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A case for change: building leadership capacity in urban high schools
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A case for change: building leadership capacity in urban high schools
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Content
A CASE FOR CHANGE: BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY
IN URBAN HIGH SCHOOLS
by
Darnise Williams
__________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2009
Copyright 2009 Darnise Williams
ii
DEDICATION
This manuscript is dedicated to my daughter, Lauren Lang, Mother, Sharon
Williams and the memory of my grandparents, Lawrence and Leora Ecles (NANA).
To Lauren my fifteen year old daughter who supported, encouraged, and
loved me through the entire process. I can still hear your query, “Mom, are you
finished with that paper yet”? I thank you for the many sacrifices you made so this
work could manifest.
To my mother, I thank you for supporting me and listening to my multiple
pleas for direction and your tender responses of encouragement that propelled me
forward. I will always remember, “Where much is given much is required.”
In loving memory of my grandparents, Mr. and Mrs. Lawrence Ecles, I thank
the two of you for always supporting me in all of my endeavors to completion.
Through this process I drew from your words of wisdom, dinner conversations, and
dialogues on current events and the Bible every evening for strength.
To Nana I thank you for the late nights spent studying with me to prepare me
to become a scholar. Who can forget, the books you read to me from your job as a
janitor at Normandie Avenue Elementary School. As the teachers discarded rich
texts and materials in the summers you brought them home to me and conducted
class. I remember your lessons on syntax and your gentle reminders about
eradicating the use of the infamous “double negative.” Although you are no longer
here I have never forgotten your love for and commitment to learning. I still look at
your High School Diploma from the “Colored School” which reads, This Diploma is
iii
presented to Leora Dorothy Mae Ecles for Successful Completion of High School
with High Honors. Your accomplishments and zeal for productivity motivate me to
continue. This one is definitely for you!!
As the first generation college graduate in my family I dedicate “our”
accomplishments to the generations of scholars to come. They all have a tremendous
legacy to uphold!
Thank You All and God Bless!
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to extend my heart-felt gratitude to the
multitudes for collectively supporting me through the completion of my manuscript:
To God, for blessing me with family, health, opportunity and courage.
To my family: daughter Lauren, momma Sharon, auntie Pamela Holmes,
cousin Courtney Holmes, cousin Nakia Flores, sister LaShawny Vann and Brother
Ronald Williams for your daily support. Much Love!!!
To my study partners, Shawna Petit-Dinkins and Jamila Gillenwaters, thank
you for the late nights and early mornings I love you both dearly.
To Dr. Margaret Reed, my chair, thank you for your guidance, patience and
scholastic influence.
To my committee members, Dr. Kathy Stowe and Dr. Edmond Heatley for
your guidance, support and mentorship.
To my mentor, Odessa Taylor, thank you for your wisdom. Love You!
To the carpool moms, Tina Whitaker and Renee Lockheart thank you for
assisting me with Lauren your support is extremely appreciated.
To my daughters second mom, Gina Johnson, thank you for supporting
Lauren through her tough times with the process.
To my sister friends, Chisa Cofield, Sonia Leffall, Candice Waters, Carol
Matthews, and Tynita Alford for keeping on track and praying constantly. Wow,
Twenty Years of Greatness. Thank You!
v
To my cohort members, Shawna, Pam, Kim, Helena, Jon, John and Stacey,
thank you for your support. You all are awesome!
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………….. ii
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………. iv
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………… viii
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………... x
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ……………………………………………… 1
Chapter Two: Literature Review ………………………………………………… 14
Chapter Three: Methodology ……………………………………………………. 59
Chapter Four: Analysis and Interpretation of Data and Findings ……………….. 80
Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations ………………….. 142
References ………………………………………………………………………. 160
Appendix A: Observation Protocol ……………………………………………. 165
Appendix B: Document Review Protocol ……………………………………… 167
Appendix C: Principal Interview Protocol …………………………………….. 168
Appendix D: Teacher Interview Protocol ……………………………………… 169
Appendix E: Mentor Interview Protocol ………………………………………. 170
Appendix F: Letter of Support Pennsylvania Department of Education ……….. 171
Appendix G: Letter of Support ………………………………………………… 172
Appendix H: Letter of Support Site Coordinator ……………………………… 173
Appendix I: Pil Homework Assignment Unit 1 ………………………………… 176
Appendix J: Pil Homework Assignment Unit 2 ……………………………….. 177
vii
Appendix K: Pil Homework Assignment Unit 3 ………………………………. 178
Appendix L: Pil Unit 4 GROW ………………………………………………... 179
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1. The Four Roles of the Instructional Leader …………………………. 16
Table 2-2. Four I's of Transformational Leadership …………………………….. 18
Table 2-3. Similarities and Differences of Instructional and Transformational …. 21
Leadership
Table 3-1. Project Timeline ……………………………………………………... 65
Table 3-2. Triangulation Matrix ………………………………………………… 73
Table 3-3. Leadership Standards Rubric ………………………………………... 78
Table 4-1. Founding Principles of MA’AT and Nguzo Saba …………………… 83
Table 4-2. PA School Improvement Guidelines …………………………………. 90
Table 4-3. RICHS 2003-2008 School Improvement Continuum ……………….. 91
Table 4-4. RICHS 2003-2008 SAT Performance ……………………………….. 92
Table 4-5. RICHS Teacher Years of Experience ………………………………… 94
Table 4-6. Principal Questions Theme Matrix …………………………………... 95
Table 4-7. Teacher Focus Group Questions Theme Matrix ……………………... 95
Table 4-8. VAL ED Performance Standards ……………………………………. 98
Table 4-9. Pre-Post VAL ED Assessment Participation 2008-09 ………………. 98
Table 4-10. Fall and Spring Overall Effectiveness Score for Roots ……………. 102
Independent
Table 4-11. Fall Summaries of Core Component and Key Processes Scores ….. 103
for Roots Independent High School
Table 4-12. Spring Summaries of Core Component and Key Processes Scores .. 104
for Roots Independent High School
ix
Table 4-13. Fall Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and Areas ……... 105
of Growth
Table 4-14. Spring Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and Areas …... 106
of Growth
Table 4-15. Fall/Spring Culture of Learning Integrated Summary of ………….. 110
Principal’s Strengths and Areas of Growth
Table 4-16. Fall/Spring Quality Instruction Integrated Summary of …………... 114
Principal’s Strengths and Areas of Growth
Table 4-17. Fall /Spring Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and …… 117
Areas of Growth
Table 4-18. Four I’s of Transformational Leadership ………………………….. 130
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1. Leadership Conceptual Framework ………………………………… 23
Figure 2-2. Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement (Weiss, 2007) …… 25
Figure 2-3. Functions of the Mission, Vision, and Belief Statements ………….. 27
Figure 2-4. Instructional Leadership Characteristics ……………………………. 31
Figure 2-5. PA Framework for Principal Preparation Programs ………………… 50
Figure 2-6. Core Standards and Behaviors ……………………………………… 51
Figure 2-7. PA Six Corollary Standards and Behaviors ………………………… 52
Figure 3-1. Sample VAL-ED Survey ……………………………………………. 68
Figure 3-2. Creswell Six Steps to Data Collections ……………………………... 71
Figure 3-3. Overall Effectiveness Score Sample ………………………………… 77
Figure 4-1. RICHS Student Socio-Economic Levels ……………………………. 84
Figure 4-2. Pennsylvania General Performance Level Descriptors ……………… 87
Figure 4-3. 2004-2008 PSSA Mathematics Achievement for RICHS …………... 88
Figure 4-4. 2004-2008 PSSA Reading Achievement Data ……………………… 89
Figure 4-5. RICHS 2004-2008 Graduation Rate and College Acceptance ……… 92
Figure 4-6. Evidence Used by Principal (fall) ………………………………….. 99
Figure 4-7. Evidence Used by Teachers (fall) …………………………………. 100
Figure 4-8. Evidence Used by Teachers (spring) ……………………………… 101
Figure 4-9. VAL ED Teacher Source Data ……………………………………. 101
xi
ABSTRACT
There once was a young slave by the name of Frederick Douglass who was
tenacious in his pursuit to learn to read. After convincing the wife of his master to
serve in the role as teacher, a sudden break occurred in his educational process as his
master forbade the wife to teach a slave to read. The master believed that if a slave
learned to read he would become discontent with his conditions and rebel against
slavery. The master was successful in ceasing Douglass’ instruction but not his
desire to learn!
Douglass’ dilemma is one of many that students in urban communities
grapple with on a daily basis. Many students in urban communities are faced with
unique challenges from high rates of poverty to attendance at schools with limited
resources that are instructional distractions. In addition to these daily struggles,
school districts nationwide are faced with the task of employing skilled urban leaders
who are prepared to mitigate these adaptive challenges.
Therefore, this mixed methods, purposive case study was conducted to
investigate whether a fully developed leadership intervention program
complemented by leadership mentoring support and assessment of leadership
practice, was effective in influencing change in leader and teacher practice over time.
The study drew from an examination of leadership theories and models that served as
the basis for identifying components of effective leadership development programs
(Darling-Hammond et. al, Murphy et al., 2003) that build the capacity of urban
leaders to create and sustain the conditions for quality teaching and learning to occur.
xii
Consistent with contemporary research on leadership, the findings in this
study suggested that effective leaders are those who possess beliefs, knowledge,
skills and practices critical to shaping a culture of learning (Elmore, 2003; Marzano,
2003, Murphy et al., 2006; Hallinger, 2003). Therefore, specific leadership program
features and support structures that influence leader and teacher practice in urban
school settings are identified. Additionally, implications and recommendations are
presented to support the field in identifying conceptual tools needed to develop a
form of social capital in urban schools that lead to improved outcomes for
professionals and students.
1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Background
The best teacher is the one who suggests rather than dogmatizes, and inspires his
listener with the wish to teach himself.
Edward G. Bulwer-Lytton
Mr. John Solomon a first year novice principal stands in front of Closing the
Gap High School (pseudonym), to welcome students, parents, teachers and staff to
the new school year. Mr. Solomon, a former assistant principal of many years, is
enthusiastic about his new assignment at Closing the Gap High School, a large urban
multi track high school situated in the heart of South Los Angeles, which is one of
the most notorious communities known for its high poverty areas, gang violence and
high numbers of students residing in foster care. Closing the Gap High School has a
student population of more than 4,200 students. It is the third oldest high school in
Unified School District (pseudonym). Closing the Gap High School serves a high
poverty clientele where 90.4% of the students qualify for free or reduced priced
meals. This average is considerably higher than the 75.1% average for the entire
Unified School District. Closing the Gap High School is organized by nine small
thematic-based learning communities which includes a magnet school.
In recent years Closing the Gap High School had been placed in Program
Improvement (PI) Status for failing to make Adequate Yearly progress (AYP) in
Mathematics and English Language Arts under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Act. Additionally in the same year, under the California’s Public School
2
Accountability Act, Closing the Gap High School was deemed a State-monitored
school by the California Department of Education. As a result of this identification,
Closing the Gap High School was placed under School Assistance and Intervention
Team (SAIT) and the Los Angeles County of Education became the provider who
would assist Closing the Gap in improving its instructional programs and structural
systems. To date, Closing the Gap High School retains both its PI and SAIT
standings. Additionally, recent achievement data, from the 2006-07 California
Standards Test (CST), in English Language Arts, indicate that more than 75% of the
student body is performing below proficient. Equipped with a staff of eight
administrators, 180 credentialed teachers, 41 paraprofessionals and an annual budget
of 30 million dollars, Mr. Solomon’s task as outlined by the community and the
superintendent is to use his instructional leadership skills and experience to improve
teaching and learning at Closing the Gap High School.
Throughout the nation, high school leaders like Mr. Solomon, are faced with
the challenge of providing effective leadership in urban schools that impacts teacher
practices and supports improved student achievement. In large districts such as
Unified the phenomenon known as the achievement gap, has been compounded by
several social factors such as racial conflict, language needs, cultural differences,
drop-out rates, insufficient health care, crime and low parental involvement (Brooks-
Gunn and Duncan, 1997). As the demands of the No Child Left Behind Act (2001)
continue to mandate districts and schools to provide all children with educational
opportunities that will support the development of a highly literate populace, the
3
demand for effective leadership correspondingly increases (Elmore, 2003; Darling-
Hammond, et al. 2005). According to contemporary research on leadership,
effective practices respond to the cognitive and technical demands of instructional
practices. Therefore, an effective school leader has an explicit theory and
understanding of what represents good instructional practices (Elmore, 2003;
Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). These educational leaders
understand that improving teacher practice and student achievement means
facilitating the transition from a weak instructional core to an actual infrastructure
where powerful teaching and learning are accessible and expected (Elmore, 2003).
Many educational leaders, through practice, have quickly discovered that the theory
of action for leader practice and methodologies embedded in traditional leadership
preparation programs are not sufficiently building the capacity of practitioners to
influence teacher practice and student learning outcomes in an urban school context
(Darling-Hammond et. al., 2005; Elmore, 2003, Marzano, 2005; Murphy, 2002;
Murphy et al., 2006).
Introduction
Schools across the nation are grappling with the notion of accountability as
mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001). According to NCLB,
districts and schools are required to educate all students to proficiency in
Mathematics and English Language Arts by the year 2013-14. Ambitious school
reforms, like NCLB (2002), have been created to provide greater access to several
variables that impact student achievement. Some of these variables include effective
4
school leadership, expert teaching, and student access to rigorous standards-based
instruction. The fact that federal legislation calls for the need to educate “all”
children suggests that there are gaps in our nation’s schools in their attempts to
educate all students well. Proponents of the legislation argue that NCLB presents an
opportunity for districts, states, and local schools to address the needs of the
disproportionate number of minority students who are performing consistently lower
than their White and Asian counterparts on tests such as the California Standards
Tests (STAR) (Bishop, 2007). Critics of NCLB contend that it is impossible to
educate “all” students to the same levels of proficiency. Regardless of which way
the pendulum swings, the nation’s call to action has required educational leaders,
teachers, parents, students and community leaders to reexamine traditional practices
of schooling.
Problem Statement
The NCLB era has given rise to a national system of accountability that
assumes that all stakeholders have the capacity to create and sustain the conditions
needed to support the diverse learning needs of all students (Elmore, 2003; O’Day et
al., 2004). Furthermore, NCLB assumes that school leaders and classroom teachers
have the human, fiscal and intellectual capital needed to provide a diverse population
of learners with access to quality standards-based instruction (Elmore, 2003; O’Day
et al., 2004; Stecher et al., 2003). While school leaders and teachers are strategizing
to meet the requirements of NCLB, researchers posit that there is a shortage of
effective leaders who possess the capacity to positively impact teacher practice and
5
student achievement especially in urban settings of learning (Darling-Hammond et
al., 2005; Leithwood, 2003; Hallinger, 2007; Marzano 2005).
In response to the mandates of NCLB (2002), the challenge of achieving the
goal of providing all students with access to instruction that facilitates the
development of proficiency in core subjects is compounded in urban settings of
learning. For the purposes of this study the phrase “urban setting of learning” is
viewed as the process of teaching and learning that takes place in complex urban-
metropolitan settings typically characterized by broad diversity in race, ethnicity,
gender, class, culture, and language abilities. Urban settings have a mature service-
delivery infrastructure characterized by socio-political stratification and unequal
access by citizens to services. The study of urban settings of learning encompasses
the critical examination of the manner in which issues of broad diversity may
intersect in complex ways to marginalize and adversely affect the learning and
teaching process for some populations. The adaptive challenges that confront urban
schools are inextricably bound to the social, economic, and political conditions of the
urban environments in which the schools reside (Miller, 1995). Ill-prepared urban
school leaders often fail to address factors in the larger social context that affect the
distribution of equal educational opportunities in urban schools. These differences
call into question the prevailing assumption within the logic of standards-based
reform that the leadership capacity required to accelerate the rate of learning of the
lowest performing students is the same across districts (Tyack and Cuban, 1995).
6
Although increasing evidence shows that well prepared urban school leaders
are critical to increasing student achievement, there is a shortage of rigorous research
on their practice and consequently, little is known about how leadership practice
actually influences student achievement (Bossert, Dwyer, Rowan, & Lee, 1982;
Goldring & Pasternack, 1994; Hallinger, Bickman, & Davis, 1996; Hallinger & Heck,
1996; Supovitz & May, 2003; Supovitz, Poglinco, & Snyder, 2003). Preparing and
supporting urban school leaders to successfully address the adaptive challenges
presented by their context and provide all students with access to a high demand,
rigorous curriculum that closes achievement gaps requires a dramatic change in the
traditional way in which urban school leaders are identified, prepared to lead, and
supported (Elmore, 2003; Heifetz, 1998). Studies of urban schools and school
systems with these same characteristics, but where achievement on measures of high
stakes accountability is high, have identified some specific leadership and teaching
practices that mitigate the influence of demographic characteristics (Elmore and
Burney, 1999, 2000; Fink and Resnick, 1999; Resnick, 1999; Resnick and Hall,
1998; Resnick and Glennan, 2002; Resnick and Zuwarsky, 2005).
To further complicate the challenges presented to educators as a result of
issues related to diversity, access and inadequate human and fiscal resources,
researchers maintain that the context of public schooling has been dominated by
Western intellectual paradigms, traditions and practices (Hallinger, 2003; Hallinger
& Leithwood, 1998; Elmore et al., 2006). The problem with the western paradigm is
that it assumes that all cultures share common beliefs, values and practices pertaining
7
to educating children (Hallinger & Leithwood, 1998). This phenomenon of shared
values disregards the cultural contributions and needs of students within the urban
learning context (Bennett, 2004; Ogbu, 1998). As students are immersed into a
standards-driven system that explicitly identifies what students should know and be
able to do at each grade level, teachers struggle with the implementation of strategies
to differentiate instruction to meet the diverse learning needs of all students.
Significance of Study
The mandates of NCLB coupled with the complexities of the “urban” context
of schooling, requires a well prepared urban leader to influence teaching and
learning. Research indicates that leadership is only second in importance to the
classroom teacher in impacting student outcomes (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005;
Leithwood, 2003; Hallinger, 2007; Marzano, 2005). Nevertheless, two centuries of
slavery later and only fifty years post the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education
(1954) ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States, students of color are still
falling prey to systematic exclusion from educational opportunities that foster higher
levels of literacy to prepare them to compete in a global society through college and
labor force pathways (Bennett, 2000; Hallinger, 2003). Therefore, an effective urban
school leader who has an explicit theory and understanding of what represents good
instructional practices is needed to shift patterns of poor performance in urban
schools (Elmore, 2003; Hallinger, 2003;Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). These
educational leaders understand that improving teacher practice and student
achievement means facilitating the transition from a weak instructional core to an
8
explicit infrastructure where powerful teaching and learning is accessible and
expected (Elmore, 2003). While research has convincingly revealed that well
prepared effective urban leaders have significant influence on teaching and learning,
there is a shortage of formally prepared leaders who have the capacity to mitigate the
challenges specific to learning within the urban context (Bennett, 2000; Hallinger,
2003; Elmore, 2003; O’Day et al., 2004). Additionally, there are limited empirical
studies specific to their practice and how leadership practice directly impacts student
outcomes (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, Hallinger, 2003).
Therefore, the goal of this study is two-fold: First, this study will seek to
assist urban school leaders in developing leadership practices and behaviors that will
support professional practice and student outcomes by adding to the current
knowledge base. Second, this study will attempt to advance the growing body of
research aligned to effective leadership practices by identifying specific research-
based strategies that influence teacher practice and student outcomes in urban
settings of learning.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this mixed method, purposive case study is to determine
whether a fully developed leadership intervention program complemented by
leadership mentoring support and assessment of leadership practice, is effective in
promoting and sustaining change in leader practice, instructional practice, and
student learning outcomes. The examination of leadership theories and models will
9
serve as the basis for identifying components of effective leadership development
programs (Darling-Hammond et. al, Murphy et al., 2003) that build the capacity of
urban leaders to create and sustain the conditions for quality teaching and learning to
occur. Consistent with contemporary research on leadership, effective leaders are
those who possess beliefs, knowledge, skills and practices critical to shaping a
culture of learning (Elmore, 2003; Marzano, 2003, Murphy et al., 2006; Hallinger,
2003). Therefore, specific program features that influence the leader’s knowledge,
beliefs, and behaviors that impact teacher practice and student outcomes in urban
school settings will be identified. To assist with the identification process specific
lines of inquiry will be used to further focus the study.
Research Questions
There are three primary research questions for this analysis, which is situated
within the context of a longitudinal research study that ultimately evaluates the
impact of professional practice of both teachers and leaders on student achievement.
The questions are:
1. How does participation in the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL)
program influence the knowledge, beliefs, and leadership practices of
urban school principals?
2. How do organizational support structures enable their practice?
3. How does the leadership practice of the PIL participants influence
professional practice of teachers over time?
10
Consistent with research on contemporary leadership theories (Murphy et. al.,
2007; Elmore, 2003), empirical findings based on these questions are critical to the
understanding of effective strategies for the development of urban leaders. Research
has suggested a disconnect in the type of support and training provided for leaders in
urban schools to enable their practices (Hallinger and Heck, 1996). While the
responses to these questions are intended to inform the field of practice and identify
support structures needed to build leadership capacity, limitations do exist.
Implications of the Study
The implications of this study have the potential to influence the field by
providing the guidelines for establishing a national model to impact the leadership
practices of urban administrators, identifying the type of support school leaders need
to mitigate the adaptive challenges present in the urban context of learning and
contributing to field literature.
Assumptions
Previous studies report that leadership is critical to changing teacher practice
and increasing student outcomes (Darling-Hammond et al., 2005; Leithwood, 2003;
Hallinger, 2007; Marzano, 2005). However, because there is a shortage of leaders
(Dufour, 1999; Murphy, et al. 2006) who are prepared to influence teacher practice
and student outcomes in the urban schooling context, the following assumptions,
threats to internal and external validity and ethical considerations can be made:
11
1. Although rich, thick description and analysis of a phenomenon may be
desired, a researcher may not have the time or money to devote to such an
undertaking.
2. Case studies can oversimplify or exaggerate a situation, leading the reader
to erroneous conclusions about the actual state of affairs (Guba and
Lincoln, 198, p. 377).
3. Qualitative case studies are limited, too, by the sensitivity and integrity of
the investigator. The researcher is the primary instrument of data
collection and analysis.
4. Further limitations involve limited time observed change in practice;
mandated participation by PIL, not voluntary; inability of study design to
be random as a result of the PIL mandate. (Hamel, 1993, p. 23).
Organization of the Study
This study aimed at determining whether a fully developed leadership
intervention program, complemented by leadership mentoring support and
assessment of leadership practice, is effective in promoting and sustaining change in
leader practice is organized into five chapters: Chapter One provides an introduction
to the study including the purpose and significance. In Chapter Two, I review the
salient literature on contemporary leadership theories and effective instruction as it
relates to the development of effective school leaders in an urban context. In
Chapter Three, I outline the research design and methods used in the study. All data
procedures, instrumentation and analysis are described in detail. Chapter Four
12
presents the findings of the study. And the final chapter, Five, presents the
implications of the study and suggests pathways for further research.
Definition of Terms
Accountability - accountability is the acknowledgement and assumption of
responsibility for actions, products, decisions and policies including governance.
Achievement Gap - differences in academic performance among groups of
students which are identified by ethnicity and income level.
Adaptive Challenges - the social, economic, and political context influenced
by a particular setting.
Culture - the way of life of a territorially distinct group of people who share
a feeling of common identity. Human beings adapt to their social and physical
environment through the medium of culture (Fertig, 1996).
Leadership - a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2004).
National Institute for School Leadership (NISL) - a high profile leadership
preparation program designed to prepare principals to be outstanding instructional
leaders in high-performance, standards-based schools (NISL, n.d.).
Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders - a comprehensive, long-term principal
development strategy that uses the National Institute for School Leaderships
executive curriculum to prepare principals to lead instructional improvement in their
school (Pennsylvania State Inspired Leadership Initiative, 2005).
13
Urban Schooling - the process of teaching and learning that takes place in
complex urban-metropolitan settings typically characterized by broad diversity in
race, ethnicity, gender, class, culture, and language abilities. Urban settings have a
mature service-delivery infrastructure characterized by socio-political stratification
and unequal access by citizens to services (Reed, 2008).
14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter I review the salient literature on contemporary leadership
theories and effective instruction as it relates to the development of effective school
leaders who can influence professional practice and student learning outcomes in an
urban context. Consistent with contemporary research on leadership, effective urban
school leaders are those who possess beliefs, knowledge, skills and practices critical
to shaping a culture of learning. In addition effective leaders are able to establish
network structures through a Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement that
impact teacher practice and student learning outcomes (Elmore, 2003; Marzano,
2003, Murphy et al., 2006; Hallinger, 2003).
First I draw from both empirical and non-empirical literature specific to two
leadership perspectives, transformational and instructional leadership and the
Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards as competencies
used to define leadership and the behaviors of practice needed to shape a learning
culture. Second, I review literature to define the attributes of an urban setting to
identify features and challenges that are specific to an urban context of learning.
Third, I review the literature of prominent learning theorists as a means of
identifying elements of the learning process that are critical to the preparation of
effective leaders, improved teacher practice and student learning outcomes. Finally,
I review a high profile leadership preparation program to identify the kind of training
needed to provide school leaders with knowledge, skills, organizational support
15
structures and capacity to enable their practice and influence teaching and learning in
an urban context of schooling.
Leadership Defined through Theoretical Perspectives
Leadership is a phenomenon that is characterized broadly in the field
literature by some theorists and practitioners as specific traits an individual innately
possesses (Northouse, 2004; Murphy et al., 2006), or specific behaviors that
individuals are able to employ which are influenced by their attitude, motivation,
beliefs, values, and experiences (Hallinger et al., 1996; Murphy 2002) and in its
simplest form a noble mission (Monroe, 1997). In this section two leadership
perspectives, instructional and transformational will be reviewed as a means of
defining the attributes and behaviors of what theorists frame as an effective school
leader.
Instructional Leader
When notions of leadership are presented in the context of education, most
organizations frame the conversation around the qualities of an instructional leader
(Marzano, 2005). According to contemporary research on leadership theory, the
instructional leader construct is mentioned most frequently (Leithwood, 1999;
Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). The instructional leader is one who is able to
influence schooling through a hands-on approach which requires involvement in
curriculum and instruction and supporting the improvement of teacher practice
through the four roles that have come to be identified in the field literature
(Hallinger, 2003; Marzano 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). These four roles that define
16
an instructional leader are as follows: (1) resource provider, (2) instructional
resource, (3) communicator, and (4) visible presence. The table below summarizes
behaviors which represent the four roles of the instructional leader:
Table 2-1. The Four Roles of the Instructional Leader
Roles of The
Instructional Leader Behaviors of the Instructional Leader
Resource Provider Leader ensures that fiscal, material and physical resources
are available to enable practice.
Instructional
Resource
Leader supports daily instruction by participating in
professional development and modeling the desired
behaviors regarding instructional priorities.
Communicator Leader establishes and articulates clear goals and
expectations to faculty and staff.
Visible Presence Leader engages in frequent classroom observations and is
highly accessible to staff and faculty members
First, the instructional leader is a resource provider as S/he ensures that
teachers and staff are provided with the necessary fiscal, material and physical
resources needed to enable their practices. Second, the instructional leader is an
instructional resource as S/he supports daily instruction by modeling desired
behaviors through participating in professional development, and consistently
prioritizing instructional priorities. Third, the instructional leader is a communicator
as S/he establishes and clearly articulates organizational goals and outcomes.
Finally, the instructional leader is visible as S/he frequently conducts classroom
observations, provides feedback to teachers and is accessible for all stakeholders
17
(Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005). In summary the instructional leader is viewed as a
culture builder who places an emphasis on setting high expectations and standards
for all stakeholders and improved student learning outcomes.
Limitations
While the instructional leadership construct provides promising practices
regarding coordination and control of instruction for school leaders, limitations exist.
Some critics of the instructional leader construct argue that to narrow the role of the
principal to focus only on instruction breeds dysfunction, as the principal must
assume a variety of roles throughout the day from the “politician” to the manager.
Along the continuum of roles the principal engages in are a myriad of issues related
to instruction, personnel, management, etc. (Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005). Often,
current instructional leader frameworks do not take into account that principals have
to possess the ability to adjust their role(s) depending on situation and context.
Additionally, one of the primary roles, as cited in the literature, of the instructional
leader is the ability to explicitly communicate organizational goals and outcomes
(Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). This traditional notion of
communication has also been challenged as researchers have cited effective schools
where leaders have communicated organizational goals and outcomes more broadly
than suggested by the existing instructional leader frameworks (Hallinger, 2003).
Transformational Leader
The term transformational leader was coined by Kenneth Leithwood (1994)
who expanded the work of Burns (1978) and Bass (1985). Transformational
18
leadership is an extension of the instructional leader construct. While instructional
leadership is characterized in the literature as the top down approach to school
reform, transformational leadership is deemed as the bottom up approach (Hallinger,
2003). Leithwood (2004) characterizes this model of educational leadership as one’s
ability to develop districts and schools as effective organizations. These
organizations are effective because the leaders are able to implement systems that
support and sustain the performance of administrators, teachers and students
(Leithwood et al., 2004). The primary role of the transformational leaders is to set
directions, develop people and redesign organizations (Leithwood et al., 2004).
Table 2-2 outlines the four behaviors that characterize a transformational leader:
Table 2-2. Four I's of Transformational Leadership
Four I’s of Transformational
Leadership Behaviors of the Transformational Leader
Individual Consideration Attending to and meeting the individual needs of
staff.
Intellectual Stimulation Leading staff to look at old problems in new ways.
Inspirational Motivation Communicating expectations enthusiastically.
Idealized Influence Modeling expectations through personal
accomplishments.
19
The actions of transformational leaders are explicit when the four I’s of
leadership are implemented (Leithwood, 1994). These four behaviors are as follows:
(1) Individual Consideration (IC) which is demonstrated when the leader attends to
the professional development needs of staff members, (2) Intellectual Stimulation
(IS) which is employed when the leader strategically assists staff members to look at
old challenges in new ways. (3) Inspirational Motivation (IM) which is the leader’s
ability to charismatically communicate high expectations for both teachers and
students. (4) Idealized Influence (II) is enacted as the leader is able to model
established expectations through personal achievements and behaviors (Marzano,
2005). According to contemporary researchers the four elements that characterize a
transformational leader provide a blueprint for effective leadership.
Transformational leaders create change by building “relationships of mutual
stimulation and elevation” which transforms followers into leaders and leaders into
agents of change (Marzano, 2005).
Limitations
Like instructional leadership, limitations exist in regards to the
implementation of transformational leadership. The chief limitation of
transformational leadership as identified in the literature as the need for valid
measures to assess the effectiveness of the construct (Hallinger, 2003). Assessing
the effectiveness of the transformational leader becomes challenging because
researchers have not been able to identify measures to validate leadership that is
20
distributed across many people, evaluate teacher perceptions and practice, and
student learning outcomes simultaneously (Hallinger, 2003).
Instructional and transformational leadership constructs both illustrate
effective behaviors of effective school leaders. As much as the two constructs are
different they are also similar. Some similarities in the two constructs are the leaders
inscribed in each establish and articulate clear goals, create a climate of high
expectations focusing on improved student learning outcomes, serve as a model of
expected behaviors, provide professional development and emphasize visibility and
accessibility for all stakeholders.
In contrast the differences between the models are evident in three areas: 1)
change, 2) stakeholder engagement and 3) leadership. The difference in the two
constructs regarding change is that the instructional leader targets change through a
top down model. In contrast, the transformational leader targets change through a
bottom up model. In reference to stakeholder engagement the instructional leader
engages stakeholders in instruction through a coordination and control model. On
the other hand, the transformational leader engages stakeholders in instruction
through an “empowerment model”. Finally, in the area of leadership, instructional
leaders assume the role of leader from an individual perspective. Transformational
Leaders assume the role of leader through a shared approach of distributing
responsibilities across a variety of people (Murphy, Elliot, Goldring, & Porter 2006).
The differences between the two leadership constructs raise concerns for both
models of leadership. For the instructional leader, possible challenges in effecting
21
leadership may arise from the model having the leader assume sole responsibility for
leadership. When the instructional leader is faced with the additional responsibilities
of managing a school, support structures are needed to ensure that daily school
operations do not interfere with the leader’s instructional focus. For the
transformational leader close monitoring of leadership roles and responsibilities is
critical to ensure that the work continues. The practice of transformational
leadership has the potential to provide gaps in, but is not limited to, instruction,
management, and professional development. Table 2-3 below illustrates the
similarities and differences between the two constructs:
Table 2-3. Similarities and Differences of Instructional and Transformational
Leadership
Instructional Transformational
Vision Models clear expectations set by
leader of co-constructed with staff
and community members.
Communicates clear goals.
Links shared organizational and
personal goals.
Curriculum &
Instruction
Coordinates curriculum supervise
and evaluate curriculum.
Monitor student progress
Assumes that others will address
CI as a function of their
assignments.
Professional
Growth
Focuses on training and
development aligned to school
mission.
Provides individualized support as
the foundation of organization
development.
Visibility High visibility in order to model
values and priorities.
Maintains high visibility in order
to model values and priorities.
Culture
Building
Focuses on leadership guidance
that will establish school climate.
Focuses on culture building but
subsumed within the school
climate.
(Adapted from Hallinger, 2003)
22
In summary both instructional and transformational constructs rely on
practices that constitute an effective leader. Additionally the two constructs serve as
competencies by which effective leadership can be actualized. Both leadership
models have an explicit focus on building school culture, refining teacher practice
and improving student learning outcomes.
Leadership Defined In Practice
As suggested in the introduction of this section, in order for leaders to create
the conditions necessary to support teacher practice and improve student learning
outcomes it is paramount that they develop knowledge, skills, and practices which
enable them to identify and respond to cognitive and technical demands of
instructional practice (Elmore, 2003; Marzano, 2005, Murphy et al., 2006). In order
to conceptualize the discussion on leadership, I will use the five tenets of the Cycle
of Continuous Instructional Improvement (Weiss, 2007) as the theoretical framework
to guide my investigation of leadership characteristics and the preparation needed to
influence professional practice and student learning outcomes: (1) set goals, (2)
instruct students, (3) gather and share data, (4) analyze data, and (5) use information
to create plans of actions along with the Interstate School Leaders Licensure
Consortium (ISLLC) standards. Figure 2-1 graphically illustrates the factors which
influence effective urban school leadership.
23
Figure 2-1. Leadership Conceptual Framework
Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement
The Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement (CCIP) construct is
important to leaders who aspire to transform K-12 urban learning organizations to
high performing systems where the school is strategically and systemically
organized around student needs, rigorous standards-based instruction, highly
qualified instructors, professional development and data analysis (Johnson, 2002;
24
Lambert, 1998; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006; Schmoker, 2006) as a means of
creating conditions where leadership practices serve a pivotal role in influencing
teacher practice and improving student learning outcomes.
As discussed previously in this chapter this goal may be accomplished
through the leadership practices of an instructional leader and/or transformational
leader. For both constructs the leader is concerned with the implementation of
curriculum and instruction that fosters improved student achievement (Hallinger,
2003, Marzano, 2005, Murphy et al., 2006). According to Marzano (2005)
continuous improvement is a notion that has been derived from the Japanese
educational philosophy referring to “incremental improvement over time”. Implicit
in the notion of CCIP is the idea that leaders are able to influence a culture to the
degree that all members of a learning community (administrators, teachers, students,
parents and staff) are engaged in and committed to a reciprocal process of
improvement which consists of collaboratively outlining, responding to, monitoring
and planning appropriate actions to improve teacher practice and improve student
learning outcomes (Elmore, 2000; Resnick 1999; Spillane & Sherer, 2004; Spillane,
Halverson, & Diamond, 2001).
As we know from research, leadership is only second to teaching in
impacting student learning outcomes (Leadwood et. al., 2004; Darling-Hammond et
al., 2005). Therefore a thoughtful review of what researchers posit about leadership
around the five tenets of CCIP, as presented in Figure 2-2, is fundamental to the
identification of the preparatory and support structures needed to enable leaders to
25
enact practices that promote refined teacher practice and improved student
achievement: (1) goal setting, (2) instruct students, (3) gather and share data, (4)
analyze data, and (5) use information to create plans of actions.
Figure 2-2. Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement (Weiss, 2007)
Goal Setting
The first tenet of the Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement that has
implications for leader practice is goal setting. In reviewing the education field
literature over several years, findings indicate that while many prominent researchers
agree that leaders are critical to the success or failure of schools, they do not provide
26
a consistent definition of the construct. Some scholars have argued that when
leadership is equated to the role of leader, trait theory is employed to conceptualize
the definition of a leader (Lambert, 1998). In contrast, early theorists purport that
leaders are characterized as service oriented and possess a strong desire to help
others (Greenleaf, 1970). However even with the current gap in the perception of
who or what constitutes a leader, many researchers assert that an effective leader is
one who can establish direction in an organization through the development of a
vision aligned to clear goals and objectives (See Hallinger, 2003; Lambert 1998;
Leithwood, 1994; Marzano,2005).
Standard one of the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)
(1997) explicitly defines a school leader as one who is able to promote student
achievement through the development, articulation and implementation of a vision of
learning. This standard serves as a leadership competency which suggests that the
leader must understand the technical function of the vision, mission, and belief
statement of an organization in order to build a professional learning community
where members have shared understandings and common values (DuFour, 1998). It
is in regards to this concept of “mission” that we (as an organization) exist and
articulate as its fundamental purpose. The vision statement supports the mission as it
provides direction by detailing what the organization hopes to become. Finally, in
addition to the mission and vision statements, organizational beliefs are critical as
they clarify how the members plan to actualize shared goals and objectives (Dufour,
27
1998, Hallinger, 20003). Figure 2-3 highlights the functions of the mission, vision,
and belief statements.
Figure 2-3. Functions of the Mission, Vision, and Belief Statements
Leaders guide a collaborative process by which constituents are engaged in practices
that are governed by the vision which helps members make sense of their work
(Hallinger and Heck, Leithwood et al., 2004). In comparison, the vision, mission,
and belief statements provide a lens through which members can gauge whether their
actions are aligned to the overarching goals of the organization. As the vision,
mission, and belief statements of an organization are dynamic documents, the leader
has the responsibility of establishing the processes to ensure that these elements are
revisited regularly.
In regards to the instructional and transformational leader, there are specific
practices that will enable these two types of leaders to establish an overall direction
for the school community. Consistent with previously citied research in this section,
the instructional leader may facilitate the development of a shared mission, vision
and belief statement by reviewing multiple forms of student performance data
28
(ISLLC, 1996; Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005). The instructional leader may also
frequently communicate the shared mission, vision and belief statements to the entire
school community to support the development of a standards-based education system
(ISLLC, 1996; Marzano, 2005).
In contrast, the transformational leader will co-construct the mission, vision,
and belief statements as a means of connecting personal goals to organizational
goals. The transformational leader distributes the responsibility of communicating
the organization’s focus across a variety of people. The transformational leader will
ensure that school programs, plans and activities are aligned to the mission, vision,
and belief statements (ISLLC, 1996, Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005).
Instruct Students
The next element of the Cycle of Instructional Improvement is instructing
students. According to the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) all students are to
demonstrate mastery of State content standards in Mathematics and English
Language Arts by the year of 2013-14. Historically in many states, such as
California, school boards and local districts were responsible for determining
curriculum and instructional pathways. With the birth of the standards movement,
each state is required to develop a set of standards that specify what students should
know and be able to do at each grade level within the four core content areas
(mathematics, sciences, history social science and English Language Arts) (Hamilton
& Gonzalez, 2003). The notion of instructing all students to proficiency according to
NCLB is not only an ambitious undertaking, but it calls for sophisticated leaders who
29
understand the complexity of change (Fullan, 2001). Research indicates gaps
between what policy mandates and the day-to-day practices within schools (Elmore,
2003; O’Day, Bitter, Kirst, Camoy, Woddy, Buttles, Fuller and Ruenzel, 2004).
These gaps are critical because the NCLB policy promotes education for all but fails
to address the issue of capacity on three levels: the state, district and local school
site. Implicit in the literature regarding No Child Left Behind (2002) and the issue of
capacity are the assumptions that school districts and leaders possess the knowledge
and resources required to meet diverse language, social, literacy, emotional, and
cultural needs (Elmore 2003; O’Day et al., 2004; Darling Hammond, 2002) of all
students in order to transform underperforming schools (Fullan, 2001; Elmore, 2003;
Dufour, 1998; Marzano, 2003). Leaders in the current era of high stakes
accountability understand that effectiveness is determined by students’ ability to
demonstrate mastery of content standards on a variety of state generated measures
(O’Day et al., 2004;Stecher, Hamilton & Gonzalez, 2003; Kirst & Haertel, 2005).
These leaders are commissioned to recognize that providing rigorous standards based
instruction for a diverse population of learners requires deep conceptual knowledge
of promising teaching practices aligned with a viable curriculum that result in
improved measurable student learning outcomes (ISLLC, 1996;Marzano, 2003).
Standard two of the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (1996)
suggests that school leaders are to promote the success of all students by advocating,
nurturing, and sustaining a school culture and instructional program conducive to
student learning and the professional growth of staff. Theses guidelines align to the
30
intent of NCLB (2002) and demand that leaders have an understanding of instruction
to the level where the vision, mission and belief statements are used to inform
instructional practices. Conceptually, the ISLLC (1996) and NCLB (2002)
requirements call for the practices of an “Instructional Leader” (Hallinger, 2003). As
cited earlier in this chapter, a chief characteristic of an instructional leader is the
person’s ability to manage an instructional program (Hallinger, 2003; Marzano,
2005; Murphy et al, 2006). This level of management requires leaders to be hands
on in the classroom and also to be able to support teachers in the process of
improving teaching and learning (Hallinger, 2004; Murphy et al., 2006). While a
large body of research exists in support of the instructional leadership construct,
some critics warn that school leaders may not possess the expertise and deep
conceptual knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment to influence
improvement in teaching and learning (Elmore, 2000). Additionally research is not
always explicit in providing defensible examples of research tested practices that can
be employed by instructional leaders to turn schools around (Ascher, Ikeda, &
Fructhcer, 1998; Murphy et al., 2006; Weiss, 2007). Nevertheless, some researchers
provide clear examples of effective methods and strategies adopted by high
performing systems that reflect effective instructional leadership practices.
31
Figure 2-4. Instructional Leadership Characteristics
Examples of research based effective instructional strategies can be identified
in the research of Dr. Judith A. Langer (2005), director of the National Research
Center on English Learning & Achievement. Langer (2005) conducted a five-year
case study comparing the instructional practices of high performing schools to
typical performing schools. Both settings serve a similar population of students in
high poverty big city neighborhoods. In one set of schools, students, whom Langer
identifies as “beating the odds,” outperform their peers on standardized tests in the
area of Language Arts skills, reading and writing at high levels of proficiency. In
contrast, students in the second set of schools perform “more typically”. Langer’s
study included 44 classrooms in 25 middle and high schools in four states. The
methods used consisted of the examination of student work, classroom observations,
interviews with teachers, students and administrators. As a result of the study,
Langer identifies and validates six features of instruction that influence student
achievement outcomes. The six features are (1) Students learn skills and knowledge
in multiple lesson types; (2) Teachers integrate test preparation into instruction; (3)
32
Teachers make connections across instruction, curriculum and life; (4) Students learn
strategies for doing the work; (5) Students are expected to be generative thinkers
and; (6) Classrooms foster cognitive collaboration. These strategies appear
throughout the literature as research-based strategies that work for increasing student
achievement (Marzano, 2000;Marzano, 2005; DuFour, 1998). Within the discussion
of the six features Langer identifies specific strategies that are consistent with the
practices of instructional leadership. These practices are evident as school leaders
and teachers use the state and district standards to:
1. Analyze student work samples with the mindset to change teacher
practice.
2. Use separated, simulated and integrated instruction to scaffold ways to
think and discuss.
3. Analyze demands of summative and formative assessments.
4. Employ instructional strategies that enable students to build necessary
skills.
5. Engage in professional development that aligns to state standards and
frameworks.
6. Provide rubrics that students review, use and even develop.
7. Provide prompts to support thinking. Model questions that will cause
deeper discussion and analysis.
While Langer’s study focuses primarily on how teacher practice impacts
student learning outcomes, it is the incorporation of the leader in these practices that
33
supports the use of separated, simulated and integrated instruction to improve student
outcomes. Studies such as Langer’s (2005) provide a blueprint for Instructional
Leaders who seek to support improved student achievement through the
implementation of research-tested instructional strategies, the allocation of resources
and the creation of conditions that influence the enactment of instruction that
positively impact student academic outcomes (Elmore, 2003;Hallinger, 2003;
Marzano, 2003, Murphy et al., 2005).
Gather and Share Data
The next tenet in the Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement that is
central to the role of a leader is gathering and sharing data. Within the context of
Standard two of the ISLLCs (1996) the use of multiple assessments to evaluate
student learning is identified as a competency of effective leadership. In the era of
school reform and high stakes accountability most high performing systems employ
leaders who are able to emphasize and facilitate the use of multiple forms of data to
evaluate learning as an on-going process focused on improving the academic
performance of students (Hallinger, 2003; Johnson, 200; Murphy et al, 2006; Weiss,
2007). This notion of data gathering and sharing is consistent with educational
research on the practices of both instructional and transformational leaders.
Hallinger (2003) posits that effective leaders are knowledgeable about
assessments. To demonstrate this fund of knowledge, Hallinger (2003) composed a
three dimensional conceptualization of instructional leadership. Of the three, the
second dimension, managing the instructional program focuses on three leadership
34
functions: (1) supervising and evaluating instruction, (2) coordinating curriculum
and (3) monitoring student progress. These three functions require the instructional
leader to deeply engage in the instructional program. These leaders are
knowledgeable about the limitations and benefits of multiple types of assessments
and how to effectively communicate data implications to the school community
(ISLLC, 1996; Murphy et al., 2006; Marzano 2005). Supervising and evaluating
instruction is the leadership function that aligns most with the collection and sharing
of data. Hallinger’s (2003) leadership functions require leaders to facilitate frequent
collection and review of student work and dialogue about what is needed to evidence
student learning (ISLLC, 1997; Johnson, 2000; Marzano, 2005). Consistent with the
characteristics of an instructional leader are the functions of gathering and sharing
data, this is accomplished by the leader working with teachers individually and in
groups to clarify data sets that measure student learning outcomes. In contrast, the
transformational leader achieves these functions by convening key staff members
(department chairs, lead teachers, instructional coaches, etc.) and distributing the
responsibility by disseminating information regarding data sets needed to clarify
student learning outcomes.
Analyze Data
The fourth tenet of the Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement is to
analyze data. The importance of data analysis is emphasized in standard two of the
ISLLC standards (1996) as a means to understanding the relationship between
student performance and student outcomes (Johnson, 2000; Marzano, 2005). The
35
analysis of data to inform practice is essential to leaders ensuring that their schools
are organized around state and district academic standards, accountability tools, and
assessments (ISLLC, 1996; Hallinger, 2003; Murphy et al., 2006). Additionally,
leaders model and implement assessment systems at the school and classroom levels
(Johnson, 2000; Hallinger, 2003, Murphy et al., 2006). The data systems of
accountability assist both instructional and transformational leaders in using multiple
data sources to build high expectations and a school culture focused on improving
teaching and learning (Hallinger, 20003; Leithwood et al., 2004, Marzano, 2005;
Murphy, et al., 2006).
To parallel the use of data to support instructional improvement, effective
school leaders create inquiry groups such as data teams (DuFour et al., 2006;
Johnson, 2000; Marzano, 2003; Smoker, 2001) to influence practice. These groups
are generally charged with the responsibility of developing ways to engage the entire
learning community in the practice of reviewing data as a means of improving
teacher practice and student achievement. Data teams receive professional
development from a statistician and are guided through the process of analyzing
student performance on standardized assessments, student work products, and
periodic formative assessments (Datnow, Park and Wohlstetter, 2006; Johnson,
2000; Marzano, 2005). In addition to these data sets, leaders facilitate discussions
pertaining to suspension data, attendance data, teacher retention, etc as a means of
informing practice with regards to issues related to equity and access (DuFour, 2006;
Johnson, 2002; Langer, 2005; Marzano, 2003). To create an inclusive environment
36
where data are the pinnacle of decision making, teams should consist of
representatives from the entire school community (Marzano, 2003; Murphy et al.,
2006). These members may include but are not limited to administrators, teachers,
department chairs, small learning community leads and coordinators. The team
should meet regularly and use department, grade level and/or small learning
community meetings as venues to disseminate findings and engage staff members in
data-based discussions about school improvement (Marzano, 2003; Murphy et al.,
2006).
Use Information to Develop Action Plan
The fifth and final tenet of the Cycle of Continuous Instructional
Improvement is to use information to develop an action plan for improvement.
According to Weiss (2007) most high performing systems use data to create and
implement plans to address the findings of on-going data analysis. This practice is
embedded in standard one of the ISLLC standards (1997). Effective leaders are
those who formally and informally engage teachers in the practice of regularly
reviewing data. The consistent review of data is critical as it allows teachers to
evidence student learning and to plan and adjust instruction according to identified
student needs (ISLLC, 1996; Darling Hammond et al., 2005; Dufour, 1998, 2000;
Marzano, 2003). The role that leaders serve, in the use of information to develop
action plans is essential. For the instructional leader, serving as an instructional
resource is critical as teachers need both time and the capacity to teach and re-teach.
The instructional leader in the instructional resource and resource provider roles
37
ensure that teacher efforts are supported through the appropriate fiscal, material and
human resources. The transformational leader ensures that teachers are supported by
modeling the desired practices endemic to the development plan and corresponding
implementation. Additionally transformational leaders ensure that responsibility for
creating, implementing and supporting data-driven plans are distributed across the
appropriate positions with follow-up. For both the instructional and transformational
leader the enlistment of teachers, parents or guardians in improving student learning
outcomes as outlined in the school’s data driven plan is a key practice needed to
support student improvement.
The Cycle of Continuous Instructional Improvement (CCII) is a useful
framework in marking the effective practices of leaders who influence teacher
practice and student learning outcomes. The roles of the instructional and
transformational leaders are evident in practice when applied to the five tenets of
CCII. As substantiated in this section, the effective school leader is one who can
support student leaning through the setting of and communicating organizational
goals, instructing students by monitoring teacher practice and providing critical
feedback, assisting teachers in gathering and reviewing appropriate data sets to
inform practice and improve student learning outcomes, facilitating the analysis of
data to monitor teaching and learning, and to use information from the analysis of
data to refine teacher practice and improve student learning outcomes.
38
Urban Context
The increasing demands of the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) have created
a sense of urgency for all children to demonstrate proficiency in mathematics and
English Language Arts. As discussed in the introduction of this review, learning
organizations are in need of sophisticated leaders who skillfully employ practices
that directly influence teaching and learning. Effective leadership practices
characterized in the instructional and transformational leadership constructs are
proven assets to teaching and learning (Elmore & Grossman, 2006; Hallinger, 2003;
Marzano, 2005). However, Hallinger (2003) and Leithwood (1998) argue that
leadership is contingent upon the context in which it is enacted. Researchers further
assert that the context of public schooling has been dominated by Western
intellectual paradigms, traditions and practices (Hallinger, 2003; Hallinger &
Leithwood, 1998; Elmore et al., 2006). The problem with the Western paradigm is
that it assumes that all cultures share common beliefs, values and practices that
pertain to educating children (Hallinger & Leithwood, 1998). The purpose of this
section is to define “urban” in terms of community context and school context to
identify challenges specific to the urban learning environment.
Urban Community Context
In response to the mandates of NCLB (2002), the goal of providing all
students with access to instruction that facilitates proficiency is compounded in
urban settings of learning. For the purposes of this study the term “urban” has a two-
tier function. First, “urban” is defined as all territory, population and housing
39
situated in close proximity. Additionally, in this context, members generally have
limited economic and social interaction within their community (Elmore, 2006; Lee,
2005). This fact implies that few businesses in the urban community are owned by
residents, which consequently fosters limited social interaction among community
members. Second, “urban” is here being defined within the context of schooling as
well. In this respect “urban” is characterized by organizations riddled with a
disproportionate number of ill-prepared leaders, inexperienced teachers, “hard” to
teach students, and disengaged parents and community members (Miller, 1995;
Elmore, 2006; Lee, 2005). Further, the “urban” student population is characterized
by students who are diverse in race, ethnicity, gender, class, culture, and language
abilities (The Council of Great City Schools, 2005). As the instructional and
transformational leader assumes an influential role in improving teacher practice and
student learning outcomes, how people learn becomes a critical variable in the
process.
How People Learn
In the review of literature on instructional and transformational leadership,
how people learn emerges as a critical element in the process of leadership
preparation, improved teacher practice and improved student learning outcomes. If
the goal of the effective leader is to influence teacher practice and student learning
outcomes it is imperative that the leader gain, through preparation, a conceptual
understanding of the learning process and transference of knowledge (Hallinger and
Heck, 1996; Murphy, 2002), as educational leaders, teachers and students have
40
professional or content standards. These competencies are intended to explicitly
delineate what each group should know and be able to do. According to the
Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning (2000) the chief indicator of
learning is transfer. The purpose of this section is to examine learning in relation to
content, process and context as a means of determining which elements are needed to
foster deep conceptual understanding and transference of knowledge for leaders,
teachers and students.
What is Learning?
Learning is a complex construct as the processes of thinking, studying,
remembering and paying attention are not directly observable (Ormrod, 2006). To
guide the examination of what elements of learning are needed to prepare
educational leaders to influence teacher practice and student learning outcomes, two
theoretical perspectives, behaviorism and social cognitive theories are presented.
These perspectives are selected as they provide valuable information pertaining to
the process of learning and student achievement (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000;
Ormrod, 2006).
According to behaviorists, learning is defined on two fronts: First, learning is
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Second, learning is a
relatively permanent change in mental representations or associations due to
experience. Many learning theorists concentrate on how the learner’s behaviors
change over time (Ormrod, 2006). Behaviorists purport that learning can occur by
observing the learner’s responses (behaviors) and stimuli (environmental events) that
41
follow the initial responses. In contrast, social cognitive theorists assert that learning
can occur by observing the behaviors of others (Ormrod, 2006). From this
perspective the notion of modeling emerges as an alternative form of how people
learn. Both perspectives are essential to this study as they provide lenses by which
to examine the process of learning for developing more competent and effective
leaders, teachers and students.
Content
What is taught is an important variable in the learning process (Bransford,
Brown, Cocking, 2000). Learners enter the process with prior knowledge that is then
used to make connections to the new knowledge. Researchers posit that learning and
understanding are critical but difficult to study from a scientific perspective
(Ormrod, 2000). The understanding that learners contribute to the learning process
is key as the construction of new knowledge is largely influenced by existing
knowledge (Bennett, 2004; Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000; Langer, 2006;
Vygotsky, 1978). Content is also important for the developing leader, teacher and
student. For our purposes, it is important to remember that the information to be
taught is governed by state content standards which identify what students need to
know and be able to do at each K-12 grade level. For leaders and teachers the
process of supporting student learning is influenced by the Interstate School Leader
Licensure Consortium Standards (ISLLC) (1996). There are six standards. Each
standard is followed by the Knowledge required for the standard, the Dispositions or
attitudes manifested by the accomplishment of the standard, and Performances that
42
could be observed by an administrator who is accomplished in the standard (Van
Meter & Murphy, 1997). Some states such as California have used the ISLLC
standards to create state specific standards to further identify what teachers need to
know and be able to do to support student learning. For students, each state has
developed an exhaustive list of standards which are generally organized by domains
to provide a framework for what students need to know and be able to do at each
grade level. While the content is pre-established for leaders, teachers, and students,
the processes needed to support the learning and development of this knowledge is
not as prescriptive.
Process
Process refers to how content is taught. According to researchers (Bransford,
Brown, Cocking, 2000) three core principles guide the process of teaching: First,
teachers must draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that students
bring with them. Second, teachers must teach some subject matter in depth,
providing many examples in which the same concept is at work and providing a firm
foundation of factual knowledge. Finally, teaching meta-cognitive skills should be
integrated into the curriculum in a variety of subject areas. In order for these core
principles to be enacted, support structures have to be in place.
Support Structures
While theorists disagree on what actually constitutes learning or the
acquisition of knowledge, they agree that support systems must be in place to
reinforce the process for the learner (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000). One of the
43
most influential support systems known to educators is Vygotsky’s (1998) Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development essentially
refers to the distance between what the learner can do with assistance from others
and what they can do independently. The notion of ZPD becomes essential in
creating support structures for all learners. According to Langer (2006), learners
must be provided with knowledge in three phases: First, introduce the lesson in a
separated fashion to introduce students to specific concepts and skills. Second,
provide lessons in a simulated fashion to provide students opportunities to apply
concepts within the related unit of study. Finally, an integrated approach is needed
to connect skills and knowledge that require students to use new knowledge to
construct meaning and to complete the task. Understanding when to provide
opportunities to learn coupled with independent practice translates into knowing how
to create the context for Learning (Marzano, 2003).
Context
In addition to content and process, context is essential to the learning process.
Context refers to the conditions and physical environment in which learning occurs
(Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000; Ormrod, 2006). Classrooms must be constructed
with the purpose of facilitating knowledge (Marzano, 2003). Contexts that are
conducive to learning have instructors who understand the importance of creating a
community of learners among themselves (Dufour, 1999). These communities serve
as an impetus for the sharing and modeling of new ideas and instructional practices
(Marzano, 2003). Cultural differences are employed to engage the learner in the
44
learning process (Bennett, 2001). Instructors use multiple data sources to chart
progress and to refine professional practice (Johnson, 2002; Marzano, 2003).
Additionally, instructors organize the physical class environment to engage learners
in the learning process and to promote intellectual camaraderie (Bransford, Brown,
Cocking, 2000). Other elements such as peer and professional coaching, questioning
and guided practice are critical to the development of a context of learning that is
considerate of a diverse population of learners.
The notion of how people learn through content, process and context
provides a framework for examining how leadership preparation programs such as
the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership Program (PIL) and the National Institute for
School Leadership (NISL) executive preparation program supports the development
of leaders who are able to influence professional practice and student learning
outcomes in an urban context of schooling. The true test of learning will be gauged
through the participant’s ability to demonstrate behaviors that are reflective of the
program’s goals and objectives.
Effective Leadership Preparation Programs
Many policy makers and school districts have realized the importance of the
influence that effective leaders have over student outcomes in high performing
schools (Darling-Hammond, La Pointe, Meyerson, Orr & Cohen, 2007). School
communities all over the nation are vying for effective leaders who can articulate
clear goals and ground their leadership practice in instructional improvement
(Murphy, 2005). The purpose of this section is to identify what researchers posit as
45
the characteristics of effective leadership programs and behaviors. The research of
Darling-Hammond et al., (2007) and Murphy’s Learning-Centered Leaders, forms
the basis of this discussion.
Several practices influence the need to for quality leaders in underperforming
schools (Dufour, 2005; Darling-Hammond et al., 2007; Elmore, 2003). In Darling-
Hammond’s et al. (2007) study of eight exemplary pre-and in-service principal
development programs, the researchers identify what leadership programs do for
principals. The study examines how these programs influence the knowledge, skills,
and practices of principals. According to Darling Hammond (2007) three primary
factors have contributed to a nationwide shortage of effective leaders. The three
factors are: 1) preparation programs’ inability to attract large numbers of promising
candidates; 2) poor working conditions, especially in urban schools and limited
opportunities for advancement and 3) ill-prepared and ill-supported leaders are
charged with the responsibility of improving instructional programs (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2007; Elmore, 2004; Marzano, 2004). To mitigate some of the
challenges presented by each of the three factors, aspiring leaders have to gain access
to quality preparation programs and ample opportunities to learn within that context.
Darling-Hammond et al., (2007) purport that the development of behaviors and
practices indicative of skilled leaders are programs that:
46
• Have well articulated goals rooted in theory of leadership.
• Use preparation strategies that maximize learning, transfer of learning
and leadership identification.
• Provide strong content and field experience during leadership preparation.
The fact that research suggests that there is limited empirical information that
examines the relationship between leadership preparation programs and leadership
practice calls for closing the gap in knowledge (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). In
addition, the mandates of NCLB (2002) intensifies the need to equip schools with
skilled leaders who are able to employ proven strategies and skills to influence
practice and student outcomes. Murphy (1999) responds to this gap in research and
practice by presenting the Learning-Centered Leader conceptual framework with
eight dimensions of leadership and the Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in
Education, VAL-ED (2008).
Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in Education
The VAL-ED was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of school leaders
and leadership teams. The VAL-ED is a paper and on-line assessment which utilizes
a multi-rater, evidence-based approach to measure the effectiveness of school
leadership behaviors known to influence teacher performance and student learning.
The VAL-ED measures core components and key processes. Core components refer
to the characteristics of schools that support the learning of students and enhance the
ability of teachers to teach. Key processes refer to how leaders create those core
components (See Chapter 3). As the VAL ED was created to measure leadership
47
behaviors, it is based on eight dimensions from the Learning Centered Leader
(2006).
Learning Centered Leader
Many researchers and policy makers agree that leadership is the hallmark of
school performance. Leaders are those individuals who can lead a group to achieve
organizational goals (DuFour, 2006). According to Murphy et al., (2006), the
Learning Centered Leader is one who is able to anchor their practice in issues of
teaching and learning (Murphy, et al., 2006). The eight dimensions that under gird
effective leadership practices are: vision for learning, instructional program,
curricular program, assessment program, communities of learning, resource
acquisition and use, organizational culture, and social advocacy. These dimensions
suggests leadership behaviors that impact practice on the school level and in the
classroom (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007; Murphy et al., 2006; Marzano, 2004).
Vision for learning refers to the leader’s ability to develop and articulate a
vision of learning that is shared and supported by the community. This vision
reflects high standards and facilitated behaviors and practices that are conducive to
overall school improvement. Instructional Program refers to the leader’s ability to
align instructional goals to content standards and the school’s vision. In addition, the
leader’s recruitment efforts are guided by the need to secure practitioners who are
committed to the school’s mission, expectations and the development of an
instructional pathway that is rooted in multiple opportunities for students to learn at
high levels (Marzano, 2004). Curricular Programs refers to the leader’s ability to
48
work with colleagues and teams to ensure that the school is defined by a rigorous
curricular program. Additionally, effective leaders are able to monitor and evaluate
the effectiveness of the school’s curricular program (Murphy & Hallinger, 1985).
Assessment Program is critical to school improvement. An effective leader is able to
employ and suggests a variety of monitoring and data collection strategies, both
informal and formal to facilitate this process. The leader primarily ensures that
students are assessed by a variety of measures. Additionally, effective leaders ensure
that data is used towards instructional improvement plans. Communities of Leaders
are leaders who are skillful in creating learning organizations and fostering the
development of communities of learning. They promote professional development
and shape school culture aligned to the vision of the organization. Resource
Allocation and Use is paramount to the success of an effective leader. Effective
leaders are skilled in targeting needs and securing the necessary resources to
maximize student opportunities to learn (Marzano, 2005). Organizational Culture is
where the effective leader focuses constituents on production, continuous
improvement, learning environment and personalization. Social Advocacy refers to
the effective leader’s ability to focus on school improvement and the engagement of
diverse communities in on-going dialogue around achievement. Additionally, the
leader is able to create conditions to foster high ethical standards at all times
(Elmore, 2005).
The research of Darling-Hammond et al. (2007) and Murphy et al., (2006)
have explicitly highlighted the characteristics of quality school leadership
49
preparation programs and the behaviors of effective leaders. The characteristics
presented in both studies align to the prominent elements of instructional and
transformational leaders. In consideration of these features and the previous
discussion on how people learn, we will examine, through content, process, and
context, the Pennsylvania Department of Education’s efforts to develop effective
leaders who can influence practice and student outcomes.
Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership Program
The Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders (PIL) program is a statewide K-12 public
school leadership development and support initiative funded by the Pennsylvania
Department of Education. PIL is a comprehensive, long-term principal development
strategy that uses the National Institute for School Leadership’s (NISL) executive
leadership curriculum to prepare principals to lead instructional improvement in their
schools. To facilitate implementation of key leadership practices learned in the
program, participating principals are assigned a mentor for one year for support.
Participants are selected by the State for this statewide (3,019 schools) mandated
intervention, based upon school performance criteria, from rural and urban public
schools serving ethnically diverse and low SES student populations.
PA Core Leadership Standards
The state of Pennsylvania has recognized the importance of establishing
guidelines to ensure the effectiveness of preparation programs for school leaders.
According to current educational research, highly qualified and effective teachers
have the greatest impact on improving and sustaining student achievement (Elmore).
50
In addition to highly qualified teacher leaders, instructional school site leaders who
possess a deep understanding of instruction and effective management practices are
critical to student success (Marzano, 2005). To this end, the Pennsylvania
Department of Education has designed a framework with leadership standards and
indicators of best practice to guide the selection of preparation programs that support
the development of highly qualified instructional leaders.
Figure 2-5. PA Framework for Principal Preparation Programs
51
The PA framework and leadership standards focus preparation programs for
school leaders around key elements of a rigorous standards based educational system
(Marzano, 2005). As illustrated in Figure 2-5, quality leadership and a continuous
learning ethic are the pillars that support a successful system of education (Murphy,
2006). In addition, school leaders are in need of preparation programs which aid in
the development of knowledge and understanding required to create continuously
improved standards-aligned instructional systems, equitable learning opportunities,
leadership for results, data driven cultures, results-focused planning, targeted
assistance, professional learning communities and professional accountability.
Core Standards and Indicators
The foundation of the Pennsylvania framework for principal preparation
consists of three core and six leadership standards.
Figure 2-6. Core Standards and Behaviors
52
Figure 2-6 outlines the three core leadership standards and indicators of practices
that guide the PA Framework for principal preparation programs. The core standards
provide a blueprint for the selection of leadership preparation programs that
incorporate promising practices to improve leadership and student achievement.
Corollary Leadership Standards
The PA Core Standards are supported by a group of six corollary standards
that were carefully crafted to support guide the development of highly qualified
instructional leaders (Murphy, 2005).
Figure 2-7. PA Six Corollary Standards and Behaviors
53
Figure 2-7 presents the PA corollary standards and the leadership actions that
represent competency in the identified area. The PA core and corollary leadership
standards provide explicit examples of the type of leader who is positioned to impact
teacher practice and student achievement. They also provide explicit targets for
leaders to aspire to achieve as a means of improving personal practice. Pennsylvania
school leaders have their expectations clearly defined in the PA Principal Leadership
Framework.
National Institute for School Leadership Program
The National Institute for School Leadership (NISL) offers an executive
development program for school principals as well as other school district, and state
leaders. Specifically, NISL targets populations (districts) with a history of high
poverty, low performance and urban dynamics. The NISL program is the result of
six years of extensive research related to the most effective leadership programs
worldwide (overview). In this section the NISL program will be discussed in relation
to the content, process and context provided to enable school instructional and/or
transformational leaders to improve professional practice and student learning
outcomes in an urban context of schooling.
Program Background
NISL was created in July 2001 to provide states and school districts with a
highly sophisticated executive development program for school leaders. The
organization was supported, in part, by the Carnegie Corporation of New York, The
Broad Foundation, the Stupski Foundation, and the New Schools Venture Fund. The
54
leading researchers in the development of this program are Marc Tucker and Judy
Codding from the National Center of Education and the Economy. Through this
initial research it became evident that the field of educational leadership had much to
learn from other professions such as law, medicine and engineering. The study found
that these other professions had a higher standard for the identification and
implementation of best practices (www. naesp.org) whereas the field of educational
leadership held a position of “once trained and certified, always trained and
certified.” With the current state of education in the United States and the mandates
presented by the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) requiring educators to become
highly qualified, it is quite evident that any level of mediocrity is ineffective and
more importantly intolerable. Our educational system requires rigorous training and
continuous certifications for our leaders. It cannot be assumed that our leaders will
always know what they need to know without extended training throughout their
careers (www.naesp.org). In addition, the study found that many college and
university programs were disconnected from current knowledge in teaching and
learning. The study also revealed that these formal training programs, for the most
part, did not focus on building leadership capacity through strategic thinking, data
analyses strategies or gap analysis strategies. To conclude, the study found that many
principals did not feel prepared to lead their schools to high student achievement.
Principals spent the majority of their time on issues such as schedules, bussing, food
services, facilities, sports programs and discipline; only 15 to 30 percent of their time
was spent on improving instruction in their schools.
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Program Purpose
The purpose of the NISL program is to build district and state capacity to
sustain long term instructional improvement. At the core of the organization is the
belief that great schools have great leaders. NISL’s theory is rooted in the notion that
effective school leadership ultimately leads to increased student achievement. The
program focuses on the principal as a strategic, instructional leader who creates a fair
and just community of learning in which all students achieve high standards.
Specifically, the program trains participants to build and sustain a collaborative and
ethical learning culture with shared decision making, to train principals on how to
use data to improve instruction. Additionally, leaders are trained to develop strategic
and systemic processes for sustained improvement. Specifically, NISL has adopted
Richard Elmore’s (2005) view, that instructional leadership is the guidance and
direction of improved instruction—leading to higher student achievement.
Content
According to the program developers, the NISL curriculum is closely aligned
with the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards.
Program developers purport that after a thorough review of exemplary leadership
programs worldwide, the NISL program is composed of roughly 65% face-to-face
interaction, 15% web-based learning and 20% individual work in the field. The
curriculum includes several case studies (printed and video), simulations and
computer-assisted exercises. Each unit is designed to use practical application and
gap analysis strategies to identify and problem solve areas of needed improvement.
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Not only does the curriculum equip leaders with the knowledge, skills and tools
necessary for being an agent of change it is designed to shape the attitudes and
beliefs of participating school leaders to deepen their capacity as an instructional
leader. The NISL curriculum stresses the importance of the principal as the
instructional leader. Principals learn how to align instructional materials, teaching
strategies and curriculum frameworks.
Process and Context
Principals also learn how to develop processes for creating distributed
leadership teams who become entrenched in the fidelity of instructional strategies. In
all, the program has 14 units with two simulations and two institutes. The program is
supported by instructors who have experienced great successes as principals,
superintendents or state department of education officials. NISL also utilizes
facilitators with expertise in other backgrounds applicable to effective leadership in
education (e.g. business, military, and government). The program was purportedly
designed to provide limited direct instruction, but weighs heavily on interactive
methods of learning (i.e. Socratic questioning, group discussions, role playing and
case studies).
The program design is modeled after that of the corporate university with
cohorts of leaders within a single district or state. The model incorporates strategies
or approaches currently being used in the education agency to enhance student
achievement. Within this design NISL trains a leadership team from the local
district. This team is then responsible for working with NISL facilitators to train
57
subsequent cohorts of leaders throughout the local education agency. This process
not only builds local capacity but sustains leadership capacity as the training
strategies and approaches remain consistent throughout the agency regardless of
turnover or transfer of leaders within the institution. In addition to the initial training
of the cohorts NISL provides technical assistance and continuing support for up to
three years. As of 2008, the cost of the Leadership Team program is $12,000 per
leadership team member. The cost of the Principals Program which is taught by the
state or district team leaders is $5,000 per participant. The Leadership Team training
is composed of roughly 33 days of training delivered in two phases. This training
typically takes 1½ to 2 years to complete. Since the development of this program
four state departments have adopted NISL as their executive training for school
leaders—Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, and Minnesota. With regard to
program evaluations the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE) at the
University of Pennsylvania has begun a five year longitudinal (2005) study of the
effects of the NISL program on leadership practices and ultimately student learning
outcomes.
In summary, the NISL program is designed to build instructional leaders who
are able to think strategically, build effective academic programs, lead instructional
improvement efforts, design effective professional development programs and create
a culture of ethical and moral behavior.
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Summary of Literature Review
Instructional and transformational leadership theories show promise for
providing a framework for leaders to develop the skills to influence professional
practice and student learning outcomes in the urban context of schooling. The
NCLB Act (2001) creates a strong sense of urgency for the development of skilled
leaders who create conditions for teachers and students to excel at high levels. This
review of literature clearly presented a need to connect the characteristics of
effective leaders to practice (Darling-Hammond, 2005; Elmore, 2003; Hallinger,
Bickman, & Davis, 1996; Hallinger & Heck, 1996; Marzano, 2003; Murphy, et at.,
2001). While the literature presented a comprehensive explanation regarding what is
needed to lead effectively in an organization, additional information is needed to
bridge the gap between what is expected and what is enacted. The field of education
is in need of specific strategies and empirical evidence of leadership strategies
conducive to supporting improved professional practice and student outcome in an
urban context of schooling.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter describes the design, sample, instrumentation, data collection
and data analysis employed in this study. The purpose of this study was to determine
whether a fully developed leadership intervention program complemented by
leadership mentoring support and assessment of leadership practice, is effective in
influencing change in leader practice and teacher practice. Given the short duration
of this study, determining whether or not the PIL is effective in sustaining change
was problematic; the data provided inconclusive evidence.
Research Design
The research method for this investigation consisted of a mixed-methods case
study approach. The purpose of this mixed methods design is to better understand a
research problem by converging both broad numeric trends from quantitative data
and the detail of qualitative data (Creswell, 2003). In this study, the Vanderbilt
Assessment of Leadership in Education (VAL-Ed) survey was used to measure the
relationship between PIL participation and leadership practice of a PIL principal
participant. At the same time, effective leadership practices were explored using
qualitative data: interviews and observations with the principal, teachers, mentors
and supervisors of schools in Region I, Pennsylvania School Districts.
The case study design is appropriate for this study because it is particularly
suited to situations in which it is impossible to separate the phenomenon’s variables
(e.g., leadership practice, leader knowledge, etc.) from context (Yin, 1994) as is the
60
case in the study of leadership practice in schools. In case study research, data
collection usually “involves all three strategies of interviewing, observing, and
analyzing documents” (Merriam, 1998, p.136). Patton (2002) contends that multiple
sources of information are sought and used because no single source of information
can be trusted to provide a comprehensive perspective. By using a combination of
observations, interviews and document analysis the researcher is able to use different
data sources to validate and cross-check findings.
Sample and Population
The principal participant in this study was drawn from an underperforming,
urban, independent public high school in Pennsylvania that served a predominance
of students from racial and ethnic minorities and low income families. The
participant in this study was selected from the cohort of (N= 3,000) principals in the
Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders Program (PIL). Priority was given to schools based
upon school performance criteria from urban public schools serving students from
ethnically diverse and low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds. Participation
in the PIL program is mandated for all school administrators within the first five-
years of employment. For the purposes of this study, one secondary high school
principal participating in the PIL intervention was the focus of the investigation. In
addition to the selected principal, teachers, at the school site, were invited to
participate in the study.
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Access to Site and Participants
The dissertation chair for my committee was instrumental in securing access
to the districts and schools across Region I in Pennsylvania. Region I had scheduled
executive leadership training with The National Institute for School Leadership
(NSIL) beginning in the fall of 2008. To facilitate administration of the on-line
version of the VAL-ED, participants for the in-depth case study were selected from
among those who were scheduled to begin the training in fall (2008). Region 1 was
the only Region that had begun the program during the data collection time frame.
This region was composed of school districts in the following counties: Berks,
Bucks, Chester, Delaware, Philadelphia, and Montgomery. Informed consent letters
and emails were sent to all principal participants from this region in September
inviting them and their staff to participate in the case study. I selected a volunteer
school from those who agreed to participate in the project whose school matched the
criteria I had identified for the study. I sent a follow up email and informed consent
letter to the principal and made phone contact with the principal regarding the study.
I sent a second informed consent letter to the principal to be distributed to his
teachers to inform them of the school’s decision to participate in the study and
inviting them to volunteer to participate as well. With assistance from the State’s
Regional Coordinators, all principal participants were invited to take the on-line
version of the VAL-ED survey on the first day of the PIL training in the fall (2008).
The principal was also given the option of taking the post-intervention survey in the
spring (2009) on the last day of PIL training.
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Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis in this study is principal leadership practice. The sample
consisted of one current secondary principal who participated in the PIL leadership
preparation program for the 2008-2009 school year. In addition to the principal,
teachers, were surveyed using the Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in Education
(VAL-ED) survey and interviewed as a means of responding to the proposed
research questions.
Intervention
In response to the “No Child left behind Act (2001), which required schools
and districts to prepare students to perform at proficiency or above in English
Language Arts and Mathematics by 2013-14, the Pennsylvania Public Schools Act
45 (2007) required all school administrators to participate in a leadership preparation
program. The Pennsylvania Department of Education selected The National Institute
for School Leadership (NSIL) program to achieve this mandate.
Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders Program
Research has demonstrated that effective school leaders have a measurable
impact on student achievement. Principal practice is mediated by school structure
and teacher practice. Principals influence both teacher practice and school
organization which in turn promote effective teaching and learning environments
(Murphy, Porter, Elliott, and Goldring, 2006). A focused program of continuing
professional education can help leaders develop the knowledge and skills they need
to become more effective in improving the learning environment for teachers and
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students. In Pennsylvania, State leaders have taken a proactive approach to making
sure that quality leaders are at the helm in public schools. The State’s Inspired
Leaders Initiative (2005) provides a statewide, cohort-based, standards-based
leadership professional development and support system for school leaders at all
levels. The Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL) program is focused on leadership
to improve student achievement. Principals and assistant principals in years one
through five participate in a series of courses (GROW) designed to prepare school
leaders to meet the challenges of increased accountability and results for student
learning. Using curriculum from the National Institute for School Leadership
(NISL), that is delivered through a regional collaboration of Intermediate Units and
their partners, the State is focused upon building capacity in school leaders by
focusing on what they need to know and be able to do in order to provide the
guidance and direction of sustained instructional improvement leading to higher
student achievement. Principals who meet the state’s criteria for participation in PIL
register for the two year program across eight regions in the state.
In addition, the Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE) has partnered
with the Principals Leadership Induction Network to provide mentors for novice
principals. Each principal is assigned a mentor to support their implementation of the
NISL training. The program matches new principals (within their first through fifth
year) with experienced school administrators to mentor them as they learn the
responsibilities of school administration. The program offers a monthly face-to- face
visit and weekly contact through e-mail, phone, or fax. Mentoring sessions provide
64
time for open conversation about the challenges of the position and development of a
leadership plan within a confidential supportive relationship.
In summary, the PIL program is designed to build instructional leaders who
are able to think strategically, build effective academic programs, lead instructional
improvement efforts, design effective professional development programs and create
a culture of ethical and moral behavior.
Data Collection Procedures
The following section described the type of data used in the study.
Additionally data collection procedures are outlined. Table 3-1 below provides a
timeline of the data collection procedures.
65
Table 3-1. Project Timeline. The project has a one year timeline beginning in the fall
of 2008 and concluding in the spring of 2009.
Task Timeline
Administer Pre- VAL-ED Survey Assessments to PA NISL
Cohort Program Participants (Principal and teachers)
October 2008
Principal Interviews September 2008 and
March 2009
Teacher Interviews September 2008 and
March 2009
Observations (Classrooms, Principal) September 2008
School Improvement Data (3-year data) Fall 2008
Administer Post- VAL-ED Survey Assessments to PA
NISL Cohort Program Participants (Principal and Teacher)
March 2009
Instrumentation and Procedures Ratings, Surveys, Observational Checklist and
Questionnaires
Measures of the principal’s practice came from both quantitative data and
qualitative data. The study included principal pre and post assessment surveys
(VAL-ED) administered to principals and teachers. The Principal was observed in
the context of his/her daily work. Observations (prior to the PIL training and
implementation practice), and interviews were used to determine how program
participation affects the knowledge and practice of participating principals and their
influence on teacher practice. Teacher survey (VAL ED) and interview responses
66
were used to examine how principal practice influences teacher practice and creates
the conditions for effective teaching ad learning.
Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in Education Assessment (VAL ED)
According to the researchers, the Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in
Education assessment (VAL-ED) is designed to evaluate the effectiveness of school
leaders and leadership teams. The VAL-ED is a paper and on-line assessment which
utilizes a multi-rater, evidence-based approach to measure the effectiveness of school
leadership behaviors known to influence teacher performance and student learning.
The VAL-ED measures core components and key processes. Core components refer
to characteristics of schools that support the learning of students and enhance the
ability of teachers to teach. Key processes refer to how leaders create those core
components. The VAL ED is user-friendly. Respondents are requested to complete a
20-25 minute 72-item inventory of behaviors. Because the surveys are administered
completely anonymously, confidentiality is protected.
The conceptual framework for VAL-ED is based on a review of the learning-
centered leadership research literature and alignment to the Interstate School Leaders
Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) standards. Every item in the Principal, Supervisor,
and Teacher Response forms represents a cross-section of one core component and
one key process. The six core components are: 1) High Standards for Student
Learning, 2) Rigorous Curriculum; 3) Quality Instruction; 4) Culture of Learning and
Professional Behavior; 5) Connections to External Communities and 6) Performance
Accountability. High Standards for Student Learning requires the incorporation of
67
individual, team and school goals to determine the rigor of social and academic
learning. Rigorous Curriculum encompasses the academic content that is provided to
students in all academic areas. Quality Instruction relates to the pedagogy of
instructional practices that assist in maximizing student learning. Culture of Learning
and Professional Behavior focuses on the integration of professional practice, and
the provision of a positive school environment with student learning and well-being
at its center. Connections to External Communities focuses on building the
relationships between the school, families and additional community resources to
benefit students and their learning. Performance Accountability asserts that the
performance of students’ academic and social learning is linked to the individual and
collective responsibility garnered by both faculty and students. These six core
components work in tandem with the six key processes to identify and evaluate the
effectiveness of school leaders and school teams (Porter, Goldring, Murphy, Elliott,
and Cravens, 2006).
The Key Processes “are leadership behaviors, most notably aspects of
transformational leadership traditionally associated with processes of leadership that
raise organizational members’ levels of commitment and shape organizational
culture” (Porter, Goldring, Murphy, Elliott, and Cravens, 2006, p. 2). Planning
demonstrates a need for a collaborative direction and policies, practices and
procedures to foster high expectations for student learning. Engaging individuals,
their ideas and various resources are the activities that encompass implementing.
Supporting creates conditions needed for securing and using financial, technological,
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and political and human resources to promote learning. Advocating is defined by
promoting the needs of students both within and beyond the scope of the school’s
walls. Communicating develops, utilizes and maintains exchanges between the
school and the external communities. Monitoring relates to the strategic collection
and analysis of data to drive decisions surrounding continuous improvement. Figure
3-1 is from the VAL ED survey that includes the subscales described above.
Figure 3-1. Sample VAL-ED Survey
An effectiveness rating scale with five levels is used: 1 = ineffective, 2= minimally
effective, 3 = satisfactorily effective, 4 = highly effective and 5 = outstandingly
effective. Each respondent must indicate the source of evidence for the rating as
follows: reports from others, personal observations, school documents, school
projects or activities, other sources or no evidence. Figure 3-1 above provides a
69
sample of how respondents rate leadership effectiveness while providing evidence
sources.
These profiles provide a picture of the respondents’ perception of a
principal's relative strengths and weaknesses regarding leadership behaviors that
support the learning of students and enhance the ability of teachers to teach. To
further interpret these scores, it is anticipated that in the fall of 2009, normative
profiles for principals from across the country will be provided along with a set of
proficiency levels.
The VAL-ED assessment is a reliable instrument and has been constructed to
be used in multiple settings to provide reliable and non-bias results. The authors of
the VAL-ED instrument adhered to a multi-stage development process that involved
cognitive labs, pilot tests, and field tests. At each stage of the design and
development process, the properties of the instrument have been investigated through
empirical study and expert review. The process was guided by the American
Educational Research Association's 1999 Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing. Some of the steps that have been taken to ensure sound
psychometrics include:
1. Item & Response Scale Development
2. Pilot/Cognitive Interviews
3. Nine-school pilot test
4. Bias review
5. Field test
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6. Proficiency standards
The results of a 360 degree assessment with VAL-ED are summary profiles of the
six core component scores and the six key process scores based on the ratings of
each of the three types of respondents.
Data Analysis
Learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, generally can be divided into two
categories: procedural knowledge, meaning that a person is now able to do
something better than S/he could do it before; and declarative knowledge, meaning
that the person now possesses knowledge they previously did not possess, the
evidence being that the person can say what it is that S/he (now) knows (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). All measures primarily focused on instructional improvement
situations and in some cases were school subject specific. Each measure was coded
to determine the extent to which there was evidence that expertise and/or knowledge
was apparent in the responses around each of the measured constructs. Measures
were coded for knowledge on six core components and six key processes (Porter,
Goldring, Murphy, Elliott, and Cravens, 2006).
According to Creswell (1999) there are six steps that every researcher should
follow when analyzing data. These six steps are as follows:
1. Organize and prepare data for analysis. For this study, information from
respondents were recorded and transcribed and field notes were
organized.
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2. Read through all data. Data collected from this study was reviewed and
organized by related topics.
3. Use a coding process to organize data into chunks. The coding process
was used in this study as means of categorizing information from
principal interviews, pre observations, and teacher focus group
interviews.
4. Use coding process to generate a description of the setting, participants,
and themes for analysis.
5. Use narrative passages to convey findings of the analysis. In this study
figures, tables, and other visuals were used to represent the qualitative
aspects of the study.
6. Use predictions and interpretations of the data.
These six steps were utilized to facilitate the qualitative nature of the study. Figure 3-
2 below summarizes Creswell’s Six Steps to Data Analysis:
Figure 3-2. Creswell Six Steps to Data Collections
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Additionally, data collected from VAL-ED surveys, interviews, and focus
group interviews were coded to identify changes and patterns related to the behaviors
of effective urban or rural school leaders which influence teacher practice and
student achievement outcomes (Creswell, 2003). The ultimate goal was to identify a
relationship between leadership preparation and practice and the influence of
leadership practice on teacher practice. Once the quantitative and qualitative data
were collected, the triangulation method was implemented. Triangulation of the data
was completed because it employed various methods of data analysis and
consequently enhanced the findings of a study (Patton, 2002). For the purpose of
this research, methodological triangulation was utilized as the research drew on both
a quantitative and qualitative approach. The use of multiple methods strengthens the
validity of the study as it provides opportunities for “cross-data” examinations
(Patton, 2002, p. 248). Table 3-2 below illustrates both the quantitative and
qualitative methods of investigation that were triangulated.
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Table 3-2. Triangulation Matrix
Data Collection Instrument
Research Questions
Pre/Post Principal
Interviews
Pre/Post Teachers Focus
Group Interviews
Pre /PostVAL-Ed
Surveys
(Principal and
Teachers)
How does participation
in PIL influence
expertise and practice?
Core Process
High Standards for
Learning
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting
Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 5
Core Process Rigorous
Curriculum
Key Process Planning
6, 7 and 8
Core Process
High Standards for
Learning
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting
Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 5
Core Process Rigorous
Curriculum
Key Process Planning
6, 7 and 8
Six Key Processes
Questions 1-72
How do support
structures enable their
practice?
Core Process
High Standards for
Learning
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting
Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 5
Core Process Rigorous
Curriculum
Key Process Planning
6, 7 and 8
Core Process
High Standards for
Learning
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting
Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 5
Core Process Rigorous
Curriculum
Key Process Planning
6, 7 and 8
Key Process
Supporting
Questions 5, 6, 17,
18, 29, 30, 41, 42,
53, 54, 65 & 66.
How does principal
practice influence
professional practice
over time?
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6
Key Process
Planning/Implementing/
Supporting Questions
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6
Key Process
Implementing
Questions 3, 4, 15,
16, 27, 28, 39, 40,
51, 52, 63 & 64.
Validating the Findings
Validity is used to determine whether the findings are accurate from the
standpoint of the researcher, the participant, or the readers of an account (Creswell &
Miller, 2000, as cited in Creswell, 2003). To check the accuracy of the findings in
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this study, two strategies were utilized: triangulation and peer debriefing. To
triangulate data, I conducted a principal interview, teacher focus group interviews,
and administered the VAL-ED prior to the intervention and after the intervention to
garner multiple perspectives, thus producing multiple sources of data that was used
to build a coherent justification for changes. Peer debriefing was also utilized by
locating a person (a peer debrief) who reviewed and asked questions about the
qualitative study so that the account resonated with people other than the researcher.
Peer participants were selected from among the team of researchers who were also
working on the Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders’ Program.
Internal Validity
Internal validity has to do with the approximate truthfulness of inferences
about program effectiveness. Some threats to internal validity are:
1. The principal in the study had only completed one of the two required
NISL program courses during the time period of the study.
2. The fact that the post-assessment of the VAL-ED survey came relatively
soon after the pre-assessment (approximately four months) limited the
degree to which it could fully measure the principal’s growth in the areas
assessed.
3. The pre-post design of the study has inherent issues of validity, in that
changes reflected in the post-intervention data collection could be results
of factors other than the intervention.
4. Time for the fieldwork in this study was limited to four months.
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5. Another limitation was the “halo effect.” Due to the nature of the
measures used in the VAL-ED (ratings of self and colleagues),
participants may have had a tendency to assume specific traits or
behaviors based on a general impression. However, to mitigate against
this phenomenon, by design, the VAL-ED survey required that raters
identify the primary source of evidence for their rating on each item (i.e.,
personal observation, documents, etc.)
6. Selection bias may lead to an erroneous conclusion about treatment
effectiveness (Patton, 2000). Selection bias is a problem because the
participants who registered for the fall PIL program cohort and were
accepted, may have been more highly motivated than those who
postponed registration for a later cohort.
External Validity
External validity is the extent to which results can be generalized to other
populations, settings, NISL interventions, and measurements. Since this is a
purposive study, sampling is focused on insight about the phenomenon, leadership
practice and its impact, not empirical generalization from the sample to a population.
Follow-up interviews were utilized. They were critical to determining why
and how the changes occurred. In addition, interviews are effective ways to get at
what leaders think they do, as well as to determine who teachers identify as leaders.
Interviews are also important venues for learning about leaders and teachers. In this
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study, the interviews provided a critical opportunity to identify the instructional
goals that leaders and teachers had.
Instrumentation and Procedures Semi-Structured Interviews and Focus Groups
Interviews with the principal and teachers (See Appendices) were conducted
as a means to identify “key phrases, terms, and practices that are special to the
people in the setting” (Patton, 2002). These changes were representative of the
knowledge, behaviors, and practices of an effective urban school leader. In addition,
this study aimed to examine the practices of effective urban school leaders through
the lenses of the leader and the teachers.
Interviews were conducted before and after the selected principal participated
in the PIL program which included the NISL curriculum and assignment of a mentor.
The interviews were conducted within a six month period starting in the fall (2008)
and concluding in the spring (2009). Interview questions used in this study were
adapted from the Los Angeles Unified School District’s Improvement Unit. The
interview protocol was used with the principal and teachers; each interview session
lasted 30-40 minutes. Two interviewers served as a team where one assumed the
responsibility of the recorder and the other as the principle interviewer (Patton,
2002). The same process was used to facilitate focus group interviews with teachers.
These questions were useful in identifying changes in the following areas:
climate/culture, vision, curriculum and instruction, and assessment and
accountability.
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Figure 3-3. below provides a sample of how respondents rated leadership
effectiveness while providing evidence sources.
Figure 3-3. Overall Effectiveness Score Sample
The VAL-ED behavior inventory provides a total score, six core component
subscale scores and six key process subscale scores for each of the three respondent
types. The scores from the teachers are all based on the average item scores across
all teacher respondents. The total leadership core components and key processes
effectiveness ratings are interpreted against a national representative sample of
principals for which a percentile rank score is provided. These scores are also
interpreted against a set of performance standards ranging from Below Basic to
Distinguished as defined below in Table 3-3.
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Table 3-3. Leadership Standards Rubric
Below Basic Basic Proficient Distinguished
Leadership behaviors
of core components
and key processes of
insufficient
effectiveness and
consistency that over
time are unlikely to
influence teachers to
bring the school to a
point that result in
acceptable value
added to student
achievement and
social learning.
Leadership behaviors
of core components
and key processes of
sufficient effectiveness
that over time are
likely to influence
teachers to bring the
school to a point that
results in acceptable
value-added to student
achievement and social
learning for some sub
groups of students but
not all.
Leadership behaviors
of core components
and key processes of
sufficient
effectiveness that over
time are likely to
influence teachers to
bring the school to a
point that results in
acceptable value-
added to student
achievement and
social learning for all
students.
Leadership behaviors
of core components
and key processes at
levels of effectiveness
that over time are
virtually certain to
influence teachers to
bring the school to a
point that result in
strong value-added to
student achievement
and social learning for
all students.
Ethical Considerations
Several ethical considerations were made during the design and throughout
the course of this study. Primarily, all University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) guidelines and procedures were strictly followed, as well as
those of the school district in Pennsylvania. Additionally, the security of the VAL-
ED surveys was maintained, as was the confidentiality of all of the participants in the
study. Informed consent was acquired from all participants, meaning that prior to
consenting to participation in the study all participants were informed of the nature
and purpose of the study, as well as any obligations assumed by them.
Additionally, steps were taken to protect the anonymity of all participants;
VAL-ED surveys were numerically coded and distributed to participants.
Participants were informed of the confidential nature of their responses.
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Conclusion
This study discusses the importance, dilemmas, and methodological and
conceptual questions raised by my efforts to measure the mediating variables of
principal knowledge and practice within the context of a mixed methods purposive
case study. The next chapter will focus upon the analysis of the data collected for
the case study in response to the research questions.
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CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA AND FINDINGS
This chapter presents and analyzes the data collected in the study. The
findings in this chapter are based on responses to three data points (1) interviews
with the principal (2) Focus Group Interviews with teachers at an identified learning
community and (3) responses to the VAL-ED survey.
As presented in Chapter One, the purpose of this mixed method, purposive
case study was to determine whether a fully developed leadership intervention
program complemented by leadership mentoring support and assessment of
leadership practice, was effective in influencing and sustaining change in leader and
teacher professional practice over time. Thus, the presentation of findings is
organized to present data in response to three research questions that guided the
study: (1) How does participation in the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL)
program influence the knowledge, beliefs, and leadership practices of urban school
principals? (2) How do organizational support structures enable principal practice?
(3) How does the leadership practice of the PIL participants influence professional
practice of teachers over time?
The discussion of this case study illustrates (1) the impact of participation in
the PIL on principal practice; (2) the influence of support structures that enable
principal practice; and (3) the impact on teacher practice over time. In this
presentation of findings, I review the problem of leadership practice that serves as
the foundation of the study. Second, I outline the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership
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Program (PIL). Third, I provide an in-depth description of a high school located in a
metropolitan area of Pennsylvania where the principal is a participant in the
Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL) Induction Program. Fourth, I present and
conduct an analysis of the major themes and patterns that emerge from the case
study. Finally, I discuss the summary of findings related to the type of training
needed to provide school leaders with knowledge, skills, organizational support
structures and capacity to enable their practice and influence teaching and learning in
an urban context of schooling.
Problem
The NCLB (2002) era has given rise to a national system of accountability
that assumes that all stakeholders have the capacity to create and sustain the
conditions needed to support the diverse learning needs of all students (Elmore,
2003; O’Day et al., 2004). Furthermore, NCLB assumes that school leaders and
classroom teachers have the human, fiscal and intellectual capital needed to provide
a diverse population of learners with access to quality standards-based instruction
(Elmore, 2003; O’Day et al., 2004; Stecher et al., 2003). While school leaders and
teachers strategize to meet the requirements of NCLB, researchers posit that there is
a shortage of effective leaders who possess the capacity to positively impact teacher
practice and student achievement especially in urban settings of learning (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2005; Leithwood, 2003; Hallinger, 2007; Marzano 2005).
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Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership Program
The Pennsylvania Inspired Leaders (PIL) program is a statewide K-12 public
school leadership development and support initiative funded by the Pennsylvania
Department of Education. PIL is a comprehensive, long-term principal development
strategy that uses the National Institute for School Leadership’s (NISL) executive
leadership curriculum to prepare principals to lead instructional improvement in
schools. To facilitate implementation of key leadership practices learned in the
program, participating principals are assigned a mentor for one year. Participants are
selected by the State for this statewide (3,019 schools) mandated intervention, based
upon school performance criteria, from rural and urban public schools serving
ethnically diverse and low SES student populations.
Case Study
The purpose of this section is to provide a detailed description of Roots
Independent Charter High School (RICHS). RICHS is a learning community which
is nestled in the center of the Northwest section of Philadelphia. RICHS is an
independent public school that rests in the center of a middle class community, the
school is an eight year old independent public school which opened in the late 90’s
with the goal of providing a rigorous African-centered, mathematics, and technology
curriculum for a population of 200 students of lower socio-economic background.
RICH’s school day commences at 9:00am and concludes at 5:00 pm. Currently,
RICHS enrolls over 500 students in grades 9 – 12.
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In keeping with the school’s emphasis on Science, Mathematics and African-
Centered roots, RICHS is named after a great Egyptian who was a multi-genius from
the third dynasty . According to the RICHS students’ handbook (2007), he was born
about 3000 B.C. This multi-genius accomplished much as an architect, astronomer,
philosopher, poet, sage, scribe, and king’s physician. This multi-genius is highly
honored as the father of medicine. His name means “he who comes in peace”.
The mission of RICHS is to provide high quality standards-based educational
programs for urban learners grounded in the African principles of Ma’at and Nguzo
Saba. Ma’at represents reality in all of its manifestations both spiritually and
materially. It is the force that encompasses and embraces everything that is alive and
exists.
Table 4-1. Founding Principles of MA’AT and Nguzo Saba
MA’AT Nguzo Saba Meaning
1. Truth 1. Umoja Unity
2. Justice 2. Kujichagulia Self Determination
3. Harmony 3. Ujima Collective work and Responsibility
4. Balance 4. Ujamaa Cooperative Economics
5. Order 5. Nia Purpose
6. Reciprocity 6. Kuumba Creativity
7. Propriety 7. Imani Faith
Source: RICHS Parent Student Handbook (2008)
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As presented in Table 4-1, the seven principles of Ma’at and the seven principles of
Nguzo Saba (African American System) represent the cultural roots of RICHS.
Student Population
The student population at RICHS consist of over 500 9-12th graders who are
99.5 percent Black (Non-Hispanic) and .5% Hispanic. Many RICHS students reside
in some of the most economically challenged communities in Philadelphia within the
neighborhood served.
Figure 4-1. RICHS Student Socio-Economic Levels
As illustrated in Figure 4-1, approximately 40% of the families are below the poverty
level, 10% are unemployed, 20% have female head of households, and 30% of the
families receive public aide. Additionally, 80% of the 40% of students from low
85
income families are eligible for the free or reduced meal program. Added to the
disadvantage of living in poverty, many students reside in high crime areas.
According to statistics, from Philadelphia’s 35th Police District, RICHS is located in
an area that has the highest incidences of murder, robbery, aggravated assault, and
narcotics possession with intent to sell.
Staff
The RICHS independent school has a certified staff of 100 members. Thirty-six
of the 100 staff members are highly qualified educators according to NCLB (2002)
guidelines. A highly qualified teacher as defined by the U. S. Department of
Education, is fully certified, has a bachelor’s degree and has completed a content
area major or has passed a content area test in the subject S/he is assigned to teach.
In Pennsylvania, a fully certified teacher must have a bachelor’s degree, a content
area major and have passed a content area test (PA Department of Education,
2009). At RICHS, teachers are referred to as facilitators. For the RICHS learning
community, the notion of facilitator transforms into a term of endearment as the title
defines the role of the instructor. The facilitator has the responsibility of guiding the
learning process. The students, teachers, and parents understand that the learning
process is a team effort. Facilitators are responsible for supporting students and
families by assisting with the development of personalized educational programs,
academic advisement, tutoring and daily rigorous instruction.
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Instruction
RICHS’s goal is to provide a rigorous research-based instructional program
that is aligned to the Pennsylvania state academic standards. In accordance with the
African-centered approach to instruction, which is rooted in the principles of Ma’at
and Nguzo Saba, RICHS provides a culturally responsive standards driven
instructional program. To meet the diverse needs of the student population, RICHS
emphasizes reading, writing, mathematics, school to work, problem solving, and
technology across the curriculum. Parallel to academic goals, RICHS assist students
in becoming “responsibly reliant” and resourceful members of the world community
(Parent Student Handbook, 2008).
Accountability
In response to the federal No child Left Behind Act (2002), the RICHS
learning community adheres to the Pennsylvania Department of Education’s
accountability system. The Pennsylvania System of Schools Assessment (PSSA) is
the standards-based assessment which is administered in all Pennsylvania public
schools. There are three specific assessments in mathematics, reading and writing.
The PSSA is administered annually to students in grades 3-8 and 11. The
Pennsylvania Accountability System meets the requirements of the federal No Child
Left Behind legislation (2002) and has the same end goal of having every child in the
Commonwealth proficient or above in reading and mathematics by the year 2014.
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Pennsylvania's General Performance Level Descriptors
Advanced
The Advanced Level reflects superior academic performance. Advanced work
indicates an in-depth understanding and exemplary display of the skills included in
the Pennsylvania Academic Content Standards.
Proficient
The Proficient Level reflects satisfactory academic performance. Proficient work
indicates a solid understanding and adequate display of the skills included in the
Pennsylvania Academic Content Standards.
Basic
The Basic Level reflects marginal academic performance. Basic work indicates a
partial understanding and limited display of the skills included in the Pennsylvania
Academic Content Standards. This work is approaching satisfactory performance,
but has not been reached. There is a need for additional instructional opportunities
and/or increased student academic commitment to achieve the Proficient Level.
Below Basic
The Below Basic Level reflects inadequate academic performance. Below Basic
work indicates little understanding and minimal display of the skills included in the
Pennsylvania Academic Content Standards. There is a major need for additional
instructional opportunities and/or increased student academic commitment to
achieve the Proficient Level.
Figure 4-2. Pennsylvania General Performance Level Descriptors.
Source Pennsylvania Department of Education 2009.
Figure 4-2 identifies the PA state Board of Education approved "specific criteria for
advanced, proficient, basic and below basic levels of performance" as defined in
section 51(b)(4) of the PA School Code.
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Figure 4-3. 2004-2008 PSSA Mathematics Achievement for RICHS
As illustrated in Figure 4-3, the 11
th
grade students at RICHS have
demonstrated a steady increase in performance on the PSSA mathematics
assessment. In the 2004-05 school year, 78% of the 82 students tested performed at
below basic. Seventeen percent performed at basic, 5% at proficient and 0% at the
advance proficient. In contrast to the 2004 performance outcomes, the 2007-2008
assessment data reflect a huge gain in performance. Only 23% of the 128 students
tested performed at below basic. Forty-five percent demonstrated proficiency and 7%
performed at the advance proficient level. Over a four year span achievement data
illustrates an incremental increase in student performance.
89
Figure 4-4. 2004-2008 PSSA Reading Achievement Data
As illustrated in Figure 4-4, in 2004-05 60.8% of the 89 students tested
performed at the below basic level in reading. Additionally, only a total of 23% of
the 89 students tested demonstrated proficiency or above. By the 2007-08 school
year the students of RICHS demonstrated gains in reading. Only 29% of the 128
students tested performed at the basic and below levels. About 62% of the students
tested preformed at a level of proficiency or above. Like mathematics, assessment
data illustrates incremental gains in performance.
School Improvement
In the state of Pennsylvania schools are evaluated on achievement using the
PSSA results, participation, attendance (at the elementary/middle school level) and
graduation rates (at the high school level). These measurements make up a school’s
90
Adequate Yearly Progress, commonly known as AYP. Using 2001-2002 data as the
starting point, Pennsylvania established the following AYP targets for 2008-2010:
• 63% of students proficient or above in reading
• 56% of students proficient or above in math
• 95% student participation in the PSSA
• 90% or improvement in attendance/80% or improvement in graduation
If a school fails to meet the expressed performance criteria in the first year of not
meeting AYP, they enter “warning” status. Warning means that the school fell short
of the AYP targets but has another year to achieve them. Thus, the school is not
subject to consequences. Rather, they should examine, and where necessary, modify
their improvement strategies so they will meet identified targets next year.
Table 4-2. PA School Improvement Guidelines
Improvement
Sanction
Improvement Action
School
Improvement 1
If a school does not meet its AYP for two years in a row student will be eligible for school
choice, school officials will develop an improvement plan to turn around the school, and the
school will receive technical assistance to help it get back on the right track.
School
Improvement II
If a school or district does not meet its AYP for three years in a row, it must continue to
offer public school choice and plan improvements. Additionally, the school or district will
need to offer supplemental education services such as tutoring. The district will be
responsible for paying for these additional services.
Corrective
Action I
A school or district is categorized in Corrective Action I when it does not meet its AYP for
four consecutive years. At this level, schools are eligible for various levels of technical
assistance and are subject to escalating consequences (e.g., changes in curriculum,
leadership, professional development).
Corrective
Action II
If a school or district does not meet its AYP for five years in a row, it is subject to
governance changes such as reconstitution, chartering, and privatization. In the meantime,
improvement plans, school choice, and supplemental education services are still required.
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Education, 2009
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Table 4-2 illustrates the consequences for schools who do not meet its AYP
for two consecutive years. There are four categories after the warning system. As
presented above they are (1) school improvement 1 (2) School Improvement II (3)
Corrective Action 1 and (4) Corrective Action II.
Table 4-3. RICHS 2003-2008 School Improvement Continuum
2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003
AYP
Results
Making Progress in
Correction Action 1
Correction
Action 1
Making
Progress
School
Improvement 2
Making
Progress
School
Improvement 1
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Education 2009
Table 4-3 represents the school improvement status for RICHS for the past five
years. Based on the data presented, RICHS is in a position where marked
improvement is imperative to prevent additional sanctions outlined by the
Pennsylvania Department of Education.
Scholastic Aptitude Test
Table 4-4 represents the average level of performance on the verbal, math,
and writing sections on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. For the past five years student
scores have ranged from low to mid 300’s. While scores for all three tests suggest
that additional support is needed to improve student achievement, the verbal section
is a consistent area of strength for RICHS’ students. Additionally, both mathematics
and writing scores have slightly improved over the past three years.
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Table 4-4. RICHS 2003-2008 SAT Performance
YEAR Verbal Math Writing
2007-08 352 350 346
2006-07 349 345 344
2005-06 365 343 342
2004-05 351 329 N/A
2003-04 344 352 N/A
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Education 2009
Figure 4-5 illustrates that for over the past five years RICHS has maintained 100%
graduation rate and college/university/trade school acceptance rates for the senior
class.
Figure 4-5. RICHS 2004-2008 Graduation Rate and College Acceptance
Source: Pennsylvania Department of Education 2009
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School Leader
RICHS is led by Mr. Sanders (Pseudonym), a twenty-eight year veteran
educator. “Father” as affectionately referred to by students and staff members, has
experience in coordinating small learning communities, coordinating district-wide
mathematics programs and school site leadership. He has served as a teacher as well
as a site and district administrator in the public school system. Mr. Sanders
specializes in mathematics and science. He believes that an effective leader is one
who can “influence teachers and students to learn through a culturally responsive
perspective.” Father Sanders also believes that all students must be socialized to the
degree that they are prepared to enter society with a spirit of service. Mr. Sanders’
professionalism establishes a no non-sense but respectful and caring learning
environment.
Summary of Data
The findings in this chapter are based on data from pre and post principal
interviews, teacher focus group interviews, and Val Ed survey responses. A total of
fourteen interviews (n=14) were conducted with the school administrator and
teachers. Along with interviews, twelve responses to the Vanderbilt Assessment of
Leadership in Education (VAL ED) survey were reviewed and analyzed. The
purpose of this section is to provide a summary of the data collected.
Pre/Post Interview Data
In the fall and spring of the 2008-2009 school year, data were collected via
principal and teacher focus group interviews. The teacher focus group was
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comprised of six teachers, with varying degrees of teaching experience (see Table 4-
5).
Table 4-5. RICHS Teacher Years of Experience
Years of Experience
Teachers (Pseudonyms) 0-4 4-9 9 plus
Mr. Tanner √
Ms. Adams √
Ms. Kirkwood √ √
Ms. Alexander √
Ms. Smith √
Ms. Ross √
These data were collected prior to Principal Sanders’ participation in the PIL New
Inspired leaders’ training (NISL). During the spring of 2009 post interview data
were collected after principal Sanders had participated in the NISL training for about
four months. From the data collected, three primary themes for leadership practice
emerged, (1) Vision and Leadership (Murphy, 2002; Hallinger & Heck, 1996;
Myerson, Orr, Cohen, 2007). (2) Curriculum and Instruction (Leithwood, 1999;
Marzano, 2005), and (3) Assessment and Accountability (Murphy, Goldring, Elliot,
& Porter, 2006; Murphy, 2002) that research purports are critical to organizational
success. There were a total of nine questions organized by these identified themes,
which current researchers (Murphy, 2002; Murphy, Goldring, Elliot, & Porter, 2006;
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Murphy, 2002) conclude are critical to organizational success (For examples see the
appendix).
Table 4-6. Principal Questions Theme Matrix
Questions
Vision and
Leadership
Curriculum
and
Instruction
Assessment and
Accountability
1. How was the school’s vision
developed and how does it
drive the instructional program.
How does it impact decision-
making?
√
2. How is the Professional
Development plan developed,
implemented & monitored?
√
3. What systems are in place to
analyze and use data to improve
instruction?
√
Table 4-7. Teacher Focus Group Questions Theme Matrix
Questions
Vision &
Leadership
Curriculum
and
Instruction
Accountability
& Assessment
1. What is the school’s vision
and how has it been
communicated to the staff?
√
2. What are the instructional
priorities at your school? How
do they impact teaching and
learning in your content areas?
√ √
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Vanderbilt Assessment of Leadership in Education
The third source of data for this study is derived from the Vanderbilt
Assessment of Leadership in Education (VAL-ED) survey. The VAL-ED is designed
to provide a summary of the effectiveness of learning-focused leadership behaviors
during the current school year. It is a 360 degree survey (including teacher,
principal, and supervisor). The VAL-ED measures core components and key
processes known to influence student achievement. Core components include: High
Standards for Student Learning, Rigorous Curriculum, Quality Instruction, Culture
of Learning and Professional Behavior, Connections to External Communities, and
Performance Accountability. Key processes refer to how leaders create these core
components. Key processes measured by the VAL-ED include Planning,
Implementing, Supporting, Advocating, Communicating, and Monitoring.
The VAL-ED assessment model does not envision direct effects of leadership
behaviors on student success. Instead, the leadership behaviors lead to changes in
school performance, which in turn lead to student success. Based upon a synthesis of
the literature on theories of leadership effectiveness and the (ISLLC) standards, the
VAL-ED’s conception of leadership behavior is two dimensional; the behaviors
assessed are defined by the intersection of the two dimensions: core components of
school performance and key processes.
Respondents to the VAL-ED are asked “How effective the principal is at
ensuring the school …” carries out specific actions that effect core components of
learning focused leadership. The effectiveness ratings, based on documented
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evidence (e.g., observations of principal behavior, review of documents that record
principal leadership actions, and communications with other people who have
directly observed principal behavior) range from 1 (Ineffective) to 5 (Outstandingly
Effective) for each of the 72 leadership behaviors. The results are interpreted against
both norm-referenced and standards-referenced criteria and highlight areas of
strengths and possible areas for improvement.
The VAL-ED behavior inventory provides a Total score, 6 Core Component
subscale scores and 6 Key Process subscale scores for each of the three respondent
types. The scores from the teachers are all based on the average item scores across
all teacher respondents. The total leadership core component and key process
effectiveness ratings are interpreted against a national representative sample of
principals for which a percentile rank score is provided. These scores are also
interpreted against a set of performance standards ranging from Below Basic to
Distinguished as defined below (See Table 4-8).
For this study there was a pre and post PIL participation administration of the
VAL-ED. During the pre PIL participation administration of the survey in the fall of
2008, one principal (n=1) and four teachers represent (n=4) the total number of
respondents. During the spring 2009 administration the principal (n=1) and one
teacher (n=1) served as the respondents. The purpose of this section is to summarize
the pre and post VAL-ED results.
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Table 4-8. VAL-ED Performance Standards
Below Basic Basic Proficient Distinguished
A leader at the below
basic level of proficiency
exhibits learning-
centered leadership
behaviors at levels of
effectiveness that are
unlikely to influence
teachers positively nor
result in acceptable
value-added to student
achievement and social
learning for students.
A leader at the basic level
of proficiency exhibits
learning centered
leadership behaviors at
levels of effectiveness that
are likely to influence
teachers positively and
that result inacceptable
value-added to student
achievement and social
learning for some sub-
groups of students, but not
all.
A proficient leader
exhibits learning-
centered leadership
behaviors at levels of
effectiveness that are
likely to influence
teachers positively and
result in acceptable
value added to student
achievement and social
learning for all students.
A distinguished leader
exhibits learning-
centered leadership
behaviors at levels of
effectiveness that are
virtually certain to
influence teachers
positively and result in
strong value-added to
student achievement and
social learning for all
students.
Table 4-9. Pre-Post VAL-ED Assessment Participation 2008-09
Possible Respondents Actual Respondents Percent (%) Responding
Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring
Principal 1 1 1 1 100% 100%
Teachers 10 10 4 1 40% 10%
Source: Vanderbilt Principal Report, 2009
Table 4-9 illustrates the fall and spring participation rates for the principal and
teachers at Roots Independent High School. Mr. Sanders, the principal, participated
in both the pre and post VAL-ED administrations. However, the teacher
participation declined from 4 respondents in the fall to one respondent in the spring.
A response rate of greater or equal to 75% is high, 50% is moderate, and below 50%
is low. For both administrations the principal ratings were high but the teacher
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ratings were low. Since the teacher participation was low, resulting scores were
interpreted with caution.
Sources of Evidence
Ratings of Mr. Sanders’ leadership behavior were based on multiple forms of
evidence (e.g. observations of behavior, review of documents, school projects and
activities, and other sources). Figure 4-6 below summarizes the percentage of
evidence reflected upon by Mr. Sanders to complete the fall VAL ED survey.
Figure 4-6. Evidence Used by Principal (fall)
According to Figure 4-6, the fall VAL ED administration data represented the
percentage breakdown of evidence sources used by Mr. Sanders was, 16.61% School
Projects; 36.11% School Documents; 31.94% Personal Observations and 15.28%
Reports from Others. The numbers do not have to total 100 as the percentages are
based on the number of items for which a source of evidence was checked.
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Like the principal ratings, the four teacher respondents (n=4) generated their
responses of Mr. Sanders’ leadership behaviors from reflections of multiple forms of
evidence. Figure 4-7 summarizes the evidence sources used by teachers.
Figure 4-7. Evidence Used by Teachers (fall)
According to Figure 4-7, the fall VAL-ED administration percentage
breakdown of evidence sources used by the four teacher respondents was, 12.50%
School Projects; 42.01% School Documents; 42.01% Personal Observations and
1.39% Reports from Others. Like the principal report, the numbers do not have to
total 100 as the percentages are based on the number of items for which a source of
evidence was checked.
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Figure 4-8. Evidence Used by Teachers (spring)
According to Figure 4-8, the spring VAL-ED administration percentage breakdown
of evidence sources used by Mr. Sanders was, 72.22% School Projects; 69.44%
School Documents; 75.00% Personal Observations and 55.56% Reports from Others.
The numbers for Mr. Sanders’ evidence sources do not have to total 100 as the
percentages are based on the number of items for which a source of evidence was
checked.
Figure 4-9. VAL ED Teacher Source Data
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According to Figure 4-9, the spring VAL-ED administration results
percentage breakdown of evidence sources used by the one teacher respondent (n=1)
was, 55.56% School Projects; 79.17% School Documents; 93.06% Personal
Observations and 90.28% Reports from Others. Like the principal spring report, the
numbers do not have to total 100 as the percentages are based on the number of
items for which a source of evidence was checked.
Overall Effectiveness Score
Mr. Sanders’ overall effectiveness score which was based on the average
ratings of all respondents was m= 3.33 for the fall and m=3.47 for the spring VAL
ED administrations. These scores were based on a 5-point effectiveness scale where
1= Ineffective; 2=Minimally Effective; 3=Satisfactorily Effective; 4=Highly
Effective and 5=Outstandingly Effective.
Table 4-10. Fall and Spring Overall Effectiveness Score for Roots Independent
Overall Effectiveness Score
Mean Score Performance Level Percentile Rank
Fall Spring Fall Spring Fall Spring
3.33 3.47 Basic Basic 18.7 31.9
The standard error of measurement is .05
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Summary of Core Component Scores and Key Processes Scores
Tables 4-11 and 4-12 summarize Mr. Sanders’ fall and spring Core
Component and Key Processes scores.
According to Table 4-11, Mr. Sanders’ fall mean item ratings ranged from a
low of m=3.00 for Rigorous Curriculum and a high of m=3.71 for Culture of
Learning and Professional Behavior. Similarly Mr. Sanders’ Key Processes mean
item ratings ranged from a low of m=3.15 for Monitoring to a High of m=3.50 for
Communicating.
Table 4-11. Fall Summaries of Core Component and Key Processes Scores for
Roots Independent High School
Summary of Core Components Scores Summary of Key Processes Scores
Mean
Performance
Level
Percentile
Rank
Mean
Performance
Level
Percentile
Rank
High Standards for Student
Learning
3.28 Below Basic 11.4 Planning 4.06 Basic 89.4
Rigorous Curriculum 3.00 Below Basic 5.9 Implementing 4.05 Basic 87.1
Quality Instruction 3.39 Basic 20.0 Supporting 4.27 Below Basic 92.1
Culture of Learning &
Professional Behavior
3.71 Proficient 44.7 Advocating 4.01 Basic 88.4
Connections to External
Communities
3.11 Below Basic 18.7 Communicating 4.26 Basic 94.4
Performance Accountability 3.51 Basic 52.9 Monitoring 4.28 Below Basic 96.7
According to Table 4-12, Mr. Sanders’ Core components mean item ratings
ranged from a low of m=3.29 for Performance Accountability to a high of m=3.88
for Culture of Learning & Professional Behavior. The ranking in these areas were
also noted as the high and low areas for the fall administration. Likewise, Mr.
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Sanders’ Key processes mean item ratings ranged from a low m=3.29 for Monitoring
to a high of m=3.67 for Communicating. Like the Core component results, Mr.
Sanders’ spring Key Processes mean scores were closely aligned to his fall
administration results.
Table 4-12. Spring Summaries of Core Component and Key Processes Scores for
Roots Independent High School
Summary of Core Components Scores Summary of Key Processes Scores
Mean
Performance
Level
Percentile
Rank
Mean
Performance
Level
Percentile
Rank
High Standards for Student
Learning
3.28 Below Basic 11.4 Planning 4.06 Basic 89.4
Rigorous Curriculum 3.00 Below Basic 5.9 Implementing 4.05 Basic 87.1
Quality Instruction 3.39 Basic 20.0 Supporting 4.27 Below Basic 92.1
Culture of Learning &
Professional Behavior
3.71 Proficient 44.7 Advocating 4.01 Basic 88.4
Connections to External
Communities
3.11 Below Basic 18.7 Communicating 4.26 Basic 94.4
Performance Accountability 3.51 Basic 52.9 Monitoring 4.28 Below Basic 96.7
Strengths and Areas of Growth
The VAL-ED results can be used to identify Mr. Sanders’ professional
strengths and areas for growth based on his mean item scores for the intersection of
Core Components by Key Processes. Tables 4-13 and 4-14 provide an integrated
summary of Mr. Sanders’ areas of strength and growth based on the fall and spring
assessment results. Each leadership behavior assessed is identified in the tables as P=
Proficient; B= Basic; and BB=Below Basic.
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Table 4-13. Fall Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and Areas of Growth
Key Processes
Core Components Planning Implementing Supporting Advocating Communicating Monitoring
High Standards for
Student Learning
BB B B BB B BB
Rigorous
Curriculum
BB BB B BB BB BB
Quality Instruction BB BB B P B B
Culture of Learning
& Professional
Behavior
P P B P B BB
Connections to
External
Communities
BB BB BB BB P BB
Performance
Accountability
P P BB P P BB
According to Table 4-13, Mr. Sanders’ relative strengths are most evident in
Creating a Culture of Learning and Professional Behavior and Performance and
Accountability. Mr. Sanders’ areas of growth were most evident in the Rigorous
Curriculum and Connections to External Communities Core Components.
Similar to the fall results, Table 4-14 illustrates that Mr. Sanders’ relative
strengths in the spring were most evident in Creating a based on Culture of Learning
and Professional Behavior. In this area the spring results illustrate Mr. Sanders’
leadership behaviors as near proficient in all Key Processes areas except planning.
The area of growth most noted was in the Rigorous Curriculum and Connections to
External Communities.
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Table 4-14. Spring Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and Areas of
Growth
Key Processes
Core Components Planning Implementing Supporting Advocating Communicating Monitoring
High Standards for Student
Learning
BB BB B P P B
Rigorous Curriculum B BB B B P BB
Quality Instruction P BB BB BB P BB
Culture of Learning &
Professional Behavior
BB P P P P P
Connections to External
Communities
BB B P BB P BB
Performance Accountability B P BB BB BB BB
Analysis of Data
The purpose of this section is to present and conduct an analysis of the
findings relevant to the three research questions which guided the collection of data
for this study. The three questions are:
1. How does participation in the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL)
program influence the knowledge, beliefs, and leadership practices of
urban school principals?
2. How do organizational support structures enable principal practice?
3. How does the leadership practice of the PIL participants influence
professional practice of teachers over time?
The data collected consisted of Principal Interviews, Teacher Focus Group
Interviews and Responses to the VAL-ED survey. The presentation of findings is
organized by each research question. It begins by reviewing the framework used to
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guide the design and data collection instruments. Next the findings regarding the
framework are discussed. Finally, this section closes with a summary of findings for
the research question.
Summary and Findings for Research Question One
Instructional Leader
How does participation in the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership (PIL) program
influence the knowledge, beliefs, and leadership practices of urban school
principals?
Many policy makers and school districts have realized the importance of the
influence that effective leaders have over student outcomes in high performing
schools (Darling-Hammond, La Pointe, Myerson, Orr & Cohen, 2007). School
communities all over the nation are vying for effective leaders who can articulate
clear goals and ground their leadership practice in instructional improvement
(Murphy, 2005). The need for instructional leaders who are able to draw from
current educational research and enact promising leadership practices that have the
potential to positively impact teacher practice, organizational climate, and ultimately
student outcomes are in high demand.
As presented in Chapter Two, according to contemporary research on
leadership, the instructional leader is one who is able to influence schooling through
a hands-on approach which requires involvement in curriculum and instruction and
supporting the improvement of teacher practice through four roles (Hallinger, 2003;
Marzano 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). The four roles which define an instructional
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leader are: (1) resource provider, (2) instructional resource, (3) communicator, and
(4) visible presence. The PIL program engages school leaders in activities that
support growth in each of the four areas as topics such as understanding the district
and local vision, reviewing the six main elements of instructional leadership
(systems thinking and data; effective instructional practice, alignment and coherence;
learning communities and teams; and sustaining improvement) and regarding the
principal as the key driver of change and improvement are studied in the first two
courses of the training.
Resource Provider
According to Murphy et al., (2006), a chief indicator of an instructional
leader is one who ensures that fiscal, material, and physical resources are available to
enable practice. Mr. Sanders referred to his participation in the PIL program as
“beneficial”. One of the most helpful experiences was when he participated in a
session on analyzing the school’s vision and mission statements. Mr. Sanders stated,
I thought I had a clear understanding of the vision of Roots Independent High
School, but after discussing it with colleagues, I learned that the vision of the
school has to be embedded in every thing we do. After collaborating with
colleagues I went back to my staff and repeated the session on unpacking the
vision in an attempt to clarify the goals of the school. The session provided
clarity to staff members and helped us as, a learning community, identify
practices that support or contradict the school’s vision.
Mr. Sanders’ sentiments were echoed from teacher respondents in the focus
group interviews as indicated by their claims, “Mr. Sanders is extremely supportive.
While we have limited resources he creatively finds ways to meet the needs of
students, staff and parents.” Teacher Focus Group members often complimented Mr.
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Sanders on his ability to “make things happen”. One teacher cited formal and
informal meetings and forums where Mr. Sanders’ resourcefulness emerged. Mr.
Sanders’ ability to communicate the schools’ vision became evident as teachers
shared, “Recently, Mr. Sanders led the staff in a discussion about the vision of the
school. We used a corporate model to refine the vision and to develop a mission
statement that reflected the academic goals and cultural perspectives of our school.”
Mr. Tanner spoke with admiration of Mr. Sanders’ ability to command the attention
of colleagues while establishing expectations of faculty and staff members. It was as
if Mr. Tanner prompted the teachers to reflect on professional experiences where Mr.
Sanders’ influenced their professional practice. This notion of influences surfaced as
comments such as, “Mr. Sanders is always available to assist teachers in their
practice... He elicits support from community organization to support the school’s
efforts in providing young kids with a rigorous standards-based African-Centered
curriculum,” guided the discussion.
Mr. Sanders identified facility needs as one of the schools’ “greatest
challenges”. While Mr. Sanders reported facility needs as one of his greatest
challenges as a principal, the teachers praised him for his undying commitment to
school improvement. Mr. Tanner, indicated, “Mr. Sanders helps to keep the staff
focused on meeting the needs of students by any means necessary.” The teachers
continued by explaining that if the staff agrees to stay late to plan or to assist
students he and the CEO are there actively leading or participating in the process.”
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Similar to the principal and teacher accounts of change in Mr. Sanders’
leadership behavior as well as their own practices, the VAL-ED survey data
supported these findings. According to the VAL-ED survey results, Mr. Sanders’
highest rating was for the Core component Culture of Learning and Professional
Behavior (See Table 4-15). Culture of Learning and Professional Behavior refers to
the leader’s ability to integrate communities of professional practice in the service of
student academic and social learning. The leader creates a healthy school
environment in which student learning is the central focus.
Table 4-15. Fall/Spring Culture of Learning Integrated Summary of Principal’s
Strengths and Areas of Growth
Key Processes
Core Components Planning Implementing Supporting Advocating Communicating Monitoring
Culture of Learning
& Professional
Behavior (Fall)
P P B P B BB
Culture of Learning
& Professional
Behavior (Spring)
BB P P P P P
Table 4-15 revealed Mr. Sanders’ effectiveness across five Key Processes
where he rated as Proficient. All six Key Processes rated high except for Mr.
Sanders’ ability to “plan” for a Culture of Learning. The area of planning declined
from proficient based on the fall 2008 data to below basic on the spring 2009 data.
On the contrary, there was an increase in the performance rating in the area of
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monitoring from below basic to proficient. Again due to the low teacher participation
in the spring assessment these results have to be reviewed with caution.
Based on the data presented, Mr. Sanders’ ability to transfer information from
the PIL training to his staff as a means of clarifying the schools focus is an indicator
of a leader who is a resource provider. As studied in the NISl PIL training, the
principal is the chief agent in orchestrating the implementation of the school’s vision
through a process of modeling, assessing, and supporting practice consistently over
time (Marzano, 2005).
Instructional Resource
According to current literature (Marzano, 2005), an instructional leader is one
who supports daily instruction by participating in professional development and
modeling the desired behaviors regarding instructional priorities. Mr. Sanders
reported that during the PIL NISL training he learned the difference between a staff
meeting and professional development. In the pre NISL principal interview, Mr.
Sanders remembered staff training days as, “The teachers coming together in groups
to discuss lessons and the goals of the school.” In concert to his response, during the
pre teacher focus group interviews, the teachers confirmed, “We participate in PD
every Friday. During this time we receive information from Mr. Sanders about the
school and we review student achievement data. The rest of the time is used to plan
in team meetings.” Both Mr. Sanders and the teacher respondents referred to PD as a
platform for the dissemination of information and group meetings. The principal and
teacher data suggest that professional development was not maximized as an
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opportunity to enhance professional practice. However, according to post NISL
participation interview data regarding professional development and instruction, a
shift in mindset occurred.
In the principal interview Mr. Sanders discussed the value of using PD time
to build teacher leaders and to review teacher practice. His words reflected those of
a leader who enjoyed engaging his staff in critical conversations about teaching and
learning. Mr. Sanders added,
Participating in the NISL training and collaborating with colleagues has
helped me to view Professional Development time differently. During the
beginning of the school year we used PD time to disseminate information and
to make announcements. Based on my experience in NISL, I now understand
that I was conducting Staff meetings. Professional Development time is to be
used to study and engage staff in learning activities that will advance our
vision and support student and teacher learning. Inspired by NISL, I
developed three new initiatives (1) Data Teams; (2) Healing Circle; and (3)
Lesson Plan Study.
Post NISL training responses from the teacher focus groups identified a change in
leadership mindset. According to the teacher participants, the professional
development model for Roots Independent High School has grown in many ways.
The teachers discussed the obvious difference between the professional development
model of disseminating information to what is now identified as “Our time to learn.”
The teacher respondents further communicated a definite change in the delivery of
PD, “Earlier in the year, professional development time was used to work with
colleagues and to disseminate information. This semester Mr. Sanders has lead most
of the professional development sessions. We review professional articles about
current instructional strategies and the nationwide achievement gap. “One of the
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respondents, Ms. Smith added, “During the spring semester Mr. Sanders introduced
three new school-wide initiatives, (1) Data Teams (2) Lesson Study and (3) The
Healing Circle.” These three initiatives were reported by teachers as promising
practices (a term learned from Mr. Sanders) that supported teachers and students.
Through teacher and principal interview data the excitement regarding the
three new school-wide initiatives became apparent. The Data Team was charged
with the responsibility of reviewing data and identifying performance trends of
students. This information was then presented to and analyzed by staff. They were
able to review quarterly benchmark assessments and provide academic plans for
students who were in need of additional support. According to data collected from
teacher interviews and principal interviews, The Healing Circle was developed as a
strategy for the principal to interact with students who were not performing to
expected standards. Once identified, Mr. Sanders convened with students, parents
and teachers to discuss possible resolutions to the social and academic challenges
that served as barriers to student success. The Lesson Plan Study was intended to
support teachers in developing strategies to support learning. Teachers were
provided with a research based lesson plan template that teachers used
collaboratively in department meetings to plan curricular activities. Teachers were
also required to include measurable learning outcomes and the means to assess
student performance. Mr. Sanders reported, “The teachers and I work consistently to
refine lessons and to share best practices on a weekly basis.” Additionally, Mrs.
Kirkwood, a veteran teacher, reported, “Mr. Sanders is more hands-on with PD. As
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a staff, in the past, our PD was helpful but now it’s more consistent and focused. In
the past few weeks I have learned a great deal from him about data analysis.”
While the data from the principal interviews and the teacher focus group
interviews characterized Mr. Sanders as an Instructional Resource the VAL-ED
results suggested conflicting findings. In regards to the Quality Instruction Core
Component, Mr. Sanders’ spring effectiveness ratings were from Proficient to Below
Basic along the Key Processes continuum (See Table 4-16).
Table 4-16. Fall/Spring Quality Instruction Integrated Summary of Principal’s
Strengths and Areas of Growth
Key Processes
Core Components Planning Implementing Supporting Advocating Communicating Monitoring
Quality Instruction
(Fall)
BB BB B P B B
Quality Instruction
(Spring)
P BB BB BB P BB
Table 4-16, illustrates Mr. Sanders effective leadership behavior in relation to
providing quality instruction where effective research-based strategies were
employed and modeled by the instructional leaders to maximize student
performance. In the fall 2008 the Key Processes of Planning and Implementing
received the lowest ratings. However, in the spring the data revealed Planning as
Proficient indicating that it was now an area of strength for Mr. Sanders. In contrast
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to the growth in the area of Planning, Implementing Quality Instruction remained an
area where Mr. Sanders needed to improve.
Another area that data revealed having a dramatic change in effectiveness for
Mr. Sanders was Advocating for Quality Instruction. While the principal and teacher
focus group interviews suggest growth in that area from fall to spring, the VAL-ED
survey data shows a decline from Proficient to Below Basic in the same area. One
variable that may account for the change is the low teacher participation in the spring
administration of the VAL-ED assessment.
Communicator
The third descriptor that characterizes an instructional leader is
Communicator (Marzano, 2001 Leithwood. 1992; Murphy, 2005). An instructional
leader establishes and articulates clear goals to staff and to the learning community at
large (Leithwood, 1992; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). During the pre NISL
principal interview Mr. Sander’s reported, "The vision and goals of RICHS are to
provide all students with rigorous standards based education that is rooted in two
African-Centered principles and communicated frequently to our stakeholders. The
vision can be found in the Parent/Student Handbook and Code of conduct.” Mr.
Sanders emphasized the fact that the school’s vision was also presented at parent
meetings, staff meetings and on school correspondences. "We are an [independent]
public school that infuses heritage and culture with Math, Science and Technology.
Our goal is to close the cultural and achievement gaps by helping students
understand and improve their performance on standardized tests.”
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Based on Mr. Sanders’ responses, the vision and the goal of Roots
Independent High school changed. In the beginning of his statement he referred to
“providing all students with a rigorous standards-based education rooted in two
African-Centered principles” as the vision of Roots Independent high school. By the
end of the statement Mr. Sanders identified “closing cultural and academic
achievement gaps” as the goal of Roots Independent High school. Mr. Sanders’
statement focuses the instructional program on responding to student needs in
relations to their achievement of a set of academic standards through the lens of a
culturally responsive perspective (Gay, 2000; Bennett, 2000; Marzano, 2005;
Dufour, 2006; Schmoker, 2003).
Mr. Sanders explicitly communicates the goals to staff members and the
community as evidenced by the teacher responses during focus group interviews.
The teacher respondents spoke of RICH’s goals as being a learning community that
provides a nurturing environment to assist students in becoming life long learners
and productive contributors to the community. According to Ms. Adams, “These
goals are accomplished by infusing African-Centered principles throughout our
curriculum program.” The teachers offered multiple examples which included the
fact that each grade level was identified by the name of an African Nation. These
names represent a set of expectations that the students must honor and reflect in their
daily practices. While Mr. Sanders and the teachers may use different terminology
to express the vision of Roots Independent, the intent is clear: “all students will be
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educated in a learning environment that connects rich cultural experiences and
citizenship to academic achievement.”
In addition to the data collected from the principal and teacher interviews the
VAL ED assessment results suggested similar findings. Mr. Sanders' overall
effectiveness rating for the Key Processes in Communicating for both the pre and
post NISL participation VAL-ED administration is below (See Table 4-17).
Table 4-17. Fall /Spring Integrated Summary of Principal’s Strengths and Areas of
Growth
Key Processes
Core Components Communicating (Fall) Communicating (Spring)
High Standards for Student Learning B P
Rigorous Curriculum BB P
Quality Instruction BB P
Culture of Learning & Professional Behavior P P
Connections to External Communities BB P
Performance Accountability BB BB
According to the VAL-ED responses Mr. Sanders effectiveness rating in the area of
“Communication” was Proficient in all Core Component areas except, Performance
and Accountability. The greatest increases from fall pre NISL participation and the
spring post NISL participation were in Communicating Rigorous Curriculum,
Quality Instruction, and Connections to External Communities. According to
research (Darling-Hammond, 2005) and the PA Corollary standards (Pennsylvania
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Department of Education, 2007), these areas are essential in order for a leader to
build a learning culture that is conducive to providing a quality instructional
program. Based on the principal and teacher interview data and the VAL ED
responses, Mr. Sanders demonstrated specific characteristic of becoming an
instructional leader who is able to communicate organizational goals and
expectations to the degree of influencing student outcomes and teacher practice.
Visible Presence
The final characteristic of an instructional leader is “Visible Presence”.
Visible presence is defined as a leader who engages in frequent classroom
observations and is highly accessible to staff and faculty members (Elmore, 2003;
Hallinger, 2003; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006). According to research,
leadership is only second to teachers in impacting student achievement (Elmore,
2003). Once learners have been provided with opportunities to learn new strategies
they can not be expected to implement effectively if the learning environment
remains the same (Elmore, 2003). At Roots HS, Mr. Sanders was reported as
frequently visiting classrooms and engaging with students. In sharing his
philosophy on the importance of staying connected to staff members and their
abilities, Mr. Sanders shared, “I visit classrooms frequently”. In addition to Mr.
Sanders’ class visits he reported that the administrative team visits the classrooms
daily as well. Mr. Sanders and his team employed the “use of an observation rubric
to assess teacher performance and to provide immediate feedback.” Prior to the
observation of instruction, teachers participate in pre conferences with an assigned
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administrator about lesson outcomes. After the conclusion of the observation
teachers receive immediate feedback attached to the rubric. Also, Teachers are
provided the opportunity to respond to the recommendation and to schedule a follow
up visit to demonstrate changes.
Mr. Sanders’ numerous accounts of frequent class visits and provision of
immediate feedback are indicators of high visibility. Data collected from teacher
focus group interviews supported Mr. Sanders’ claims of visibility as it revealed “he
is always in the classrooms providing feedback daily and interacting with staff
regarding things to do to improve lessons. Mr. Sanders is always on campus.”
Further the teachers collectively noted that Mr. Sanders established a tone every
morning by leading the traditional drumming and affirmation ceremony with
students and teachers. Mr. Sanders was often observed by teachers meeting with
students in the healing circle. Ms. Smith offered, “Mr. Sanders meets with students
who are struggling and provides them with support options to assist with improving
their academic standing.” According to the teacher interview data students included
in the circle were also required to discuss their performance in relations to the two
African principles that guided RICHS. The teachers agreed that this level of
accountability strongly supported the school’s character building efforts. One
teacher participant, Mr. Tanner, indicated, “There is not a time that I can remember
when Mr. Sanders and the CEO were not available to support teachers, parents and
students.”
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The principal and teacher interview data confirmed that Mr. Sanders was a
visible leader. The fact that he leads morning discussions and follows-up with class
visits and meetings suggests that Mr. Sanders is highly respected as the leader and
mentor at Roots HS. Mr. Sanders indicated:
The NISL training provided me with knowledge about instruction that was
not familiar to me. I learned about the importance of infusing literacy
strategies across the curriculum. I was also able to share the observation
rubric and receive suggests on how to improved its implementation. As a
leader of a school it is important to collaborate with colleagues and to not
only be visible but serve as a resource to the learning community.
Question One Summary
The data from the principal and teacher interviews and VAL-ED responses
have indicated that Mr. Sanders has adopted some characteristics of what research
(Marzano, 2005; Dufour, et al 2006; Darling-Hammond, 2006) posits as critical
indicators of an instructional leader. There is some evidence that he is a Resource
Provider as he ensures that Roots HS has adequate physical, material, and
intellectual resources in an atmosphere of limited fiscal resources. The notion of the
resource provider is revealed in the teachers’ accounts of Mr. Sanders’ provision of
support in improving class management, lesson planning, and communication with
parents. Data evidenced that Mr. Sanders is an Instructional Resource as he provides
professional development for staff that is engaging and aligned to academic
standards and the schools African-Centered perspectives. Moreover, data revealed
that Mr. Sanders is a Communicator as he has developed from the NISL trainings
strategies to support the conveyance of clearly articulated organizational goals.
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Finally, data have shown that Mr. Sanders was a Visible Presence as he frequently
visited classes and interacted with students on a regular basis.
In summary the PIL program influenced the knowledge, beliefs and
leadership practices of urban leaders in many ways. Based on data, Mr. Sanders’
practices improved as a result of learning in a collaborative environment with
colleagues who grappled with similar issues. The PIL program required Mr. Sanders
to participate in the NISL training where he was able to exchange ideas with other
school leaders. Furthermore, Mr. Sanders studied research on quality teaching
practices and research-based strategies needed to support students. The PIL program
was strategically designed to provide support for school leaders based on
characteristics that research suggests are needed to inform the practices of effective
school leaders (PA Principal Training Framework, 2008).
Summary and Findings for Research Question Two
Zone of Proximal Development
How do support structures enable principal practice?
The second question that guided this study was, How do organizational
support structures enable principal practice? Implicit in this question is the notion
of how do people learn? While theorists disagree on what actually constitutes
learning or the acquisition of knowledge, they agree that support systems must be in
place to reinforce the process for the learner (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000).
One of the most influential support systems known to educators is Vygotsky’s
(1998) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development
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essentially refers to the distance between what the learner can do with assistance
from others and what they can do independently. The notion of ZPD becomes
essential in creating support structures for all learners. According to Langer (2006),
learners must be provided with knowledge in three phases: First, present the lesson
in a separated fashion to introduce learners to specific concepts and skills. Second,
provide lessons in a simulated fashion to provide learners opportunities to apply
concepts within the related unit of study. Finally, an integrated approach is needed
to connect skills and knowledge that require learners to use new knowledge to
construct meaning and to complete the task. Understanding when to provide
opportunities to learn coupled with independent practice translates into knowing how
to create the context for Learning (Marzano, 2003).
Separated
The PIL program is essential to the development of urban leaders who are
equipped to respond to the challenges of this unique learning environment
(Hallinger& Heck, 1996). Many policy makers and school districts have realized the
importance of the influence that effective leaders have over student outcomes in high
performing schools (Darling-Hammond, La Pointe, Meyerson, Orr & Cohen, 2007).
School communities all over the nation are vying for effective leaders who can
articulate clear goals and ground their leadership practice in instructional
improvement (Murphy, 2005).
Mr. Sanders provided an account of participating in a learning experience in
the NISL training which supported his work as a school leader. During the principal
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interview Mr. Sanders recalled an activity regarding the importance of analyzing the
school’s vision and mission statements as instrumental to his development as an
instructional leader. According to Mr. Sanders, the participants reviewed research
on the purpose of a school vision and mission. He cited, “As participants we were
given sample vision and mission statements to analyze. We were also given a
protocol to use to develop a mission. Once we completed these tasks we were asked
to review our school’s mission and determine its clarity.” Mr. Sanders further noted
that this activity was valuable because it forced him to reflect on his personal daily
practices and how they supported the advancement of the school’s vision. Mr.
Sanders also reported that through discussions with colleagues the opportunity to
exchange vision and mission statements and offer suggestions for communicating
them to stakeholders helped to reinforce the benefit of creating achievable
statements.
Mr. Sanders’ interview data evidenced a system of support through
collaboration provided by the NISL facilitators and the other principal participants.
As mentioned in earlier discussions, collaboration has emerged as an important
support system for school leaders. Based on Mr. Sanders’ account he was provided
the conditions to reflect on his practices with an instructional tool. He was also
given feedback from colleagues aligned to the protocol for reviewing the school’s
vision and mission statements. Mr. Sanders’ actions in the training related to his
effectiveness rating on the spring VAL ED principal report (See Table 4-14).
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Mr. Sanders’ behaviors in the training are closely linked with his scores on
his effectiveness ratings in the area of Culture of Learning and Professional behavior.
According to Mr. Sanders’ account of learning, he demonstrated the behaviors of an
instructional leader who models expected behaviors even when his staff is not
present (Marzano, 2003).
The data presented in this area suggested that Mr. Sander’s ability to work
with a group of colleagues engaged him in a separated act of learning. The vision
learning activity afforded him with opportunities to study model school vision
statements and identify the characteristics of leadership needed to fully fulfill the
organization’s intended purpose.
Simulated
From the separated learning activity related to the development and
implementation of a school vision and mission statement Mr. Sanders and other
NISL participants were asked to present their school’s vision to a group of
colleagues. Mr. Sanders reported,
During the NISL training I participated in an activity where we were
requested to review our schools vision. We presented the vision to a group of
colleagues who provided feedback based on an established criterion. My
colleagues were instructed to listen for clarity and a connection between the
vision and the schools’ academic program. At the end of my presentation I
addressed questions from my team members of colleagues and they provided
me with suggestions on how to better clarify the school’s mission with staff
members.
As evidenced by an earlier account of the school’s vision by teachers, there seems to
be a general understanding of the schools’ focus at first glance. But, as revealed
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during the fall teacher focus group interviews, additional support was needed to
provide clarity. When asked to elaborate on the school’s vision the following
dialogue among teachers ensued:
Our school vision is to provide students with a rigorous African-centered
instructional program. Yes. That is right, our school believes in infusing the
African principles of MA’AT and Saba Nguzo across the curriculum. This is
important because we want to develop students who are productive
contributors to society.
The teachers at Roots HS School seem to have a basic understanding of the school’s
visions but when asked to provide examples of work that support its “advancement”,
teachers reported:
We infuse the principles of MA’AT and Saba Nguzo in all content areas.
Even our disciplinary policies and consequences for students are based on
these principles. Our vision is reflected in our daily practices. We support
student learning on all levels.
As evidenced by the teacher responses, there is a need for the identification of
specific academic and social practices that support the advancement of Root’s HS
vision statement.
The data presented in this area indicated that Mr. Sander’s participation in the
NISL training on developing and implementing actionable vision and mission
statements and receiving feedback from colleagues assisted him with identifying
strategies to support better communication of the school’s vision to his learning
community. Consequently, his participation in the simulated activity allowed him to
practice his delivery of the vision in a low stakes environment. Mr. Sanders was
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given the opportunity to apply new knowledge of developing and communicating in
a supported context of learning.
Integrated
Once Mr. Sanders and other NISL participants completed the cycle of
separated and simulated learning (Langer, 2006), he was motivated to try the
protocol with his staff members during a Friday professional development meeting.
Mr. Sanders in the spring principal interview reported:
I was able to lead the staff in a review of the school vision by employing the
protocol presented in the NISL training. I used the feedback provided from
my colleagues to design the professional development. I met with my lead
teachers and administrative staff members to get more feedback on the
training.
As referenced by Mr. Sanders, PD with teachers commenced by posing two
questions, “What is the function of our school’s vision and is it Achievable?” Mr.
Sanders cited, “From my training I learned the importance of asking the right
questions to collect the desired responses.” Based on Mr. Sanders’ report, his initial
impression of the vision had developed. During the fall principal interview Mr.
Sanders’ indicated that the vision was clearly expressed and implemented by all staff
members. He referred to school programs such as Naming Ceremonies and staff
meetings as indicators of his claim. The question posed to the staff members
demonstrated the behaviors of a leader who understands that just asking one to recite
the vision is not the same as internalizing and carrying out its function in daily
practices. To respond to Mr. Sanders’ question, “What is the function of our school’s
vision” required staff members to demonstrate knowledge of the vision and actions
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which supported its purpose. In addition, teachers were asked to determine if the
vision was measurable.
In the spring when teachers were asked about the vision Mr. Tanner replied,
“Our school’s vision is continuously reiterated with consistency. The vision is
nurturing life long learners. This semester our principal engaged the staff in an
activity of analyzing and defining the vision. We used a corporate approach using
the vision to develop a mission statement as well.” Ms. Kirkwood discussed how Mr.
Sanders supports teachers in the alignment of their practices to the school’s vision.
She reflected on Mr. Sanders’ process for organizing weekly professional
development, “our weekly professional development meetings are designed to share
strategies that aid in the advancement of our vision.” Another respondent, Ms.
Alexander, shared how staff members are provided opportunities to share practices
related to the mission with other staff members. Ms. Smith highlighted an activity
where teachers analyzed the vision to create a mission statement, “we were provided
opportunities to problem solve and offer recommendations for improvement.” Mr.
Tanner continued the discussion by adding, “The administrative team, under the
direction of Mr. Sanders, provides the teaching staff with time, space and materials
to implement agreed upon recommendations related to the school’s vision and
mission statements.”
The teachers’ interview data reflect Mr. Sanders’ ability to integrate
knowledge acquired in the NISL training to clarify the purpose and the function of
the Roots HS vision statement. Teacher feedback also evidenced Mr. Sanders’
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instructional leadership behavior as being an instructional resource. According to
teacher data, Mr. Sanders provided “time, space and materials to implement agreed
upon recommendations” related to the school’s vision and mission statements.
Research Question Two Summary
The data from the principal and teacher interviews and VAL-ED responses
have indicated that Mr. Sanders has improved his practice through the benefit of
three support structures that enabled his professional practice. The first was Mr.
Sanders’ opportunity to receive instruction on the development of an effective school
vision and missions statements in a separated fashion from NISL facilitators. He
reviewed the process for evaluating school visions and thinking strategically about
its inception. The group previewed sample statements, reviewed common features
and compared models to existing statements from different schools. Next through a
simulated model, Mr. Sanders was able to connect his newly acquired understanding
to present his school’s vision to a group of colleagues. Mr. Sanders’ received support
through a feedback protocol which linked specific criteria of a vision statement to his
presentation. Lastly, in an integrated fashion, Mr. Sanders was able to draw from his
newly acquired knowledge of systems thinking to clearly guide his staff through the
process of analyzing the vision. This process led to the development of an aligned
mission statement to school practices.
In summary organizational support structures enabled Mr. Sanders’
professional practices on many levels. The NISL trainings were organized
systemically to transition learners from the separated to the integrated process of
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learning (Langer, 2006). Much like Vygotsky’s (1998) Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and Langer’s three-pronged approach to learning, the NISL
program activities, which consisted of strategies to overcome barriers to strategic
thinking and operational planning, created distance between what the learners were
able to do with assistance from others and what they could do independently. As a
result of explicit instruction and opportunities to apply new knowledge in a
collaborative learning environment, Mr. Sanders was able to fulfill his professional
practices with greater clarity and depth.
Summary and Findings for Research Question Three
Transformational Leadership
How does the leadership practice of the PIL participants influence professional
practice of teachers over time?
The third research question presented in this study was how does the
leadership practice of the PIL participants influence professional practice of
teachers over time? In response to this query, the transformational leadership
construct will be employed to conduct an analysis of data from the principal
interview, teacher focus group interviews and the VAL-ED Leadership assessment
survey responses.
As presented in Chapter Two, the term transformational leader was coined by
Kenneth Leithwood (1994) who expanded the work of Burns (1978) and Bass
(1985). Transformational leadership is an extension of the instructional leader
construct. While instructional leadership is characterized in the literature as the top
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down approach to school reform, transformational leadership is deemed as the
bottom up approach (Hallinger, 2003). Leithwood (2004) characterizes this model
of educational leadership as one’s ability to develop districts and schools as effective
organizations. These organizations are effective because the leaders are able to
implement systems that support and sustain the performance of administrators,
teachers and students (Leithwood et al., 2004). The primary role of the
transformational leaders is to set directions, develop people and redesign
organizations (Leithwood et al., 2004). The actions of transformational leaders are
explicit when the behaviors of the four I’s of leadership are implemented
(Leithwood, 1994) (See Table 4-18).
Table 4-18. Four I’s of Transformational Leadership
Four I’s of Transformational
Leadership Behaviors of the Transformational Leader
1. Individual Consideration
2. Intellectual Stimulation
3. Inspirational Motivation
4. Idealized Influence
1. Attending to and meeting the individual
needs of Staff
2. Leading staff to look at old problems in
new ways
3. Communicating expectations
enthusiastically
4. Modeling expectations through personal
accomplishments
According to contemporary theorists the four elements that characterize a
transformational leader provide a blueprint for effective leadership (Elmore, 1993).
Transformational leaders create change by building “relationships of mutual
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stimulation and elevation” which transforms followers into leaders and leaders into
agents of change (Marzano, 2005).
Individual Consideration
The first behavior that is indicative of a transformational leader is his or her
ability to attend to and meet the needs of individual staff members. In the fall
interview when asked, how are teachers supported in their practice, Mr. Sanders
discussed how important his teachers are to the RICHS learning community. He
indicated how he enjoys sharing his wisdom and watching them grow in the
profession. According to Mr. Sanders, “My teachers are one of my top priorities. I
believe that each one brings a unique talent to our organization. Without their efforts
we would not have accomplished as much as we have.” As evidenced by the
principal and teacher interview data sets, there was a mutual level of respect between
the leader and his constituents. This exchange of respect is apparent in Ms. Adams
statement as she revealed, “I can remember when I struggled with building
relationships with parents. Mr. Sanders’ served as a mentor because he provided me
with tips on how to interact with parents.” This statement supported Mr. Sanders’
belief in his teaching staff. Mr. Sanders’ practice of responding to the individual
needs of his teachers is evident as he personally visits the classroom of each teacher
on a weekly basis. As indicated earlier in this discussion, Mr. Sanders meets with the
members of his faculty and staff members to provide them with feedback about their
practices. His expectations are communicated frequently as he indicates, “My
teachers are expected to assist our organization in achieving the vision which is to
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provide every child with a rigorous standards-based African-Centered education.”
Mr. Sanders further notes that his entire staff has accepted this challenge with the
understanding that they will be provided with the necessary support to achieve this
goal.
Implicit in Mr. Sanders’ statement is his commitment to ensure that every
teacher will receive resources to implement practices that will advance the school’s
vision. While his statement does not detail references specific to the needs of
individual teachers, he implies a collective stance on teacher support as he indicated,
“My entire staff have accepted this challenge with the understanding that they will be
provided with the necessary support to achieve this goal.” This statement suggests
that Mr. Sanders’ believes in the practices of his staff and they believe in his
practices as a leader.
In the fall when teachers were asked, “How are you supported in
implementing the school’s instructional priorities?", one teacher responded:
Ms. Adams, Mr. Sanders’ and the CEO are always available to support our
efforts. They assist with lesson planning and providing feedback to support
our professional development. Sometimes in schools the principal and other
administrators are so busy that they are not always readily available to
provide support. This is not true of Mr. Sanders’ and the administrative team
at RICHS. They are visible and available to provide assistance or to just
listen to new ideas as well as challenges.
Ms. Adams’ report supported Mr. Sanders’ claim that, “My entire staff have
accepted this challenge with the understanding that they will be provided with the
necessary support to achieve this goal.” Ms. Adams’ characterization of Mr.
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Sanders’ demonstrated his ability to attend to the needs of his staff members.
Another teacher Ms. Smith shared:
We are all well supported at RICHS. We are like a family. The CEO is like
the mother figure and Mr. Sanders is like a father. As a staff member it is
clear that they established expectations of socializing children in a culturally
responsive learning environment is paramount at RICHS. Many students are
faced with extreme challenges at home from poverty to neglect due to parents
having to work multiple jobs. Campus opens later in the day and stays open
until the last student departs. Mr. Sanders is always available before and after
school hours to support students academically and socially. Many of the
students look up to him as a father. We all work hard because we do not
want to disgrace him or his leadership.
The fact that Ms. Smith reported that both students and staff work hard so as
not to “disgrace” Mr. Sanders’ leadership is a testament to his ability to attend to the
needs of the RICH learning community. The term “disgrace” is significant because
it reveals personal and collective commitment and respect. This level of loyalty can
only be obtained through the construction of healthy relationships with members of a
given learning community (Gallimore &Goldenberg, 1993).
Similar to this notion of respect and attentiveness, the VAL-ED spring 2009
survey results disclose a connection to the principal and teacher accounts of
attentiveness. According to the spring 2009 VAL-ED, effectiveness ratings for Mr.
Sanders demonstrated strength in communicating organization goals (See Table 4-
14).
In every area of the Core Components Mr. Sanders scored Proficient except
for Performance Accountability. This data suggests that Mr. Sanders is able to
attend to the needs of his staff through clear communication pertaining to issues of
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establishing and maintaining high standards for learning, rigorous instruction and
connections to the community.
Intellectual Stimulation
The second behavior that characterizes the transformational leader is
Intellectual Stimulation (IS). IS refers to the leader who is able to lead staff through
the process of looking at old problems in new ways. Consistent with the description
of Intellectual Stimulation, is data results from pre and post principal interviews.
When asked, “What are your greatest successes and challenges as a principal?”, Mr.
Sanders responded,
The greatest challenge that I face as a principal is having enough fiscal
resources. As an independent school, fiscal concerns are always at the top of
the needs list. Because we do not receive funding commensurate to
dependent public schools, we have to increase our fund raising efforts. This
challenge has been an issue for RICHS for years. To address the challenge I
meet with my staff to identify creative ways to meet the lack. Recently, I
used a process learned in the NISL training where I presented my staff with
case studies of schools [that] responded successfully to financial challenges.
Mr. Sanders’ went on to explain that the staff went through the brainstorming
process and generated ideas to include parents, staff and students in the our efforts.
When teachers were asked a similar question, they discussed Mr. Sanders’ ability to
be proactive. They emphasized his determination to lead the staff to achievable
ends. Mr. Tanner reported, “Mr. Sanders reminded us not to become paralyzed by
our fiscal deficit. He continued to use a case study approach to have the group
develop a plan using ideas that other schools employed to increase solvency.” As the
conversation continued the teacher participants were proud to announce that “from
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[their] collective efforts we were able to raise funds to address some of our program
needs.” The excitement in their voices mirrored a staff that had been connected
through the act of problem solving by the actions of a leader who transformed
perspectives and inspired them to do more for the RICHS learning community.
Based on the teacher and principal data, Mr. Sanders demonstrated the
behavior of a transformational leader as he was able to lead the RICHS staff in the
process of evaluating old problems in new ways. The case study approach, while
familiar to many in the field of education, was a new approach of problem solving
for the RICHS community.
Inspirational Motivation
The next descriptor of a transformational leader is one who is able to
communicate expectations enthusiastically. According to research the role of a leader
is to ensure that organizational goals are implemented to provide direction and focus
(Detour, 2005). The leader has the responsible of influencing the members of the
organization to the degree that they are committed to working in the best interests of
its constituents.
Mr. Sanders was deemed as being a leader whose practices reflected those of
an Inspirational Motivator. According to Mr. Tanner, “Mr. Sanders has a way of
passionately sharing the vision of RICHS with staff, parents, teachers, and
community members.” Mr. Sanders is reported as always modeling the behavior of
the two African-Centered principles that Govern RICHS. Ms. Smith, Mr. Sanders
says ‘We must not forget that our primary goal is to socialized students in an
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African-Centered environment where they not only develop into scholars but
productive contributors to society.” Ms. Adams replied, “Mr. Sanders is always
dressed in traditional African garb. He often reminds the community of our
ancestors and the sacrifices that were made so that we could have the right to be
educated in freedom.” Some current theorist (Bolman and Deal, 2003) would refer to
Mr. Sanders’ approach as a form of symbolism. Bolman and Deal (2003) assert that,
“The symbolic frame of leadership focuses on how humans make sense of the messy,
ambiguous world in which they live.” Meaning, belief and faith are central
concerns; meaning is not given to us, we have to create it. This assertion parallels
Mr. Sanders’ approach to sharing the school’s goals and focus. He relied on
personal commitments to a community of slaves (the ancestors) who came before the
students to propel them to attend to the larger goal of becoming scholars. This
approach worked on various levels as teachers were reminded that their roles are to
serve as facilitators of knowledge as opposed to gatekeepers. Parents are reminded
that they are their child’s first teacher. When you pair these thoughts to those of the
life and accomplishments of the multi-genius from Egypt that Roots is named after,
commitment to the organizational principles become personalized.
In reviewing the data collected from the spring VAL-ED survey
administration, Mr. Sanders’ effectiveness rating in the area of Culture of Learning
and Professional Behavior reported “Proficient” except in the area of planning. This
finding is critical as the data validates that Mr. Sanders demonstrates strength in the
ability to implement, support, communicate and monitor in an environment where
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high standards are demanded inside and outside of the classroom. Mr. Sanders states,
“My role is to inspire and motivate my instructional staff. If they do not feel
respected and highly regarded than how can I expect them to positively impact the
lives of our students.” Mr. Sanders’ statement is indicative of a leader who
understands the importance of building and sustaining a healthy learning culture for
all members of the RICHS learning community.
Question Three Summary
The data collected from the principal interviews, teacher focus group
interviews and the VAL-ED survey results suggest that Mr. Sanders exhibited three
of the four behaviors of a transformational leader. First, he has demonstrated
evidence of Individual Consideration as he has supported each teacher in developing
professionally and building stronger parental relationships (Marzano, 2005). Next,
Mr. Sanders has shown evidence of Intellectually Stimulating the members of his
learning community by engaging them in problem solving strategies by using group
dialogue and case study analysis (Dufour et al, 2006). Finally, Mr. Sanders
displayed characteristics of an Inspirational Motivator by communicating the goals
of RICHS through a symbolic lens (Bolman and Deal, 2003). These behaviors, of a
transformational leadership model, extend Mr. Sanders’ process of developing into
an effective instructional leader.
In summary, the data from the principal interviews, teacher focus group
interviews, and VAL-ED survey responses address the query, How does the
leadership practice of the PIL participants influence professional practice of
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teachers over time? As a participant of the PIL program Mr. Sanders was exposed to
a curriculum that provided information on the role of a leader when facing major
challenges. As mentioned in the Question Two summary, the NISL training
provided Mr. Sanders with pedagogy aligned to practice opportunities, within a
feedback cycle, to refine his leadership behaviors. By learning how to become a
strategic thinker and to systemically move an organization has yielded professional
benefits for the PIL participants. Teacher practices are influenced over time because
the PIL program requires the school leader to engage in the learning process over
time. With each module, the principal has an assignment to take back to the school
site to implement and bring back to the following session. This level of
accountability aids in the process of school leaders matching their current practices
and understandings to those gained in the NISL trainings. The efforts alone work in
tandem to improve teacher and leader practice over time.
Summary of Findings
The data collected for this study via principal interviews, teacher focus group
interviews and the VAL-ED leadership assessment survey have yielded multiple
findings in the area of improving leadership practices for urban school leaders. Of
the many findings three emerge as most critical. First, the data suggest that effective
leadership preparation programs have a great impact on the practices of leaders of
urban schools. Second, well prepared leaders influence teacher practice over time.
Finally, more support is needed to bridge the gap between improved leader and
teacher practice and student achievement.
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Benefits of Leadership Preparation
The most critical finding presented in this study was that the principal
benefited greatly by participating in an organized preparation program where current
research and practice is presented in an explicit fashion. This finding supports
current theorists (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007) argument that effective leadership
programs have an intense focus on the development of behaviors and practices
indicative of skilled leaders. Effective preparation programs:
1. Have well articulated goals rooted in theory of leadership.
2. Use preparation strategies that maximize learning, transfer of learning
and leadership identification.
3. Provide strong content and field experience during leadership preparation.
The data presented evidenced that the NISL training provided all three preparation
characteristics for Mr. Sanders. He demonstrated evidence, through NISL
participation, of developing the characteristics of an instructional and
transformational leader. The data validated that Mr. Sanders was able to transfer
knowledge and experiences gained from the NISL training to his current work at
Roots Independent School.
Leadership Influences Teacher Practice
The next critical finding is that well prepared leaders are able to influence
teacher practice over time. While participating in the NISL training Mr. Sanders had
an opportunity to dialogue with colleagues regarding current research and practice.
In addition, the participants were provided the forum to simulate similar activities,
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received feedback form colleagues and plan for school site implementation.
Because, Mr. Sanders was extended multiple opportunities to learn with models of
excellence in the NISL training, he was able to systematically share the same
experiences with his teaching staff. Teachers reported that Mr. Sanders provided
explicit support in assisting with the improvement of instructional practices, data
analysis and culture building. Mr. Sanders’ ability to model expected outcomes for
his staff motivated them to evaluated and refine their own professional practice.
Leader and Teacher Impact on Student Outcomes
The final perhaps most critical finding in this study is the need to explicitly
connect leader and teacher practice to improved student outcome. While the data
was able to implicate improved practice for Mr. Sanders and his instructional staff,
the evidence failed to address the direct impact on improved student outcomes. As
research indicates, school leadership is only second to teachers in impacting student
learning outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2005). Having been able to evidence the
connection among Mr. Sanders’ improved practice and the learning outcomes for the
students of RICHS would have greatly informed the field of education.
Conclusion
The findings in this study from principal interviews, teacher focus group
interviews and VAL-ED survey data suggest that the Pennsylvania Inspired
Leadership Program (PIL) can serve as a model for many Departments of Education
across the nation. The development of the PA Framework and Guidelines for
Principal Preparation Programs clearly outlines the type of support and behaviors
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research suggests are needed to influence leadership and teacher practice. According
to the findings presented in this study, the statewide initiative while appearing
demanding, has aided Pennsylvania leaders, Schools, and districts in developing
effective leaders. As evidenced by Mr. Sanders’ learning experiences, growth in
practice and teacher accounts, developing leaders feel empowered when they are
provided support in an arena conducive to nurturing practice.
The unique but practical support structure provided through the NISL
program serves as a catalyst to the development of school leaders who are equipped
with sound practices to influence teacher practice and student outcomes. The PA
guidelines can serve as a national model of support for urban school leaders who are
positioned to respond effectively to the demands of educational policy and practice.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Statement of Problem
As presented in Chapter One, nationally, urban school districts are faced with
the challenge of employing skilled leaders who are able to mitigate the adaptive
changes within the context of urban schooling. Today’s urban school leaders are not
adequately prepared to address the unique challenges of the urban setting (Darling-
Hammond, LaPoint, Myerson, Orr & Cohen, 2007; Cuban, 2001). Therefore
research is needed to:
• Develop effective leadership practices conducive to the challenges
associated with the urban context of schooling.
• Provide adequate support structures to enable leader practice, teacher
practice and student outcomes.
Additionally, when these practices are implemented systematically at a
school site, the benefit to teacher practice is invaluable.
Methodology Summary
This study examined the impact of the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership
Program (PIL) mandate that required all district and school site administrators to
participate in the National Institute for School Leadership (NISL) training and its
impact on urban school leaders and teacher practice. The federal “No Child Left
Behind” legislation requires that schools and districts prepare all students to perform
at the proficient level on content standards in mathematics and language arts by
143
2013-2014. Additionally, the Pennsylvania Public School Act 45 (2007) requires
school administrators to participate in professional education activities that are
focused on practices that have the greatest impact on improving student achievement
and which are aligned with the state’s core leadership standards (See Figure 2-6).
Thus, data used for this study was collected from pre and post principal interviews,
teacher focus group interviews, and VAL-ED Leadership Assessment survey
responses. The study focused on an urban independent charter school in a
metropolitan area in southwest Pennsylvania. The quantitative data presented in this
study were gathered from one principal and six teacher participant responses to the
VAL-ED Leadership Assessment Survey. The qualitative interview approaches
were used to further explore the impact of the NISL training elements on principal
and teacher practice.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summary of the results and discuss
the findings of the study in the context of their theoretical implications. In addition,
limitations of the study, recommendations for future research, and implications for
policy and practice will be presented.
Theoretical Frameworks
There were three theoretical frameworks that paved the foundation for this
study. The three consisted of (1) Instructional Leadership, (2) Learning Theory
construct (Langer, 2005; Vygotsky, 1998) and Effective Leadership Capacity
Building Programs (Darling-Hammond, 2007) and (3) Transformational Leadership
(Leithwood). The purpose of this section is to summarize the findings of each
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research question presented in the study and to discuss their theoretical implications
in relation to the literature discussed in Chapter 2.
Research Question One
In response to Research Question One, How does participation in the
Pennsylvania Inspires Leadership (PIL) program influence the knowledge, beliefs
and leadership practices of urban principals, the data collected from principal
interviews, teacher focus group interviews, and VAL-ED data suggested that Mr.
Sanders leadership practices reflected those of an instructional leader.
As reviewed in Chapter Four, in the field literature, leadership is often
defined by some theorists and practitioners as specific traits an individual innately
possesses (Northouse, 2004; Murphy et al., 2006), or specific behaviors that
individuals are able to employ which are influenced by their attitude, motivation,
beliefs, values, and experiences (Hallinger et al., 1996; Murphy 2002). The
instructional leader (Leithwood, 1999; Marzano, 2005; Murphy et al., 2006) is one
who influences schooling through a hands-on approach which requires involvement
in curriculum and instruction and supporting the improvement of teacher practice.
There are four traits that have come to be identified, in the field literature (Hallinger,
2003; Marzano 2005; Murphy et al., 2006), as most notable in assisting leaders in
achieving this goal. They are as follows: (1) resource provider, (2) instructional
resource, (3) communicator and (4) visible presence.
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Findings
Given the limited time frame by which the study was conducted, the most
critical findings in this area was that in order for principals to develop the major
characteristics of an instructional leader they must be provided the opportunity to
learn in a collaborative environment with colleagues with similar issues. This
context should focus leadership development on quality teacher practices and
research based strategies needed to support teacher practice and student outcomes in
urban schools.
Summary of Results
As evidenced by the data presented in this study, Mr. Sanders, the principal
of Roots Independent High School, was able to enact leadership behaviors associated
with those of an instructional leader. Mr. Sanders was a resource provider as
indicated by teacher comments such as “Mr. Sanders’ is helpful and he always has a
way of securing instructional resources to support our instructional program in
unique ways.” Also, reported, “Mr. Sanders is quick to say, even with limited
funding, we can work creatively to meet our needs.” These comments, which may
have hinted of sound-bites, motivated teachers of Roots Independent High school.
Teachers discussed a renewed sense of commitment as they remembered the impact
of rituals and ceremonies on parents and students. Many recalled how parents
appreciated the “Naming Ceremony” where families were gathered to ask their
permission to educate their children. According to the focus group participants, Mr.
Sanders philosophy of education emphasized a “by any means necessary approach”
146
to educating children. As discussed in Chapter Four, according to teachers, Mr.
Sanders was often found in classrooms observing instruction and providing feedback
to teachers. Many teachers reflected on Mr. Sanders’ daily visits to classes and his
ability to provide feedback by the end of the same day. The feedback cycle
referenced was inclusive of a pre and post conference with teachers and an
implementation rubric which was developed by the school leader. The fact that Mr.
Sanders was able to meet with teachers to identify expectation with the use of an
observation rubric and observe evidence of those expectations in practice suggested
that he was an instructional leader who was successful in communicating
organizational goals.
Research Question Two
In response to Research Question Two, How do support structures enable
principal practice, the findings presented in this study demonstrated that the NISL
program provided opportunities for leaders to develop in an environment that was
conducive for learning.
What is learning is a question that helped to focus this study’s examination of
effective leadership preparation programs and support structures that enable school
leader practice. As discussed in Chapter Two, according to current theorists
(Murphy, 2002; Bolman and Deal, 2003), one of the primary goals of an effective
leader is the ability to influence teacher practice and student learning outcomes. In
order to achieve this end, it is imperative that leaders gain, through preparation, a
conceptual understanding of the learning process and transference of knowledge
147
(Hallinger and Heck, 1996; Murphy, 2002). According to behaviorists, learning is
defined on two fronts: First, learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
due to experience. Second, learning is a relatively permanent change in mental
representations or associations due to experience. Many learning theorists
concentrate on how the learner’s behaviors change over time (Ormrod, 2006).
Findings
In considering the relationship between organizational support structures and
principal practice, the data presented suggested that in order for principals to develop
effective leadership practices, preparation programs must be strategically organized
to transition learners with practice, feedback and support through separated,
simulated, and integrated continuum. Critical to this finding is the need for
preparation programs to provide learners with strategies to overcome barriers to
strategic thinking and operational planning.
As evidenced by the principal interview data and the VAL-ED Leadership
assessment survey spring report, Mr. Sanders’ support gained from the PIL NISL
training provided a structure to allow him to learn in a manner that was conducive to
the reinforcement of new understanding and transference of that knowledge to his
work setting. Mr. Sanders reported, “The activities in the NISL training assisted me
with learning about pedagogy related to school leadership and provided me with
practical strategies that allowed me to work hands-on with my learning community.”
This statement evidenced that the NISL program influenced Mr. Sander’s practices
in a practical sense. The spring principal and teacher VAL-ED survey data reported
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Mr. Sanders’ effectiveness rating in the area of building a Culture of Learning and
Professional Behavior as proficient (See Chapter Four, Table 4-17). According to the
respondents this information was based on reports from others, personal
observations, school documents, and school projects or activities. This rating is in
contrast to the fall results which indicated that Mr. Sanders was slightly less effective
in this category.
Summary of Results
One variable that may have accounted for the difference in ratings may be
attributed to Mr. Sander’s participation in the NISL training. Darling-Hammond et
al., (2007) purported that the development of behaviors and practices indicative of
skilled leaders are programs that have clear goals, preparation strategies that
maximize learning, transfer of learning and leadership identification and strong
content and field experience during leadership preparation.
Research Question Three
Research Question Three, How does the leadership practice of the PIL
participants influence practice of teachers over time, the data collected from
principal interviews, teacher focus group interviews, and VAL-ED data suggested
that Mr. Sanders leadership practices impacted the practice of teachers at RICHS
through a transformational leadership approach.
The transformational leadership model is an extension of the instructional
leader construct (Leithwood, 1994; Marzano, 2005). Unlike the instructional leader
who leads through a top down approach, the transformational leader, guides from the
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bottom up. The actions of transformational leaders are explicit when the four I’s of
leadership are implemented (Leithwood, 1994). These four behaviors are as follows:
(1) Individual Consideration (IC) which is demonstrated when the leader attends to
the professional development needs of staff members, (2) Intellectual Stimulation
(IS) which is employed when the leader strategically assists staff members to look at
old challenges in new ways. (3) Inspirational Motivation (IM) which is the leader’s
ability to charismatically communicate high expectations for both teachers and
students. (4) Idealized Influence (II) is enacted as the leader is able to model
established expectations through personal achievements and behaviors (Marzano,
2005).
Findings
In reference to how leadership practices of the PIL participants influence
professional practice of teachers overtime, a finding which emerged through this
study suggested that leaders must engage in the process of learning where they are
required to match current practice and understanding (prior knowledge) to those
gained through participation in a leadership program. Critical to this finding is the
leaders need to implement newly acquired knowledge in their schools with teachers
over time. Additionally, findings from the principal and teacher interview concluded
that Mr. Sanders demonstrated three of the four traits as he lead professional
development sessions using current research and practices acquired from the NISL
training. Also, he supported individual teachers with instructional and school
cultural needs. One teacher indicated, “Mr. Sanders supported me when I was
150
struggling, infusing my content standards with African-centered perspectives. He
provided me with specific strategies to lesson plan more effectively and to build
stronger relationships with parents and students.” These statements propose that Mr.
Sanders’ demonstrated evidence in extending individual consideration to staff
members, provided instructional stimulation and provides motivation through
charismatically communicating organizational goals.
Summary of Results
Based on the outcomes of this study, the transformational leadership
construct provided a clear lens by which to determine if a leader illustrated evidence
of effective leadership practice before and after participation in the PIL NISL
training. While incremental, Mr. Sanders’ leadership development within a six
month time span impacted his leadership practice as well as the practices of his
teachers. The fact that Mr. Sanders’ not only discussed a renewed understanding of
the differences between staff meetings and professional development but
immediately implemented changes is a testament to his willingness to grow as an
effective leader. Additionally, the fact that members of his teaching staff were able
to notice and respect the change is also an indicator of change in Mr. Sanders’
practices. Mr. Sanders’ ability to motivate his staff, implement practices from the
NISL training and maintain the vision of RICHS’s learning community are strong
indicators of transformational leadership. In order to accomplish the transition from
Mr. Sanders the disseminator of information to Mr. Sanders the facilitator of current
educational practices required the employment of individual consideration,
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intellectual stimulation, and motivational strategies of modeling desired behavior and
expectations. Based on teacher feedback and VAL-ED survey responses, Mr.
Sanders’ practices reflected those of a transformational leader.
In summary, findings from this study suggested that Mr. Sander’s
participation in the NISL training supported his development as an educational
leader. The three theoretical frameworks provided a filter by which to objectively
analyze the findings in relations to growth in leader and teacher practice over a given
time span.
Implications for Future Research
The findings in this study suggested promising practices for supporting the
development of urban school leaders who are able to influence teacher practice and
students outcomes. Principal interview data, teacher focus group data, and the VAL
ED Leadership survey responses, substantiate some of the benefits gained from a
leader’s participation in a leadership preparation program. While the findings in this
study are hopeful in citing strategies to support leader learning, more questions
emerged regarding the effectiveness of school administrator and teacher
credentialing programs, the impact of leadership on student learning and policies that
mandate high levels of student performance without support structures.
Leader and Teacher Credentialing Programs
Educators are required to complete various competencies to be granted a
degree and/or credential in education. In most districts to assume the role of teacher
and/or administrator the educator must be in possession of a valid teaching and/or
152
administrative credential. Even with these requirements, data consistently conveys
that the field of education is deficient in the amount of skilled school leaders who are
readily able to build successful learning communities in an urban context of
schooling (Goldring & Cohen-Vogel, 200; Resnick and Glennan, 2002; Murphy,
2006). Consequently, this study does not address the impact of these first responder
preparation programs on the success rate of principals, their teachers and student
outcomes.
In preparing 21rst century leaders to advance educational policy in urban
schools, more empirical research is needed to support principal practice. Many of
our nation’s universities and colleges offer courses in leadership, pedagogy and
management. However, as evidenced by current educational research (Marzano,
Darling-Hammond, 2007), these methods do not easily transfer to practice.
Educational leaders, colleges and universities may benefit from knowing how
strategies and support structures function in tandem to mitigate the gap between what
is taught in programs and what in actually transferred to practice.
Leadership Impact on Teacher Practice and Student Learning
As discussed throughout this study, learning is a complex construct as the
processes of thinking, studying, remembering and paying attention are not
observable (Ormrod, 2006). As students matriculate through schools, formative and
summative assessments are employed to measure learning outcomes. Theorists posit
that the role of the school leader is to establish a context where student learning
occurs (O’Day, 1995; Spillane & Halverson, 1999; Marzano, 2005). Findings in this
153
study indicated that the principal of Roots Independent Public School, refined some
leadership practices as a result of participating in NISL. However, this study does not
document how or if change in leader practice influenced student achievement.
Policy Demands on Student Learning
In the era of accountability the word standards continuously sways the
pendulum of educational policy. In an attempt to hold sates, districts, schools,
leaders and teachers accountable for providing equitable instruction for all students,
content standards materialize as the springboard to student performance. Federal
policies, such as the NCLB (2002) mandate to educate 100% of America’s school
age children to proficiency in English and Mathematics by 2013-14, created a sense
of urgency on the educational front. However, the intent of standards and NCLB,
while ambitious, are earnest attempts to close the nation’s achievement gaps. If
experts in the field continue to report the need for skilled leaders who are able to lead
the charge of improving student achievement, then one may ask, what good is policy
when capacity to meet the demands do not exist (Hentschke & Wholstetter, 2004).
As schools fail to meet the requirements of NCLB, more sanctions are imposed that
require even greater leadership capacity to remedy. States, Districts, and Schools,
with a high concentration of low performing students, are realizing that these targets
are challenging to achieve.
According to this study the NISL program provided principal Sanders with
information about creating and implementing clear achievable vision and mission
statements and the importance of systems thinking in a standards-based context.
154
However, the findings do not reveal a specific practice for meeting the demands of
educational policy. Thus, suggesting that additional information is needed in this
area to support principal development.
In summary, this study presented findings connected to improving principal
practice through a structured leadership preparation program with support structures.
To further inform the field literature, additional empirical evidence is needed in the
area of teacher and leader preparation, leadership practice on teacher practice and
student outcomes, and additional support structures needed to fully implement
educational policy to benefit all children.
Implications for Policy and Practice
This study has many implications for policy and practice. Early findings
suggest that the Pennsylvania Inspired Leadership Program can serve as a national
leadership preparation model for departments of education throughout the country.
The development of the PA Framework and Guidelines for Principal Preparation
Programs, clearly outlines the type of support and behavior research needed to
influence leadership practice. The statewide initiative while appearing demanding
has aided Pennsylvania leaders, Schools, and districts. As evidenced by Mr.
Sanders’ reported experiences and growth in practice, the PA guidelines can serve as
a national model of effective support for school leaders. As the nation approaches the
reauthorization of NCLB (2002) and 2013, intensive support is needed to prevent
districts and states all over the nation from falling prey to sanctions of program
improvement. As a matter of policy all urban and suburban school leaders should be
155
mandated to attend preparation programs focused on pedagogy and authentic
opportunities to implement. In addition, as a matter of practice, all leaders should be
able to adopt and implement leadership practices which are indicative of improved
and sustained student outcomes. Given the adaptive changes such as a student
population who performs in the lowest quartiles of academic achievement, school
violence, poverty and community control, urban school leaders confront on a daily
basis, intensive support is paramount to success. Besides, the goal is for 100% of our
nations’ school leaders, teachers and students to reach a collective level of
proficiency or above by 2013-14 as determined by standards that govern their
practices!
Contributions to Field Literature
This study regarding the relationship between leadership preparation and
support structures on professional practice and student outcomes has contributed to
field literature by:
• Confirming that there is a shortage of prepared leaders who have the
capacity to mitigate the challenges of the urban context of learning
(Bennett, 2000; Elmore, 2003; O’Day et al., 2004).
• Adding to the body of research on the shortage of rigorous research on
effective leadership practice that actually influences student achievement
(Hallinger & Heck, 1996).
156
• Adding to the need for empirical studies specific to leadership practice
and how leadership practice directly impacts student outcomes (Hallinger
& Heck, 1996; Hallinger, 2003).
• Confirming the type of support required for training leaders in urban
schools to enable practice (Hallinger & Heck, 1996; Darling-Hammond,
la Pointe, Myerson, Orr & Cohen, 2007).
• Confirming the field literature pertaining to the characteristics of what
constitutes an effective leader (Marzano 2005; Leithwood 1999; Murphy,
Goldring, Elliot, & Porter, 2006)
• Confirming the belief that policy assumes that districts and leaders have
the knowledge and resources to meet the diverse learning, language,
social, academic, and cultural needs of all students (Elmore, 2003, O’Day
et al., 2004; Darling-Hammond, 2002)
Limitations of the Study
While this information rich case study has provided useful information in the
manifestation of the phenomenon of improving leadership practice through a well
organized effective preparation program, many limitations exist. Given the nature of
this study being conducted over a six month time period, presented a challenge in
substantiating the impact of leader practice on teacher practice over time. Also,
considering the small sample size of respondents to the teacher interview questions
and VAL-ED assessment survey makes it difficult to determine the degree of
leadership practice on teacher practice. The sample in the case study consisted of one
157
principal and six of 25 teachers at one urban school. This small sample size makes it
difficult to identify a significant relationship between changes in leader practice and
the leader’s participation in the NISL leadership preparation program. Therefore,
having a more representative sample, consisting of other urban leaders and more
teachers could have provided greater insight on the impact of leadership practice on
teacher practice over time.
Also due to the limited timeframe, the opportunity to study the relationship
between the NISL and assigned principal mentor was not available. The principal
data did not incorporate evidence of support received through working with an
experienced leader as a mentor. Perhaps a longer period of study would have yielded
additional findings regarding the impact of support received from the mentor on
principal practice.
Nevertheless, the issues surfaced in this study regarding effective preparation
programs and support structures needed to influence teacher practice are meaningful.
Hence, these data serve as the foundation for critical discourse to match leader
preparation programs to the needs of leaders, teachers and students. Also caution
should be taken as this study reflects preliminary findings based on year one data of
a three year longitudinal study.
Conclusion
With a new president and political cabinet, come new educational policies as
well as the reauthorization of NCLB (2002). Recently, in an interview, President
Barack Obama stated, “Raise the Cap”. This statement was a call to provide
158
independent public charter schools with additional funding. In his advocacy for
charter schools he also called on those schools which are not performing to standard.
In addition to the support of charter schools, President Obama spoke of merit pay for
school leaders and educators, longer school days, and a revision of state standards
(Newsweekly, 2009). Clearly President Obama’s statements imply the need for
additional and revised policy to govern these recommendations.
Should the charter school movement continue to rise with the same
momentum as in years past, the traditional public school context is in grave danger
of losing traction. Consequently, more than ever, traditional as well as charter public
school organizations, in urban communities, have to recruit skilled leaders who can
effectively respond to the adaptive challenges of urban schooling, policy
implementation, teacher support, and improved student achievement. Pennsylvania
Department of Education is leading the charge in preparing skilled school leaders
through the NISL program. As stated by Mr. Sanders, principal of Roots Independent
Charter School, “there is nothing more breath taking than preparing teachers to
effectively instruct and observing them successfully guiding students through the
learning process.”
Leadership is only second to the teacher in influencing student outcomes
(Darling-Hammond, 2007). The findings in this study contribute to conversations
about preparing and supporting school leaders to influence teacher practice. As more
research in conducted around these issues, the findings in this study will inform the
field as to providing additional empirical evidence regarding what skills, support
159
structures, and practices effectively prepare a population of school leaders who are
able to impact student practice and student achievement.
160
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APPENDIX A
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
1.) Content: What is the activity being observed? Who are the participants?
2.) Strategies: How are the participants being observed learning/practicing/applying
skills, knowledge and concepts?
166
3.) Alignment: How does the behavior correlate to the ISLLC Standards –
Descriptions of Practice?
CPSEL ____
Adapted from California Network of School Leadership Coaches 2007-2008 New
Teacher Center @ University of California Santa Cruz
167
APPENDIX B
DOCUMENT REVIEW PROTOCOL
1.) Content: What is the document?
2.) Alignment: How does the document provide evidence of professional leadership
standard implementation?
ISLLC Standard ______
168
APPENDIX C
PRINCIPAL INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
1. How was the school’s vision developed and how does it drive the instructional
program? How does it impact decision-making? (Provide examples)
2. What experiences and training have you had to prepare you for your current
position?
3. Tell us about your greatest accomplishments and challenges at this site
4. How is the Professional Development plan developed, implemented &
monitored?
5. What systems are in place to analyze and use data to improve instruction?
6. How often do you observe classroom instruction? How do you provide
feedback?
7. What systems are in place to support instruction? What are the roles of AP’s,
Coaches, Coordinators and other staff?
8. What systems are in place to ensure that the school is a safe, clean, and orderly
environment that is conducive to learning?
9. Where do you see the school at this time next year, and how will you get there?
169
APPENDIX D
TEACHER INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
1. What is the school’s vision and how has it been communicated to the staff?
2. What are the instructional priorities at your school?
3. How do they teaching and learning in your content areas?
4. What are the instructional priorities at your school? How do they impact
teaching and learning in your content areas?
5. Tell us about the Professional Development opportunities you’ve had.
6. How has PD impacted your instructional practice?
7. How often do administrator(s) visit your classroom? What kinds of feedback do
you receive?
8. How do you use data to improve teaching and learning?
9. What opportunities do you have for collaboration?
10. How has collaboration impacted your instructional practice?
11. How do you encourage parents to participate in their children’s learning process?
12. Is the school a safe, clean, and orderly place that is conducive to learning?
170
APPENDIX E
MENTOR INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
1. What influenced your decision to accept the position of mentor for the PIL
program?
2. What was the selection process?
3. What are the state’s anticipated outcomes for the principals as a result of their
participation in PIL mentoring?
4. What district support structures currently exists to facilitate leadership
development?
5. How are the school principals reacting to the PIL program and participation in
NSIL training and mentoring?
6. How do you see your role as a mentor in supporting the goals of the PIL
program?
171
APPENDIX F
LETTER OF SUPPORT PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
333 MARKET STREET
HARRISBURG, PA 17126-0333
SECRETARY OF EDUCATION 717-787-5820 Fax 717-787-7222 TTY 717-783-8445
June 16, 2008
To Whom It May Concern:
The Pennsylvania Department of Education fully supports the University of
Southern California’s (USC’s) proposal to undertake a three-year, longitudinal study
of the impact of the National Institute for School Leaders Executive Leadership
Development program on leadership practice, teacher practice and student
achievement in Pennsylvania public schools.
The Pennsylvania Public Law, Act 45 of 2007, requires school administrators
to participate in professional education activities that are focused on practices that
have the greatest impact on improving student achievement and which are aligned
with the Pennsylvania School Leadership Standards. The Pennsylvania Department
of Education has selected the National Institute for School Leaders’ Curriculum for
this purpose. Research demonstrates that effective school leaders have an impact on
student achievement. A focused program of continuing professional education can
help leaders develop the knowledge and skills they need to become more effective in
improving the learning environment for teachers and students.
We will encourage the proposed sample of participants and schools to
participate in the study and to provide the researchers with full access to the PIL
program and the information necessary to accomplish the evaluation study.
Sincerely,
172
APPENDIX G
LETTER OF SUPPORT
June 10, 2008
Dr. Margaret Reed
USC, Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall, 904D, MC 4039
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4039
Dear Professor Reed,
I am writing in support of your proposal to the Institute for Education Sciences to
identify the features of leadership training programs that produce effective principals
who exhibit desired knowledge, beliefs and behaviors. It is both important and
timely work. I understand that one of your measures will be the Vanderbilt
Assessment of Leadership in Education (VAL-ED) which is an instrument that I and
my colleagues have constructed with Wallace support. As you know we have
completed a number of studies, all of which support both the high internal
consistency reliability of the resulting total score and subscales, as well as support
for validity in the sense of a) being content valid for our 6x6 conceptual framework,
b) practitioners find it clear, easy to use and valuable, and c) assessment of
leadership behaviors from principals and supervisors correlate with assessments from
the principals’ teachers. We have received IES funding to continue this work and
those studies will begin in the fall.
Good luck with your proposal and please keep me informed of your findings.
Sincerely,
Andrew C. Porter
173
APPENDIX H
LETTER OF SUPPORT SITE COORDINATOR
1961 Chester Avenue
Abington, PA 19001
P: (215) 830-8940
C: (215) 287-0610
rodgersej@verizon.net
Joseph W. Rodgers
PA Inspired Leadership Initiative
Region 1 Site Coordinator
(IU 22, 23, 24, 25, 26)
July, 2008
Dear
I was a high school principal for seventeen years and an assistant principal for seven
years before that. One powerful memory that I have from the month of July is that at
some point there was a line that was crossed in the calendar. That which had
formerly been called or considered “next year” became “this year.” As most of you
have crossed, or are crossing, this line I thought this letter to be especially timely.
While there is much that is unknown about the challenges and opportunities the new
academic year will bring, one thing is certain. You will be participating in an
executive leadership development program through Pennsylvania Inspired
Leadership. It is my great pleasure to welcome you to the program. I very truly
believe that you are about to participate in one of the finest professional education
experiences of your career.
The purpose of this letter is to confirm your place in one or more of the PA Inspired
Leadership Program’s courses for 2008-2009 and to provide you with additional
information about how that course will unfold for you in the year ahead.
The course in which you are registered is NISL Course 1, World-Class Schooling:
Vision & Goals. This is the course to which you applied. It is the first course of the
174
Principal’s Induction Program but it is also open to those seeking continuing
professional education in an enriched leadership development course. It is composed
of four 2 day meetings or units. The dates of the course meetings and the locations of
each meeting are listed below. Each session begins with registration at 8:30 AM and
ends at 3:00 PM. Breakfast items, coffee or other beverages, and lunch are provided.
October 6 and 7, 2008 PaTTAN, King of Prussia
November 12 and 13, 2008 Chester County IU
December 8 and 9, 2008 PaTTAN, King of Prussia
January 21 and 22, 2008 PaTTAN, King of Prussia
Before each session information regarding preparation for the session and directions
to the session location will be provided. Most course sessions do require preparatory
reading, activities and/or online work. All preparatory materials will be provided to
you free of charge. For those of you enrolled in courses that begin in October, books
and/or articles will be mailed to you in late August or early September. At the same
time you will receive a listing of the other cohort members. Those in cohorts which
have their first session in the winter or spring will receive these materials in the late
fall or early winter.
If you are enrolled in the fall or spring cohort of the Principal’s Induction Program
and you are a “novice” principal or assistant principal, (less than six years of
experience), you will receive a mentor assignment as part of the program. An
additional attachment accompanies this letter which explains the mentorship in
greater detail and outlines the steps you should take to register for a mentor. It is
possible, (likely for those in the spring cohort of the Principal’s Induction Program),
that the individual selected to be your mentor will contact you before your course
actually begins.
It is worth noting that the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is really leading the other
states in its investment in leadership development for its schools. Pennsylvania’s
“story” is well told by state secretary of education, Dr Gerald Zahorchak, on the
“Commentary” page in the July 16, 2008 issue of Education Week. If you have the
opportunity to read this article you will understand the importance that Dr.
Zahorchak attaches to program evaluation. Accordingly I would advise you that our
programs are regularly evaluated. Currently PDE is working closely with researchers
from the University of Southern California to conduct a state-wide study of the
impact of the Principal’s Induction Program. This research project is headed by Dr.
Margaret Reed and it is possible that some of Dr. Reed’s graduate assistants may be
in contact with you before or during your participation in the program. It would be
most helpful if you would support this research effort.
175
It is my hope that this letter has provided you with a basic orientation to your PA
Inspired Leadership course. Should you have additional questions or need further
information please do not hesitate to contact me. Additional information about PA
Inspired Leadership and Act 45 may also be found on the ED Hub,
www.pde.state.pa.us/pil. I will be back in communication with you as I have
described above. Until then I hope that you have a great summer. I look forward to
our work together in the year ahead. Please know that we still have openings in most
of the cohorts so please feel free to encourage colleagues who are also Pennsylvania
school leaders to apply. It is not too late.
Sincerely,
Joseph W. Rodgers
176
APPENDIX I
PIL HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT UNIT 1
PREPARATION FOR UNIT 1
Enclosed in this mailing are the materials that you will need to prepare for January
16 and 17, Unit 1 GROW. All of the GROW units require some amount of reading
and/or online activity to prepare the participant for the content of the training
session. The Participant’s Guide, a binder which you will receive on the January 16,
provides directions for preparation for the other units. Likewise, I will always
provide an outline of preparation activity for you prior to each session. You are
asked to do 5 things in preparation for Unit 1.
First, read the printed material that is not in book form. This is a copy of the
first chapter of a book entitled The Principal Challenge. The chapter will
provide insight into the condition of principals and the principalship in the
United States today, the challenges that principals face, the kind of help that
has been available to them in the past to meet these challenges and the kind
of help that is needed now. The chapter also tells the story of the National
Institute for School Leadership, (NISL), the program source for GROW.
Next, please scan chapter 2 of The World Is Flat, by Thomas Friedman,
(2005 edition, updated and expanded). Please read chapter 8 of this book,
also.
Please read the “Executive Summary” of Tough Choices or Tough Times.
There is one additional reading, a case study, which you will receive on the
first day of training to read for the second day. Please save some time on the
evening of January 16 to read this case study.
Lastly, please bring to the first training session a copy of your school’s vision
statement. These will be collected for use, without school or district names
attached, during the Unit 2 training sessions in March.
I know that these materials are arriving at a time that is unbelievably busy, hectic and
chaotic. Please do not think the timing of this delivery to be insensitive or worse. I
thought it best to give you the greatest amount of time to fit this preparation into
your individual schedules so I sent these materials to you as soon as I was able to get
them. May your pre-winter vacation days and weeks of school go smoothly and
successfully. I will be back in touch after the New Year with final information and
directions to the Unit 1 training sessions.
177
APPENDIX J
PIL HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT UNIT 2
PREPARATION FOR UNIT 2
As you know we will gather for Unit 2, The Principal As Strategic Thinker, on
March 4 and 5 at the Bucks County Intermediate Unit. Unit 2, in my opinion, is one
of the most challenging in the NISL curriculum. The pre session work is outlined
below.
READING
Page 7 and page 22 in the Unit 2 section of your Participants’ Handbook binder
outlines the reading assignments for each day. All of the readings, except the one
from Kotter’s book, Leading Change, may be found in the “Unit 2 Readings” section
of your binder. You will be utilizing The Transformation at Ford case study so you
do not need to prepare the other case study, Thinking In Time. An item listed on page
7 and one on page 22 are no longer in use for this unit. The Leadership Challenge by
Kouzes and Posner and Standards for Our Schools by Tucker and Codding are no
longer part of the readings.
NISLONLINE
This is the first time that you will be using the NISLONLINE “for real” in preparing
for a unit. While you do have the option of using the CD that you received to access
the Unit 2 preparation, doing it online is better. Please try to get into NISLONLINE
Unit 2 now using the address, http://nisl2.nislonline.org, user ID and password that
you were given on the first day of GROW and that you tested when you played the
21
st
Century Challenge Game. If you have any trouble getting into the NISL website
or into Unit 2, please email me and I will work with NISL staff to resolve the
problem.
Once in the NISLONLINE Unit 2 please be sure to complete at least the “Overview”
and the “Strategy” sections for March 4. The rest should be completed for March 5.
At various places in the online you will be asked to “journal” something. This is not
a formal assignment that you are expected to complete. Rather, it is a call to reflect
on some topic or issue. You may choose to “journal” some, all or none of these
prompts-but please do reflect on each.
178
APPENDIX K
PIL HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT UNIT 3
PREPARATION FOR THE UNIT 3 SESSIONS
As always your preparation for the sessions is a key ingredient in the success of the
unit. The reading preparation for this unit comes from the Participant’s Guide binder,
Unit 3 Readings. The articles or excerpts by Marsh and Codding, Tucker, and
Wiggins and McTighe, should all be read for May 28. The other articles in the Unit 3
“Reading” section of your binder, all by Peter Hill or Hill and Crevola, should be
read for May 29. Please check to insure that you have these articles right away.
The online assignment preparation for these sessions is particularly noteworthy.
While no more time consuming than past online work, the computer-based work for
Unit 3 does require that you produce a “product,” or set of questionnaire results
which you should print and bring to the Unit 3 sessions. Please complete the online
components of Unit 3. You are reminded that it would be wise for you to plan to do
the online work, or at least the 7 questionnaires and “Authority Scale,” in one sitting
at a computer with a printer so that you can complete and print the 4 pages of results.
(The questionnaires and Authority Scale are part of an overall online Diagnostic
Tool. Using this tool you assess the current status in your school regarding standards,
assessments, curriculum, instruction, instructional materials and safety nets as well
as the authority that you feel you have in each of these areas). These printed results
should be brought to the May 28 session of Unit 3.
You are also asked to do one additional thing by way of preparation. Please bring a
piece or two of student work from any level or classroom in your school which
addresses the Report of Information standard. Also bring the assignment that is
associated with the student work. The designers of the NISL curriculum utilize the
example of reports of information as a vehicle for understanding standards-based
instructional systems. For sake of comparison think standard 1.4 (.3, .5, .8, or .11)
Types of Writing-Informational in the PA Academic Standards for Reading, Writing,
Speaking and Listening. The authors of the NISL materials define reports of
information this way: “All teachers ask students to read informational text and to
complete writing that reports information from the specific content.”
179
APPENDIX L
PIL UNIT 4 GROW
General Information for Participants, Facilitators and Guests
Region 1 Unit 4 GROW
June 26 and 27, 2008
Bucks County Intermediate Unit
Unit 4, Foundations of Effective Learning, brings us directly into the instructional
core to examine a set of research-tested fundamental principles of learning, teaching
and curriculum. It is, I believe, an empowering unit for school leaders. Much of what
we need to do as we lead change in our buildings involves confronting beliefs held
by others about learning, teaching and curriculum. Unit 4 will enable you to do so
with greater power and conviction.
Preparation for Unit 4:
The pre-session work is outlined for you on page 6 of the Unit 4 Participant’s
Handbook.
Please complete all of the online activities for Unit 4.
You are asked to construct a thoughtful list in response to the following
question: “What are three assumptions or beliefs that drive learning, teaching
and/or curriculum in my school?”
Read the two articles by Peter Hill, “Principles of Learning and Their
Implications” and “Focused Teaching.” These articles can be found in the
Unit 4 Readings section of your binder.
Read chapters 1, 5 and 6 in The Teaching Gap by James Stigler and James
Hiebert. This book was distributed to you at our Unit 3 sessions. Please let
me know if you did not receive it.
Bring your journaling up to date, (see below).
Pre-session preparation for this unit is essential. Please insure that you are prepared
for these sessions by completing the reading, (the articles for day one, the chapters
for the second day), online work and the list of three beliefs.
180
Journals/Embedded Practice:
Throughout our semester together in GROW you have been maintaining a journal in
a white loose leaf binder wherein you have been documenting progress on a
particular area of instructional focus or maintaining a record of personal growth.
Between each unit prompts or questions were offered to guide your journaling.
With Unit 3 in the immediate background, a unit that was rich in opportunities for
you to reflect on your school and the role or potential role of you leadership going
forward, it is a good opportunity to “push the pause button on our remotes” to
consider where we have been and where we are heading.
The purpose of the journal is to provide a vehicle for you to assess the embedding of
your GROW experience in your practice of leadership. Some of you have chosen to
do this by focusing on a particular initiative for your school in the instructional core.
We have called this the “area of focus project” and I suspect that that most of these
align pretty nicely with some of the improvement opportunities that you identified in
Unit 3. Several of you have chosen a more introspective alternative. You are looking
at yourself as a leader and assessing your personal improvement opportunities,
growth and development.
Please take some time to bring your journal up to date. Nothing formal-this is for
you; it is not being collected. But the end of a school year is a good time to take
stock. Maybe you will want to add some artifacts to it to illustrate a particular
initiative that you tried or a change effort that you launched or something that would
illustrate a skill you are attempting to strengthen. You could consider responding to
some mid-point summary questions. What are your next steps in your area of focus?
Has participation in GROW aided your personal development as a leader? How and
in what way? How will you be different, as a leader, next year?
All of us are on a personal journey in leadership. Your journal is, or could be, a
captain’s log of that journey. If it is anything like this, (and I know that some of your
journals are), then it contains some rich observations, insights, thoughts, ideas and
wisdom. I would like to create an opportunity for the sharing of some of that richness
in small groups at the beginning of our Unit 4 session on June 26. Please bring your
journal with you. If you have not yet provided me with the brief description of your
work that was requested for Unit 3, please email it to me or give it to me during our
unit 4 sessions.
181
Supplies, Materials and Equipment:
Please bring your list of 3 beliefs, your Participant’s Handbook binders, your
journals, (the smaller white binder), and The Teaching Gap. Laptop computers are
not needed for Unit 4.
Mode of Dress:
Please remember that some of our meeting rooms can be a bit cool. Please plan
accordingly.
Food:
We were at Bucks IU earlier this year and I believe that you found the food, provided
by Our Towne caterers, to be excellent. Delicious food, the beautiful Bucks County
art work which is all over the building and the setting of the IU’s campus produces a
wonderful environment for our sessions.
Completing Course 1; Completing the Principal’s Induction Program,
(GROW):
With the completion of Unit 4 you will have finished NISL Course 1. During the
summer you will receive 3 CPE credits for the completion of this course. The
remainder, the other half, of the Principal’s Induction Program, (formerly known as
GROW), is NISL Course 4. Course 4 is composed of three units one of which is a
one day unit that will be delivered in the fall, (please see the listing below). Unless I
hear from you differently I am planning for you to be part of Course 4 and to
complete the Principal’s Induction Program in the fall. If you wish to take additional
PA Inspired Leadership programs or courses you may certainly do so. You may
apply for this directly through the ED Hub or contact me. You may also see
advertised two new NISL “Institutes,” (stand alone 2 day units), Leadership in
English Language Learning and Leadership in Students with Disabilities. PaTTAN
will be offering the SWD Institute and PA Inspired Leadership may be offering the
ELL. I will endeavor to keep you informed about these opportunities.
182
Schedule for NISL Course 4
Unit 11 The Principal as Driver of Change October 28 & 29 Chester
County IU
Unit 12 Leading for Results November 20 Delaware
County IU
Unit 13 Culminating Simulation December 15 & 16 Bucks
County IU
I hope that the above has provided you with the information that you need to prepare
for and be comfortable at the Unit 14 sessions. Please contact me if you have
additional questions or need further directions. Thank you.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
There once was a young slave by the name of Frederick Douglass who was tenacious in his pursuit to learn to read. After convincing the wife of his master to serve in the role as teacher, a sudden break occurred in his educational process as his master forbade the wife to teach a slave to read. The master believed that if a slave learned to read he would become discontent with his conditions and rebel against slavery. The master was successful in ceasing Douglass’ instruction but not his desire to learn!
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Leadership capacity and pipeline in higher education
Asset Metadata
Creator
Williams, Darnise
(author)
Core Title
A case for change: building leadership capacity in urban high schools
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
07/14/2010
Defense Date
05/04/2009
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
culturally responsive education,Educational Leadership,executive principal training,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,principal practice and student achievement,principal practice and teacher practice,principal training framework,professional development,school leadership support structure,secondary education,social capital,Teacher Training,urban school leadership,urban schooling
Place Name
Pennsylvania
(states)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Reed, Margaret (
committee chair
), Heatley, Edmond T. (
committee member
), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (
committee member
)
Creator Email
dwilliams@viewparkprep.org,gdswmn@aol.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2342
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UC1488537
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etd-Williams-3043 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-565623 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2342 (legacy record id)
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Document Type
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Williams, Darnise
Type
texts
Source
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Repository Name
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Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
culturally responsive education
executive principal training
principal practice and student achievement
principal practice and teacher practice
principal training framework
professional development
school leadership support structure
social capital
urban school leadership
urban schooling