" 10" 35" 1.2
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
6 (Poles)14" 14" 57" 6.5 39
(Cover)20" 24" 42" 11.7 31
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
** ** ** ** ** **
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
** ** * * **
9.3 -18.5 176
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
** ** ** **
9.3 -18.5 330
IOM Hoop Tent (2) 5
* * ** *» * *
253
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent (2)
5
* * ** ** **
40
MSF Frame
with porch (2)
5
** ** **
17.1 154
MSF Ridge Tents (2) 5
** ** ** »*
154
IFRC Ridge Tents (2)
** * * ** **
10.7 187
OXFAM Hoop tent (2)
**
12" 12" 60" 5 94
USAID Frame Kit for
Plastic Sheet (2)
6
* * * * ** * *
75
ICRC/IFRC Frame Tent (2)
** ** ** **
14.1 286
OXFAM Frame Tent (2)
* * ** * * **
16.7 286
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
** ** ** **
18.5 165
ICRC Ridge Tent (2) 5
* * * * ** * *
154
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent (2)
* * * * * * * * * *
187
MSF Central Pole Tent (2) 4
** ** * * ** »*
UN/OCHA Frame Tent
** * * ** * * ** **
Shelter dome 8
* * * * * * * *
114
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79
Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design
criteria (continued)
Criteria
Prototype
Weight
lb/ft2
Cost Cost/sq ft *** Transportation
size weight
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
0.44 $820 $7.25 -4000 -5000
0.4 $1,020 $5.10 -2500 -3520
Tunnel Shelter (1) 0.42
0.42
$680 $5.62 -4000 -5000
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
0.28 $850 $3.34 -1140 -3770
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
**
$200 $1.13
** **
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
0.99 $350 $2 -1100 -1500
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
1.86 $380 $2.20 -1100 -1000
IOM Hoop Tent (2) 1.43
** ** ** **
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent (2)
0.2 $200 $1.00
**
-6000
MSF Frame
with porch (2)
0.87 $300 $1.70 -1200 -1700
MSF Ridge Tents (2) 0.87
** **
IFRC Ridge Tents (2) 1.06
** **
-1930 -1400
OXFAM Hoop tent (2) 0.65 $110 $0.76 -4000 -2800
USAID Frame Kit for
PlasticSheet (2)
0.32
** * * **
-3500
ICRC/IFRC Frame Tent (2) 0.93
** **
-1470 -900
OXFAM Frame Tent (2) 0.93
** **
-1240 -900
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
0.93 $280 $1.58 -1100 -1600
ICRC Ridge Tent (2) 0.91
* * ** **
-1700
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent (2) 0.93
** ** #*
-1400
MSF Central Pole Tent (2)
* * ** * * * * **
UN/OCHA Frame Tent
* * ** ** ** **
Shelterdome 0.37
** ** ** **
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Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
(continued)
Criteria
Prototype
Assembly(yellow) and Disassembly(white)
Time Difficulty Tools Skills
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
30mins very easy No Not special
15 mins very easy No Not special
35mins very easy No Not special
24 mins very easy No Not special
Tunnel Shelter (1) 45mins very easy No Not special
15 mins very easy No Not special
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
30mins very easy No Not special
15 mins very easy No Not special
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
120mins middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
**
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
* *
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
IOM Hoop Tent (2)
**
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent (2)
**
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
MSF Frame
with porch (2)
* *
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
MSF Ridge Tents (2)
**
middle some some skills
* #
middle some some skills
IFRC Ridge Tents (2)
**
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
OXFAM Hoop tent (2) 180mins middle saw, hacksaw, spade,
16mm drill hot iron bar
some skills
* *
middle some skills
USAID Frame Kit for
Plastic Sheet (2)
* *
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
ICRC/IFRC Frame Tent (2)
* *
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
OXFAM Frame Tent (2)
* *
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
180mins middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
ICRC Ridge Tent (2)
* *
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent (2)
* *
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
MSF Central Pole Tent (2)
**
middle some some skills
* *
middle some some skills
UN/OCHA Frame Tent
**
middle some some skills
**
middle some some skills
Shelter dome
* *
easy little some skills
* *
easy little some skills
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Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
(continued)
Criteria
Prototype
Material
Selection
Structural
Stability
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
woven laminated
Rip stop film for
covering PVC
tubing for poles
good for wind load
not strong enough
for snow load
Tunnel Shelter (1) patented grip clips
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
The same with
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome
good for wind load
not strong enough
for snow load
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
Cotton or poly-cotton canvas
poles galvanized steel
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
Cotton or poly-cotton canvas
poles galvanized steel
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
canvas, centre pole galvanized steel
painted steel, Side poles bamboo
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
IOM Hoop Tent
(2)
Plastics or PVC,
with high tech liners.
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent
(2)
canvas, poles galvanized steel,
aluminum, painted steel
weak for wind load
not ok for snow load
MSF Frame
with porch
(2)
Polyester with PVC tubing ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
MSF Ridge Tents
(2)
Cotton or poly-cotton canvas
poles galvanized steel
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
IFRC Ridge Tents
(2)
Cotton or poly-cotton canvas
poles galvanized steel
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
OXFAM Hoop tent
(2)
mdpe pipe, scaffolding pipe,
tent poles, plastic sheeting, rope.
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
USAID Frame Kit for
Plastic Sheet
(2)
unsewn plastic sheet ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
ICRC/IFRC Frame Tent
(2)
Poly/cotton 50/50% ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
OXFAM Frame Tent
(2)
100% cotton for covering
terrylene taffeta liner, galvanized steel frame
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
mdpe pipe, scaffolding pipe,
tent poles, plastic sheeting, rope.
ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
ICRC Ridge Tent (2) Polyester/cotton 30/70% ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent
(2)
Polyester/cotton 30/70% ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
MSF Central Pole Tent
(2)
Polyethylene ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
UN/OCHA Frame Tent 100% cotton for covering ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
Shelter dome plastic sheeting ok for wind load
not ok for snow load
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82
Table 4-1: comparing family tent specifications based on the design criteria
(continued)
Criteria
Prototype
Environmental
Comfort
Future
Development
Bubble Dome
Yurt Dome (1)
Good thermal, natural
light and ventilation
performance
1. Greenhouse
2. Open-arched one
as Trade Show
Note: This system
Provide max space
with Minimum plan
Tunnel Shelter (1)
Emergency Disaster
Relief Tent (1)
Good thermal, natural
light and ventilation
performance
Outdoor uses
Carports, workshops
UNHCR single fly
Ridge Tent (2)
regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
IAPSO/UNDP Double Fly
Ridge Tent (2)
Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
IAPSO/UNDP Center Pole
High Walled Tent (2)
Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
IOM Hoop Tent (2) regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
MSF Center Pole
Low Walled Tent (2)
regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
MSF Frame
with porch (2)
regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
MSF Ridge Tents (2) regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
* *
IFRC Ridge Tents (2) Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
* *
OXFAM Hoop tent (2) regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
* *
USAID Frame Kit for
Plastic Sheet (2)
regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
ICRC/IFRC Frame Tent (2) Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
OXFAM Frame Tent (2) Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
if*
Cold Climate Emergency
Shelter (4)
Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
ICRC Ridge Tent (2) regular thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
* *
ICRC/IFRC Ridge Tent (2) Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
MSF Central Pole Tent (2) Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
* *
UN/OCHA Frame Tent Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
Shelter dome Good thermal, natural light
ventilation performance
**
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83
Chapter 5. Developing the Prototype
5.1 Introduction
Shelter prototype development consists of three parts: (1) design
guidelines, (2) design consideration, mainly describing the design concept
and shelter components design, (3) fabric and arch material selection based
on the criteria in chapter 3 and (4) full scale prototype construction.
5.2 Design Guidelines
Based on comparing design specification for existing shelters on the
market and research covered in Chapter 4, it is possible to develop a guideline
for the prototype design. The table below briefly summarizes some of the
criteria of the guideline that can be quantified. The rest of the criteria
described in Chapter 4 remain in discursive form only.
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84
Criteria Value U nit
Central Height 7.2 ft
Side Wall (if available) n/a ft
Floor Area 160-180 sq.ft
Suggest Max Capacity 4-5 person
Cost -500
$
Cost/area 2.88 $/sq.ft
Weight 153 lb
Weight/area 0.74 Ib/sq.ft
Living Density -40 sq.ft/person
Packed Volume / ft3
Transportation(based on package size) -1480 pack
Transportation(based on package weight) -1700 pack
Assembly and disassembly time 3 minute
Table 5-1: Quantifiable Design Criteria (guideline for prototype)
5.3 Design Consideration
5.3.1 Design Concept
The concept of the shelter prototype comes from the arch structure.
The following figures show how the design concept is developed.
Type 1. Traditional Shelter Type
The original idea is from the tunnel tent. This structure is supported
by arches. It is easy to build but not stable.
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Fig. 5-1: tunnel tent
Type 2. Combined arch and membrane structure
Combined with a membrane structure, the whole structure is more
stable and elegant than the type one.
Fig. 5-2: tunnel tent combined with membrane structure
Type 3. Cross Arch Structure
Changing the parallel arches to cross arches allows the whole structure
to use less material and makes it more stable and efficient than type two
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Fig. 5-3: Cross arch structure
Type 4. Horizontal and Cross Arch Structure
adding two horizontal arches makes the structure easier to erect and
dismantle than type three
Fig. 5-4: Florizontal and cross arch structure
The design concept of the shelter prototype is derived as a result of
considerations in cost efficiency, weight, convenience of assembly and
disassembly, small package volume and aesthetics
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87
5.3.2 Design Method
The method to make the concept realistic is driven by meeting and
optimizing the need of the design criteria. To provide a minimum central
height of 7' requires the central arch height of at least 8.3'. Two schemes are
provided to meet the need of the central height as the sketches below show.
The footprint of the first scheme is a circle with a diameter of 8.3'. It provides
a central height of 7' with 60 degrees between the sloping arch and ground.
The footprint of the second scheme combines a rectangular 3.2' wide and 6.7'
long and a circle with a diameter of 6.7'. It also provides a central height of 7'
with the same angle between the sloping arch and ground. However, scheme
No.2 has a smaller package volume than scheme No.l. Scheme No.2 also
optimizes the internal space through increasing the efficient living space
compared to scheme No.l. Meanwhile, scheme No.2 can accommodate
diverse uses due to the unrestricted plan and uniform internal volume.
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elevation
P L A N
E L E V k T lO N
Scheme No.l
Fig. 5-5: Design scheme N o.l
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Sleeping Spaas per person
—13M
r - 7
P L A N E L E V A T IO N
Usage Space
E L E V A T IO N
Scheme No.2
Fig. 5-6: Design scheme No.2eme 1
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90
Fig. 5-7: Study Frame Model for Design scheme No.2em e
Fig. 5-8: Study Frame Model with fabric for Design scheme No.2eme
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9 1
The curved form combined with the problem of folding the shelter in
one piece determined the nature and disposition of the structure and
prevented the use of a conventional rigid structural frame which may
increase the total weight of the package. The resultant structure has four
arches fixed with two connectors so that the arch could be folded up as one
assembly. The connector is like a hinge that allows the arch to fold up and
down.
Fabric
Aluminum T-Bar
— t —
Fig. 5-9: How the fabric, frame and connector work together No.l
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92
F a b ric
Fig. 5-10: How the fabric, frame and connector work together No.2
All four arches are fixed on the T-shaped aluminum bar with a bolt. A
curved shape is cut in both ends of the T-bar to allow the horizontal arch to be
put down. Both the T-shaped bars are tied down to the ground to resist
slippage of the arch and keep the entire structure stabilized. Another way to
balance the compression stress of the arch is the use of the fabric on the
ground.
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93
ON Q f l o V N O
ir t»»wn
Fig. 5-11: Design Sketch - Tension balanced by fabric
One of the study models shows how the method above works.
However, the tension applied to it requires the fabric to be much stronger. It
would also be much more expensive. Considering the total budget of the
prototype construction, this method has not been used.
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94
Fig. 5-12: How the tensioned method works
The fabric attached to the arch is divided into three panels: one in the
middle called the roof panel and the other two in the side called the wall
panels. There are two entrances and two windows in the prototype design.
The two entrances face each other and provide enough ventilation to improve
the interior living comfort. The windows provide natural light for the interior
space.
There are two ways to attach the fabric to both sloping arches and
horizontal arches. One way is to put one small piece of fabric underneath the
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95
large fabric panel; another way is to put the small piece of fabric on the top
of the large fabric panel. Considering the waterproofing problem, the first
way seems better than the second one. For the horizontal arches, it should
work better if the large fabric goes around the arch and is then tied down by
another small piece of fabric. The latter method is simpler.
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96
ARCH SECTIDN
PERM. GLUED OR STITCHED
R 3 / 4 '
INTERIOR FABRIC
EXTERIOR FABRIC
PERM. GLUED OR STITCHED
TIE-DOWN
ARCH SECTION
!5 /1 6 '
R 3 / 4 ' TIE-DOWN VIEW FROM TOP
Fig. 5-13: How to attach the fabric to the arch
In order to provide significant savings in deployment time and
transportation cost, the package of the prototype shelter should be minimized.
The actual package size of the prototype shelter is approximately 16 cubic feet
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97
which is a little bit more than allowed by the design guidelines. However,
combining the prototype of 4m with a smaller one of 3.6m underneath results
in a smaller package. Without the smaller sized shelter underneath the
prototype, only 700-800 packs can be transported per cargo plane; with the
smaller one put underneath the prototype, about 1500 packs can be
transported per plane.
5.3.3 Assembly and Disassembly
The complexity in operating the shelter is one of the most important
criteria. As it is known, the easier it is to operate the shelter, the more time is
saved in the aftermath of a disaster. Time is very important for a refugee from
a disaster because it determines how many people can survive. On the other
hand, if the shelter requires more skills and tools to operate, the aid agencies
have to hire more sophisticated field experts to help laymen in the disaster
areas build the shelter. It means that the operating cost has to be increased
significantly. The more skills and tools needed, the more money is paid.
Referring to this point, the simplicity of operation of the shelter is more
important than the other criteria in the development of the prototype. The
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98
prototype is designed so that when the package arrives, the only things
needed to be done are to open the package and put several stakes down into
the ground for tightening the small piece of fabric. The only tool necessary is
the hammer. There is no special or sophisticated skill needed. There are
many variable factors affecting the construction, including the stability of the
arch.
Fig. 5-14: Assembly step #1: Tie down the connector
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99
\ /
/ \
- < f A i
Fig. 5-15: Assembly step # 2: tighten the small piece of fabric panel
Fig. 5-16: Portable classroom, G G Schierle, Architect, 1967
Notice the curvature of openings to resist membrane stress
(G G Schierle (1968) Light weight Tension Structures, page 21)
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100
5.4 Material Selection
5.4.1 Fabric material
Through investigation, many materials were available as the covering
film for the prototype: (1) plastic copolymer, (2) mineral fiber, (3) PVC fabric,
(4) composite spun polymer fabric, (5) polyester sailcloth, and (6) woven
nylon fabric. The plastic copolymer is a compound material composed of
carbon and hydrogen. It is used by stretching it to its maximum strength,
weaving it into a fabric and laminating it with other pre-stretched sheets.
This material incorporates ultra-violet inhibitors to resist damage from the
sun. The mineral fiber is made from melted igneous rock and then spun into
a 'woolen' fiber of varying densities.
The mineral fiber material selected for further development in this
project was a 'duct w rap' product which was bonded to a reinforced plastic
film, which improves both tensile strength and the ease with which it can be
handled.
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101
The composite spun polymer fabric is a highly compressible
polyester wadding insulation enclosed between several spun polymer fabric
sheets made from polypropylene (Manfield, Peter, 2001, pp 62).
The PVC fabric is Polyester sailcloth, coated with polyvinyl chloride.
How it is woven and finished influences the sailcloth's properties.
Nylon-Cotton is produced from a cotton/nylon mix. The diagrams below
show the advantages and disadvantages of the selected skin materials.
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102
Mineral Fiber
Composite Spun
Polymer Fabric
Plastic Copolymer
Advantages
Advantages
Advantages Lightweight
Resistant to Low packaged Low packaged
water, fire, UV
volume volume
and chemicals
Low density Low density
Very cheap
High insulation
value
Resistant to UV,
water
Disadvantages Durable to
High volume Disadvantages human handling
High density
High cost
PVC Fabric Polyster Sailcloth Woven Nylon
Fabric
Advantages Advantages
Lightweight Low packaged Advantages
Low packaged volume Lightweight
volume Super strong Low packaged
Low density Resistant to UV, volume
Resistant to UV, Water and fire Low density
water Durable to Resistant to UV,
Durable to human handling Durable to
human handling Disadvantages human handling
Disadvantages Super High cost Cheap
Fig. 5-16: Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Five
Materials for Shelter Insulation
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103
The above summary diagrams indicate that mineral fiber is resistant
to UV, fire, water and chemicals and is also the cheapest method of achieving
these goals. However, it is not strong enough to resist hum an handling and
its package is too big and heavy. Composite spun, polymer fabric, plastic
copolymer, PVC Fabric and polyester sailcloth have a lower total weight and
are more durable compared to mineral fiber, but account for at least 4-8 times
the price. Woven nylon fabrics are relatively more durable and present less
package size and weight than mineral fiber and are cheaper than the other
four materials.
The comparison of price for all these materials lists below (all the
prices are from my personal survey):
Plastic C opolym er.......................................................................... $10/yard
Mineral fib er...................................................................................$1.2/yard
PVC fabric....................................................................................... $6.5/yard
Composite spun polymer fabric...................................................... $5/yard
Polyester sailcloth........................................................................... $15/yard
Woven nylon fabric..................................................................... $2.25/yard
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104
This analysis indicates that the best scoring material is woven nylon
fabric. Therefore, the woven nylon fabric was used for the prototype
construction.
5.4.2 Arch Material
Referring to the materials available in the market, three of them could
be identified as arch material: (1) glass fiber tubing or a similar material, (2)
plastic tubing or similar material and (3) aluminum tubing or similar
material.
Glass fiber PVC Tubing Aluminum
Advantages Advantages Advantages
Flame retardant Resistant to Resistant to
Relatively light water, UV Corrosion and
Strong and chemicals most chemicals
Resistant to Very cheap Relatively light
chemicals Very light Disadvantages
Disadvantages Easy to bend More rigid
Relatively high Strong Much more
Cost Elegant looking expensive than
More rigid Disadvantages PVC tubing
Not resistant to
fire
Fig. 5-17: Summary diagram of the Advantages and Disadvantages of three
Optional arch materials
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105
Comparing to the other two materials, the PVC tubing has a lower
cost and is lighter and easier to bend. It is also resistant to water, UV and
chemicals. Its elegant look was another consideration in using the PVC
tubing for the prototype.
5.5 Shelter Prototype Construction
5.5.1 Introduction
Having selected the materials and design method, the prototype was
designed with these materials. Three components, arch, fabric and connector,
needed to be constructed.
5.5.2 Arches Construction
Although the PVC tubing was the better choice for the prototype than
the other two materials, how to bend it and fix the shape was a major
problem.
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106
• First Try For Bending
Fig. 5-18: failure to bend the PVC tubing in first try
The pipe bending was done in several steps: The first step is to draw a
circle of the arch. The Second step is to fix the two ends and then use some jig
to bend the PVC tubing along the circular jig. Finally use a heater to heat the
tubing evenly and gradually. The result was a failure. Through analysis, the
problem is when one segment of the tubing is heated the segment next to it
deforms due to very high temperature. Because the PVC tubing is not fire
resistant, it very easily deforms too much. The figure shows the deformation
at the overheated point.
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107
Fig. 5-19: failure of first try
• Second Try For Bending
Based on the experience of the failed first try, a circle shaped plywood
frame is set up to support the PVC tubing to prevent it from deforming due to
uneven heating.
Fig. 5-20: circular frame to support the pipe
There are more fixtures to fix the middle points of the tubing. All these
strategies are to prevent the possibilities of uneven deformation.
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108
Fig. 5-21: Pipe attached to the circular frame
The result shows the second try still failed.
Fig. 5-22: Failure of second try
Fig. 5-23: Appearance of pipe after bending
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109
Actually the second try is theoretically feasible. The real reason for
the failure in bending was the lack of an appropriate heater. However, it is
difficult and time -consuming to find the right equipment.
• Help from manufacturer
Due to the problems of the limited time and resources available,
manufacturers who can bend the pipe or tubing become the only way to bend
the pipe arch. Machines for bending aluminum pipes are very easy to find
(Fig.5-26). So aluminum pipe seemed the best choice.
Fig. 5-24: Aluminum bar
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Fig. 5-25: Aluminum bending equipment
Fortunately, one of the manufacturers who could bend the PVC tubing
was found in Los Angeles. So the final arch was still made of PVC tubing.
5.5.3 Connector
The connector is designed of aluminum. It is a T-bar with a radial
shape on both ends so that the horizontal arches could fold up and down.
The details of the connector are shown below.
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Fig. 5-26: Aluminum connector
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112
The following figures show how the arches attach to the connectors.
Fig. 5-27: Full view of arches attached to aluminum connector
Fig. 5-28: Details of arches attached to aluminum connector
5.5.4 Fabric
The fabric patterns are designed by a program called Patterner.
Patterner is used for the design and manufacture of tents and fabric structures.
Two MBS graduates use this program to design patterns. The following
figure is the original drawing that was provided used to develop the patterns.
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113
Fig. 5-29: The original 3d mesh model drawing
Based on the original drawing, an updated drawing is developed to
determine how many patterns are needed on the wall and roof panels. From
the figure, the number and size for patterns has been indicated.
Fig. 5-30: The updated drawing
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114
In the updated drawing, the central height is less than the original
drawing due to the effect of the tearing strength of the fabric on the making of
the pattern.
Fig. 5-31: Footprint
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Fig. 5-32: Side elevation
Fig. 5-33: Front elevation
The patterns are divided into wall patterns and roof patterns. The
flattened wall patterns and where they are located on the 3D model are
shown below.
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WALL-PATT#3
W ALL-PATT#4
ALL WALL PATTERNS 4 QTY EACH
Fig. 5-34: Patterns for wall panel
wall - pattern#1
wall - pattern#2
wall - pattern#3
wall - pattern#4
Fig. 5-35: Location of wall patterns on the 3d model.
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CZ 3
R 00F-PATT#3
i i
R 00F-P A TT#4
ALL ROOF PATTERNS = 2 QTY EACH
Fig. 5-36: Pattern for roof panel
ro o f-p attern # 4
roof-pattern#3
roo f-p attern # 2
roof-pattern#1
Fig. 5-37: Location of roof -patterns on the 3d model
ROOF-PATT#1
R 00F-PATT#2
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118
After developing the fabric patterns, their accurate dimensions are
also necessary for manufacture. The following figures show the accurate
pattern dimensions.
nf-
5 f t *
Fig. 5-38: Wall - Pattern #1
«F
Fig. 5-39: Wall - Pattern #2
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119
— " 1 * — ------ ] ----- — '■ - * ? -------- 1 ------------------------- -|- + - f
« -
u t
Fig. 5-40: Wall - Pattern #3
Fig. 5-41: Wall - Pattern #4
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120
-4’- ;
3' - 3 * -
- 3*
-3" -
LL
Fig. 5-42: Roof - Pattern #1
----------------------------------------- r-dfr-------------------------------------
'- • A '- - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 1 4 ' — I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 — M l'— r
'O f
*,m
- s * - J — afc'— I ------- 1-2^'------- 1 ------r-oft---------------------------r-oft-------1 --------r-2ft--------1 — « A '— tr-
Fig. 5-43: Roof - Pattern #2
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121
— ■ -A -----
— —h-— •'-•S '— — ''-«V — i IH i'-l...
---- r-aj' ■ . .
-i— — -----------
'H i'-----
Fig. 5-44: Roof - Pattern #3
> - - t -
■•A -— I — « A ' — k i-M F — ..A -— l—
Fig. 5-45: Roof - Pattern #4
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122
5.5.5 Final Product
After all the components and materials are available, the final product
was produced by the Academy Tent & Canvas Company. Based on the details
shown in Chapter 5 and the fabric patterns they manufactured, cut,
assembled the fabric with doors and windows and attached the fabric to the
arches.
Fig. 5-46: Final Product Perspective View
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123
Chapter 6. Shelter Performance and Analysis
6.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the test results for the functionality of the shelter
prototype. The aim of this part of the testing procedure is to ascertain that the
shelter prototype conforms to the critical criteria and desirable criteria
described earlier. This also provides the advantage and disadvantage of the
design.
This shelter test will establish whether assumptions made during the
design phase hold true in reality. It is important that this test should be
undertaken, when possible, with several beneficiary populations in order that
an average response can be gauged, particularly with reference to critical
criteria, such as 'buildability' and 'durability', and the way in which the use of
the shelter, and its component parts, changes over time, speed of erection, etc.
6.2 Shelter Performance
The final shelter prototype weighs approximately 80 pounds and
packs to an arched shape which is 30" deep and has a diameter of 13.3'
(Figure 6-1). Transportation can be undertaken manually by only two people
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124
due to the small packed size and weight. The structure can support a 10%
redundancy, in case of damage or failure in parts and connections, and
requires only a few tools to erect and disassemble it. With the exception of
the ground-sheet and ground fixings there are no separate parts.
Consequently, deployment can be undertaken by as few as two people in
under 4 minutes and striking can be achieved in less time (deployment or
striking time is counted from when every partition is fully prepared in the
field to when the whole structure is erected or dismantled). With the system
being modular, shelter units can be joined together with a simple fabric
connector. Infinite linear expansion of the basic unit is also possible by the
addition of basic modules to individual shelters (expansion would require a
special central unit).
Fig. 6-1: Part of side view of the full scale prototype
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125
• Shelter Cost
Because the cost of the shelter is a primary concern for assistance
agencies, it is very important to control the cost. The budget for the
construction of the prototype is listed below:
l.M aterials and supply costs
M aterial D escription Cost/each Total
Insulation Ground Sheet (lOyard) $3 / yard, 5' wide $30
Aluminum or Steel (For manufacturing fastener) $10
Fabric (80yard) $2.25/yard, 5'wide $180
Stakes (16) $ 2/each $32
2. Shipping expenditures
Shipping fee $160
3. M anufacture expenditures
PVC + tubing bending expenditure $250
Patterns Design expenditures $200
Fabric manufacture expenditure $400
4. Total expenditures
Total expenditures $1,262
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126
The cost could be much less than this budget because firstly, the
work of the prototype construction was allocated to three manufacturers
which wasted a lot of time and resources in assembling it from these
manufacturers and, secondly, if quantities of the shelter needed are above
1,000 units, the cost could be much less due to experience and efficiency.
Considering both factors, the cost is estimated to be about $300 per unit or
about $60 per person, assuming the capacity is five people.
This compares well to $500 for other prototypes.
• Shelter weight
The shelter should be light enough for transport by air and to be
erected and transported by a maximum of 3 people. The carrying weight for
one person is approximately 35 kg or 77 pounds as agreed by the aid
community. Hence, the standard shelter weight carried by three people is 105
kg or 231 pounds (Peter Manfield, 2001, pp49). The weight of the prototype is
80 pounds. It is less than the 153 pounds which is the guideline requirement
and much less than the aid community standard of 231 pounds.
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127
• Shelter capacity
The capacity of 4-5 people meets the need of the design guideline.
• Shelter packed volume
The verified volume of package is 0.5 m3 or 18.5 cubic feet with
insulation and 0.28 m3 or 10.4 cubic feet without insulation (Peter Manfield,
2001, pp50). The guideline for the volume of package is 15 cubic feet. The
package volume of the prototype is 16 cubic feet which is a little more than
the guideline but lower than the verified standard.
Fig. 6-2: Package
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128
• Transportation
The guideline for shipping is approximately 1,500 units. If a smaller
diameter prototype could be put under the normal sized type, the total
amount being transported could be about 2000 units.
• Living density
The living density required by the guideline is 40 square feet per
person. The living density of the prototype is 44.25 square feet per person.
• Assembly and Disassembly time
Assembly and Disassembly time required by the guideline is 10
minutes. The time consumed to assemble and disassembly prototype is
approximately 4 minutes excluding the unloading.
• Shelter construction technology
This criterion presents the issue to erect and the need for skills and
tools. The consensus understanding of the average building skill levels by
local occupancy presents the requirement for this criterion (Peter Manfield,
1999). The following figures show the procedure of erecting the shelter when
the package is ready for erection.
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129
Put up the frame
Put down one panel Put down another panel
Attach the fabric to the arch Stake down the nails
Fig. 6-3: Prototype assembly
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130
The figures show that for the prototype construction, there is no
special skill needed and the only necessary tool is a hammer.
Fig. 6-4: Tools needed
• Future development
In the post-emergency phase, the shelter prototype could be a
playhouse, studio, and recreation center, etc.
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Fig. 6-5: Recreation center for future development#!
W
Fig. 6-6: Recreation center for future development#2
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132
• Environmental comfort
The use of the translucent white fabric makes the shelter brighter than
other colors. Combined with windows, the shelter provides enough light for
the residents. To meet the need of thermal and ventilation comfort, the
entrances can be very effective. The residents could open the two doors for
ventilation at noon and close the doors to keep warm at night.
• Structural stability
Structural stability is a critical criterion in shelter design not only
because it provides safety for the affected people but it also makes it possible
to build the shelter as a long-term solution. Given the limited time and
resources for this project the stability test was done on a static model.
The critical issue for testing is the deflection of the fabric under lateral
load. The first step is to find the E-modulus of the model and full scale
prototype fabric using fabric strips.
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1 3 - 3
E = f/e
E = Elastic modulus in pli (pounds per linear inch)
f = stress in pli
e = unit strain
f = P/A
P = load (pounds)
A = area (in inch)
£ = AL/L
AL = strain elongation (in inch)
L = unstressed length
The following table and figure show the elastic modulus of model
fabric as the slope on the stress/strain diagram.
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134
Fig. 6-7: E-modulus test for model fabric
Load steps
AL(in)
m
f(pli) £
1
0.58 0.25 0.04167 0.116
2
1.05 0.5 0.08333 0.21
3
1.39 0.75 0.125 0.278
4
1.64 1 0.16667 0.328
5
2.2 1.25 0.20833 0.44
Table 6-1: Test data for model fabric
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135
S train fo r Model
0.25 n
0.2 -
y = 0.536x-0.02£U
in
in
a
0.15 -
• * - »
V ) 0.1 -
0.05 -
0 -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Unit Strain
Fig. 6-8: E-modulus chart for model fabric
The sloping factor of 0.536 in the figure indicates that the elastic
modulus of real fabric is 0.536 pound per linear inch.
Fig. 6-9: E-modulus test for original fabric
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136
AL(in)
m
F(pli) £
1
0.035 3.75 0.75 0.00683
2
0.06 6.25 1.25 0.01171
3
0.0725 8.75 1.75 0.01415
4
0.0875 11.25 2.25 0.01707
5
0.105 13.75 2.75 0.02049
Table 6-2: Test data for original fabric
Strain for Real Structure
y= 151x- 0.371
2.5
(A
(A
Q)
I.
+ *
C O
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Unit Strain
Fig. 6-10: E-modulus chart for original fabric
The slope of 151 in the figure indicates that the elastic modulus is 151
pound per linear inch. After finding the elastic modulus of the fabric, the
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137
force scale has to be calculated in order to determine how much load
should be applied to the model. The formula of force scale calculation is as
followed:
Sf = Am Em / (Ao Eo)
Am/Ao = Sg (geometric scale), hence:
Sf = Sg Em/Eo
Sf = force scale
Am = area of model
Ao = area of original
Em = elastic modulus of model
Eo = elastic modulus of original
Because the geometric scale of the model is 1:12, the force scale can be
calculated as followed:
Sg = 1:12
Em = 0.536 pli
Eo = 151 pli
Then,
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138
Sf = Sg Em/Eo = (1/12) x (0.536/151) = 1/ 3380
The lateral load assumed on the original prototype is 10 pounds per
square foot. There are totally 110 square feet in one wall panel. Hence, the
load on the model should be:
P = 110 x 10 x 1/3380 = 0.325 pound = 5.2 ounces
Based on the tributary area, four loads are applied on the model. The
load is applied in the perpendicular direction to the test point to simulate
normal wind load.
Fig. 6-11: Picked test points
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Fig. 6-12: Close view for load on the fabric
Fig. 6-13: Perpendicular load on the fabric #1
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140
Fig. 6-14: Perpendicular load on the fabric #2
STA'Hi •
Fig. 6-15: Distance between picked point and reference point without load on the fabric
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141
HELIX
Fig. 6-16: Distance between picked point and reference point with load on the fabric
Relative distance between test
and reference point
Before applying load on point A 9' -1/16"
After Appling load on point A 8' - 3/16"
Deflection in model 1/4"
Deflection in original (x!2) 3"
Table 6-3: Point A deflection
Relative distance between test
and reference point
Before applying load on point B 3' - 7/8"
After Appling load on point B 4'
Deflection in model 1/8"
Deflection in original (xl2) 1.5"
Table 6-4: Point B deflection
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142
Relative distance between test
and reference point
Before applying load on point C 8' - 7/8”
After Appling load on point C 9’
Deflection in model 1/8"
Deflection in original (x!2) 1.5"
Table 6-5: Point C deflection
Relative distance between test
and reference point
Before applying load on point D 3’ -13/16"
After Appling load on point D 4’
Deflection in model 3/16"
Deflection in original (xl2) 2.25"
Table 6-6: Point D deflection
The tables indicate that the maximum deflection of 3" was at point A
and the minimum deflection of 1.5 "was at point B.
• Material selection
Considering structural stability and environmental health issues, all
considered material should be strong and "breathing". Selecting material
that does not degrade significantly under light is essential to shelter design.
In the prototype design, the fabric, PVC tubing and aluminum connector are
all ultra-violet light resistant. However, except for the aluminum, the fabric
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143
and PVC tubing are not all fire resistant. It means that the shelter needs
some fire resistant treatment under certain circumstances.
6.3 Shelter Performance Analysis
6.3.1 Introduction
The limited time and resources for this project have only allowed for
part of the necessary field tests to be completed. Load testing in a real
environment was not undertaken. This chapter describes the test results to
compare the prototype with the design considerations in order to find the
advantages and disadvantages of the design.
6.3.2 Performance Analysis
The performance is analyzed to find whether and how the prototype is
different from the design guidelines.
(1) the Central height of the prototype shelter at the lowest point
The design guidelines require a 6'-6 1/8" central height at the lowest
point. However, due to considerations of tearing strength for the patterns
and the manufacture tolerance, the actual central height at the lowest point is
only 6'. This blocks the line of sight from one side to the other.
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144
Usage S
— .
I E
F L F V A T I O N
m m m m m m m m m m W m 1 m m m V
Fig. 6-17: Design consideration for central height of the lowest point
Fig. 6-18: Prototype profile
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145
(2) How the fabric, frame and connector work together
Based on the design considerations, the large fabric panel is tightened
by a small piece of fabric through stretching and fixing it to the hinges (see
figure). Because the prototype fabric patterns are not perfectly fit to the arch
the small piece of fabric does not reach the hinge. Hence the large fabric
panel is not tightened.
Fabric
Aluminum T-Bar
Fig. 6-19: Design consideration for connector with the fabric and arch
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146
Fig. 6-20: Connector with the fabric and arch in prototype
(3) Fabric to arch attachment
The fabric is attached to the arch by a fabric strip sewn to the fabric
enclosure.
ARCH SECTION
PERM. CLUED OR STITCHED
R 3 / 4 '
INTERIOR FABRIC
EXTERIOR FABRIC
Fig. 6-21: Fabric to arch attachment #1
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147
The fabric is attached to the arch by a fabric strip sewn to one side
and attached by Velcro to the other side of the arch. (See figure 6-22).
ARCH SECTIDN
S t i t c h
.R5/16
R 3/4
V e l c r o
INTERIOR FABRIC
EXTERIDR FABRIC
Fig. 6-22: Fabric to arch attachment#2
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
m m r *
• " V -i!: ': i; g.: ., 'i,'. . . ., / ',;: ;::... j ^ M
^ ________________________
Fig. 6-23: Fabric to ground arch attachment#l
The fabric was wrapped around the ground and attached to the
ground by a small fabric flap.
PERM. GLUED OR STITCHED
EXTERIOR FABRIC
INTERIOR FABRIC
TIE-DOWN
ARCH SECTION
1 5 /1 6 ''
R 3 /4 * TIE-DOWN V IEW FROM TOP
Fig. 6-24: Fabric to ground arch attachment#2
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149
The prototype had a few changes from the original design. Because a
ground insulation sheet is required in actual disasters, the Velcro is put at the
edge of the ground insulation sheet with a small piece of fabric stitched to it.
This piece of fabric is tied down to the ground. However, based on the test
and investigation, there is a problem of leakage because the Velcro doesn't
attach to the large fabric panel perfectly and smoothly. Another potential
problem is that if the wind speed is too high, the whole structure may
collapse because the Velcro is too weak. This problem should be considered
for future studies.
STITCHED
EXTERIOR FABRIC
INTERIOR FABRIC
TIE-DOWN
ARCH SECTION
V e lc ro
1 5 / 1 6 *
R3/A" TIE-DOWN VIEW FROM TOP
STITCHED
Fig. 6-25: The change for attaching fabric to the horizontal arch
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Fig. 6-26: Attaching fabric to the horizontal arch
(4) Entrance
The entrance was designed as an oval.
" v
Fig. 6-27: The entrance
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151
The door is designed as an arch opening. However the prototype
door has straight sides and, therefore, cannot resist fabric stress, resulting in
unstable fabric. This problem is another possibility for future study.
Fig. 6-28: Prototype entrance (closed)
Fig. 6-29: Prototype entrance (half opened)
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152
Chapter 7. Conclusions and Further Research
7.1 Conclusions
This thesis began with the following hypothesis:
Under specific circumstances, it is possible to develop a shelter that is low
cost, light-weight, fast and easy to assemble and disassemble by unskilled
workers as temporary housing for the victims of natural and man-made
disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as acts of war.
A review of the limited literature in chapter four demonstrated that
existing emergency shelter systems are not very effective and appropriate
responses to the needs of people after disasters.
According to the test result and analysis it is appropriate to imply that
the prototype is a better option because of lower cost, lighter weight, less
difficulty and time in assembly and disassembly by unskilled workers, than
most of existing emergency shelter systems.
The guideline developed from specific design criteria affecting the
shelter provision based on the previous research on the need of shelter is very
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153
helpful to the prototype development in this thesis and also implies a
future standard for emergency shelter development.
Despite the success of the shelter performance test, subsequent
environmental tests indicate that there are some problems with the use of the
prototype shelter. With a relatively low central height there is an interruption
in the line of sight from one end to another. The connectors, arches and
fabrics are not working together perfectly. Some leaking occurs in the
connection between the ground arch and the fabric. Furthermore, the
entrance design causes fabric instability.
7.2 Future Research
Future research is identified in two areas (1) research for the prototype
shelter developed in this thesis and (2) research for specific design criteria
affecting the shelter provision based on the previous research about shelter
needs.
7.2.1 Research for the Prototype Shelter
The shelter design should be improved to avoid the problems of
leaking, vision block, material waste and structural instability.
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i 54
Due to technical and time constraints, the test for structural stability
was undertaken on the model. Shelter tests should be performed on a
prototype structure to determine structural stability. This requires adequate
funding, sufficient time to allow long- term tests to produce valid results and
conclusions.
The field testing of current shelter prototype needs to be simulated to
refine the building process and social acceptance. The final package must
include, in addition to the shelter system, heaters and fuel, insulated flooring,
clothing, bedding and adjusted food distribution.
7.2.2 Research for Specific Design Criteria
The specific design criteria need to be more complete. The result should be a
comparable and consistent specification list to assist agency procedure
officers in the purchase of appropriate temporary shelter and supporting
equipment.
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155
Bibliography
ASHRAE 1989, Section 8.16. Am erican Society of H eating, Refrigerating and
A ir-C onditioning Engineers Handbook (ASHRAE). (1989). Fundamentals. SI
Edition.
First International Emergency Settlement Conference. 1996. N ew Approaches to
N ew Realities. University of Wisconsin-Disaster Management Centre.
Department of Engineering, Madison, USA.
JTI-shelter
http://www.jtinglis.com/shelters/shelters.html
Lightweight Structure Unit
http://www.personal.dundee.ac.uk/~hzieneld/Sec Pages/MoDShelter.htm
Manfield, P. 2000a. M odelling o f a Cold Climate Em ergency Shelter Prototype and a
Comparison w ith the U nited N ations W inter Tent. Technical Essay for the MPhil
degree in Environmental Design in Architecture, Cambridge University.
United Kingdom.
www.cam.ac.uk/research/refugee
Manfield, P. 2001. Em ergency Shelter for H um anitarian R elief in Cold Climates:
Policy and Praxis. The Martin Centre for Architectural and Urban Studies
Cambridge University, United Kingdom.
http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/shelter/downld/coldshelter2.pdf
Shelterproject.org
http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/shelter/research/sitesel.asp
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
156
Sphere handbook 2000, Cha. 4, PP4 T art II - The Minimum Standard',
H um anitarian Charter and M inim um Standards in D isaster Response, Cha. 4, PP4.
Sphere Project.
http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/shelter.htm
Sphere handbook 2000, Cha.1-1, 'Part I - The Humanitarian Charter', H um anitarian
Charter and M in im um Standards in D isaster Response, Cha.1-1, Sphere Project.
http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/hc.htm
Shelter System - OL
http://www.shelter-svstems.com/
UNHCR 1993b. Proceedings fo r the First International Workshop on Im proved
Shelter Response and E nvironm ent for Refugees. UNHCR, Geneva.
UNHCR (1999). Handbook fo r Emergencies. UNHCR, Geneva.
Davis, J. and Lambert, R. (1995). Engineering in Emergencies. A Practical Guide
for R elief Workers. IT Publications, London.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Li, Xiao
(author)
Core Title
Emergency shelter study and prototype design
School
School of Architecture
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Architecture,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Schierle, G. Goetz (
committee chair
), Guh, Jeff (
committee member
), Vergun, Dimitry (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c16-308632
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Li, Xiao
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texts
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