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The relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and racial ethnic identification in undergraduate university students

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The relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and racial ethnic identification in undergraduate university students

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Content THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ FEELINGS OF BELONGING TO
THEIR CAMPUS COMMUNITY AND RACIAL ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION IN
UNDERGRADUATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

by
Sara Behbehani

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTERS OF EDUCATION

December 2009

Copyright 2009 Sara Behbehani
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ii
Abstract iii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 4
Research Question 5
Significance of the Study 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review 6
Introduction 6
Review of the Literature 7
Racial-Ethnic Identification 7
Social Cognitive Theory and REI 10
Student Involvement 12
Belonging 13
REI, Belonging, and Academics 14
Figure 1: Model of triadic reciprocity 15
Belonging Outside of Campus 21

Chapter 3: Methodology 24
Research Question and Design 24
Population and Sample 24
Instrumentation 25
PSSM 26
MEIM 26
Data Collection 26
Data Analysis 27

Chapter 4: Results 28
Correlation 28
Summary 29

Chapter 5: Discussion 30
Limitations 30
Implications 31
Future Research 31
Conclusion 32

References 33

 

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Simple Linear Regression Correlating PSSM and MEIM 28
Table 2: Cronbach’s alpha reliability test for PSSM 29
Table 3: Cronbach’s alpha reliability test for MEIM 29

 
ABSTRACT
The effect of belonging is a psychological need, and if this need is not satisfied it may
have negative repercussions for the potential success of the individual (Maslow, 1943).
The need for belonging is especially important in academic settings. The lack of
fulfillment of this need may have a considerable impact for minority students (Osterman,
2000). In particular, those minority students whom highly identify with their ethnic
group. An individual’s racial-ethnic identification (REI) impacts their values, cognitions,
and behaviors. This identification for minority students may also affect an individual’s
feelings of belonging towards their educational environment. This study used two self-
report measures to examine the relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to
their campus community and their REI. The results showed no significant relationship
between the variables. However, future research should account for the statistical
limitations of this study, including a small sample size and homogeneity of the sample.
 
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Within psychosocial research feelings of belonging are now seen as a
universal human need (Osterman, 2000). This need to feel belonging to others is seen
to have some biological basis. The development of this need may have been
necessary in human evolution because it ensured protection within a group and
increased an individual’s chances of survival (Williams, 2007). Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs states that if an individual’s need for belonging is not fulfilled, the individual
will not excel to their full potential (Maslow, 1943). According to Osterman (2000)
this need for belonging is defined as a sense of relatedness to others within a
community. This sense of relatedness is assessed through the influence of group
norms on the individual and the emotional bonds created within this group dynamic
(McMillan & Chavis, 1986).
Any one individual may feel belonging to a number of different groups.
Many individuals of ethnic minority background have a feeling of belonging to their
racial-ethnic group. This feeling is referred to in the literature as racial-ethnic
identification (REI; Ogbu, 2004). However, the extent to which an individual
identifies with their racial-ethnic group varies by individual at any given time because
of its developmental nature. At any level, this identification will affect other aspects
of the individual’s life.
Within the field of education, this research on belonging to campus
communities and REI has a number of implications. In examining minority issues
within academic contexts a number of matters are addressed in the literature. These
 
issues include ethnic group academic stereotypes (Ogbu, 2004; Osborne & Walker,
2006); student attrition (Tinto, 1993); academic self-efficacy (Osterman, 2000; Zeldin
& Topitzes, 2002); racelessness (Ogbu, 2004); academic autonomy and motivation
(Anderson, Manoogian, and Reznick, 1976); and cultural types of belonging
(Kanungo, 1982).
Background of the Problem
This study aims to examine the correlation between a students' racial-ethnic
identification and their sense of belonging to their campus community. This sense of
belonging is essential for the academic success for the majority of students
(Osterman, 2000). Without this feeling of school belonging students may develop
problems with motivation, social interactions, and achievement. According to Ogbu
(1991) students with high racial-ethnic identification may disidentify from academics.
In situations where an individual's cultural identification does not value academic
achievement, students may academically disidentify in order to protect their racial-
ethnic identification. Furthermore, the greater an individual’s identification with their
ethnic group, the more the individual identifies with academic stereotypes about the
group, both positive and negative (Osborne and Walker, 2006). This can have a
detrimental effect on an individual’s academic self-efficacy.
Another major issue for minority students in higher education is the rate of
attrition. Students of ethnic minority are more likely than their White peers to drop
out of college (Tinto, 1993). According to Tinto (1993), there is a positive
correlation between student attrition and feelings of isolation on campus. In
 
particular, this is concerning because the students most likely to feel isolation on
campus are those of ethnic minority.
Most studies conducted on the topic of racial-ethnic identity reported that
there was either no correlation or a negative correlation between students with high
REI and academic achievement (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995; Fordham, 1988; Guzman,
2002; Ivory, 2003). However, a few studies have also found a positive correlation
between the two (Yasui, Dorham, & Dishion, 2004).
This study will build upon past research on minority identification and feelings of
belonging to academic settings. Although there has been much research on each of
these concepts, most have not studied the relationship between the two. Furthermore,
this study will focus on the undergraduate college population. Most research has
ignored this population, however the study of this population is pertinent in furthering
the success of minority individuals.
Statement of the Problem
Current research regarding students’ racial-ethnic identification has focused
on its influence on involvement and achievement (Astin, 1984; Ogbu, 1991).
Furthermore, most research has focused on K-12 contexts. Surprisingly, very little
research has been done on REI in the higher education context or on the feeling of
belonging in education (Tinto, 1993). According to many theories, minority identity
is a developmental process that occurs over many years as a result of life experiences
(Cross, 1978; Atkinson, Morton, & Sue, 1998; Helms, 1990). Higher education is a
particularly significant time for most students’ minority identity development.
According to Phinney (1992) by the beginning of college most minority students have
 
achieved the highest stage of minority identity development. This study will
concentrate on the influences of an individual’s racial-ethnic identification in the
higher education context and focus on the correlation between an individual’s
identification and their sense of belonging to their campus community. This
proposed research on identity and feelings of belonging have been conducted many
times over, however, rarely have they been examined together (Ogbu 1991, 2004;
Osterman, 2000; Faircloth & Hamm, 2005).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the extent that an individual's
identification with their racial-ethnic group correlates with their sense of belonging to
their campus community. The strength of this correlation may be of significant
importance for the educational community. For this study, undergraduate students at
USC will be used as a representative sample. In order to participate, students must be
18 or over. Students will be asked to answer an online survey that incorporates
questions about their racial-ethnic identification as well as their sense of school
belonging.
The correlation data collected may give insight into the higher rates of
minority attrition in undergraduate education (Tinto, 1993) as well as to the
difference in achievement levels between ethnic minority and majority students. This
information is of importance for campus communities with any population make-up,
but in particular for those with a diverse student body.

 
Research Questions and Hypothesis
The research questions in this study examined the relationship between
students’ identification with their ethnic group and the extent to which the student
feels a sense of belonging to their campus community. The general hypothesis is that
the higher the students’ REI, the less they will feel belonging to their campus.
Significance of the Study
This study is highly significant for the field of higher education. Examining
the correlation between feelings of belonging and racial-ethnic identification may
bring to light the importance of creating campus communities in which all students
can develop these feelings of belonging. In particular, this research may be relevant
for the creation of student affairs organizations on large university campuses. These
large campuses are most likely to develop feelings of isolation for students that do not
have a sense of campus community (Osterman, 2000). This research may also be
relevant for educators at all levels in encouraging open communication and feelings
of security for their students. Finally, this research may be significant for minority
students in choosing possible colleges and universities. Students can be proactive in
developing their sense of campus community by attending schools with culturally
based organizations and an emphasis on embracing diversity in education.

 
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
The purpose of this chapter is to examine relevant literature to gain further
insight into the question of whether an individual’s racial-ethnic identification (REI)
has an effect on their feeling of belonging to their campus community. Very little
research has been done on REI and its impact on the academic domain, therefore in
this literature review I will focus generally on minority students within academics.
Within this context I will be focusing on students’ academic achievement and
attrition. A further concern is that most current research on minority students and
academics focuses on K-12 education. This study will concentrate on the question of
REI and belonging with an adult college-going population, however in this chapter
research focusing on other populations will also be examined. Finally, within the
academic context there are two dimensions of connectedness to a campus community;
involvement and feeling of belonging. Most current research focuses on the
observational concept of involvement. This can be measured by the number of
extracurricular activities students are involved in or the number of hours they devote
to campus activities. Belonging is an affective concept that involves students’ feeling
of connectedness to their campus. This can only be measured by asking the student
via interview or survey. This study and literature review will be mainly focused on
the affect of belonging.
This chapter will be helpful in defining many different concepts introduced in
this study and will provide background into research conducted on these concepts.
 
These concepts that will be discussed are racial-ethnic identification, belonging, and
the impact of REI on belonging in academics.
The development of racial-ethnic identification within the individual will be
analyzed in this chapter using Phinney’s three stage model of identity formation
(1992). Furthermore, the connections between concepts will be analyzed within the
social-cognitive framework proposed by Bandura (2002). In particular Bandura’s
idea of triadic reciprocity will be used to explain the relationship between belonging,
REI, and academics.
Developing a greater understanding of minority issues in higher education is
an important course of study. College attrition rates are significantly higher for
minority students than for White students. Also, minority students are more likely to
go to community college straight after high school and many do not later transfer to
four-year universities (Tinto, 1993). The purpose of this study is to contribute to the
research focusing on minority issues in academia. By adding to this research
disparities in minority education can be better understood and analyzed.
Racial-Ethnic Identification
Racial-ethnic identification, or collective identity, is the extent to which
belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group influences an individual’s self-
perceived identification. According to Ogbu (2004), collective identity is defined as a
feeling of belonging to a particular group and participation in activities and practices
associated with that group. Phinney, Dupont, Espinosa, Revill, and Sanders (1994)
expanded on this definition by adding that an individual should also have positive
feelings about their in-group, and to clearly understand what group identification
 
entails. Racial-ethnic identification (REI) is relevant in how individuals view
themselves within a majority culture, because the extent a person identifies with their
minority culture and history will influence their current sense of self (Chickering &
Reisser, 1993). This includes social, affective and academic aspects of their life.
An individual’s identification with their racial-ethnic group is a constantly
evolving concept. The stages of REI development can be seen through a variety of
minority identity development theories. Some influential identity development
models have been proposed by Cross (1978), Helms (1990), and Atkinson, Morten, &
Sue (1998). For the purpose of this study, Phinney’s three stage model of identity
formation (Phinney, 1992) will be applied to the development of an individual’s
racial-ethnic identification. This model of identity formation can be seen as a fusion
of several different minority development models. In addition to minority
developmental models, the three stage model incorporates aspects of ego identity
development, and Erikson’s identity model (Phinney, 1992).
In the first stage of identity formation individuals use the societal norms of
the majority culture to judge themselves and others. This stage is referred to as
“unexamined ethnic identity” (Phinney, 1992). This stage corresponds with the pre-
encounter stage of Cross’ (1978) model, and the conformity stage of Atkinson et al.
(1998). In this stage a minority individual has not identified themselves with their
ethnic group. They view their ethnic group as inferior to the majority culture, and
devalue themselves and other minority groups (Atkinson et al., 1998). This stage,
across most minority development models can be seen as a denial stage. According
to Kim (1981), people of ethnic minority in this stage of development can be either
 
actively or passively “white-identified”. Actively white-identified individuals
consciously deny any differences between themselves and the dominant group. They
maintain majority values, and identified themselves as part of the dominant group.
Passively white-identified individuals do not identify as white, but hold the dominant
society’s values and are ashamed of their deviance from social norms. Phinney
(1992) also addresses another group in the unexamined ethic identity stage. This
group of individuals is not same group depreciating, however they show no interest in
examining and exploring their own culture.
The second stage of the three stage model (Phinney, 1992) is that of an
“ethnic identity search/moratorium”. This beginning of this stage can be compared to
Erikson’s identity crisis (1968), Cross’ encounter stage (1978), and Atkinson et al.’s
dissonance stage (1998). The minority individual, either through a traumatic event or
series of events, comes to realize that the dominant group’s societal values may not
be entirely advantageous for minority group members. This enlightenment leads a
period of examination of identity. Minority individuals during this part of the second
stage may become curious about their cultural history and practices. Minority
individuals may begin to self-identify with their culture and in some cases may
devalue White culture and norms. This half of the second stage can be related to
Cross’ immersion/emersion stage (1978) and Atkinson et al.’s resistance and
immersion stage of minority development (1998). According to some models,
emotions run high as an effort to better understand their minority culture takes place
(Cross, 1978). However, in the development of the three stage model, Phinney
 
(1992) found this not to be the case. Phinney (1992) concludes that this may be a
result of a change in societal norms from earlier studies.
The third stage of minority identity development is “ethnic identity
achievement” (Phinney, 1992). In this stage an individual has resolved all previous
identity matters. The individual is no longer in a stage of confusion; rather the
individual has a strong sense of self and understanding of society (Phinney, 1992). A
minority individual will have a positive self-concept and will appreciate other
minority cultures (Kim, 1981). This stage is equivalent with Cross’ internalization
stage (1978) and Atkinson et al.’s synergetic articulation & awareness stage (1998).
Phinney (1992) found college students significantly more likely to have reached this
stage of minority identity development over individuals in high school. This result
may be interpreted to mean that ethnic identity achievement is a developmental
process that can be delineated across an individual’s life span.
In summary, Phinney’s (1992) three stage model of ethnic identity
development determines the extent of which a minority individual self-identifies with
their ethnic group by evaluating their stage of development. This degree of REI can
be highly influential on an individual’s academic behaviors.
Social Cognitive Theory and Racial-Ethnic Identification
In examining the relationship of racial-ethnic identification in academic
environments a social cognitive framework will be applied. Social cognitive theory
moved away from early behaviorist theories to incorporate cognitions as a mediator
between environmental stimulants and behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Unlike previous
theories that had no emphasis on cognitions or affective qualities, social cognitive
 
theory focused on the importance of an individual’s interpretations of situations and
their expectations for success or failure. These expectations often affect an
individual’s self-efficacy, which is their belief in their own ability to be successful at
a certain task.
These cognitions are of particular importance for REI in educational contexts.
An individual’s racial-ethnic affiliation may increase their self-efficacy in certain
contexts, but may work negatively in others. As an individual’s association with their
racial-ethnic group increases, connection with stereotypes both negative and positive
increases. According to social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), if an individual’s
ethnic group is stereotyped to not be academically inclined, the individual’s academic
self-efficacy may be negatively affected. The impact of expectations on self-efficacy
may in turn influence behaviors. This concept of triadic reciprocity (Bandura, 1986)
also implies that the behaviors of the individual will also influence their expectations
(see figure 1).
In understanding minority issues in academics, the idea of personal agency in
social cognitive theory plays a considerable role (Bandura, 1986). Personal agency
refers to the person’s perceived level of control in any given situation. In educational
environments not conducive to diversity, minority students may feel that they do not
have much agency in their success or failure. This feeling will have an adverse
outcome on the individual’s cognitions, and behaviors.
In conclusion, analyzing REI through a social cognitive framework allows for
a holistic view of the triadic relationship between the environment, behaviors, and
cognitions. Furthermore, concepts within social cognitive theory such as self-efficacy
 
and personal agency are transferred to academia to examine minority issues in this
field.
Student Involvement
Student involvement can be seen in a variety of activities. Involvement can be
seen by participation in extracurricular activities such as sports, clubs, and student
government. It can also be having positive relationships with peers, faculty, and staff
on campus.
Student involvement has been linked to a number of positive academic traits.
Involvement has been positively linked to learning (Astin, 1993), continued
involvement, and a decrease in student attrition (Tinto, 1993). Different types of
involvement, not including sports, give the opportunity for students to discuss
academic subject matters outside the classroom. According to Tinto (1993) these
opportunities increase learning, and motivate student persistence, which in turn,
affects effort. In college settings, learning and effort are negatively correlated with
student attrition. Persistence in higher education is also correlated with students’
levels of involvement in positive relationships with faculty and learning activities
(Tinto, 1993).
This involvement is crucial for students’ to fulfill their potential, affectively,
socially, and academically, on campus. However, for minority students social
involvement on campus may play an even bigger role in their persistence than for
White students (Tinto, 1993). According to Tinto (1993), the academic environment
is as important for a minority student’s success as their actual abilities.
 
Although this need for involvement has been seen to be more necessary for
minority students’ academic success, it is also less likely to be fulfilled in this
population. Minority students often have fewer options for involvement and may feel
isolated on large campus communities (Tinto, 1993). They may not feel the natural
involvement in mainstream campus culture that majority students feel, and must
therefore be more proactive in seeking out opportunities for involvement.
Belonging
Many individuals whom are highly involved in organizational activities may
feel a sense of belonging to that community, however, it is not always possible to
deduce that simply because an individual may engage in actions congruent with this
affect, that they actually feel a sense of belonging. The affective state of belonging
has become an important focus of psychological research (Osterman, 2000).
Belonging encompasses relatedness to others and a sense of community. In defining
a sense of community McMillan and Chavis (1986) discuss the importance of the
group’s influence on the individual, the fulfillment of needs, and an emotional bond
shared by all members of the community. Furman (1998), adds that a sense of
community can only be present if members have feelings of trust and safety within
the community. Within the large body of psychological research focusing on basic
human needs, feelings of belonging are seen as a common trend (Nohria, Lawrence,
and Wilson, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Thompson, Grace and Cohen, 2001).
Feelings of belonging have been long understood to be a part of the human
experience; however, the need to belong may actually play a critical role in the
physiological and psychological well being of most individuals (Ryan, 1995).
 
Ryan (1995) describes relatedness as one of three basic human needs, in
addition to autonomy and competence, which must be satisfied in order to develop
higher order psychological functioning. Basic human needs, as defined by
Baumeister and Leary (1995), apply to everyone, in every setting, and influence
cognitive and affective patterns, both positively and negatively. According to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943) belonging is a basic human need which, if
lacking, can thwart an individual’s ability to excel. Feelings of belonging in
individuals have been found to reduce stress, enhance autonomy, and increase
positive perceptions about others (Baumeister and Leary, 1995). Furthermore, a
sense of community is also associated with positive emotions such as happiness,
satisfaction, and tranquility (Osterman, 2000). Where a lack of relatedness has been
associated with anxiety, depression, as well as an increase in drug and alcohol use
(Battistich & Hom, 1997), higher rates of emotional distress, violence, and suicide
(Resnick et al., 1997). A lack of a sense of belonging may be the core cause of a
variety of psychosocial dysfunctions (Baumeister and Leary, 1995, Maslow, 1943).
Ryan (1995) describes relatedness as one of three basic human needs that must be
satisfied in order to develop higher order psychological functioning.
REI, Belonging, and Academics
Learning in academic settings for minority students is contingent on numerous
factors, one of which is a sense of belonging to the campus community (Faircloth &
Hamm, 2005; LaFromboise, Coleman, and Gerton, 1993). In educational settings,
feelings of belonging have been found to be linked to a number of academic and
scholarly behaviors. A sense of campus community may influence academic and
 
social attitudes, motivation, participation, and achievement. Feelings of belonging
are in turn influenced by a number of environmental and cognitive factors. Social
cognitive learning theory discusses the relationship of triadic reciprocity between an
individual’s environment, behaviors, and personal factors (Bandura, 2002). By
applying this model it is implied that changes in an individual’s academic
environment will bring about changes in their cognitions and affective state, which
may impact scholastic behavior, such as learning, achievement, and attrition (see
figure 1).

Figure 1. Model of triadic reciprocity (with examples of positive academic outcomes)

Behaviors
Investing effort, achievement, learning conducive behaviors, completing school

Environment Personal Factors
Safe school, culturally aware faculty/staff, Feeling of belonging to campus
free of racism

Racial-ethnic identification encompasses a sense of belonging within an individual’s
own culture and practices. For many students of ethnic minority a feeling of cultural
belonging does not necessarily carry over to the same sense of belonging in majority
settings (i.e. school). In fact, a strong sense of racial-ethnic identification has been
seen as a source of disidentification from academics for many students in certain
environments (Ogbu, 1986, 1991, 2004). When academic achievement is identified
 
with the dominant culture, academic disidentification may be seen as necessary to
protect an individual’s racial-ethnic identification.
Feelings of school connectedness are often developed through social
relationships within the academic institution. This poses a problem when only one-
third of minority students who identify with their own culture report that their closest
friend attends the same school (Way & Chen, 2000). Way and Chen (2000) suggest
that this large number of minority students reporting significant relationships outside
of school settings may be the result of a feeling that their academic community does
not understand their respective cultural identification. This interpretation would shed
light onto the difference between minority students and majority students, whom
mostly report that their closest friend does attend the same school (Way & Chen,
2000).
Belonging and Racial Group Academic Stereotypes
Racial-ethnic identification influences many dimensions of an individual’s
being. Part of the definition of REI is a feeling a belonging to a particular group
(Ogbu, 2004). This belonging includes identification with stereotypes about the
particular group. According to Osborne and Walker (2006) the greater an
individual’s identification with their ethnic group, the more they will identify with the
stereotypes about their group, both positive and negative. Stereotypes focusing on
academic performance for an individual’s in-group have a significant effect on
academic self-efficacy (Osborne& Walker, 2006). In a study done by Osborne
(1997), higher grades were predicted for and achieved by students whose in-group
had a stereotypically positive relation with academic performance compared with
 
those whose in-group did not stereotypically identify with academics. For those high
REI students whose in-group stereotypically does not do well in school, academic
success may cause a feeling of dissonance. This feeling may be heightened
depending on the stage of identity development that the individual has attained. As a
result of this dissonance, a minority student may choose to disidentify from their
school community to protect their sense of belonging to their cultural group (Ogbu,
1986, 1991, 2004). Academic disidentification is related to a number of negative
outcomes.
Campus Belonging and Student Attrition
According to Tinto (1993), in the context of higher education, there is a
positive correlation between students’ degree completion and their feeling of
involvement in higher education. By the same concept, feelings of incongruence or
isolation within an academic setting increase the likelihood of student attrition.
Students with high racial-ethnic identification are more likely to have feelings of
incongruence on college campuses. Tinto also found that there is a result of a smaller
selection of campus communities to join for students of color compared to those
available for students of the majority culture. Membership to these communities
helps to develop of a sense of belonging; those students that do not feel as if they fit
into any campus community risk developing feelings of isolation. Students whom
highly identify with their racial-ethic group are also more likely to disidentify with
the majority campus culture. This academic disidentification also makes dropout
rates more common for these marginalized students (Murguia, Padilla, & Pavel,
1991). Of the Latino population that entered higher education, approximately 68%
 
received an Associate’s degree or less. This can be compared to the 38% of the
White college population (Tinto, 1993). The fact that students of ethnic minority are
significantly less likely to persist in higher education settings is concerning for the
future of these ethnic groups.
Campus Belonging and Academic Self-Efficacy
Disidentification with education also has a negative outcome for students’
academic self-efficacy (Osterman, 2000; Zeldin & Topitzes, 2002). Academic self-
efficacy is partially a result of feedback from faculty and peers. A result of academic
disidentification is limited interactions with people in the academic environment.
This will greatly inhibit the verbal persuasion that is so important for developing self-
efficacy judgments (Bandura, 1977). In a study by Tuckman and Sexton (1991) half
of the participants in a study received positive feedback from their instructor, while
the other half received no feedback. The group with the feedback scored significantly
higher on a self-efficacy survey, and did better in the class as measured by higher
overall test scores.
When examining affective factors for high REI individuals, academic
disidentification may actually be beneficial. According to Ogbu (2004) individuals
with strong racial-ethnic identification may be at risk for higher levels of anxiety and
stress in dominant culture academic settings than their less culturally identified peers.
The physiological reactions resulting from these emotions can become a source of
negative self-efficacy judgments (Bandura, 1977). Anxiety and stress can increase
heart rate, induce sweating, and in some cases can cause nausea or dizziness. These
 
symptoms can be misunderstood by the high REI individual to indicate a lack of
ability when faced with a task.
Campus Belonging and Racelessness
Racial-ethnic identification for minority students has been shown overtime to
be negatively correlated with academic achievement (Arroyo & Zigler, 1995). This
lends itself to Fordham and Ogbu’s (1986) idea of racelessness, the idea of
disidentifying oneself from their ethnic group. Racelessness is positively correlated
with academic achievement (Fordham, 1988). This may be problematic because it
implies racial-ethnic identification and school identification are mutually exclusive;
an individual may not feel that they can belong to their associated racial-ethnic group
and belong to their campus community concurrently.
Furthermore, if investing effort into schoolwork is seen as a trait of the
majority culture, individuals may resist this because of the anxiety of being seen by
their own group as “acting White”. This anxiety may add to the positive influence of
racelessness on achievement. Students with high racial-ethnic identification may
devalue certain learning behaviors for a fear of being ostracized by their in-group if
they did value educational attainment (Ogbu, 1999).
Another concern high REI individuals may experience is of actually
assimilating into the dominant culture if they engage in what is seen by their in-group
as “White” behaviors. High REI individuals may believe that investing significant
effort into their education may change their self-perceived orientation within their
culture. Similarly, these individual’s may fear forgetting their culture or where they
 
are from. This may be another reason why many high REI individuals may not value
formal education (Ogbu, 2004).
Belonging, Autonomy, and Motivation
The relationship between belonging and autonomy in educational settings
has sparked some debate in the literature. A study by Anderson, Manoogian, and
Reznick (1976) sought to research the relationship between the two and its effect on
motivation. The results of this study indicated that in contexts with no interpersonal
involvement there was a decline in students’ intrinsic motivation. This can also be
seen in research by Ryan (1995) and Deci et al. (1991). The development of
autonomy is the most likely in situations where the individual feels a sense of
belonging to others in the given context.
Furthermore, according to Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy, until the need for
belonging is satisfied, an individual will not be motivated to work towards higher
level needs. These higher needs that are contingent on the satisfaction of the need for
belonging include the need for esteem and self-actualization. Interestingly, the need
for esteem is very similar to the need for autonomy.
Individualist vs. Collective Belonging
Where a culture is individualistic or collectivist defines a number of social
norms for the individuals whom associate with the culture. Individualistic, or
Western, cultures adhere to the mind-frame that an individual’s needs and wants
come before those of anyone else. Those in individualistic cultures desire praise and
autonomy. Differing from individualist cultures are collectivist cultures, which tend
 
to place emphasis on the needs of the group or community. In these communities
maintaining harmony by avoiding conflict is of great importance.
In understanding minority college students’ need for belonging, their cultural
orientation may play a substantial role. According to Kanungo (1982), whether an
individual comes from a collectivist or individualist culture may effect their need for
belonging. Kanungo’s (1982) research was done in the workplace, but these findings
can be generalized to college students. Kanungo found that employees from
Western/Individualistic cultures saw their work as an opportunity for autonomy,
praise, pay, and a time to show their competence. On the other hand, employees from
collectivist cultures saw their work as a chance to relate to their peers, improve their
community, and bring harmony to their environment (Kanungo, 1982).
In generalizing these findings to minority college students, it becomes obvious
that social relatedness is a cultural norm, and without it students may have problems
developing a sense of belonging to their academic community. Understanding these
cultural propensities can help colleges make changes to help minority students feel
the type of belonging they need in their campus community.
Belonging Outside of Campus
Theorists such as Tinto (1993) discuss the importance of campus integration.
By this Tinto referred to the idea of connecting with those with similar cultures within
the campus community. Sometimes however, the greatest support systems occur off
campus in the families and neighborhoods of these students. Guiffrida (2006)
discusses the importance of maintaining belonging to these social networks for
minority college students. Kuh and Love (2000) suggest that although campus
 
connections are important for minority students, campus integration, which implies
relinquishing their individual culture to the dominant campus culture, may actually be
harmful for these students.
Non-university cultural ties often help minority students deal with racism and
isolation on campus (Guiffrida, 2006). Students who have a social support system,
either on campus or off, are better able to cope with race-related issues and are
therefore less likely to drop out of college. Much research has acknowledged that
minority students’ feelings of belonging to their home communities may be just as
important as their connections on campus in determining their persistence in higher
education (Rosas & Hamrick, 2002, Gonzalez, 2000, Delgado & Bernal, 2002,
Jackson & Smith, 2001, Guiffrida, 2005).
Conclusion
In this review of relevant literature a variety of concepts have been introduced.
In examining the relationship between racial-ethnic identification and school
belonging the literature was examined using a social-cognitive framework. By
viewing the relationship between environment, behavior, and personal factors, such
as cognitions and emotions, as a model of reciprocity the importance of each in
educational contexts becomes readily apparent. In reviewing the literature on racial-
ethnic identification and academic belonging the relevance of both must not be
underestimated. According to Ogbu (2004), REI plays a deciding role in the
development of feelings of belonging to academia.
In the current study the relationship between an individual’s feelings of school
belonging and the degree to which the individual associates with their racial-ethnic
 
group is examined. This correlation has mostly been studied in K-12 settings. This
study will be examining this correlation in a higher education context, where REI is at
a high developmental level for many minority students.
In conclusion, the current research views on racial ethnic identification and
belonging see these topics as separate entities. By looking at these concepts as
related allows for a unique perspective on minority issues in higher education.

 
CHAPTER 3
Methods
There are various individual factors that influence an individual’s feeling of
belonging to any social group. This factors have particular implications for
individuals of racial-ethnic minority. This study attempts to analyze the relationship
between an individual’s degree of racial-ethnic identification and the extent to which
they feel that they belong to their campus community. This chapter will discuss the
sample and population used, the methodology, data collection and analysis.
Research Question
The research questions in this study examined the relationship between the
degree that the student identifies with their racial-ethnic group and the extent to
which the student feels a sense of belonging to their campus community.
Research Design
The purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship between an
individual’s feeling of identification with their ethnic group and their feeling of
belonging to their campus community. This study is correlational in nature.
Participants were asked to complete a survey, which included 38 questions taken
from the Psychological Sense of School Membership scale (PSSM) and the
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM).
Population and Sample
The population of interest for this study was undergraduate students at the
University of Southern California. This is a large research institution located in the
urban center of Los Angeles, CA. The specific sample for this study was drawn from
 
cultural centers across campus. This population was accessed by emails sent out to
organization members by the organization list-serves. These emails were sent by
each participating organization independently. The campus organizations that
participated in this study were: El Centro Chicano, Center for Black Cultural and
Student Affairs, Asian Pacific American Student Services, and the Center for Women
and Men.
The number of students sampled was small (n=19) and racially diverse. The
sample population was approximately 26% Asian, Asian American, or South Asian,
27% White (not Hispanic), European, Caucasian, 10% Black, African, African
American, 21% Latino, Chicano, Hispanic, 16% Two or more ethnic backgrounds.
Instrumentation
For this study self-report measurement tools were utilized in order to evaluate
students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and their individual level
of racial-ethnic identification. Self-report measures were used because of the
unobservable nature of the concepts being studied. Each population received an email
from a campus organization that they are affiliated with. Upon receiving the email,
students may have then chosen to participate in the study. These students were asked
to follow a link in an email to an online survey. The surveys were administered online
using a survey creator site MisterPoll (www.misterpoll.com). The surveys used were
the Psychological Sense of School Membership (Goodenow, 1993) and the
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992). All survey data collected is
anonymous and no personal information is asked for (besides ethnic group
 
association). Also, students will be informed that there is no immediate benefit for
them to participate in the study and they will not be penalized for not participating.
Psychological Sense of School Membership Measure
The PSSM consists of 18 questions about an individual’s feeling of belonging
to their academic environment. However, in this study only 17 questions were used.
These questions refer to the individual’s feeling of belonging to the campus as well as
their relationships with others on campus, for example “I feel like a real part of USC”
and “The faculty/staff here respect me.” PSSM are scored on a 1-5 Likert scale and
took about 15 minutes to complete.
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure
The MEIM asks questions regarding an individual’s feeling of belonging to
their ethnic group as well as their involvement with their in-group, such as, “I feel a
strong attachment towards my own ethnic group” and “I participate in cultural
practices of my own group, such as special food, music, or customs.” This survey
consists of 21 questions. The MEIM is scored on a 1-5 Likert scale ranging from 1,
“Not at all true” to 5, “Completely true” Participants are asked to state their own
ethnic group at the end of this survey, but are given an option to decline to state.
Data Collection
Data was collected online via an online survey maker (www.misterpoll.com).
An email explaining the study was sent out to participants with a link to the survey.
Also, a short form discussing the study in further detail was attached to the email.
Upon collection, survey data was input into SPSS. Data was coded using a 1-5 Likert
 
scale, ranging from 1- Not at all true, to 5- Completely true. This study was approved
by the USC IRB with Exempt status.
Data Analysis
Data was collected and input into SPSS to analyze. A simple linear regression
was used to determine whether there is a linear relationship between the two variables
of REI and school belonging. This statistical method was chosen because there is
only one predictor variable in this study.



 
CHAPTER 4
Results
This chapter introduces the results from the data collected from the measures
described in chapter three. The results from these measures attempted to answer the
following research question:
 What is the relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to their campus
community and their degree of racial-ethnic identification?
Correlation
In order to analyze whether there is a correlational relationship between
students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and their degree of racial-
ethnic identification a simple linear regression was used (See Table 1). The results
from this process indicate that there is no statistically significant relationship between
students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and their racial-ethnic
identification.
Table 1
Simple Linear Regression Correlating PSSM and MEIM

In order to test the internal reliability of the measures Cronbach’s alpha was
also analyzed. The results for Cronbach’s alpha for each measure show low internal
reliability (See Tables 2 & 3).
 
Table 2
Cronbach’s alpha reliability test for PSSM

Table 3
Cronbach’s alpha reliability test for MEIM

Summary
This study used two self-report measures to examine students’ feelings of
belonging to their campus community and the degree to which they identify with their
racial-ethnic background. The measures used in this study are the PSSM, which
measures the affect of belonging in students towards their educational environment
(Goodenow, 1993), and the MEIM, which measures an individual’s identification
with their ethnic group (Phinney, 1992).
A simple linear regression was conducted to analyze the correlation between
the measures. The results of this correlation show no significant relationship between
the variables.

 
CHAPTER 5

Discussion

This study sought to examine the relationship between students’ feelings of
belonging to their campus community and their racial-ethnic identification. Previous
research on related topics have found that there is an inverse relationship between
student involvement in the educational community and high racial-ethnic orientation
for minority students (Fordham, 1989). However, the findings of this current study
indicate that there is no significant relationship between these two variables.
Limitations
There were a number of limitations that likely had a considerable impact on
the obtained results. The sampling procedure used in this study may have prevented
the observation of the true correlation between the variables. The sample population
size was small (n=19). Also, there was a high degree of homogeneity within the
sample population. The sample consisted only of students whom already belonged to
at least one organization on campus (100%). Furthermore, these organizations were
all based on racial/ethnic/cultural group orientation. The sample was selected from a
private research university that instills in students the importance of feeling of
belonging to their campus community. Many students choose to attend this particular
university because of the value placed on the university “family”.
The results of this study were also affected due to the omission of one
question because of a mistake found in the answer choices available. Lastly, all
participating students were included in the results of this study. The results may have
been affected by the inclusion of students from ethnic majority backgrounds. There
 
were a number of statistical issues in this study, but the methods used in this study
may still be of value for future research.
Implications
Although the results of this study are not significant the implications are
relevant for the field of education. This study adds to the body of research in the area
of social-emotional development in the educational system. Much research, such as
this study, has been done to bring about an understanding towards the potential causes
of the achievement gap at all levels in education. In order to work towards narrowing
the achievement gap in higher education, as well as the gap between minority and
majority attrition further studies of this nature should be conducted. The relationship
between racial-ethnic identification and the affective need for belonging in education
should be further examined to ensure that minority students’ need for belonging is
met in higher education settings.
Future Research !
While results of this study are unexpected, the limitations discussed before
should be acknowledged and future research should be conducted. Future research in
this area of study should be replicated using a much larger sample population.
Furthermore, having a sample based in a large university that does not have an
emphasis on belonging may be more effective in understanding the macro affects of
belonging. Future research on belonging would be useful if done by differentiating
between the living arrangements of the students (i.e. on campus, off campus
university housing, off campus private housing).
 
Conclusion
The implications of research on this area of study, as previously discussed in
the implications section, are far reaching for the American educational system. The
potential results of a move away from a strictly academic based system to a more
holistic educational approach may have a positive impact on the achievement gap
between majority and minority students.
Further study on the relationship between campus belonging and racial-ethnic
identification is needed to understand the implications for meeting the affective needs
of students on campus. Future research should be conducted using a larger sample
size and further differentiation between lifestyle factors.
Studies focusing on minority issues in education add to the collective
knowledge of educational administrators, and allow for the possibility of a more
beneficial allocation of resources. Investing financial resources and efforts into
campus activities focusing on at risk populations may add to the quality of education
for minority students. By understanding their academic and affective needs,
institutions of higher education can make better decisions for their students.

 
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract The effect of belonging is a psychological need, and if this need is not satisfied it may have negative repercussions for the potential success of the individual (Maslow, 1943). The need for belonging is especially important in academic settings. The lack of fulfillment of this need may have a considerable impact for minority students (Osterman, 2000). In particular, those minority students whom highly identify with their ethnic group. An individual’s racial-ethnic identification (REI) impacts their values, cognitions, and behaviors. This identification for minority students may also affect an individual’s feelings of belonging towards their educational environment. This study used two self-report measures to examine the relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and their REI. The results showed no significant relationship between the variables. However, future research should account for the statistical limitations of this study, including a small sample size and homogeneity of the sample.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Behbehani, Sara (author)

Core Title The relationship between students’ feelings of belonging to their campus community and racial ethnic identification in undergraduate university students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

Degree Program Education (Psychology)

Publication Date 10/13/2009

Defense Date 07/10/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag campus connectedness,culture,feelings of belonging,identification,OAI-PMH Harvest,racial-ethnic identification

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo T. (committee member), Ragusa, Gisele (committee member)

Creator Email sara7255@yahoo.com,sbehbeha@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2667

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Document Type Thesis

Rights Behbehani, Sara

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