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Factors that promote or inhibit the involvement of African American parents in a community college early childhood education program

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Factors that promote or inhibit the involvement of African American parents in a community college early childhood education program

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FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR INHIBIT THE INVOLVEMENT
OF AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTS IN A COMMUNITY COLLEGE
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PROGRAM

by

Lillie Faye McClendon

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2009

Copyright 2009 Lillie Faye McClendon

ii
DEDICATION
To my mother, Lillie Belle McClendon Perkins, my husband, Joseph Jacob
Gonzalez, and my grandmother, Winnie Bolden Johnson (deceased), I dedicate my
dissertation. My mother has always been my rock, motivation, and inspiration in all that I
have attempted to achieve. When she became a single parent with the support from my
grandmother, she persisted to maintain a family life and home environment that fostered
the activation of her five children’s desires to go to college and obtain their individual
accomplishments. She is the most perceptive person that I have known. My husband has
maintained belief and continual support in my professional and educational goals that
have been acquired and my future endeavors. The challenges I have encountered while
pursuing the doctorate degree have been buffered by their sustained encouragement and
my faith in God. I love you and thank you.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to the University of Southern California for my past acceptance into
your Bachelor of Science and Master of Science Degree Programs and current acceptance
into the Rossier School of Education Doctorate Program in Educational Leadership.
Thank you to the chair of my dissertation committee, Dr. Reynaldo R. Baca. Your
relentless guidance and assistance were pivotal toward the successful termination of this
study. Your insights helped me focus the direction of my vision for this research.
Thank you to my dissertation committee member, Dr. Etta R. Hollins. Your
perseverance in providing your professional expertise from the onset of this endeavor is
more than commendable. You have sustained my development by motivating me to
persist in the attainment of the completion of this study.
Thank you to my dissertation committee member, Dr. Chaulmaine Ballard Fuller.
Your consent to participate as a member of my committee was an honor. Your diligence
in performing your responsibilities helped me extensively through this process.
My sincerest thanks are further extended to the following individuals: To my
Program Advisor, Nadine Singh, who was a consistent and informative resource; To my
Doctoral Support, Dr. Edlyn Vallejo Pena, who was instrumental in the writing and
structure of my dissertation; To my Education Consultant, Dr. Leticia Tomas Bustillos,
whose contributions were appreciated; and finally, to my study partner, Dr. Thomas D.
Tucker, who continuously motivated my research.
Thank you to my brothers Ezra McClendon, Jr. and Curtis McClendon, sisters
Winnie McClendon Edwards (deceased) and Rachel McClendon Chelsea, my children,

iv
grandchildren, God children, and my entire family who have all shown their endless
support, love, blessings, and prayers.
Thank you, to my large network of devoted friends who have continued to extend
their expressions of encouragement, I am thankful.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

v
LIST OF TABLES

vii
ABSTRACT

viii
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1
Statement of the Problem 1
Purpose of the Study 9
Research Questions 10
Significance of the Study 10
Definition of Terms

12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 15
What Constitutes Parental Involvement 16
Why Parental Involvement is Important 20
Parental Role Construction Theory 22
What Influences Parental Involvement 25
School Influential Factors 27
Parental Influential Factors 33
African American Parental Influential Factors 34
Conclusion

35
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 40
School Description 41
Description of the School Participants 42
Research Instruments 43
Data Collection Procedures 44
Limitations 44
Delimitations 45
Assumptions

45
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 46
Organizational Structures 46
Key Findings 47
Parental Background Information 48
Parental Role Construction Theory 48
School Implementation Activities 54
School Based Activities 64

vi
Home Based Activities 70
Interview Summary

77
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION 81
The Problem 81
Selected Findings 82
Recommendations for Practice 87
Recommendations for Further Study

88
REFERENCES

90
APPENDIX A

99
APPENDIX B

100
APPENDIX C

104
APPENDIX D

108
APPENDIX E 109

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: African American students passing rates on the California High School
Exit Exam results, 2007-2008

42
Table 2: Research instruments used for the study

43
Table 3: More or less involved African American parental activity chart 77

viii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to explore the factors that influence involvement or
non-involvement in the educational experiences of children at home and in a community
college early childhood education program. The theoretical concept of “parental role
construction” is used to examine African American parental involvement at the preschool
level in a community college child development center. To gain a clearer understanding
of parental involvement, twelve individual parents were interviewed in relation to their
involvement in school and home based educational activities. A parent answered
questions about the school-based and home-based activities that they considered
necessary for self-efficacy in their involvement to help their children succeed.
Results of this study suggest that college educated African American parents
believed their involvement in the early childhood educational process to be of high
importance. The major findings in this research indicated that eight of the twelve parents’
participation was rated in the category “more involved” in all areas. The four “less
involved” parents volunteered for fewer school activities and attended fewer parent
meetings, often due to challenges experienced with their employment schedules.
Additional findings point to the important role teacher’s play in parental involvement as
teachers’ invitation to parents to take part in their children’s homework activities seemed
to lead to greater involvement. Convenient scheduling for school-based activities and
parent/teacher meetings should be considered for future investigations and practices.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Much has been reported about children from minority cultures; that is they are
more likely to be “at risk” in regards to school readiness than children from the dominate
culture (Zill & West, 2001). Zill and West (2001) reason that the “at risk” label given to
a particular racial minority group, African American, may be due to the greater social
demographic risk factors they experience rather than being a direct association between
race and achievement. African American children in the Zill and West study were found
to be living in danger of harm and suffering more so than White kindergarten children.
Statement of the Problem
Parents and teachers agree that parental involvement such as helping children to
read at home can make a significant difference in student performance (Seigler, 2007).
Many children begin kindergarten without the essential readiness skills because parents
are often unaware of what children need to know to be ready for school and, therefore,
cannot provide the essential early support (Meisels, 1998). Bronfenbrenner (1974) noted,
“We are convinced that much that shapes the final human product takes place (in the
home) during the first years of life” (p. 18). His three considerations for “shaping the
human product” include the “hidden curriculum of the home,” the mother’s skill as a
teacher, and the failure to provide assistance to new parents who may be “self-taught”
and “unsupported” by school systems. These considerations underscore the importance of
parental involvement and school participation that require the assistance of school
educators to help children attain the necessary school readiness skills during these early
formative years.

2
“Parental role construction” broadly defines the range of activities that parents
construe as important, necessary, and permissible for their own engagement in their
children’s schooling (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler
describe “parental role construction” as the parental beliefs about what one is supposed to
do as a parent in relation to their child’s education and the behaviors enacted by them in
service of these beliefs. Hoover-Dempsey, Wilkins, Sandler and O’Conner (2004)
suggest that “parental role construction” functions as a motivator for parental
involvement because it enables parents to imagine, anticipate, plan, and behave in
accordance to a host of educational outcomes. Though Green, Walker, Hoover-Dempsey
and Sandler (2007) found evidence suggesting parental involvement is beneficial to
children’s academic success, they discovered little as to what motivates parents to get
involved or how their particular motivational set influences the manner in which they
choose to get involved.
Education Policies Promoting Parental Involvement
Because educators and researchers have shown that parental involvement is key to
students’ achievement, several national educational initiatives and policies have
incorporated components that pushed for greater parental involvement.
National Education Goals Panel. Former President George Bush’s administration
(1989) established six goals for education in America. Goal Number One recommended
that all children in America would start school ready to learn by the year 2000. The
appointment of four state legislators, four members of Congress, and eight governors to a
bipartisan group called the National Education Goals Panel reinforced the importance of

3
early education. Similar to President Bush, the panel established as its Goal One that all
children would start school ready to learn. Goal Eight requested every school to actively
engage parents and families in partnership to support the academic work of children at
home and to participate in the educational decision making at school.
In Goals 2000, some politicians criticized the National Education Goals Panel for
developing The National Standards as a means of taking away the constitutional rights of
states to control education. The National Standards included parents having more power
to influence the education of their children. As a result, many schools began to
“restructure” or redesign the education system, turning to “site-based management.” With
a bottom-up organization, authority that was previously held by districts and state
agencies devolved to the school site and engendered more staff involvement. The
“educational design” of the National Standards was created to produce effective results
for students, included establishing goals and directions with parent participation
involvement as a critical component (Tucker & Codding, 1998; Wirt & Kirst, 1997). In
2002, Congress dissolved the panel.
No Child Left Behind. On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into
law “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB). The new law was one of the most sweeping
reforms of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act since 1965 (U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs 2002, January/February).
One part of the “No Child Left Behind Act” affirms that children who enter school with
pre-reading and language skills are more likely to learn to read well, and as a result, are
far more likely to be successful in later years, “Early Reading First” is a provision

4
contained within NCLB that provides funds to develop language and the preliterate skills
of preschool students, ensuring that they begin school ready to read.
NCLB requires that states test third through eight graders yearly in reading and
mathematics. Unless preschool children achieve the required necessary academic skills
during their formative years, potentially low test scores in the future will likely lead their
home schools to be rated as failing under NCLB guidelines. Parents of children who are
in schools designated as failing for three consecutive years may transfer their child to
another school – traditional or charter – that has demonstrated better performance. As
when these home schools do not provide successful supplemental services such as after
school programs, tutoring, and summer schools, they may use their Title I Funds for
additional support.
Title I. The Title I Program is a federally funded program intended for students to
receive additional funds due to their having “social or economic characteristics” such as:
English language learners, low-income, or transient status. Title I considers these students
to be “educationally disadvantaged” (high cost or “at risk” of not succeeding in school)
and need additional support (EdSource, 1977). A vital component of Title I Programs is
parent involvement stressing parent participation in school activities.
Policies Promoting Parental Involvement in California
National Association for Education of Young Children. The National Association
for Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 1985) Accreditation System is a
collaboration of early childhood program administrators, teachers, parents, researchers,
teacher educators and policy makers. This NAEYC Accreditation System is

5
representative of the educational community network collaboration that is inclusive of
California as well as all other 49 states and several foreign countries. The combination of
Commission Accreditation decisions on internal and external reviews are drawn on
diverse geographic, programmatic, and experiential backgrounds that apply professional
judgment to the decision process formulations. The accreditation system broadened
parental involvement in early childhood education programs.
California Education Goals Panel. The California State Department of Education
Goals Panel established three objectives related to its school readiness goal that all
children have access to high-quality and developmentally appropriate preschool programs
in preparation for elementary school. The first goal has parent involvement as an essential
element. The panel sates:
All parents in the United States will be their children’s first teacher and devote
time each day to help their preschool children learn. Schools must provide
parents access to the training and support they need for participation. Children
need to receive the nutrition, physical activity, and health care needed to arrive at
school with healthy minds and bodies and to maintain the mental alertness
necessary to be prepared to learn from their parents. (The California State
Department of Education Goals Panel, 2000)

Testing and assessment. Since California State Guidelines for the Stanford Nine
Assessment requires second grade students to meet the “designated achievement
standards” (content and performance standards students should meet) or be subject to
retention, they have to have been prepared with the skills tested. A reported eight percent
of second graders in 1999 were a year behind because of the retention rate causing over
half a million children to be retained in 1999 (The National Center for Education
Statistics, 2000). The Los Angeles Unified School District’s (LAUSD) Curriculum

6
Division conducted a study, which revealed that if a second grade student began school in
Kindergarten; the student would receive 540 days of instruction prior to assessment. If,
however, the student was previously enrolled in a preschool program, he or she would
have benefited of 900 days of instruction before assessment. Clearly, the need to enroll
students in preschool programs is critical to academic achievement.
California mandates the Content Standardized Test (CST) for its public preschool
programs as do five other states. The California Education Child Development Division
requires the Desired Results Developmental Assessment and Profiles of students enrolled
in Early Childhood Education Programs twice a year. Teachers and parents have a
conference to review their children’s beginning developmental Assessment Profile of
academic strengths and weaknesses early in the fall semester. Later in the spring
semester, teachers and parents meet to review the post developmental Assessment Profile
gains of their children to determine their achievement growth. Parents’ discussion with
teachers not only initiates formal communication with the school, but awareness of
mandated testing often motivates parental involvement in early childhood education.
Despite these policies not enough parents of “at risk” students are involved to help close
the achievement gap.
African American Experiences:
There is a popular notion that African American students, more than any other
group of students, are less likely to attain future professional status. American schools
must face the challenge of preparing African American students to compete with all
students. Because many are descendents of involuntary slaves whose birth is confined to

7
a marginalized segment of the American population, their academic assimilation is
essential to the positive establishment of successful school achievement for all American
children.
In the epilogue of The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935, James
Anderson (1988) observes:
….A careful examination of blacks’ enduring beliefs in education and their
historic struggles to acquire decent educational opportunities against almost
overwhelming odds leaves little room to attribute their relatively low levels of
educational attainment to uncongenial cultural values or educational norms. That
more was not achieved means little, for the conditions have been appallingly
difficult. (p. 285)

In Young, Gifted, and Black: Promoting High Achievement Among African- American
Students, Perry, et al. (2003) use short illustrations of life stories. Perry focuses on past
and present African Americans who successfully transcended the racial issues that could
have hindered their academic, social, and cultural achievements. Their early life
experiences of being taught to read at an early age framed their futures toward education
and noted fame in the history of the United States. These life stories extend from former
slave Frederick Douglass, former United States Surgeon General Jocelyn Elders, to
current accomplished writer and African American civil rights activist Maya Angeleou.
Their childhood negative experiences included racial name-calling, derogatory remarks,
and limiting comments concerning their academic and professional potentials.
A common thread throughout these histories is the presence of many adults who
promoted early reading skills irrespective of background, social economic status (SES),
and dual or single parental educational achievements. Finn (1993) and Masten (1994)
point out that parents reading to and being read to by their children is germane to school

8
success. Similarly, Tracy (1995) finds there are important connections between children’s
reading to their parents and reading achievement especially if the parents guide and
correct the young readers. Yet Edwards (1992) and Baker et al. (1997) point out that
many households, especial low-income or minority culture homes, have few books and
even fewer books that are appropriate and interesting to children.
Clark (1984) conducted an in-depth study of 32 children who were reading
fluently and with understanding by the age of five. She found great variety in these
children’s backgrounds, the size of the families, and the children’s position within the
families. Common to each of these families was a positive and extended interaction
between child and adult during the preschool years, even though books may not have
been at the center of that interaction. In most families, the local library was mentioned as
a resource for obtaining books, both for the parents as well as their children.
Taylor and Dorsey-Gaines (1988) summarize their beliefs about the deficit model
of family literacy in the following statement:
Finally, every attempt should be made to create an atmosphere that places value
on the children’s growing sense of competence and independence so that their
lives are not separated from the outside world. Such policies, if promoted by our
schools, would depend upon close contact between teachers and parents. Family
and community involvement in school programs would be essential, and or
children would surely benefit from the connections that were being made in their
everyday lives. We must love them, engage their imaginations, laugh with them
and sometimes cry. The vividness of children’s experiences should not be dulled
by the pedantry of programs that lack respect for their everyday lives (p. 210).

According to Ogbu (1981), the dominant research approach to the universal
model of human development makes three fundamental assumptions:
1. The intrafamilial relationships and parent-child interactions in early childhood

9
experiences;
2. The micro-level analysis of the child’s early experiences, such as an analysis of
the child’s experiences within the family and similar settings; and
3. The child’s later school success and perhaps successes in adult life all depend on
the acquisition of White middle-class competencies through middles-class child-
rearing practices.
Ogbu (1990) further discusses African-Americans’ participation in education
from a historical perspective. He suggests that the mode of introduction to this country
influences all minorities. Ogbu believes that African-Americans are the most difficult
groups to embrace education, especially given the potential negative response from their
peers. There is evidence to suggest when African Americans pursue an education; others
from within their own group may taunt them as denying their racial identity. In contrast,
Gadsden (1993) notes, “Literacy and education are valued and valuable possessions that
African American families have respected, revered, and sought as means to personal
freedom and communal hope, from enslavement to the present” (p. 352).
Purpose and the Study
African American children experience achievement gaps, which are influenced to
a degree by parental involvement. The purpose of this study is to:
1. Explore the factors of African American parental involvement or non involvement
at home and in early childhood program;
2. To investigate the “parental role construction” impact on African American
parental involvement at the preschool level; and

10
3. To recommend the implementation of specific activities and components that
promotes positive African American parental involvement in an early childhood
development program.
In this study the research definition for “parental involvement” the degree of
involvement at home and in early childhood schools programs, and the factors that
influence that involvement. A major focus is placed on the role that early childhood
educators played in effecting positive parental involvement by lending their assistance to
parents and encouraging greater teacher-parent collaboration.
Research Questions
A review of the existing research on the factors that promote or inhibit African
American parental involvement in their children’s Child Development Center generated
the following three questions:
1. How does “Parental Role Construction” affect decisions of early childhood
African American (Black) parent’s involvement in their children’s education?
2. What components of successful parental involvement programs impact parent
participation in their African American children’s Child Development Center?
3. How do the early childhood program implementation efforts and specific
activities influence Black parental involvement in early childhood education?
Significance of the Study
Although California is 46
th
in the United States in educational funding, it spends
well over the national average of $2,547 per student annually for Early Childhood
Education Programs. South Metro Child Development Center, which is the focus of this

11
study, receives funding from the state. Located in urban area of southern California, the
South Metro Child Development Center’s mission statement declares it is “A learning
environment for children and adults that promote the growth and development of each
child.” The parents in this study are in the workforce and/or students in college who may
qualify for free or low cost childcare. The children in the center range in age from
preschool and school-age, up through 12-years of age. Roughly one-half of the early
childhood students are African American.
Early childhood education programs vary in rationale and approaches (Phi Delta
Kappan, 2001). In California, these programs have a ratio of less than 10 children to
every one teacher, making it one of 12 states to have such figures. However, the research
on these programs is controversial, generally highlighting the negative aspects of these
children’s early childhood experiences. Therefore, research on the positive trends that
bridge preschool to future successful school achievement of African American children
in essential to help establish policies and procedures designed to achieve more successful
outcomes. Stronge (2006) finds even a well designed program can only be implemented
by effective people. Blasé and Blasé (2004) discovered that the educational problems of
this country could be solved by creating essential achievements in the decision making
and involvement of our parents in school activities. Therefore this kind of study that
focuses on the level of involvement is essential for any action plan exploring factors that
promote or inhibit the parental involvement of African Americans.

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Definition of Terms
The following terms are used for the purpose for this study:
Academic achievement is the extent of knowledge, skills and understanding in
subjects typically taught in school, such as reading, arithmetic and written language.
Achievement Test is a test designed to measure the amount of knowledge and/or
skills an individual has acquired, usually as a result of classroom instruction, either
informal or standardized.
African American or Black is a person having origins in any of the Black racial
groups of Africa.
Assessment is the act or process of determining the present level (usually of
achievement) of a group or an individual.
At-risk is the status of a particular racial minority group that may be due to their
experiencing more social demographic risk factors.
Bias is the tendency to favor a certain portion or conclusion incorrectly based on
an individual’s group membership such as race.
Classroom performance is defined as academic and non-academic behavior
observable within the educational setting involving the response to both curriculum and
to the social forces of the setting.
Cognition is the ability to learn, understand and to deal with unfamiliar learning
tasks; the ability to apply knowledge to cope with one’s educational environment; the
ability to handle concepts in an increasingly abstract manner, the ability to generalize
beyond immediate task and context; the ability to analyze and synthesize information in a

13
meaningful way.
Ethnicity is an individual’s membership in a group sharing a common ancestral
heritage based on nationality, language, and culture.
Hispanic or Latino is a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or
South American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.
Home-based involvement is generally defined in the literature as the interactions
that take place between the child and the parent outside of school (Green, Walker,
Hoover-Dempsey, and Sandler, 2007).
Intellectual ability is acquired learning potential, determined by a systematic
assessment of intellectual functioning (Title 5, California Administrative Code;
Paragraph 3030 (J) (2).
Parental Role Construction is the range of activities that parents construe as
important, necessary, and permissible for their own engagement in their children’s
schooling (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).
School-based involvement is defined as activities that include those typically
undertaken by parents at schools and generally focus on the individual child, like
attending parent-teacher meetings, observing the child in the classroom, and watching the
child’s performance in a school related event (Green et at., 2007).
Self-efficacy is a person’s belief that he or she can act in ways that will produce
desired outcomes: shaping the goals an individual chooses to pursue and the level of
persistence in working.

14
Standardized Achievement Tests are measures that compare a pupil’s
performance with that of other pupils in such ways as identifying the grade level at which
a particular score would be average (grade equivalent) or the percent of pupils at a
particular age who would score lower than that pupil (percentile).
Social Capital is the set of resources that inhere in family relations and in
community social organization and that are useful for the cognitive or social development
of a child or young person (Coleman 1994, p. 300).
White is a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe and
North Africa.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
In the postindustrial West, most children are reared in families where parents and
caregivers work outside the home (Phi Delta Kappan, November 2001). Public schools
are increasingly providing childcare, preschool education, and before and after-school
care for these young children. While these programs were created to fill a need for
childcare, such school-based early childhood programs also reflect a growing interest in
early educational enrichment experiences for children in general. Because these programs
are supportive of the development and well-being of children, educators and parents have
come to see them as beneficial. Parents use these programs as ways of achieving social
objectives, such as preparing children for formal schooling, understanding education
through their own childhood experiences, and fostering social cohesion.
Even when early childhood education programs attempt to compensate for lack of
experiential resources available to some children, an integral part of the success of these
programs is parental involvement. Parental involvement is evidenced by increased
attendance at parent conferences, sharing student progress reports with teachers, and
communicating with other parents about school programs. Greater parental involvement
very often leads the child to do better academically (Becker & Epstein 1982; Epstein,
1986; Eccles, 1993). As the research demonstrates, early education programs are
necessary but not sufficient within themselves, as the involvement of parents aids the
cognitive development of young children. Parental involvement, no matter the culture,
socioeconomic status, or background, is an important element of success of these
programs. Perry (2003) shows in her study African American children perform equal to

16
other children in American schools with parental involvement, assistance, and
conferences about student problems and successes.
This chapter reviews the literature on the impact of parental involvement and non-
involvement on African American (Black) early childhood education students in urban
public school programs. Parental involvement is one key to improving the success of
children’s capacity to learn. Since the preschool experience embraces the formative
years, parental involvement in early childhood education is crucial for the further success
of children in school. The influential effects of parent involvement in early childhood
Black students’ preschool experiences will therefore be explored.
To begin, the review will explore what constitutes parental involvement and
examine the importance of parental involvement. “Parental Role Construction” theory
and its relation to parent involvement or non-involvement will be discussed. Following
will be a review of how school program implementation influences parental involvement.
The parental characteristics and life styles of parents themselves will be considered to
understand how these affect parental involvement. Finally, the influential factors of
African American parental involvement will be identified.
What Constitutes Parental Involvement
Early childhood educators work directly with children, but they must always
remain aware of the fact that each young child comes to a childcare and education setting
as part of a family. All children have one or more adults who nurture and support them.
As such, understanding this relationship is important. Becker and Epstein (1992) found
the time that parents and children spend in the home in learning activities increase the

17
children’s educational efficiency.
Parental participation has been considered an enhancement to early childhood
educational success and often referred to as an “institutional standard” in the United
States (Laree, 1989). Rollick et al (1997) label parental involvement as an investment of
resources in one’s own children. Parental involvement takes on various dimensions
which include: (a) beginning the day with a nutritious breakfast for children prior to
going to school; (b) assisting with homework; and (c) volunteering in classroom and
school activities, and other community efforts to the extent of even becoming a member
of the local board of education (Epstein, 1995). Family involvement in education is too
important to ignore if the goal is to create a stronger, safer, and more enriching future for
children.
Epstein (1995, 1996) suggests “Five Types of Parent Involvement” that help
parents provide a home environment that supports learning and school success. These
are:
1. Communicating - Communicates effectively from the school to the home and
home to school concerning children’s progress and school programs.
2. Volunteering - Involves parents as volunteers through recruitment, training, and
flexible schedules available to those parents for involvement.
3. Learning at Home - Provides information and activities for parents to use in
learning at home that connects the family and school.
4. Decision Making - Includes parents in school decisions and governance.

18
5. Collaborating with the Community – Integrates community services and resources
with the school to strengthen families, school programs, and children’s
development and learning (Epstein, 1996).
A sixth type of family involvement, which was not part of Epstein’s original research,
extends the involvement of the school to include the larger community in order to draw
upon community resources, social agencies, health services, businesses, and programs
that give children and families the support that may be needed.
The privileged White and middle-class see parental involvement as an obvious
expectation of education (Auerbach, 2007; Jordan, Orozco, & Averett, 2002; Lareau,
1989). This research shows that upper middle-class families are more involved than
working-class families. African American and Latino parents of lower social economic
status (SES) are less likely than White middle-class parents to come to school and
participate (Gandara, 1995; Moles, 1993). The unequal resources to meet children’s
educational goals are typically not addressed as needs that schools must accommodate.
Instead, teachers often assume that the minority “at risk” parents do not have the same
concerns about their children’s education and therefore continue to propagate the
unverifiable tradition of the uninvolved parents (Valdes, 1996; Valencia & Black, 2002).
Gadsden (1993) shows that African American parents consistently make financial
sacrifices such as working additional hours or acquiring second jobs to support their
children’s educational pursuits. American schools must therefore accept the challenge of
preparing African American students to equally compete with all students. This is
especially so given their heritage of involuntary enslavement and artificial designation

19
into the lower tiers of the American class system Their success in education will lead not
only to upward mobility into the middle-class, but will yield a more positive outlook
towards education. It will reinforce what Gadsden has observed, “Literacy and education
are valued and valuable possessions that African American families have respected,
revered, and sought as means to personal freedom and communal hope, from
enslavement to the present” (p. 352).
African American students need to have a caring school community and
supportive family dynamics. At the same time, families need to be presented with the
opportunity to participate more fully in society (Comer, 1997). Parent educational
programs can provide lower-income families the opportunity to increase their interactions
with teachers and other parents. Unfortunately, teachers find the lack of additional family
support resources that can increase parental involvement devastating to the learning
preparations of children (Seigler, 2007).
The strengths found in African American families are many, and include strong
kinship bonds, an achievement orientation, a strong work orientation with a desire for
upward mobility, an adaptability of family roles, and an emphasis on religion
(Billingsley, 1992; Hale-Benson, 1986; Hill, 1992). The extended family, along with
flexible family roles, is what has allowed families to survive the hardships and travails
that have been a part of their daily lives for generations (Billingsley, 1992). These
strengths are attributes that can foster greater parent-teacher cooperation, which can and
should be maximized by school personnel. Yet the ongoing issues of parent involvement
in the education of preschool-aged African American (Black) children present a

20
challenge for the future academic success of children. Involvement can be the difference
between academic failure and success.
Why Parental Involvement is Important
Legislation enacted in the United States very often mandates parental involvement
in education, underscoring its positive and significant impact. Moreover, research
indicates that early childhood parental practices appear to influence later academic
success and is essential in any action plan to increase the academic achievement of
African American, Hispanic, English Learners, and Special Education students (Seigler,
2007). Schneider and Coleman (1993), in their research focused on school activities and
programs, suggest that parent and student contact and interaction all play a role in
improving learning outcomes.
The time shared between parents and children in the home can focus on learning
activities that increase educational success. Several studies show how parents can
improve the academic achievement and social development of children by increasing
time on learning tasks with their children (Lightfoot, 1978; Marjoribanks, 1979).
However, there is a degree of variance in the nature and quality of the involvement of
parents, particularly among less educated parents (Clark, 1983; Scott-Jones, 1987). In a
study by Clark (1983), among 10 African American students from poor homes, only half
of them were academically successful. Successful students had parents who created
supportive environments and rebuilt their children’s confidence after academic failures.
They often provided work, review, and continued help with learning activities.
Interpersonal communications consisted of encouragement, nurturing interactions with

21
frequent dialogue, established rules and clear guidelines, and the monitoring of learning
activities. The combination of school interactions with at-home support yielded both high
achieving students and successful parental involvement.
Expectations for early childhood education programs differ across states,
counties, and communities. Many children begin kindergarten unprepared because their
parents are unaware of what children need to know to be ready for school and, therefore,
are not providing early support. For parents who talk, listen, and read to their children,
they are able to learn a great deal about their children’s feelings, abilities, and interests.
While Bloomstran (2002) notes that there appears to be no generic model for partnership
with parents, the National Education Association in Help for Parents (2005) points out
that when schools, families, and communities work together to support learning, children
tend to do better in school, stay in school longer, and like school more.
Former U. S. Secretary of Education, Richard W. Riley, formed a national
partnership that would increase parental involvement and participation. His focus on
30 years of research supports the argument that when parental involvement is great,
absenteeism, amount of television watched, and the kinds of learning activities that take
place in the home can be controlled. He concluded that what the family does is more
important than family background. Furthermore, research recognizes the importance of
home-school involvement as it provides home study. That is, a child can do informal
study at home and on trips to a store or the museum, for example. Talking and reading
together nurtures the child’s development.
Parental involvement is critical to student’s success and successful students have

22
involved parents. The cultural and educational beliefs of parents influence the programs
and experiences they arrange as well as the activities they choose to engage in with their
children. Because an evaluation their child’s readiness to start kindergarten is often
based on these beliefs (Graue, 1993), parental involvement is critical for fostering
academic success. Recent research shows that quality in preschool participation has an
enduring impact on children, at least through the second grade (Peisner-Feinberg et al.,
1999). As such, parental involvement during the formative years is crucial for furthering
the success of children in school.
Parental Role Construction Theory
“Parental Role Construction” (PRC) theory draws from theoretical and empirical
literature in psychology, sociology, and education (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995;
1997). This theory is central to comprehending the parental ideas regarding their
decision-making about involvement. In the field of education, theorists, researchers, and
practitioners continue to propose that parental ideas influence their involvement in
education (Clark, 1983). Parent’s beliefs about child rearing, child development, and
appropriate home support roles in education influence “parental role construction.”
Clark (1983) also suggests that the high or low academic achievement of low-
income African American children is dependent on parental involvement. Yet, successful
student achievement and parental involvement is linked to the parent’s ideas about their
involvement role in education. These parent’s ideas result in their determination to
assume a strong personal role in their children’s schooling and engage in behaviors that
adhere to these beliefs.

23
Parental Role Construction in Parental Involvement
Hoover-Dempsey, Wilkins, Sandler, and O’Conner (2004) propose that “parental
role construction” empowers parents to imagine, anticipate, plan, and function in
connection to numerous educational outcomes. Parents define the range of activities as
important, necessary and permissible for their participation. Parental role construction
therefore is described as parental beliefs about what one is supposed to do as a parent in
relation to his or her child’s education and the behaviors enacted in service to these
beliefs (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).
Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) studied the factors that motivate parental
involvement. These are:
1. Parental role construction and parent self-efficacy for helping children succeed in
school;
2. Parental perceptions of invitations for involvement by staff, teachers, and
children; and
3. Perceptions of the forms and timing of involvement, such as parent’s skills,
knowledge, and energy for involvement.
Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief that he or she can act in ways that will
produce the desired outcomes by shaping the goals which individuals chooses to pursue
their levels of persistence in working.
Green, Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, and Sandler (2007) studied parental role
construction in ethnically diverse metropolitan public elementary schools to predict
parental involvement types in grades one to six. Involvement types include home-based

24
and school-based involvement, and age-related differences. Home-based involvement is
generally defined in the literature as the interaction that takes place between the child and
the parent outside of school, for instance behaviors, attitudes, or strategies such as
helping homework, reviewing for test, and monitoring the child’s progress. School-based
involvement activities include those typically undertaken by parents at schools and
generally focus on the individual child, like attending a parent-teacher meeting, observing
the child in the classroom and watching the child’s performance in school related events
(Delgado-Gaitan, 1992; McDermott, Goldman, & Varenne, 1984). Active PRC for home-
based and school- based involvement was found to lead to more parental involvement.
Lareau and McNamara-Horvath (1999) researched parent and school interactions
that negate parental engagement with the school. They discovered that educators only
found a small number of acceptable behaviors of parents, such as when parents accepted
their opinions regarding their children. When the African American parents doubted
teacher perceptions or became critical of them, parents were described as having
unacceptable behaviors. This “distance” between school staff and African American
families had a negative impact on the parent-school relationship.
Epstein and Van Voorchis (2001) found that PRC is subject to social influence
over time. One of which is the initial reception they receive from the school. Over time,
however, parental involvement decreases as children age by grade, school structure, or
school transition. Yet, Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, and Darling (1992) caution that
parental involvement is critical as a child moves from early to middle childhood and
again into adolescence due to children’s increasing needs for independence and

25
increasing focus on peer relationships. The school must therefore extend its hand to the
parent to encourage the necessary cooperative relation that will build and sustain parental
involvement. Because PCR is dependent on beliefs, it is essential for educators to create a
school environment that stimulates the positive beliefs of parents.
What Influences Parental Involvement
The primary factor in parental involvement that influences PRC is the extent to
which schools reach out to parents to get them involved. Yet the relationship is complex
and must take into account such dynamics as socioeconomic levels, ethnicity, finances,
and the willingness of both educators and parents to collaborate and work together.
Different cultural and class contexts shape how parents define their role, and cultural
barriers hinder communication with parents. Parents must therefore believe that the child
and the school want their involvement. Pena (2000) found that parental involvement was
influenced by parents’ educational level, attitude of school staff, cultural influences, and
issues of childcare. For example, some parents are unable to read and are embarrassed by
the lack of education. In her study, emphasis was placed on the importance of the school
staff taking time to gain the trust of parents and informing parents of ways they can be
involved.
Starkey and Klein (2000) state that parent programs and interventions work best
when the strategies respect the needs of the families. Eliminating barriers to parental
involvement include addressing issues of childcare, transportation, and scheduling
conflicts. Job requirements and the number of hours worked are other issues that can
similarly make involvement difficult. Parents must be able to schedule the time to

26
become involve in their child’s education and schools must provide alternatives to
involvement. Effective partnerships between the school and parents account for these
issues and may increase student achievement (Epstein, 2002).
Parental involvement in the school affects their child’s education through PRC.
Brooks (2003) found that at-risk children who attended a preschool program were better
prepared for kindergarten, more academically skilled, communicated better, and better
behaved than like-peers who lacked this experience. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler
(1997) suggests that parents’ choices that influence their involvement are formed by the
following three constructs:
1. Parents’ perceptions of their own skills, interests, and abilities;
2. Parents’ experiences of other demands on time and energy; and
3. Parents’ experiences of specific suggestions and invitations for involvement from
children, teachers, and schools.
Hoover-Dempsey et al (2002) imply that increasing family-school communication is
relevant to extending parental involvement for it can (a) improve the school-climate for
family involvement, (b) institute in-service programs that address family-school
communication, and (c) develop in-school support for effective communication.
Delgado-Gaitan, (1992) and McDermott, Goldman and Varenne (1984) find three
factors that influence parents’ assistance with homework: (a) educators’ understanding of
parental factors influencing children’s school success, (b) parents’ opinion of their roles
and activities in relation to school assignments and homework, and (c) how parents report
their account of helping their children complete homework. Traditionally, parental

27
involvement in education has included home-based activities such as helping with
homework, encouraging children to read, and promoting school attendance. School-
based activities also motivate parental involvement by scheduling parent-teacher
meetings and conferences, holiday programs, and volunteering during the school day.
The following section considers the school’s role in the establishment of parental
involvement programs. The equally important parental influential factors of African
American parents will be examined to determine their involvement within the school.
School Influential Factors
Studies show that schools must take the lead in actively pursuing parental
involvement (Epstein & Sanders, 2006; National Coalition for Parents Involvement in
Education, 2006). Most teacher education programs, however, do not usually incorporate
the management of parent involvement within their course offerings. Therefore, many
teachers do not know how to navigate the issues related to parent involvement. In a 1982
Maryland study, Becker and Epstein discovered that 65% of the teachers discussed “with
each parent” what they can do at home. In this extensive survey conducted with 3,700
public elementary school teachers, about 28% of the respondents were first grade
teachers. Although some teachers discussed what they could do with parents, many of
them did not discuss their own teaching techniques. Some of the teachers did value parent
involvement in their classrooms as being an asset to accelerating parental learning
assistance in their homes. But half of the teachers in the survey had serious doubts about
the success of practical efforts to involve parents in learning activities at home.

28
Some educators stress minimal efforts should be devoted to influencing adult-
child learning activities at home. In a 1992 survey, Becker and Epstein discovered that
approximately 50 percent of teachers had uncertainty about their attempts to include the
parents in home learning activities. Teachers utilized techniques of communication by
requesting parents to check and sign student homework. Other teachers encouraged
parents to assist with homework but without discussing the teaching methods that they
themselves employ. About seven percent held meetings with parents beyond the school’s
regularly scheduled “parent’s nights.” A minority percentage of teachers extend
themselves beyond their realm of expected participation.
Epstein (1987) suggests the following Six Major Types of Involvement as part of
a schools’ comprehensive program to share responsibilities with families for the
education of their children:
1. Basic family obligations include providing children’s health and safety,
developing parenting skills and child-rearing approaches that prepare
children for school, maintaining healthy child development across the
grades, and building positive home conditions that support school learning
and behavior all across the school years.
2. Basic school obligations include communications with families about
school programs and children’s progress.
3. School involvement includes parent and other volunteers who assist
teachers, administrators, and children in classrooms or in other areas of the
school.

29
4. Teachers request and guide home learning involvement for parents to
assist their own children that are coordinated with the children’s class
work.
5. Decision-making, governance, and advocacy involvement includes parents
and others in the community in participatory roles in the parent-teacher
association or organization.
6. Community organizations collaborate and exchange connections to
include agencies, businesses, and other groups in sharing responsibilities
for children’s education and future successes.
School programs that include these six types of involvement help parents understand
school communications, become productive volunteers at school, share responsibilities in
their children’s education through curriculum learning activities at home, and include
parents’ voices in decisions that affect the school and their children.
The National Association for the Education of Young Children’s (NAEYC) Code
of Ethical Conduct (1999) reminds early childhood educators of their primary
responsibility to the children. They also uphold the important responsibilities that are to
be assumed by the adults in children’s lives even though they may be occasionally
challenging. Contrary to this belief, some teachers insist that the education of young
children should be left to professional educators, (Becker & Epstein, 1982) yet some
parents wished they could be more involved. The National Center for Education Statistics
Statistical Analysis Report (1998) discloses that 87% of schools perceive parents’ lack of
time as a barrier to parental involvement in schools.

30
Schools vary in how much and how well they inform and involve families. Some
parents may not become involved at the school due to the fact that they have not been
invited or welcomed. A study by Epstein (1986) reported that about 12% of elementary
school parents have never been involved in the classrooms of their children. Epstein and
Dauber (1991) conducted a three-year study of 171 teachers in eight inner-city
elementary schools designed to improve parent involvement programs and practices. The
study demonstrates the variance between how much and how well teachers inform and
involve families. Utilizing a teacher questionnaire that included questions related to the
use of school and classroom volunteers (including the numbers, frequency tasks, and
training of volunteers), parent involvement practices, and problems solicited from
teachers, the authors discovered a great deal of information about teacher’s general
attitudes about parent involvement and communication with students’ families.
There is considerable flexibility and unpredictability in the types of parental
involvement communication that are implemented in schools. At the preschool stage, a
publication of newsletters is usually the teacher’s responsibility (Epstein, 1986). This
one-way communication from the school merely informs parents about the school’s plans
and happenings. The power of this one-way type of involvement to predict other types of
engaged two-way involvement is relatively low. Still other schools communicate with
through, phone calls and conferences, which are two-way communications, and require
interaction among participants. These allow parents to provide the school with feedback
about their knowledge, concerns, and desires (Epstein, 1986; 1987).
Teachers, who deal with college-educated parents, parents with average

31
schooling, and parents with very little schooling, are about equally likely to be active
users of parent-involvement strategies. Parents, with little schooling, are viewed by
teachers as “capable” of assisting their children in reading at home. The parent’s
capabilities, however, may depend on whether the teacher has worked out a system of
procedures and communication patterns that facilitate greater parental involvement. It is
suggested in the literature that preschool teachers or parent educators should focus on the
child’s experiences at home, take advantage of what is already occurring at home, and
open the parents’ eyes to learning opportunities and the enrichment of the home
experience. If used effectively in positive and supportive ways, homework will build a
child’s self-esteem (Cooke & Cooke, 1988).
Various types and strengths of school programs and teachers’ practices for parent
involvements are examined in the literature. The process is outlined in terms that any
school can follow so as to improve programs and practices of parent involvement.
Teachers with positive attitudes toward parent involvement will undoubted place more
importance on holding conferences, communicating about school programs, and
providing parents with student progress reports, indicating strengths and areas of
improvement. Constructive parental attitudes are positively correlated with more success
in involving “hard-to-reach” parents such as working parents, less educated parents,
single parents, parents of older students, young parents, parents new to the school, and
other adults with whom children live. When teachers make parent involvement part of
their regular teaching practice, parents increase their interactions with their children at
home, feel more positive about their abilities to help their children in the elementary

32
grades, rate the teachers as better teachers overall, and students improve their attitudes
and achievement (Becker & Epstein 1982; Epstein, 1986).
An awareness of culture is a prerequisite to understanding the differences between
children’s culture and school culture as teachers can easily misinterpret the actions and
intent of a student and his or her use of language. When cultural differences exist
between the teacher and the child, the norms of the community will dictate the methods
of discipline and patterns of interaction, most often varying greatly between classrooms
(Delpit, 1995). The literature documents the importance of school and family connections
for increasing student success in school and strengthening school programs, showing
overlapping theories of family and schools, on students’ learning and development, and
on family and school effectiveness (Epstein, 1987a).
Greater parental involvement creates a partnership with the teacher that is likely
to influence more parental supervision of homework assignments (Lareau, 2003). In this
partnership, teachers encourage parents to read to their children, take them to the library,
buy children books, and provide opportunities for children to read at home, all of which
motivate the acquisition of increased vocabulary and verbal literary skills. Lareau (2003)
finds that teachers who support the endeavors of parents have children with more
extensive vocabulary. One example of a hugely successful parent involvement program is
a school-sponsored parent reading program that provided books for children to take home
twice a week (Toomey, 1992).
Teachers’ years of experience do not correlate significantly with school programs
involving parents in workshops, home learning activities, or decision-making

33
opportunities. When some teachers succeed in using new engaged activities of parent
involvement, other teachers are influenced to use the same practices. Other school
programs are then strengthened as evidenced by Delia Vargas’ progress report (1990) of
the Schools Reaching Out Project on P. S.111 in New York.
Parental Influential Factors
Many studies contend that less educated parents cannot or do not want to become
involved in their children’s education. The involvement of less educated parents varies
greatly in terms of type and quality (Clark, 1983; Scott-Jones, 1987). Muller and Kerbow
(1993) found that 15-26% of mothers from this group volunteer at school, whereas
employed mothers are less likely to become involved (Eccles & Harold, 1996). In
Accredited Child Care Programs, fathers preferred involvement in (a) family activities,
(b) “Daddy and Me” programs, (c) activities for both parents to learn about their child’s
future, (d) activities for both parents to learn about child development, and (e) sporting
events (Turbiville, V., Umbarger, G. T. III, & Guthrie, A. C., 2000).
In Falmer, Lareau, and Shuman’s Ethnographic Study on Social Interactions
(1999), they reveal the social relationships that may serve as an important influence on
the frequency and type of parental involvement. Included are elementary parents who
maintain ties to teachers and other parents in order to gain access to and exchange
information about the school and a source of advice.
Although television has been labeled by some researchers as a controllable factor
by parents, it has been considered a hindrance to time required for homework completion
(Newman, 1996). Nonetheless, this research shows positive results may still result from

34
television viewing as parents can select educational television programs that are viewed
together and followed by a discussion that encourages the child’s learning. Use of home
computers can similarly give children, even preschool children, a feeling of success when
using a self-correcting activity that allows them to be in command. However, the time
and length of children’s involvement with computers and television must be monitored,
as the most important learning takes place between people.
Much of the emphasis on early childhood has been due to a belief that parents of
young children are more willing and more able to perform useful functions in an
educational program than are parents of older children. Becker and Epstein (1982)
discovered that other researchers have viewed the parents of preschoolers and early
elementary-aged children as their primary targets. Programs such as Head Start and
Follow-Through systematically incorporated specific functions for parents as part of their
organizational arrangements. Many of these programs were found to increase student
learning of school-readiness skills more so than programs using alternative “control”
treatments (The Wilson Quarterly, 2001).
African American Parental Influential Factors
African American students need to have a caring school community and
supportive family. Until prejudice and discrimination are eliminated in the United States,
most Black children will receive mixed messages. At school, children need to receive one
message, that all children will succeed and they are all first-class citizens (Hale, 1994).
As such, parental involvement is an important element in and predicator of academic
success (Ortega & Ramirez, 2002). Schools that include their parents as active partners,

35
recognize their contributions and enable children to feel acknowledge and accepted.
While Black families often have a strong network among family members and friends:
aunts, uncles, and grandparents help and support one another (Stevens, 1982). They need
to be provided with the opportunities to more fully participate in society.
Parent educational programs are one source of participation for lower-income
families that will help to increase their involvement in their child’s development. Claude
Steele (2003) insists that involvement of these Black children and their families often
creates the differences between success and failure in their pending school endeavors. As
such, teachers need to move toward understanding and enhancing the self-esteem of
African American children (Cunningham, 1976; Brown, 1986; Hale, 1991; Hilliard,
1992). This can be accomplished by involving greater percentages of African American
parents in their children’s early educational success.
Galen (1999) found that parents’ beliefs about positively affecting their children’s
education and predictors of involvement are associated with their perception of their role
in child development, that the school desires their help and their congruence with the
school. Unfortunately, this is encumbered by teachers who do not frequently involve
parents and make stereotypic judgments about their involvement and abilities. This is
especially so about parents who are less educated, socio-economically disadvantaged,
and/or lead single family homes.
Conclusion
In an effort to avoid the mitigation of the potential for inadequate school readiness
among young children, the legislators across the country have issued mandates calling for

36
parental involvement at the state, district, and local school levels to ensure students come
to school ready to learn. The NAEYC Accreditation System for preschool childhood
education programs requires the collaboration of early childhood program administrators,
teachers, parents, researchers, teacher educators and policy makers in all 50 states. The
California Desired Results Developmental Assessment preschool content standardized
test impacts parental involvement with educators in collaboration for yearly student
educational achievement. Researchers continue to recognize the importance of home-
school parental involvement.
“Parent Role Construction” strengthens the collaboration of early childhood
African American (Black) parents and teachers, leading to increased parental
involvement in their children’s education. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995, 1997)
found that parents’ decisions to become involved in their children’s education are a
function in part of “parental role construction” for involvement. Theorists, researchers,
and practitioners have suggested that parents’ ideas about their roles in children’s
education are important to understand concerning their thinking and decisions about
involvement. African American parents believe that they should assume a strong,
personal role in their children’s schooling and enact behaviors that adhere to these beliefs
(Clark, 1983). Parents construe a range of home-based and school-based activities that
they determined are important, necessary, and permissible for their own engagement in
their children’s schooling (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1997).
Components of parental involvement programs impact parent participation,
particularly among African Americans, and parents and teachers generally agree that

37
parental involvement can make a significant difference in student performance. African
American students need a school community and family support system that participates
completely in society. Teachers’ awareness of culture is vital to comprehend differences
that exist between school and home cultures. Researchers cite the importance of parent
involvement in student safety, achievement, and future achievement. The five major
components of parent involvement suggest that communicating, volunteering, learning at
home, decision making, and collaborating with the community help parents with skills
and understanding of child development that supports learning and school success
(Epstein, 1995, 1996).
Successful early childhood program implementation efforts and specific activities
influence Black parental involvement in early childhood education. When educators
make parent involvement part of their regular teaching practice, parents not only increase
their interactions with their children at home, but feel much more positive about their
abilities to help their children. School programs are recommended to include the six types
of involvement to help parents build home learning conditions that facilitate greater
understanding between parents and schools, become productive volunteers at school,
share responsibilities in their children’s education through home learning activities, and
include parents’ voices in decision-making that has an impact on the school and their
children (Epstein, 1987).
African American (Black) parents of lower economic status are less involved in
parental involvement than their White middle-class counterparts. This can be a result of a
less than cordial reception or the lack of a request to participate. And though many

38
parents do have the desire to become more involved, circumstances prevent them from
fully engaging with their schools. Educators therefore need to maintain positive attitudes
as they attempt to involve “hard-to-reach” parents, working parents, less educated
parents, single parents, parents of older students, young parents, parents new to the
school, and other adults with whom children live. Rather than subscribing to the
perspective that parents’ lack of time is restricting involvement, teachers need to plan
activities that accommodate parents’ schedules.
One-way communication from the school only provides information to parents
about schools, but two-way communication requires reciprocal action between
participants. This allows parents to share their knowledge, concerns, family culture, and
desires for the educational program with school representatives. Conferences with parents
about school programs, and both positive and negative student progress reports are
essential. Social interactions with other parents and teachers allow for the interchange of
important information, construct beliefs, and direct norms of behavior.
Research shows that not all teachers discuss their own teaching techniques with
parents (Becker & Epstein, 1982, 1992). While they encourage parental learning
assistance in the home, they do so without discussing the teaching methods that they
themselves utilize. So while teachers may consider less educated parents as “capable” of
assisting their children in home reading, there is the sense that this can only be
accomplished if parents are aware of learning opportunities and enrich their home
experiences. Yet this is hard to do if the teachers themselves have not developed the
requisite methods and explained patterns to parents. Consequently, educators have

39
serious doubts about the success of efforts to involve parents in home learning activities.
However, as the research points out, when educators make parent involvement
part of their regular teaching practice, parents increase their interactions with their
children at home, and feel more positive about their abilities to help their children.
Parents could be encouraged by teachers to visit libraries, buy books, read to children,
and allow them to read to them at home. Moreover, parent educational programs for
lower-income families increase their interactions in their children’s educational
development. Parents who have a college-education, average schooling, and or very little
schooling should be equally encouraged to become active in parent involvement
strategies.
Parental involvement must be led by the schools. However, teacher education
programs tend not to include this necessary component within their curriculum. Teachers’
years of experience also do not correlate significantly with their reports of the strengths
of school programs involving parents in workshops, home learning activities, or decision-
making. Even well designed programs continue to be only as effective as the people who
implement them.

40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The major purpose of this research is to provide a case study approach to
understand the impact of “Parental Role Construction” in the parental involvement
program experiences of African American parents. The factors that promote or inhibit
parental involvement in early childhood education are analyzed, such as program
components, implementation, and specific activities. “Parental Role Construction”
influences that contribute to parental participation in the mutual educational community
are identified. Only African American parents of pre-kindergarten students enrolled in the
South Metro Community College Child Development Center were interviewed regarding
their involvement in the program. Each parent was interviewed to gain insight into the
factors that promoted their participation in school-based and home-based activities.
Provided in this chapter are detailed summaries of the Child Development Center site,
participants, data collection, and the central role of the researcher.
In this case study, contemporary events are investigated within a real-life context,
ensuring a rigorous description and analysis of parents in an early education center
(Merriam, 1998). Polkinghorne (2005) created an important distinction, in his definition
of a case study, stating that the unit of analysis is not the person or the thing being studied
but rather the experience. The goal is to gather data about the individual or group in a
setting to understand the way in which the person functions. These participants, who
were self selected, provided rich data. Both Patton (2001) and Polkinghorne (1983)
recommend that the interview questions ultimately determine analysis and how it is to be
studied. As such, the interviews are written narratives of parents’ responses to the

41
center’s implementation activities and their experiences participating in school-based and
home-based activities, documenting the factors that promote or inhibit African American
parental involvement in the Child Development Center.
The goal of this study is to understand how parents describe their parental
involvement and relationship to their “parental role construction;” and whether their
involvement is the result of parental beliefs or the influence of the center program
components. In evaluating parental involvement, a much clearer understanding on the
parent’s role in the involvement process would emerge. The theoretical constructs
provide a trajectory to identify which factors most impact the involvement decisions of
African American parents.
School Description
South Metro Community College was established as a component of an urban
union high school district in Southern California. A bond issue separated the college from
the high school district, and classes began on the new campus in 1970. The student body
changed dramatically from a predominantly White to an overwhelmingly African
American population in the 1980s. The second major ethnic shift occurred in the 1990s
when the campus population became an even split between African Americans and
Hispanics at 50 percent.
Most of the African American early childhood students in the South Metro Child
Development Center will attend one of the incorporated urban area high schools in Los
Angeles County. The recent high school test results of African American students in the
local unified school districts are as follows:

42
Table 1

African American Students Passing Rates on the California High School Exit Exam
Results 2007-2008

School Students Tested Math English
Feeder School District #1 1,773 25 34
Feeder School District #2 1,168 32 47
Feeder School District #3 12,232 38 47
County of Los Angeles 30,182 39 49
State of California 84,624 42 50
Note. 2007-2008 was the first year that students with learning disabilities were required to take the Exit
Exam. The district names were changed to Feeder Districts to secure the confidentiality of the district’s
name.

A majority of South Metro’s preschool students attend Feeder School District #1
and typically score below other local urban public school districts up through the high
school level. The South Metro College Center attempts to improve its education and
physical facilities and new buildings continue to be built on the campus. Housed in a
brand-new facility, the South Metro Child Development Center provides experiential
opportunities to their college students studying early childhood education, helping them
to apply classroom lessons in a real-world preschool setting. The Child Development
Center preschool program strives to offer an excellent yet affordable childcare program
and unique learning experience for the whole family of predominately African American
and Hispanic populations.
Description of the School Participants
A list of prospective volunteer parents was compiled and Information Sheets for
Non-Medical Research were provided in advance for pending approval. Ninety-minute
appointments were scheduled to interview twelve African American parents who have
children enrolled in the South Metro Child Development Center. Ten minutes was

43
devoted to the reading and clarification of the information and 80 minutes was scheduled
for the oral interview. All questions were generated to obtain information for “parental
role construction” and the components, implementation, and specific activities of the
parental involvement in the early childhood education program.
Research Instruments
In order to obtain responses about their involvement, parents were asked to
answer interview questions that generated details, elaboration, and clarification of
involvement practices. The interviews provided thorough narratives, direct quotations,
and descriptions that subsequently answered the following research questions:
1. How does “Parental Role Construction” affect decisions of early childhood
African American (Black) parent’s involvement in their children’s education?
2. What components of successful parental involvement programs impact parent
participation in their African American children’s Child Development Center?
3. How do the early childhood program implementation efforts and specific
activities influence Black parental involvement in early childhood education?
Table 2 below provides a description of each of the instruments used in this study.
Table 2

Research instruments used for the study
Document Description
Parent Questionnaire #1:
Background Information
Overview of the background information of the parent’s family
(Appendix A)
Parent Questionnaire #2:
Parental Involvement
Interview
Overview of parental involvement in school implementation components,
including school-based and home-based activities in the center (Appendix
B)
Information Sheet for Non-
Medical Research
Overview of the Consent to Participate in Research information
guidelines for this study (Appendix C)
Parent Comment Response
Repertory Grid
Outlined grid of the parent interview responses on parental involvement
in the child development program (Appendices D and E)

44
Data Collection Procedures
Essential educational influences were examined to determine their impact on
parental involvement. The factors that promote or inhibit parental involvement were
reviewed to project their influences on the results of parents’ preschool participation
experiences. Based on a review of the relevant literature, the study interviewed African
American parents of early childhood education students to obtain information about those
experiences. The analysis of the data is based on the actual words and perceptions of
these individual parents.
Limitations
The following limitations were noted:
Parents interviews were recorded with the permission of the parent interviewed
and met the required guidelines of the University of Southern California and the South
Metro Child Development Center. The data was collected by written detailed field notes,
audiotapes, and transcribed verbatim statements that are inclusive of direct quotations of
the African American parents who participated in the study. In order to achieve formative
feedback, interview data was subsequently checked for accuracy against original
recordings and timed within the evening or early the next day. It was imperative to
record the oral responses and events as they occurred without the interpretation and
personal judgment of the researcher.

45
Delimitations
The following delimitations were evident:
1. The sample of 12 parents was limited to Early Childhood Center African
American parents from the South Metro Child Development Center in the school
year of 2008-2009.
2. The African American parents had early childhood education children that are in
the preschool within the two-to-five year age range during the school year of the
2008-2009 research.
Only the African American parents of the Child Development Center’s students are
studied for the period.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made:
1. The participants were honest in their responses to the questions.
2. The participants’ responses to the questions were completed independently.
3. The volunteering participants for this study were diverse enough to represent the
total African American early childhood parent population in the child
development center.
4. The findings from this study may not be generalized beyond the child
development center where the study was conducted.

46
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

This is a case of African American parental involvement in an early childhood
education program. Their “Parental Role Construction” beliefs are presented as a
narrative in an effort to understand their lived experience. Verbal recorded reports were
utilized to illustrate this reality as it was perceived by them. Cultural transmission was
focused on how the larger social structure intervenes in their lives and influences values,
skills, and behaviors to achieve parental involvement. The purpose of this study is to
discover and put forward those factors that promote or inhibit the challenging task of
parental involvement for African American parents in the South Metro Child
Development Center during the 2008-2009 School Year.
Organizational Structures
The South Metro Child Development Center is operated by the South Metro
Community College in Southern California and is designed to provide an environment for
the growth and development of infants, toddlers, preschoolers and school-age children.
The children of the parents in this research study are preschool children between the ages
of two and five years old. The center has teachers certified by the state who provide a
developmentally appropriate curriculum. Breakfast, hot lunch, and snacks are offered to
the children daily and parents are given several opportunities to participate. All the
programs are open to the community as well as to students, staff, faculty, and their
families. The State Department of Social Services has licensed the center as a
combination site to serve infants, toddlers, and preschoolers and to provide after school
programs for school-age children. All teaching staff holds Associate’s or Bachelor’s

47
degrees and posses the required child development permits issued through the California
Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
The Center’s brochure describes it as a vital support system, which provides the
following services to students and parents with young children:
• Development of effective parenting skills
• Enrollment in training programs or courses for job development
• Earned certificated and degrees in specific disciplines
• Earned transfer credit to a four-year college/university
• Study and pursuit of all of the above with assurance of
childcare needs being met
The Center also serves as a laboratory site for students enrolled in child
development practicum courses, psychology, nursing, photography, and family studies.
Parents of all children enrolled in any of the programs are encouraged to participate in
several of parent education programs to enhance parenting skills, discuss child
development needs with staff and interact with other parents in a supportive setting.
Key Findings
The twelve participants in this study discussed their experiences and beliefs about
involvement in the early childhood program. Information about parent’s knowledge was
collected in an informal but focused interview for ninety minutes. These reflections,
observations and judgments are used to develop an understanding of their “Parental Role
Construction” process. The following research questions are answered in the study:
1. How does “Parental Role Construction” affect decisions of early childhood

48
African American (Black) parent’s involvement in their children’s education?
2. What components of successful parental involvement programs impact parent
participation in their African American children’s Child Development Center?
3. How do the early childhood program implementation efforts and specific
activities influence Black parental involvement in early childhood education?
Parental Background Information
The parents in this study identified their ethnic or racial identity as either “African
American” or “Black.” All twelve persons interviewed were between the ages of 25-45
years old and are the parent of a preschool child enrolled in the center. They had a total
of 56 children, each ranging in age from one to 26 years old. Ten out of 12 parents at the
time of the study were single. Only one male was interviewed and is the only parent who
had attained a Master of Arts Degree (M.A.). Their total educational achievement was
high school graduation and beyond, with varying degrees of collegiate experiences. Four
parents had attained an Associate of Arts Degree (A.A.) and three parents are the
recipients of the Bachelor of Arts Degree (B.A.). Five parents were enrolled in this
college as students and several others were Early Childhood Development Majors. The
enrollment goal of one parent was to receive a Special Education Credential. Of the
parents who work, five of them work in the educational field as teacher assistants or
associate teachers.
Parental Role Construction Theory
“Parental Role Construction” theory focuses on a parent’s belief about how one is
to imagine, anticipate, and plan behaviors that will inspire and motivate their

49
participation in home-based and school-based activities beneficial to their child’s
academic success. The factors motivating this theory are: (a) parental role construction
and parent self-efficacy for helping children in school, (b) parental perceptions of
invitation to be involved by schools, teachers, and children, and (c) perceptions of form
and timing of involvement. The emphasis of this research is based on school program
implementations in early childhood education home-based and school-based
involvement.
The twelve African American (Black) parents’ responses are presented by two
levels of parental involvement in this study. The two types of parental involvement are
assigned as “More Involved Parents” and “Less Involved Parents.” In terms of “parent
role construction” the eight cases of “More Involved Parents” had equal participation in
school-based and home-based activities. The four cases of “Less Involved Parents” had
less involvement but more in home-based activities than school-based activities.
”More involved parent” profiles
Andrew is a 45-year-old African American single father of a four-year-old son.
He has ten other children ranging in age from 5 to 26 years. Andrew is the only father
interviewed for this research and is the oldest participant in the study. Having a Master of
Arts Degree means that he has the highest level of education of all the parents
interviewed. He also holds an Associate of Arts Degree in Child Development and was
previously a teacher assistant. Presently he is a coach at the South Metro Community
College, holding numerous parental involvements including graduations, holidays, sports,
and luncheons. Andrew had one of the strongest levels of participation in school-based

50
and home-based parental involvement in the center.
Angela is a 29-year old African American single mother of two children, one of
which is a three-year old daughter enrolled in the center. She has vocational training, is
currently studying for the Associate’s degree, and teaches in a preschool. Angela was an
equally active parent in all areas of involvement without the request of the teacher and
believes communicating with the teacher on teaching ideas and planning opportunities is
important.
Cecilia is a 35-year old African American high school graduate and single mother
of a four-year-old daughter, who is working on an Associate’s degree in Fine Arts. As a
single mother without a support network, she considered the center to be a “second home
and village” for her daughter. Her multiple concerns for her daughter’s health and
potential disability needs, at the time of the study, pending formal evaluation. Although
Cecilia was very concerned about additional parental involvement activities, she
continued to participate equally in all existing areas of parental involvement.
Dee is a 37-year old African American single mother of three children whose
three-year old son was enrolled in the center. She has an Associate’s degree with a high
degree of self-efficacy about helping her son. Her involvement level was equal in all
areas of activity. The center staff and her child appear to be motivational in support of
encouragement in these areas. She included the network support of her son’s father and
older children.
Janet is a 25-year old African American single mother of three children with a
three year-old son enrolled in the center and was the youngest parent interviewed for the

51
study. A former preschool teacher, she has an Early Childhood Certificate and will
receive her Associate’s degree in Social Studies before transferring to California State
Dominquez University in the fall 2009. Volunteering daily at the center was important to
her and her son. Janet utilized the observation room to become better aware of her son’s
classroom activities. Her home-based participation activities included assisting with
homework, reading to her son, and watching educational television. Similar to another
parent, she demonstrated an equal balance between her involvement in school-based and
home-based activities.
Lola is a 36-year old Black single mother of two children with a four-year old son
enrolled in the center. She has a Bachelor’s degree and is working on a special education
credential. She arranged her time to volunteer for class activities, wanted to receive
homework assignments from the teacher, and found the observation of her child’s
activities to be important. As a special education assistant, Lola felt that she could help
her child and counted her brother a network support for her son.
Loraine is a 42-year old married African American mother of 12 children and has
a four-year old daughter enrolled in the center. She has an Associate’s degree and five
years of college classes. Several of her older children were previously enrolled in the
center. She is one of the most involved parents. Having the most children of all the
participants and working did not hinder her ability to balance her parental involvement.
Although she works at the South Metro Center as a teaching assistant, she volunteers two
hours every day after her workday before picking up her older children from school.
They are all enrolled in after-school study programs. She helps them with their

52
assignments. Her network support includes her older children and their father.
Monitoring her child’s progress is vital to her involvement. Staff, school-based, and
home-based activities are essential motivators for her parental involvement.
Victorous is a 43-year African American single mother of five children with a
four-year old daughter in the center. She was currently working on an Associate’s degree
in Human Relations though Child Development had been an interest in the past. The
teacher and her child had encouraged her to volunteer at the center and began to
volunteer between classes and helps children to read in the classroom. Her school-based
and home-based activities contributed equally to her parental involvement.
”Less involved parent” profiles
Ann is a 33-year old Black single mother of three children with a three-year old
son enrolled at the center. She has an Associate’s degree in General Education and is
currently working on a Bachelor’s degree. The convenient location of her job as an
employee in the office of the South Metro Community College Campus keeps her near
her son during the day. Her son’s asthmatic condition impacts her involvement in outside
home-based activities and admits she does not volunteer in class or at the center.
Nancy is 32-years old Black single mother of five children whose four-year old
son in the center and is in a Licensed Vocational Nurse Program. Nancy feels that her
son’s learning was up to her and relied primarily on the information provided by the
teacher. As such, the parent conference is so important to her that she keeps the papers in
a safe place at home. She fully believes that the center will notify her if there is a
problem. Because she works and takes classes, she only volunteered for one day and

53
believes that her daily schedule is a challenge to any further participation. Homework and
more information from the teacher would be appreciated and is considered as additional
involvement. Her network support includes her older children who provide additional
home-based assistance.
Olga, a 33-year old African American single mother of four children, has a four-
year old daughter in the center. She is studying to be a Registered Nurse. At the time of
the study, she was waiting to attend a parent conference scheduled in 90 days. She felt
that regularly scheduled progress reports were needed and that an invitation to come to
the school would be appreciated. Although she had used observation room to gain
information about her daughter’s center activities, Olga was unaware of what she does in
her class work. Her child’s father and older sister comprised Olga’s support network,
with television serving as the preferred activity of her child and her father. In addition,
her older son read to her daughter.
Stephanie is a 29-year old Black married mother of two children with a three-year
old son in the center. She is a probation officer who holds a Bachelor’s degree in
Psychology. Stephanie was frequently informed of the various activities conducted by
the center. The teacher gave her information about her son’s abilities that were helpful.
Stephanie felt that she needed ways to help but had not volunteered at the center due to a
prohibitive work schedule. Though homework was not provided by the teacher she and
her husband, who was the primary home-based network during the week, provided their
child with home-based activities.

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School Implementation Activities
How do the early childhood program implementation efforts and specific activities
influence Black parental involvement in early childhood education?
Parental involvement and school participation requires educators to give
assistance and support to parents. Studies show that schools must take the lead in actively
pursuing parental involvement through the use of such programs as parent orientation
meetings, policies and rule brochures, pamphlets, parent/teacher student evaluation
conferences, and parent involvement meetings. School staff implementation efforts
include recognizing parents’ on a daily basis by asking parents to help, to visit the school,
and to volunteer. School implementation components provide daily and/or weekly
progress reports, frequent verbal child academic and behavior information, homework
assignments or packets, and semester student profiles.
”More involved parent” school implementation activities
Andrew felt very welcomed at the center, stating, “The people are nice and like
family. I feel good about leaving my son with them. The teachers greet you like an aunt.
I know all the staff.” When he enrolled his son, the director and assistant director greeted
him in a way that made him feel that this was the right time and place for his child
should. He further noted, “In this center, I feel real good, always come over, and observe
on campus…They made a point of verbally and in black and white providing the rules
and polices. The director is good.” He elaborated further, saying:
All of the staff is interested in my son. I recommend the center to other students,
who are parents at the college, for their family and parent values…I always ask
questions, visualizing on the computer, and learning at school regarding his
progress…This center staff will phone call you if there is a problem. They stay on

55
top of things and communicate important information. The staff help raise kids;
the teachers, director, secretary, and aides. I stay on top of things, changes in
behavior, and they also tell me things. If there is a problem such as hitting,
fighting, or scratching, verbal and written information is given, they are on top of
it.

He felt confidence in the director to “let [him] know about ways to help out in school
through literature, programs, and the community.” Moreover, as he said:
My concerns about my son are very important because kids learn a lot at school
that they may not do at home. His interests are watching me, the team, what I do,
and talking like me. They let him lead exercises.

Like Andrew, Angela feels welcomed at the center and the center staff is always
courteous to her. Interestingly, she did not initially feel welcomed to the center. She
says, “Vital to me was the pursuit of education that was not at the home with family
members or a home day care. I wanted my three-year-old to be safe.” The center has a
parent orientation scheduled two times a year, presenting protocols and handbooks for
rules and policies.
I am always in the director’s office in order to stay on top of things. Most
scheduled activities are scheduled from 10:00-11:00 in the morning. I like to
volunteer to serve lunch. The staff knows me. We interact personally and
privately. I teach preschool and receive advice about my concerns for lesson
plans…The center does not necessarily let you know about ways to help out in
school. You must take initiative. I feel it is always to the forefront to let the
teacher and director know about things that concern my child.

Angela says that parent conferences are held each semester to “talk about improvement,”
where the staff informs parents about their children’s progress. In the past, she would
inquire about her child’s progress from the teacher or the director.
Cecilia affirms Angela’s sentiments, saying, “All teachers have a welcoming
greeting and provide a second home relationship.” Some mornings, she is rushed but is

56
comfortable enough to get information from the teachers.
I was not aware of this program’s classes and how it worked at first. We are
moving. Should we change? School absences are noticed. This school is
affectionate and social. We have one meeting per semester; I feel we need more
often communication to carry back information to home…I feel that you have to
make it your business to stay on top of things as a parent, especially a single
parent.

She was concerned that the center did not offer as many activities this year and therefore
believes that parents need to find out how they can become more involved. She goes on
to say:
Sometimes they push me out in the morning and welcome me to come anytime.
We talk all the time and have open communication. Generally, we get along.
They greet me and let me know positive and negative things. I appreciate it.
They do let me know about ways that I can help. I wish it happened more often.
I have a good relationship with the teacher. Parents need to be more involved. I
let the teacher know about emotional and physical things.

Because her child has allergies, Cecilia’s communication with the teachers about her
“dairy intolerance was important” this led to “the milk being changed.” Moreover, she is
able to share her concerns about her child, noting, “I talk about my child is very social,
hyperactive, and tall. Her speech ability issues need to be possibly referred for speech
therapy. The staff is very much interested. There are no situations with their disinterest
and her hyperactivity has been helped.” Cecilia feels that as “a single parent without a
support network at home, I feel comfortable.” That is because “the center communicates
with families about programs,” having parent meetings at least once a semester. But, she
says, “I don’t assume anything. I check on a regular basis. I will ask about school
related situations. I get information from the teacher. The former center had a daily
written report, called “Tattler.” She talks to the teacher “everyday” and observes her

57
child at home. “My child invited me to come to our school and to class socials and further
to help. It is a “village thing”: child, teacher, parent, people at home, and around the
child.”
Cecilia recalls a problem that she was unaware of:
She bit another child the day before. I talked to her right away and it did not
happen again. If there is anything out of the ordinary, the staff notifies me
promptly the same day. The teacher and director were concerned about her
speech and hyperactivity. Her dad was also hyperactive. Other children do not
have more influence but an influence on my child. It is not a problem and allows
her to be social. Sometimes they motivate what she eats and riding the tricycle. I
know that the parent’s motivation for the child to do well in school depend on the
parent and becomes more important as they get older.

Like the previous parents, Dee feels very welcomed at the center. “Teachers and
kids speak out to say some form of “hello”. The center staff is always courteous and
prompt. There is never a problem of getting information or giving information.” Since
enrollment, she had not had any problems as the staff was always helpful and
approachable. She liked the observation rooms where she had the opportunity to look at
the classroom in action.
Children can eat nice food, play on the playground, and have fun. There is always
a flier at the sign-in or a memo as time passes. I always want my child to
participate so I stay on top of things in the program. Some days, I am in class
early and at different times. I spend time wherever I can. They know me; call me
by my name, my son’s name because they know me because I have helped. They
give memos on what can be done for holidays.

Dee mentions that her”son needs potty training” so they stay on top of him to avoid any
accidents. She talks to the staff about “cognitive skills,” observing that “he is smart and
picks-up on things easily.” She is impressed by the staff “who is always ready to talk
about the kids and how to help them.” As a result, she has learned about “words, colors,

58
numbers, and whatever they teach.” Moreover:
The progress reports tell how fast he learns, what help is needed, and any
difficulties. They don’t let things slide when they happen. My child’s teacher,
aides, other staff comment on his progress. He looks well. Things are not
unnoticed before the whole staff. I ask questions about what he is doing. The
teacher asked me to help with the “Quake Shake” practice drill and the Halloween
Parade. I try to help. He wants me to stay. He likes his time at the center. He
doesn’t want to leave.

Dee concludes her thoughts, saying:
I feel like we’ll all help out with learning, home and school. All of us put in some
effort. I am aware of what is going on with my child. There are no problems with
my child: no paper work, no phone calls, but I was late once. If he has a hard
time, I get involved: learning, adapting, fighting once, but now it is ok. He listens
to me over other kids. The children motivate each other with what is going on. A
child’s motivation has a lot to do with the parent, staff, and stress at home and
school. He misses his dad!

Janet feels welcome, the staff is nice, asks questions, and is helpful. She
declares: I love the staff! They love the children. When I enrolled my son, I
knew the staff because I worked here for three months. The director gives you a
packet to tell you about the rules so that you can understand the policies. When
you bring your check stubs and paper work, it makes the job much easier. The
center schedules meetings, give advice, and Halloween and Christmas activities. I
spend 3-4 minutes in the morning with the teacher to know what I need to know
and 30 minutes in the afternoon in the classroom. They know me and my baby.

She finds the information they provide are helpful, especially given some of her son’s
allergies. She comments, “They give papers on care information. My son is allergic to
milk. He had once stopped breathing due to an asthmatic attack. The director asked
questions and provided soy milk for him.” She concludes her thoughts on the benefits of
the program, noting:
We want to work with his speech skills. All the teachers ask about my child. The
staff gives homework packets. They always tell me about how his day was today.
I get information from mainly the teacher, director, and whole staff. I keep an eye
on his progress by using the Observation Room where I can see him but he or
teachers cannot see me. They send homework packages on sounds, numbers, and

59
name writing. Yesterday, he was asking me for his homework. The teacher helps
and guides learning. I am there to help. Both of us help. I know about his
problems. They can tell me better than my son. When he is getting out of hand,
tell the child, and call me on my cell phone. For two months he was hitting the
teacher and director. This was “out of the norm” behavior. He is not a follower,
he is a leader. When he has seen another child being a good listener, it is a good
effect. You should do good in school because you want to.

Lola says, “Everyone is very pleasant and other teachers speak also. They speak,
‘Have a good day.’ They speak to me not at me!” When she enrolled her son, he did not
want to be there. “They always welcome with kind words. It is like a burden released. I
don’t have to worry about my child. It is a safe haven!” Additional information that
helped were the “pamphlets given before [he was] enrolled.” She goes on to say:
As a single parent, I ask questions. The center gives advanced knowledge of
scheduled activities. I tell my boss ahead of time. I left my job to attend the
Halloween Parade. Being a single parent, sometimes I am very busy and have
two classes. They know me at the center.

Lola believes the help they provide her is akin to “coaching.”
They coach me. He is the youngest and not use to sharing. The only way for
talking and behaving is to let the teacher know about things. I don’t like his
writing of letters. It needs to improve. They are concerned. He is with them
seven hours a day. They know his personality! The staff informs me about my
child everyday, if he is better or needs to improve.

If she does not hear from the center, she assumes everything is fine. She gets information
about her child’s progress from the teacher or the assistants. “I check at home on his
writing, position of the paper, and his posture.” The teacher has asked her to come to the
school and see his interaction with students, saying, “He always asks me to come and
stay at school.” He says, “A little while, please.” After being asked if her child’s learning
is mainly up to the teacher, she answered, “No, if I believed that, I would be crazy. The

60
parent is needed 100%.”
Loraine reveals:
The great staff is like a family to you. They welcome you, speak, say “Hi,” and
get along. I had been a volunteer before my enrollment and I knew how they
were good with kids. My child is safe, learning, and ready for kindergarten. The
memos of rules were self-explaining. I participate and volunteer my time. They
have Black History and celebrate holidays from 10-12. I’m always here. I work
here, live here, and volunteer my help. They have known me for 12 years with
four older kids who went to the center and have graduate certificates. They let
you know how your child is doing and what is needed to do well.

She says the teachers “know about things” that concern her child and can therefore “fix”
them. But at the same time, she is similarly responsible, saying “I improve my child’s
abilities. I buy books and she gets help from her sisters and brothers who are in college.”
But overall, the staff is helpful, “They listen and are concern, she distracts other kids with
noise and she needs a concerned parent. I have not had to talk to the staff about my child.
She knows shapes, colors, numbers, and letters.” She keeps herself informed about her
evaluations at conferences. “I’m going to ask if I don’t hear from them, I am concerned. I
get information at the conference and I work in the class.”
Victorous, like the other parents, finds the staff to be”friendly and makes [her]
feel comfortable.” She goes on to comment:
Everyone speaks and says good morning. The enrollment was a speedy process
with the staff making me comfortable in the enrollment in the fall. She is safe,
secure, and easy to access. I can concentrate in school. Brochure, forms, and
information are specifically attached to a sign-in sheet. I try to stay on top of
things by coming over between classes. I come over. They try to schedule
activities like Halloween work with kids for 30-45 minutes. At one point I
considered majoring in child development. I volunteer at lunch. They know you.
They know me. I am out-spoken, respectful, and particular about my child. They
had a parent involvement information meeting and appreciate your time. I want
the teacher to know about my child and how to deal with things that concern my
child. In the parent/teacher meeting, I found she is on the level she needs to be.

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Additionally, as Victorous says, “The staff is always willing to listen and take time.
Anything that pertains to her is fine that the staff talks about my child. I have had a
parent/teacher conference once in August, 2008. I assume everything is fine and under
control.” She gets information about her child from the teacher. “I want to make sure of
her level of interaction with other children. The teacher asked me to volunteer in class.”
She says her child always asks her to help with coloring, ABC’s, and everything.
She believes that a child’s learning starts in the home.
No one has to inform me of anything. I have not experienced any problems at this
time. She is not having any difficulties. I want her to be on top of things and
respectful to others. She has a mind of her own. She decides what she wants to
do when ready. Motivation and everything begins in the home.

“Less Involved Parent” School Implementation Activities
Ann says, “Teachers greet me and my son.” She received pamphlets on rules and
policies upon enrollment of her son. “Everyone is friendly, kind, and courteous at the
center. Teachers are nice.”
I work here and I call to check-in on my son. We are all co-workers and they
know my name. The staff gives her brief updates daily in the morning and some
at-home activities. The homeroom teacher will tell me about his progress in the
morning. Notes are in the sign-in. I like to see him go. He does not want me to
leave him at school. He says, I’ll go to work with you or I’ll help you at home.”
They understand him and know he is only three.

Ann did have other concerns regarding her son’s health and behavior:
Since her son is asthmatic, she notified the teacher to be aware of him keeping a
coat on during cold and windy weather and wearing a beanie on his head. I call
because I know my child, ask how he is doing, and they will tell me. He does not
like to share with other kids. He stayed with his grandmother for one year. He
was raised like an only child. The staff is cooperative and works with you.

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Two to three conferences each semester are held to discuss high and low progress areas.
The teacher asked me to help him at home with how to cut left-handed. I observe him at
home and what he learns at school. He learns a lot everyday. He becomes frustrated
quickly. The teacher gives information about progress.
Not much of her time has been spent at the center; however, she does come 15-20
minutes early in the morning daily to spend time in the classroom. The activities
were scheduled from 9:00-10:00 in the morning which allowed her to take a break
at that time. She has attended no programs other than the Halloween Parade and
the Santa Claus.

Nancy tells, “Teachers greet me and my son. When I enrolled him, they gave us a
tour and information about the Policy Book and the program. The school is in the city,
this is nice. It is convenient because I work in the city.
They have some activities in the day and I come to them. Usually I am working
during the day and cannot spend time at the center. The teachers are the only
persons that I communicate with. They let me known about volunteering.

The teacher gave her information about progress at the parent conference:
I found out that he knows his letters, number recognition, and he knows numbers.
I talk to the teachers and let then know what to look out for. He does not write.
They are cooperative. They will work with him. I speak with his teacher and
discuss his progress. It is helpful. I am his voice. I speak up for him. I have no
information other than the conference. If Nancy does not here from the center, she
assumed he should be doing fine. No news is good news. They have my child
ready and make sure he is OK.

Olga reveals that her initial feelings about the center were different from Nancy.
“At first I didn’t want my kid to come to school. One of the staff members was primarily
not responsive. Teachers and director were good and helpful. Teachers made me feel
helpful. In this convenient college location, I did not worry and could check at anytime.
At the beginning, they told me what they expected. A package of rules and regulations

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was given. I like to get my paper work ready. At the orientation meetings, there were two
sessions, morning and afternoon.
Olga reveals, “They have not asked me to do anything at school. The teacher was very
nice. My daughter changed classes.”
She needs evaluations for ABC’s and other skills:
I will have to wait 90 days for a conference for that information. She had not been
in this class long enough. The new teacher is friendly. They spend a lot of time
with her and give feedback and information. No daily written progress report has
been given monthly or weekly. Olga gets information about my daughter’s
progress from the teacher. She says my daughter is quiet, but not at home! If she
does not give them any problem, no news was good news. I am really on her to
find out because she does not have interest in books. She says, “Mommy may I
stay at home and watch TV.” The teacher has not asked me to help her or come
to school. I have to know about a problem to do something about it. It is me, her,
and the teacher. Mommy goes to work.

Stephanie determines that her first impression of the center was quite different
from what Olga experienced. “She had a very warm receiving at this school. They
always acknowledge me and let me know what I need to know. I was given Orientation
and a tour. I felt welcomed. The center is nice, comforting, I know the staff and know
the program.” The policies were given during orientation in a Handbook of Rules with
the expectations of parents. “I have attended various activities and holiday activities. I
like to observe the program interactions with the providers and students. The staff is
familiar and we work together.
We have evaluations every semester where I learn where he is, samples of his
work, and I see it for myself. Each semester the teacher sits down with the parent
and I keep track and ask other questions. I am comfortable and I do assume it is
OK. I get information from the teacher. She believes that the center does not
really let her known about ways she can help out in school. There have been no
incidents. I will let the teacher know about things, I left messages and concerns. I
know what my son is doing and developmentally. I have talked to the teacher

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about my child’s abilities in color recognition, writing his name, and know where
he should be. They offer ideas and address concerns. Their ideas are good and
helpful in areas. She said, the teacher has not asked her to help at home or come
to school. Her son has not asked her for help at home or her presence at school.

School Based Activities
What components of successful parental involvement programs impact
parent participation in their African American children’s Child Development
Center?
School-based activities include those typically undertaken by parents at schools
and generally focus on the individual child, such as attending a parent-teacher meeting,
observing the child in the classroom and watching the child’s performance in school
related events. School-based activities also motivate parental involvement by the
scheduling of parent-teacher meetings and conferences, holiday programs, and
volunteering at school during the school day.
“More involved parents” school based activities
Andrew believes “Learning is mainly up to the parent first. A child looks up to
you, the parent.” He feels that when his son goes to regular school, he will function. “I
make it my business to stay on top of things for the center is on campus. I work here and
they don’t have to worry because I’ll be there.” His activities are scheduled events:
I always volunteer for graduation, Easter, Valentine Day, other holidays, and give
back. I am a basketball coach and come over to coach the little kids. Being a
child development major for my A. A. Degree also helps. Mainly coaching
different minds and nationalities for over 25 years helps you help your child to do
well in school. I have a lot of motivation because we do things together. I take
them with me. He is very much involved in his child’s education. I want to be
involved because I’ve been in school for three degrees. I want to see my kids do
better than I did, not to have life hard on them.

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When he was asked to come to school, he said the observation room was nice because he
observed his son talking to people and being too rough. “I came away, knowing my kid.”
Andrew volunteers for every event, all committees, graduations, Halloween, athletic
events, and luncheons. He chats informally with his child’s teachers and all staff
members about 10-20 minutes in the morning.
I make it a point to talk to the center family: teachers, custodian, and the cook. I
ask about assignments before I leave so that I understand. Being there and showing-up
shows that dad really cares. During the terrible two’s, my son had a problem biting, the
director told me things to do. I have been a foster parent and the birth parent of six
children 18 years and older who have gone to college and the military.

Angela’s child did not ask her for help at home or school because it was a given.
If there was a problem, usually the child informed her and she investigated. “My child
tells me what the case maybe. The teacher complaints were social interactions and peer
problems. She said, “I want my child to be prepared for kindergarten.”
I’ve been told by teachers that other children do not have more influence on my
child and I have observed influences. She gets involved because she is hands-
on with her child at home and school. She likes her mother’s involvement for
the most part. Because I teach preschool in a Montessori School, I am capable of
helping my child do well in school. I volunteer for holiday events, food time,
Christmas, Easter, Valentine Day, birthday and graduation. I chatted with the
teacher. Sometimes the skill is displayed on the board or the teacher tells me the
work.

Cecilia has found that her child likes it when she gets involved in her education.

“I want her to do well.”

I want her to deal with things social and math. The things that I had trouble with
in school. I volunteer for holidays and the Halloween Parade. It is rewarding for
me, my child, and the teacher. It is important for parents to come-in and
participate. I chat with the teacher. She keeps me apprised of the good and things
to work on. The home connects to the school. I can help my child do well in
school in some ways and others need support such as math.

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Dee affirms, “My child wants me to be involved. He has asked me to stay on the
chair at school. I want to be involved. When I am involved, he has a good time. He
smiles and enjoys himself. I want my child to do well, show what it takes, and push. I
volunteer to help the teachers with the class. I chatted informally with the teacher.”
I found out that my child is learning memory skills from memory cards quickly.
It helps me to know his skills. I help out with work on colors, and the same skills
at home. I feel that I make a difference and make him comfortable. I know how
to help his performance in school with social skills, motor skills, numbers, and
colors.

Janet says, “I get involved because I use to be a teacher.” He loves for me to say,
“Good job, you did it on your own.” “I get involved for two reasons: I want him to be
successful and I love him!
I have volunteered for the Christmas Party and Halloween Party. I have chatted
with the teacher two times a week or more about life and my child. The teacher
said, “He loves to read and likes circle time”. I rely on the teacher in the class. He
asks me to sit with him in class. He can show me what he is doing.

Lola recounts her participation in the center. “In the beginning and now I am still
involved in this new atmosphere. I have more influence on my child. I am a stern
mommy! If you don’t motivate him, why send him to school, a job, a family, education
is first. He wants me to stay longer at school. He does like it. I get involved; school is a
major factor for life. He wants praises when he does good.”
I left my job to attend the Halloween Parade. He always asks me to come and stay
at school. He does like it. He wants praises when he does well. I can’t stress it
enough; push education on children, especially as a race! They called me. I came
several times. She does not volunteer for special activities in her child’s class.
She does not chat informally with the teacher. However, the teacher formally tells
her formally about the ABC’s, colors, shapes, right and left, basic math, and
senses skills her son is learning. I reinforce everything with him. Since I am a
stern mother, there is no laziness in education. She encourages, “You can do that,
and you can, set your mind to it.”

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Loraine says that she pretty much keeps an eye on her child’s progress. “I want
her to be all that she can be. Teachers ask me to help at home. I work here! She always
asks me to help at school. She is determined and wants to be smart. Learning is for
family, stay on the child, so she can do what she can do. If there is a problem at school,
they need to tell me about the problem. I have not had any problems involving my child.
She gets along with everybody. She does not have a hard time. She has too many sisters
and brothers. She can be what she wants to be. If other children make noise, she will pay
attention because this acting out is distracting. I am the mommy. What I say goes. I have
good listeners.”
Motivation to do well in school is family nights and open house when you go. My
mother worked. I did go to five classes in one day. I went to college to do what I
do and I’m interested. I get involved because I am a parent that needs to get
involved. She loves it. She is happy at Halloween Parades! I do want her to do
well and be all she can be. I always volunteer, Fun Day, sale stuff, trips, zoos,
everything. It helps kids a lot to do well in school. I chat with the teachers all the
time. I ask how they are doing. You can not just rely on the teacher, it is up to
you. I help and motivate her. I’m always there for them. Motivate, interest in
what they do, If you want to or not.

Victorous comments about involvement at her child’s school. “She wants me to
be involved. I want to be involved. She loves it, smiles, and says, “Thank you mommy.
Do this again.” I do want her to be successful.”
I volunteer for the Halloween activities and help in class. She chats with the
teacher, who stays on top of things, and is helpful, and encouraging. I learn about
her social skills, dealing with figures, shapes, and everything. I will go over her
assignments and give examples. I feel that a child from a happy well-rounded
home will be successful. She says that she helps her at school by first reading
and asking questions about the story.

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”Less involved parents” school based activities
Ann said, “My child’s learning is up to me, my child, the teacher, and everyone.
The staff lets me know about behavior or learning. They leave me a note and call me at
anytime. I work here! They tell me about his aggressive behavior, demanding his way,
and being loud! I get involved in my child’s education because I like education and
working with kids. No kids have more influence on my child.”
Parent and teacher motivate a child to do well in school. I would get involved
even if he does or does not want me. He loves my involvement. “My parent is
here.” With support, they do better at all ages. I have not volunteered for special
activities in his class. I have chatted with the teacher in the morning and evenings
when she passes by my office. She is working on good memory skills, speaking
in complete sentences, and paying attention.

Nancy takes pride in the fact that the parent conference papers were kept in a safe
place in order for her to help with the skills. She explains, “At the parent conference last
year, the teacher said he needed help with counting and I did help. His learning is up to
me mostly. If there is a problem, she assumes they will let me know. If there is a
problem, they will tell her when she picks him up or call her on the phone.”
He had a problem with another student hitting and biting him. I found out from
the staff. We were able to correct the problem. He loves school and I want him to
learn and enjoy school. Other children do not have more influence on him at this
age. He did bring cars to school to show his friends. A child’s motivation
depends on the parent because they are with the child. Children look up to the
parents. They make him proud. I want to know what is happening. I don’t want
to wait.

She relates, “The staff knows I love them and am interested. I want him to do well.”
The only activities I came to was graduation, the Halloween Parade and his
birthday party. I volunteered 30 minutes for one day. I have not chatted with this
teacher. I have not found out about the skills my child is learning and have not
had a conference this year. He has no homework yet. I let him know what is
expected in performance.

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Olga states, “I have not volunteered. When I get out of class, I am on my way to
work. If they asked, I would volunteer.” She works 32 hours and goes to school for two
classes (chemistry and human development). “I like to watch my daughter when she
cannot see me in the observation room.”
I have talked to the teacher a little bit. She told me about an educational
workshop. She has not asked the teacher about the skills her child is learning. She
has not sent anything home with her. I sent her to school with a full stomach,
clothes, and have her relaxed for school. I know it takes time and practice to do
well in school. She is not interested in school. It’s scary. I get involved because I
want her to be successful. Education is self sufficient. That’s my baby! She’s a
mamma’s girl. I am not sure where her motivation will come. I encourage her.
Make her work for 15 minutes daily.

Olga continues to say, “I think her motivation depends on me. That may help. It is my
duty. I feel that it is my duty. I feel that! She does like it because it is one on one time.
My number one goal is to get her to college and beyond.”
Stephanie believes, “Parent participation is just as important as the teacher and the
child. If I notice a problem, I will act on it. They have not contacted me in the past but
they would if there was a problem. He is confused about colors. I am involved because I
am supposed to be. Other children do not have more influence but they have some
influence. I think a child’s motivation to do well in school depends upon the parent. As
a parent, we should stay on top of it. He likes it when I get involved. He enjoys attention
and mom cares. I think it is important for all kids.”
I have not volunteered for special activities in my child’s class. I have a wired
work schedule and cannot do it in the day. I have chatted with the teacher two
times a week. I learned my kid’s skills in the semester review were colors, name
recognition, numbers, and ABC’s. We work on it at home as well. She believes
that we make a difference in her son’s performance by doing it at home with more
practice. I am college educated and can help.

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Home Based Activities
How does “Parental Role Construction” affect decisions of early childhood African
American (Black) parent’s involvement in their children’s education?
Parental Role Construction” defines broadly the range of activities that parents
construe as important, necessary, and permissible for their own engagement in their
children’s schooling. Parental ideas influence their involvement in education. Parent
beliefs of child rearing, child development, and appropriate home support roles in
education influence “parental role construction”. The factors that motivate parental
involvement are “parental role construction” and parent self-efficacy defined as a
person’s belief that he or she can act in ways that will produce desired outcomes
shaping: goals, an individual chooses to pursue and the level of persistence in working.
Home-based involvement is generally defined in the literature as the interaction that takes
place between the child and the parent outside of school. This includes behaviors,
attitudes, or strategies. Traditionally, parental involvement in education has included
home-based activities such as helping with homework, monitoring the child’s progress
and encouraging children to read. In home-based activities a child asks parent for help
and a parent: reads to child daily, helps with homework, uses network support, asks
teacher about child’s skill needs, takes child to libraries, parks, museums, zoo, sports
events, and other locations.
“More involved parents” home based activities
As the majority of these interviewed parents, Andrew participates strongly in the
“parental role construction” theory. He exhibits self-efficacy in his beliefs in knowing

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how to help his child succeed. Andrew asks his son what he did in school everyday. After
working for a long time as an aide in high school special education, he assisted with
instruction.
He tells his son what the teacher said and assists him with home activities:
He loves books. He said, “I feel very well about my success in helping my son.”
The world needs dads to help and it is good to have them in their life. Raising
kids and having, brothers, sisters, nieces, and nephews helps you feel that you
know how to help your child. When he asks me for help dressing himself, I let
him do it, give him chores, and make suggestions later. I can tell that I am getting
through to him by his actions, speech, and his sayings. I say, “Focus!” Time out
they say! I say that it is sitting down and getting “focus” and sitting here for a
while!” He reads to his son every night and asks questions. He goes to the
library, zoo, dances, plays, and sports activities.

Andrew believes, “Black fathers find it hard to raise kids with values. Fathers need to:
listen to elders, have older friends, who show them by a working model, and bring kids to
school.” He promotes community college early childhood education schools, as this
center, for preschoolers to do well later in the elementary school.
Angela reports, “I ask my child about the school day and in detail. She could
jump rope and I did not know it. I have worked on counting 1-100, by 10 and 5, reading
phonics, pens, and phone numbers. There is no homework except what is in the
homework packet. I help with homework. I know how to help her learn math, numbers,
shapes and flashcards.”
I don’t rely on the teacher, my child is visual and I know the topics reviewed. I
make a difference by dedicating ½ hour daily for work or to Lakeshore
Educational Materials. I have worked in pre kindergarten every since I was 14
years old and know how to help. I know that my older child is a good resource.
My mom told me. I do not always feel that my efforts are successful. Children
are different my older child wants to be a doctor. Now she talks out of the shell
and not articulates. When she has a hard assignment, she asks her teacher at
school or at home, it is me. When we play school, she confuses numbers, we
review, and she is frustrated and not clear. She said, “Today is my day to help

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after school.” I read to her, go to the library, read different types of book and go to
the Book Fair. I read two times a week for a half hour. We go to the Natural
History Museum, California Science Center, Long Beach, and China Town.

Cecilia works at home on cooking, drawing, making jewelry, and asking
questions. She supervises writing letters and reading. She says, “I’m the teacher. I do
not feel that I know as much as I would like. I do feel successful in helping her to learn.
I feel comfortable, try to find out information, ask the teacher, or look it up in a
book. If she needs help, she will ask the teacher or me. If she has difficulty, most
of the time she will become frustrated with language. She will repeat information
later and that is encouraging, rewarding, and strengthening. I read to her daily for
a half hour. She is active. We go to the library, but not as much as the Children’s
Nature Society. My main concern is more parental involvement and more teacher
contact.

Dee always asks her son, “How school was today and did you have a good day?”
“I work at home on numbers, letters, and memory cards. He does get homework. They
tell me different things, colors, etc. I would like for him to do homework when the other
children at home have homework.”
I must be patient and step down to his level to help him learn. At times I feel
frustrated, but mostly successful. Always, what I give is helpful, a step higher. If
he has a hard assignment, he gets help from the teacher, me, his dad, or other
siblings. He was having trouble with the memory game, and had distractions, but I
continued. I will continue until he shows he is doing it without a problem. I read
books, magazines, newspapers, and paperback books at home. We sometimes go
to the library and have gone to Vasquez Rocks, Lancaster, San Andres Fault rocks
and trails, Carrillo Aquarium, parks, beach, football games, basketball games, and
to see cows and animals.

Janet said when she first picks him up, she inquires, “What did you do today?
Were you a good listener? At home, I step in to do my job. If a child does not think he is
loved, he may act out. Love makes a difference. I am learning how to help my child.
I am still learning.”

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At home, besides homework, he looks at educational television. When he does
homework, we sit at the table and I look at it. I am the homework monitor. I
actively help. If he doesn’t write well, or slacks off, he will do it again. I feel that
I am on the right path. I want to be positive. I am becoming successful. Success,
guidance, and love will get you there. If he needs help, he asks me, his great aunt,
older uncle, or the teacher. I get through to him by trying a different way, not
screaming or yelling, being firm, sweet, and subtle. When I get through to him, he
comes back and says, “Look what I did!” I don’t read to him as much as I should.
I read to him twice a week for 15-20 minutes until he is 10 years of age and look
at educational television. I take him to the park, to see different types of animals.
He goes with my brother for basketball. My main thing is to be a better mom. I
am learning. I am trying to do the best I can. I don’t have to pay for childcare.

Lola said that she asks her son about his school day, everyday. “He names
everyone and what they did. He has asked for help at home. At home, they work on
board games, memory, colors, and basic skills.”
She says, “They don’t give homework. I would like to have homework.”
I give him something to do, connect the dots, but no coloring. Being an educator,
36 years-old, and a special education teacher assistant, she feels she knows how to
help her son. I have not mastered helping him learn how to tie his shoes. Yes, I do
help him with the progress that he has made. If he needs help, he asks me, my
brother, and his God father. He always asks me. I do know how to get through to
him. His response and reaction, he will do it. I try to read to him. He takes over
the story and looks at the pictures first. I take him to the library once a week,
videos in the library, Christmas Parades, church, stuff like that. He played football
for two weeks and better flag football.

In the car Loraine asks, “How was your day? What did you like today? She
always asks for help even if she can do it. I work at home with book reports, science
projects, and arts and crafts. It makes her feel good. I go over the work because in the
end she gets it.”
With hard assignments, she asks her mother, father, brother, or sister, we work
together. We read together everyday for 30 minutes a day for all children or I
won’t sign the log. I take her to the museum, zoo, downtown, rocks beds in caves,
Long Beach, Magic Mountain, Knox Berry farm, and the Science Museum.

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Everyday Victorous says, “I ask her about her school day. What did you do? She
tells me about lunch. She always asks me to help her, read a story, trace her name, or do
dot to dot. At home, we also work on the computer, counting with sticks or macaroni,
puzzles, and tries things my eight year old is doing.
She believes, “It is important to make progress by supervising her homework.”
I assist her by sitting with her, answering questions, and giving examples. It starts
at home, reading flash cards, balls, and objects to count. She is able to count,
write her name, know her birthday, and tell me a story. I am successful when I
can read and she picks up the same book, tells the story, identifies beginning
sounds, and gives back.

Victoruos exclaims, “When her child needs help from someone to explain a hard
assignment, it is from her mom.”
We will take time, return to it, and restate it. It takes a little time but we get it
done. When reading, she comes with the same book, story, and cards puzzles
after a couple of times. I read to her 30 minutes a day, everyday. We go to the
library about three times a month, amusement parks, Knox Berry Farm, City
Castle, the zoo, Santa Ana, Chuck E Cheese’s, Disneyland, the pet store, and
everywhere. She is not too keen on animals, just rabbits.

“Less involved parents” home based activities
Ann asks her son everyday if he was a good boy and asks him to tell the truth.
“He asks for help at home. With family support, they work harder. I help him with
ABC’s, Leap Frog, toys, and writing. I hold his hand steady instead of just showing him.
I am successful because my other kids are doing well. I have help from sister and brother.
But sometime, I am wrong. I will know the next time and I learn as well.”
She believes that he comes to mommy or grandma to explain hard assignments:

He says, “I am staying with grandma”. Ann gets through to him when he has
difficulty because he is stubborn. She calms him down, put him on focus.
Sometimes when she is not adamant, she just waits for him to calm down. “He

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reads from picture books and loves magazines.” She reads to him three days per
week for 30-40 minutes. She does not take him many places due to his Asthma.
Hot or cold weather is a problem. Many events are too long. They went to the fair.
He likes animals.

Nancy confesses, “I could use some more help with helping my son. There is
room to learn. I asked him what he did during the day.” He said, “Play and eat. “Kids go
to school and parents work. He does not get homework. He writes a lot with his sister’s
work. I will help. He colors outside the lines. He knows his whole name and spells his
name.”
She is sure that positive reinforcement keeps him so that he won’t forget.
So far he has been successful. He has a good memory. If he needs help with a
hard assignment, he’ll ask his older brothers. He understands. He is a smart boy.
He will continue on his own. He is independent sometimes. He brushes his teeth.
His brother reads to him once a week for 15-20 minutes. He has a library card and
I take him to the library. He picks books with pictures, and repetitive sentences. I
took him to the Easter Egg Hunt, fire works show, and snow play. We went to
Big Bear and sledging.”

Olga says that she ask her daughter how was her school day everyday. “She tells
me what she did. She does not like to change classes during the day. She asked for help
at home in the workbook. It helps her. I have to help at home, workbooks, and reading.
Education is self sufficient. I encourage her. Make her work for 15 minutes a day at
home. I feel that it is my duty. She likes one on one time. She wanted me to draw
pictures. I spent $200.00 for flashcards and DVD’s, which she knows how to read.”
Olga’s number one goal is to get her to college and beyond.
She had not had homework. I help her with the work I give her. I help with
ABC’s and the numbers. I explain letters and sounds of letters. I do know how to
help her. I feel that I can help her. I don’t know if I know everything. I know I
am successful because she is learning. She can read cards, but books are trouble.
Because she is recognizing words, she knows that she is successful. I don’t know

76
what she does in class. If I didn’t talk to her, she would not care. She would
watch TV. Before she started school, her dad had her in front the TV all the time.

Olga says that she has some concerns regarding her behavior during home activities:

She comes to me or my 16 year old daughter, if she needs someone to explain
hard assignment to her. I have trouble at home. Temper tantrums when she cannot
have her way. She will wet herself. I make her sit there and tell her, “You cannot
have your way.” I wait until she calms down. I read to her daily. When I’m tired,
my son, with a peanut butter sandwich and a book, reads to her for 15 minutes
daily. I take her to the library every two weeks and check out books. We go to
the Los Angeles Science Museum. I don’t know about community events.
There’s too much going on at the parades and parks daily. When it is warm, we
go to “Soak City” across from Knox Berry Farm.

On their way home from school, Stephanie asks her son about his school day,
everyday. “He has not asked for me to help him at school or home. We work on the
ABC’s, colors, etc. He’s only three. He does not have homework. We make our own.”
She explains, “We create homework.”
Because I went to school, I take step by step to learn. We do see improvement in
name recognition and pronunciation of words. I think by seeing improvement, it
is successful. If he needs help with a hard assignment, he will ask me or my
husband. You have to have patience and you can get through to the child. If he is
not frustrated and is receptive, you are getting through. I read to him every other
day and a little more on weekends. We go to the library a lot, not a museum,
community events, mainly the library. His father does much more that I do with
him because I work a lot. During the bulk of the week, he is with his father.

77
Table 3

More or less involved African American Parental Activity Chart

Type of Parent Involvement More Involved (n=8) Less Involved (n=4)
N % N %
Implementation Component
Daily Recognition by Staff 8 100 4 100
Rules and Policies Provided 8 100 4 100
Child’s Progress Reported 8 100 3 75
Homework Provided 6 75 2 50
Help Requested at School 6 75 1 25
School Activities Scheduled 8 100 0 0
School Based Activities
Volunteered at School 7 87.5 1 25
Attended Conferences and Meetings 8 100 2 50
Participated in Activities 7 87.5 2 50
Child Asked for Your Involvement 7 87.5 2 50
Talked to Teacher 8 100 4 100
Used Observation Room 4 50 1 25
Home Based Activities
Asked Child about School Day 7 87.5 4 100
Helped with Provided Homework 6 75 1 25
Created Homework 8 100 4 100
Read to a Child 8 100 4 100
Obtained Network Support 7 87.5 4 100
Took Child Places 8 100 3 75

Interview Summary
All twelve parents indicate feeling welcomed at the South Metro Child
Development Center as they were greeted promptly by the courteous staff. Most parents
identified the staff as being friendly, kind, and nice who recognized them immediately
upon daily arrival. The center provided a family environment for parents and preschool

78
children where they felt comfortable and provided a safe environment for their children.
Policies and rules were provided in written form and discussed with the parent upon
enrollment during the scheduled Parent Orientation.
Parent/teacher conferences and school-based activities were scheduled during the
day usually between the hours of 10:00-12:00 p.m. The events to date have primarily
been holiday and birthday celebrations and graduations. Concerns of some parents
include the number of parent/teacher conferences that were scheduled during the school
year through advance notifications of pending activities gave parents the time to make
arrangements in their job or school schedules. Eight out of 12 parents attempted to attend
activities; however rigid work and school obligations hindered or interfered with the
school-based activities of three parents.
Approximately 11 teachers were identified as regularly sharing current
information with the parents during the morning arrival time. Parents were encouraged to
provide information to the staff concerning specific abilities, disabilities, and concerns
regarding their child. Some parents expressed their child’s health problems to the
teachers and director, including issues related to asthmatic conditions, dairy allergies,
language disabilities, and hyperactivity. Other parents expressed their child’s difficulties
with fine and gross motor abilities such as writing with pencils and physical activities.
Parents have also discussed the positive abilities that their children have demonstrated,
such as in counting, letter recognition, communication, and memory skills.
Academic procedures and skill development information for children are typically
provided to parents upon arrival or departure. Teachers informed eleven parents about

79
their child’s strengths and weaknesses in specific skill areas, so that parents can become
more knowledgeable about their curriculum. Requests by seven teachers encouraged
some parents to volunteer and be present during school activities. A child also may ask
them to come to school, which seem to be most desired and appreciated by parents and
motivate their school-based participation.
It was the opinion of most of these parents that the education of their children
was their responsibility and they wanted to get involved in their child’s education.
Observation rooms were available for parents to privately view their child in the
classroom setting interacting with their teachers, assistants, and other children.
Unfortunately, this was an opportunity that several parents did avail themselves to utilize.
Parents also viewed themselves as the major influence in their child’s education, though
some parents recognized that their children were likely motivated by other children,
particularly in sports or some skill area where the other child may excel in the classroom.
All parents, with the exception of one, said that their children like to have them involved
in their education and come to school with them. A number of parents stated that their
school-based involvement was limited to the holiday activities or their child’s birthday
party at school.
All of the parents, except one, indicated asking their children about the school day
on a daily basis. If their child is given homework, seven parents assumed an active role
in assisting with the assignments. Parents desired regular homework assignments from
the teachers. Several parents have created their own home-based activities, which were
often in writing, coloring, counting, numbers, and memory skills. If the child had
something to do that was difficult, they usually asked the mother, an older brother or

80
sister, or the teacher for assistance. All parents indicated they read to their child, half of
them reading approximately 15-20 minutes every day of the school week. The library
was the location of choice for most parents to visit with their child. Other places of
involvement included parks, museums, games, and amusement parks.

81
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
The purpose of the research was to identify the factors that promote or inhibit
African American parental involvement in a community college early childhood
education program. In the field of education, theorists, researchers, and practitioners
continue to propose that “Parental Role Construction Theory” is central to
comprehending the thinking and decision-making that influence parental involvement in
education (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995; 1997).
The Problem
All twelve parents were individually interviewed to determine their motivation to
become involved in the South Metro Child Development Center. Their “Parent Role
Construction’’ beliefs motivated their participation in school-based and home-based
activities. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) research identify factors that motivate
involvement, and include:
1. Parental role construction and parents’ self efficacy for their belief in helping
children to succeed;
2. Parental perceptions of invitations received from schools, teachers, and children
to become involved; and
3. Perceptions of forms and timing of involvement.
Most parents in the child development center appear to have developed strong self
efficacy given their frequent and similar comments: “I know how to help my child learn.”
All parents were provided the necessary forms highlighting the appropriate rules and
regulations of child development and it was the perception of these parents that the

82
distribution of this material was timely and informative. Included within the brochure
detailing the guidelines for parent participation is an invitation by the center to parents to
engage with the center’s staff and classrooms. Seven out of the twelve parents perceived
the invitation to be motivating and encouraging of their involvement.
Selected Findings
Eight of the twelve African American (Black) parents exhibited more “parental
role construction” in school-based and home-based activities. These “more involved”
parents verbally delineated their beliefs and strong sense of self-efficacy by providing
examples of the factors that promoted their decisions for more interactive participation.
Some inner-city parents may not become involved with their schools due to the fact that
they had not been invited or made to feel welcomed (Epstein and Dauber, 1991). Of the
parents, eleven had positive responses to the initial and continuing welcome from the
staff at the center. One mother had a negative experience with one staff member whom
initially was unresponsive to her opinion. This parent later opined that the Director and
teachers have always been helpful. A friendly and courteous welcome was the essential
initiation to involving parents.
Epstein and Dauber (1991) found that teachers in eight inner-city schools varied
in how much and how well they informed and involved families. All eight of the “more
involved” parents in this study felt well informed. They made statements to the effect
they had received pamphlets, handbooks, and brochures regarding the rules and policies
of the center during Orientation, Parent/Teacher Meetings, or upon enrollment.

83
Low-income African American parents’ involvement is the key to their
children’s high and low academic achievement (Clark, 1983). Successful student
achievement and parental involvement is linked to parent’s ideas about their role in
education. These parent’s ideas have led parents to assume a strong personal role in their
child’s schooling, demonstrating behaviors that that emphasize their commitment. They
arrive at school early, after work or class, volunteer in the classrooms, attend school-
based activities, and provide home-based activities for the educational skill building of
their children.
Ortega and Ramirez (2002) found parental involvement to be an important
predictor of academic success. Schools that include parents as active partners enable
children to feel acknowledged and accepted. Teachers with hold positive attitudes toward
parent involvement place more importance on holding conferences with all students’
parents, communicating with parents about school programs, and provide parents with
honest and comprehensive reports about students’ progress. Most of the parents in this
study attended semester conferences to discuss the academic progress reports of their
children. The daily and/or weekly update verbal reports were appreciated as well as the
homework packets provided by parents.
Teachers who work with college-educated parents, parents with average
schooling, and parents with very little schooling are equally likely to be active users of
parent-involvement strategies. These parents had high school diplomas and had taken
college classes. Many of the parents had one or more college degrees, with one parent
having a Master of Arts Degree. The levels of education, however, were not found to

84
have a discernable effect on parent participation. Yet, the parents with the highest level of
involvement had been those with Associate’s degrees and a Master’s degree.
Black families often have a strong network among family members and friends,
with aunts, uncles, and grandparents help and support one another (Stevens, 1982).
Nonetheless, they need to be provided with the opportunities to participate much more
fully in the society. The “more involved” group of parents had more of a support
network. The two parents with the largest number of children each had brothers, sisters,
uncles, aunts, nieces, nephews, and a father in their family networks. The father, with
eleven children, commented that his older children are all in college or the military. It
was his opinion that more Black fathers should have older male friends in their support
network as “models.” He additionally suggested that Black fathers who are raising kids
should, “Listen, work, and go to school.” The support network was helpful for those
parents who had challenging schedules.
Teachers should guide parent’s home learning opportunities that are better
coordinated with the children’s class work (Epstein, 1987). Pena’s (2000) study
discovered that parental involvement was influenced by the attitudes of the school staff,
cultural influences, and childcare issues. In her study, emphasis was placed on the
importance of school staff taking the time to gain the trust of parents and informing
parents of ways they can become involved. The “most involved” parents noted that being
provided with homework packets, progress reports, and frequent verbal information on
their child’s skill achievements was important for their involvement. The private
observation rooms were a great resource for parents as they could view their children’s

85
interaction with other children and the staff. The positive aspects of this childcare
program were reinforced by these observations.
Green, Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, and Sandler (2007) studied ethnically diverse
metropolitan public schools where active “parental role construction” for home-based and
school-based involvement was found to lead to heightened parental involvement. The
“more involved” parents were asked by teachers to participate in school activities and
were involved in more diverse activities. School-based involvement activities included
those typically undertaken by parents at schools and generally focused on the individual
child, such as attending a parent-teacher meeting, observing the child in the classroom
and watching the child’s performance in school related events (Delgado-Gaitan, 1992;
McDermontt, Goldman, & Varenne, 1984). Other school-based activities in this center
included: planning graduations, coaching games, serving lunches, and assisting with
teaching skills.
Home-based involvement is generally defined in the literature as the interaction
that takes place between the child and the parent outside of school. (Green, Walkerm
Hoover-Dempsey, and Sandler, 2007) This includes behaviors, attitudes, or strategies
such as helping homework, reviewing for test, and monitoring the child’s progress. In this
study, these parents included reading to children, the use of flash cards, and various
educational materials as home-based activities. One example of a highly successful
parent involvement program is a school-sponsored parent reading program (Toomey,
1992). This program was found to successfully motivate the parent who did not often
read to their child on a daily schedule.

86
Becker and Epstein (1992) discovered approximately 50 percent of teachers were
uncertain about their attempts to include the parents in home learning activities. About
seven percent of teachers held meetings with parents beyond the school regularly
scheduled “parent’s nights.” Three of the four “less involved” parents most frequently
expressed concern with the lack of teachers’ notification of activities. Only five out of
twelve parents never received a request from the teachers of their child to come to school
or volunteer in the classroom. Other issues for parents revolved around the lack of
scheduled activities. Seven parents in the “more involved” group cited having received
homework and information about the skills that were being taught in the classroom.
Basic school obligations include communications with families about school
programs and children’s progress (Epstein, 1987). Muller and Kerbow (1993) found in
their study that only 15-26% of mothers volunteered at school. More positive attitudes by
teachers are correlated with attaining greater success in involving “hard-to-reach” parents
like working parents, single parents, young parents, parents new to the school, and other
adults with whom children live. Employed mothers were less likely to become involved
than other stay-at-home mothers (Eccles & Harold, 1996). In the “less involved” group of
parents, two were enrolled in Licensed Vocational Nurse and Registered Nurse programs
and another was a Probation Officer. They all felt their job schedules hindered their
involvement.
Ten out of twelve parents were single at the time of the study and did not have a
support network at home. In the “less involved” parent group, one married and one
single parent discussed the educational support they received from their children’s father.

87
The married parent stated that due to her work schedule, the bulk of the home-based
activities were provided by her husband. The single parent said that the father of her
child was available for home-based educational assistance. Some of the “less involved”
parents have planned and “made their own” home-based activities. Without regular
communication between some teachers and parents, the center staff may not have had any
knowledge that parents had put together their own home-based activities.
Recommendations for Practice
The “Parent Role Construction “of these African American parents can be further
advanced by the child development center program’s implementations and specific
activities of school-based and home-based parental involvement. The following are
recommendations for the staff of the child development center.
1. A concern of the “less involved” parents is changing the scheduling of school
activities and conferences from the morning to later during the afternoon. The
center may schedule these activities so that many more parents can be available to
attend them after their classes or workday.
2. Teachers of five of the children gave no homework. Their parents desired to
receive assigned written and verbal homework information from teachers.
Homework assignments motivate parental home-based assistance activities,
building parent’s self efficacy and parents’ beliefs about helping their children.
3. The request of three parents was for more scheduled formal Parent/Teacher
Conferences for current notification of student progress rather than the one

88
meeting each semester. Some parents, also, suggest written or verbal weekly
communications from teachers for updated educational or behavioral reports.
4. Additionally scheduled parent meetings could include various educational
subjects and presentations from professional representatives such as a Public
Librarian, a Pediatric Nurse, and a Social Worker who could enhance interest and
encourage more parental participation. The South Metro Child Development
Center has developed a successful preschool program that may be beneficial and
motivational to the parental involvement of other Early Childhood Educational
Programs.
Recommendations for Further Study
1. Studies need to be conducted to examine the “Parental Role Construction” of
African American parental involvement in an urban unified school district’s early
childhood education program. A comparison of the programs may vary due to
parent’s involvement beliefs in the larger early childhood education setting.
2. Studies of the factors that promote or inhibit parental involvement of African
American parents without college education and academic degrees in an urban
child development center should similarly be conducted. Less educated parents
without child development college classes, training, and experience may alter the
parent’s self-efficacy in relation to their self-assurance in achieving student
educational success with their children through parental involvement.
3. Additional research is needed on the parental involvement of African American
fathers in an urban early childhood education program. A lower number of

89
African American father’s parental involvement was discovered in this study.
The fathers who participated at a higher level of involvement were motivational
for their child, their child’s mother, and the educational support network for the
family. The qualitative benefit of the father’s role in parental involvement could
be further evaluated.
4. More comparison research of African American and Hispanic parental
involvement in an early childhood education program is needed to determine the
levels of their school-based and home-based activities. These minorities are the
dominant ethnic populations in many urban preschool programs. Further
examination of their participation in parental involvement would be informative
in researching the engagement of these parents’ involvement in the educational
activities of early childhood education.

90
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99
APPENDIX A

Parent Questionnaire #1 - Background Information

1. What is your relationship to the child for whom you are answering these
questions? Mother____ Grandmother____ Guardian____ other______
2. How old is your child? ____
3. How old are you? _____
4. How do you identify yourself in terms of your ethnic or racial identity?
___________
5. What is your highest educational grade completed? __________________
6. What is your family status? Married ____ Single ____ Other _______
7. How many children do you have? ____ What are their ages: ____, ____, ____,
_____, ____, ____, ____,

100
APPENDIX B

Parent Questionnaire #2 – Parental Involvement Interview

01. Do you feel welcomed at this school? Probe for examples.

02. Does the center’s staff treat you courteously and promptly? Probe for examples.

03. When your child was first enrolled in this program, were you made to feel
welcome? Probe for examples.

04. What is it like to have your child in this center? Probe for examples.
05. Does the center do a good job about letting you know about its rules and policies?
Probe for examples.

06. Do you make it your business to stay on top of things in this program? Probe for
examples.

07. Does the center schedule activities so that you can attend them? Probe for
examples.

08. Do you like to spend time at the child development center when you can? Probe
for examples.

09. Do you feel that your child’s teacher or the program staff knows you? Probe for
examples.

10. Do you believe the center does a good job of letting you know about ways you
can help out in school? Probe for examples.

11. Do you feel that it is important that you let the teacher know about things that
concern your child? Probe for examples.

12. Have you talked to someone in the program about your child’s interests, abilities,
or an area of improvement? Probe for examples.

13. Do you find that the center’s staff is interested and cooperative when you discuss
your child? Probe for examples.

14. Does the center’s staff keep you informed about your child’s progress in the
program?

15. Do you keep an eye on your child’s progress? Probe for examples.

101

16. If you do not hear from the center, do you assume your child is doing all right?
Probe for examples.

17. Where do you get information about your child’s progress in school? Probe for
examples, including type of information.

18. Does the center’s staff have to let you know about a problem before you can do
something about it? Probe for examples.

19. Does the center’s staff contact you about any problems involving your child?
Probe for examples.

20. Has your child’s teacher specifically asked you to help at home or come to
school? Probe for examples.

21. Do you believe that your child’s learning is mainly up to the teacher and your
child? Probe for examples.

22. Do you get involved in your child’s education because he or she has a hard time
with school? Probe for examples.

23. Do you feel that other children have more influence on your child than you do?
Probe for examples.

24. Do you feel that other children have more influence on your child’s motivation
than you do? Probe for examples.

25. Does a child’s motivation to do well in school depend upon the parent? Probe for
examples.

26. When you are involved in your child’s education, does he/she like it? Probe for
Examples.

27. Do you get involve in your child’s education because you believe your child
really wants you to be involved? Probe for examples.

28. Do you get involved in your child’s education because you want him/her to do
well in school? Probe for examples.

29. Has your child’s teacher specifically asked you to help at home or come to
school? Probe for examples.

102
30. Have you volunteered for special activities in your child’s class? Probe for
examples.

31. Have you chatted informally with your child’s teacher? Probe for examples.

32. Do you rely just on the teacher to make sure your child understands his or her
assignments? Probe for examples.

33. Do you feel you make a significant difference in your child’s performance in
school? Probe for examples.

34. Have you talked to someone at school about a difficulty or problem your child is
having? Probe for examples.

35. Do you feel you know how to help your child do well in school? Probe for
examples.

36. Have you talked to someone at school about a difficulty or problem you child is
having? Probe for examples.

37. Have you found out from the teacher about the skills your child is learning?
Probe for examples.

38. Do you talk with your child about his or her school day? Probe for examples.

39. Has your child specifically asked you for help at home or for your presence at
school? Probe for examples.

40. Have you worked with your child at home on/or other educational activities?
Probe for examples.

41. Do you supervise your child’s home work? Probe for examples.

42. Do you actively help your child with home work? Probe for examples.

43. Do you feel you are successful in your efforts to help your child learn? Probe for
examples.

44. Do you feel you know how to help your child learn? Probe for examples.

45. Do you feel that your efforts to help your child learn are successful? Probe for
examples.

103
46. Who does your child receive help from when he/she needs someone to explain
hard assignment to him/her? Probe for examples.

47. Do you know if you are getting through to your child? Probe for examples.

48. Do you get through to your child even when he or she has difficulty
understanding something? Probe for examples.

49. Do you read with your child? Probe for examples

50. Do you take your child to the library, community events, museums and similar
places? Probe for examples.

*Interview items derived by Dr. Reynaldo Baca from Kathleen Patricia Jones O’Connor,
A Small-Scale Examination of the Variables Surrounding Parental Role Construction for
Involvement in Education. Ph.D. Dissertation in Psychology, Vanderbilt University,
2003 and from Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey, Otto C. Bassler, and Rebecca Burow,
“Parents’ Reported Involvement in Students’ Homework: Strategies and Practices.”
The Elementary School Journal. Vol. 95, No. 5, 1995.
University of Southern California,

104
APPENDIX C

Information Sheet for Non-Medical Research

Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

************************************************************************

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR INHIBIT THE INVOLVEMENT
OF AFRICAN AMERICAN PARENTS IN A COMMUNITY COLLEGE
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION PROGRAM

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Lillie Faye McClendon,
Master of Science, and Dr. Reynaldo Baca, from the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California because your child is enrolled in the early childhood
education classes at his/her Child Development Center site. The results of this research
will be published in a dissertation. You were selected as a possible participant in this
study because of your participation patterns in parental involvement. A total of 12
subjects will be selected to participate. Your participation is voluntary. You should read
the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before
deciding whether or not to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the
consent form. You may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you
participate you will be given a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
You are asked to participate in a study of the factors that contribute to African American
parental involvement in an Early Childhood Education Program. This study will help
Child Development Centers, parent groups, and the African American community at
large to identify the implementation strategies and specific activities that lead to increase
levels of parent participation at home and in preschool program.

Response to the interview questions will constitute consent to participation in this
research study.

PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to do the following things:
You would participate in an audio taped interview with the researcher at the childhood

105
development center. You may also participate in a one-on-one interview for
approximately in ninety minutes. During the interview, the researcher will be using
a list of questions. If you would like to see the questions that will be used during the
interview, I can forward them to you prior to the interview. Individual interviews will
take place in 2008. I will meet with each parent for a one-on-one interview. If I am
selected to be interviewed, they can be forwarded to you prior to the interview.
Interviews will take place in 2008.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation. You do not need to answer any
question which may make you feel uncomfortable and you may ask the researcher to
explain any questions.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
The researchers expect this study to give me an opportunity to share valuable information
my parental involvement activities throughout my child’s preschool experience. By
learning why parents participate in specific activities at home and in child development
centers may be able to create programs that help African American parents increase
participation in early childhood education programs made available to them.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for participating in this research study.

CONFIDENTAILITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or
three years.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. The data will be stored for three years after the
study has been completed and then destroyed. When the results of the research are
published or discussed in conferences, no information will be included that would reveal
your identity. If photographs, videos, or audio-tape recordings of you will be used for
educational purposed your identity will be protected or disguised.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to
answer any questions you do not want to answer and still remain in the study. The
investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant
doing so.

106
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have any questions about your rights and your
rights as a study subject or you would like to speak with someone independent of the
research team to obtain answers to questions about the research, or in the event the
research staff can not be reached, please contact the University Park IRB, Office of the
Vice Provost for Research, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90098-1146,
(213) 740-2361 or lmcclend@usc.edu or rbaca@usc.edu

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact
Primary Investigator, Lillie Faye McClendon and Dr. Reynaldo Baca at the Rossier
School of Education at the University of Southern California, Waite Phillips Hall,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 740-2361 or lmcclend@usc.edu or rbaca@usc.edu

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
You have the alternative not participate.

107

SIGNATURE OF PARTICIPANT

I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I/we have been
given a chance to ask questions. My/our questions have been answered to my/our
satisfaction, and I/we agree to participate in this study. I/we have been given a copy of
this form.

______ I/we agree to be audio-taped

______I/we do not want to be audio-taped.

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the subject, and answered all of their questions. I believe
that the participant understands the information described in this document and freely
consents to participate.

Name of Investigator

Signature of Investigator Date

108
APPENDIX D

Name Age Marital Status Degrees Earned No. of
Children
Children
Under 5
Andrew 45 Single MA
AA – Child Development

11 1 (4)
Ann 33 Single AA
BA (Classes)

3 1 (3)
Angela 29 Single Vocational Certificate
AA (Classes)

5 1 (3)
Cecilia

Dee
35

37
Single

Single
AA (Classes)

AA Degree
1

3
1(4)

1(3)

Janet

25 Single Early Childhood Certificate
Social Studies
AA (Classes)

3 1(3)
Lola 36 Single BA Degree
Special Education
Credential (Classes)

2 1(4)
Lorraine

42 Married AA Degree 12 1(4)
Nancy 32 Single Licensed Vocational Nurse
Program (Classes)

5 1(4)
Olga 33 Single Registered Nurse (Classes)

4 1(4)
Stephanie 29 Married BA Psychology

2 1(3)
Victorous 43 Single AA Degree

5 1(4)

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APPENDIX E

Parent Comment Response Repertory Grid

Name Level of
Involvement
School
Implementation
Components
School Based
Activities
Home Based
Activities
Andrew > “Nice and
family-like”
Makes him feel
good
Print rules and
policies
Schedules
activities
Interested in his
son
Helps raise child
Tells him about
his son
“Learning is up
to parent”
Wants to be
involved
“Observation
room is nice”
Doing things
together
Volunteers &
coaches’ games
“Show-up shows
Dad cares”

Asks what his
son did
“Sit down, get
focused”
Reads every
night
Goes to library,
zoo, plays,
dances, sports
Older kids in
college or
military
“Black fathers
raising kids:
Listen, work,
bring kids to
school”
Ann < “Friendly, kind”
Pamphlets on
policies
Activities from
9-10
Gives daily
updates
Semester
conferences
Tells skills &
behavior
Helps asthmatic
son
“He doesn’t want
to be left at
center”

Takes break to
go to center
“Learning is up
to everyone”
Parent/teacher
motivate son
“He loves my
involvement”
But does not
volunteer in class
“Was he a good
boy?”
He asks her for
help
Helps with
ABC’s and
writing, etc.
Brother, sister
and grandma
help
Reads 3 times a
week
Does not take
him places due
to asthma, cold,
long trips; went
to fair

110

Angela > “Welcomes &
courteous”
Not initially
welcomed
“Wanted child
safe”
Orientation
handbooks
Activities in
morning
“Don’t ask for
help”
Homework
packets
Gives weekly
progress

Teaches
preschool
Gets advice for
her work
Investigates
child’s concerns
“You take
initiative”
Wants her ready
for school
“Hands-on” at
school
Volunteers for
events

Asks about
school
Helps with
homework
counting &
phonics
“She asks me for
help”
Reads 2 times a
week
Older child is
resource
Goes to museum,
science center,
beach,
Chinatown
Cecilia > “All welcome &
greet”
“Second home,
village”
Not many
activities
Open
communication
Dairy intolerant
child (Changes
milk)
Hyperactivity &
speech
(Gives
information)
Gives help for
home

“I want her to do
well”
“She likes my
involvement”
Volunteers for
events
“Rewarding for
my child and
me”
Talks to teacher
No network
support
Helps writing
and reading
Asks teacher for
help
Not good with
math
Reads ½ hour
daily
Goes to library
and nature
trips
Wants
involvement and
teacher contact

111

Dee > “Courteous &
prompt”
Puts flier at sign-
in
Knows parent
and child
Gives progress
reports
Asks for help
“He doesn’t want
to leave”
Gives homework

Likes the
observation room
Volunteers to
help in class
“He wants me to
be involved”
“I want my child
to do well”
“I make a
difference”
“I know how to
help!”

Asks about his
school day
Works on
homework
“Dad, kids, and I
help”
“He misses his
dad”
Reads books &
magazines
Goes to library,
aquarium,
parks, beach, &
games
Janet

> “Nice and
helpful”
Gives packet
about rules
Asthmatic child
(Director asks
questions)
Gives homework
packet
Child hit teacher
(Out of norm
behavior was
assisted)
Was a teacher
Helps 30 minutes
in afternoon
Uses observation
room
“He ask me to sit
with him”
“Wants him to
do good”
“I love him!”

“What did you
do today?”
“Love makes a
difference!”
Does homework
and watch
educational TV
Reads twice a
week for 15-20
minutes
Goes to the park
“My brother
takes son to
basketball
games”

112

Lola > “Everyone is
pleasant”
“Gives kind
words”
Gives pamphlets
Gives notice of
activities
He did swing at
teacher
(Condition
corrected)
“Doesn’t give
homework”
“I get involved”
Left job for
holiday activity
Volunteers for
class activities
“No laziness in
education”

Asks about her
school day
“I would like to
have homework”
Is a Special
Education
Assistant
“I know how to
help him”
Uncle and God
Father help
“He likes to look
at picture books”
Goes to library,
parades, church
& flag football
Loraine > “Great staff, like
family”
Had been a
volunteer
12 years with 4
kids in this
center
Celebrate
holidays and
Black History
Tells how your
child is
Conference
information
Listens to
concerns
“My child
distracts kids”
(Working on
improving)

Is a Teaching
Assistant
Helps at school
Participates and
volunteers
Has an eye on
child’s
progress
Improves child’s
skills
“Learning is for
family”
Sisters and
brothers help
“My mother
worked”
“I went to
college”
Child was
acting-out &
distracting
“I am the
mommy”
“I motivate my
child”

“How was your
day?”
“She asks me for
help”
I work at home
with reading,
science projects
and art
It makes her feel
good
She asks mother,
father, sister, or
brother for help
“We read
together
everyday”
“I take her to the
museum, zoo,
downtown,
Rocks Beds in
Caves, Long
Beach, Magic
Mountain, Knox
Berry Farm”

113

Nancy < “Greet me and
my son”
Tour &
information
Gave Policy
Book
Discuss his
progress
Tells about
volunteering
Has parent
conference
Tells what he
knows
No other
information
No homework yet
“No news is good
news”
Kid hitting &
biting him
(Staff let mother
know)
“If there is a
problem, staff
calls me”

Kept parent
conference
papers
“His learning is
up to me”
“He loves the
school”
Wants him to
learn
Came to the
parade & party
Volunteered one
day for 30
minutes
“Children look up
to parents”
“They make them
proud”

What he did
during the day?”
He said, “Play
and eat”
“Kids go to
school & parents
go to work”
He does not get
homework
“I could use some
help”
He asks for help
from his brother
His brother reads
to him once a
week for 15-20
minutes
“I take him to the
library, Easter
Egg Hunt, fire
works show,
snow play at Big
Bear and
sledging”

Olga < “At first, I didn’t
want her to come
to school”
I thought, “One
staff person was
non- responsive”
Teachers and
Director were
good & helpful
A convenient
college location
Two sessions:
A package of
rules and
regulations
Conference will
“Education is
self- sufficient”
Uses observation
room
Child is not
interested in
school and books
“It’s scary!”
“Have not
volunteered”
“I get out of class
and I am on my
way to work”
“If they asked, I
would volunteer”
Works 32 hours a
“How was school
today?”
“She asks for
help at home”
Spends $200 for
flashcards and
DVD’s
Helps with work
she gives
“I feel I can help
her”
“I don’t know
what she does in
class”
“She would
watch TV”

114
be held in
90 days
No daily,
monthly, or
weekly progress
report
Gives
information
Does not ask
parent to help her
or come to school

week
She has two
classes:
(Chemistry and
Human
Development)
“I sent her to
school with a full
stomach, clothes,
and have her
relaxed”
“Time & practice
are needed to do
well and go
to college and
beyond”
“Dad had her
watch TV”
“She goes to me
or her
16 yr. old sister
for help”
“I read daily to
her”
“If I’m tired, my
son reads to her
for 15 minutes
daily”
Goes to L.A.
Science Museum
or Soak City.
“I don’t know
about the events
in the
community”
“There is too
much going on at
parades & parks”
Stephanie < “Very warm
receiving”
Orientation and
tour
Handbook of
rules
Knows staff &
program
Various activities
Doesn’t tell ways
to help
Left messages &
concerns
Gives child’s
abilities
Ideas are good &
helpful semester
evaluation
“We work
together”
“Doesn’t asks me
for help at home
and at school”
“Parent
participation is as
important as
teacher”
Will act on a
problem
“Child’s
motivation is
influenced by
parent”
“He likes it when
I get involved”
“He enjoys the
attention and
mom cares”
Hasn’t
volunteered
“I have a wired
work schedule &
can’t do it”
Learns from
teacher the skills
he needs
Asks son about
school day
Works on ABC’s
& colors
“He doesn’t have
homework”
“We make our
own”
Takes step by
step to learn
We see
improvement in
skills
He asks me or
my husband for
our help
“You have to
have patience”
“I read to him
every other day
and more on
weekends”
We go to the

115
“Doesn’t tell
ways to help out
at school”
Son did not ask
for help
“I am college
educated and can
help”
library a lot, and
community
events
“His father does
much more than I
do with him
because I work a
lot”
“During the bulk
of the week, he is
with his father”
Victoruos > “Friendly and
comfortable”
“Safe and secure
access”
Brochure, forms,
and information
Schedules
activities
Out-spoken and
respectful
Parent/Teacher
meeting
Parent
Involvement
Meeting
Appreciates your
time
Gives
information on
child
“Asks me to
volunteer”

“I considered
majoring in Child
Development”
“She wants me
involved”
“I want to be
involved”
“I come between
classes”
“She loves it,
smiles, and says,
thank you”
Volunteers for
30-45 minutes
Volunteers and
helps in class
Learns about her
skills
Helps her in
school by reading
& asking
questions about
the story
Asks everyday
about school
“What did you
do?”
“She tells you
about lunch”
“She asks me to
help at home”
Supervising her
homework
“She gets help
from me & tries
to do my 8 yr. old
girl’s work”
“I read to her 30
minutes a day”
“We go to the
library, pet store,
amusement
parks, Knox
Berry Farm, City
Castle, the zoo,
Santa Ana,
Chuck E Cheese
and Disneyland”
“She isn’t too
keen on animals,
just rabbits”

Note: Parent comments are summarized as a comparison of “more involved or “less involved”
(>) = More Involved Parent
(<) = Less Involved Parent

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of the study was to explore the factors that influence involvement or non-involvement in the educational experiences of children at home and in a community college early childhood education program. The theoretical concept of "parental role construction" is used to examine African American parental involvement at the preschool level in a community college child development center. To gain a clearer understanding of parental involvement, twelve individual parents were interviewed in relation to their involvement in school and home based educational activities. A parent answered questions about the school-based and home-based activities that they considered necessary for self-efficacy in their involvement to help their children succeed.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator McClendon, Lillie Faye (author)

Core Title Factors that promote or inhibit the involvement of African American parents in a community college early childhood education program

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/08/2009

Defense Date 03/09/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American,Early childhood,general education,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent involvement,preschool education

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee chair), Fuller, Chaulmaine B. (committee member), Hollins, Etta R. (committee member)

Creator Email lilliefmcclendon@yahoo.com,lmcclend@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2212

Unique identifier UC1501509

Identifier etd-McClendon-2862 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-239751 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2212 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-McClendon-2862.pdf

Dmrecord 239751

Document Type Dissertation

Rights McClendon, Lillie Faye

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu