University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The open enrollment of advanced placement classes as a means for increasing student achievement at the high school level

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The open enrollment of advanced placement classes as a means for increasing student achievement at the high school level

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THE OPEN ENROLLMENT OF ADVANCED PLACEMENT CLASSES
AS A MEANS FOR INCREASING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

by

Kevin S. Thompson

__________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2007

Copyright 2007 Kevin S. Thompson

ii
DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Lynn and Kristi Thompson, my
sister, Kelee Thompson, and to the memory of my grandparents, Larry and Lois
Seller, and Ralph and Helen Thompson. I would not have gotten to this point had it
not been for the love, dedication, support, and understanding exhibited by my family.
Thank you for your belief and faith in what I do.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My committee members for their advice and support: Lawrence O. Picus, Ph.D.,
Chair; Guilbert C. Hentschke, Ph.D.; John L. Nelson, Ed.D.

Members of this Thematic Dissertation Group:
Lisa Cain, Jennifer Carter, Jami Parsons, and Katy Ramezani.

Administration and staff of the school and district participant in this study.

Elizabeth Brookins, Dan Daris, Lisa Esquivel, Tracy Gibba, Angela Knappenberger,
Adam Leste, Peter Merrel, Rick Orlando, Matt Petersen, Mary Ann Posnak, Brian
Robert, Linda Sanchez, Lesley Shortman, Dennis Smith, Darryl Tell, Casey Whalen,
Allen Williams, Scott Wing, and all the rest of my colleagues at El Camino High
School.

The following district administrators of the Oceanside Unified School District:
Kenneth A. Noonan, Superintendent; Larry Perondi, Deputy Superintendent of
Curriculum and Instruction; Mary Urelius, Director of Curriculum; Barbara Clark,
Program Specialist.

Dayle Mazzarella

Gordon Babst, Ph.D., and Penny Bryan, Ph.D. of Chapman University

Leon P. Baradat, M.A. (retired), and James Sheppard, M.A. of Mira Costa College

Robert Goodwin of LEGO Brand Retail Inc.

Stephen Keller, Ed.D.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES viii

ABSTRACT ix

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 14

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 62

CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND 79
INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND 140
IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

REFERENCES 156

v
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 32
Accelerated Schools Impact on Mean Third Grade Math and Reading Scores
Average of the Eight Schools in Bloom’s Study

Table 2.2 34
Percentage of Student Participation in Advanced Placement Courses
1979-2002

Table 3.1 64
Costa Nostra Unified School District At Risk Population Counts
2005-2006

Table 3.2 65
Costa Nostra Unified School District Enrollment by Ethnicity
2005-2006

Table 3.3 65
Point Break High School At Risk Population Counts 2005-2006

Table 3.4 66
Point Break High School Enrollment by Ethnicity 2005-2006

Table 4.1 81
High School Special At Risk Population Counts 2005-2006

Table 4.2 82
High School Enrollment by Ethnicity 2005-2006

Table 4.3 83
High School Enrollment by Ethnicity:
Percentage of Total Enrollment 2005-2006

Table 4.4 92
Point Break High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006
Table 4.5 93
Central High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.6 94
East High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

vi
Table 4.7 95
Highland High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.8 96
North Coast High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.9 97
Valley High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.10 98
West High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.11 99
Wilson High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Table 4.12 114
AP Budget (non personnel) 1996-1997 through 2000-2001

Table 4.13 115
AP Budget (non personnel) 2001-2002 through 2005-2006

Table 4.14 128
Number of AP National Exams Taken, AP National Exam Passing Rates
2003-2004 through 2005-2006

Table 4.15 129
Number of AP National Exams Taken at Point Break High School
1996-1997 through 2005-2006

Table 4.16 129
Percentage of AP National Exams Passed at Point Break High School
1996-1997 through 2005-2006

Table 4.17 130
API 1998-1999 through 2005-2006

Table 4.18 131
CAHSEE Percent Passed and Mean Scaled Score
2000-2001 through 2005-2006

Table 4.19 132
CST Mean Scale English Score 2002-2003 through 2005-2006

vii
Table 4.20 132
CST Mean Scale Math Score 2002-2003 through 2005-2006

Table 4.21 133
CST Mean Scale Science Score 2002-2003 through 2005-2006

Table 4.21 133
CST Mean Scale Social Science Score 2002-2003 through 2005-2006

Table 4.23 134
High School Graduation Rate 1996-1997 through 2004-2005

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 70
Relationship Between the Six Core Strategies and the Research Questions

Figure 3.2 73
Data Collection Instruments and Research Questions

Figure 4.1 116
AP Budget 1996-1997 through 2005-2006

Figure 4.2 135
Number of AP National Exams Taken, Number of Passing AP National Exams
at Point Break High School
1996-1997 through 2005-2006

ix
ABSTRACT

The purpose of this dissertation was to determine if an open enrollment based
Advanced Placement (AP) program increased student achievement at a
comprehensive high school and whether or not that high school would perform better
in comparison to similar comprehensive high schools. The dissertation was based on
the following four research questions:
1. How are personnel utilized for the facilitation of an open enrollment
based AP program?
2. How are resource allocation decisions for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program determined?
3. How much funding is allocated for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding stem
from, and what is the funding utilized for?
4. How is an open enrollment based AP program utilized to increase
student achievement?
These questions were designed to examine the level of adequacy and equity of an
open enrollment based AP program, as well as how a comprehensive high school
reallocated existing resources to finance an open enrollment based AP program.

1
CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The standards-based movement in education has drawn renewed attention to
issues such as adequacy and equity, specifically addressing whether or not public
schools provide students with the necessary means to achieve at the level a
standards-based education demands (Rose Sonstelie, Reinhard, & Heng, 2003).
Such resources may include materials (e.g. textbooks), highly qualified teachers, and
a challenging college preparatory curriculum. Court cases such as Williams v. State
of California have surfaced in an attempt to enforce an equitable allocation of
resources to students, regardless of whether or not they attend school in an affluent
environment. Filed by the American Civil Liberties Union in August 2000, the
Williams Case alleged that the state of California failed to provide equal educational
access to all students by sanctioning public schools that facilitated substandard
buildings (e.g. classrooms), offered deficient instructional materials, and employed
teachers that did not have a valid teaching credential (Timar, 2005).
Aside from examining whether or not students have access to comparable
facilities, stakeholders may also desire to address the issue of equitable instruction.
Stakeholders may examine and compare instruction by juxtaposing curriculum from
two different school sites, or differentiate the course of study found within a single
school site as it pertains to honors or advanced curriculum, as opposed to what
students would partake in while enrolled in a “regular” class. At the high school

2
level, many schools base student placement on past performance in a similar course,
or teacher judgment (Slavin, 1990). Hallinan (2003) defines this practice as ability
grouping, and states that it fails to “maximize learning opportunities” (p. 96), as the
process may limit students from achieving at higher level if they receive placement
in a lower-ability group.
At the high school level, Advanced Placement (AP) classes represent some of
the most rigorous courses available to students, in which they partake in college-
level classes taught by secondary teachers (Nugent, 2002). Traditionally, schools
have limited which students have the opportunity to enroll in AP courses, with the
designation falling on the upper echelon of the student body. Grier (2002)
contradicts this practice by stating that “AP courses are not for the elite; they are for
the prepared” (p. 18). Allowing an open enrollment based AP program, in which
students would ultimately decide whether or not they took an AP course could grant
a high school the opportunity to expose a greater number of students to the advanced
curriculum often found in an AP class. The open enrollment of AP classes may
serve as a tool in which to stagnate the achievement gap found in many schools
throughout the United States and addresses the issue of inequity in education by
providing equal access and the subsequent support necessary for students to succeed
in AP classes.

3
Background of the Problem
Educational institutions throughout the United States must develop
implementations that successfully address challenges relating to the achievement
gaps that exist within American schools. As the population of the United States
continues to diversify, and the standards for student achievement in our educational
system continue to increase, the responsibility for insuring an equitable education
seems even more urgent now. Educators within all levels of educational institutions
have an imperative responsibility to increase student achievement. The landmark
educational report A Nation at Risk, cautioned educators from developing a
complacent attitude in light of past educational accomplishments (National
Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). Meeting the Academic
Performance Index (API), a mandate for schools within the state of California,
reinforces the basic contention of A Nation at Risk, as it requires that schools
continuously strive to meet new benchmarks regarding student achievement.
A Nation Still at Risk (ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation,
1999) revisits the themes proposed by the original A Nation at Risk document. The
authors state that A Nation at Risk inspired reforms have yet to meet the necessary
marks to increase student achievement, while simultaneously stressing the
importance of providing a quality education to children as a means to equalize
American society. The importance of accountability and continuous improvement
must drive current educational policy.

4
In establishing a program based on accountability, Betts & Danenberg (2002)
stipulate that an accountability program must contain the following implementations:
• A content standard that establishes what students should know and
when they should know it (e.g. state standards);
• An assessment-based system that tracks student performance
pertaining to the established content standards (e.g. state standardized
tests);
• Appropriate responses by the state to address gaps relating to
accountability performance.
Utilizing an evidence-based model, similar to the accountability program described
above enables educational institutions to analyze data and employ it to implement
evidence-based initiatives. An evidence-based model defines which educational
reforms will provide the desired result, while at the same time considering what
financial costs those initiatives would entail (Odden, 2003).

Statement of the Problem
The United States currently finds itself at a crossroads in relation to many
different public policy arenas, with education representing a pivotal concern. The
problem of low levels of student achievement must receive rigorous attention.
American schools must prepare students to compete in the global economy. As
globalization continues to increase, the importance of this mandate increases.

5
In assessing student achievement, federal and state governments look at
standardized test scores as a means of determining how well students have mastered
the state standards. API represents a performance indicator utilized by the California
Department of Education. In light of increasing mandates from both state and
federal levels, schools have attempted to revamp their educational practices to meet
the new benchmarks.
When viewing a school’s API, demographic characteristics such as ethnicity,
and socioeconomic status must be taken into account as the progress a school makes
is assessed. The API of a high school may increase if the school removes
gatekeepers (e.g. teacher recommendations and grade point average) that may
prevent some students from partaking in an honors-based or accelerated curriculum.
Instead of limiting which students participate in such a program, high schools may
want to consider offering an open enrollment policy in which all students have the
opportunity to take more challenging classes. If a high school allows for the open
enrollment of AP classes student performance may increase on state standardized
tests as a result of the higher level thinking skills and test taking strategies imbedded
in such courses. Therefore, a high school that allows for open enrollment in AP
classes might have a higher API than a high school that limits enrollment in AP
classes, even if the latter high school restricts enrollment, yet serves students who
hail from a higher socioeconomic status.
In order to implement an open enrollment policy for AP classes, stakeholders
interested in this process should consider learning more about the nature and purpose

6
of AP programs in general, the underlying philosophy of open enrollment, as well as
what must occur at the school site prior to the successful actualization of an open
enrollment based AP program.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to examine the implementation of an open
enrollment based AP program at the district and school site level, through the lens of
resource allocation and analyze the results as they pertain to student achievement.

Research Questions
The following research questions guided this investigation:
1. How are personnel utilized for the facilitation of an open enrollment
based AP program?
2. How are resource allocation decisions for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program determined?
3. How much funding is allocated for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding stem
from, and what is the funding utilized for?
4. How is an open enrollment based AP program utilized to increase
student achievement?
These research questions represented the foundation for data collection,
analysis, and ultimately the discussion of the data gathered. Conclusions and

7
recommendations based on detailed information established from this study
addressed each research question.

Importance of the Study
This study offers far-reaching implications for several foundational aspects of
our current educational crisis. The current onset of the standards-based education
movement presents educators with an opportunity to redesign curriculum
concurrently with both equity and academic rigor in mind (Odden, 2003). Public
institutions, such as schools, have a mandate to provide an equitable environment for
all. The College Board (1999) notes that when individuals and groups of people do
not experience a viable opportunity in which to fully develop their scholastic
aptitude to their full potential, then our society suffers as a result of this lack of
opportunity. In addition to suffering, our society perpetuates inequity. A high
school that facilitates an AP program that caters solely to students who would
typically fit into such a program fosters inequity if underrepresented students do not
have the opportunity to enroll and succeed in such classes. The data gathered for this
study will emphasize why high schools may want to consider allowing for the open
access of AP classes as a mechanism to achieve equity.
In addition to highlighting the necessity of providing an equitable
environment, this study will showcase how high schools can benefit from an open
enrollment based AP program. API and results on state standardized tests may
increase in high schools that allow for the open enrollment of AP classes. Teachers

8
and administrators alike may find the data useful in identifying what the results of a
successful open enrollment based AP program could look like, in seeing what can
happen when a school increases the number of students who receive exposure to the
higher level thinking skills and test taking strategies emphasized in an AP class.
This study also informs future researchers with regards to their understanding
of AP, seeing what a successful open enrollment based AP program looks like, and
understanding the potential impact such a program can make on a high school’s level
of achievement. After reviewing this study, policymakers may rethink the issue of
equity regarding what it means for all students to receive a quality education. A
concise overview of literature pertaining to AP programs, accelerated schools, policy
implementation, and resource allocation and use as it pertains to adequacy and equity
supported this study.

Limitations
This study was conducted as a qualitative case study, with a review of
quantitative data pertaining to resource allocation and use, and student achievement.
Data collection for this study took place over a five-month time frame. Results may
not be generalizable to similar schools or school districts.
The sample was purposeful, in that the researcher sought a high school that
offers an open enrollment based AP program. Additional factors within the school
site may play a role in the open enrollment policy of AP classes and student

9
achievement, however given the scope of this study it was not possible to address all
such concerns.

Delimitations
This study utilized qualitative data in the form of interviews. Quantitative
data played a role in assessing the potential impact of an open enrollment based AP
program on student achievement. The Southern California school site utilized in this
study has been identified internally by the school district, as well externally by
outside evaluators, such as the United States Department of Education, as a school
that has not only has improved the achievement of all students, but has also made
inroads to close the achievement gap between Caucasian and traditionally
marginalized students. The study focused on the open enrollment based AP program
as it pertained to the school site, and the school district.
The sample consisted of selected district leaders, site administrators, and
teachers.

Assumptions
Recommendations from the College Board and the United States Department
of Education have encouraged states and school districts to increase the enrollment
of all students in AP classes. The above entities have specifically addressed the
necessity of increasing the number of traditionally marginalized students who are
involved in the AP program. The school site selected for this study is believed to

10
have made strong inroads to closing the achievement gap. The researcher assumes
that all data gathered from interviews is valid.

Definition of Terms
Accelerated Learning-Curriculum that challenges students to perform at a
high level, which may be higher than what one would expect from a specific group
of students. Ideally this curriculum would represent a school-wide endeavor, but can
also be a result of individual academic departments at the high school level.
Achievement Gap-The concept that students do not achieve at comparable
levels, based on dependent or independent variables.
Accountability-Meeting specified objectives regarding student and or teacher
performance.
Adequacy-The utilization of fiscal resources, which enables school districts
and school sites to educate their students in an equitable fashion, in which resources
are distributed fairly.
Advanced Placement (AP)-The College Board established AP classes in
1955, as a means for high school students to enroll in college-level courses taught by
high school teachers. Students enrolled in AP classes gain higher-level thinking
skills, and have an opportunity to earn college credit if they score a three or higher
on the national exam.
Academic Performance Index (API)-An index developed by the California
Department of Education that measures California public schools in relation to their

11
academic performance and growth, in response to the California’s Public Schools
Accountability Act of 1999. The statewide API target is 800, while the index ranges
from a low of 200, to a high of 1000. To determine API improvement, the API Base
from the previous year is subtracted from the API Growth of the current year.
College Board-The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association,
made up of schools, colleges, and other educational organizations, that attempts to
connect students with college success. The College Board is best known for
facilitating the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the AP national exam.
College Prep Classes- General education courses taught at the high school
level designed to meet the general admission requirements of four-year colleges and
universities. Some high schools offer solely college prep classes, while others offer
a mix of college prep and “regular” (non-college prep) classes.
Equity-Students have equal access and an opportunity to participate in all
school programs. This concept specifically applies to the idea involving the open
enrollment of AP classes for all students to partake in.
Gatekeepers-Any limitation that could prevent students from enrolling in an
AP class, such as a minimum GPA requirement, passing a pre-course “entrance test,”
a formal recommendation by a teacher or counselor, or the mandate of previous
enrollment in and or successful completion of “honors” classes.
No Child Left Behind Act- An educational reform initiative proposed by
President George W. Bush in 2001, and passed into law by Congress in 2002. The
No Child Left Behind Act focuses on basing decisions pertaining to educational

12
reform on scientific research and emphasizes accountability in education by focusing
on results.
Open Enrollment-All students have the opportunity to enroll in an AP class.
Students are encouraged to enroll in AP classes based on their interest and effort in a
given subject, as opposed to meeting a gatekeeper requirement.
Resources-Assets that enable students, teachers, and administrators to meet
educational goals as determined by stakeholders. Resources may include structures,
curriculum, policies, and fiscal adequacy.
Similar Schools-Referenced in the API Report of a school in the state of
California, the similar schools rank shows on a scale of 1-10 where a school ranks
academically, in comparison to 100 other schools who have students who share
similar demographic traits, in addition to the average class size at a school, among
other factors.
Socioeconomic Status-An individual’s standing in society based on parental
education and occupation, as well as family income level.
Stakeholder-An individual or group who has a vested interest or stake in a
school district or school site. This may include community members, parents,
students, teachers, administrators, and government officials.
Standards-based Education-Utilizes a framework determined by the state, that
determines which content standards students must receive instruction in. The state
then tests students yearly at the grade or subject level to evaluate student
performance in relation to the standards.

13
Traditionally Marginalized Students-Students who typically may not have
access to various school programs based on their ethnicity or socioeconomic status.
Underrepresented Students-A result of limiting enrollment into a specific
school or program so that it results in the homogeneous representation of a particular
group.

Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One has provided a summary addressing the importance of the study
regarding the open enrollment of AP classes and how this may have a positive effect
on educational settings.
Chapter Two explores relevant literature addressing the AP program,
accelerated schools, policy implementation, and adequacy and equity in relation to
resource allocation and use.
Chapter Three outlines the design of the study, identifies the instrumentation
utilized, as well as explains the methods utilized in data collection and the analysis of
data.
Chapter Four provides an analysis and findings for each research question in
relation to the data obtained.
Chapter Five, the final chapter summarizes the study, and presents
conclusions and implications for practitioners, administrators, policy-makers, and
future researchers.

14
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The 1999 report A Nation Still at Risk echoed similar sentiments as the
original 1983 report, A Nation at Risk. The report issued in 1999 (ERIC
Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, 1999) continued to cite the systematic
decline in student performance as students progressed from elementary through high
school, the number of students (30%) requiring remedial courses upon entering a
college or university, the lack of quality candidates available for employment, and
the fact that traditionally marginalized students often received an inadequate
educational experience. This presents teachers, administrators, and policy makers
with the necessary challenge of providing students with an adequate and equitable
education that prepares them to successfully enter a postsecondary institution, or the
workforce upon high school graduation. Adelman (1999), in the United States
Department of Education study, Answers in the Toolbox, finds the following in
relation to the impact of high school curriculum on the postsecondary education of
students:
• Taking AP courses in high school produces a stronger correlation for
that student to complete a bachelor’s degree, rather than just
increasing access to college;

15
• A rigorous high school academic curriculum serves as the strongest
pre-college indicator in relation to academic resources for African
American and Latino students;
• High school curriculum represents 41% of the academic resources
students utilize in their postsecondary education;
• High school curriculum equates to 54%, the highest correlation
regarding the likelihood of a student obtaining a bachelor’s degree.

One may subsequently presume that a student will receive these benefits from
a rigorous high school curriculum, should he or she choose to forgo a postsecondary
education, and enter the workforce immediately after high school graduation. A
review of the literature in relation to increasing student achievement, as well as
providing an adequate and equitable education via the reallocation of resources and
the ensuing reform proposes strategies high schools may utilize, and addresses
challenges they may encounter. Hence, the literature review will examine issues
pertaining to the implementation of high school reform that will result in an increase
of student achievement. To facilitate this literature review, the following four key
areas have been identified:
1. An examination of the history and purpose of the AP program;
potential results of AP programs; hypotheses addressing why students
may forgo enrolling in AP classes; as well as the prospect of

16
increasing the number of underrepresented students enrolled in AP
classes by facilitating an open enrollment based AP program;
2. An examination of the purpose of accelerated schools, the necessary
culture required for implementation, potential results of
implementation, and the correlation between an open enrollment
based AP program;
3. An examination of how schools implement policy, challenges high
schools strive to remedy via policy implementation, the type of school
culture required for successful policy implementation, possible
barriers that may prevent the implementation of new school policies,
and how policy implementation relates to an open enrollment based
AP program;
4. An examination of the concept of resource allocation and use as it
pertains to adequacy and equity, why schools may want to rethink
their current expenditures, how reallocation may increase student
achievement, and how the open enrollment of AP classes serves as a
viable reallocation of resources while addressing issues of adequacy
and equity.

The Advanced Placement Program
Founded in 1900, the College Board represents over 5,000 educational
organizations, including colleges, universities, and secondary schools (College

17
Board, 2006a). As a non-profit organization, the College Board strives to enable
student success, and offers a variety of programs and resources to assist schools in
raising the level of student achievement. The most prominent programs offered
include the AP program, as well as the SAT and the Preliminary SAT (College
Board, 2006a).
Originally implemented by the College Board in 1955, the AP program
originated on the east coast of the United States, initially as the result of a
partnership between elite private high schools and comparable secondary institutions
(Nugent & Karnes, 2002). Thus, the purpose of the AP program resulted in a
medium for high school students to take college level courses taught by secondary
teachers. In facilitating such courses, high school teachers follow the course outline
as determined by the College Board, to determine what curriculum they will utilize
throughout the course.
The College Board offers AP courses in 35 subject areas (College Board,
2006b), in which students have the opportunity to earn college credit, based on their
performance on the AP national examination, while at the same time receiving high
school credit providing they have taken and passed the course. The College Board
does not require students to take a subject specific class prior to taking the AP test in
that academic discipline. However, students having taken the AP class designed to
prepare them for the AP test theoretically would have an advantage over other
students who have not taken the course, yet still attempt to pass the examination.

18
AP courses typically replicate the core general education classes (e.g. English
Literature) that many students must take during their freshman or sophomore years
of college. Additionally, the AP program encompasses elective courses as well (e.g.
comparative politics), which may satisfy a general education requirement or fulfill a
lower division prerequisite specific to a particular major (e.g. political science).
Individual colleges and universities determine what score a student must
obtain in order to receive college credit (College Board, 2005), so the policy differs
from school to school. In determining a student’s performance, the College Board
converts the exam score to an “AP exam grade,” which ranges from a high of “5,” to
a low of “1” (College Board, 2006b). Generally, most colleges and universities
accept exam scores of three or higher, in awarding college credit. Some schools,
such as Harvard University only grant college credit for students who have scored a
“5” or higher. Receiving a “passing” score on the AP exam will allow students to
enter their college or university with advanced standing, as they will have supplanted
the course requirement via their exam score.
In addition to benefiting the students enrolled in AP courses, Santoli (2002)
states that such classes may also affect students enrolled in “regular courses.” The
results could present both negative, positive, or inconclusive implications.
Designed for students capable of handling rigorous curriculum, AP courses
have the potential to encourage the practice of tracking within schools facilitating an
AP program, as the curriculum could inherently result in a “school within a school”
mentality (Oakes, 2005). In facilitating a system of tracking, a school could

19
designate which students had the ability to succeed in an AP class, and disallow
others who did not meet various gatekeeper requirements.
Willingham and Morris (1986) ascertain that AP enrollment does not
determine the level of success a student will achieve in college. They state that a
student’s grades and or test scores in high school do not represent a valid indicator of
college achievement. However, other researchers (e.g. Morgan & Ramist; Keng &
Dodd) present findings that state the contrary, citing notable advances former AP
students make at the college level.
Morgan and Ramist (1998) find that former AP students perform at a
comparable level in college courses in comparison with college students that
previously took a prerequisite course in the same academic discipline (e.g. calculus).
A study at the University of Texas at Austin, comparing the performance of students
who received and did not receive AP Credit while in high school, found that the
students who earned AP Credit had a higher college graduation rate, higher college
grade point average, and performed better in subsequent courses, in comparison to
students enrolled at the university who did not earn AP Credit while in high school
(Keng & Dodd, 2006).
In addition to benefiting students, an AP program has the potential to be
advantageous for teachers. The United States Department of Education, Office of
the Secretary (2000) finds that “Advanced Placement courses also enable teachers to
teach more rigorous content, attend high-quality professional development institutes
and workshops, measure student achievement with a national exam, and use guides,

20
curriculum, and other support materials” (p. 9-10). These factors stipulate that the
positive aspects of implementing an AP program have far reaching implications, as
teachers may grow from their experience along with the students involved in the
program.
Since its inception in the 1950s, the AP program substantially grew during
the 1990s, as a result of increasing government funding, specifically targeted towards
increasing the number of underrepresented students enrolling in AP courses
(Klopfenstein, 2004). President George W. Bush has continued the push for the
expansion of AP in low income high schools by increasing funding to support such
programs (Johnson, 2004). By augmenting the amount of money earmarked for AP
classes, high schools have the opportunity to add more AP classes to their master
schedules, provide training to teachers facilitating AP courses, as well as allow for
necessary measures to support student success (e.g. tutoring).
With regards to the expansion of AP programs, Steller and Lambert (1996)
cite a case in which an Oklahoma City Public Schools teacher attempts to expand the
AP program at her school site, but finds the current curriculum lacking in terms of
AP preparation. A pivotal ingredient in AP expansion involves integrating
preparatory aspects into the curriculum of non-AP classes in order to acclimate
students to the rigors of an AP course.
In their report for the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction
entitled Increasing Opportunity to Learn via Access to Rigorous Courses and
Programs: One Strategy for Closing the Achievement Gap for At-Risk and Ethnic

21
Minority Students, Darity, Castellino, Tyson, Cobb, and McMillen (2001) have
studied a series of hypotheses that address the gap of minority enrollment in AP
classes as compared to Caucasian students. The hypotheses include the following:
• The “Acting White” Hypothesis
• The “Selection Mechanism” Hypothesis
• The Learning Opportunities Hypothesis
• The Teacher Expectations Hypothesis
• The Socioeconomic Status Hypothesis (p. 9).
The researchers suggest that a high school wishing to expand its AP program should
address each of the above hypotheses.

The “Acting White” Hypothesis
The “Acting White” Hypothesis references a 1986 study conducted by
Fordham and Ogbu which concludes that African American students eschew school
achievement, as this may influence peers to label them as “white” because of their
propensity to succeeding academically (Darity et al., 2001). The propensity of
students declining to enroll in AP classes may transcend the concept of race and
instead converge along the concept of social influences. Social influences may
include outside leverage, such as the school environment, which includes teachers,
peers, and academic courses of study (Grantham, 2004). Whether a gap in
enrollment exists based on ethnicity or additional factors, schools must strive to
create an environment that fosters participation by all students in an AP program.

22
The “Selection Mechanism” Hypothesis
While the “Acting White” Hypothesis focuses on the opinion or perception of
peers, teachers, as well as the students themselves, the “Selection Mechanism”
Hypothesis addresses the disproportionate selection process enforced upon
underrepresented students in challenging classes (Darity et al., 2001). In reference to
this study, the “Selection Mechanism Hypothesis” questions the practices of schools
in determining which students may enroll in AP classes. Schools still show a
propensity towards facilitating a system of tracking in which they utilize the
homogenous grouping of students regarding their course placement (Oakes, 2005),
as opposed to grouping students by ability. The method in which schools determine
a student’s ability also addresses the “Selection Mechanism” Hypothesis.” The
potential exists for underrepresented students to receive placement in a
“nonacademic” track, in which administrators base the placement on their past
performance, prior to entering high school (Lee and Bryk, 1998).

The Learning Opportunities Hypothesis
Additionally, addressing the selection process of students enrolling in honors
or AP classes additionally draws attention to the larger question of the opportunities
that students have for learning. The Learning Opportunities Hypothesis proposes
that students who have not received exposure to preparatory curriculum will not fare
as well in a given subject in comparison to students who have taken classes designed
to prepare them for success in a specific concentration (Darity et al., 2001). High

23
schools can either decrease divergence by ensuring that all students receive access to
curriculum that will facilitate their success, or the can perpetuate the disparity of
inequality (Hallinan, 2001) by limiting not only which students enroll in AP classes,
but which students receive the proper preparation that will enable them to succeed in
one.

The Teacher Expectations Hypothesis
The fourth hypothesis proposed by Darity et al. (2001), the Teacher
Expectations Hypothesis proposes the notion that the teacher’s perception of how a
student performs in their class can serve as a prognostic postulation that manifests
itself in the actual performance of the student. For example, a teacher may believe
that a student will perform poorly in an AP course because of their socioeconomic
status, or ethnicity. This perception could prevent students from enrolling in an AP
class, and could deter their level of achievement should they have a class taught by
such a teacher. Such a point of view ultimately results in students becoming material
victims of stereotypes (Okagaki, 2001). Wigfield and Eccles (2000) caution against
discounting the expectation of success exhibited by a student, as this may hinder
student efficacy, should the student have the desire and potential to succeed, yet does
not have the opportunity in which to pursue their ambitions. In facilitating an
expansion of its AP program, a high school must take care in alleviating negative
perceptions of students, as they may hinder both teachers and students alike in
reaching their full potential.

24
The Socioeconomic Status Hypothesis
The Socioeconomic Status Hypothesis (Darity et al., 2001), representing the
fifth hypothesis in the study, echoes similar concerns regarding the role of
expectancy in student performance, however, rather than ethnicity, the
Socioeconomic Status Hypothesis focuses on how educators may utilize
socioeconomic status in gauging the level of success that a student may achieve.
Darity et al. (2001) advise that those seeking to modify inequity regarding the
enrollment of students in advanced classes hailing from a lower socioeconomic
status, to look for qualities and other intangibles that the students may present in a
different fashion in comparison to students from a higher socioeconomic status
background.

Open Enrollment of AP Classes
The open enrollment of AP classes, in which students make the ultimate
decision regarding their enrollment, may prove a viable solution to the problems
endemic to the various hypotheses proposed by Darity, et al.
Solorzano and Ornelas (2004) state that a medium by which to tackle the
issue of inequality in education involves access to and the subsequent enrollment of
students in AP classes. Aside from enriching a student’s high school curriculum,
enrollment in AP classes also assists a student in attaining admission to a college or
university. Institutions of higher education generally will place a higher emphasis on

25
considering the potential admittance of students who have participated in AP classes,
as opposed to those who have not taken them (Geiser & Santelices, 2004).
Therefore, in expanding the number of AP courses available to students,
some educators also attempt to increase the number of underrepresented students
enrolled in AP classes by facilitating an open enrollment based program, in addition
to expanding the number of AP courses a school offers. High Point High School, in
Beltsville, Maryland proposes the following guidelines for students wanting to enroll
in AP classes:
They (the students) should have a “B” average or better and an excellent
attendance record. They must not allow other activities to interfere with AP
course preparation and must allot a minimum of one hour of study per course
each night. Students are advised to attend regular tutorials and to complete
required summer assignments (p. 8) (College Board, 2002a).
Aside from the above stipulations; High Point High School does not mandate
additional requirements for students to enroll in an AP class at the school.
Some may construe that the requirements set by High Point High School also
result in a form of gate keeping that represents a closed enrollment program, as they
might prevent students who do not have a “B” average or complete the required
summer assignment from participating. Klopfenstein (2003) states “AP classes
should only be attempted by goal-oriented, motivated, and capable students” (p. 42).
In following this model, Klopfenstein (2003) advocates the usage of a variety of
indicators in determining admission, however she emphasizes the importance of

26
student motivation, and echoes the sentiments of the College Board in stating that
schools should open their AP programs to any student inclined to attempt an AP
course. However, if a motivated student desirous of participating in the AP program
lacks the academic experience necessary to succeed in an AP class, the school must
provide the appropriate support to increase that student’s chance of success.

Accelerated Schools
The Accelerated Schools Project strives to create the best schools so that all
students have the opportunity to develop critical thinking skills, and ultimately
flourish as prolific, and inventive members of our society (Brunner & Hopfenberg,
1992). The establishment of the Accelerated Schools Project grew out of this
objective. Dr. Henry M. Levin of Stanford University designed the accelerated
schools movement as a medium for change, specifically targeting students in “at-
risk” schools, with the focus of the project revolving around incorporating
instructional strategies normally utilized in classes catering toward gifted and
talented students into all classes throughout the school (Comprehensive School
Reform Quality Center, 2005). Under Levin’s leadership, the first accelerated
school opened during the 1986-1987 school year, in Oakland, California (Levin,
1993). In 2003, the Accelerated Schools Project re-named itself Accelerated
Schools: Powerful Learning Unlimited Success (AS PLUS) (Comprehensive School
Reform Quality Center, 2005), which provides a clearer description as to what the
organization stands for. Currently, over 1,500 schools, spanning the K-12 arena

27
implement AS PLUS curriculum (The National Center for Accelerated Schools
PLUS, 2006).
In describing the purpose of accelerated schools, Brunner and Hopfenberg
(1992) utilize three central principles, which include the unity of purpose,
empowerment coupled with responsibility, and building on strengths.
The unity of purpose describes the collaborative effort exhibited by teachers,
administrators, support staff, parents, students, and community members in
establishing and attaining prevalent goals for the school (Brunner & Hopfenberg,
1992). By uniting all stakeholders in the establishment and achievement of goals, an
accelerated school fulfills the unity of purpose concept, as the process involves all
stakeholders. One of the pivotal elements of the unity of purpose involves adapting a
preexisting school to the accelerated school model, so that students will receive the
necessary academic preparation and background. This will then provide the students
with the necessary skills that they need in order to participate in subsequent learning
experiences (Brunner & Hopfenberg, 1992). By frontloading information or skills at
earlier grade levels, students will receive prolonged exposure to the concepts, which
may enable them to continuously apply what they have learned in subsequent grade
levels.
Empowerment coupled with responsibility references the ability of
stakeholders to make pivotal educational decisions, and subsequently take
responsibility for facilitating the implementations, as well as taking responsibility for
the subsequent results of the implementations. The idea behind this principle focuses

28
on moving away from blaming outside factors that schools have no control over
(Brunner & Hopfenberg, 1992). Instead, stakeholders will have the opportunity to
focus their energy on the development, implementation, and subsequent revision of
curriculum or other implementations so that they can make the best choices as to
what they can do to improve student achievement, based on the needs of the
community, rather than simply blame other parties for any discrepancy that may
arise.
The third core principle, building on strengths, addresses the utilization of all
the assets that stakeholders may contribute to the educational process, and also
emphasizes the importance of building on the preexisting strengths of stakeholders
(Brunner & Hopfenberg, 1992). By focusing on strengths and acknowledging
various contributions made by stakeholders (e.g. parents), accelerated schools can
move away from blaming specific groups, and instead focus on the positive aspects
in which they contribute to the learning community.
Subsequently, the Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center (2005)
identifies the following components as defining the core principals of the recently
reconfigured AS PLUS:
Organization and governance, professional development, instruction,
inclusion, student assessment, data-based decision making, and parent,
family, and community involvement (p. 32).

29
Accelerated schools place a strong emphasis on viewing and classifying all
students as gifted and talented, by focusing on the strengths that each child
contributes to the learning environment. Accelerated schools do not offer remedial
coursework. Rather than offering remedial courses, accelerated schools provide a
challenging curriculum, with an emphasis on making classes available for all
students. Stakeholders accomplish this by developing school-wide goals that involve
teachers, administrators, parents, and students. While the concept of accelerated
schools tends to manifest at the elementary and middle school level, one of the
paramount goals of the program focuses on reducing the high school dropout rate
(Levin in Hopfenberg, Levin, Chase, Christensen, Moore, & Soler, et al., 1993).
Schools seeking to institute reform often face an imperative challenge, based
on resistance towards the implementation of any reform, as a result of the routines
stakeholders (e.g. teachers and administrators) have established (Levin, 2001).
Therefore, implementing a reform such as the accelerated schools paradigm requires
staff members, administrators, and community members alike to buy into the new
system. Ultimately, a school wishing to implement accelerated schools-based
pedagogy should embrace and support the mission statement of AS PLUS, which
focuses on the following goals:
Enrich the lives of all students, especially those that live in poverty and have
a history of low academic performance and remediation, through a school
environment characterized by accelerated instruction with high expectations

30
and teaching methods traditionally reserved for only the high achieving
student (Comprehensive School Reform Quality Center, 2005, p. 32).
Teachers and administrators must commit themselves to having consistent, high
expectations for students. Support of the community proves an imperative addition
to the accelerated schools movement as this validates the work of teachers and
administrators.
As an implementation designed for elementary or middle schools, much of
the research (e.g. Bloom, et al.) pertaining to the results of accelerated schools
focuses on those institutions. In facilitating their study of the impact of
implementing accelerated school reforms, Bloom, et al. (2001) utilized third grade
reading and math scores as predictor as to how students would score in the future, if
the staff did not institute elements of accelerated schools reform. They then utilized
the predictor scores to compare with how students actually performed after the
implementation of reforms. Bloom, et al. (2001) establishes the following as key
findings of the study:
• During the first three years of implementation, the schools focused on
reforming school governance and culture, turning to curriculum and
instruction only in the third or fourth year;
• The reform’s impact on third-grade test scores tracked schools’
implementation of it. There were no positive impacts in the first two
years, a slight decline in the third year – as schools began to modify
their curriculum and instruction – and a gradual increase in the fourth

31
and fifth years. The average third-grade reading and math scores in
the fifth year exceeded the predicted levels by a statistically
significant amount;
• These impacts were not uniform across all students or all schools.
The largest impacts were observed among students who would have
scored in the middle of their school’s test score distribution without
the reform and among the schools that had the lowest test scores
before launching the reform (p. iii).

The results of Bloom et al. address issues that go beyond the implementation
of accelerated schools based reforms. One should note the amount of time delegated
to general school reform prior to the focus on curriculum and instruction based
reform. While this does not specifically address implementation results per say, it
addresses the issue of the amount of time required to successfully implement
reforms. This is in keeping with findings that successful school reform requires time
and the building of consensus among stakeholders (Quint, 2006).
The key findings in relation to test results coincide with concepts relating to
the implementation of school reform. Since curriculum and instruction did not
receive attention until the third or fourth year of the reform process, the fact that
reading and math scores did not improve, and in fact slightly declined, validates the
accelerated schools reform, as the third grade reading and math scores did increase
during the fourth and fifth year of the implementation. Table 2.1 showcases the

32
average impact of accelerated schools reform on the reading and math scores of the
eight third grade classes utilized in the study facilitated by Bloom et al. (2001).

Table 2.1
Accelerated Schools Impact on Mean Third Grade Math and Reading Scores
Average of the Eight Schools in Bloom’s Study

Academic
Discipline
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
Math -0.04 0.1 -0.09 0.07 0.24
Reading -0.04 0.02 -0.15 0.02 0.19

The fact that Bloom et al. (2001) found that the impact of accelerated schools
reform failed to yield homogenous results pertaining to third grade reading and math
scores across all schools examined in their study is consistent with findings that state
that the results of reforms may not always yield comparable results, as well as the
fact that schools should give reforms time to run their course, prior to simply
abandoning them (Quint, 2006).

Open Enrollment of AP Classes as an Accelerated School
The philosophy behind the open enrollment of AP courses are the same as the
core beliefs of AS PLUS, which suggest that extending learning opportunities for
students has the potential to increase student achievement (Baenen, Linblad, &
Yaman, 2002). AP courses provide a medium in which a school may have an

33
opportunity to cultivate or accelerate student achievement, as a result of the higher
level thinking skills promoted in the content and pedagogical aspects of the course.
By fostering the open enrollment of AP courses, high schools broaden the
learning opportunities available for students, as they have a wider breadth to choose
from when selecting which courses they will take. If a school does not encourage
students to take challenging courses, then the students may simply refrain from even
attempting such coursework (Grossman & Ancess, 2004). Schools should utilize
additional discretion when attempting to increase the number of traditionally
marginalized students enrolling in advanced coursework. Generally, the number of
students who take AP classes does not correlate with the national population of
minority or underrepresented students in their age group (Burton Whitman, Yepes-
Baraya, & Myung-in Kim, 2002).
The College Board compiles data in relation to the ethnicity of students
taking the AP national exam. This does not include students who have taken an AP
course yet have not taken the AP national exam. Table 2.2 showcases information
pertaining to the ethnic makeup of students taking the AP national exam, as obtained
by the College Board (2002b), for the years highlighted in the table.
While the number of underrepresented students taking the AP national exam
has increased since the College Board began compiling the data in 1979, an extreme
gap still persists among exam takers classified as white (non Hispanic) and their
peers hailing from different ethnic backgrounds. The philosophy and beliefs behind
the accelerated schools movement may assist in closing the ethnic gap regarding

34
students who take the AP national exam, and the subsequent gap that exists in
relation to students enrolled in AP courses. To make this change, stakeholders must
consider elements in relation to the implementation of policy in order to initiate a
successful reform.

Table 2.2
Percentage of Student Participation in Advanced Placement Courses: 1979-2002

Ethnicity 1979 1981 1984 1989 1991 1994 1999 2000 2001 2002
American
Indian or
Alaskan
Native
* * * * * * * * * *
Asian 5.0 4.0 8.0 11.0 13.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 14.0 14.0
Hispanic
or Latino
2.0 2.0 3.0 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 9.0 9.0 10.0
African
American
3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
White
(not
Hispanic)
88.0 68.0 84.0 78.0 69.0 72.0 70.0 66.0 65.0 65.0
Other 1.0 * 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 7.0 4.0 3.5
Total 79,604 105,080 148,379 290,849 79,604 105,080 148,379 290,849 79,604 105,080

*= less than one percent

35
Policy Implementation
Organizations experience policy implementation any time they institute a
new method, procedure, or innovation, as it relates to changes that may result, when
compared to current practices. Concerning public schools, one of the imperative
resources for reform revolves around the relationship and subsequent social trust
between stakeholders (Bryk & Schneider, 2003). Once stakeholders in a public
school setting establish trust amongst each other, the successful implementation of
policy should occur more readily, as opposed to a scenario where poor
communication and distrust mars the landscape. Even when collegiality exists
between teachers, administrators, parents, and students, public schools still face
challenges that relate to policy implementation. While all schools theoretically share
the mission of preparing students to become a successful member of society upon
high school graduation, high schools face a unique challenge in that they represent
the “last stop” for students prior to their entrance into the workplace or enrolling at a
college or university. Quint (2006) identifies the following factors as challenges that
high schools may face when attempting to implement new policies or reforms:
1. Creating a personalized and orderly learning environment;
2. Assisting students who enter high school with poor academic skills;
3. Improving instructional content and pedagogy;
4. Preparing students for the world beyond high school;
5. Stimulating change.

36
These challenges may result from current conditions at a high school, or may come
into play once a school initiates a specific policy or reform.

Creating a Personalized and Orderly Learning Environment
The high numbers of students enrolled at underperforming high schools
creates a dissonance within the system as unprepared students fail to integrate with
the school environment (Quint, 2006). To prevent this problem, high schools,
whether or not they are underperforming must make an effort to provide a
personalized education to their students in a manner that enables them to overcome
potential academic deficiencies. In creating a personalized and orderly learning
environment for students, high schools should take care in examining the peer
networking opportunities available for students. High school students establish
relationships with their peers as a result of prior experiences they may have shared
with each other, such as living in the same neighborhood or attending middle school
together, and may also base relationships on similar experiences they have had
within the high school itself (Lewis-Charp Cao Yu, & Fridelaender, 2004).
Therefore, the high school should create an environment conducive to
establishing peer relationships among students by facilitating a personalized and
orderly learning environment. Quint (2006), suggests that high schools utilize small
learning communities, in which students share the same core-subject teachers, as a
medium for creating peer networks for students, as they would partake in similar
learning experiences facilitated by the same teachers. Regarding the design of a

37
learning community, Paredes Scribner (1999) proposes the following four elements
as foundations for success:
1. Collaborative governance and leadership;
2. Community and family involvement;
3. Culturally responsive pedagogy;
4. Advocacy-oriented assessment and quality control.
Collaborative governance and leadership details the necessary consortium required
among stakeholders for collaborative leadership, as well as the designation of
specific resources earmarked for the success of the learning community, tied together
with the overlying vision of accountability, based on the belief of student
performance (Paredes Scribner, 1999). The element of community and family
involvement details the pivotal roles the family and community play in the learning
process. Culturally responsive pedagogy involves valuing the culture and original
language of students, along with the expectation that all students will succeed
(Paredes Scribner, 1999). Advocacy-oriented assessment and quality control
advocates ensure the usage of multiple measures of student performance, along with
the expectation that students will succeed at the highest level possible (Paredes
Scribner, 1999).

Assisting Students Who Enter High Schools with Poor Academic Skills
Many students enter 9
th
grade unprepared for the academic demands they will
encounter at the high school level (Quint, 2006). The most imperative environs

38
relating to student instruction include the academic departments and or grade levels
within a school (Cohen & Ball, 1999). With 9
th
grade serving as the foundation for a
student’s high school experience, educators should take appropriate measures to
ensure that students receive instruction in the appropriate skills necessary for high
school success. Rather than blaming other entities involved in the education of
students (e.g. middle schools) for the gap in the level of student preparation at the
high school level, high school teachers and administrators might consider embedding
strategies such as note taking, essay writing, and study skills into curriculum at the
9
th
grade level, in an effort to insure that all students have access to the
aforementioned skills. While middle school reform should still receive
consideration, high schools have a responsibility to focus on the relation of current
practices and student success, as opposed to simply passing the buck in stating that
students entering 9
th
grade do not possess the necessary academic skills to succeed at
the high school level.
Quint (2006) suggests the implementation of a Freshman Seminar course that
students would take at the 9
th
grade level, as pivotal element in a program entitled
Talent Development. Elements of the seminar would incorporate strategies such as
note taking skills and time management techniques, with the overall focus revolving
around preparing students for the increased academic demands of high school. In
addition to the Freshman Seminar course, the Talent Development model calls for
the block scheduling of classes (80-90 minute periods), as well as “catch up” classes
that allow students who require intensive instruction in math or reading to receive

39
additional exposure to course content. In comparison to schools that did not utilize
the Talent Development model, 8.6% more first time 9
th
graders earned at least one
English credit, 11.6% more earned at least one math credit, 24.5% more earned at
least one algebra credit, 7% more earned at least five credits, while 8% more got
promoted to the 10
th
grade (Quint, 2006).
While students may benefit from the implementation of the Talent
Development model, the Freshman Seminar course warrants questioning. The
incorporation of an additional course, not required by the state or federal government
could impact the current course requirements for a high school. Rather than
designate a specific Freshman Seminar course to provide students with exposure to
skills necessary for high school success, schools might consider the implementation
of such skills throughout pre-existing curriculum at the 9
th
grade level. Gandara et al.
(2004) cite the importance of the ethos, or culture of a school regarding students
perceptions of others, as well as themselves. By aiming to facilitate the ethos of a
high school to focus on developing skills necessary for success throughout all classes
taken at the 9
th
grade level, a high school may have the opportunity in which to
strengthen the ethos of the school as perceived by the students, without having to
delegate a specific class to foster the necessary skills for high school success.

Improving Instructional Content and Pedagogy
Students attending high schools with a high poverty rate have a greater
chance of taking a class from a teacher with lower qualifications, in comparison to

40
students attending a high school with a low poverty rate (Quint, 2006). Aside from
teacher quality, Paredes Scribner (1999) finds systems of tracking, organization of
curriculum, and the pedagogical practices of teachers as detrimental influences on
student learning. Current legislation, such as the No Child Left Behind Act
addresses some of the elements related to teacher quality, including the designation
of a highly qualified teacher, who demonstrates mastery in their subject matter, has a
bachelor’s degree in the field in which they teach, as well as posses full certification
(United States Department of Education, 2003). The requirements of No Child Left
Behind Act regarding teacher quality encourage school districts to comply with the
federal mandate, while at the same time allowing them to focus on other areas that
relate to the concept of highly qualified teachers. Rather than focusing on increasing
the number of highly qualified teachers in the labor market, improving instructional
content and pedagogy emphasizes the importance of improving course content along
with the didactic methods teachers utilize in facilitating instruction (Quint, 2006).
Quint (2006) finds the following implementations as potential avenues for
increasing the effectiveness of instruction:
1. Incorporate pre-designed adept curriculum and lesson plans into small
learning communities;
2. Facilitate continuous training and coaching that focuses on how to
teach the pre-designed curriculum;
3. Encourage professional development activities lead by teachers that
entail reviewing the thoroughness of assignments, review pedagogical

41
practices in an effort to engage students, and ensure the alignment of
curriculum with state standards;
4. Focus on academic departments or small learning communities as
imperative venues for pedagogical improvement;
5. Administrators serve as instructional leaders who model best practices
and follow up on teacher progress to ensure accountability.

Providing pre-designed adept curriculum and lesson plans to teachers may
allow teachers to have more time in which they can focus on how to teach the
content, as opposed to determining what they will teach.
The element of continuous training and coaching regarding how to teach the
pre-designed curriculum falls inline with the above prospect. In most cases, with
school districts, and the state or federal government determining appropriate content,
along with increasing the content specific requirements necessary for entering the
teaching profession, the notion of focusing on pedagogical practices rings true.
Encouraging teachers to work in a collaborative fashion can ensure
consistency among teachers who instruct the same course, as well as incorporate and
develop imperative skills at the department, or even school wide level. Additionally,
this fits into the notion of focusing on academic departments at the high school level
as a medium for pedagogical improvement.

42
The final element detailing the role of the administrator in the process of
collaboration emphasizes the essential element of accountability in relation to the
implementation of policy at the high school level.

Preparing Students for the World Beyond High School
Many schools within the United States utilize curriculum which focuses on
emphasizing high standards for all students, along with differentiating instruction,
yet at the same time, schools often incorporate systems of tracking or ability
grouping by which they place students in the track appropriate commensurate their
academic ability (Heubert & Hauser, 1999). The above reality presents a paradox
that may have an adverse effect in relation to the preparation of students for the
world beyond high school. Students attending archaic urban high schools often do
not know the appropriate courses colleges and universities designate as entrance
requirements, lack knowledge in relation to financial aid resources available, and
experience a shortfall when it comes to developing the skills and networks necessary
for high paying jobs (Quint, 2006).
Quint (2006) recommends integrating academic and occupational curriculum
via a Career Academy in which high school students partake in both academic and
vocational training throughout the course of a school year. Additionally, she
suggests for schools to establish relationships with outside companies in an attempt
to provide students with opportunities through work experience and internships. The
Education Trust-West (2004) cites the importance of providing access to courses

43
satisfying the A-G requirements, which represent the courses required for admission
to the University of California (UC). High schools have an opportunity to ensure all
students meet these qualifications by mirroring the high school graduation
requirements to that of the A-G curriculum.
Upon incorporating the A-G requirements with coursework required for high
school graduation, the San Jose Unified School District experienced a 24% reduction
in the achievement gap between Latino and white 9
th
graders in math scores on state
standardized tests, and a 48% diminution of the gap relating to English scores on
state standardized tests, while at the same time seeing the high school graduation
rates increase slightly from 72% in the 1998-99 school year to 73% in 2002-2003
(The Education Trust-West, 2004). The introduction of Career Academies did not
yield academic gains for students, however the implementation did result in an
increase on the average monthly earnings of students during the first four years after
they graduated from high school, as compared to students who did not participate in
the Career Academy program (Quint, 2006).

Stimulating Change
Daily routines at a school site eventually come to define and form what one
thinks of as the school’s culture; new teachers inevitably become entrenched in this
culture as well (Levin, 2001). If this culture does not translate into a positive
correlation with student achievement, schools should reconsider the merits of their
current cultures. Modifying existing structures may prove a challenge, as this may

44
contradict or supplant current systems set in place at the school site, however the
process of stimulating change may need to occur in order to facilitate and ultimately
sustain the implementation of policy. Quint (2006) identifies the following as
essential elements in stimulating and sustaining change at the high school level:
1. Investing personnel resources to create effective change;
2. Consider the adequacy of current programs and the capability of
current staff to implement change if contemplating the
implementation of an extensive reform or adding elements to existing
programs;
3. Support by the school district in relation to the implementation;
4. Refrain from “reform hopping,” and allow enough time to evaluate
the effectiveness of a given refinement;
5. Balance lofty aspirations with sound presumptions.
To create effective change by investing in personnel resources a school might
consider focusing professional development on both curriculum and instruction.
High impact high schools--high schools that generate uncharacteristic academic
growth among students that began high school markedly behind--focus their
professional development for new teachers along the lines of curriculum and
instruction, experience greater growth among students, as opposed to average impact
schools that provide professional development with a personal and social focus for
new teachers (The Education Trust, 2005). By providing multifaceted professional
development programs, for new and veteran teachers alike, schools can focus on and

45
integrate two essential components to the learning process within the classroom,
rather than isolating the concepts of curriculum and instruction as separate entities.
The adequacy of current programs and potential implications for change,
require us to rethink about how schools currently utilize resources, as a way to avoid
cost increases, which may occur as a result of school reform (Hawley Miles &
Darling-Hammond, 1998). Schools must ensure that they provide an adequate and
equitable environment for students, yet at the same time should refrain from simply
putting additional funding into programs without evaluating the effectiveness of
current implementations and potential results of plausible reforms.
Jerald (2005) states that stakeholders often ignore the crucial element of the
implementation phase in school reform, which ultimately results in the failure of a
given reform measure. To remedy this miscalculation, school districts should
provide schools with the necessary support to implement change, grant schools more
control over their own budget and school personnel, involve multiple levels of school
staff in the reform (not just administrators), allow administrators the necessary time
to effectively oversee school reform, and encourages schools to become familiar
with literature that focuses on organizational change (Jerald, 2005). By following
the above recommendations, school districts may enable schools to avoid “reform
hopping,” as they allow for the proper elements of time, control, along with
emphasizing the best practices available in the literature on school reform and policy
implementation.

46
Balancing lofty aspirations with sound judgment requires that we remain
realistic about the nature and potential outcomes of policy implementation at the
high school level. Stakeholders should remember that while schools should not
immediately replace school reform measures, they should improve upon them, foster
congruous implementation, as well as understand that other levels of education (e.g.
Kindergarten through grade eight) must also undergo reform (Quint, 2006).
Viewing policy implementation and school reform in this way may cultivate a
systematic development of school reform, in which various elements build upon each
other across the various grade levels, while stakeholders allow for adequate time
when evaluating an implementation and instituting subsequent reforms, which may
result in the stimulation and ultimately the perpetuation of school reform.

Policy Implementation in Relation to AP
The open enrollment of AP classes and the implementation of policy present
a similar dynamic, as the very notion of opening up AP courses for all high school
students represents a pivotal aspect of education reform. Klopfenstein (2003)
provides the following parameters for a successful AP program:
A well-run Advanced Placement Program provides high school students from
a wide range of backgrounds with valuable information about college.
Students are challenged by a rigorous curriculum, but perhaps more
important, they learn study skills and habits of mind conducive to success in
college. AP classes allow students to learn these skills in a familiar high

47
school environment with a level of individualized attention that is unavailable
at most colleges and universities (p. 47).
The benefits of a successful AP program can provide a solution to the challenges that
high schools face when implementing policy, as presented by Quint (2006). While
the notion of facilitating an open enrollment based AP program may result in a set of
challenges of its own, it also presents the opportunity for a greater number of
stakeholders to benefit from the process, by providing an adequate and equitable
education for students. Concurrently, an open enrollment based AP program
provides a medium by which to examine the concept of resource allocation and use
as theoretically more students would have access to the funding utilized in an open
enrollment based AP program, as well as the fact that a high school may utilize
funding differently as a result of the number of students involved in an open
enrollment based AP program.

Adequacy and Equity in Relation to Resource Allocation and Use
Stakeholders in a democratic society must place an emphasis on equity, and
view it as a means of producing high standards for citizens within the society
(Gittell, 2005). As vehicles of instruction for our citizenry, public schools within the
United States face an imperative responsibility in emphasizing not just equity, but
also by having adequate measures in play which would enable significant
improvements in student achievement that meet standards-based requirements.
Unfortunately, very few policies that focus on the improvement of educational

48
equality and achievement translate into long term gains for students, as well as
American society as a whole (Borman & Hewes, 2002).
School implementations (e.g. curriculum and pedagogy) may lack academic
rigor and the full support of stakeholders, which hinders the standards based reform
movement (Odden & Archibald, 2001). These existing conditions suggest that
simply allocating additional funding to education for the purpose of program
development may not result in an increase of student achievement. Therefore,
spending additional money does not automatically translate into an adequate and
equitable educational experience for students.
Instead, schools striving to increase student achievement in the current
climate of the standards-based education movement should reexamine the current
allocation of school staffing and resources, in addition to incorporating additional
resources (Odden & Picus, 2004).
The incorporation of state standards, the subsequent standardized tests
assessing student performance in relation to the state standards, along with state and
federal evaluations of school performance place a strong emphasis on the element of
accountability within the field of education. Among other findings, the initial results
of standards based assessments show that many students perform below the target
level, with a disproportionate number of these students coming from an African
American or Hispanic background (Kober, 2001). The notion that students from a
specific racial or socioeconomic background perform at a lower level than their peers
makes us question how equitable our schools are. The varying performances are

49
material facts that enable us to create more equitable schools. In approaching the
concept of resource reallocation schools should reexamine current programs in place
in an attempt to gauge their effectiveness and potential modification to increase
student achievement.
Hawley Miles and Darling-Hammond (1998) note that a majority of teachers
work with students outside of the regular classroom to satisfy specific categorical
programs, such as special education, bilingual education, remedial education, gifted
education, and Title I programs. As pullout programs, the above interventions target
predetermined students. While ideally the interventions benefit those selected for the
various programs, the issue of the achievement gap presents the possibility that the
current system of categorical education may not net the results that stakeholders
desire.
Schools have traditionally based student admission to gifted education
programs on the premise of student performance on standardized tests (University of
Kentucky College of Education, 2006). The traditional practices regarding student
classification as gifted may contradict the concept of an adequate and equitable
education in regards to students who do not receive gifted classification. Rather than
designate gifted education as a separate component from the mainstream classroom,
educators might consider incorporating gifted education into the mainstream
classroom environment, so that all students will receive access to gifted education.
Tomlinson (2001) states “We know that learning happens best when a
learning experience pushes the learner a bit beyond his or her independence level”

50
(p. 8). In that case, all students should receive access to gifted education, as the
curriculum should propel students beyond their current level of educational
attainment. By incorporating gifted education into the mainstream classroom,
schools may experience an opportunity in which they can implement reform and
make it available to all students, regardless of their classification. Teachers can
incorporate gifted education into the mainstream classroom by differentiating
instruction for all students.
Tomlinson (2001) finds that teachers focus on the following three categories
in their classrooms when facilitating curriculum:
1. Content;
2. Process;
3. Product.
Content refers to the material covered by the teacher, as well as information that
students must learn. Process details how students learn the material (e.g. teacher
lecture). Product refers to the eventual demonstration of students with reference to
what they have learned. Students can showcase their product through a variety of
measures including a summative essay, class discussion, or performance on an end
of unit test. In regards to the differentiation of curriculum, teachers must keep in
mind that they need to prepare students to perform well on standardized tests, as the
federal and state governments utilize this data in assessing school and student
progress.

51
The differentiation of curriculum allows teachers and students alike to
participate in a variety of different activities. However, this does not necessarily
mean that schools need to allocate additional funding for this reform. By granting
more students access to the higher level thinking available in differentiated
instruction, schools may benefit from an increase in student performance on
standardized tests, while simply utilizing resources already earmarked for
mainstream classes, and supplementing any additional expenses by incorporating
state or federal funding for gifted education.
The concept of resource allocation and use transcends the sole issue of
funding and the subsequent implementation of a reform measure. In addressing the
concept of resource allocation and use, Fermanich and Kimball (2002) cite the
following areas as issues that while not necessarily constituting monetary resources,
require the attention of stakeholders:
1. Readiness and capacity for change;
2. Legal and regulatory issues.
These issues should receive consideration as they can potentially have a positive or
negative impact on a reform based implementation.

Readiness and Capacity for Change
While schools often have some flexibility in relation to reallocating financial
aspects, the human factor focusing on the perception of faculty and staff should
receive attention, as the current makeup of faculty positions may change as a result

52
of the fiscal reallocation (Fermanich & Kimball, 2002). Bolman and Deal (2003)
cite disparate interests, in combination with the premise of scant resources as a
precursor for contention within an organization. Since the purpose of schools should
revolve around providing an adequate and equitable education for students,
stakeholders must do all that they can to minimize conflict that may result from the
discussion of reallocating resources. Fermanich and Kimball (2002) suggest that
decisions in relation to curriculum and the usage of school resources should receive
consideration and resolution at the school site level via teams of stakeholders.
Allowing resource allocation decisions to occur at the school site level may stifle the
development of conflict, as ideally, members of the school community will have the
opportunity to reevaluate the current usage of resources, and realign them in a
fashion that will better serve students.
Odden and Archibald (2001) designate the following three stages as
instruments of initiating educational change:
1. Laying the foundation for change;
2. Creating a new educational strategy;
3. Implementing, monitoring, and continuous improvement.
In addition to serving as a template representing pivotal measures involving
the readiness and capacity for change, the three stages also provide a strong
framework to utilize when concerning resource allocation and use. Stakeholders
must first establish appropriate measures in which to institute change, as opposed to
simply enacting an educational reform haphazardly.

53
Odden and Picus (2004) attribute the impetus for modifying current
educational practices to the discontent teachers exhibit towards the ineffective nature
of their previous reforms or implementations. This scenario proves a positive boon
in contrast to the position Levin (2001) presents, in stating that schools refrain from
looking to implement changes.
One of the major pitfalls stakeholders face regarding educational reform
involves the process of planning and coordinating the new implementation (Fullan,
2001). If stakeholders work collaboratively in developing the educational reform,
and extend their consort throughout the implementation and monitoring stage, the
notion of continuous should result as a positive after affect of the process.

Legal and Regulatory Issues
In determining methods by which to reallocate resources, stakeholders must
remain mindful of current of stipulations put in place by outside entities. The state
or federal government may already establish mandates in relation to the specific
usage of certain funding, requirements for various programs, as well as the
proportion of staffing (e.g. teachers, administrators, and classified staff) (Fermanich
& Kimball, 2002). Additionally, Fermanich and Kimball (2002) cite district wide
policies or structures, such as curriculum, standards utilized in staffing schools, class
size objectives, and objections from labor unions (e.g. teachers or classified
employees) regarding reallocation as internal avenues of regulation. Schools must
therefore consider requirements or stipulations relating to the above categories, prior

54
to reallocating resources. However, as stated previously, the components of
legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act establish a strong framework in
which the federal government stipulates that public school teachers achieve “highly
qualified” status, thus modifying the standards schools or school districts might have
utilized in previous years regarding the potential employment and subsequent
staffing decisions in relation to teachers (United States Department of Education,
2003).

Recommendations for Reallocation
Once a school establishes the needs of the stakeholders, and determines the
change process that will lead to the fulfillment of the needs, stakeholders must
develop new educational strategies that will facilitate change. Odden and Archibald
(2001) cite the importance of curriculum, providing additional assistance to students
who need additional instruction, and teacher professional development as pivotal
elements of developing a new educational strategy. Borman and Hewes (2002)
suggest that school districts may want to consider implementing new educational
strategies that carry over throughout schools at all levels (e.g. elementary through
high school) within the district. This premise will result in improved educational
policy in the areas of curriculum, assisting students, and professional development,
as well as potentially resulting in lower facilitation costs.
Rather than developing isolated professional development programs
throughout the district, school leaders should consider adopting uniform professional

55
development opportunities throughout the district. The numerous professional
development programs school districts amass and implement often result in a
financial burden, and do not provide the provide the desired results (Odden
Archibald, Fermanich, & Gallagher 2002). By implementing a district wide system
of professional development that applies to all schools within the district, the district
has the potential opportunity to get all schools together on the same page, focusing
on the professional development implementation, which ideally ties in with the
district mission statement. This can foster a collegial community in which
stakeholders collaborate together across schools, which may increase the usage of
the professional development program, and ideally its effectiveness.
Instituting a professional development program that carries over across
schools and grade levels can simultaneously improve curriculum aspects in relation
of the new educational strategies, as well as provide additional support for students.
Pacing guides prove an effective medium that specifically addresses the challenge of
ensuring that teachers cover essential curriculum, in addition to assisting students,
and providing a vehicle for professional development. Rettig, McCullough, Santos,
and Watson (2003) offer the following definition of a pacing guide:
A pacing guide is a standardized format for long-range planning that groups
learning objectives into units, allocates time to each unit, and sequences unit
on a calendar…(which) provides a plan for teaching the relevant curriculum
before administering the state-mandated assessments (p. 72).

56
If a school district presides over multiple comprehensive high schools, faculty at the
high schools should collaborate together to develop the pacing guides, as well as the
curriculum. While this may result in an additional investment on behalf of the
district, the results may result in substantial dividends. Schools need to ensure that
students receive instruction in essential content prior to taking state standardized
tests. Cross-curricular planning at the district level can ensure that all schools have
the same adequate resource to utilize. Developing the curriculum beforehand also
allows teachers to focus more on pedagogical aspects of instruction, and in
determining which best practices can serve as a focus for implementation throughout
the district.
In addition to benefiting school districts and individual school sites, the
concept of pacing guides must also assist students. In the year 1997, the Department
of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA), a system of schools serving children of
military and civilian personal working for the Department of Defense throughout 15
foreign countries, 7 states, and Puerto Rico, presented a systemic accountability
system for their schools, which highlighted the following reforms:
• Established and implemented standards, policies, procedures, time
lines, and measures for monitoring performance on system wide
goals, benchmarks, and school operation improvement plans to
support the Strategic Plan for all DoDEA units;

57
• Aligned curriculum development with the assessment and
professional development process (Department of Defense Education
Activity p. 25, 1997).
While the reforms encompassed multiple measures, the aforementioned reforms
specifically address how a pacing guide can assist students requiring extra assistance
in mastering the curriculum.
DoDEA schools serve a diverse student body, with students of color
representing 40% of the population, 50% qualifying for free and reduced meals, 80%
have a parent with no education beyond high school, while simultaneously
experiencing a 35% transience rate due to the reassignment of parents (Bridgiall &
Gordon, 2003). These statistics present an image similar to what one may find when
viewing an inner city school. However, unlike many inner city schools throughout
the United States, the DoDEA schools have managed to make significant inroads to
closing the achievement gap between white and traditionally marginalized students
(Bridgiall & Gordon, 2003).
Pacing guides can assist students if the situation arises that they must switch
classes. If a student switches classes within the school, or even within the district,
the use of a pacing guide theoretically will ensure that each class remains on the
same page, so that the student will have the opportunity to pick up the curriculum
wherever he or she left off. Additionally, pacing guides can facilitate interaction
among students, even if they do not have the same teacher for the same subject. If
all the teachers in the department instruct similar content on the same day, and

58
likewise assess students on the same day as well, students will have a broader base of
peers to network with, which will ideally translate into an increase in student
performance.

Adequacy, Equity, and Reallocation and Use in Relation to AP
In response to inequity concerning the availability of AP courses and the
implications they can have in the college admissions process, California high school
students filed two class action lawsuits in 1999; Daniel et al. v. State of California,
and Castaneda et al. v. University of California Regents (Solorzano & Ornelas,
2004).
The American Civil Liberties Union filed Daniel et al. on behalf of students
at Inglewood High School stating that the three AP courses offered resulted in an
inadequate education (Brown, 2004). In addition, the suit charged the State that
school districts within its jurisdiction denied students equal and adequate access to
AP courses, and that the lack of access to AP courses and national examinations
placed them at a disadvantage in comparison with other California high school
students in regards to competing for admission to colleges and universities
(Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004). Castaneda et al., a Federal civil rights class action
lawsuit charged the University of California Regents and the University of
California, Berkley (UC Berkley), violated the rights of students of color who were
denied equal access to AP courses in their high school, because of an admissions
policy at UC Berkley that grants students additional points during the admission

59
process for enrolling in AP courses, taking AP national examinations, and AP grades
(Solorzano & Ornelas, 2004).
To some extent, Daniel et al. spurred the California Department of Education
to develop the AP Challenge Grant program, which focuses on increasing the
number of underrepresented students enrolling in AP courses, increasing the number
of AP courses that California high schools offer, and offsetting the cost of taking AP
national examinations for students, in addition to other initiatives that encourage the
development of AP programs (Brown, 2004). The California Education Code
Section 52240-52244 (California State Legislature, 1999), earmarks current funding
already available to school districts for the specific purpose of assisting low-income
students with paying to take AP national examinations, by supplementing the
examination fee and requiring the student to make a five dollar co-payment.
Unfortunately, the above reforms have not necessarily translated into an
increase in the number of AP courses offered, or the number of underrepresented
students participating in an AP program. Zarate and Pachon (2006) find a negative
correlation between the number of AP courses offered at schools with a high
percentage of students eligible for free and reduced meals, as well as in high schools
with a high population of underrepresented students, throughout the state of
California, in spite of the inroads attempted via the AP Challenge grant program and
California Education Code Section 52240-52244.
Thus what the above data reveals, requires a reexamination of adequacy and
equity, as well as resource allocation and use. The AP Challenge grant program

60
serves as a model for reallocation, but further work must be done in the drive
towards equity and adequacy. The issue of the open enrollment of AP classes is
redundant, if high schools do not offer AP programs in the first place.

Summary of the Literature Review
This chapter presented the literature review in relation to this study. The four
components of the AP program, accelerated schools/AS PLUS, the implementation
of policy, and the concept of resource allocation and use as it pertains to providing
an adequate and equitable education represent viable frameworks schools and school
districts can utilize to improve student performance. The idea of an open enrollment
based AP program incorporates elements from the four components of the literature
review, as it does the following:
• Champions the vision of the College Board in providing a program
for motivated high school students;
• Follows the accelerated schools model by treating all students as
gifted and talented, while providing the proper support;
• Represents a viable element of policy implementation that addresses
performance and opportunity gaps;
• Presents a template for schools to reallocate resources and ensure all
students have access to an adequate and equitable education.
The literature review showcases the necessity in further investigating how schools
utilize existing resources to facilitate an open enrollment based AP program, as well

61
as researching specific impacts an open enrollment based AP program has on student
achievement, while they are still in high school.

62
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter describes the design, sample, instrumentation, data collection,
and the data analysis that were utilized in the study. The purpose of the study was to
investigate whether or not the open enrollment of AP classes would increase student
achievement, particularly as it pertained to performance on standardized tests, among
other factors. The study focused on how an open enrollment based AP program
operates, both at the academic department and school-wide level. One Southern
California school district and high school were selected to discern the imperative
components and implementation strategies that showcased a perceived successful
implementation of an open enrollment based AP program. Four research questions
addressed this purpose:
1. How are personnel utilized for the facilitation of an open enrollment
based AP program?
2. How are resource allocation decisions for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program determined?
3. How much funding is allocated for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding stem
from, and what is the funding utilized for?
4. How is an open enrollment based AP program utilized to increase
student achievement?

63
This study utilized qualitative, descriptive-analytic case study research
methods, to provide an in-depth analysis and understanding of a school site that
allows for the open enrollment of AP classes. Interviews with key participants at the
school site and district level were used to gather data as it pertains to the study. The
conceptual framework of the study served as a template for designing the interview
guides to focus on the emergence of themes surrounding the research questions. In
addition, this study utilized quantitative measures in examining data pertaining to
student performance. This resulted in an in-depth study and analysis of a school site
that allows for the open enrollment of AP classes. Interviews were utilized to collect
data.

Sample and Population
The study focused on a single high school in a comprehensive unified
(Kindergarten through grade twelve) school district, which has operated an open
enrollment based AP program since the 1997-1998 school year.

Overview of District and School
The district selected for this study, Costa Nostra Unified School District, is a
unified district (Kindergarten through grade twelve) located in suburban north San
Diego County in Southern California. The Costa Nostra Unified School District has
seventeen comprehensive elementary schools, one alternative elementary school,
three middle schools, two comprehensive high schools, two alternative high schools,

64
and a charter high school. Point Break High School has four full-time administrators
and 126 full-time teachers. Point Break High School serves a diverse student
population, including students whose parents are stationed at a nearby military base.
Tables 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 (on the following pages) provide demographic
information as it pertains to the Costa Nostra Unified School District and Point
Break High School.

Table 3.1
Costa Nostra Unified School District At Risk Population Counts 2005-2006

At Risk Population Count % of Total Enrollment
English Language
Learner
5,594 26.2
Free and Reduced Meals 10,029 46.9

65

Table 3.2
Costa Nostra Unified School District Enrollment by Ethnicity 2005-2006

Ethnicity Count % of Total Enrollment
American Indian or
Alaskan Native
145 0.7
Asian 433 2.0
Pacific Islander 576 2.7
Filipino 752 3.5
Hispanic or Latino 11,184 52.3
African American 1,940 9.1
White (not Hispanic) 6,082 28.5
Multiple or No Response 255 1.2
Total 21,367 100%

Table 3.3
Point Break High School At Risk Population Counts 2005-2006

At Risk Population Count % of Total Enrollment
English Language
Learner
415 14.5
Free and Reduced Meals 833 29.2

66

Table 3.4
Point Break High School Enrollment by Ethnicity 2005-2006

Ethnicity Count % of Total Enrollment
American Indian or
Alaskan Native
18 0.6
Asian 96 3.4
Pacific Islander 103 3.6
Filipino 182 6.4
Hispanic or Latino 1,161 40.7
African American 359 12.6
White (not Hispanic) 924 32.4
Multiple or No Response 10 0.4
Total 2,853 100%

Point Break High School instituted an open enrollment policy for AP courses,
during the 1997-1998 school year, and has witnessed a dramatic increase in the
number of students enrolling in AP courses. Rather than opening enrollment for all
courses simultaneously, Point Break High School opened enrollment on a gradual
basis, while concurrently adding additional AP courses and sections. During the
2005-2006 school year, Point Break High School facilitated 1,157 AP national
exams, with a 55.4% passing rate. Point Break High School was selected as a
California Distinguished School in 2003. Point Break High School received

67
recognition from the United States Department of Education during the 2004-2005
school year and was chosen as one of four high schools throughout the United States
to present at the National High School Summit in Washington, D.C., regarding how
the school had made inroads in narrowing the achievement gap between traditionally
marginalized students and white students.
During the 2005-2006 school year Point Break High School joined the
Advanced Placement Consortium Project (APCP) a coalition of 14 school districts
serving 36 middle and high schools in North San Diego County, facilitated by the
San Diego County Office of Education. The APCP is funded by a three million
dollar grant that covers three years (June 2005 through May 2008). While currently
targeting high schools in north San Diego County during the first two years of the
grant, the APAC will subsequently focus on schools in the greater San Diego County
area. The goal of the grant focuses on increasing the number of low-income students
enrolled in AP classes by 10%, while simultaneously increasing the number of low-
income students passing the AP national examination by 3%. The focus of the
funding provided by the APCP grant targets staff development in preparation for
teaching AP classes, and ultimately increasing the success of all students enrolled in
AP courses.

District Leader Descriptions
Three district leaders constituted a portion of the sample: the Superintendent,
the Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, and the Director of

68
Curriculum. The Superintendent has served the Costa Nostra Unified School District
in that capacity since 1997. The Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and
Instruction has been with the district for the past year and a half. Prior to joining
Costa Nostra, he had previously worked for another school district in San Diego
County, as the Director of Higher Academic Initiatives, and Area Superintendent.
The Director of Curriculum had previously served as the principal of Point Break
High School, prior to taking her current position at the district level.

Site Administrators
The two site administrators consisted of the Principal, and the Teacher on
Special Assignment: Testing Coordinator (TOSA) at Point Break High School. The
Principal is in his fourth year at Point Break High School, and has previously served
as a principal and assistant principal at other school sites throughout the district. The
TOSA taught for 10 years at Point Break High School, prior to being appointed
TOSA for the past two school years.

Teacher Descriptions
Four teachers who concurrently serve as Department Chairs were selected for
in-depth interviews. The selection consisted of Department Chairs from the
following academic departments: English, Math, Science, and Social Science. The
above disciplines were chosen, as they are assessed via the California Standards Test
(CST), and also have students taking the AP national exam. The team met

69
throughout the spring of 2006, and collaborated on a weekly basis throughout the
summer of 2006. The group collaboratively developed the conceptual framework,
which utilizes the evidence-based approach as developed by Odden, Picus, Goetz,
and Fermanich (2006) and the Six Rs, or the six core strategies (Fermanich, Turner
Mangan, Odden, Picus, Gross, & Rudo, 2006).

Conceptual Framework
This case study utilized a single conceptual framework as a lens through
which to examine and evaluate the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP
program. The evidence based-approach (Odden and Picus, et al., 2006) served as the
framework of the study, as it allowed the researcher to investigate and analyze the
current practices of the school in relation to the facilitation of an open enrollment
based AP program. The model developed for use in the evidence-based approach
focused on providing all students with an adequate education, via the incorporation
of the six core strategies, which encourages school districts to do the following:
1. Recalibrate goals;
2. Re-engineer schools;
3. Redesign professional development;
4. Reinforce achievement;
5. Retool technology;
6. Restructure teacher compensation.

70
In addition to viewing reform at the district level, the six core strategies can
also serve as a framework for site-based reform initiated by an individual school.
Figure 3.1 provides a template that describes the relationship between the six
core strategies, the Conceptual Framework, and the research questions.
Figure 3.1
Relationship Between the Six Core Strategies and the Research Questions

Six Core Strategies
(6 R’s)

RQ 1:
How are
personnel
utilized for the
facilitation of
an open
enrollment
based AP
program?
RQ 2:
How are
resource
allocation
decisions for
the facilitation
of an open
enrollment
based AP
program
determined?
RQ 3:
How much
funding is
allocated for
the facilitation
of an open
enrollment
based AP
program, what
sources does
the funding
stem from, and
what is the
funding
utilized for?
RQ 4:
How is an
open
enrollment
based AP
program
utilized to
increase
student
achievement?
1. Recalibrate
Goals
X X X X
2. Re-engineer
Schools
X X X X
3. Redesign
Professional
Development
X
4. Reinforce
Achievement
X X X
5. Retool
Technology
X
6. Restructure
Teacher
Compensation
X

71
Framework for Research Question One
The first research question asked, “How are personnel utilized for the
facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program? Two of the six core strategies
were utilized to answer this question. The recalibration of goals was utilized in
focusing this question, as the school may have different goals for personnel as the
result of an open enrollment based AP program. Additionally, re-engineering
schools was utilized as it aims to determine if the school utilizes personnel in a
different capacity. This question was answered via structured interviews.

Framework for Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “How are resource allocation decisions
for the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program determined?” Three of
the six core strategies served as indicators to focus the question. The strategy of
recalibrating goals focused on determining how the philosophy behind an open
enrollment based AP program impacts the goals of a school. Re-engineering schools
served as a template for how a school modifies its master schedule, and how courses
are designed to facilitate student success in AP classes, which also ties in with the
core strategy of reinforcing achievement. This question was answered via structured
interviews and the review of pertinent documents.

72
Framework for Research Question Three
The third research question asked, “How much funding is allocated for the
facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding
stem from, and what is the funding utilized for?” All of the six core strategies were
utilized in focusing this research question. Recalibrating goals was chosen, because
it focuses on the aims and purpose of the funding. Re-engineering schools served a
focal point as it addresses how the funding will be utilized. Redesigning
professional development addresses any specific funding allocated for the sole
purpose of professional development. Reinforcing achievement served as a guide for
correlating funding with initiatives targeting student support. Retooling technology
addressed any modifications in technology utilized in an open enrollment based AP
program. Restructuring teacher compensation focused on any differentiations in
compensation that may result in teachers participating in an open enrollment based
AP program. This question was answered through structured interviews and the
review of pertinent documents.

Framework for Research Question Four
The fourth research question asked, “How is an open enrollment based AP
program utilized to increase student achievement? Three of the six core strategies
collectively served as a focal point for guiding this question. Recalibrating goals and
reinforcing achievement focused on any changes a school may incur regarding goals
in relation to student performance, as well as measures a school implements to

73
support students. Re-engineering schools focused on what changes may occur at a
school as a result of a change in student performance, as a result of an open
enrollment based AP program. This question was answered through structured
interviews and the review of pertinent documents.
Figure 3.2 demonstrates the link between the data collection instruments and
the research questions.

Figure 3.2
Data Collection Instruments and Research Questions

Data Collection
Instrument
RQ 1:
How are
teachers
utilized for
the
facilitation
of an open
enrollment
based AP
program?
RQ 2:
How does an
open
enrollment
based AP
program
impact the
types of
courses
offered by a
high school?
RQ 3:
How much
funding is
allocated for
the
facilitation
of an open
enrollment
based AP
program,
how is it
determined,
and what is it
utilized for?
RQ 4:
How does an
open
enrollment
based AP
program
increase
student
achievement
at the high
school level?
Interview Guide
District Administrators,
Site Administrators,
Teachers (Department
Chairs)
X X X X
Document Review Guide X X X X

74
Data Collection Instruments
The conceptual frameworks generated for the research questions resulted in
the foundation for the selection and construction of the two data collection
instruments, the Interview Guide, and the Document Review Guide by the thematic
dissertation research group. The Interview Guide aligned probing questions for each
of the identified groups of stakeholders by expanding each research question into a
series of interview questions. The conceptual framework served as a basis for the
document analysis by utilizing the structure of the Document Review Guide. The
Interview Guide and the Document Review Guide were sampled with subjects
outside of the cross section as a means to gauge the accuracy and effectiveness of the
instruments. Necessary revisions were made as a result of insights garnered after the
preliminary sessions had taken place.

Instrument 1: Interview Review Guide
Interviews were conducted with the following nine stakeholders:
• Superintendent, Costa Nostra Unified School District;
• Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, Costa Nostra
Unified School District;
• Director of Curriculum, Costa Nostra Unified School District;
• Principal, Point Break High School;
• TOSA, Point Break High School;
• English Department Chair, Point Break High School;

75
• Math Department Chair, Point Break High School;
• Science Department Chair, Point Break High School;
• Social Science Department Chair, Point Break High School.
Current research on organizational improvement for structure and educational
funding served as a basis for the development of the Interview Guide. In developing
the Interview Guide, the researcher utilized the six core strategies established in the
Conceptual Framework to develop interview questions that addressed the strategies.
The Interview Guide consists of three formatted interviews designed for each group
of stakeholders so that they could address the six core strategies as it pertains to their
current position. The structure of the interviews was determined by the practices of
the Costa Nostra Unified School District and Point Break High School in relation to
the research questions. Supplemental questions enabled the researcher to provide
clarification of the research questions if needed.
The interviews spanned 20 to 60 minutes, and varied in focus depending on
the role of the person interviewed. The initial interview questions and supplemental
questions were designed based upon the role of the interviewee at the school site or
district level. District leaders were interviewed at the district office, site
administrators were interviewed in the office of the school site, and teacher
interviews occurred either in their classroom or office. All participants were
guaranteed of confidentiality and anonymity with relation to their interview.

76
Instrument 2: Document Review Guide
The Document Review Guide served as an organizational format in which to
analyze documents that pertained to school, district, and comparative data that
pertained to the similar schools researched in this study. The Document Review
Guide functioned as a template for coding the data gathered, based upon the
corresponding themes of the Conceptual Framework. Additionally, the Document
Review Guide facilitated the classification of comparable and complimentary data
garnered from the structured interviews and documents.
An analysis of the documentation focused on the relationship between the
document and any research questions that they address. Further document analysis
commenced with the aim of aligning documents with the six core strategies
presented in the conceptual framework. Moreover, comparisons were noted in
relation to findings from the structured interviews and the document review process
(Patton, 2002).

Data Collection
Data collection commenced in September 2006, and concluded in January
2007. Prior to collecting data, the researcher contacted the Superintendent of the
Costa Nostra Unified School District, and the Principal of Point Break High School
to discuss the purpose of this study and the data that the researcher will collect.
Data collection took place over a five-month time frame. Interviews were
conducted on days and at times convenient to the interviewees. Prior to conducting

77
each interview, the interviewee reviewed an Information Sheet detailing the
interview questions, as well as the protocol of the interview.

Data Analysis
The purpose of this study focused on how the open enrollment of AP classes
was implemented at Point Break High School and what impact if any the
implementation has had on student achievement. The data collection addressed the
purpose of the study through the analysis of the five research questions in the
following approach:
Qualitative Data:
Nine interviews were recorded, transcribed, and reviewed for the purpose of
drawing comparisons along key/scaleable points.

Quantitative Data:
Quantitative data ranging from the 1996-1997 school year, the year prior to
instituting the open enrollment of AP classes at Point Break High School, to data
from the 2005-2006 school year was collected for Point Break High School, as well
as similar schools utilized in this study. The data included the following:
• AP budget information for Point Break High School;
• AP national exam passing rates;
• API;
• California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) Results;

78
• High school graduation rate;
• Number of AP courses and classes offered;
• Number/Percentage of students enrolled in AP classes.

Document Review Guide:
The research questions were utilized to categorize the data obtained from the
Document Review Guide. The six core strategies in the conceptual framework
served as a cross-reference for the data. The evidence-based model presented in the
conceptual framework served as juxtaposition with the data colleted from the
Document Review Guide.

Summary
This chapter provided a description of the research methods that were utilized
in the study, which included a description of the research design, sample,
fundamental conceptual frameworks, data collection instruments, as well as an
overview detailing the data collection and analysis, that were utilized in relation to
the data findings.

79
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected to help understand
whether or not the open enrollment of AP classes will help increase student
achievement, particularly as it pertains to performance on state standardized tests and
other factors. One of the study’s objectives was to examine how an open enrollment
based AP program operates, both at the academic department and school-wide level.
The reallocation of school resources as it pertains to adequacy, equity, and
improving student achievement served as a template in which Point Break High
School’s open enrollment based AP program was analyzed. Case study
methodology was utilized to garner data from a California high school and the school
district where it is located that currently uses an open enrollment based AP program.
Data for this study were obtained using the following instruments:
• Interviews with three district leaders (Superintendent, Deputy
Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, and the Director of
Curriculum;
• Interviews with two site administrators (Principal and TOSA);
• Interviews with four teachers (English, Math, Science, and Social
Science Department Chairs);
• Data pertaining to student achievement at Point Break High School
and similar schools (e.g. CST results);

80
• Student demographic information for students at Point Break High
School and similar schools;
• AP Budget information for Point Break High School (1996-1997
school year through the 2005-2006 school year);
• Researcher rating form: (1) Document Review Guide. The
Document Review Guide was based on the conceptual frameworks
developed by the thematic dissertation group.
Data obtained from the selected school and school district were analyzed
using the conceptual framework developed for the research questions to identify
pivotal elements involved in the design and implementation of an open enrollment
based AP program.
Four research questions were developed for this study:
1. How are personnel utilized for the facilitation of an open enrollment
based AP program?
2. How are resource allocation decisions for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program determined?
3. How much funding is allocated for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding stem
from, and what is the funding utilized for?
4. How is an open enrollment based AP program utilized to increase
student achievement?

81
For comparative purposes, seven high schools were utilized to compare the
data gathered at Point Break High School. The California Department of Education
identified the seven high schools as similar schools, based on the 2005-2006 API
Base School Report for Point Break High School. The researcher selected the seven
high schools as they, like Point Break are located in San Diego County. The seven
high schools are all comprehensive four-year high schools. At risk population counts
and school enrollment by ethnicity for the 2005-2006 school year of Point Break
High School, as well as the similar high schools, are presented below in the
following tables:
Table 4.1
High School Special At Risk Population Counts 2005-2006

School
Total
Enrollment
English
Language
Learner
Count
% of Total
Enrollment
Free and
Reduced
Meal
Count
% of Total
Enrollment
Central 2,740 516 18.8 422 15.4
East 1,674 255 15.2 1,076 64.3
Highland 2,109 182 8.6 1,104 52.3
North
Coast
1,477 209 14.2 709 48
Point
Break
2,853 415 14.5 833 29.2
Valley 1,456 285 19.6 502 34.5
West 2,877 583 20.3 1,003 34.9
Wilson 478 70 14.6 216 45.2

82

Table 4.2
High School Enrollment by Ethnicity 2005-2006

School
American Indian or
Alaskan Native
Asian
Pacific Islander
Filipino
Hispanic or Latino
African American
White (not Hispanic)
Multiple or No
Response
Total Enrollment
Central 26 79 9 72 1,424 90 1,020 20 2,740
East 13 143 8 23 876 242 369 0 1,674
Highland 19 223 27 90 728 362 680 0 2,109
North
Coast
11 68 7 13 686 78 614 0 1,477
Point
Break
18 96 103 182 1,161 359 924 10 2,853
Valley 7 59 8 43 769 41 529 0 1,456
West 31 35 11 25 1,194 51 1,365 175 2,877
Wilson 33 4 2 8 156 4 271 0 1,733

83

Table 4.3
High School Enrollment by Ethnicity: Percentage of Total Enrollment 2005-2006

School
American Indian or
Alaskan Native
Asian
Pacific Islander
Filipino
Hispanic or Latino
African American
White (not Hispanic)
Multiple or No
Response
Total Enrollment
Central 0.9 2.9 0.3 2.6 52.0 3.3 37.2 0.7 2,740
East 0.8 8.5 0.5 1.4 52.3 14.5 22.0 0.0 1,674
Highland 0.9 10.6 1.3 4.3 34.5 17.2 31.3 0.0 2,109
North
Coast
0.7 4.6 0.5 0.9 46.4 5.3 41.6 0.0 1,477
Point
Break
0.6 3.4 3.6 6.4 40.7 12.6 32.4 0.4 2,853
Valley 0.5 4.1 0.5 3.0 52.8 2.8 36.3 0.0 1,456
West 1.1 1.2 0.4 0.9 41.4 1.8 47.3 6.1 2,877
Wilson 6.9 0.8 0.4 1.7 32.6 0.8 56.7 0.0 1,733

84
Research Question One: How are Personnel Utilized for the Facilitation of an
Open Enrollment Based AP program?
Data for Research Question One
The purpose of research question one was to determine if differentiations in
staffing exist as a result of an open enrollment based AP program. Data was
collected from interviews at the district, school site, and academic department levels.
The researcher triangulated data from the interviews, which provided a means in
which to answer the first question.

Summary of Findings for Research Question One
The Superintendent noted that administration of the open enrollment based
AP program operates at the school site, so the principal serves in a managerial role
presiding over the program, rather than having someone at the district level
administer the program. As long as the school meets the requirements of an AP
program, and follows the curriculum guidelines adopted by the district, the
Superintendent stated that the school district would not interfere with how the school
wanted to run the program. In discussing personnel, the Superintendent identified
the following three major resources as pivotal elements when considering the
reallocation of personnel:
1. People;
2. Money;
3. Time.

85
Stakeholders must take all three resources into account, and note that they are all tied
together, when considering the implementation or facilitation of any program. He
sees all three playing a pivotal role in the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP
program, as they can impact the number of teachers staffed at a school, as well as the
number of students per class. The Superintendent stated that the full-time teacher
equivalent (FTE) for high schools in the Costa Nostra Unified School District is
29:1, 29 students per teacher. He noted that even within an open enrollment based
AP program, a lower student-faculty ratio may be desired in certain AP classes, such
as AP Calculus, and that a school can still fit into that original target of 29:1 by
placing a greater number of students in other classes (e.g. orchestra). The
Superintendent commented that as long as a high school doesn’t violate the district
contract, state law, or district guidelines, they have considerable flexibility
concerning staffing.
The Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction stated that if a high
school offers an open enrollment based AP program, the school should align
curriculum so that it is sequential and builds towards students enrolling in AP
classes. In doing so, he stipulated that the choice of personnel plays a factor, in that
a school wants teachers who can foster student resiliency, develop higher level
thinking skills, and use those as a medium in which to foster student achievement
and academic development. The Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and
Instruction noted that at the district level, he and the Director of Curriculum played a
role in the facilitation of the open enrollment based AP program at the two

86
comprehensive high schools within the district. He stated that his position involves
ensuring that the high school principals were supporting and encouraging teachers to
pursue professional development opportunities through the College Board for the AP
courses that they teach, and that the principals are truly supporting open enrollment
and making sure that the concept becomes ingrained within the school culture.
The Director of Curriculum confirmed what the Superintendent stated, in
saying that the open enrollment based AP program was solely a site-based
implementation, with no district involvement other than establishing the FTE.
The Principal provided a similar explanation of the Superintendent’s
description of staffing with the FTE of 29:1, in stipulating that the school could offer
smaller class sizes in certain subjects, providing that other courses had larger student
enrollment. He stated that the actual FTE worked out to 33:1, but that number does
not match up with the school’s master schedule, as the FTE does not take teacher
preparation periods into account. At the secondary level, a teacher’s contracted
hours generally includes six periods (five teaching periods, one preparation period).
Since a teacher does not teach during his or her preparation period, the FTE of a
secondary school increases, since all teachers on campus are not teaching every
period of the school day. In addition to the impact of the FTE, the Principal noted
that in the spring, counselors conduct surveys regarding current and potential courses
with students when they register for the classes that they will take the following
school year, to see if student input warrants adding a new course to the master
schedule (e.g. AP Spanish Literature). If the school decides to offer a new course,

87
staff members (e.g. teachers and counselors) ensure that students are aware of the
new course, and encourage them to take it. The Principal noted that there needs to
be flexibility in staffing when a school implements a new class or program to allow
for more students to enroll as it grows.
Since the school in this study utilizes an open enrollment based AP program,
the TOSA thought that AP teachers might have some additional responsibilities in
comparison to teachers at a school that doesn’t offer open enrollment, as there are
more AP sections, and some of the AP classes are larger. He also noted that the open
enrollment based AP program brought in students who aren’t quite ready for higher
level courses, and that those students may require extra assistance and support from
teachers at lunch or after school. In order to encourage students to enroll in AP
classes, the TOSA pointed out that teachers play a role in informally recruiting
students to enroll in AP classes by referencing AP in general courses starting at the
9
th
grade level, so that students are encouraged to take AP courses offered for 10
th
-
12
th
grade students. Regarding his current position, the TOSA stated that he has the
opportunity to devote time to make sure the school follows recommendations
concerning best practices from the College Board, and in essence serves as a liaison
or clearing house for getting and providing AP related information to teachers, as
well as focusing on ways to expand and improve the AP program.
The English Department Chair stated that his department offers pre-AP
classes for students in 9
th
and 10
th
grade that prepare them for AP English enrollment
in 11
th
grade. The department also offers non pre-AP English classes for students

88
not enrolled in pre-AP. He stated that students are placed in pre-AP based on their
performance in middle school, and that students in non pre-AP English who
demonstrate mastery are encouraged to switch into a pre-AP class prior to the start of
the 2
nd
semester of the 9
th
grade year. Regarding staffing within the English
Department, the English Department Chair stated that he’s ambivalent about having
teachers solely teach AP courses or having a mixed schedule in which they also
teach non pre-AP or AP classes, but commented that he felt it was easier for a
teacher to work with one type of student all day (e.g. AP or non-AP), rather than
having a mixed schedule of AP and non-AP classes. When assigning courses for
English teachers, he said he bases his decision on the interests teachers express
regarding specific courses.
The Math Department Chair remarked that the Math Department has a
history of providing widespread tutoring for all math students, AP and non-AP.
However, she stated that AP teachers take the responsibility to conduct their own
tutoring sessions where they work with their own students, as opposed to general
tutoring (e.g. Algebra I), where a student may receive assistance from a different
math teacher, whom they do not have a class with. Regarding the teacher selection
process of courses that they will teach the following school year, the Math
Department Chair stated that the individual teacher decides what courses he or she
will teach, providing there is enough student enrollment to warrant the facilitation of
such a course. If a teacher chooses to teach an AP course, they are expected to do
the extra work associated with it (e.g. tutoring). The Math Department Chair

89
remarked that if a teacher teaches an AP class, she attempts to make sure that the
teacher gets at least two sections of the AP class to offset the additional workload.
For example, a math teacher who teaches five classes would have two at the AP
level, and three sections of a college prep class, such as geometry. The Math
Department Chair mentioned that she saw value in having math teachers instruct
math at different levels so that they can see the bigger picture as it pertains to the
concepts as well as the level of achievement the department wants the students to
attain, and see first hand how the structure of the courses and the curriculum provide
a medium in which to accomplish department goals. The vision of the Math
Department focuses on providing a college prep curriculum that will enable students
to complete math courses at the college level, increase the number of students
enrolling in AP math classes, increasing student performance on the CST, and
enabling students to use math in practical applications throughout their lives in
academic and non-academic settings. With many math teachers instructing students
in a variety of courses and grade levels, they have the opportunity to see the vision of
the Math Department progress, along with the students. Seeing the vision of the
Math Department enables teachers to play a role in recruiting students to enroll in
AP classes, and making sure that they provide the necessary foundation to prepare
students to succeed at the AP level.
The Science Department Chair stated that science does not facilitate an open
enrollment program, other than a new AP environmental science course that the
department recently added for the 2006-2007 school year. She stated that procedural

90
knowledge serves as a barrier that prevents many students from enrolling in AP
science courses. Many of the AP science courses are sequential, in which a student
takes college prep chemistry, and then enrolls in AP chemistry, the following year.
Generally, students do not take an AP science class unless they have taken the
college prep version of the course, or have taken a college level course at the local
community college. The Science Department Chair noted that the lack of a
comparable course to drop down into (e.g. dropping down to biology from AP
biology), should the student decide not to continue in the AP course presents an
additional challenge. If a student wants to drop AP chemistry, and they have already
taken college prep chemistry, they must find a different class in which to enroll. The
Science Department Chair stated that even though their AP program was small in
comparison to other departments at the school, that AP teachers still provided
tutoring, attended professional development workshops, and developed AP specific
curriculum. She sees a benefit in having AP teachers additionally teaching college
prep courses, since by teaching AP, they can become familiar with the level students
need to be at to succeed in an AP course, so that they can design the college prep
course as a pre-AP class.
The Social Science Department Chair remarked that all AP teachers have
additional responsibility because of the in-depth nature of the curriculum, as well as
additional grading that occurs at the AP level. He sees teachers playing a pivotal role
in the recruitment process for prospective AP students, and remarked that if the
teachers do not recruit heavily the AP enrollment at the department and school-wide

91
level would pale in comparison to the current enrollment numbers. The Social
Science Department Chair sees a benefit in teachers working at both the college prep
and AP levels, so that they understand why certain skills are emphasized, and how
those translate into success in an AP class. Therefore, he strives to get as many
teachers within the Social Science Department teaching AP as possible. In
determining course assignments for AP teachers, the Social Science Department
Chair looks at the following categories:
• Intelligence;
• Charisma in the classroom;
• Dedication to students;
• Work effort;
• Content background;
• Years teaching;
• Previous experience in teaching AP courses.
Tables 4.4 through 4.11 on the following pages showcase the total AP
enrollment, number of AP courses offered at the school, number of AP classes
offered at the school, the number of teachers at the school utilized for AP classes,
and the average AP class size at Point Break High School and the similar schools
utilized in this study. Available data spanned the 1997-1998 school year, to the
2005-2006 school year.

92

Table 4.4
Point Break High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006
Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
2,351 326 13.9 7 12 27.2 2.39
1998-
99
2,433 605 24.9 9 20 30.2 4.0
1999-
00
2,619 663 25.3 7 24 31.1 4.8
2000-
01
2,721 746 27.4 8 29 29.1 5.8
2001-
02
2,935 920 31.3 12 33 27.9 6.6
2002-
03
2,943 1,115 37.9 13 41 27.2 7.85
2003-
04
2,872 1,306 45.8 13 42 31.1 8.42
2004-
05
2,827 1,209 42.8 13 44 27.5 8.8
2005-
06
2,853 1,298 45.9 14 46 28.2 9.52

93

Table 4.5
Central High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
2,138 507 23.7 7 19 28.7 3.8
1998-
99
2,076 289 13.9 5 10 26.8 2
1999-
00
2,136 252 11.8 7 10 28.8 2
2000-
01
2,220 299 13.6 7 11 27.2 2.2
2001-
02
2,257 317 14.0 9 14 22.6 1.86
2002-
03
2,369 446 18.8 11 18 24.8 3.42
2003-
04
2,468 495 20.1 10 18 27.5 3.35
2004-
05
2,659 557 20.9 10 20 27.8 3.96
2005-
06
2,740 583 21.3 13 22 26.5 4.2

94

Table 4.6
East High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
1,523 205 13.5 5 6 34.2 1.03
1998-
99
1,555 235 15.1 5 9 26.1 1.59
1999-
00
1,615 273 16.9 6 22 24.8 2.48
2000-
01
1,604 343 21.4 8 13 26.4 2.42
2001-
02
1,570 351 22.4 9 15 23.4 2.82
2002-
03
1,648 333 20.2 9 15 22.2 2.68
2003-
04
1,722 454 26.4 12 18 27.5 3.47
2004-
05
1,685 694 41.2 12 25 27.8 4.54
2005-
06
1,674 642 38.4 13 23 27.9 4.3

95

Table 4.7
Highland High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
1,839 483 26.3 9 17 28.4 3.36
1998-
99
1,903 478 25.1 8 15 26.1 3
1999-
00
1,957 478 24.4 7 17 28.1 3.4
2000-
01
1,884 797 42.3 11 29 27.5 5.8
2001-
02
1,927 749 38.9 13 27 27.7 5.37
2002-
03
1,946 695 35.7 12 24 29 4.8
2003-
04
2,034 855 42 12 28 30.5 5.7
2004-
05
2,001 1,103 55.1 14 35 31.5 7
2005-
06
2,109 1,089 51.6 13 34 32 7.5

96

Table 4.8
North Coast High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
1,241 304 24.5 11 13 23.4 2.54
1998-
99
1,298 310 23.9 10 13 23.8 2.6
1999-
00
1,266 307 24.2 9 12 25.6 2.4
2000-
01
1,259 281 22.3 9 11 25.5 2.2
2001-
02
1,368 423 30.9 11 17 24.9 3.34
2002-
03
1,397 333 23.8 10 13 25.6 2.47
2003-
04
1,449 414 28.8 14 17 24.4 3.41
2004-
05
1,462 384 26.3 10 15 25.6 2.9
2005-
06
1,477 384 26.0 10 15 25.6 3.1

97

Table 4.9
Valley High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
2,676 346 12.9 9 13 26.6 2.55
1998-
99
2,730 346 12.7 8 13 28.1 2.96
1999-
00
2,672 399 14.9 11 17 23.5 3.42
2000-
01
2,748 581 21.1 12 22 26.4 4.2
2001-
02
2,874 613 21.3 11 24 25.5 5.25
2002-
03
2,965 750 25.3 10 28 26.8 5.2
2003-
04
3,123 813 26.0 13 29 28 7.12
2004-
05
1,658 615 37.1 8 24 25.6 4.92
2005-
06
1,456 453 31.1 8 19 23.8 4.38

98

Table 4.10
West High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
2,379 317 13.3 12 15 21.1 2.66
1998-
99
2,436 310 12.7 13 14 22.1 2.71
1999-
00
2,581 352 13.6 11 14 25.1 2.8
2000-
01
2,658 326 12.3 11 14 23.3 2.8
2001-
02
2,744 463 16.9 12 17 27.2 3.4
2002-
03
2,858 554 19.4 12 20 27.7 4
2003-
04
2,930 577 19.7 13 23 25.1 4.6
2004-
05
2,953 562 19.0 13 21 26.8 4.2
2005-
06
2,887 670 23.2 13 27 24.8 5.28

99

Table 4.11
Wilson High School AP Data 1997-1998 through 2005-2006

Year
Total
Enrollment
AP
Enrollment
% of
Students
Enrolled
in AP
# of AP
Courses
# of AP
Classes
Average
Class
Size
# of
Teachers
Utilized
1997-
98
453 54 11.9 2 2 27 0.4
1998-
99
470 86 18.3 4 4 21.5 0.8
1999-
00
464 81 17.5 4 4 20.2 0.8
2000-
01
469 66 14.1 4 4 16.5 0.8
2001-
02
489 51 10.4 4 5 10.2 0.8
2002-
03
484 51 10.5 5 5 16 0.6
2003-
04
487 45 9.2 2 2 22.5 0.4
2004-
05
476 50 10.5 3 3 16.7 0.6
2005-
06
478 87 18.2 4 4 21.8 0.93

100
Most of the schools showed an increase in the percentage and number of
students enrolled in AP courses. Point Break High School ranked second behind
Highland High School regarding AP enrollment, yet offered more AP courses and
classes in comparison to all of the similar schools. Based on Highland High’s AP
enrollment, one could presume that they offer an open enrollment based AP
program, similar to that of Point Break’s. The number of teachers utilized for the
facilitation of AP courses and classes increasing along with the number of AP
courses and classed offered at a school served as a common trend among the similar
schools. The average class size of AP classes varied from school to school. The
data pertaining to AP enrollment leads into research question two, which addresses
how resource allocation decisions are determined for the facilitation of an open
enrollment based AP program.

Research Question Two: How are Resource Allocation Decisions for the Facilitation
of an Open Enrollment Based AP Program Determined?
Data for Research Question Two
The purpose of research question two was to see how resource allocation
decisions at the district, school site, and academic department levels are determined,
as well as which personnel play a role in making or influencing the decisions, in
facilitating an open enrollment based AP program. The researcher utilized the
Document Review Guide to triangulate data from the interviews, which provided a
means in which to answer the second question.

101
Summary of Findings for Research Question Two
The Superintendent remarked that the state and the district establish the
curriculum, while the schools have flexibility in determining how they want to utilize
the curriculum, as long as they meet the state standards. The schools have the option
of adding additional curriculum or implementing specific programs (e.g. AP). The
Curriculum Council, a body made up of teachers and administrators, convenes for
the purpose of discussing the implementation of specific curriculum and programs.
Decisions made by the Curriculum Council must then be approved by the school
board prior to implementation.
The Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction stated that the
school sites make the decisions regarding how resources are utilized for the
facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program. He noted that the primary
focus revolves around teacher allocation and the FTE. Since the enrollment in some
AP classes might be smaller than a college prep course, the Deputy Superintendent
of Curriculum and Instruction, or the Associate Superintendent of Human Resources
may negotiate with the school and subsequently forward the additional funding
required to run a smaller course.
The Director of Curriculum confirmed what the Deputy Superintendent of
Curriculum and Instruction stated in saying that the school site makes the decision
regarding the utilization of resources.
The Principal stated that he makes the ultimate decisions regarding how the
school site utilizes funding. The school receives categorical funds (e.g. GATE

102
money), and discretionary funds. Discretionary, unlike categorical funding, does not
have to be spent in a specific category. The Principal has leeway in determining how
the school utilizes discretionary funding. In addition to the Principal, the School Site
Council has some influence as to how money is spent. The School Site Council, a
group made up of parents, students and teachers convene as an advisory group in
meeting with the principal. The Principal makes recommendations to the council
regarding how money might be spent. The council in turn votes on whether or not to
approve the Principal’s recommendation, which provides a formal recommendation
as to how the money is spent. In formulating his decisions as to how money should
be spent, the principal creates a budget for the following school year, based on last
year’s budget and the current school enrollment. He estimates how much money the
school will receive in categorical funding, and in preparing the budget, seeks input
from staff members as to what the money should be spent on. The Principal added
that he felt that categorical money should follow the School Plan, which includes
goals that the staff will try and achieve. Point Break High School’s School Plan
focuses on the following three goals:
1. Raise CST math scores in three subgroups (English Language
Learners, special education, and students hailing from a low
socioeconomic background);
2. Raise CST English scores in three subgroups (English Language
Learners, special education, and students coming from a low
socioeconomic background);

103
3. Increase the passing rate on the CAHSEE in three subgroups (English
Language Learners, special education, and students coming from a
low socioeconomic background).
The Principal stated that the above goals cover just about every academic department
on campus, as most, if not all of the academic departments work with students in the
aforementioned subgroups. This in turn allows the Principal greater flexibility when
utilizing resources. Lastly, the Principal noted that he is responsible to the Deputy
Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, and must show a correlation between
money spent and an increase in student achievement.
The TOSA confirmed that the Principal makes the ultimate decision
regarding how the school utilizes its funding. However, he added that in his role as
the TOSA, AP teachers submit requests to him in regards to what they need (e.g.
curriculum writing hours), and then he in turn informs the Principal. The TOSA said
that in a way he and the Principal make a joint decision involving the AP Budget.
The TOSA coordinates the AP Budget, however the Principal still has the ultimate
decision in approving expenditures.
The English Department Chair commented that he collaboratively determines
needs for the English Department’s AP program with the teacher who formerly
served as the English Department Chair, and alerts the Principal of the need.
However, he felt the decision rested more in the hands of the School Business
Manager. The English Department Chair stated that the School Business Manager
has a handle on different grants and accounts available for AP utilization.

104
The Math Department Chair stated that decisions regarding AP funding
involve the entire math department, not just AP math teachers. She tries to get all
teachers involved in the process, as she sees all of the math classes working together
to ultimately increase student enrollment in AP math courses. In formulating this
decision, the Math Department Chair said the department met and created a “wish
list” of what they wanted to see AP money spent on. The Math Department based
the list on what they determined their AP program needed, checked that list with
resources they already had, prioritized their requests, and then submitted them to the
Principal who made the overriding decision.
The Science Department Chair said AP teachers within her department turn
in requests for funding to her, and if the department doesn’t have enough money to
cover it, they submit their request to the Principal. The Science Department attempts
to utilize their department budget for college prep classes, not AP courses. If an item
(e.g. test tubes) could be utilized concurrently between AP and college prep classes,
the department collectively decides whether they should utilize the department
budget or submit a request to the Principal.
The Social Science Department Chair confirmed what the other department
chairs stated in saying that the Principal primarily makes all the budgetary decisions
regarding AP. The Social Science Department Chair stated that he oversees how the
department spends its budget, which primarily goes to general supplies (e.g.
scantrons) which all social science classes utilize, not just AP courses.

105
Collectively the interviews demonstrated that funding is utilized to correlate
with the goals of an academic discipline, which in turn may contribute to meeting a
school-wide goal.

Research Question Three: How Much Funding is Allocated for the Facilitation of an
Open Enrollment Based AP Program, What Sources Does the Funding Stem From,
and What is the Funding Utilized For?
Data for Research Question Three
In proposing research question three, the researcher attempted to determine
the cost involved for a school facilitating an open enrollment based AP program. In
addition to the dollar amounts involved, the question addresses where the funding
comes from, and how that money is subsequently spent. The researcher conducted
interviews, and utilized the Document Review Guide to triangulate data from
interviews conducted with district leaders, site administrators, and teachers
(Department Chairs). Additionally, the researcher examined the following budgets,
which range from the 1996-1997 school year, the year prior to Point Break High
School establishing the open enrollment based AP program, through the 2005-2006
school year:
• AP Challenge Grant (2000-2001 school year through 2003-2004
school year);
• AP Incentive Program Grant (2005-2006 school year);

106
• College Bound (1997-1998 school year through 2005-2006 school
year);
• Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) (1996-1997 school year
through 2005-2006 school year).
Since these budgets represent various grants that Point Break High School received
over the years of this study, funding varied on a year-to-year basis. The above
instruments, along with the Document Review Guide were utilized to triangulate
data as well as answer research question three.

Summary of Findings for Research Question Three
With regard to funding, the Superintendent stated that the district provides
money to the individual school sites, which then utilize it to compensate teachers
who develop curriculum, refine curriculum, or modify curriculum to meet the state
standards. Schools could essentially utilize some of this funding for AP courses that
concurrently meet a state requirement (e.g. AP United States History). The
Superintendent stated that high schools could utilize GATE funding to assist in
financing an AP program, providing that identified GATE students enroll in the
courses, and that the money spent met various requirements established by the state.
The district earmarks funds to assist the schools in paying for the AP national
examinations that students take at the conclusion of the course. The Superintendent
noted that the cost of the exams can add up for a student taking multiple ones.

107
The Deputy Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction stated that the
school district’s general fund provides money to schools that can be utilized for a
variety of resources, including training for AP teachers, materials for AP classes, and
assisting in deferring the cost of AP exams for students. Schools receive AP funding
based upon the number of students enrolled.
The Director of Curriculum expanded on how the school district determines
the amount of funding given to school sites. The Costa Nostra Unified School
District refers to this budget as College Bound. College Bound receives funding
from the California State Lottery, which is an allocation targeted for comprehensive
high schools to increase the number of students who will attend college. Aside from
the above stipulation, high schools can use the funding as they see fit. In addition to
College Bound, secondary schools have the option of utilizing GATE funding to
finance the AP program, as well as the School and Library Block Program, formerly
known as the School Improvement Program (SIP). The Director of Curriculum
stated that generally the school site uses the monies from the above programs to
either pay for teachers or fund professional development opportunities, such as AP
training, with the principal making the ultimate decision regarding how the school
utilizes the funding. Regarding AP exam fees, the district and school site split the
cost with the students. Students and their families are responsible in paying for 50%
of the total cost of an AP exam. The district covers 25%, while the school site makes
up the remaining 25% (During the 2005-2006 school year, students paid $37 to take

108
an AP exam). Low-income students can qualify for a fee waiver that is funded by
the state, which brings their total cost down to $5 per AP exam.
The Principal elaborated on the school site budget for the AP, and stated that
the AP Budget for the 2006-2007 school year came out to be around $30,000. He
noted that the AP Budget was what a middle or elementary school would classify as
its GATE Budget. To facilitate the AP program, and meet requests submitted by
teachers, the total cost surpassed the budget at around $60,000. The Principal
utilized categorical funding to finance the difference. In addition to GATE funding,
the Principal stated that Costa Nostra High School utilized funding from the College
Bound Budget, School and Library Block Program, as well as funding provided for
students classified as Limited English Proficient, and Title I money. While he seeks
and considers teacher requests in allocating funds from the AP Budget, the Principal
noted that he focuses on paying for teacher training and collaboration. He stated that
his personal philosophy focuses on increasing teacher collaboration as a means of
increasing student achievement. In addition to the above categories, funding also
covers supplies, tutoring hours, curriculum writing, and also finances needs for other
departments, such as field trips for English Language Learners. Many of these needs
vary on a year-to-year basis, depending on modifications made by the College Board
regarding AP course framework or curriculum, and the adoption of new text books.
The Principal stated that as the AP program started to grow at Point Break High
School, the school district initially paid the entire AP examination fee, which at that
time ranged from $35 to $40 per AP national exam. In light of the state budget crisis

109
and the College Board increasing AP exam fees (AP exams cost $82 during the
2006-2007 school year), the district has settled on the provision the Director of
Curriculum described, in that the student pays half of the examination fee (unless the
student qualifies for the low-income fee waiver) and that the school site and district
pay for the rest. The Principal added that if the College Board continues to increase
exam fees, the total cost for students will remain at 50% while the school site’s
financial responsibility remains at around $20,000, with the district shouldering
additional costs. The Principal remarked that he is not aware of any school district in
the north San Diego County area that has made the financial commitment in assisting
students pay for AP national exams to the extent that the Costa Nostra Unified
School District has.
The TOSA reiterated the various elements of the AP budget that the Principal
and Director of Curriculum identified, such as College Bound, the School Library
Block Program, and the GATE Budget. He said that a majority of the money
delegated for the AP program comes from the GATE and College Bound budgets,
and that if additional funding is necessary, they can pull funding from some of the
above sources, such as the School Library Block Program, since the funding is tied
to general school improvement. The TOSA also mentioned how Point Break High
School is currently receiving a grant from the APAC, which specifically targets
increasing the AP enrollment of low-income students. The TOSA stated that AP
funding is primarily utilized for professional development, specifically AP
conferences, and to pay teachers for tutoring students. He noted that tutoring and

110
curriculum writing represent the biggest expenses. The TOSA confirmed what the
Principal stated regarding the payment of AP national examination fees, in which the
school site contributes around $20,000 out of their site budget, the students pay half
of the total cost, and the district picks up the remaining cost.
The English Department Chair stated that his department does not have a
specific AP budget within their department budget, and that the English Department
does not utilize any department funds to finance AP needs. The English Department
Chair said that the English Department utilizes funding from the AP Budget to send
teachers to AP conferences, as well as materials for students and teachers.
The Math Department Chair stated that in addition to utilizing AP funding for
purchasing technology (e.g. calculators), the Math Department has focused a great
deal on facilitating collaborative meetings between content areas (e.g. Algebra I) to
emphasize cohesion among teachers regarding what curriculum they teach in the
class, and develop common or similar forms of assessment. They have spent some
money to pay for substitutes, so that math teachers may observe another classroom
either on campus or at another school site. However, their prime focus for spending
AP money involves collaboration, which has resulted in the establishment of various
department-wide goals. The Math Department established the goal of increasing the
number of students enrolled in AP math classes. The Math Department Chair also
noted that the department has developed an additional goal of adding AP Calculus
BC, which is at a higher level than the current AP Calculus class offered at the
school. In doing so, some of the collaborative meetings have focused on what

111
curriculum should be modified in other math classes to prepare students for enrolling
in AP Calculus BC, as well as what type of calculators college prep math classes
should be utilizing and providing for students, so that they may succeed at higher
levels. The Math Department Chair emphasized the importance of having access to
necessary resources so that the students can internalize the necessary knowledge to
succeed in AP math classes. She also noted simultaneously that the implementations
made via the use of AP funding benefit both AP and non-AP students, as they all
must take college prep math classes prior to enrolling in AP courses.
The Science Department Chair mentioned that her department faces a
quandary in that many materials purchased with AP money are nonrenewable (e.g.
chemicals). Once students utilize those chemicals in a lab experiment, they are gone,
and henceforth need to be purchased every school year. The Science Department
Chair also noted that all AP courses utilize a separate copy account, which is just to
be utilized in photocopying materials for AP classes.
The Social Science Department Chair noted that the Social Science
Department utilizes both general department money as well as specific AP funding
to facilitate both AP and college prep classes. He remarked that a teacher may
request for the department to subscribe to a specific magazine (e.g., The Economist),
or purchase a video, but for the most part department funding is utilized for general
supplies such as overhead transparencies or scantrons. Teachers utilize those
materials in both AP and college prep classes. The Social Science Department Chair
added that major costs for AP classes, such as compensating teachers for tutoring

112
students, purchasing new textbooks, as well as review books for the AP national
exam come from other sources of funding (e.g., the College Bound Grant). In
examining the issue of funding at the school site level, the Social Science
Department Chair cautioned against the current stance taken by the Costa Nostra
Unified School District regarding the fees students must pay to take the AP national
exam. He sees a potential predicament in light of increasing AP national exam fees,
which could translate into an increase in the total cost paid by the students. The
Social Science Department Chair does not want the situation to reach a point where
students either do not take the AP national exam, or stop enrolling in AP classes
because of not being able to afford to pay for the AP national exam. He stated that
the school district should pay the total cost for students to take the AP national exam.
While he noted that the cost could be significant depending on the number of test
takers, he added that the benefits gained would outweigh the cost.
The following tables, detail the AP Budgets from Point Break High School,
during the following school years:
• College Bound (1997-1998 school year through 2005-2006 school
year);
• GATE (1996-1997 school year through 2005-2006 school year);
• AP Challenge Grant (2000-2001 school year through 2003-2004
school year);
• AP Incentive Program Grant (2005-2006 school year).

113
In creating the tables on the following pages, the researcher combined
multiple grants to calculate the total expenditure for various implementations for the
facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program on a year-to-year basis. The
budgets utilized in the creation of the following tables refer to funding specifically
earmarked for AP, and not general funding that may have been utilized for AP
purposes, such as School and Library Block Program funds. Table 4.12 begins
tracking expenditures with the 1996-1997 school year, the year prior to Point Break
High School adopting the open enrollment based AP program, through the 2000-
2001 school year. Table 4.13 shows expenditures from the 2001-2002 school year
through the 2005-2006 school year. Figure 4.1 presents a longitudinal picture of
expenditures from the 1996-1997 school year through the 2005-2006 school year.

114

Table 4.12
AP Budget (non personnel) 1996-1997 through 2000-2001

Category 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01
AP Exam Fees 0 0 0 0 0
AVID Tutors 0 0 0 0 0
Books - General $396 $2,500 $254 $1,021 $5,577
Books - Textbooks 0 $4,500 $28,000 $2,430 $8,959
Certificated Salaries 0 0 0 0 0
Classroom Equipment $2,668 0 $428 $18,214 $8,416
Conference Expenses $2,964 $1,323 $1,383 $6,700 $8,422
Consultants 0 0 0 0 $507
Course Graders 0 $465 0 0 $525
Curriculum Writing 0 0 $3,000 $2,416 $10,619
Custodial Overtime 0 0 0 0 $300
Extra Hours - Tutoring 0 0 0 0 $7,239
Field Trips 0 $165 $442 $927 0
Indirect Costs 0 0 0 0 $1,429
Labor - Related Costs 0 $50 $201 $356 $1,451
Lectures/Presentations 0 $50 0 0 0
Miscellaneous 0 0 0 0 0
Printing - External 0 $40 0 0 0
Printing - Internal 0 $400 $200 $644 0
Stipends 0 0 0 0 0
Student Workers 0 0 0 0 $649
Substitute Teachers 0 $179 $400 $48 $3,300
Supplies - General 0 0 0 0 $804
Supplies - Instructional 0 $24,238 $3,858 $8,435 $20,855
TOSA Stipend 0 0 0 0 0
Total Expenditure $6,028 $33,910 $38,166 $41,191 $79,052

115

Table 4.13
AP Budget (non personnel) 2001-2002 through 2005-2006

Category 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
AP Exam Fees 0 $13,265 0 0 0
AVID Tutors 0 $210 0 0 $2,295
Books - General $7,946 $1,595 $299 $235 $486
Books - Textbooks $5,112 $3,248 $8,799 $4,109 0
Certificated Salaries 0 0 $3,561 0 0
Classroom Equipment $1,234 0 $682 $9,024 $2,204
Conference Expenses $6,273 $5,645 $2,315 $3,574 $14,508
Consultants 0 0 0 0 0
Course Graders $343 $525 0 $280 0
Curriculum Writing $10,172 $2,399 $690 $129 $5,602
Custodial Overtime $288 0 0 0 0
Extra Hours - Tutoring $5,472 $6,309 $7,183 $8,921 $11,818
Field Trips 0 0 0 0 $1,630
Indirect Costs $1,605 $867 0 0 0
Labor - Related Costs $1,272 $1,343 $588 $1,122 $3,789
Lectures / Presentations 0 0 0 0 0
Miscellaneous $8,576 $12,322 $1 $5 $988
Printing - External 0 0 0 0 0
Printing - Internal $3,081 $2,900 $3,300 $2,799 $2,913
Stipends 0 0 0 0 $3,700
Student Workers $399 $384 $81 0 0
Substitute Teachers $2,509 $2,069 $170 $381 $3,741
Supplies - General $775 $161 0 0 0
Supplies - Instructional $16,434 $4,765 $2,368 $2,429 $7,251
TOSA Stipend 0 0 0 0 $2,680
Total Expenditure $71,491 $58,007 $30,037 $33,003 $63,605

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this dissertation was to determine if an open enrollment based Advanced Placement (AP) program increased student achievement at a comprehensive high school and whether or not that high school would perform better in comparison to similar comprehensive high schools. The dissertation was based on the following four research questions: 1. How are personnel utilized for the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program? 2. How are resource allocation decisions for the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program determined? 3. How much funding is allocated for the facilitation of an open enrollment based AP program, what sources does the funding stem from, and what is the funding utilized for? 4. How is an open enrollment based AP program utilized to increase student achievement? -- These questions were designed to examine the level of adequacy and equity of an open enrollment based AP program, as well as how a comprehensive high school reallocated existing resources to finance an open enrollment based AP program.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Thompson, Kevin S. (author)

Core Title The open enrollment of advanced placement classes as a means for increasing student achievement at the high school level

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/25/2007

Defense Date 05/01/2007

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advanced placement,AP,OAI-PMH Harvest,resource allocation,school culture,school finance,school reform,secondary schools

Language English

Advisor Picus, Lawrence O. (committee chair), Hentschke, Guilbert C. (committee member), Nelson, John L. (committee member)

Creator Email ksthomps@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m549

Unique identifier UC1491314

Identifier etd-Thompson-20070625 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-507303 (legacy record id),usctheses-m549 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Thompson-20070625.pdf

Dmrecord 507303

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Thompson, Kevin S.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu