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Kū i ke ao: Hawaiian cultural identity and student progress at Kamehameha Elementary School

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Kū i ke ao: Hawaiian cultural identity and student progress at Kamehameha Elementary School

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KŪ I KE AO: HAWAIIAN CULTURAL IDENTITY AND STUDENT
PROGRESS AT KAMEHAMEHA ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

by

Robert Holoua Stender

________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2010

Copyright 2010 Robert Holoua Stender
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Nā Mahalo
Mahalo i ke Akua. Nā na nō i mālama, kīa‘i a alaka‘i mai kīnohi a ka hopena
o nā hana holo‘oko‘a. Ke pāhola mai nei Kona aloha no mākou āpau.
He ho‘okupu aloha kēia no nā kūpuna i ha‘alele aku ma ke ala polohiwa mea
a Kāne. Me ‘oukou ke aloha pau‘ole o nā hanauna o nēia au. ‘O ko‘u aloha nui iā
‘oukou pākahi āpau no ke a‘o ‘ana mai i nā mea no‘eau, waiwai a ma‘alea a ka
Hawai‘i. Iā ‘oukou e nā kūpuna aloha o‘u, iā Mary Akana Apa, Elizabeth
Ka‘aipōhuehue Holoua, Lizzie Lihilihi‘ulaokalani Kama Wai‘ale‘ale, Anthony B.
Cabral a me Matilda Kaualoku Lum ka welina pau‘ole o ke aloha.
He aloha kēia i ko‘u mau mākua, iā Robert a me Marie
Kawaiku‘ilaniokuponihi Stender, Henry a me Charlene Mailolo, Donald a me
Bernadette Ah Chong, Melvin Cabral, a me Stanley a me Eugenia Stender, Eluwene
Abreu a me William ‘Sonny’ Enoka. Mahalo iā ‘oukou no ka ho‘opa‘a pākahi ‘ana i
ka hoe uli o ka wa‘a a me ka ho‘okele pono ‘ana ma nā au nui a me nā au ‘iki ma ka
moana lipolipo o ke ola. Ke hū mai nei ko‘u mahalo nui iā ‘oukou pākahi āpau no ke
kāko‘o mau mai ‘ana ia‘u i nā mea nui a me nā mea ‘iki.
E lei kau e lei ho‘oilo i ke aloha. He aloha nui kēia no ka‘u wahine iā
Allennette Ehulani Stender. Me ‘oe e ku‘u ipo, ku‘u hoa o ka pō anu ka mahalo nui
no kō aloha a me ke kāko‘o mau mai ana ia‘u i kēia mau makahiki, ‘A‘ole na‘e
ma‘alahi ka ho‘i ‘ana o nēia ‘elemakule i ke kula nui ma USC, akā, aia na‘e ‘oe me
iii
ke ahonui, ke kāko‘o a me ke aloha i nā manawa apau. Me ‘oe ka mahalo a me ke
aloha palena ‘ole i nā kau a kau.
He lei mae‘ole ke keiki. He aloha a mahalo kēia i nā keiki haumana o ke
Kula Ha‘aha‘a o Kamehameha ma Kapālama. ‘A‘ole o kana mai ke aloha o nā keiki.
Mahalo a me ke aloha nui i ka‘u mau pua iā Lono A‘a Holoua Stender, Malia
Hi‘iakaikawenaokeao Thomason a me Ehulani Leomanaokawaiku‘ilaniokuponihi
Stender. He aloha kēia i nā pua mo‘opuna ‘ehiku a‘u, iā Pekelo a me Līhau Stender,
a me Nāali‘ikuluwaimaka, Keolaokapā‘ūoHi‘iakaikawenaokeao, Lonoikamakahiki,
Kapilialoha a me Hilina‘ikalelema‘ōpuna Thomason.
He lālā au no ka‘u kumu. Ke ‘ōlino mai nei ka no‘eau o ke kanaka ma muli o
ka waiwai a me ke a‘o hohonu i makana ‘ia mai ai e kāna mau kumu. He mahalo a
me ke aloha nui i ka‘u mau po‘e kumu mai ko‘u wā kōli‘uli‘u a hiki aku i kēia wā.
He mahalo nui kēia i nā kumu kūikawā ‘o John Keolaokamaka‘ainana Lake, John
Renken Kaha‘iokaiwiulaoKamehameha Topolinski a me Keli‘i Tau‘ā. Mahalo no
ho‘i i nā kumu o Ke Kula o Kamehameha mai ke kula ha‘aha‘a a ke kula ki‘eki‘e, iā
Dr. Michael Chun no kou kāko‘o, Dr. Rod Chamberlain, Anna Sumida, Dr.
Katherine Tibbetts a me Peter Hsu no ko ‘oukou kōkua kūkā kama‘īlio i ka manawa i
kākau a‘e ai i kēia palapala.
He aloha nō a me ka mahalo nui i nā kumu a me nā haumana kekahi o nā
kula nui, ‘o Ke Kula Nui o Kaleponi Hema (University of Southern California) a me
Ke Kula Nui o Hawai‘i, ma Mānoa. Mahalo iā ‘oukou e nā kumu kūikawā e noho
ana ma ke kōmike kākau palapala. Iā ‘oe e Dr. Melora Sundt, ke po‘o kōmike no ka
iv
hana no‘eau, ke aloha a me ka ho‘okele maika‘i ‘ana i nēia hana kula. Iā ‘olua e Dr.
Darnell Cole a me Dr. Katherine Au ka mahalo nui no ko ‘olua kōkua a me ke
kāko‘o ma kēia huaka‘i ‘ohia ‘ike a kākou.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 23
Chapter 3: Methodology 54
Chapter 4: Analysis of the Data 77
Chapter 5: Discussion 115
References 135
Appendices
Appendix A: Nā ‘Ōpio Survey Subscales Aligned With Supporting 142
Research from Literature Review
Appendix B: Nā ‘Ōpio Youth Development Survey 144
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Theory Definitions 21
Table 2.1: Significant Research Findings of CBE and CRP 51
Table 3.1: HCI Subscales, No. of Items and Scoring 62
Table 3.2: Grade 6, CTP IV and Number of Items 67
Table 3.3: School Engagement Categories 69
Table 3.4: Character Development Proxy Score 71
Table 4.1: Respondents by Cohort 78
Table 4.2: Sample Comparison of Gender 79
Table 4.3: SY 2008-09 Comparison of Orphans by Sample Cohort and 80
Total Enrollment of Orphans at KES

Table 4.4: Comparison of Recipients of Full, Partial or No Financial Aid 81
Table 4.5: Comparison of Enrollment Length of Sample Participants 82
Table 4.6: Descriptive Statistics for Hawaiian Cultural Identity Subscale 83
and Sum Mean Scores

Table 4.7: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and 94
Academic GPA

Table 4.8: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and 95
Elective GPA

Table 4.9: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and 96
CTP IV Mathematics

Table 4.10: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and 97
School Engagement

Table 4.11: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and 98
Character Development

vii
Table 4.12: Statistically Significant Effects for Academic GPA 108
Table 4.13: Statistically Significant Effects for Elective GPA 108
Table 4.14: Statistically Significant Effects for CTP IV Math 109
Table 4.15: Statistically Significant Effects for School Engagement 110
Table 4.16: Statistically Significant Effects for Character Development 111
Table 4.17: Statistically Significant Effects for Independent Variable Full 112
Financial Aid

Table 5.1: Major Research Findings which are Congruent with Study 117
Findings

Table 5.2: Summary of Study Research Questions 118
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Connection to ‘Āina Subscale Means 84
Figure 4.2: Cultural Values & Attachment Subscale Mean Scores 85
Figure 4.3: Connection to ‘Ohana Subscale Means 86
Figure 4.4: Hawaiian Language Subscale Mean Scores 87
Figure 4.5: Hawaiian Language Proficiency 88
Figure 4.6: Cultural Issues Engagement Subscale Mean Scores 90
Figure 4.7: Cultural Knowledge & Practices Subscale Mean Scores 91
Figure 4.8: HCI Sum Score Means by Student 92
ix
ABSTRACT
The relationship between Hawaiian cultural identity and student progress at
Kamehameha Elementary School (KES) is the focal point of this study. As the
student demographics continue to evolve at Kamehameha Schools, most recently
with increasing numbers of children coming from orphan and indigent backgrounds,
teachers want greater understanding of the ways that culturally relevant pedagogy
(Ladson-Billings, 1995) and culturally based education can be used to facilitate
learning. As a starting point, this study analyzed secondary, quantitative data of 267
5
th
and 6
th
graders to determine the degree to which the independent variables of
cultural identity (as measured by a Hawaiian cultural identity survey) gender, SES,
orphan status and length of enrollment at KES are related to the dependent variables-
-standardized assessments, grades and citizenship ratings. Results indicate
relationships between the intensity of one’s identity with Hawaiian culture and
academic success is more prevalent for lower SES and orphan students than for the
general population, however both positive and negative correlations were found for
specific cultural measures. The findings also suggest significant negative differences
in the academic experiences of boys compared to girls, children who are orphans
compared to all others, and children receiving full financial aid compared to those
not receiving full aid. While greater study is needed, these findings suggest that
faculty examine instructional and outreach practices for these particular sub-groups
of students, in order to achieve equitable educational outcomes for all students.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Kū i ke ao e ku‘u kama ē, Be of this world my beloved child. Gird yourself
with spirituality, wisdom, strength and aloha, for these are attributes that made your
kūpuna successful. Feel their spirits as they go with you into the future.
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be directed to the full
development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and
shall further the activities of the United Nation for the maintenance of peace
(United Nations, 1948).

Article 26 of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights
notwithstanding, volumes of studies, research articles and journal reports document
failure and despair for indigenous and minority learners in American school systems
across the United States (WIPCE, 1999; Tierney, 1992; Bennett, 2001; Castagno &
Brayboy, 2008; Demmert and Towner, 2003; Kana‘iaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003;
Ledoux, 2006; Ogbu, 1992). The freedom of Indigenous peoples to develop and be
accorded their rights to education as declared by the United Nations is at risk.
Citing projections of demographic trends in the U.S, Garcia (2002) predicted
that school dropout rates for Hispanics, African Americans and other minorities
would continue to increase beyond levels that the nation’s schools have experienced
in the past decade. Native American (NA), Alaska Native (AN) and Native Hawaiian
(NH) student populations have experienced equally high school dropout rates
exceeding 40% in some school settings (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Kana‘iaupuni
2
& Ishibashi, 2003; Hagedorn, Tibbetts, Moon, & Lester, 2003; Ogbu, 1992).
Freeman and Fox (2005) have indicated that American Indian and Alaskan Native
students are almost three (3) times more likely than Whites to score at the lowest
levels on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) assessments in
mathematics, and more than twice as likely to score at the lowest levels in reading.
By comparison, White students are three to five times more likely to score at the
highest levels on both the NAEP mathematics and reading assessments respectively
(Freeman & Fox, 2005).
Hibel, et al. (2008) reported that 15% of American Indian and Alaskan
Native third graders received Special Education services in the U.S. in 2007, a figure
higher than any other ethnic group. The over identification of Indigenous learners in
special education due to culturally inappropriate assessments, (i.e., standardized
assessments and psychological educational evaluations) cannot be discounted when
interpreting school data. The chasm between contemporary mainstream education
and culture-based education for Indigenous students seem to be worlds apart.
Minority and indigenous students’ cultural practices are sometimes misinterpreted by
evaluators as learning disabilities (Hibel, et al., 2008). A statement from the U. S.
Department of Education asserts:
Greater efforts are needed to prevent the intensification of problems
connected with mislabeling, and high dropout rates among minority children
with disabilities. More minority children continue to be served in special
education than would be expected from the percentage of minority students in
the general school population (Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (DEIA), 2004, 20U.S.C. Sec. 1400).

3
Students diagnosed as learning disabled exhibited high school dropout rates
exceeding 30% (Hibel, et al., 2008). Empirical studies indicate that students who are
identified with learning disabilities face considerable disadvantages in life (Hibel, et
al., 2008). More than half of the students diagnosed with learning disabilities remain
unemployed more than two years after high school, and arrest rates for these students
is 40% for African Americans and 27% for Whites (Oswald et al., 2002). In a 2003-
2004 DEIA study, 46% of AI/AN were identified as having a developmental delay-
related learning disability, and 44% were identified as having speech/language
impairments.
Statistics reported by Kana‘iaupuni and Ishibashi (2003) for Native Hawaiian
students in Hawai‘i public schools mirrored the special education statistics of their
Native American and Alaskan Native counterparts on the continent. In school year
2000-2001, more than 18% of Hawaiian students were classified as requiring special
education services, compared to 11% for non-Hawaiian students (Kana‘iaupuni,
Malone, & Ishibashi, 2005). Hawaiian students were also more likely than their non-
Hawaiian peers to be retained during their high school years, grades 9-12. Close to
80% of Native Hawaiian students attended low quality public schools which were in
corrective action, compared to 17% of corrective action schools which were
predominantly attended by non-Hawaiians. Standardized assessments recorded for
Native Hawaiian students ranked the lowest of all major ethnic groups, and the
percentile gaps between Hawaiian and non-Hawaiians increased as students
progressed through the public school system from elementary through secondary
4
schools (Kana‘iaupuni, Malone & Ishibashi, 2005; Uyeno et al., 2006). Finally, 50%
of Hawaiian students in the public school system qualified for subsidized lunches as
compared to approximately 33% for non-Hawaiian students (Kana‘iaupuni &
Ishibashi, 2003). These statistics indicate that Hawaiian students in the public school
system are economically disadvantaged at higher levels than their non-Hawaiian
peers.
Bradley and Corwyn (2002) have identified an array of factors which they
contend represent challenges for children who come from low SES households.
Researchers emphasized that children who lack access to educational materials,
learning opportunities and experiences that are cognitively stimulating may not do as
well as their higher SES classmates (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). According to
Bradley’s and Corwyn’s (2002) research, teachers provided less positive attention to
their low SES students, who also had less cognitively stimulating experiences at
home. Negative stereotyping of low SES students by teachers has led to increased
incidences of negative teacher-student interactions in school. Bradley’s and
Corwyn’s (2002) research forecasts the likelihood that low SES, minority children
will have more negative experiences associated with school failure than non-
minority and higher SES students.
Another factor indicative of low SES is a family’s vulnerability to more
threatening or uncontrollable life events, including accompanying stress factors
associated with these events. Bradley and Corwyn (2002) purport that some of the
negative influences on school progress can be ameliorated by providing all children
5
and their families with access to educational materials, activities, experiences and
social resources. Many Native Hawaiian students continue to struggle in the public
school system and are identified as learning disabled, or as special education students
due, in part, to a lack of educational materials and resources in their homes and in
their public school environments (Kana‘iaupuni, Malone, & Ishibashi 2005).
Average reading scaled scores and achievement levels for American
Indians/Alaska Natives attending Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) schools and
other public schools, in grade 4 and 8 reported in 2005 and 2007 were lower than
national averages (NCES, 2007). These statistics seem to suggest that schools are
not meeting the educational needs of Indigenous student groups, a phenomenon
which will likely delimit college and occupational options for these students (Garcia,
2002). Negative indicators which described the lack of progress and success of
Indigenous students in mainstream educational settings reveal that the prevalence of
poverty, language, cultural and socio-political barriers, and the lack of educational
and occupational opportunities are the main factors which hinder indigenous and
minority student school success (Ogbu, 1992; Ogbu & Simon 1994; Garcia, 2002;
Sirin, 2007). Researchers purport that the lack of resources, role models, cultural
congruence and responsiveness to minorities in educational systems, and the over
abundance of institutional racism have caused many minority learners to fail in
Eurocentric educational settings and arenas (Bennett, 2001; Kana‘iaupuni &
Ishibashi, 2003; Pewewardy, 1994; Huff, 1997; Ogbu, 1992; Ogbu & Simon, 1994).
6
There is no question about whether schools in America incorporate
culturally-based curricula and pedagogy, they do. However, it can also be argued that
the vast majority of American schools, including those with a majority of non-White
clientele incorporate culturally based education which is anchored almost exclusively
in Euro-American language, culture and values (Asante, 1991). Bennett (2001) has
argued that a Eurocentric curriculum in a multicultural society is a tool for cultural
hegemony. Bennett is not the only researcher who has reached this conclusion.
Asante (1991) defined centricity as the incorporation of a students’ own
culture and history as a context for learning. Helping students to relate socially and
psychologically to other cultural perspectives by fostering centricity and cultural
education anchored in a student’s own culture and language is important for
Indigenous and minority student learning, success and well-being (Meriam, 1928;
Asante, 1991; Brayboy & Castagno, 2008; Demmert, 2003). A goal for schools,
especially those which serve Indigenous and minority student populations must be to
ensure that curricula and pedagogy incorporates its students’ cultural capital, is
integrally connected to their cultural backgrounds and builds positive cultural
identity and self-esteem.
Asante (1991) asserts that the most productive way for students to learn is to
place the student and his culture at the center of the context of knowledge. Under
prevailing educational conditions which favor Eurocentric pedagogy and curricula,
students from non-White backgrounds seem to be at an educational and cultural
disadvantage (Ogbu, 1992). Asante (1991) argued that learning for White students is
7
relatively easy, since White students’ school experiences are approached from the
standpoint of White perspectives and history. Culturally-based education rooted
almost exclusively in Euro-American culture undermines the ability of involuntary
minorities, especially Indigenous, African American and Latino students to learn in
environments where their cultures and communities are at the center of educational
settings (Asante, 1991; Bennett, 2001; Brayboy & Castagno, 2008; Ogbu, 1994;
Luke, 2008).
As many scholars have argued, the goal for contemporary Indigenous,
minority and other educational leaders should be to develop educational programs,
systems and assessments which are responsive to minority and Indigenous learners
(Au & Kawakami, 1991; Bennett, 2001; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Demmert &
Towner, 2003; Ledoux, 2006). Researchers contend these types of educational
programs will promote and measure a student’s success in terms which are congruent
with the student’s culture, belief systems and ideals (Tierney, 1992; Ogbu 1992;
Tharp & Dalton, 2007). Scholars have proposed that culturally-based education be
introduced in schools where there are high populations of Indigenous and minority
children (Bennett, 2001; Demmert & Towner, 2003; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008;
Luke, 2008; Kana‘iaupuni, 2004; Meriam, 1928; Sumida & Meyer, 2006). If schools
and school systems continue to fail to improve learning for minority and Indigenous
children using current Eurocentric curricula and pedagogical methodologies, support
for the inclusion of culturally-based education and culturally relevant pedagogy in
schools serving Indigenous and minority communities will continue to grow. From
8
this point forward in this dissertation, CBE refers to culture-based education of
minority and/or Indigenous students.

Background of the Problem
One of the first proponents of culture-based education (CBE) was Lewis
Meriam (1928), who argued that CBE is essential to Native American school culture.
The Meriam Report recommended the incorporation of indigenous languages,
cultural programs and curriculum, and that Native teachers be employed to teach in
schools that serve Native students. Meriam hypothesized that if Native American
students were to succeed academically and play a vital role as citizens, then Native
culture and languages would have to be incorporated into educational settings which
serve them (Meriam, 1928).
Horace Kallen, working in the early 20
th
century, along with later researchers
developed the concept of cultural pluralism, a foundation of contemporary
multicultural education (Bennett, 2001). The ideal of cultural pluralism was based
on the premise that society must affirm the right of a group to maintain its cultural
heritage. An assumption inherent in the philosophy of cultural pluralism is that the
negative effects of prejudice and cultural racism have been historically ingrained into
the political, economic and societal structures of the United States, and are especially
prevalent in educational institutions at all levels (Bennett, 2001). It is important for
educators to recognize that hegemonic educational structures often work to the
9
educational detriment of low SES, involuntary minority and Indigenous students
(Bennett, 2001; Ogbu, 1992; Ogbu & Simon, 1994).
The most significant factors leading to educational change in the United
States during the 20
th
century included the social and political demands of African
Americans and their supporters for equal civil rights. The Civil Rights Movement of
the 1950’s and 1960’s, including the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954,
had the effect of providing access for ethnic minorities to quality public schools in
the U.S. However, the promise of equal education for all seemed to have turned into
special education and failure for large percentages of ethnic minority students,
including Indigenous children and youth (Bennett, 2001; Hibel, et al., 2008;
Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Kana‘iaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003; Kana‘iaupuni et al.,
2005). The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001, and similar programs of the
last decade have stripped away much of the complex learning richness and
culturally-based curricula from the nation’s public school’s programs, leaving
lessons more heavily focused on basic skill development, competency drills, and
lower level, high stakes testing (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Luke, 2008; Ogbu,
1992). Attention focused mainly on attaining basic skills and competencies leaves
little school time left to critically examine cultural and community issues, native
language, and culturally relevant pedagogy and curricula, which have been shown to
improve schooling for a broader and growing minority population, and wider
spectrum of the nation’s school children, especially indigenous minorities (Au &
10
Jordan, 1981; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Tharp & Dalton,
2007; Thirugnanam, 1999).
Indigenous children as a whole do not compare favorably with other groups
who reach higher levels of achievement in schools (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008;
Demmert & Towner, 2003; Kana‘iaupuni, Malone & Ishibashi, 2005; NCES, 2007).
Concentration on learning which emphasizes remediation of basic skills, and passing
state mandated standardized tests may possibly prepare Indigenous, minority and low
SES students to “occupy particular rungs on the social ladder ” (Anyon, 2001, p.
174). Ultimately, the result of assimilative and hegemonic education systems has
been to marginalize minority peoples’ self-worth, self-esteem and accomplishments,
and relegate them to exist in neat categories within the educational system, (i.e.,
special education, learning disabled or school drop-outs) (Hibel, et al., 2008). Some
have postulated that grouping children into these categories seems to fit the dominant
cultural group’s societal norms, standards and values for Indigenous and minority
peoples, and releases the dominant group from responsibility for educating
indigenous and minority students in ways that are culturally responsive (Bennett,
2001; Cummins, 1986; Luke, 2008; Thirugnanam, 1999).
Today, CBE has come to mean a pedagogical approach consisting of six (6)
critical elements as defined by Demmert and Towner (2003). These six (6) elements
provide a foundation for understanding culturally-based education, and establish a
baseline for proponents to advocate for CBE in schools.
11
Elements of Culture Based Education
1. Recognition and use of Native American (American Indian, Alaska Native,
Native Hawaiian) languages (this may include use bilingually, or as a first or
second language).
2. Pedagogy that stresses traditional cultural characteristics, and adult-child
interactions as the starting place for one’s education (mores that are currently
practiced in the community, and which may differ from community to
community).
3. Pedagogy in which teaching strategies are congruent with the traditional
culture as well as contemporary ways of knowing and learning (opportunities
to observe, opportunities to practice, and opportunities to demonstrate skills).
4. Curriculum that is based on traditional culture, which recognizes the
importance of Native spirituality, and places the education of young children
in a contemporary context (e.g., use and understanding of the visual arts,
legends, oral histories, and fundamental beliefs of the community).
5. Strong Native community participation (including parents, elders, other
community resources) in educating children and evident in the curriculum,
planning, and operation of school/community activities.
6. Knowledge and use of the social and political mores of the community
(Demmert and Towner, 2003, p. 7).
12
Although culturally-based and culturally responsive schooling have been
advocated for almost a century (Meriam, 1928), schools and teachers have generally
not succeeded in incorporating culturally-based curricula and pedagogy which is
congruent with Indigenous and minority student learning (Castagno & Brayboy,
2008; Demmert & Towner, 2003). Given these contexts and contradictions, which
derive from limited intellectual, economic and human resources allocated to
Indigenous students, and the school programs which serve them, it becomes
imperative for schools, educators and families to work together to prepare students to
be grounded in their own cultures and languages (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008). If
Indigenous students are to attain success in navigating through the contemporary
education systems, as well as thrive and achieve success in the global society in
which they live, they must receive schooling which is responsive to their cultural and
academic needs (Bennett, 2001; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Kamehameha School Strategic Plan, 2001; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
For more than 100 years, Indigenous peoples have been forced to accept the
Western model of education, which has failed them (Garcia, 2002). The right of
Indigenous peoples to access education, which is tailored to their needs, rights and
aspirations, is captured in the following quote:
The rights of Indigenous peoples to access education--even when these rights
are recognized in treaties and other instruments--are often interpreted to read
that Indigenous peoples only want access to non-Indigenous education, and
the outcome of such education practice has been developed and measured by
non-indigenous standards, values and philosophies (WIPCE, 1999).

13
The ability of Indigenous peoples to attain fundamental social and political
rights, including the right to develop their own educational practices, assessments
and systems as described by the 1999 World Indigenous Peoples’ Conference on
Education statement above, speaks to the inherent right of Indigenous peoples to
foster, fashion and determine their own educational systems. Research has shown
that, by and large, public schools have not achieved success in educating Indigenous
students when comparisons are made with White and voluntary minority students
(Ogbu & Simon, 1994; Bennett, 2001; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008). Therefore, can
Indigenous educators and others who support them do any worse than current data
suggest, since when measured in non-Indigenous terms, the educational outcomes
and success of Indigenous students in traditional western education systems still
measure far below those of non-Indigenous groups (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008;
Garcia, 2002; Hibel, et al., 2008: Ledoux, 2006; WIPCE, 1999)?
Chavez and Guido-Dibrito (1999) contend that the assimilation of vast
numbers of ethnic minority students into the Eurocentric curriculum of a school
system causes high percentages of these students to languish or fail in classrooms,
and education systems to alienate them by not recognizing or honoring their cultural
heritages. More and more studies are finding that failure is indeed present, but the
failure is a reflection of the educational system, not of indigenous people’s
capabilities (Ogbu, 1992; WIPCE, 1999; Bennett, 2001; Castagno and Brayboy,
2008; Stanton-Salazar, 1997; Kana‘iaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003; Demmert & Towner,
2003).
14
Dropout rates and failures of Indigenous peoples within non-Indigenous
educational settings can be viewed as rejection rates created by deficits inherent in
mainstream educational systems (WIPCE, 1999). Current mainstream educational
systems, more often than not exclude Indigenous cultural norms, languages,
pedagogy, curriculum and assessments which are compatible with Indigenous world
views (WIPCE, 1999; Castagno and Brayboy, 2008; Luke, 2008). The data suggest
that Indigenous and involuntary minority students have not performed at equitable
achievement rates when compared to White and voluntary minority students due to
shortcomings within the mainstream educational (Ogbu & Simon, 1994).

Statement of the Problem
There is a prevalent belief among Indigenous peoples, particularly, Native
Americans, Alaskan Natives and Native Hawaiians, and professional Native
educators, that strong language and cultural components are necessary for the
attainment of meaningful educational experiences (Demmert & Towner, 2003).
Culturally-based education is seen as nurturing, positive, whole-child oriented,
rooted in Native culture and language, and constructed upon Native children’s assets
(Bennett, 2001); it is sometimes described as “education with aloha” (Tibbetts,
Kahakalau, & Johnson, 2007). It is believed that culturally-based education can
provide Indigenous students with a firm foundation for learning new knowledge
(Castagno & Brayboy, 2008). Over the past thirty years, a variety of culturally-based
models of education and studies have revealed that minority and indigenous students
15
can achieve school success in educational settings which provide culturally-based
schooling and culturally relevant pedagogy, especially when measured by authentic
and culturally responsive assessments (e.g., performance and project-based
assessments) (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Lipka, 2005; Wilson & Kamana, 2001; Tharp
et al., 2007). Although the link between CBE and student achievement is assumed
and advocated by many researchers, there are relatively few quantitative studies
which have examined relationships between cultural identity and student progress.
This study will determine whether or not such relationships exist at Kamehameha
School Elementary School.
Demmert and Towner (2003) described the need for researchers to collect
quantitative data related to CBE due to the paucity of empirical studies now in
existence. According to these researchers, there have been only four (4)
experimental or quasi-experimental Indigenous research studies conducted within the
last 30 years which measured the effectiveness of CBE and its relationship to student
outcomes (Demmert & Towner, 2003). The scarcity of quantitative research linked
to CBE indicates that there is a critical need for more empirical research of CBE and
its relationship to student learning outcomes. This study will describe whether or not
CBE and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CRP) are related to improved school for
Native Hawaiian students. Specifically, the relationships between cultural identity
and student progress will be examined to determine if a student’s Hawaiian language
and cultural identity are related to improved learning outcomes for Native Hawaiian
students.
16
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to better understand the relationship between
cultural identity and student progress. This study will analyze quantitative data to
determine whether or not increased levels of cultural identity, as measured by a
cultural connectedness and students assets survey is associated with increased levels
of student progress at Kamehameha. Dependent variables will include student
grades, a standardized assessment score, school engagement and character
development ratings. This study is structured to identify the extent to which other
variables (i.e., gender, SES, length of enrollment at Kamehameha and cultural
identity) may or may not be related to improved student progress.

Setting of the Study
The Kamehameha Schools (KS) currently serve more than 35,000 Native
Hawaiian clients throughout the state of Hawai‘i in a wide variety of educational
programs. Its campus programs consist of three (3) K-12 schools on Hawai‘i, Maui
and O‘ahu which serve approximately 5,400 students. KS was established as a
private school to educate Native Hawaiian children in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i in
1884. The school’s founder, Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop was the last descendant
of the Kamehameha dynasty which ruled Hawai‘i from 1810 until 1872. The mission
of the school is to fulfill her desire to create educational opportunities to improve the
capability and well-being of people of Hawaiian ancestry (KS Annual Report, 2007-
2008).
17
After a coup d’etat led by American businessmen ousted the Hawaiian
government in 1893, and the occupation of Hawai‘i by the United States began in
1898, KS adopted Eurocentric educational policies and models, and endeavored to
assimilate Native Hawaiian students into mainstream American society and culture
(Booz, Allen & Hamilton, 1960; Fuchs, 1961). Act 54 passed by the Republic of
Hawaii’s legislature in 1896, removed Hawaiian as the national language of
instruction in Hawai‘i’s public schools (Benham & Heck, 1998). KS’s adherence to
dominant American school policies and curricula was in keeping with the prevalent
mode of operation of many first nation schools across North America during the
early 20
th
century (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Ledoux, 2006).
For the first three-quarters of the 20
th
century, KS policies and curricula
mirrored American education policy and ideals for Indigenous minorities, including
vocational education and military training for its boys, and homemaking courses for
its girls, to prepare them for American life and citizenship (Booz, Allen & Hamilton,
1960). Hawaiian language and culture were not a focus of the school’s curricula
(Booz, Allen & Hamilton, 1960), though they existed at its periphery, most notably
within preparation and performances of Hawaiian choral music at KS’s annual
Hawaiian song contests beginning in the late 1920s. Outside of KS, aging native
speakers kept the Hawaiian language and culture alive, but as these venerable elders
passed, so too did the Indigenous language and culture of Hawai‘i retreat more and
more from mainstream usage (Benham & Heck, 1998).
18
The Hawaiian language was nearing extinction when during the 1960s, the
school began to gradually increase its Hawaiian culturally-based curriculum (Booz,
Allen, & Hamilton, 1960). The 1950s and 1960s civil rights movement in the U. S.
spurred many Native Hawaiians to dispute the on-going alienation of Hawaiians
from their homeland, resources, language and cultural heritage. Many Hawaiian
activists demanded self-determination and sovereignty as inherent political rights
(Benham & Heck, 1998).
In addition to progress made in the political and social arenas during the
1970s and 1980s, Hawaiian language reinvigoration and culture-based education
began to develop on a broader scale. Pūnana Leo, (language nests) Hawaiian
language preschools were established in 1983 and Hawaiian language immersion
education in K-12 public schools was introduced shortly thereafter (Wilson &
Kamana, 2001). Hawaiian music and dance enjoyed a renaissance during the 1970s
and 1980s. The U.S. military bombing of Kaho‘olawe island was halted, and the
Hawaiian voyaging canoe, Hōkūle‘a began pan-Polynesian ocean treks across the
Pacific, bringing pride and cultural awareness to Native Hawaiians, Polynesians, and
many other peoples in the Pacific region and throughout the world (Benham & Heck,
1998).
In keeping with these community trends and social movements, KS
endeavored through various organizational efforts to establish itself as a “Kula
Hawai‘i”, a Hawaiian school with curriculum grounded in Hawaiian language,
culture and culture-based education (Kamehameha Schools, 2001). Through its
19
strategic plan, philosophy of education and mission statement, the school formally
recognized that Hawaiian language and culture were integral to the well-being of its
Native Hawaiian students (Kamehameha Schools, 2001). Recent communications
from the school’s executive leadership acknowledged that staff and students are
stewards of the Hawaiian language and culture (Kamehameha Schools, 2009). This
communication also recognized KS’s obligation to develop Hawaiian leaders who
are connected to the language and culture of their Hawaiian ancestors. The continual
infusion of Hawaiian language, culture and world-view into the curriculum and
pedagogy will be important, as KS strives to prepare students who are grounded in
their own language and culture for the 21
st
century.
The importance of this study will be to determine whether or not cultural
identity is associated with improved or diminished student progress as measured by
grade point averages, standardized assessments and a cultural identity survey (which
assessed Hawaiian cultural identity subscale scores, character development and
school engagement levels) of the study’s sample participants. This study will
attempt to provide quantitative data to determine whether or not relationships exist
between Hawaiian cultural identity and student progress at Kamehameha Elementary
School. It will also attempt to corroborate some of the findings related to culturally
relevant pedagogy theory from Ladson-Billings (1995) study of African American
children.
20
Research Questions
Three (3) research questions will be addressed in this study. The research
questions are: 1) What were the 2009 levels of student affinity with Hawaiian
cultural identity as measured by six (6) Hawaiian identity subscales: Hawaiian
language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural values
and attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices?
2) To what extent do demographic independent variables (i.e., gender, orphan status,
SES, and length of enrollment at KES) influence student progress as measured by
dependent variables (i.e., grade point averages, a standardized assessment, school
engagement and character development ratings)? 3) To what extent do Hawaiian
cultural identity independent variables (i.e., Hawaiian language; connection to
‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural attachment; cultural issues
engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices) influence student progress as
determined by dependent variables (i.e., grade point averages, a standardized
assessment, school engagement and character development)?
The following Table 1.1 describes some of the theories which provide a
foundation for this study.
21
Table 1.1: Theory Definitions
Social Cultural Theory
(Vygotsky, 1978)
Social interactions between individuals form the basis
for cognitive and linguistic development
Cultural Relevant
Pedagogy Theory
(Ladson–Billings,1995)
Cultural compatibility, or “fit” between a student’s home
culture and the culture of the school. Tenets which have
been shown to foster success for African American
children are dependent on the teacher’s support for: 1)
academic achievement; 2) cultural development and
competence; and, 3) the ability to critique social
inequity.
Cultural Compatibility
Theory (Demmert,
2003)
“The more closely the human interactions in the school
and in the classroom, are aligned with those of the
community, the more likely the goals of the school will
be reached. Education is more efficacious when there is
an increase in congruence between social cultural
dispositions of students and social cultural expectations
of the school” (Demmert & Towner, 2003, p. 7).
Cultural-Historical
Activity Theory
(Demmert, 2003)
“Issues of culture, language, cognition, community and
socialization are central to learning. The primary
socialization of infants and young children (as well as all
later socialization into new communities of practice) is
accomplished through joint, meaningful activity with
guidance by more accomplished participants, principally
through language exchanges or other semiotic processes.
Language vocabularies and routines acquired by learners
through these processes are the elements that account for
community, linguistic, and cultural continuity, and are
the primary cognitive tools for individual and group
problem solving and adaptations (e.g., culturally-based
secondary socialization processes like schooling can be
facilitated by activating the learners’ cognitive and
linguistic tools laid down by community socialization).
Primary to this hypothesis is that activity (primarily joint
activity) is the setting in which language and cognition
are developed, and that patterns of activity have a
cultural basis.”
22
Organization of the Study
Chapter 2 will encompass a review of related literature about the relevance of
cultural identity, culturally-based education, culturally relevant pedagogy, and
culturally responsive schooling and their significance to Indigenous education.
Chapter 3 describes the design, methodology and analysis for the study. Results of
the study are discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 will report the implications of the
study and envisage future research possibilities.
23
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
One of the greatest obstacles to the achievement of liberation is that
oppressive reality absorbs those within it and thereby acts to submerge men’s
consciousness. Praxis, defined as reflection and action upon the world is the
only means to transform it (Freire, 1989, p. 36).

Freire asked us to consider obstacles which may lead to the inadvertent
oppression of consciousness and liberation. He proposed praxis, defined as reflection
and action, as a way to transform and thereby improve that perilous state of being
known as oppression. This literature review will present research which examines
some of the broad educational challenges facing some ethnic minorities introduced in
Chapter 1. Challenges include the absence of Indigenous and minority culture-based
education in the vast majority of schools and school systems (Demmert & Towner,
2003) and the poor performance of some minority groups, especially Indigenous
students in educational settings across the United States (Hibel, et al. 2008; Ogbu &
Simon, 1994). It will also survey apparent opportunities, expressed in empirical
research of culturally relevant theory, culture-based and culturally responsive
curricular models and methodologies. This literature review provides a basis for
praxis by surveying research which may hold promise for the improvement of
educational opportunities for ethnic minorities, and especially Indigenous students in
urban schools in the United States.
Chapter 2 will examine literature about the relevance of culturally-based
education, culturally relevant pedagogy, and culturally responsive schooling and
24
their significance to Indigenous education. There are four (4) sections in Chapter 2
including: 1) a survey of Voluntary/Involuntary Minority Theory (Ogbu & Simon,
1994), to provide a context for understanding why some ethnic and indigenous
minority groups may not perform as well as other groups, and to establish a case for
culture-based education; 2) a description of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP)
theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995) which provides a theoretical framework for this
study; 3) a survey of culture-based education empirical studies, models, case studies,
educational strategies and interventions which have been shown to improve
Indigenous and minority student learning; and, 4) highlights of a quantitative study
indicating correlations between standardized assessments and culturally relevant
schooling.

Voluntary and Involuntary Minority Theory
Voluntary and Involuntary Minority Theory is presented here to establish a
context for understanding why some ethnic and indigenous minority groups may not
perform as well, in general, as Whites and other ethnic groups. Ogbu and Simons
(1994) researched historical contexts for minority learning and conducted a
quantitative study of 2,245 students to survey strategies for understanding the
performance of minority students in educational environments. They classified their
survey subjects into two main categories: 1) voluntary minorities, those who came to
America of their own free will, (e.g., European or Asian immigrants, etc.) and
involuntary minorities, those who were incorporated against their will through
25
conquest or slavery, (e.g., Native Americans, Alaskan Natives, African Americans,
Native Hawaiians and some Latinos). Involuntary minorities are defined as
“unwilling societal participants” (Ogbu & Simon, 1994, p. 3), who because of their
unique historical context, do not wish to identify with the dominant culture, language
or White racial or ethnic identity of the majority group. They feel ambivalent or
negative toward the American education system in general, and do not view
education as a pathway out of poverty and toward societal success. They also feel
that being successful in the dominant culture and language will compel them to be
displaced, and cause them to relinquish their own ethnic identity and separate from
social, peer or ethnic relationships.
Involuntary minorities have endured a history of discrimination in the United
States. They do not view the American dream and educational system as
optimistically as voluntary minorities do. They believe that it is not enough for them
to do well in the educational system to enjoy social and economic well-being (Ogbu
& Simon, 1994). They have developed an “oppositional cultural frame (p. 203)”
toward the dominant White majority’s social structures and language, and do not
wish to identify with the culture, language or ethnic identity of the majority group.
They feel oppressed and unwilling to believe that participating in the dominant
White culture including doing well in education will lead to social and economic
well-being. Importantly, they feel that if they assimilate into White society, they will
lose their cultural identity and language as part of a “displacement process (p. 18).”
26
Ogbu and Simons (1994) attributed the weak performance of involuntary
minorities within the educational system to ambiguity about societal acceptance and
rewards in general. This sense of ambiguity leads to a lack of motivation on the part
of many involuntary minority students who do not value academic success or
consider rewards such as graduation as valuable (Garcia, 2002). Involuntary
minorities have developed an oppositional cultural frame which leads to their
inability to be successful from a dominant cultural perspective (Ogbu, 1995).
Ogbu’s and Simon’s (1994) research on involuntary minorities is a call for educators
to move more swiftly, to challenge and arrest educational practices which work
against involuntary minorities.
Historically and in contemporary times, Indigenous minority students,
including Native Hawaiians have been pressured to relinquish oppositional cultural
frames and adapt to contemporary mainstream educational systems (Kana‘iaupuni &
Ishibashi, 2003). Individuals find that they must assimilate and conform to dominant
Western educational systems in order to attain school success for themselves, even at
schools that serve Indigenous learners (Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Demmert &
Towner, 2003; Ledoux, 2006). Involuntary minority students who do not conform or
assimilate to dominant Western educational conventions are often denied a high
school diploma, an all important component of Western education, designed to
delimit or grant access to college and future well-being (Anyon, 2001).
Stanton-Salazar (1997) in his article on Social Capital employed the
metaphor of “social freeways (p. 4)” to describe structures which allow people to
27
navigate through large complex organizations with speed and efficiency. The
problem, according to Stanton-Salazar, is that minority students are often not able to
gain access to these social freeways and social capital resources which lead to
networking, strategic education and empowering experiences. Stanton-Salazar
(1997) postulated that for students to engage in strategic education, they would need
to overcome structural barriers which are related to the effects of low SES, race and
gender. Doing so would enable them to experience healthy human development,
school achievement and social mobility (p. 5). Ogbu (1994) seems to suggest that
social capital is not necessarily valued by involuntary minorities, who often possess
an oppositional framework toward mainstream education and values. Ogbu (1994)
contends that involuntary minorities are repelled by mainstream cultural and
educational values. Therefore, if involuntary minority students view CBE as
congruent with involuntary minority culture, the inclusion of CBE in mainstream
educational systems could possibly lead to bridging the gap for involuntary
minorities to strive to attain social capital which may lead to better performance.
Ogbu and Simons (1998) recognized that for individual students, being a
member of a voluntary or involuntary group does not solely determine that student's
school success or failure. Ogbu and Simons (1998) identified six (6) constructs
which are related to the critical elements of CBE as defined by Demmert and Towner
(2003, p. 7) listed in Chapter 1. Ogbu’s constructs are: 1) building trust; 2)
providing a culturally responsive curriculum; 3) explicitly dealing with opposition
and ambivalence; 4) role modeling; 5) providing high educational standards; and, 6)
28
parent and community involvement, as factors that will aid in promoting success for
involuntary minority learners in schools.
Voluntary minority students have been shown to be successful in
contemporary school settings (Ogbu & Simon, 1994). Involuntary minority students
have not achieved at comparable achievement levels with voluntary minority groups.
CBE and CRP hold promise for involuntary minority students since these approaches
seem to provide a context for learning which is motivating, community-based, and
filled with intrinsic rewards for minority student learning (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
The next section will highlight culturally relevant pedagogy theory developed by
Ladson-Billings.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory
Gloria Ladson-Billings, a teacher-educator, developed culturally relevant
pedagogy (CRP) theory in recognition of the need for a culturally relevant theoretical
perspective in education. CRP addresses the growing disparity between the racial,
ethnic, and cultural characteristics of teachers and students, which, if not addressed
according to Ladson-Billings (1995) wiil lead to academic failure for numerous
African American, Native American and other minority students. She defined
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, as cultural compatibility, or “fit between a student’s
home culture and the culture of the school (p.474).”
Culturally responsive schooling (CRS) holds promise for involuntary
minority students by offering them educational environments which are compatible
29
with their home or native cultural environments (Au & Jordon, 1981; Ladson-
Billings, 1995; Tharp & Dalton, 2007). Providing access to culturally congruent
contexts of education and culturally responsive schooling may better enable
involuntary minority students to achieve school success (Castagno & Brayboy,
2008). Ogbu’s (1994) six (6) constructs mentioned above supports and endorses CRS
curriculum. CRS curriculum provides evidence which indicates that involuntary
minority students’ achievement levels can be improved by offering culturally
connected curricula and pedagogy which enables involuntary minority cultures to be
integrated into school culture as described by Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
(Ladson-Billings, 1995).
CRP is grounded theory which was formulated using a qualitative study of
eight (8) exemplary teachers of predominantly low-income, African American
children in an urban school district in Northern California. The study began in 1988
with Ladson-Billings’ identification of elementary school teachers who were
recognized by parents and school administrators as being highly effective in teaching
African American students. A criterion used in the teacher selection process was the
teachers’ ability to raise student achievement levels and increase their performance
on standardized assessments (p. 472). The ability to improve standardized test
scores using CRP holds significance for this research study since a hypothesis of this
study postulates that culture-based education may lead to improved standardized
assessment scores for Indigenous and minority students. Although the ability to raise
student standardized test scores was a criterion for teacher selection, no quantitative
30
study data were discover to indicate students’ standardized scores were improved as
a result of taking part in the CRP study.
Ladson-Billings (1995) study consisted of four (4) research phases: 1) an
ethnographic interview of selected teachers to discuss teacher background,
philosophy of teaching, and ideas about curriculum, classroom management, and
parent and community involvement; 2) teacher observations and post observation
conferences which occurred approximately three (3) times per week over a two year
period; 3) videotaping the teachers’ teaching styles and classroom routines; and, 4)
collaborative work consisting of a series of ten, 2-3-hour teacher meetings, to view
the videotapes, and work with the teachers to analyze and interpret their own and one
another's practice. It was during this fourth phase, when teachers and researcher
were involved in collaborative work that Ladson-Billings formulated Culturally
Relevant Pedagogy Theory (Ladson-Billings, 1995). The theory seems to have
emerged from collaborative teacher interviews and work which confirmed good
teaching practices and pedagogy through which students’ home and community
cultures were integrated into the curriculum (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
In her qualitative study, Ladson-Billings (1995) examined ways in which
teaching pedagogy could better match the home and community cultures and
environments to ascertain if such practices could improve the educational
performance of minority students, who previously had not achieved academic
success. During the teacher observations and subsequent teacher collaboration
meetings, subject teachers were observed to use CRP to develop students
31
academically, nurture and support students’ cultural competence, and develop a
critical consciousness for critiquing sociopolitical inequities. Based upon teacher
observations, collaborations and praxis, Ladson-Billing’s (1995) study led to the
development of three (3) tenets which she attests leads to student success. Tenets
identified by Ladson-Billings (1995) were dependent upon the teacher’s: 1) ability to
develop students academically; 2) willingness to nurture and support cultural
competence; and, 3) development of a sociopolitical or critical consciousness in
students (p. 483). Teachers utilized pedagogies which enabled students to succeed
academically, while developing students’ cultural competence. Students were also
taught to critique inequities within their communities or the larger society. This tenet
enabled students to identify societal inequities and become involved in promoting
improved social conditions for themselves and others. Through becoming involved
in social critique, students and teachers created more stimulating educational
environments.
Ladson-Billings (1995) hypothesized that teachers who utilized only White
middle-class norms, educational standards and culture to teach involuntary minority
students may not be able to build student confidence, nor use the cultural assets of
minority students to help these students develop academic success. Ladson-Billings
(1995) demonstrated how educators could develop students academically by
employing their community’s cultures as foundations for building self-esteem and
cultural competence. Tenets which are related to teacher expertise, for developing
students academically, nurturing and supporting a student’s cultural competence,
32
and, developing critical consciousness in students have been shown to foster success
for African American children (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
To exemplify this point, Ladson-Billings (1997) used the example of standard
classroom mathematics teaching, which she contends emphasizes middle-class
cultural demands for efficiency, consensus, abstraction, and rationality. Mathematics
instruction emphasized repetition, drill convergent, right-answer thinking, and
predictability. Using these standards, students must perform similar tasks over and
over again. They are rarely asked to challenge the "rules" of classroom mathematics
(p. 467). Ladson-Billings (1997) suggested that some features of African American
cultural expression including rhythm, orality, communalism, spirituality, expressive
individualism, social time perspective, verve, and movement be infused into the
curriculum. She noted that these kinds of cultural expressions are neither reinforced
nor represented in school mathematics. Further, Ladson-Billings (1997) contends
that school mathematics curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy are often closely
aligned with an idealized cultural experience of the White middle class (p. 699) and
that African Americans must conform to curriculum and pedagogy more suited to
this dominant group.
Ladson-Billings (1997) argued that educators need to continue to identify
exemplary practice in classrooms and communities that many are ready to dismiss as
incapable of producing excellence. Teachers who utilize cultural relevant pedagogy
which is connected to the culture of their students, whether they are urban, African
Americans or rural Native American children can stimulate academic achievement
33
and cultural competence for their students (Au & Jordon, 1981; Castagno &
Brayboy, 2008; Demmert & Towner, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Specific
evidence related to CRP and student achievement will be examined more critically in
the next section.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy was developed by studying and collaborating
with exemplary teachers of African American students. The theory provides a
framework for adapting educational practices and incorporating a student’s home
and community culture into the classroom and other school settings. The
incorporation of a student’s home culture has led to improved academic outcomes
for African American students in her study (Ladson-Billings, 1995). CRP theory
established a foundation for the research community, who according to Ladson-
Billings (1995) will have to listen to and heed examples provided by teacher
practitioners, who demonstrate that they are able to improve academic achievement
through the utilization of students’ cultural competence as educational assets. The
final tenet of Ladson-Billings’ (1995) research highlights the necessity for teachers
to develop the ability of students to critique social and political inequity.
CRP has been shown to promote success for African American minority
students since the recognition and utilization of a student’s ‘cultural expertise’
enables the student to experience success in ways which promote personal pride,
self-esteem and academic accomplishment (Ladson-Billings, 1995).

34
Culture-Based Models, Studies, Strategies and Interventions
Evidence provided by empirical research and case studies reveal that
culturally responsive teaching, linked to informed instruction and tailored to
individual school settings and populations, can be successful in raising academic
outcome levels, improving attendance rates, and self-efficacy of Indigenous and
other minority school children (Au & Jordon, 1981; Au & Kawakami, 1991; Bell et
al., 2004; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008, p. 958; Demmert & Towner, 2003; Vogt, et
al., 1987; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Tharp & Dalton, 2007). Greater success can be
realized by establishing cultural congruence within educational settings, and by
being responsive to the educational needs of Indigenous students (Pewewardy, 1998;
Schonleber, 2007; Tharp et al., 2007). The following discussion provides evidence
to support these claims.
Studies on cultural congruence and relevance were researched at the
Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) from 1972 to 1995. The KEEP
research and development program was divided into three (3) overlapping stages
spanning some twenty-three years, including: 1) the creation of research knowledge
about Hawaiian children in their natal culture and in school; 2) the creation of an
effective language arts program within a laboratory school setting; and, 3) the export
of the program into public schools which served large numbers of Native Hawaiian
children (Tharp et al., 2007). During the first stage of their work, researchers sought
to create an understanding for cultural practices which could be replicated and
measured within classrooms, and which showed promise for improving student
35
learning. At KEEP, elementary-aged Native Hawaiian school children in grade K
through grade 3 were discovered to be more successful in language arts classrooms
when they were able to employ the Hawaiian cultural practice of ‘talk story’ when
discussing literature (Au & Jordan, 1981). Talk story is the practice of allowing
children to collaborate in producing verbal answers. In talk story conversations, the
teacher refrains from lecturing or dictating who will speak. The teacher’s role
centers on monitoring the flow of ideas and guiding classroom discussion (Au &
Jordan, 1981).
Along the same lines, Vogt, Jordan, and Tharp, (1987) researched compatible
and incompatible Hawaiian cultural practices and pedagogy, and trained KEEP
teachers to employ curriculum and pedagogy which were congruent with Native
Hawaiian (NH) children’s learning styles and home culture. Researchers found that
the reading comprehension focus of NH children improved when teachers were
responsive to children’s ‘talk’, contextualized the story, and involved the children in
story-telling with a more competent role model (p. 279). Attributes of successful and
responsive schooling were linked to classroom communications and students’
cultural assets, originating in the children’s home culture. In addition, researchers
noticed that NH children’s “talk story” discussions generated a spontaneous change
in interaction style and sociolinguistic participation structures. The children’s
standardized test scores also improved to more closely match national norms when
culturally congruent methodologies such as talk-story were employed (Vogt, Jordon,
& Tharp, 1987). Au and Kawakami (1991) have suggested that building a
36
community of learners with an emphasis on cooperation, collaboration and what the
classroom community can accomplish as a whole can do more to support learning
than focusing on individual achievement at the expense of others. Focus on
cooperation and collaborative effort is more in keeping with Hawaiian cultural norms
than individual achievement and scholastic competition (Benham & Heck, 1998).
This was in sharp contrast to results obtained by these same researchers,
(Vogt, Jordon, & Tharp, 1987), years earlier, when a scripted, basal reading program
was first utilized, along with high amounts of verbal praise. It seems that the ability
of teachers to adapt their teaching style to incorporate culturally compatible learning
styles and aspects of the home culture of their students made the difference between
school success and school failure for these NH children. In conclusion, researchers
found that industry and achievement of NH students could be accomplished more
effectively by employing culturally appropriate pedagogy into the curriculum (Vogt,
Jordon, & Tharp, 1987).
Another example of culturally congruent teaching for NH children was the
use of competition versus cooperation in classroom learning. D‘Amato (1987)
described a situation where a teacher in a KEEP classroom employed competition to
encourage student participation. However in using competition, the teacher
unwittingly embarrassed some of the classroom leaders. This action caused the
entire classroom of children to undermine classroom operations (D‘Amato, 1987).
KEEP researchers purport that culturally responsive teachers of NH children should
employ cooperative endeavors in keeping with NH natal culture within the
37
classroom, and liberally praise student academic progress and achievement (Au &
Kawakami, 1991). NH children, according to Au and Kawakami (1991) have a need
to be reminded often about the importance of achievement and learning as important
factors for their future success.
KEEP researchers have called for the creation of a hybrid, student/teacher
created classroom culture, congruent with the students’ home culture, without
seeking to “replicate” it (Au & Kawakami, 1991, p. 282). Vogt, Jordon, and Tharp
(1987) found that importing NH culture-based pedagogy developed by KEEP to a
Native American Navaho school in Red Rock, Arizona did not have the same
positive effect and gains that were noticed in Hawaiian school sites. They concluded
that culturally relevant pedagogy adapted to one cultural setting or school site may
not meet success when transferred to another school or cultural setting (Vogt,
Jordon, and Tharp, 1987).
KEEP researchers advocated for the promotion of students’ pursuit of
educational goals through a day-to-day, moment-to moment process (Au &
Kawakami, 1991). Liberal use of praise, which is focused on academic achievement,
may enable student academic and achievement goals to be actualized (Au &
Kawakami, 1991). Finally, Au and Kawakami (1991) have advocated for students
and teachers to work synergistically to create a hybrid classroom culture to suit the
needs and interests of all stakeholders. This type of mutually adapted hybrid
classroom culture was defined as a community of learners in which the students
work in a cooperative rather than competitive environment (Au & Kawakami, 1991).
38
The KEEP research indicated that NH students achieved greater school
success in culturally relevant school settings where teachers employed Hawaiian
cultural practice and culturally relevant norms (e.g. talk story and student
cooperation versus competitive practices in the classroom). Students achieved
greater academic gains, including improved performance on standardized tests when
they operated in classroom environments, which included culturally relevant
pedagogy versus classrooms that employed basal readers and other more
conventional, mainstream language arts methodologies. Culturally relevant
pedagogy tenets rooted in improving academic achievement and acknowledging
cultural competence of the learners (Ladson-Billings, 1995) seemed to have been
addressed and confirmed through the KEEP research findings. The third tenet of
culturally relevant pedagogy, critic of social inequities was not addressed by KEEP.

Native Language Learning and Culture-Based Education
An important feature of culture-based education is Native language learning,
(Demmert & Towner, 2003) since knowing one’s Native language may prove to be
the most important key to accessing cultural competence (Brayboy & Castagno,
2008; Wilson & Kamana, 2001). The following subsection examines immersion and
bilingual education to provide a foundation for addressing research question 1: What
were the 2009 levels of student affinity with Hawaiian cultural identity as measured
by six (6) Hawaiian identity subscales: Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana
39
(family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural values and attachment; cultural issues
engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices?
Is there a positive correlation between school progress and cultural
competence gained through immersion and bilingual education? Bilingual and
immersion language programs may have the greatest impact on creating cultural
competence and increasing cultural identity, and congruence for indigenous peoples
than any other type of educational program according to Wilson and Kamana,
(2001). These programs may also hold the key toward stemming the demise of
Native American, Alaskan Native and Native Hawaiian languages and cultures
(Castagno & Brayboy, 2008).
McCarty (2003) studied three (3) immersion, indigenous language programs,
Navaho, Pueblo-Keres and Hawaiian. She was able to highlight the importance of
understanding the socio-historical circumstances that have shaped the current status
of each of these indigenous languages, as well as the local dynamics that can
promote indigenous language learning and revitalization. McCarty probed historical
contexts of each of her three (3) subject programs, and then reported on ways in
which these programs acted to promote student success by building self efficacy and
social capital for indigenous students through the local development of curriculum
and inclusion of community language resources. Standardized test data indicate that
students in immersion and bilingual education programs do as well, or better than
their counterparts in monolingual school settings over time (Mcarty, 2003). This
study showed that bi/multilingual models of education can be effective vehicles
40
which enable students to learn their heritage language and promote student academic
success and self-efficacy. McCarty (2003) was able to identify a critical theoretical
framework that she used to describe and transform coercive relationships of power
between dominant and indigenous groups. Her critical theory framework may
provide guidance to schools that may be contemplating the introduction of bilingual
education as was the case with Gimnasio la Colina in Columbia.
De Mejia and Tejada (2003) reported that a bilingual education project
started at the Gimnasio la Colina, in Columbia was developed to form a
collaborative approach to the process of curricular construction. In some educational
settings where curricular change becomes necessary, curriculum is determined at
administrative levels or by research consultants and delivered to faculty to
implement (De Mejia & Tejada, 2003). An alternative framework employed by
Gimnasio la Colina, was to enable school faculty to collaboratively work with
university researchers to develop and introduce a bilingual education curriculum to
Gimnasio la Colina. This framework was developed by Cameron et al. (1992) and
defined as empowerment:
…the process through which the participants in research become conscious of
their capacities, potential, knowledge and experiences in the area so that they
can assume responsibilities in the development of autonomy and full
participation in decision-making, not only during the research process, but
also in the following phases of assessment and modification of proposals in
the light of changes and new advances in national educational policies.

During the initial phases of bilingual program development, De Mejia and
Tejada (2003) conducted parent and teacher surveys to ascertain stakeholder support
41
or concern for the proposed bilingual education program. Surveys and other
collected research data formed the foundation for proposing a bilingual curriculum
that led to the adoption of a 60% Spanish, 40% English model in the primary grades,
with increasing levels of English language usage in the upper elementary grades, to a
high of 80% English and 20% Spanish in grades 4-6, until students reached a 50%
level of equal usage of Spanish and English in the secondary school.
It is interesting to note that in the surveys, teachers expressed fears about
losing their jobs due to being: monolingual; supplanted by native English-speaking
teachers; not able to comply with institutional expectations; and, adopting curriculum
that they felt was inappropriate for the specific sociocultural context of
implementation (De Mejia & Tejada, 2003). Despite these misgivings, De Mejia and
Tejada reported that all participants agreed that there was a high level of inclusive
participation in the curriculum development process, and especially active discussion
which led to the development of structures to support bilingual education being
implemented at Gimnasio la Colina.
The shortcomings of the Gimnasio la Colina study, as opposed to the former
studies by McCarty (2003), seem to indicate that decisions made by the Gimnasio la
Colina administrators did not consider the professional and personal concerns of
their faculty, especially in regard to the appropriateness of the newly proposed
curriculum and socio-cultural context for implementation of the school’s new
bilingual program. The process did not follow the process of empowerment as
defined at the onset by program developers. Though the researchers reported a ‘high
42
level’ of participation, there is a concern that should be raised with regard to cultural
congruence and cultural responsiveness and responsibility to members of the
teaching faculty and community which gave input to the early stages of the process,
and seemed to be ignored during the decision and implementation phases. The fact
that there was dissension among the teacher ranks, especially with regard to the
socio-cultural impact of the program must always be a major cause for concern for
administrators and leaders who rely on faculty and the school’s community’s
expertise and goodwill to implement cultural curriculum and programs (McCarty,
2001).
The socio-cultural impact caused by the introduction of language immersion
programs can have the greatest impact on student learning, cultural transmission, and
organizational change than any other introduced educational medium, curriculum or
pedagogy (McCarty, 2003). Hawaiian language immersion programs started by
University of Hawai‘i academicians and Hawaiian families in 1983 are credited with
rescuing the Hawaiian language from extinction (Wilson, 1998). Hawaiian language
Punana Leo (language nests) preschool immersion programs were modeled after
New Zealand Maori Te Kohanga Reo programs (McCarty, 2003; Smith, 2003;
Wilson, 1998). According to Wilson and Kamana (2001) the ‘Aha Punana Leo pre-
schools were designed to recreate an environment where language and culture could
be conveyed to learners to strengthen the Hawaiian mauli-culture, worldview,
spirituality, morality, social relations, and other central features of a person’s life and
43
the life of a people. The early Hawaiian immersion pre-school program was
eventually expanded to include elementary grades and secondary school programs.
The Hawaiian language program in the State of Hawai‘i Department of
Education (DOE) was named Kula Kaiapuni (Wilson & Kamana, 2001). While the
Kula Kaiapuni did not specifically target academic achievement, students in the
program have been able to achieve academic benefits, including being awarded
scholarships, enrollment in college courses while still in high school, and student
achievement on standardized tests that have equaled or surpassed the performance of
other Hawaiian children in monolingual programs (Wilson & Kamana, 2001). The
program’s success may be due in no small part, to the dedication of Hawaiian
language immersion school teachers, who according to Yamaguchi, Ceppi, and Lau-
Smith (2000) employed a variety of conventional and unconventional educational
approaches, including political, social and academic education to ensure self efficacy
and build social capital for their students. The main goal of the Kula Kaiapuni
(Hawaiian language immersion schools) has been to revitalize the ‘mauli Hawai‘i’
(deep Hawaiian cultural understanding) through Hawaiian language, values and
culture acquisition.
Yamaguchi, Ceppi, and Lau-Smith (2000) conducted a qualitative research
study which employed a socio-cultural framework to study educator perspectives and
methodology employed in Kula Kaiapuni. Teachers in the Kula Kaiapuni reported
using modes of learning that have been originally used in traditional Hawaiian
culture, including hands-on learning, learning through observation, memorization
44
and recitation in their teaching. In addition, teachers emphasized that they felt that
their classes were places where Hawaiian cultural values of aloha and malama ‘āina
(taking care of the land) were commonplace. Also evident was that Kula Kaiapuni
teachers held themselves personally responsible for imparting not only academic
classroom learning, but cultural values and concepts as well. They seemed to be
personally involved in student learning, and often made themselves available to their
students after school, during the evenings and on the weekends (Yamaguchi, Ceppi,
& Lau-Smith, 2000).
The high impact nature of teaching exerted by teachers in NH immersion
programs to promote cultural competence and development is in keeping with
Ladson-Billing’s (1995) culturally relevant pedagogy theory and culturally
responsive schooling ideals. The research cited above met all three tenets of
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Theory in that academic, cultural development and
cultural competence were improved, and students learned to critique social inequity
as a result of their enrollment in NH immersion schools (Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Wilson & Kamana, 2001; Yamaguchi, Ceppi, & Lau-Smith, 2000). These schools
seemed to employ high levels of cultural relevant and responsive curriculum which
enabled students to attain school success and higher than average levels of cultural
competence. Mcarty’s (2003), and Wilson’s and Kamana’s (2001) studies also seem
to suggest that there may be a positive correlation between immersion and bilingual
education programs and standardized assessment scores for students. In these
immersion and bilingual school studies, as in Ladson-Billings (1995) study, teachers
45
were engaged in community, social and political endeavors which seemed to
enhance the educative process for learners. The high impact nature of teacher-
student interaction in studies by Yamaguchi, Ceppi, and Lau-Smith (2000) indicate
that teachers who are engaged in building the cultural competence of their students in
immersion programs hold themselves personally accountable for student success.
Teachers in this study used the medium of language to reach academic success, build
cultural competence and critique social inequity (Yamaguchi, Ceppi, & Lau-Smith,
2000). All three tenets of Ladson-Billings (1995) culturally relevant pedagogy
seemed to be present in these aforementioned immersion and bilingual language
examples.

Standardized Tests and Culturally Responsive Schooling
The relationship between culturally responsive schooling, cultural content
and standardized assessments was analyzed to determine if there exists a correlation
between these variables. A quantitative study conducted by Smith-Maddox (1998)
addressed whether cultural pedagogy and content in school curriculum influenced
academic achievement. Smith-Maddox (1998) analyzed data from the National
Educational Longitudinal Survey of 1988 (NELS: 88), a longitudinal study of 24,599
eighth graders from 1052 schools in the U.S. The NELS: 88 survey examined data
related to various dimensions of culture and correlated these data with a dependent
variable, a composite standardized test score in mathematics. Seven factors
including 1) race and SES, 2) gender, 3) attitudes and aspirations, 4) homework
46
habits, 5) extracurricular activities, 6) “cultural synchronizations” (defined for
example as, “I talk to my teacher about my studies”) and, 7) culturally relevant
content (Smith-Maddox, 1998, pp. 308-309). Culturally relevant content, for the
purpose of this survey was defined as a composite factor, based on information from
students which determined whether or not the group’s history or culture was taught
in the group’s language during the first two (2) years of middle school.
Results of Smith-Maddox (1998) study which was based on a regression
analysis of survey data reported that cultural factors did influence the academic
achievement of study participants. Although cultural factors did seem to influence
academic achievement, the effects of parents’ SES (β =.204), placement in low
ability groups, (β =.169), and parent expectations (β =.157), seemed to exhibit the
highest correlations. The R
2
revealed that this model accounted for 38% of the
variation in students’ academic performance (Smith-Maddox, 1998, p. 310).
Another interesting finding of this study revealed the strongest effect for cultural
content, after controlling for other factors was for Native American eighth graders (β
=.115), while the weakest effect was for African Americans (β = .009). However,
these effects were not deemed to be statistically significant. The study also revealed
that the effect of cultural content had a negative, but significant effect for European
Americans, (β =.019), Asian Americans (β =.079), and Latino Americans (β =.037).
This finding suggests that standardized test scores for White students may be
negatively affected if school CBE was culturally not congruent with Euro-American
culture and language. This is in alignment with research that suggests that
47
involuntary minorities perform at lower levels in schools where only dominant Euro-
American CBE exists.
Another significant finding of this study revealed that teacher-student
relationships enhanced student achievement for some, but not for all ethnic groups.
The effect of teacher-student relationships measured for European Americans was (β
=.997), Asian Americans (β =.791), and African Americans (β =.715). The teacher-
student relationship effect was not deemed significant for Native Americans, and
was negative for Latino Americans (Smith-Maddox, 1998).
Although there seemed to be many intervening factors and variables related
to student achievement that were analyzed, this study indicated that there exists a
negative correlation between standardized test assessments and cultural content for
some ethnic groups. The only positive correlation between cultural content and
standardized tests was for Native Americans and African Americans, but these
correlations were not deemed to be significant. Smith-Maddox (1998) contends that
limitations of her study included “formidable challenges” inherent in attempting to
unpack the curriculum to measure cultural content (p. 312). The limitations inherent
in measuring cultural content may be responsible for the study’s inconsistent
findings. Smith-Maddox (1998) called for additional research which could be more
focused upon cultural pedagogy and content to enable a better understanding of
quantitative relationships between cultural content and standardized assessments.
The Smith-Maddox (1998) study is significant in its attempt to link cultural
pedagogy to standardized assessments. Smith-Maddox’s admitted that her endeavor
48
to measure curricular cultural content presented challenges. Using cultural content
to measure assessment data among various ethnic groups would seem to indicate that
Maddox-Smith viewed cultural content as a generic indicator for all ethnic groups.
Findings included a positive correlation between cultural content and standardized
assessments for Indigenous and African American students. Other ethnic groups
registered negative correlations for cultural content and standardized assessments
(Smith-Maddox, 1998). The present study is different from Smith-Maddox (1998)
research in its focus on one culture/ethnic group, Native Hawaiians. Finally, Vogt,
Jordon, and Tharp’s (1987) study which endeavored to export Native Hawaiian
cultural pedagogy to a Native American school setting failed. These researchers
determined that exporting the cultural norms of one group was not effective or
successful for another group, even when both groups were Indigenous minorities and
had similar socioeconomic characteristics. The Smith-Maddox study may have been
too wide in its scope of trying to measure too many cultural groups using one
instrument, the National Educational Longitudinal Survey of 1988 (NELS: 88). This
study will attempt to measure dependent variables from one ethnic/cultural group of
indigenous Native Hawaiian learners using a survey instrument that was designed to
measure this particular group’s cultural competence and identity.

Conclusion
All of the preceding studies seem to suggest that a positive relationship exists
between CBE, CRP and student learning. Voluntary and Involuntary Minority
49
Theory postulates that culturally connected education may ameliorate the negative
effects of the current hegemonic educational system, and lead to improved student
achievement for involuntary minority student groups (Ogbu & Simons, 1994).
Ladson-Billings’ (1995) CRP theoretical framework suggests that minority students
can improve academic performance when CRP tenets were established and utilized
by teachers who served minority students.
Empirical studies with Native Hawaiian children at the Kamehameha Schools
(Tharp et al., 2007) conducted from 1972 through 1995 indicated that culturally
responsive curriculum was responsible for improved learning and achievement levels
of children in grades Kindergarten through grade 3. Studies of immersion and
bilingual education produced anecdotal evidence of improved standardized test
scores as students became engaged in learning native languages (De Mejia & Tejada,
2003; McCarty, 2003; Wilson & Kamana, 2001). A quantitative study conducted by
Smith-Maddox (1998) provided data which revealed both positive and negative
correlations between student achievement and culture-based education for voluntary
and involuntary minority students. Smith-Maddox (1998) study, though
inconclusive provides a framework and data which can be used as a model for this
research. This study will focus upon one ethnic group, Native Hawaiians, and
factors associated with Native Hawaiian cultural identity to determine the extent to
which CBE and cultural identity are related to student progress.
The literature review provided information which is related to this study’s
three (3) research questions: Research questions are: 1) What were the 2009 levels
50
of student affinity with Hawaiian cultural identity as measured by six (6) Hawaiian
identity subscales: Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to
‘āina (land); cultural values and attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural
knowledge and practices? 2) To what extent do demographic independent variables
(i.e., gender, orphan status, SES, and length of enrollment at Kamehameha) influence
student progress as measured by dependent variables (i.e., grade point averages, a
standardized assessment, school engagement and character development ratings)? 3)
To what extent do Hawaiian cultural identity independent variables (i.e., Hawaiian
language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural
attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices)
influence student progress as determined by dependent variables (i.e., grade point
averages, a standardized assessment, school engagement and character
development)?
Table 2.1 summarizes the significant research findings of culture-based
education and culturally relevant pedagogy theoretical studies examined in Chapter
2. Research findings listed in this chart have been shown to lead to improved
learning for various groups of Indigenous or minority students. Each of the research
studies is identified in the far left column, and significant findings are presented in
subsequent columns to the right. When studies contained less than six (6) major
research findings, then columns to the right of significant findings were left blank.
Since separate study findings were not always related, the labeling of vertical
columns did not seem to be necessary.
51

Table 2.1: Significant Research Findings of CBE and CRP

Ogbu and
Simons
(1995)
Building Trust
Role modeling
Employing culturally
responsive
curriculum
Dealing with student
opposition and
ambivalence
Involving
parents/
Community
Developing
high
educational
standards
Demmert
and Towner
(2003)
Using Native
American
(American Indian,
Alaska Native,
Native Hawaiian)
languages)
Employing pedagogy
that stresses
traditional cultural
characteristics and
adult-child
interactions as the
starting place for
one’s education
(mores that are
currently practiced in
the
community, and
which may differ
from community to
community).
Incorporating pedagogy
in which teaching
strategies are congruent
with the traditional
culture as well as
contemporary ways of
knowing and learning
(opportunities to
observe, opportunities
to practice, and
opportunities to
demonstrate skills).
Infusing
curricula that
is based on
traditional
culture
Invite strong
Native
community
participation
Utilizing
knowledge,
social and
political
mores of the
community
Ladson-
Billings
(1995)
Developing high
academic standards
Developing cultural
competence
Developing social
consciousness and the
ability to critique social
inequity

Cummins
(1986)
Incorporating
cultural and
linguistic
opportunities for
learning
Developing
advocate-based
assessments
Employing pedagogy
and use of language to
promote active learning
Inviting
minority
community
participation

Yamaguchi
et al.,
(2000)
Taking personal
responsibility for
imparting cultural
values
Employing cultural
values eg., aloha and
malama ‘āina (taking
care of the land) until
values become
commonplace
Utilizing hands-on
learning, learning
through observation,
memorization and
recitation

Vogt et al.,
(1987)
Contextualizing
reading focus, since
comprehension
improved when
teachers were
responsive to
children’s ‘talk
story’
Employing culturally
responsive
curriculum since it
was shown to be
responsible for
raising academic
achievement levels

52
Table 2.1, Continued

Au &
Jordon
(1981)
Utilizing NH
children’s “talk story”
discussions to
generate a
spontaneous change
in interaction style
and sociolinguistic
participation
structures

Au and
Kawakami,
(1991)
Employing and
supporting
cooperative endeavors
in keeping with NH
natal culture
Liberally praising
student academic
progress and
achievement
Working synergistically
to create a hybrid
classroom culture made
up of some aspects of
the home culture

Recurring themes from these research studies included employing high
academic standards, infusing Indigenous or minority culture-based and culturally
relevant pedagogy into the school’s curricula, role modeling, using natal or home
community culture to build cultural competence, social capital and self-efficacy, and
promoting community involvement in schools. All of these research findings seem to
support learning outcomes for students. Some of the findings, (e.g., using natal
culture and building cultural competence) have implications for the increased
incorporation of Indigenous language and culture in school curricula. Implications
for increased use of culture-based and culturally relevant pedagogy will be discussed
in the next chapter.
In Chapter 3, methodologies which will be utilized to measure quantitative
relationships, which may exist between cultural identity, demographic data and
student progress will be discussed. In Chapter 4, the analysis and results of the study
53
will be discussed. In Chapter 5, implications for practice and future research will be
explored.
54
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides an overview of the methodology used in this study.
The chapter presents the purpose, research questions and rationale for the study. A
description of study participants, school setting, survey and data instruments are also
provided. A description of the study’s independent and dependent variables are
presented. Data collection and data analysis procedures will also be described. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of ethical considerations, study limitations and
delimitations.

Review of the Purpose
The purpose of this study is to gain an understanding of relationships which
may exist between CBE, CRP and student progress at Kamehameha Elementary
School (KES). Student learning outcomes were measured by employing the
following data instruments: The Comprehensive Testing Program, 4
th
edition, (CTP
IV) a standardized assessment; and Nā ‘Ōpio Youth Development and Assets
Survey, a culture-based survey which assesses student connectedness to Native
Hawaiian language and culture.
This study was designed to analyze quantitative data gleaned from the
aforementioned data instruments to determine whether or not increased levels of
Hawaiian cultural identity were associated with improved levels of student progress
at KES. In particular, this study was structured to identify the extent to which
55
demographic and cultural independent variables including gender, orphan status,
SES, length of enrollment at KES, and Hawaiian cultural identity were or were not
related to school progress as measured by student grade point averages, a
standardized test score, and school engagement and character development
information.
Chapter 2 examined research and teaching models which described the
efficacy and value of CBE and CRP for Indigenous, and other involuntary minority
students in the U.S. Research studies provide support for the proposition that CBE
and CRP are associated with improved student progress, especially for low SES and
involuntary minority learners. This study will use research in the literature review to
provide a foundation for comparing independent variables, (student demographic
data and cultural identity information) to dependent variables, (academic and elective
grade point averages, performance on the CTP IV standardized assessment, school
engagement and character development ratings) to determine the extent to which
independent variables impact dependent variables.
This study is distinctive because it is one of the few quantitative studies
aimed at discovering whether or not relationships exist between CBE, CRP and
student progress. The study focuses on providing quantitative data on cultural
identity and its impact on the educational performance of Native Hawaiian children
in one educational setting. Information provided by this study may be used by
educators to improve school curricula and pedagogy for learners in this school
56
setting. Information and methodology provided by this study may also serve as a
template for other similar studies in other educational arenas.

Review of the Research Questions
The following three (3) research questions were addressed by this study: The
research questions are: 1) What were the 2009 levels of student affinity with
Hawaiian cultural identity as measured by six (6) Hawaiian cultural identity
subscales: Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina
(land); cultural values and attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural
knowledge and practices? 2) To what extent do demographic independent variables
(i.e., gender, orphan status, SES, and length of enrollment at KES) influence student
progress as measured by dependent variables (i.e., grade point averages, a
standardized assessment, school engagement and character development ratings)? 3)
To what extent do Hawaiian cultural identity independent variables (i.e., Hawaiian
language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural
attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices)
influence student progress as determined by dependent variables (i.e., grade point
averages, a standardized assessment, school engagement and character
development)?

57
Rationale
Emphasis on standardized testing in the State of Hawai‘i’s public school
system has caused innovative Hawaiian culture-based programs to be curtailed or
withdrawn from public school curricula (Kana‘iaupuni et al., 2005). Many of these
Hawaiian-focused CBE programs served disadvantaged Native Hawaiian children
throughout the state. Hawaiian language immersion schools and Native Hawaiian-
focused charter schools have emerged in the past two decades using innovative
programs which are focused on incorporating Hawaiian CBE and CRP. Quantitative
data provided by this study could lend support to efforts to incorporate more, not less
CBE and CRP rooted in Native Hawaiian culture for students in private, charter
schools, as well as public school systems in Hawai‘i.
While there are numerous qualitative studies related to CBE and CRP, only 4
quantitative studies of CBE and CRP have been conducted in the past 30 years
(Demmert & Towner, 2003). As mentioned in Chapter 2, researchers have described
the need for new quantitative research studies related to CBE and CRP due to the
paucity of quantitative empirical studies now in existence (Brayboy & Castagno,
2008; Demmert & Towner, 2003). The scarcity of quantitative research linked to
CBE indicates that there is a critical need for more empirical quantitative research of
CBE and its relationship to student progress. This study will examine demographic
and cultural identity data to determine whether or not CBE and CRP are related to
improved school progress for Indigenous Native Hawaiian learners at KES.
58
School Setting and Study Participants
This study was conducted at Kamehameha Elementary School (KES) located
at Kapālama Heights, on the island of O‘ahu. KES is a private elementary school
serving 752 Native Hawaiian students, kindergarten through sixth grade. KES has
two admission entry points at kindergarten and at grade 4. Enrollment at KES is
selective. Only 80 students are admitted at kindergarten, out of approximately 1,100
who apply for admission. Enrollment at primary grades, kindergarten through grade
3 is 80 students per grade level. Classroom size at primary grades is 20. There are 10
boys and 10 girls in each primary classroom and the gender ratio at the school is
equal divided between males and females.
Another 64 students are admitted at grade 4, out of an applicant field of
approximately 1,100. New fourth graders join the 80 students who were originally
admitted at kindergarten to form an expanded grade level cohort of 144.
Approximately 25% of the available enrollment spaces at kindergarten and grade 4
are reserved for indigent or low SES students (defined as students whose family
income is less than 185% of the U.S. poverty level). In addition to indigent students,
all orphans, (defined as students whose parent(s) is/are deceased) who meet
minimum academic thresholds are admitted. Low SES and orphaned children
currently enrolled at KES account for approximately 35% of the total enrollment of
the school (KS Admissions Dept., 2009). In addition, approximately 54% of KES
students qualified for school financial aid (KS Financial Aid Dept., 2009).
59
The admissions process at KS is highly competitive and selection is based
upon student performance on standardized assessments and former teacher
references. Approximately one student is selected for every fourteen who apply for
kindergarten. The number is one in seventeen admitted in grade 4. Another
selection criterion for kindergarten is a classroom observation and student interview.
Classroom observations and interviews are not used as selection criteria for grade 4,
therefore standardized test scores receive greater weight at the 4
th
grade admissions
window. Elementary school report card grades are used as another selection
criterion for 4
th
grade applicants, but not for kindergarten applicants.
Standardized assessments are used to evaluate admissions candidates for
kindergarten and 4
th
grade. The standardized assessment used at kindergarten is the
Developing Skills Checklist (DSC), a pre-reading skills checklist which predicts
reading readiness for pre-kindergarten students. At grade 4, the Comprehensive
Testing Program, 4
th
edition (CTP IV), an assessment of student achievement in
reading comprehension and mathematics is administered. These assessments are
appraised, along with the other aforementioned admission’s criteria by a selection
committee of four (4) Kamehameha School’s faculty, which makes the final
selection of students for admissions.
The original sample of study participants included 288 students from grades 5
and 6. Within each of these grade level cohorts, there were 80 students per grade
level who have been at KES since kindergarten and 64 students who entered KES at
grade 4. The sample is divided into two separate groups to assess dependent
60
variables associated with the length of enrollment at KES. Those individuals who
were enrolled since kindergarten, N = 160 and those enrolled after 4
th
grade, N = 128
formed two separate groups.

Independent Variables
This study will comprise a secondary analysis of data collected by the
Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation Department (KS-R&E, 2008). The
survey instrument will be the Nā ‘Ōpio Youth Development and Assets Survey.
This survey was created by the Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation (KS-
R&E) department (KS-R&E, 2008). The survey includes a slightly adapted version
of the original Search Institute standard assets scales, a modified Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 2007), and the Hawaiian Cultural Connectedness (HCC)
scale developed by Kamehameha School researchers (KS-R&E, 2008). The original
Search Institute survey (Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors) was
designed by the Search Institute to measure 40 assets identified as having a positive
influence on youth development. The survey was refined by KS-R&E to include
references to Hawaiian cultural identity and cultural education. Only the Hawaiian
cultural scales, school engagement and character development sections of the survey
will be utilized for this study.
The Nā ‘Ōpio Survey examines relationships between the broader constructs
of youth developmental assets, self-esteem and Hawaiian cultural connectedness.
The survey also incorporated attributes of CBE which reflect traditional Native
61
Hawaiian language, culture, values, issues and practices (KS-R&E, 2008). The Nā
‘Ōpio Survey appraises student “connectedness” to Hawaiian language and culture
(KS-R&E, 2008). Higher levels of association with the student’s home and
community culture is seen as an asset which leads to better school performance
(Ladson-Billings, 1995; Castagno & Brayboy, 2008; Luke, 2009; Bennett, 2001;
Demmert & Towner, 2003).
While the Search Institute assets and Rosenberg self-esteem scales have been
important to understanding Native Hawaiian youth development in the context of the
public school system, and especially in Native Hawaiian culture-based charter
schools, this study will focus upon Native Hawaiian students at Kamehameha using
the six (6) subscales of Hawaiian cultural-connectedness (HCC) developed by the
KS-Research and Evaluation department.
The six (6) Nā ‘Ōpio survey subscales of Hawaiian cultural identity are: 1)
Hawaiian language 2) connection to ‘ohana (family) and community, 3) connection
to ‘āina (land) 4) cultural values and attachment; 5) cultural issues engagement, and
6) cultural knowledge and practice (KS-R&E, 2008). The Hawaiian Cultural
Identity (HCI) sum score (the sum of all subscale scores) and the six (6) individual
subscale scores will serve as independent variables for the purposes of this study.
The Hawaiian cultural connectedness scale is comprised of six (6) subscales
which contains 43 individual survey items. Another 86 items not associated with
Hawaiian culture and language were included in the survey for a total of 129 survey
62
items. The following Table 3.1 describes the six (6) subscales, corresponding
number of items per subscale, along with scoring descriptions.

Table 3.1: HCI Subscales, No. of Items and Scoring

Subscale No. Scoring
1) Hawaiian Language 3 items 4 pt. Not at all-Very well
2) Connection to ‘Ohana
(family) and Communities
9 items 7 pt. SA-SD
3) Connection to ‘Āina (land) 3 items 7 pt. SA-SD
4) Cultural Values and
Attachment
9 items 7 pt. SA-SD
5) Cultural Issues
Engagement
4 items 4 pt. I don’t know what this is-I do
something about this regularly
6) Cultural Knowledge and
Practices
13 items 4 pt. I don’t know what this is-I
practice this often

Appendix A charts the relationships between each of the six (6) survey
subscales, and research studies cited in Chapter 2.
The first subscale contains three (3) questions which surveys the student’s
knowledge and use of Hawaiian language and protocol. Native language use and its
relationship to academic achievement are supported by research studies conducted
by Demmert and Towner (2003), Cummins (1986), Mcarty (2003), and Wilson and
Kamana (2001). Demmert and Towner (2003) have postulated that strong language
and cultural components are necessary for the attainment of meaningful educational
experiences. Mcarty’s (2003) and Wilson’s and Kamana’s (2001) studies suggest
63
that there may exist a positive correlation between student involvement in immersion
and bilingual education programs and their performance on standardized
assessments.
The second subscale in the Nā ‘Ōpio survey described student connections to
‘ohana (family) and their communities. This subscale contained eight (8) items
describing family-student and student-community relationships and support. Studies
conducted by Ladson-Billings (1995), Ogbu and Simon (1994), Demmert and
Towner (2003), and Cummins (1986) impart that students with strong family and
community connections perform at higher levels than those who lack home and
community support. Ladson-Billings (1995) determined that the incorporation of a
student’s home culture in school may lead to improved academic outcomes for
African American students.
The third subscale, connection to ‘āina (land) contained three (3) questions.
This subscale surveyed the student’s connection to the ‘āina, their sense of
connectedness to Hawai‘i as their homeland, and the conservation and protection of
land. It is tangentially related to Ladson-Billings’ (1995) second tenet which infuses
social consciousness with critical thinking and higher levels of learner outcomes.
Yamaguchi et al., (2000) purport that employing social consciousness through caring
for the ‘āina is an integral part of Hawaiian CBE. The Alaska Native Knowledge
Network (1998) suggested that culturally-knowledgeable students demonstrate an
awareness and understanding of the world around them including the relationships
between the elements of land and nature. Cultural knowledge is akin to cultural
64
competence, a tenet recognized by Ladson-Billings (1995) as important for
improving student learner outcomes in school.
The fourth subscale incorporated nine (9) items which describe variables
associated with cultural values and attachment. This subscale surveyed the student’s
connectedness to historical events and traditional Hawaiian culture. In addition, it
surveyed cultural values, e.g., aloha, pono (righteousness), ha‘aha‘a (humility),
mālama (caring for others) and kū i ka pono (justice). Demmert and Towner (2003)
assert that it is essential to incorporate teaching strategies which are congruent with
traditional as well as contemporary culture (i.e., opportunities to observe, practice,
and demonstrate skills). Wilson and Kamana (2001) described an educational
environment where language and culture is conveyed to learners to strengthen
Hawaiian mauli-culture, worldview, spirituality, morality, social relations, and other
central features of a student’s life. Researchers attest that students educated in these
types of CBE settings have been able to achieve social and academic benefits,
including enrollment in college courses while still in high school and improved
achievement on standardized tests (Wilson & Kamana, 2001). Students from
bilingual programs which have incorporated high levels of CBE have equaled or
surpassed the performance of other Hawaiian children in programs which did not
offer Hawaiian immersion, bilingual education and CBE (Wilson & Kamana, 2001).
The fifth subscale, engagement with cultural issues contained four (4) items
which surveyed the student’s understanding of cultural and political issues. Hawaiian
sovereignty, governance issues, conservation of cultural sites and keeping Native
65
language strong are among the issues addressed in this subscale. The cultural issues
subscale is supported by studies conducted by Ladson-Billings (1995), Demmert and
Towner, (2003) and Yamaguchi et al. (2000). Ladson-Billings’ (1995) asserts the
student’s ability to identify societal inequities and become involved in promoting
improved social conditions for themselves and others creates stimulating educational
environments. This tenet in conjunction with the teacher’s promotion of high
academic standards and cultural competence can lead to improved academic
outcomes for students according to Ladson-Billings (1995).
The sixth subscale contained thirteen (13) items which correspond to cultural
knowledge and practice. Items included in this subscale ranged from knowledge of
protocol, natural resource conservation, hands-on learning, spiritual practices, as well
as participation in cultural activities, including feast preparation, hula, chanting and
singing traditional songs.
Knowledge of one’s own culture and cultural practices is an important asset
leading to self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural competence. Research which
support these findings were reported in literature reviews conducted by Demmert and
Towner (2003) and Castagno and Brayboy (2008). Castagno and Brayboy (2008)
suggested incorporating spirituality, service, diversity, culture, tradition, history,
respect and other values as a means to make learning authentic for Indigenous
students. CBE tailored to minorities can aid in developing a student’s identity, social
capital and self-esteem which can lead to improved learner outcomes (Bennett,
2001).
66
This study provides an assessment of the cultural identity and cultural
connectedness of Native Hawaiian students at Kamehameha Elementary School. The
study will evaluate relationships between Hawaiian cultural identity and school
progress. The study will provide quantitative data which may lend support or
possibly refute the premise that cultural education promotes positive self-identity and
is associated with improved student progress in school.

Survey Reliability
A reliability study of the Nā ‘Ōpio Youth and Development Assets Survey
was conducted by Peter Scales of the Search Institute in August, 2008. Scales
(2008) reported survey results from 411 participants in grades 5
th
through 12
th,
who
took the survey in May, 2008. According to Scales’ (2008) study, 88% of the
participants were Native Hawaiian and 70% were 6
th
, 7
th
or 8
th
graders. Scales
reported that the great majority of the survey items (85%) had acceptable to excellent
internal consistency reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. Scales (2008)
concluded that the HCC subscales have acceptable internal consistency to be used
for research studies. A test-retest study will be conducted in 2009, with the final
form of the Nā ‘Ōpio Youth and Development Assets Survey in order to determine
whether the stability and reliability of these measures also is sufficient to allow the
instrument to be used in longitudinal research. Measures were reported in August,
2009 and are included in Chapter 4, Table 4.6.
67
Dependent Variables
CTP IV Standardized Assessment
The Comprehensive Testing Program, 4
th
edition (CTP IV, Level 5), an
assessment of student achievement in reading comprehension and mathematics was
the standardized assessment selected for use in this study. It is the same assessment
that is used by KS admissions. According to the Educational Records Bureau (ERB):
achievement tests, such as vocabulary, reading comprehension, and
mathematics, measure mastery of skills and knowledge acquired directly
from instruction in the classroom. Taken together, these scores help
determine if a student is working up to potential or falling behind (ERB,
2001).

Three (3) subsections of the CTP IV, level 5 were administered to KES 6
th

grade students (cohort of 2015) during the fall of 2008. The cohort of 2016 took the
CTP IV during their 6
th
grade year in the fall of 2009.

Table 3.2: Grade 6, CTP IV and Number of Items

Subsection No. of Items
Reading Comprehension 37
Mathematics 1 42
Mathematics 2 42

The entire CTP IV, Level 5 has seven (7) subsections which include: 1)
verbal reasoning, 45 items; 2) vocabulary, 35 items; 3) reading comprehension, 37
items; 4) writing mechanics, 45 items; 5) writing concepts and skills, 50 items; 6)
68
quantitative reasoning, 50 items; and, 7) mathematics, subsections part 1 and part 2
(ERB, 2001). Only three (3) subsections, reading and mathematics parts 1 and 2
were administered to grade 6 students. These subsections are reported as Reading
Comprehension and Mathematics 1 and Mathematics 2 in table 3.3 above.
All of the standardized assessment items contain multiple choice problems
with four (4) possible answers. There is only one (1) correct answer, labeled from A
through D. Standardized tests which measure non-minority cultural contexts and
content are important in that they may provide a mainstream comparison of student
achievement for KES’ Native Hawaiian students. This study will provide
quantitative data to determine whether or not cultural-connectedness is related to
achievement as measured by the CTP IV standardized assessment in each of the
subsections previously described.

Grade Point Averages (GPA)
Two (2) student GPAs were calculated and used as dependent variables for
this study. One (1) GPA each was used for academic grades and elective grades,
respectively. Academic GPA included the following five subjects: reading, writing,
mathematics, social studies and science. Elective GPA included the following five
subjects: band, Hawaiian language, choral music, art and physical education. GPA
was based on a 4.0 grading scale and calculated from elementary school
achievement ratings as follows: excellent = 4, good = 3, satisfactory = 2, minimal =
1, unsatisfactory = 0.
69
School Engagement
The dependent variable for school engagement was calculated by averaging
ratings from ten (10) survey items. School engagement items were separated into
two (2) categories, active learning, (items 37 thru 40) and positive orientation to
school work, (items 41 thru 46). School engagement items were rated according to a
seven (7) point Likert scale from strongly agree, agree, somewhat disagree, neutral,
somewhat disagree, disagree to strongly disagree. Actual survey items separated into
their respective categories, active learning and positive orientation to school work
are listed below.

Table 3.3: School Engagement Categories

Active Learning
37. At school I try as hard as I can to do my best work.
38. I almost always come to class with my homework finished.
39. I almost always work as hard as I can.
40. I almost always come to class with the books and supplies I need.
Positive Orientation to Schoolwork
41. When I don’t succeed at something, I try harder or ask for help.
42. I feel disappointed when I hand in schoolwork I know isn’t very good.
43. I feel school is a waste of time.
44. I hate to miss school because I enjoy it so much.
45. I do my homework before going out with friends, watching TV, etc.
46. I enjoy learning new things in school.
70
Character Development Proxy Score
Character, defined as engaging in morally relevant conduct or words, (Wynne
& Walberg, 1984) and service to others, is an important facet of modern education
(Huitt, 2004). Kamehameha School’s founder, Bernice Pauahi Bishop stated in her
will that she desired an education for beneficiaries which would produce “good and
industrious” young men and women (Kanahele, 1986).
Character and moral development promote appropriate values for the 21
st

century: truthfulness, integrity, individual responsibility, humility, wisdom, justice,
steadfastness and dependability (Huitt, 2004). All of these values mirror KS
Hawaiian values: pono, ‘oia ‘i‘o, kuleana, ha‘aha‘a, ‘imi na‘auao, kū i ka pono,
‘onipa‘a, hilina‘i, and the new Student Working Exit Outcomes (WEO developed by
KS faculty, 2009). According to Huitt, (2004) caregivers and educators should focus
on two aspects of character education, values education and service to others.
Huitt (2004) purports that character education should lead to overt behaviors
related to the aforementioned features of character development, which he also
defined as personal virtues, (i.e., courage and self-discipline) and social virtues, (i.e.,
being compassionate, courteous and trustworthy). Accordingly, character education
is made up of two components: one is the teaching of values, and the second is acting
upon these values in real life situations. Campbell and Bond (1982) proposed that
the following are major factors in the moral development and behavior of youth in
America: heredity, early childhood experiences, modeling by important adults, peer
influence, general physical and social environment, communications media, what is
71
taught in school and other institutions, specific situations and roles that elicit
corresponding moral behavior.
This study has developed a character and service score (as a dependent
variable) based on student reported behaviors related to the previously mentioned
values of the 21
st
century, (Wynne & Walberg, 1984; Huitt, 2004) which also mirror
educational and organizational values of the Kamehameha schools (KS Strategic
Plan, 2000). A calculated mean of the following six (6) items from the Nā ‘Ōpio
survey will serve as a proxy score for a student character development score.

Table 3.4: Character Development Proxy Score

Item
No.
Survey item descriptor Corresponding values
34 I want to do well in school so that I can help others. Responsibility, dependability,
wisdom, humility/kuleana,
hilina‘i, ‘imi na‘auao, ha‘aha‘a
41 When I don’t succeed at something, I try harder. Self-discipline,
steadfastness/‘onipa‘a
82 I strive to be pono and do the right thing in all parts of
my life.
Justice, truthfulness/pono, ‘oia
‘i‘o
87 I am not afraid to take a stand (kū i ka pono) when
something is wrong.
Justice/kū i ka pono
90 I feel a deep sense of responsibility for reducing pain and
suffering in the world.
Justice, responsibility/kū i ka
pono, kuleana
97 I spend time doing things to make my school,
neighborhood, or community a better place (for example,
writing letters or circulating petitions about issues that
affect my community, volunteering to serve others,
raising money to support community improvement
activities or to benefit others.
Integrity, justice,
responsibility/‘oia ‘i‘o, pono,
kuleana
72
Data Collection
CTP IV assessments were administered to 6
th
grade students, (graduating
cohort of 2015) during the fall of 2008. Assessment data for the cohort of 2015 was
returned to KES during the summer of 2009. The final CTP IV assessment was
administered to the cohort of 2016 during the fall semester of 2009, when student
participants were 6
th
graders. Scored CTP IV assessments for the cohort of 2016
were received in December, 2009. Final data analyses were conducted after CTP IV
scores were received.
The Nā ‘Ōpio Survey was administered to grade 5 and grade 6 student
participants (N = 288) in April, 2009. Survey data were collected and analyzed by
KS-R&E. Individual study participant survey scores were returned to KES during
the fall of 2009.

Data Analysis
During stage 1 of data analysis, independent and dependent variables were
analyzed individually to determine frequencies associated with simple statistics, (i.e.,
mean, standard deviation (SD) and minimum and maximum scores were gathered for
each variable). Data were recorded and analyzed for each of the independent and
dependent variables to establish baseline data for each participant, and then for each
of the sample cohorts, N = 137 for the 2015 cohort, and N = 130 for the 2016 cohort.
Data were analyzed separately at first, and then data were merged for the entire
sample N = 267. During this initial analysis, correlations and Pearson correlation
73
coefficients (R²) were assessed for each of the independent variables (IV) paired to
each of the dependent variables (DV). In addition, correlations and R² were assessed
for each of the IVs paired with each of the other IVs, and DVs paired to each of the
other DVs to determine the correlations strengths between pairs of IVs and DVs,
respectively. Statistically significant correlations were analyzed and reported to
highlight significant relationships between variables.
Stage 2 of the analysis addressed the study’s three (3) research questions.
The first research question assessed study participants’ affinity for Hawaiian
language and culture. Frequency distributions which illustrated mean scores for the
HCI sum and six (6) subscale scores were utilized to depict affinity levels for
Hawaiian language and culture. Figure 4.5 was included in this subsection to depict
student levels of affinity with Hawaiian language, since knowledge and use of the
heritage language has been identified with a stronger connection to the heritage
culture (Demmert & Towner, 2003). Levels of affinity as determined by the HCI
sum score and subscale scores were then used as a proxy to discuss Hawaiian
cultural identity of the study participants. The HCI sum score and subscale scores
were then used as independent variables, and compared in questions 2 and 3 to
demographic independent variables and the study’s four (4) dependent variables,
(GPAs, CTP IV standardized assessment, school engagement and character
development) respectively.
The second research question assessed the extent to which demographic
independent variables (i.e., gender, orphan status, SES, and length of enrollment at
74
KES) influenced student progress as measured by dependent variables. Research
questions 2 and 3 utilized linear multiple regression analyses to determine whether or
not relationships exist between IVs and DVs. Statistically significant relationships
between IVs and DVs were reported.
The third research question assessed the extent to which Hawaiian cultural
identity independent variables (i.e., Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana
(family); connection to ‘āina (land); cultural values and attachment; cultural issues
engagement; and cultural knowledge and practices) influenced student progress as
determined by the dependent variables. Research question 3 was addressed by
comparing relationships between beta scores for the HCI sum score, and each of the
six (6) HCI subscales with beta scores of each of the dependent variables.
Statistically significant relationships between the HCI scores and the dependent
variables were reported.

Ethical Considerations
The Nā ‘Ōpio survey scores and CTP IV assessments were collected and
analyzed anonymously. Individual study participant identifications, demographic
information, survey results and dependent variable scores will not be shared. Results
of the quantitative analyses may be shared with faculty to provide information about
school curriculum and the effects of the independent variables upon the dependent
variables. Data were analyzed to provide understandings about the relationships
between Hawaiian cultural identity and the dependent variables, standardized
75
assessment scores, GPAs, school engagement and character development. Data may
be utilized as a foundation for future action research.

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
A limitation of this study was the relatively short time period of a few months
for data collection, analysis and reporting (via this dissertation) of the study’s
findings. Another limitation was the possibility that study findings would indicate
negative or no direct correlations between Hawaiian cultural identity and student
progress. Negative correlations between CBE and student progress would make it
difficult to justify the increase of Hawaiian CBE and CRP at Kamehameha. Finding
negative correlations and relationships between the independent and dependent
variables would provide data to negate the incorporation of Indigenous CBE and
CRP into the school’s curricula. Another possible finding might indicate that
students are more comfortable operating in school settings with high levels of
dominant culture-oriented CBE.
Negative correlations may signal a need to reevaluate CBE and CRP in the
school curricular programs. Negative correlations between CBE and standardized
assessments may also cause some to postulate that by raising levels of dominant
culture CBE, student progress, including standardized assessment scores could be
improved. Following this logic, by raising Euro-American CBE levels in school,
students would achieve better test scores, and offered better chances of advancing to
more prestigious universities and colleges after high school. Of course, this would be
76
detrimental to improving students’ cultural competence as advocated the both the
school’s strategic plan and by research findings provided in the literature review. It
is hoped that longitudinal data will continue to be collected and analyzed in future
years to strengthen or refine the hypothesis that CBE and CRP are related to
improved student progress in school.
Another limitation of this study will be the extent to which one can measure
cultural identity using a student survey with a limited number of 43 items.
Quantitative analysis of this study required assessments based on Nā ‘Ōpio Survey.
It is the best Hawaiian cultural survey instrument available at the present time. The
study’s findings may provide information which may help to revise and improve Nā
‘Ōpio Survey. It is recommended that a few more questions be added to some of the
HCI subscales (i.e., language and cultural issues engagement) in the future.
Finally, the KES principal is the researcher most closely associated with this
study. Ramifications associated with this fact may generate complications for data
collection and perceptions about study results. The researcher will do all within his
power to ameliorate the effects of this limitation by being transparent about all
aspects of data collection, analyses and reporting.
77
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
This chapter is divided into four (4) main sections. Section 1 is comprised of
a chapter introduction. Section 2 provides descriptions of the sample participants,
subgroups, and data collection methods. Section 3 presents quantitative findings in
response to the study’s three (3) research questions. Section 4 is comprised of a
conclusion and summary of results.
This study endeavored to describe the background and educational
characteristics of Native Hawaiian 5
th
and 6
th
grade students at Kamehameha
Elementary School at Kapālama, O‘ahu between November, 2008 and November,
2009. An evaluation of the study participants’ affinity for Hawaiian language and
cultural identity was conducted. The study also investigated student demographic
information in conjunction with Hawaiian cultural identity affinity levels to
determine which demographic or cultural identity factors, alone or in tandem with
other factors, might be associated with improved or diminished student progress as
measured by grade point averages, (GPA) standardized assessments, school
engagement and character development ratings. Simple statistics associated with
independent demographic variables, gender, orphan status, financial aid status and
length of enrollment of the sample participants were described. Data were analyzed
using frequency distribution charts, correlations and multiple regression analyses of
independent and dependent variables. Survey and demographic data were reported
78
when analyses indicated that data were statistically significant. Descriptive and
inferential statistics were used to report the findings.

Description of the Sample and Data Collection Methods
The participants of this study were 267 Native Hawaiian 5
th
and 6
th
grade
students between the ages of 10 and 12 years old. After data were collected, twenty-
one individuals were removed from the original sample of 288 participants because
data sets for these individuals were incomplete. The final sample (N= 267) came
from two student cohort populations. The cohort of 2015 comprised 137 students
who were 6
th
graders, and the cohort of 2016 comprised 130 students who were 5
th

graders during the first year of the study. Members of the cohort of 2016 were sixth
graders when they took their standardized assessment in the fall of 2009. Table 4.1
describes the number of respondents and percentages for each of the cohorts.

Table 4.1: Respondents by Cohort

Cohort Total Percentages
2015 137 51%
2016 130 49%
Total 267 100%
79
Independent Demographic Variables
Gender
The sample consisted of 136 males and 131 females. The gender ratio of the
study sample was somewhat equally divided between males (51%) and females
(49%). The actual gender ratio at KES is 50% male and 50% female, a ratio
determined by the KS admissions department. The gender ratio of the original
sample was 50% male and 50% female prior to the removal of individuals who had
incomplete data sets. Table 4.2 compares the gender distribution of both cohorts and
the total percentages of males and females in the sample.

Table 4.2: Sample Comparison of Gender

Gender 2015 Cohort 2016 Cohort Percentages
Male 71 65 51%
Female 66 65 49%
Total N=137 N=130 100%

Orphans
Within each of the cohorts 2015 and 2016, there were eight (8) and six (6)
orphans respectively for a total of 14 orphans. The total number of orphans at KES
was 26 in 2009. Orphans accounted for 3.4% of the total student enrollment of 752
in 2009. Table 4.3 depicts the number and percentages of orphans present in each of
the sample cohorts and the percentages of orphans present in the study sample (N =
80
267) as well as the number and percentages of orphans at KES as a whole (N = 752)
in 2009.

Table 4.3: SY 2008-09 Comparison of Orphans by Sample Cohort and Total
Enrollment of Orphans at KES

Orphans
Group N Percentage
2015 Cohort (N=137) 8 6%
2016 Cohort (N=130) 6 5%
Sample Total (N=267) 14 5%
KES Total Enrollment (N=752) 26 3.4%

This study had a higher percentage of orphans than are found in the total KES
student population. Percentages of orphaned students increase at higher grade levels,
including 5
th
and 6
th
grades, because more orphans are admitted during admission
windows at grades 4, 7 and 9. In addition, should parents die while students are
attending Kamehameha, students then become counted as a part of Kamehameha’s
orphan population. Therefore, higher grade levels more often have higher
percentages of orphans than lower grade levels.

Financial Aid
A total of 51% of the sample participants in this study were recipients of
financial aid. There were 80 study participants who received full financial aid, 55
who received partial aid and 132 participants who received no financial aid. Slightly
81
more than half of the study participants (51%) received financial aid. Table 4.4
depicts the number and percentages of full and partial financial aid students, as well
as participants who received no financial aid.

Table 4.4: Comparison of Recipients of Full, Partial or No Financial Aid

Status N Percentage
Full Financial Aid 80 30%
Partial Financial Aid 55 21%
No Financial Aid 132 49%
Sample Total 267 100%

Length of Enrollment at KES
The sample contained a total of 149 participants (56%) who entered KES
prior to grade 4, and 118 (44%) who entered at grade 4 or thereafter. The original
sample contained approximately 160 students (56%) who entered KES prior to grade
4, and 128 students (44%) who entered at grade 4 or thereafter. Length of
enrollment is used as an independent variable to determine whether or not increased
length of enrollment at KES is related to increased or diminished levels of student
progress and/or cultural identity.
82
Table 4.5: Comparison of Enrollment Length of Sample Participants

Enrollment N Percentage
Entry Date < Grade 4 150 56%
Entry Date > Grade 4 117 44%
Total 267 100%

Study Findings Related to Research Questions
Findings Related to Research Question 1
1) What were the 2009 levels of student affinity with Hawaiian cultural
identity as measured by a Hawaiian cultural identity sum score and six (6) subscales
(i.e., Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana/family; connection to ‘āina/land;
cultural values and attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural knowledge
and practices)?
Nā ‘Ōpio survey results were utilized to report levels of the sample
participants’ affinity with Hawaiian language and cultural identity. Study
participants reported varying levels of affinity with different aspects of Hawaiian
cultural identity (HCI). The six (6) HCI subscale scores ranged from a possible low
of one (1) point (no affinity) to a high of five (5) points (high affinity) per subscale.
The HCI sum score was calculated by adding the means of all six (6) subscale
scores. The HCI sum score had a possible range from a low of six (6) points (no
affinity) to a high of 30 points (high affinity).
83
Descriptive statistics for the HCI sum score and subscales were reported in
Table 4.6, along with Cronbach reliability results. Generally, a Cronbach’s alpha
raw value of at least 0.7 is considered to be an indicator of a fairly reliable scale.
This value is important to ensure that all questions within a sub-scale correlate with
other questions within the same subscale (i.e., how much shared variance exists
among the questions). All of the subscales and the HCI sum score have Cronbach
alpha values of at least 0.7, except for the Hawaiian language subscale. This concern
will be addressed in the language subsection below.

Table 4.6: Descriptive Statistics for Hawaiian Cultural Identity Subscale and Sum
Mean Scores

Variable
‘Āina
(Land)
Cultural
Values
‘Ohana
(Family)
Hawaiian
Lang
Cult
Issues
Knowledge
Practices
HCI Sum
Score
Mean 4.35 4.32 4.27 3.39 2.88 2.10 21.31
Median 4.33 4.41 4.33 3.22 3.00 2.00 21.39
Mode 5.00 4.70 4.48 3.67 3.00 1.00 20.42
Standard Deviation 0.61 0.52 0.53 0.59 0.75 0.90 2.75
Sample Variance 0.37 0.27 0.28 0.35 0.56 0.80 7.58
Kurtosis -0.10 0.88 0.23 -0.38 0.03 0.14 -0.31
Skewness -0.84 -1.02 -0.85 0.04 -0.02 0.78 -0.01
Range 2.67 2.89 2.44 3.11 4.00 3.83 13.98
Minimum 2.33 2.11 2.56 1.89 1.00 1.00 14.15
Maximum 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.83 28.13
Largest(1) 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.83 28.13
Smallest(1) 2.33 2.11 2.56 1.89 1.00 1.00 14.15
Confidence Level
(95.0%)
0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.33
Cronbach Alpha
Value (Raw)
0.769 0.896 0.774 0.591 0.735 0.862 0.821
84
Students reported higher levels of affinity with three HCI subscales, 1) connection to
‘āina/land (M = 4.35); 2) cultural values and attachment (M = 4.32); and 3)
‘ohana/family, (M = 4.27). Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 depict frequency distributions
for each of these subscales.

Figure 4.1: Connection to ‘Āina Subscale Means

Subscale mean scores for the ‘āina, cultural values and ‘ohana subscales rise
steeply to the right and do not descend. This trend indicated that high numbers of
participants had high mean scores on each of three (3) aforementioned subscales. In
addition, these subscales were negatively skewed to the left, indicating that a
85
majority of study participants had high mean scores for these subscales. Negative
skewness (-0.84, -1.02 and -0.85) for the ‘āina, cultural values and ‘ohana subscales,
respectively also indicated high levels of student affinity with these subscales.

Figure 4.2: Cultural Values & Attachment Subscale Mean Scores

86
Figure 4.3: Connection to ‘Ohana Subscale Means

In comparison, the Hawaiian language subscale had a moderate mean score
(M=3.39). Its frequency distribution was bell-shaped and positively skewed
(skewness = 0.04) to the right. Its distribution line descended to the right as numbers
of study participants who reported affinity for Hawaiian language declined. The
range of student scores was more widely distributed and the frequency distribution
indicated that students reported less affinity for the Hawaiian language than for the
other three previously mentioned HCI subscales. Figure 4.4 depicts mean scores for
the Hawaiian language subscale.
87
Figure 4.4: Hawaiian Language Subscale Mean Scores

While the language subscale mean score was moderate, the Cronbach alpha
value for this subscale (0.59) was less than 0.70, indicating there may be a possible
concern about the strength of the subscale’s Pearson’s correlation coefficients among
language subscale items. When examining reasons to determine why the language
subscale had a lower Cronbach value, there are two considerations that standout.
First, there were only three (3) questions in the language subscale. Second, one
question in this subscale did not correlate well with the other subscale questions,
(i.e., question 9 addressed cultural protocol). Therefore, the Cronbach value for the
language subscale garnered a lower value. Another reference to Hawaiian language
88
proficiency is provided in this subsection in response to research question 1, since
affinity with one’s language is possibly the most important component of cultural
identity (Demmert & Townsend, 2003).
Sample participants were asked in item 7 of the survey to report how well
they spoke Hawaiian. There were eight (8) students (3%) who reported they spoke
Hawaiian very well, while 137 (51%) reported they spoke Hawaiian fairly well.
There were 118 students (44%) who reported that they spoke Hawaiian with some
difficulty, and four (2%) who said they did not speak Hawaiian at all. Figure 4.5
depicts the reported Hawaiian language proficiency levels of study participants.

Figure 4.5: Hawaiian Language Proficiency

89
A majority of the students in this sample (54%) reported that they spoke
Hawaiian very well or fairly well. The fact that a majority of study participants
reported affinity for Hawaiian language provides evidence that cultural identity of
the majority of study participants is linked to language.
The remaining subscales: cultural issues engagement (M=2.88); and cultural
knowledge and practices (M = 2.10); each had lower mean scores than all of the
previously mentioned subscales. The cultural issues and engagement subscale graph
(Figure 4.6) depicts an almost perfect bell-shaped frequency distribution which is
slightly, negatively skewed (-0.02) to the left. Its frequency distribution declined to
the right indicating lower levels of affinity as mean scores for cultural issues
engagement increased.
In contrast, the cultural knowledge and practices subscale was bell-shaped
and positively skewed to the right (0.78). Occurrences of high subscale mean scores
decreased in the higher end of the frequency distribution. In comparison to other HCI
subscales, Figure 4.6 indicated that students had the least amount of affinity for
cultural knowledge and practices than for any of the other six (6) HCI subscales.
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 depict mean scores for the last two subscales, cultural issues and
engagement and cultural knowledge and practices.
90

Figure 4.6: Cultural Issues Engagement Subscale Mean Scores

91
Figure 4.7: Cultural Knowledge & Practices Subscale Mean Scores

Finally, the HCI sum score represents the total of all six (6) HCI subscale
scores. Reported HCI sum scores ranged from 14.15 to 28.13. Figure 4.8 depicts a
bell-shaped curve with a frequency distribution which is negatively skewed (-0.01)
to the left. The HCI sum score distribution inclined steeply to the right, close to the
HCI mean score (21.31) and median score (21.39), before decreasing sharply again
to the right. The steepness of this frequency distribution indicates that the vast
majority of study participants (N = 256) reported having moderate (M = 19) to high
levels (M = 27) of affinity with HCI.
92
Figure 4.8: HCI Sum Score Means by Student

The quantitative analysis of student affinity with Hawaiian cultural identity
seems to indicate that in general, study participants reported moderate to high levels
of affinity with most aspects of Hawaiian language and culture. These findings
establish a foundation from which to analyze the relationship of cultural identity with
student progress in the remaining pages of this analysis.
Linear multiple regression analyses of independent and dependent variables
were utilized to answer the remaining research questions 2 and 3. Results of these
analyses are presented in Tables 4.7 through 4.11. Data from these analyses are listed
in two columns for each dependent variable. The first column utilized only the HCI
93
sum score as an independent variable and not individual subscale scores. The second
column utilized the six (6) individual HCI subscale scores as independent variables
and not the HCI sum score.
Each of the following five tables reports the concurrent effects of
independent variables, both demographic and HCI sum and subscale scores on the
study’s five (5) dependent variables. Tables appear as follows: academic GPA
(Table 4.7); elective GPA (Table 4.8); standardized assessments (Table 4.9); school
engagement (Table 4.10); and character development (Table 4.11). Findings
associated with demographic independent variables were addressed in research
question 2. Findings associated with HCI independent variables were addressed in
research question 3.
94
Table 4.7: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and Academic
GPA

Multiple linear regressions Academic GPA
subset of students all all
full
financial
aid
full financial
aid
n 267 267 80 80
R
2
0.1395 0.1664 0.1399 0.2743
Intercept 3.20 3.42 2.78 2.97
cohort 2015 (vs. 2016) 0.02 0.03 -0.03 -0.08
female (vs. male) 0.22** 0.24*** 0.25 0.28*
orphan (vs. non-orphan) -0.63*** -0.63*** -0.63** -0.64**
financial aid – full (vs. no financial aid) -0.19* -0.18*
financial aid – partial (vs. no financial aid) 0.10 0.10
enrolled in 4
th
grade
or later
(vs. enrolled before
4
th
grade)
0.04 0.03 0.04 0.06
Hawaiian Cultural
Connectedness sum score
0.000 0.011
Hawaiian language -0.077 -0.195
Connection to the ‘āina 0.003 -0.024
Connection to ‘ohana 0.111 -0.007
Cultural values &
attachment
-0.170 0.022
Cultural issues
engagement
0.075 0.311**
Cultural knowledge &
practice
0.026 -0.072
Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
95
Table 4.8: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and Elective
GPA

Multiple linear regressions Elective GPA
subset of students all all
full
financial
aid
full financial
aid
n 267 267 80 80
R
2
0.2084 0.2178 0.1687 0.2223
Intercept 3.30 3.13 2.65 2.34
cohort 2015 (vs. 2016) -0.17*** -0.16*** -0.13 -0.16
female (vs. male) 0.28*** 0.29*** 0.17 0.17
orphan (vs. non-orphan) -0.19 -0.17 -0.13 -0.16
financial aid – full (vs. no financial aid) -0.04 -0.03
financial aid – partial (vs. no financial aid) 0.11 0.10
enrolled in 4
th
grade or
later
(vs. enrolled before
4
th
grade)
-0.08 -0.09 -0.09 -0.07
Hawaiian Cultural
Connectedness sum score
0.002 0.032*
Hawaiian language -0.026 0.048
Connection to the ‘āina 0.004 0.081
Connection to ‘ohana 0.044 -0.024
Cultural values &
attachment
0.012 0.065
Cultural issues
engagement
0.039 0.173*
Cultural knowledge &
practice
-0.034 -0.087
Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
96
Table 4.9: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and CTP IV
Mathematics

Multiple linear regressions
6
th
grade CTP-4 math
suburban NCE score
subset of students all all
full
financial
aid
full financial
aid
n 267 267
R
2
0.0751 0.1224
Intercept 62.52 79.26
non-significant F values
(invalid models)
cohort 2015 (vs. 2016) 3.08 2.31
female (vs. male) -3.32 -2.94
orphan (vs. non-orphan) -13.14** -14.10**
financial aid – full (vs. no financial aid) -2.12 -2.26
financial aid – partial (vs. no financial aid) 2.60 2.71
enrolled in 4
th
grade or
later
(vs. enrolled before
4
th
grade)
0.19 0.49
Hawaiian Cultural
Connectedness sum score
-0.191
Hawaiian language -0.838 -
Connection to the ‘āina -1.501 -
Connection to ‘ohana 1.993 -
Cultural values &
attachment
-6.53* -
Cultural issues
engagement
1.121 -
Cultural knowledge &
practice
2.456 -
Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
97
Table 4.10: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and School
Engagement

Multiple linear regressions school engagement
subset of students all all
full financial
aid
full financial
aid
n 267 267 80 80
R
2
0.3061 0.4484 0.3756 0.5243
Intercept 2.43 1.30 2.09 0.88
cohort 2015 (vs. 2016) -0.14* -0.08 -0.13 -0.09
female (vs. male) 0.12* 0.15** 0.15 0.16
orphan (vs. non-orphan) -0.37** -0.23 -0.36 -0.22
financial aid – full
(vs. no financial
aid)
-0.11 -0.07
financial aid – partial
(vs. no financial
aid)
0.02 0.00
enrolled in 4
th
grade or later
(vs. enrolled before
4
th
grade)
0.09 0.03 0.10 0.02
Hawaiian Cultural
Connectedness sum score
0.084*** 0.094***
Hawaiian language -0.023 -0.037
Connection to the ‘āina 0.045 -0.074
Connection to ‘ohana 0.319*** 0.360***
Cultural values & attachment 0.325*** 0.419*
Cultural issues engagement 0.034 0.183*
Cultural knowledge & practice -0.037 -0.078
Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
98
Table 4.11: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables and Character
Development

Multiple linear regression character development
subset of students all all
full financial
aid
full financial
aid
n 267 267 80 80
R
2
0.5051 0.6679 0.5029 0.6974
Intercept 0.79 -0.40 1.03 -0.53
cohort 2015 (vs. 2016) -0.15** -0.12* -0.17 -0.10
female (vs. male) -0.03 -0.04 0.11 -0.07
orphan (vs. non-orphan) -0.11 0.01 -0.24 -0.01
financial aid – full
(vs. no financial
aid)
-0.03 0.00
financial aid – partial
(vs. no financial
aid)
0.02 -0.02
enrolled in 4
th
grade or later
(vs. enrolled before
4
th
grade)
0.12* 0.10* 0.08 0.01
Hawaiian Cultural
Connectedness sum score
0.150*** 0.136***
Hawaiian language 0.149*** 0.126
Connection to the ‘āina -0.067 -0.274*
Connection to ‘ohana 0.174*** 0.162
Cultural values & attachment 0.758*** 1.025***
Cultural issues engagement 0.038 0.094
Cultural knowledge & practice 0.022 -0.029
Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
99
Findings Related to Research Question 2
Research Question 2) To what extent do demographic independent variables
(i.e., gender, orphan status, SES, and length of enrollment at KES) influence student
progress as measured by dependent variables (i.e., grade point average, standardized
assessment, school engagement and character development)? The findings for
research question 2 are presented in the following five subsections; one subsection
was devoted to reporting the findings for each of the dependent variables.
Effects of Demographic Independent Variables on Academic GPA.
Table 4.7 lists the results of a multiple regression analysis on academic GPA
(M = 3.26). A statistically significant effect of β = -0.63*** was found for orphans
(N = 14). This finding suggests that orphaned students earned academic GPAs which
were β = -0.63*** lower than their classmates who were non-orphans. The effect for
orphans who received full financial aid was β = -0.64**. Therefore, it can be
predicted that orphans, irregardless of their financial status, tended to earn
substantially lower academic GPAs than their classmates who were not orphans.
Other findings in this analysis included significant effects related to gender.
Females earned higher academic GPAs by β = 0.22** and β = 0.24** (HCI sum and
subscale scores as independent variables respectively) when compared to males. The
effect was even higher (β = 0.28*) for female students who received full financial
aid. Findings indicated that females earned higher academic GPAs than their male
classmates in general. In addition, females who were recipients of full financial aid
also earned higher GPAs (β = 0.28*) than males who received full financial aid.
100
Significant findings for full financial aid recipients included negative effects
of β = -0.19* and β = -0.18* (HCI sum and subscale scores as independent variables
respectively). These findings indicate that recipients of full financial aid earned
lower academic GPAs than their classmates who did not receive full financial aid.
This finding is in keeping with research on SES and school progress presented in
Chapter 2 (Garcia, 2002).
Effects of Demographic Independent Variables on Elective GPA.
Table 4.8 lists the effects of a multiple regression analysis on elective GPA
(M = 3.36). Statistically significant effects of β = 0.28** and β = 0.29** were found
for gender (HCI sum and subscale scores as independent variables respectively). As
was true for academic GPA, females earned higher elective GPAs than their male
classmates.
Significant effects of β = -0.17*** and β = -0.16*** (HCI sum and subscale
scores as independent variables respectively) were found for the cohort of 2015
when compared to the cohort of 2016. The finding established that the cohort of
2016, in general earned higher elective GPAs than Cohort 2015 students. Effects
which favored the cohort of 2016 over the cohort of 2015 will be explored in Chapter
5.
Unlike the academic GPA finding of β = -0.63*** for orphans, there was no
significant negative relationship found for elective GPA for orphans. Although, non-
significant effects of β = -0.17 and β = -0.19 (HCI sum and subscale scores as
independent variables respectively) were measured for the orphan subgroup in
101
relationship to elective GPA. These findings suggest that orphans earned higher
elective GPAs when compared to their academic GPAs. Elective classes seem to
have a leveling effect for orphans (mean elective GPA = 3.14) in comparison to their
non-orphaned classmates (mean elective GPA = 3.36). Orphans seemed to earn
GPAs more closely aligned with their non-orphaned classmates in elective rather
than in academic courses.
Effects of Demographic Independent Variables on CTP IV Standardized
Assessment.
Table 4.9 lists results of a multiple regression analysis of the CTP IV
mathematics standardized assessment. There were no significant f-values measured
for the reading comprehension standardized assessment. Statistically significant
effects for the mathematics standardized assessment (M = 79.4) included negative
effects of β = -13.14** and β = -14.10 ** (national curve equivalent, NCE scores) for
orphaned students (HCI sum and subscale scores as independent variables
respectively). These effects were considered substantial since the NCE maximum
score is 100. Negative effects associated with standardized assessments were similar
to the negative academic GPA beta effects found for orphans in Table 4.7. There
were no other statistically significant f-values measured for math standardized
assessment scores as the dependent variable.
Effects of Demographic Independent Variables on School Engagement.
Table 4.10 lists results of a multiple regression analysis of demographic
independent variables on school engagement. Significant effects of β = -0.37 **
102
were found for orphaned students (HCI sum score as the IV). This effect reveals that
orphans are less engaged in school than non-orphans and their mean school
engagement scores seem to be substantially less than their non-orphaned classmates.
The maximum mean score for the school engagement variable was five (5).
There were also effects of β = 0.12* and β = 0.15** (HCI sum and subscale
scores as independent variables respectively) measured for gender. Females reported
being more engaged in school than their male classmates. Higher school
engagement scores corresponded with other positive findings for females (i.e.,
females earned higher academic and elective GPAs than males). Finally, there was a
β = -0.14* effect found for school engagement (HCI sum score as the independent
variable) reported for the cohort independent variable. The cohort of 2016 seemed to
be more engaged in school than the cohort of 2015.
Effects of Demographic Independent Variables on Character Development.
Table 4.11 lists results of a multiple regression analysis of demographic
independent variables on character development. Significant effects of β = -0.15 **
and β = -0.12* (HCI sum and subscale scores as independent variables respectively)
were found for the cohort of 2015 as compared to the cohort of 2016. These findings
indicate that the 2015 cohorts had lower character development means than the
cohort of 2016. Trends seem to indicate that the cohort of 2015, in general had lower
scores in elective GPAs, school engagement and character development than their
younger classmates in the cohort of 2016.
103
Data revealed that students who enrolled at 4
th
grade or later had
approximately β = 0.12* and β = 0.10* (HCI sum and subscale scores as independent
variables respectively) higher character development mean scores than those who
enrolled at KES before their 4
th
grade year. This is an interesting finding that will be
explored further since the expectation was longer school enrollment at KES should
have produced students with higher not lower levels of character development. This
finding will be analyzed in Chapter 5.

Findings Related to Research Question 3
Research Question 3) To what extent does Hawaiian cultural identity as
measured by a Hawaiian cultural identity sum score and six (6) subscales: (i.e.,
Hawaiian language; connection to ‘ohana (family); connection to ‘āina (land);
cultural values and attachment; cultural issues engagement; and cultural knowledge
and practices) influence student progress as determined by dependent variables (i.e.,
grade point averages, standardized assessment, school engagement and character
development)? The findings for research question 3 are presented in the following
five (5) subsections; one subsection each was devoted to reporting the findings for
each of the dependent variables.
Effects of HCI Independent Variables on Academic GPA.
Table 4.7 lists the results of HCI independent variables on academic GPA.
The only significant HCI finding associated with this dependent variable was an
effect of β = 0.311** for the cultural issues subscale for full financial aid recipients.
104
This effect suggests that the academic GPA of full financial aid student will increase
by β = 0.311* for every point of increase in a student’s Hawaiian cultural issues
subscale score.
This effect seems even more significant since full financial aid students have
a negative effect of β = -0.18* for academic GPA in comparison to their classmates
who are not recipients of full financial aid. Engagement with cultural issues seems
to be associated with improved academic GPAs for financial aid recipients. Cultural
issues engagement has been cited in the literature as an important factor in raising
student academic progress (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Effects of Independent Variables on Elective GPA.
Table 4.8 lists the results of a multiple regression analysis of HCI
independent variables on elective GPA (M = 3.36). An effect of β = 0.032* was
found for HCI sum scores of full financial aid students. This finding suggests that
elective GPAs of full financial aid recipients will increase by β = 0.032* for every
point increase in their HCI sum score (M = 21.31). This is an important finding
since full financial aid students, in general attained negative (though not significant)
effects for elective GPA. According to this finding, higher engagement with cultural
issues may ameliorate the effects of lower academic achievement and increase
elective GPAs of full financial aid recipients.
Effects of HCI Independent Variables on Standardized Assessment.
Table 4.9 lists the results of a multiple regression analysis of HCI
independent variables on standardized assessments. An effect of β = -6.53* was
105
noted for students who had high mean scores in the Hawaiian cultural values and
attachment subscale. This effect indicated that students who reported higher levels
of Hawaiian cultural values and attachment had lower math standardized test scores
than students who had lower subscale scores. This finding will be discussed in
Chapter 5. There were no other statistically significant findings related to
standardized test scores and Hawaiian cultural identity.
Effects of HCI Independent Variables on School Engagement.
Table 4.10 lists results of a multiple regression analysis of HCI independent
variables on school engagement. An effect of β = 0.084*** was found for the HCI
sum score of all students. This finding suggests that school engagement (M = 3.98)
of all study participants increased by β = 0.084*** for every point increase in a
student’s HCI sum score mean (M = 21.31). A similar effect of β = 0.094 *** was
found for the HCI sum score of full financial aid recipients. These findings imply
that school engagement for all students, and especially full financial aid recipients
increased by β = 0.084*** and 0.94*** respectively for every point increase in the
student’s HCI sum score mean (M = 21.31). Evidence linked affinity for HCI to
high school engagement.
An effect of β = 0.319*** was calculated for the connection to ‘ohana
(family) subscale. For every point increase in the ‘ohana subscale mean score,
students realized a corresponding increase of β = 0.319 in their school engagement
mean score. It seems plausible that students who reported high levels of family
attachment would be more engaged in school. An effect of β = 0.325*** was noted
106
for the cultural values and attachment subscale for all students. Like the ‘ohana
subscale, cultural values and attachment correlated with higher school engagement.
Finally, significant effects for HCI subscales were found for recipients of full
financial aid. School engagement mean scores for full financial aid recipients
increased by β = 0.360*** for every point increase in the ‘ohana subscale, β =
0.419* for the cultural values and attachment subscale, and β = 0.183* for the
cultural issues and engagement subscale. Hence, full financial aid recipients who
had high levels of affinity with these HCI subscales were more engaged in school
than students who had lower HCI subscale scores.
Effects of HCI Independent Variables on Character Development.
Table 4.11 lists results of a multiple regression analysis of HCI independent
variables on character development. The effect for the HCI sum score for all students
was found to be β = 0.150***. For every point increase on HCI mean sum score,
students increased character development scores by β = 0.150. The effect was
slightly less, β = 0.136*** for recipients of full financial aid.
The following results were found for HCI subscales on dependent variable of
character development. There was an effect of β = 0.149*** for the Hawaiian
language subscale, β = 0.174*** for the connection to ‘ohana subscale, and a
substantially larger β = 0.758*** effect measured for the cultural values and
attachment subscale for all students. These effects indicate that affinity for these
HCI subscales is associated with increased levels of character development for all
students.
107
Finally, for full financial aid recipients, a large effect of β = 1.025*** for the
cultural values and attachment subscale in relationship to character development was
observed. Results were β = -0.274* for the connection to ‘āina (land) subscale. This
last finding seemed to suggest that students with high connection to the ‘āina had
lower levels of character development. This negative effect for the ‘āina subscale
was an anomaly in comparison to other findings for character development. It will be
discussed in Chapter 5.
Findings for character development seemed to have garnered the highest
correlations and Pearson’s coefficient effects (Table 4.11) of all of the dependent
variables in this study. This fact seems to suggest that Hawaiian cultural identity is
most closely related to enhanced student character development. Except for one
negative effect of β = -0.274* for the connection to the ‘āina subscale, all students
and especially those who received full financial aid attained more positive effects for
character development when they had high affinity with Hawaiian cultural identity.

Summary of the Findings
Findings of this study indicate that specific cultural identity and demographic
variables produced statistically significant data which seemed to affect student
progress in school. The following tables 4.12 through 4.16 provide a summary of
statistically significant results for each of the dependent variables. The last table in
this summary, Table 4.17 reexamines the effects of dependent variables on full
financial aid recipients.
108
Table 4.12: Statistically Significant Effects for Academic GPA

Female (v. Male) β = 0.22**
Orphan (v. Non-orphan) β = -0.63***
Full F/A (non-Full F/A) β = -0.19*
Cultural Issues Engagement Full F/A recipients β = 0.311**

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level

Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for Academic GPA
• Females earned higher academic GPAs than males.
• Low SES students, (e.g., orphans and full F/A recipients) earned lower
academic GPAs than their non-orphaned and non-full financial aid
classmates, respectively.
• Cultural issues engagement had a positive effect on the academic GPAs of
full financial aid recipients.

Table 4.13: Statistically Significant Effects for Elective GPA

Cohort 2015 (v. Cohort 2016) β = -0.17***
Female (v. male) β = 0.28***
Cultural Issues Engagement Full F/A β = 0.173**

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level
109
Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for Elective GPA
• The cohort of 2016 earned higher elective GPAs than the cohort of 2015.
• Females earned higher elective GPAs than males.
• Low SES subgroups (orphans and full financial aid recipients) had elective
GPAs which were not significantly different than their non-low SES
classmates.
• Full financial aid recipients earned higher elective GPAs when they had
higher cultural issues engagement scores.

Table 4.14: Statistically Significant Effects for CTP IV Math

Orphan (v. non-orphan) β = -14.10**
Cultural Values Attachment β = -6.53*

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level

Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for CTP IV Math
• Orphans had considerably lower math standardized test scores than all other
subgroups.
• Students who attained higher cultural values attachment subscale mean scores
did less well on the CTP IV math assessment than students who had lower
cultural attachment subscale mean scores.
110
Table 4.15: Statistically Significant Effects for School Engagement

HCI Sum Score (I.V.) HCI Subscales (I.V.)
2015 Cohort β = 0.14*
Female β = 0.12* β = 0.15**
Orphans
HCI sum score β = 0.084***
‘Ohana (family) β = 0.319***
Cultural Values Attachment β = 0.325***

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level

Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for School Engagement
• The Cohort of 2015 had a lower school engagement scores than did the
Cohort of 2016.
• Females reported higher school engagement scores than males (HCI Sum
Score and Subscale scores as independent variables respectively).
• Orphans reported lower school engagement scores than non-orphans.
• Students’ HCI sum scores were positively correlated to school engagement.
• Students’ ‘ohana subscale scores were positively correlated to school
engagement.
• Students’ cultural values and attachment subscale scores were positively
correlated to school engagement.
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Table 4.16: Statistically Significant Effects for Character Development

HCI Sum Score (I.V.) HCI Subscales (I.V.)
Cohort 2015 β = - 0.15**
Enrolled> Gr. 4 β = 0.12* β = 0.15**
HCI Sum Score β = 0.150***
Hawaiian Lang. β = 0.149***
‘Ohana (family) β = 0.174***
Cultural Values Attachment β = 0.758***

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level

Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for Character Development
• The Cohort of 2015 had lower mean scores for character development than
the Cohort of 2016.
• Students enrolled at grade 4 or later had higher character development scores
than students enrolled before grade 4.
• A student’s character development score was positively correlated to his/her
HCI sum score.
• A student’s subscale scores for Hawaiian language, ‘ohana and cultural
values attachment were positively correlated with character development.
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Table 4.17: Statistically Significant Effects for Independent Variable Full Financial
Aid

Independent
Variables
Academic
GPA
Elective
GPA
School
Engagement
Character
Development
Females β = 0.28*
Orphans β= -0.64**
Full F/A β = -0.19*
HCI Sum Score β= 0.094*** β= 0.136***
‘Āina β= -0.274*
‘Ohana β = 0.360**
Cultural Values
Attachment
β = 0.419* β= 1.025***
Cultural Issues
Engagement
β = 0.311** β = 0.173* β = 0.183*

Significant at the: * p < 0.05 level
** p < 0.01 level
*** p < 0.001 level

Summary of Statistically Significant Effects for Independent Variable Full Financial
Aid
• Orphan recipients of full financial aid realized an effect of β = -0.64* for
academic GPA.
• Full financial aid recipients realized an effect of β = -0.19* for academic
GPA.
• Engagement with cultural issues increased academic GPA of full
financial aid recipients by β = 0.311**.
• Engagement with cultural issues increased elective GPA of full financial
aid recipients by β = 0.173*.
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• Female recipients of full financial aid earned higher academic GPAs than
male recipients of full financial aid.
• For every point increase in their HCI sum score, full financial aid
recipients had an increase of β = 0.094*** for school engagement.
• For every point increase in their HCI ‘ohana subscale, full financial aid
recipients realized an increase of .360** in their school engagement
scores.
• Engagement with HCI in general increased character development scores
of full financial aid recipients by β = 0.136**.
• Engagement with the ‘āina (land) subscale decreased character
development scores of full financial aid recipients. The effect was
measured at β = -0.274*.
• Engagement with the cultural values and attachment subscale increased
character development scores of full financial aid recipients by β =
1.025***.

Conclusion
This chapter provided an analysis of the educational, demographic and
Hawaiian cultural identity backgrounds of the study’s 267 participants. Findings
were presented in response to the study’s three research questions. The most
profound effects on dependent variables were discovered when the independent
variable measured was full financial aid. Low SES students (i.e., orphans and non-
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orphan recipients of full financial aid) did less well in academic subjects when
measured by GPA alone. However, when full financial aid recipients were engaged
with Hawaiian cultural issues, their academic and elective GPAs improved. When
full financial aid recipients reported higher levels of Hawaiian cultural identity, in
general, they had higher levels of school engagement and character development.
These findings provide evidence to corroborate Ladson-Billing’s (1995) culturally
relevant pedagogy (CRP) theory which was the conceptual framework for this
dissertation. CRP emphasizes the importance of cultural competence and cultural
issues engagement as a means to improve school progress for minorities. A
discussion of the study’s findings, implications for practice and future research will
be explored in Chapter 5.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This chapter presents a discussion of the study which is organized as follows.
An overview of the purpose of the study is provided in the first section of this
chapter. A review of the research questions is presented in the second section. A
discussion of the findings follows, along with sections on implications for practice
and implications for future research. Next, limitations and delimitations of the study
are discussed. Finally, a conclusion of this dissertation ends this chapter.

Overview of the Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not increased levels of
cultural identity were related to improved school progress for Native Hawaiian
students at the Kamehameha Schools. This study is timely since the school
increased its enrollment of orphaned and indigent students in 2004. A review of
school curriculum, especially culturally based education in relationship to student
demographics was needed to determine HCI’s effectiveness in improving student
progress in school. It is hoped that future research will identify practices and
resources to support student subgroups which require additional school support.
This study offers quantitative data to aid faculty in their efforts to understand the
curricular and resource needs of the different subgroups in this new student
population.
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The study relied on quantitative data to analyze relationships between
Hawaiian cultural identity, demographic factors and school progress of Native
Hawaiian students at Kamehameha Elementary School. This study evaluated
quantitative analyses of relationships among several constructs which seem to be
somewhat elusive. Though the results were mixed, quantitative data from this study
seem to indicate many positive relationships between Hawaiian cultural identity and
student progress, especially for school engagement and character development
constructs. The study’s findings are fairly aligned with research cited in the
literature review specifically, that CBE and culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) have
been shown to lead to improved student progress and school engagement for
involuntary minority learners, especially low SES students.
The premise for this study was based on the literature review, and in
particular on research references summarized in Table 5.1 below. Evidence from the
study’s results will be reported in the following sections of this chapter as they relate
to these research themes.
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Table 5.1: Major Research Findings which are Congruent with Study Findings

Research Finding
Demmert & Towner
(2003)
Using Native language and culture makes schooling more relevant
for Indigenous learners
Ogbu & Simon
(1994)
Voluntary/Involuntary Minority Theory—Utilizing CBE and CRP
engages minority learners
Ladson-Billings
(1995)
Developing critical consciousness in students fosters school
success for minority children
Au & Kawakami
(1991)
Employing aspects of Native Hawaiian culture enhances school
progress for NH learners
Hibel, et al., (2008) Learners who have high affinity for non-dominant, cultural values
do less well on standardized assessments

Review of the Research Questions
This study addressed three (3) research questions. The first research question
assessed the study participants’ levels of affinity for Hawaiian cultural identity.
Findings of this first research question established a baseline of cultural identity
information for each of the study participants and illustrated levels of the study
participants’ (N = 267) affinity for Hawaiian language and culture. Findings
indicated a moderate to high level of Hawaiian cultural identity engagement for most
study participants.
The second research question assessed the study participant’s demographic
backgrounds in relationship to student progress to determine the extent to which
demographic independent variables (i.e., gender, orphan and financial aid status,
length of enrollment) affected student progress. The third research question utilized
the study participants’ own levels of cultural identity (from research question 1) to
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determine the extent to which cultural identity affected student progress. Table 5.2
summarizes each of the study’s three (3) research questions.

Table 5.2: Summary of Study Research Questions

Question Description
RQ 1 Assessed levels of Hawaiian cultural identity of study participants
RQ 2 Assessed the effect of demographic independent variables on student
progress
RQ 3 Assessed the effect of Hawaiian cultural identity on student progress

Discussion of the Findings
Using Native Language and Culture in School Makes Schooling More Relevant for
Indigenous Learners
Quantitative data from this study provided evidence which illustrates that
higher engagement with Hawaiian language and culture generally increased school
engagement and character development for participants in this study. A majority of
study participant’s (54%) reported that they spoke Hawaiian very well (3%) or fairly
well (51%). A total of 94% of study participants reported that they could participate
well or very well in cultural protocol. The Hawaiian cultural identity (HCI) sum
score for this study sample was M = 21.83 out of a possible 30 points, with the
majority of learners scoring above the mean for HCI. Study participants (N = 267)
who were more engaged with the subscales of Hawaiian language, Hawaiian cultural
values attachment, and ‘ohana (family) also had higher character development
119
ratings than their counterparts who reported lower levels of engagement with these
HCI subscales.
Findings from research question 1 illustrate that a majority of study
participants reported higher levels of affinity with HCI. Higher levels of student
affinity for HCI may be attributed to curricular programs and counseling practices
now in place at KES. For example, Hawaiian language and culture are an integral
part of the day to day curriculum. Students from kindergarten through sixth grade
attend Hawaiian language classes about twice a week. Hawaiian language and
culture are integrated into the school curriculum by all staff in most subject areas,
including math and science. Some KES teachers are involved in Hawaiian culture
curriculum development activities, and all staff attend professional development to
improve their facility with Hawaiian CBE.
In addition, students who were more engaged with their ‘ohana (family) also
exhibited higher levels of character development and school engagement than
students who do not receive consistent family support. In cases where ‘ohana
support is inconsistent or absent, school faculty (e.g., counselors, teachers and
administrators) often become more involved in making educational decisions for
students, as is often the case for orphan and indigent students.
Challenging these positive HCI findings were study data which suggest that
students who had high cultural attachment subscale scores (e.g., knowledge of
genealogy, understanding one’s cultural kuleana/responsibility, demonstrating aloha
for others, achieving harmony with the environment, and being ha‘aha‘a/humble) did
120
less well on their CTP IV standardized math assessments. Evidence illustrates that a
student’s affinity for cultural values may be in conflict with attaining high scores on
a standardized math assessment. On the contrary, the same cultural values and
attachment subscale which was associated with low standardized assessment scores
in math was associated with higher levels of school engagement and character
development. The contrast between doing well on one dependent variable and
poorly on two others utilizing the same independent variable, cultural values and
attachment is apparent and reveals that data depict an inconsistency between the
constructs. Further research can perhaps determine how best to align these
dependent variables with each other. If alignment is not possible, then stakeholders
may have to choose which variable(s) is/are more important for students and align
the school’s curriculum accordingly.
In addition, full financial aid participants (N=80) who were more engaged
with the ‘āina (land) subscale (e.g., doing things on the ‘āina deepens my respect for
culture) had lower character development scores than their counterparts who
reported lower levels of attachment with the ‘āina. This finding was inconsistent
with all of the other evidence which generally indicated positive influences of CBE
on student progress in school.
Findings related to standardized assessment are in alignment with research
conducted by Kana‘iaupuni, Malone and Ishibashi (2005) who found that Hawaiian
students in the public school system, who have high incidence of low SES also
performed less well on standardized assessments. It would seem plausible that low
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SES students (who may have limited educational experiences) and learners who have
high affinity for non-dominant, cultural values (i.e., Hawaiian cultural values and
attachment) may do less well on standardized assessments, since these assessments
are geared to reward test-takers whose cultures match more closely with the
mainstream, dominant American culture (Hibel, et al., 2008).

Utilizing CBE and CRP engages Minority Learners
There are numerous accounts which illustrate that middle and upper income
Native Hawaiian students thrive in mainstream school environments devoid of
Native Hawaiian-based CRP and CBE. While this fact is true, data from this study
indicated that in general, engagement with HCI seemed to be associated with
improved school progress for study participants (N = 267) who reported higher of
HCI levels, and have an even more positive effects for low SES students. The most
profound quantitative effects seemed to be associated with cultural identity and its
positive influence on student school engagement and character development. While
CRP and CBE did not impact higher SES students as much as it did low SES
students, increased affinity for HCI has produced additive effects for higher SES
students in this study (i.e., increased school engagement, improved character
development and higher levels of cultural competence) as well.
In comparison to higher SES students, HCI engagement has been shown to
provide significant positive outcomes for low SES students in this study. HCI has
been noticed to provide protective or additive factors which could ameliorate the
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negative impact of low SES on students. Positive effects included increased
academic and elective GPAs for low SES students who were engaged with Hawaiian
cultural social issues. CBE incorporated into the curriculum at KES may be working
to ameliorate the effects of Ogbu and Simon’s (1994) oppositional framework theory
(i.e., involuntary minorities are repelled by mainstream cultural and educational
values). While more research is needed, evidence provided by this study illustrates
that the inclusion of CBE in the KES educational setting may be providing a bridge
for low SES students (involuntary minorities) to attain higher GPAs and improving
school engagement and character development for them.
These results are significant when one considers that low SES students (i.e.,
orphans and full financial aid recipients) in general, earned lower academic and
elective GPAs than their non-low SES classmates. Orphans, in particular had lower
GPAs and standardized test results than all other subgroups in this study. More study
is needed to identify strategies for enhancing school progress for the orphan
subgroup at KES. However, it seems that cultural identity can play an important role
in improving school progress for students who rely mostly on school for their social
and educational advancement.

Developing Critical Consciousness in Students Fosters School Success
The conceptual framework used for this study was based on Ladson-Billings
(1995) Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (CPR) theory. CRP theory espouses engaging
learners with their own cultural, community and social issues as a means to improve
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student progress in school. Data from this study indicated that low SES study
participants, who reported higher levels of engagement with cultural issues (i.e.,
Hawaiian sovereignty, gathering rights, protecting cultural sites and working to
perpetuate the Hawaiian language) also earned higher academic and elective GPAs
than other low SES students who were not highly engaged with contemporary
cultural issues.
Higher levels of cultural values and attachment (e.g., knowledge of
genealogy, history, demonstrating aloha for others, achieving harmony with the
environment, and being ha‘aha‘a/humble) was associated with lower math
standardized assessment scores. While this finding exists in contrast to Ladson-
Billing’s (1995) CRP theory, perhaps constructs which favor critique of social
inequity are more in alignment with the Hawaiian cultural issues engagement
subscale which is associated with increases in GPAs of low SES students. Data
indicated that attachment to Hawaiian cultural values seems more in alignment with
increases in study participants’ character development and school engagement than
with academic achievement and standardized test scores.
Finally, data from this study supports the conclusion of Au and Kawakami
(1991) that the inclusion of aspects of Native Hawaiian culture seems to lead to
improved school progress for the Native Hawaiian students in this study. Data
related to other demographic subgroups, (i.e., gender, cohort differences and length
of enrollment at KES) will be reported in the next section of this chapter.

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Discussion of the Findings with Implications for Practice
The effect of KS Policy 211 [T] has been to increase the numbers of orphans
and percentages of indigent Native Hawaiian children who attend Kamehameha
School. For many of Kamehameha’s low SES students, school faculty may actually
have a greater influence than the home in developing student character and finding
ways to engage low SES studens in school. Evidence from this study suggests that
HCI through the utilization of CBE and CRP related curricula can be effective tools
in engaging students in school, and developing character and citizenship, especially
when parents and other significant family members play inconsistent roles in the
student’s school life.
KES faculty is currently involved in developing curricular standards and
assessments using the standards-based change process (SBCP) with reading as its
focus. In conjunction with reading standards development, faculty has formed a
professional learning community to study trends in contemporary critical literacy
pedagogy. In keeping with CRP theory, critical literacy may provide a means to
engage students in critiquing social inequity as way to develop higher levels of
school engagement and perhaps increase academic achievement as well.
KS should look for ways to reward culturally astute learners by honoring
their knowledge, of Hawaiian cultural values and practices, especially at KS where
all students are Native Hawaiians. The school should develop and utilize
assessments which honor both mainstream educational standards and the cultural
identity of its students. Since standardized assessments play such an important gate
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keeping role in American society (i.e., college entrance examinations) the school
must look for ways to ensure that all of its students are prepared to do well on
standardized assessments.

Gender
Variables associated with gender exemplified statistically significant effects
for study participants. Findings indicate that females, including female recipients of
full financial aid earned higher academic and elective GPAs than their male
counterparts. The school should collect data to chart progress made by female
students throughout KS’ educational program, and consider whether or not
educational supports may be justified to help girls maintain their educational
advantage throughout the secondary school’s educational program.

Cohort Differences
Statistically significant findings indicated that the cohort of 2016 earned
higher elective GPAs, were more engaged in school, and reported higher character
development scores than did the cohort of 2015. Though most of the data for this
study were reported for all study participants, (N = 267) it is interesting to note that
the cohort of 2016, as a group performed relatively better on the aforementioned
dependent variables than their classmates in the Cohort of 2015. KES faculty shared
anecdotal information with the researcher in support of these statistical findings
which imply positive advantages in favor of the cohort of 2016.
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Length of Enrollment at KES
The demographic independent variable, length of enrollment at KES was
analyzed by this study. Evidence revealed that a student’s length of enrollment at
Kamehameha was inversely related to character development. Students who enrolled
at KES in grade 4 or later had higher character development ratings (β = 0.12*) than
students who enrolled at KES before grade 4. Results of this study seem to
demonstrate that the school should consider whether or not improved guidance
curricula, Christian values, HCI and character education will need to be enhanced at
primary grade levels (grades K through 3) to improve character development for
students who enter KES before grade 4.

Orphans and Low SES Learners
Orphans and low SES recipients of full financial aid in general had lower
GPAs, and orphans had lower standardized test scores than all other student
subgroups in this study. KES faculty, like faculty in most schools has considerable
influence on students, and especially low SES learners. The faculty’s ability to
positively influence student progress, especially for Kamehameha’s low SES and
orphaned students is often greater than contributions made by their families. The
school may have to play a more proactive role in addressing the needs of low SES
and orphaned student subgroups if these groups are to attain parity with higher SES
subgroups at Kamehameha.
127
Implications for practice are summarized in the following proposals:
• identify and adopt authentic ways to measure student progress;
• research and employ cultural and authentic project-based learning curricula;
• utilize longitudinal student portfolios which reflect high standards for student
achievement and school progress;
• endeavor to improve standardized test scores for all learners due to the high
stakes nature of standardized test performance necessary for college
admissions;
• develop, align and incorporate focused Hawaiian cultural, social and critical
literacy issues into classroom curricula as a means to engage students with
cultural, social and political issues which affect Native Hawaiians;
• form professional learning communities (PLCs) to discuss and learn about
critical literacy and Native Hawaiian knowledge, practices, social and
cultural issues which can be used to support curriculum development and
enhance student learning and progress;
• continue to support and provide staff development activities to engage staff
with CBE and CRP learning opportunities; and
• seek ways to enhance cultural identity associated with ‘ohana, cultural values
and cultural issues to increase student engagement in school.

128
Discussion of the Findings with Implications for Research
Future research, including action research should be conducted to ascertain
whether or not HCI affinity is related to improved student progress for future
students at KES, and also for older students, including those in secondary school and
college. It is assumed that the findings would be similar, (i.e., higher levels of HCI
affinity would be associated with improved student progress) however, empirical
data is needed to corroborate the findings of this study.
Action research might include a study of Native Hawaiian middle, high and
university-aged students, in public schools and at colleges to ascertain whether or not
findings of this study can be verified. If the current study’s finding can be replicated,
then this will lend further support for the incorporation of CBE and CRP to enhance
success for low SES minority learners.
Finally, there should be a study of interventions to ascertain levels and kinds
of school support needed for the study’s subgroups, (e.g., orphans, full financial aid
recipients, females and male study participants). Research is needed to discern why
orphans do less well on standardized math tests and earn lower academic GPAs than
all other student subgroups. Further research is also needed to discern why the
cultural values and attachment subscale was associated with lower math standardized
assessment scores. Research to determine why the connection to ‘āina subscale was
associated with lower character development ratings is also needed.
The school should perhaps conduct research to identify school and
community resources which can support orphaned and indigent students at school
129
and in the community. An action plan should be formulated to specifically address
low SES students, especially orphaned and full financial aid recipient student
concerns. This action plan needs to be regularly evaluated with the use of data to
ensure that low SES learners are making sufficient progress at KS.

Limitations and Delimitations of this Study
A limitation of this study was the short time period of a few months,
November, 2009 through March, 2010 for data collection, analysis, writing and
revising this dissertation. Another limitation was the negative effect of the cultural
values and attachment subscale in relationship to standardized assessment scores. As
noted in the limitations section in Chapter 3, negative correlations between any of
the HCI subscales and standardized assessments could possibly provide evidence to
justify limiting Hawaiian CBE and CRP curricula at Kamehameha. However,
explanation for this one finding seems logical, and this single finding alone does not
negate all of the other positive results associated with cultural identity found in this
study. According to the school’s strategic plan, the need to promote Hawaiian
language and culture is essential to the well being of learners at Kamehameha
(Kamehameha Schools, 2001). Hawaiian language and culture will continue to serve
as a source of strength and pride for Native Hawaiian learners since it contributes not
only to their well-being, but also makes contributions of Hawaiian philosophical
views, especially the meaning and practice of aloha to the entire world. The strategy
130
to continue the teaching of Hawaiian CBE will continue to be supported by
Kamehameha School (Kamehameha Schools, 2001).
Another limitation mentioned in Chapter 3 was the possibility that KES
students were comfortable operating in school settings with high levels of dominant
culture-oriented CBE. Native Hawaiian children who come from higher SES homes,
and who have strong family support have done well in mainstream educational
environments. While the focus during the recent past five years has been on
increasing school progress for low SES learners, research needs to be undertaken to
determine if Kamehameha highest achieving students are being challenged in ways
that meet their educational needs. Research should also be conducted to ensure that
Kamehameha’s higher SES students are reaching their fullest educational potentials.
Another limitation of this study was the extent to which a student survey with
a limited number of 43 items was effective in measuring cultural identity. While the
survey provided data in alignment with other empirical studies, perhaps it can be
fine-tuned for future school-based action research purposes. It is recommended that
Nā ‘Ōpio survey questions be reviewed with faculty and researchers. It is
recommended that subscales be evened out somewhat to include more equitable
numbers of questions within each of the subscales, (e.g., the Hawaiian language
subscale has as few as three (3) survey questions while the cultural knowledge and
practices subscale has as many as thirteen). Survey questions should also address
cultural issues more directly, since this subscale was associated with improved
131
student academic achievement in both this study and by research cited in the
literature review.
Another limitation may be the quantitative analysis-only nature of this study.
In retrospect it might have been better to conduct a mixed methods research study. It
may have been possible for student focus groups to qualitatively describe affinity or
lack thereof for Hawaiian cultural identity. Interviews with individual students, who
marked strongly agree or strongly disagree on a majority of their HCI subscale items
would have added deeper understanding for the quantitative data presented in this
study.
Finally, the KES principal was the researcher most closely associated with
this study. Ramifications associated with this fact did not generate complications for
data collection as previously noted. However, being the KES principal and primary
researcher of this study may still generate political complications for the acceptance
of findings reported in this dissertation and color perceptions about study results.
The researcher will continue to ameliorate the effects of this limitation by being
transparent about all aspects of data collection, analyses and reporting.

Conclusion of the Dissertation
Study data illustrated that both cultural identity and demographic variables
were important factors which influenced student progress at Kamehameha
Elementary School. Quantitative evidence revealed that a majority of study
participants reported moderate to high affinity for Hawaiian language and culture.
132
Evidence also illustrated that HCI, for the most part, is associated with additive and
positive effects for Native Hawaiian students in general, and especially for low SES
learners.
Focused CBE and CRP which is based on Native Hawaiian culture and
balanced with mainstream, 21st century global curriculum and technology education
can enhance school progress for Native Hawaiian children and ensure their success
in contemporary society. Data indicate that by and large, higher affinity for
Hawaiian cultural identity is associated with improved student school progress,
school engagement and character development for low SES students. In addition,
while culturally based education seemed to provide more positive educational effects
for low SES learners, CBE did not seem to diminish the school progress of non-low
SES learners in any significant way, except for possibly the performance on a math
standardized test. School engagement and character development seemed to be
enhanced when study participants, both low and higher SES students reported higher
levels of connection with Hawaiian cultural identity. Though more research is
needed, the assumption is that CBE may be providing additive effects for both low
SES students and their higher SES classmates.
Findings from this study seem to generally corroborate research which
contends that culturally-based education (CBE) and culturally relevant pedagogy
(CRP) are directly related to improved student progress in school (Asante, 1991; Au
& Kawakami, 1991; Bennett, 2001; Brayboy & Castagno, 2008; Demmert &
Towner, 2003; Meriam, 1928). Evidence from this study connected Hawaiian
133
cultural identity with improved levels of school progress, (e.g., academic and
elective GPAs, but not standardized test scores) school engagement and character
development. Data illustrated that students who reported higher affinity for
Hawaiian culture experienced higher school engagement and character development
scores than those who reported lower levels of HCI affinity. Findings also indicated
that student affinity with HCI, especially cultural issues engagement increased
academic GPAs for low SES learners.
KES faculty, like faculty in most schools has considerable influence on
students. The faculty’s ability to positively influence student progress, especially for
Kamehameha’s low SES and orphaned students is often greater than contributions
which can be made by a low SES student’s family. It may become necessary for the
school to play a more prominent and proactive role in addressing the needs of its low
SES and orphaned students, if these subgroups are to attain educational parity with
higher SES students.
Many faculty members at Kamehameha are already incorporating increased
levels of CBE and CRP into curricula which serve the school’s 5,000 plus students.
It is hoped that this study’s findings will encourage even more faculty to incorporate
more CBE issues related to Hawaiian language, cultural identity, social issues and
cultural practices which may serve to enhance and improve learning for Native
Hawaiian learners. A goal for schools, especially those which serve Indigenous and
minority student populations must be to ensure that curricula and pedagogy is used
as a bridge to connect students’ cultural capital to student progress and success in
134
school. Cultural identity is integrally connected to the students’ cultural
backgrounds and can be used as a tool to build positive cultural identity, self-efficacy
and social capital for students.
Academic and citizenship standards for students at Kamehameha will remain
at the highest levels. This will not change. Hawaiian cultural identity, when
explicitly incorporated into the curricula via CBE and CRP may serve to support
students and enhance their learning as they strive to meet KS’ high educational and
social standards.
135
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APPENDIX A
NĀ ‘ŌPIO SURVEY SUBSCALES ALIGNED WITH SUPPORTING RESEARCH
FROM LITERATURE REVIEW
Cultural
Connectedness
Subscale/
Research Study
1) Language 2) Connection to
‘Ohana-family
3) Connection
to ‘Āina-Land
4) Cultural Values
and Attachment
5) Engagement
with Cultural
Issues
Cultural
Knowledge and
Practice
Ogbu and
Simons
(1994)
a)Role modeling

b)Involving
parents/Community
a)Employ
culturally
responsive
curriculum

b)Build Trust

c)Deal with
student
opposition/
ambivalence
Develop high
education
standards

Demmert and
Towner (2003)
Use Native
American
(American
Indian, Alaska
Native, Native
Hawaiian)
languages
Invite strong Native
community
participation

Incorporate mores
currently practiced in
community, and
which may differ
from community to
community.
Incorporate
pedagogy in
which teaching
strategies are
congruent with the
traditional culture
as well as
contemporary
ways of knowing
and learning
(opportunities to
observe, practice,
and demonstrate
skills).
Utilize
knowledge,
social and
political mores
of the
community
Infuse curricula
based on
traditional culture

Employ pedagogy
that stresses
traditional
cultural
characteristics
and adult-child
interactions as
starting place for
one’s education
Ladson-
Billings (1995)
Develop social
consciousness and
ability to critique
social inequity
Develop high
academic
standards
Develop cultural
competence
Cummins
(1986)
Employ
pedagogy and
use of
language to
promote
active learning

Incorporate
linguistic
opportunities
for learning
Invite minority
community
participation
Develop
advocate- based
assessments

Incorporate
cultural
opportunities for
learning
Yamaguchi et
al., (2000)
Employ
cultural values
eg., aloha and
malama ‘āina
(taking care of
the land) until
values become
commonplace.
Take personal
responsibility for
imparting cultural
values
Utilize hands-on
learning, learning
through
observation,
memorization and
recitation
Vogt et al.,
(1987)
Employ culturally
responsive
curriculum since it
was shown to be
responsible for
raising academic
achievement
levels
Contextualize
reading focus,
since
comprehension
improved when
teachers were
responsive to
children’s ‘talk
story’
143
Au & Jordon
(1981)
Utilize NH
children’s “talk
story” discussions
to generate a
spontaneous
change in
interaction style
and
sociolinguistic
participation
structures
Au and
Kawakami,
(1991)
Work synergistically
to create a hybrid
classroom culture
made up of some
aspects of the home
culture
Employ and
support
cooperative
endeavors in
keeping with NH
natal culture

Liberally praise
student academic
progress/
achievement

144
APPENDIX B
NĀ ‘ŌPIO YOUTH DEVELOPMENT SURVEY

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

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Asset Metadata

Creator Stender, Robert Holoua (author)

Core Title Kū i ke ao: Hawaiian cultural identity and student progress at Kamehameha Elementary School

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/15/2010

Defense Date 02/06/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cultural identity,culturally relevant pedagogy,culture-based education,low SES,multicultural education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Place Name Hawaii (states), USA (countries)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sundt, Melora A. (committee chair), Au, Kathryn (committee member), Cole, Darnell (committee member)

Creator Email hostende@ksbe.edu,stender@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2925

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Legacy Identifier etd-Stender-3592.pdf

Dmrecord 313977

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Stender, Robert Holoua

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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