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Principal leadership -- skill demands in a global context

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Principal leadership -- skill demands in a global context

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Content PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP –SKILL DEMANDS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY

by

Kenneth C. Hurst Sr.

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2011

Copyright 2011 Kenneth C. Hurst Sr.
ii
EPIGRAPH
This is the time for principals to build the schools that don‘t exist, even in a slowed
economy. The world has shaken loose from its moorings of the industrial revolution.
The world has changed dramatically and such must be the case for school leaders of
urban youth.
– Rudy Crew
iii
DEDICATION
With God, all things are possible. To my supportive wife, Crystal. Pursuing and
completing this doctoral program has not been an easy task, especially considering my
responsibilities at home as a husband, on my job as a principal, and at church as a teacher
and director. However, through it all, I thank God first for allowing this to ―come to
pass‖, and I thank God secondly, for placing you in my life. You have been my constant
source of strength and encouragement during this three-year journey. You have
reminded me to take one day at a time, and that God has a plan for me and that God did
not bring me this far, to abandon me. I love you.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to begin by acknowledging two professors who have not only
influenced my learning, but also my life, and that is Dr. Etta Hollins and Dr. Rudy Crew.
Unknowingly, these two professors have expanded my mind from its original dimensions
and have provided me with an ―exit strategy‘ from our current bureaucratic educational
system.
Dr. Etta Hollins reminded me that powerful research and knowledge construction
are grounded in a critical understanding of research, theory, and problem-solving
characteristics of a particular discipline or area of study. Thank you for reminding me
that educators need to understand how students learn, and the theory behind it.
Dr. Rudy Crew, my dissertation chair, has made these three years a very
worthwhile process. You are a great mentor and I would like to thank you for reminding
me that from this moment forward, I am a pioneer in education and that I can no longer
conduct business as usual, that I cannot have conversations in a vacuum, that the winners
will be those who know how to collaborate around new knowledge, and that education
does not need doers…we have plenty of those…we need people to write the script to
change education that will prepare students to have a level of global preparedness so that
they can do anything. Thank you.
Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Rudy Castruita and Dr. Pedro Garcia for
agreeing to serve on my committee. Your leadership and example will benefit me in my
quest to positively contribute to education.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Epigraph .............................................................................................................................. ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ..................................................................................1
Introduction ..............................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .....................................................................................1
The Failure of Urban Education ..................................................................1
The Impact of Globalization on Education ..................................................3
The Issue of Our Changing Demographics ..................................................6
Leading in a Global Context ........................................................................8
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................9
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................10
Research Questions ................................................................................................10
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................10
Limitations .............................................................................................................11
Delimitations ..........................................................................................................12
Definitions of Related Terms .................................................................................12
Chapter Two: Literature Review ......................................................................................16
Introduction ............................................................................................................16
The Gap: Why Principals Need Global Skills ......................................................17
Contributing Factors for the Failure of Urban Education ..........................17
Skill Needs—Globalization in Education ..................................................24
Skill Needs—Changing Demographics in Education ................................26
Skills Needed by Principals ...................................................................................29
Skills Model: A Theoretical Framework ...................................................29
Professional Development Available .....................................................................37
Leadership for Sustainable School Development .....................................38
The Center for Urban School Leadership .................................................41
Superintendent‘s Urban Principals Initiative ............................................42
Time Management .................................................................................................45
Conclusion .............................................................................................................51

vi
Chapter Three: Methodology ............................................................................................53
Introduction ............................................................................................................53
Sample Population .................................................................................................54
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................59
Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................62
Ethical Considerations ...........................................................................................63

Chapter Four: Findings .....................................................................................................64
Introduction ............................................................................................................64
Initial Meeting with Study Schools........................................................................65
Research Questions ................................................................................................68
Interview Data ........................................................................................................68
Responses to Research Question 1 ............................................................68
Responses to Research Question 2 ............................................................82
Responses to Research Question 3 ............................................................90
Analysis..................................................................................................................94
Summary ..............................................................................................................117

Chapter Five: Conclusions ..............................................................................................119
Summary of the Study .........................................................................................119
Emergent Themes ................................................................................................120
Conclusions ..........................................................................................................121
Recommendations for Future Research ...............................................................123
Implications..........................................................................................................124

References ........................................................................................................................126

Appendices .......................................................................................................................129
Appendix A: Interview Protocol .........................................................................129
Appendix B: Urban High School Principal Skills by each Interviewee .............131

vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Global Skills: Using Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model ..........................36
Table 2: How Principals Spend Their Time .....................................................................47
Table 3: School A: Demographic Population by Student Group .......................................56
Table 4: School B: Demographic Population by Student Group .......................................57
Table 5: School C: Demographic Population by Student Group .......................................58
Table 6: Research Question 1: Using Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model ..............95
Table 7: Research Question 2: Training for Urban High School Principals ...................107
Table 8: Research Question 3: How Urban Principals Spend Their Time .....................114
Table 9: Urban High School Principal Skills by each Interviewee ................................131

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Skills Model – A Theoretical Framework ..........................................................30
Figure 2: API Growth 2005 – 2010 .................................................................................122

ix
ABSTRACT
The job of principals in the 21
st
century is to find the future and take their people to it,
which will require them to keep an eye on the big picture of life to relentlessly ask, ―For
what kind of life are we preparing our students?” (Synder, Acker-Hocevar, & Synder,
2008).
The purpose of this study was to examine principal leadership and the skill demands in a
global context. This dissertation presents factors such as the failure of urban education,
the impact of globalization on education, and the influence of changing demographics on
education, as reasons why urban high school principals need to acquire new leadership
skills. The hypothesis of this dissertation is that there are skills, professional
development opportunities, and time priorities that urban high school principals can
acquire and be involved in that will enable them to redesign schools that will prepare
students to compete in a global context. This study utilized both inductive and deductive
qualitative analysis approaches in determining the skills needed by urban high school
principals.
The study found eight significant skills needed by urban high school principals and four
characteristics and attributes. Additionally, the study found that most urban high schools
principals do not receive the training necessary to prepare students to compete in a global
context. However, the study revealed five significant findings regarding training needed
by urban high school principals. Finally, the study found that the urban high school
principals identified in this study are actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills
designed to extend learning into a global context.
1
CHAPTER ONE
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
In March 2003, a district superintendent in California hosted a retreat to discuss
the district‘s failing schools. The result of the retreat was an official assignment by the
superintendent for three of the failing schools not meeting federal guidelines set under the
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, to develop a plan to redesign these existing
schools into fourteen smaller schools. The NCLB Act of 2001 required states to set goals
for all students, and for all students to demonstrate proficiency in statewide academic
content standards by 2014. This accountability measure became a guiding factor in the
work of the fourteen principals assigned to these new small schools, as they were tasked
with changing the instruction, culture, and structure of these failing schools. It was clear
to these fourteen principals that this translated into not only increasing student learning
but also increasing their achievement on state and federal accountability measures. Key
challenges were how to lead the change effort of a failing school while simultaneously
increasing student learning and student achievement, and gaining the skills needed to lead
this change.
Background of the Problem
The Failure of Urban Education
The challenges faced by these fourteen new principals in reforming the district‘s
high-poverty, failing high schools are commensurate to the challenges faced nationally in
public education. In 1960, the United States responded to the Russian launch of Sputnik
2
by making education a national priority (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Even so, our students
have failed to compete with their counterparts in other industrialized nations (National
Commision on Excelllence in Education, 1983). Some maintain that our students have
failed to demonstrate basic skills, which is supported by comparison of United States
(U.S.) elementary and middle school students in other industrialized nations (Hunter &
Brown, 2003). The data on the Third International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS, 2003) reports slippage on math and science scores from our fourth and eighth
grade students. According to (TIMSS, 2003), U.S. fourth grade students scored 12
th
out
of 26 in math and third out of 26 countries in science, while eighth grade students‘ scores
in both math and science were considered average when compared to the same nations.
Failures in our educational system are worse in large urban districts, which have
high percentages of poor African-, Hispanic-, and Asian-American students (Hunter &
Brown, 2003). One in four students in public education in the U.S. attends school in
urban environments, which also enroll a disproportionate number of our nation‘s poor
children and educate 43 percent of all minority students (Kozol, 1992).
Crew (2007) expresses that six years after the passage of NCLB the
following facts were a reality within our education system:
 One-third of American eighth graders cannot perform basic math.
That means more than a million thirteen-year olds can‘t do the
simplest calculations needed to buy a candy bar or ride a bus.
 …A black child in Washington, D.C. has less than a 30 percent
chance of learning how to read before he turns ten.
3
 The odds that any given ten-year old in a large American city can
read are about fifty-fifty, and six in ten for the nation as a whole.
 Only one in five students entering college is prepared for college-
level work in math, reading, writing, and biology.
…if those statistics don‘t make you feel angry or ashamed or sad as an
American, then at the very least they should make you scared because,
beyond the disappointing things those numbers say about our national
character and values, they put our future in peril. (p. 7)
Valverde (2003) maintains that dynamic leadership is needed to address the
educational concerns of an urban setting (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). He
prescribes a new set of skills for school leaders that will enable them to improve
pedagogy, develop a thorough knowledge of the student body of the school, expand
beyond learning to serve community needs, and build capacity for schools to network and
form partnerships with the community (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). In addition
to the failure of education system to teach poor, minority students in urban schools, there
is also the impact of globalization on education. These issues point to the research
inquiry within this study, which is the need for principals to acquire skills to redesign
schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context.
The Impact of Globalization on Education
The term globalization is broad in nature and has generated considerable interest
among various disciplines, including anthropology, economics, political science, and
education (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). The challenge of studying globalization is that it is
4
defined and operationalized differently amongst these same disciplines (Suarez-Orozco,
2001).
For example, anthropologists – those involved in the scientific study of the origin,
the behavior, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans – view
globalization through its interests in various cultures, languages, and nations (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001). Anthropologists, who formerly had to travel to remote locations of the
world to study cultures, languages and social practices, can now look locally to study
these cultural formations. This is true of the Mexican culture in many U.S. cities. In
essence, when globalization is viewed in this manner, it detaches social practices and
cultural formations from their traditional moorings in their native countries (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001).
Economists view globalization through their interests in transnational financial
markets, capital flow and production, and distribution of goods. Since the end of World
War II, the proportion of trade among nations has increased from 7 percent to 21 percent
(Ireland & Hitt, 1999). As result of this increase, products can now be shipped anywhere
in the world in a matter of days. The Chevrolet Camaro is an example of a globalized
product, in which its labor, parts, and capital originate from multiple continents (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001).
Political scientists view globalization through its interests in international
systems, such as human and civil rights that reaches beyond the confines of their states
and nations (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). Dominicans in New York with dual citizenship now
have the political capital to shape elections in their native country. Dominican politicians
5
are cognizant of this and understand their need to campaign in New York (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001).
Regardless of the application of globalization toward a specific discipline, there
are aspects of globalization that are clear. Globalization is about mobility and the rate of
change in ―flow‖ – mobile capital; the mobile production, distribution, and consumption
of goods and services; mobile populations; and mobile cultures (Suarez-Orozco, 2005).
According to Suarez-Orozco (2005), globalization conceptualized by rate of change is
expressed today in a way it has never been seen before, and is possible through the
advent of new information, communication, and technologies that connect people, ideas,
and data across the world instantaneously. Suarez-Orozco (2005) emphasizes that
innovations and technologies have made possible the de-territorialization of certain jobs.
De-territorialization implies taking control and order away from a land or place (territory)
that is already established. Suarez-Orozco (2005) uses this term to explain how jobs are
no longer territorial to a specific nation. He explains that jobs can be broken into
constituent units and undertaken anywhere in the world.
According to Stewart (2007), ―The future is here. It's multiethnic, multicultural,
and multilingual‖ (p. 9). Stewart (2007) emphasizes that the world is fundamentally
different from when we grew up and is becoming increasingly more global. In our new
society, students will need to:
 Sell to the world
 Buy from the world
 Work for international companies
6
 Manage employees from other cultures and countries
 Collaborate with people all over the world in joint ventures
 Compete with other people on the other side of the world for jobs and markets
 Tackle global problems, such as AIDS, avian flu, pollution, and disaster recovery.
Regardless of the discipline, globalization is relevant to education because it will
determine the context in which our young people will live, work, and learn. In the 21
st

century, the fortunes, identities, opportunities, and constraints of students all over the
world will be linked to processes in economy, society, and culture that are increasingly
global in scope (Suarez-Orozco, 2005). Principals will need the skills to build work
teams among students and staff that continuously connect them to the real world of work
and community glocally (i.e. both globally and locally) (Synder et al., 2008).
The Issue of Our Changing Demographics
According to Snyder et al. (2008), redesigning schools to prepare students to
succeed in a global context will require visionary leaders to develop skills enabling them
to anticipate what the future will bring. Tirozzi (2001) emphasizes that in order to
understand the skills required of principals in the new millennium, an examination of the
projected changes in educational demographics, and how those changes will affect the
principal‘s role and vision, is required.
It is projected that by the year 2025, 61% of the nation‘s population growth will
consist of Hispanics and Asians, thereby changing the make-up of school-aged children
(Hodgkinson, 2000). Hodgkinson (2000) indicates a significant number of students
entering our schools will speak a language other than English. Principals will need the
7
skills to develop instructional programs and methods, and develop a teaching force that
will meet the needs of this diverse group of students (Hodgkinson, 2000).
Transience and an aging population are also areas of which principals will need to
be mindful in the new millennium. There are an estimated forty-three million Americans
who move every year, making it difficult to maintain continuity for school-aged students
(Hodgkinson, 2000). Hodgkinson (2000) indicates that the highest percentages of
students graduating from high school and going on to attend colleges and universities are
from states with stable populations, while simultaneously states with high transiency have
the lowest percentages of students graduating from high school and entering college.
Hodgkinson (2000) maintains that increased transiency, along with the reality that our
elderly will be the fastest growing bloc of population in the future implies that principals
will not only need new skills to engage our ―seniors‖ in school life, but will also need the
skills to create schools or settings designed to provide continuity for our transient
population.
Principals will need skills to incorporate new curricula and technologies that will
prepare students to address our nation‘s manufacturing woes. America is losing its once-
thought-of comparative advantage in skills, technology, and organization (Faux, 2007).
Faux (2007) finds that jobs once thought of as ―American‖, dealing with research and
development, are now being outsourced transnationally to India, Taiwan, and China,
where engineering performance tasks and skills are high and cheap. Faux (2007)
indicates that 80% of engineering tasks in product development can be easily outsourced.
Faux (2007) explains that the more we engage in offshore production, the harder it will
8
be to compete in a global society and suggests a competitive agenda designed to make
manufacturing a priority. In his closing remarks, Faux (2007) presents a bottom line
suggesting that we cannot earn our way back into a trade balance without exporting more
than we import and recommends developing technological comparative advantages that
can employ large numbers of people in manufacturing.
Leading in a Global Context
Walters, Marzano, and McNulty (2004) discuss the link between effective school
leadership and increasing student achievement. Walters et al. (2004) mention that the
Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) indicates there is a
significant positive correlation between effective principals and student achievement, and
indicate 21 key areas of leadership that correlate positively with student achievement.
Although there are other studies reporting that leaders who displayed the same leadership
qualities had only marginal or worse impact on student achievement, there is consistency
in that there are two primary variables that will determine whether leadership will have
an impact on student achievement (Walters et al., 2004). The first variable is focus of
change – whether or not leaders properly identify the correct focus for the school; the
second variable is order of change – whether or not leaders understand the magnitude or
order of change they are leading and adjust their leadership practices accordingly
(Walters et al., 2004). According to Marzano (2003), leadership is a necessary condition
for effective reform and redesign of schools.
Five of the fourteen new small high schools previously mentioned were able to
meet and exceed state and federal accountability measures, and were able to transform
9
their small thematic high school in urban areas into thriving learning communities. They
did this by implementing a specific set of leadership skills and through the collective
collaboration of all stakeholders. These skills included establishing a school vision,
shared leadership, fostering a learning community, gathering and assessing data,
monitoring curriculum and instruction, fostering and sustaining school climate, having
high expectations, selecting quality teachers, professional development, and
communication and community relations (Stronge, Richard, & Catano, 2008). However,
this study presents a new inquiry, which moves beyond meeting and exceeding federal
accountability measures, and addressing the new skills needed by high school principals
in urban districts, to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global
context.
Statement of the Problem
According to Snyder et al. (2008), the literature base for global skills needed by
urban high school principals is very limited. Additionally, there are few degree programs
or training programs designed to give skills to educational leaders for the global era of
schooling (Synder et al., 2008). This study presents extenuating factors including, but
not limited to,
 The failure of our urban schools
 The impact of globalization on education
 The issue of changing demographics and its effect on education
thereby justifying the need for urban high school principals need to acquire additional
skills.
10
The focus of this study is to identify and examine urban high school principals
demonstrating the skills to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a
global context.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify the skills needed by urban high school
principals to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context.
This research inquiry is a qualitative study of theory and practice. Northouse (2007)
reviewed a study conducted in 2000 by Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, Fleishman,
and Yammarino revealing that if principals demonstrate the appropriate skills, there will
be favorable outcomes. As a framework, this study will use the Mumford et al. (2000)
Capability Model.
Research Questions
The research inquiries that guide this study are:
1. What are the leadership skills needed by urban high school principals to redesign
schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context?
2. Are urban high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context?
3. To what extent are urban high school principals actively and knowledgeably
demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global context?
Significance of the Study
Today‘s large, impersonal high schools were designed for a different era and a
different economy, and they are leaving far too many young people behind (Gates &
11
Gates, 2003). Today‘s high schools were conceived at the beginning of the 20
th
century
to prepare students for work in an industrial economy, which is very different from the
economy we live in today (Gates & Gates, 2003). Large American schools are
essentially bureaucracies that depend on autocratic leadership and adherence to rules and
regulations, and require students to adopt obedient sheep-like behaviors in order to be
"successful‖ (Nordgren, 2002). Many business organizations today are not bureaucratic
but rely instead on work teams, shared decision-making, and a great deal of risk-taking in
an effort to compete in the global market (Nordgren, 2002). In order to combat the
failures of modern education, we will need a new type of leader with new skills.
This study would potentially add to the current body of literature on skills needed
by urban high school principals to prepare students to compete in a global context. This
study has the potential to illuminate key practices for practitioners, focusing on how
principals with global skills spend their time and the type of training received to develop
global skills. Additionally, this study has the potential to influence policy-makers within
higher education and district-level human resource officers in the development or
redesign of principal preparation, and professional development for school leaders.
Limitations
This research inquiry is a qualitative study of global skills needed by urban high
school principals. This project contains a limited sample size of three principals within
one district, and gives a snapshot on skill needs, professional development needs, and
time management priorities for urban high school principals. Another limitation of this
study is the limited literature on the global skills needed by urban high school principals
12
that will prepare students to compete in a global context. Principals pursuing the
attainment of global skills may choose a different framework. Therefore, the findings of
this study can only be generalized to populations in the observed district.
Delimitations
According to Mumford et al. (2000), leaders who demonstrate good skills in
problem solving, social judgment, and knowledge, along with positive individual
attributes, career experiences and environmental experiences, will demonstrate effective
problem-solving abilities and performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007, p 43). This study
used the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model as a framework.
Definitions of Related Terms
 API – The California Department of Education defines API as follows:
The Academic Performance Index is a single number, ranging from a low of 200 to a
high of 1000 that reflects a school‘s performance level, based on the results of statewide
testing. Its purpose is to measure the academic performance and growth of schools. The
API was established by the California Public Schools Accountability Act, a landmark
state law passed in 1999 that created a new academic accountability system for K-12
public education in California (―API,‖ n.d.).
 AYP – The California Department of Education defines AYP as follows:
AYP is a series of annual academic performance goals established for each school, local
educational agency (LEA) (i.e. school district or county office of education), and the state
as a whole. Schools, LEAs, and the state are determined to have met AYP if they meet or
exceed each year‘s goals. Under California‘s criteria for NCLB, schools and LEAs are
13
required to meet or exceed requirements within each of the following four areas in order
to make AYP annually: participation rate, percent proficient—Annual Measurable
Objectives (AMOs), API as an additional indicator and graduation rate. Participation rate
and percent proficient criteria must be met in English-language arts (ELA) and in
mathematics (―AYP,‖ n.d.).
 De-territorialization - to take the control and order away from a land or place (territory)
that is already established. Professor Marcelo Suarez-Orozco, of Harvard University,
uses this term to explain how jobs are no longer territorial to a specific nation (Suarez-
Orozco, 2005).
 EQBS – The Education Quality Benchmark System is both a framework for managing
change, and a diagnostic tool for educators to assess the work cultures in place in districts
and schools, in order to better align Quality Systems for schooling. The EQBS provides
schools with the opportunity to strengthen the direction of the change process through the
use of a diagnostic process in conjunction with the Quality Change Process Model and
the Organizational Development Phases (Acker-Hocevar, Synder, & Wolf, 1995).
 GLC – Global Learning Center benchmarks were established by the International School
Connection in 2005. The ten benchmarks were an attempt to identify features that set
schools apart in preparing students as global citizens (Synder et al., 2008).
 Globalization – Globalization is about flow: mobile capital; the mobile production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services; mobile populations; and mobile
cultures (Suarez-Orozco, 2005).
14
 Glocal – The term glocal was invented recently in the Leadership Development
Department at the University of South Florida as professors explored the nature of school
development within a global context. Glocal refers to the ability of schools to
simultaneously become local and global in their connections, work, and assessments and
continuous improvement (Synder et al., 2008).
 ISC – The International School Connection was conceptualized in 1992 in Berlin, and
formalized in 2002, when educators from Sweden, the United States, Finland, and Russia
met to explore opportunities to link school principals‘ in common international
experiences. Their mission is to work with educational leaders to shape their schools as
GLCs that prepare students for success in a global age (Synder et al., 2008).
 NCLB – The Department of Education defines NCLB as follows:
No Child Left Behind is the latest reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA). The Act requires states to set goals for all students to be at least
proficient on statewide academic content standards by 2014 (―NCLB,‖ n.d.).
 Skills – The Free Dictionary website defines skill in the following way:
Proficiency that is acquired or developed through training or experience (―The Free
Dictionary,‖ n.d.).
 TIMSS – The Third International Mathematics and Science Study was released in 2003
and provides reliable and timely data on the mathematics and science achievement of
U.S. 4th- and 8th-grade students compared to that of students in other countries. TIMSS
data have been collected in 1995, 1999, 2003, and 2007 (―Institute of Education
Sciences,‖ n.d.).
15
 Transnational – The Free Dictionary website defines transnational in the following way:
Reaching beyond or transcending national boundaries (―The Free Dictionary,‖ n.d.).

16
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This study presents the case for principals to acquire the skills to redesign schools
that will prepare students to compete in a global context. According to Stewart, ―The
future is here. It's multiethnic, multicultural, and multilingual‖ (2007, p. 9). Stewart
(2007) suggests that the world is fundamentally different from the one in which we grew
up, and is becoming increasingly more global. Additionally, the study presents
contributing factors to the failure of urban education, skills needed related to
globalization in education, and skills needed related to our changing demographics in
education. ―Without an understanding of the challenges ahead, a willingness to change,
and an eye to encourage each student to become a ‗masterpiece‘, schools fall far short in
preparing today‘s students for tomorrow‘s complex and changing world‖ (Tirozzi, 2001,
p. 434) .
This chapter is divided into four sections and begins with an exploration of the
literature delineating the need for urban high school principals to acquire new leadership
skills. The first section, The Gap: Why Principals Need Global Skills, is broken into sub-
sections, each of which will provide a different rationale for the need for principals to
acquire new leadership skills. Each subsequent section contains a review of literature on
each research question contained within this study:
1. What are the leadership skills needed by urban high school principals, to redesign
schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context?
17
2. Are urban high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context?
3. To what extent are urban high school principals actively and knowledgeably
demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global context?
The Gap: Why Principals Need Global Skills
Contributing Factors to the Failure of Urban Education
―African-American and Hispanic students—largely in urban schools—lag far
behind white students, who mostly attend middle-class suburban schools‖ (Clemmitt,
2007, p. 362). Factors that contribute to the failure of urban education include the large
number of minorities and recent immigrants whose first language is not English, the state
and federal government‘s role in perpetuating schools that are not equal (1954 Brown
decision), perceptions of policy-makers and educators, and teacher preparation
(Clemmitt, 2007).
Diversity and Language
Although diversity in student backgrounds can enhance the learning environment,
it can also create challenges for schools. According to Hunter and Brown (2003), the
current wave of immigration has broadened the diversity of the U.S., with the Hispanic
population being the fastest-growing population. Immigration is an issue for urban
schools because urban schools districts have absorbed the largest number of immigrants
and low-income students (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Hunter and Brown (2003) emphasize
that one in four students in public education in the U.S. attends school in an urban
environment, where a disproportionate number of our nation‘s poor children and 43% of
18
all minority students are enrolled. Clemmitt (2007) reveals that low-income, African
American, and Hispanic students overwhelmingly populate urban schools; and nationally,
approximately 50% of all African American and Latino students attend schools in which
75% or more of the students are low income. According to Clemmitt, ―Although states
show significant variations nationwide, 71% percent of eighth graders are not reading at
grade level, and the percentage shoots up to between 80 and 90 percent for students of
color‖ (2007, p. 363). Additionally, Clemmitt (2007) indicates that out of approximately
15,000 high schools, 2000—mostly in cities—account for half of the nation‘s dropouts.
Risk factors for dropping out of school include frequently missing school, not attending
class, being held back a grade, and frequently transferring schools (Clemmitt, 2007).
However, the process of dropping out often begins early with students becoming
disengaged from the learning process. Clemmitt (2007) emphasizes that once students
are judged to be reading behind grade level, as what happens with many primary grade
urban students, teachers will ―dumb down‖ the curriculum with work that leaves students
bored and dispirited.
Brown v. Board of Education
―The minority community seeks equity from schools in the education of their
students‖ (Hunter & Brown, 2003, p. 77). Hunter and Brown (2003) discuss two forms
of equity, horizontal and vertical. Horizontal equity involves the opportunity to attend
school (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Generally, all students, both minority and majority,
enjoy the benefits and equal opportunity to attend a public school. Vertical equity,
however, requires that all schools be equal (Hunter & Brown, 2003). It is here where the
19
inequity lies, and where minority students do not enjoy the vertical equity that majority
students enjoy. This inequity is another contributing factor to the failure of urban schools
in which state and federal government have played a significant role (Hunter & Brown,
2003).
According to Clemmitt (2007), in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education
landmark decision, the Supreme Court determined that the intentional segregation of
schools by race was illegal. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed outlawing racial
segregation in schools (Clemmitt, 2007). As a result of this passage, more schools
accommodated low income, middle class, white students and students from other ethnic
groups (Clemmitt, 2007). According to Clemmitt (2007), twenty years after the Civil
Rights Act of 1964, housing patterns and new waves of immigration led large numbers of
poor and minority students into many urban school districts. In 1974, the Supreme Court
effectively set limits on how far integration of students could go, and in Detroit‘s
Milliken v. Bradley case, the court ruled that the remedy to segregation could not include
moving children to schools in the surrounding suburbs (Clemmitt, 2007). By 1980, the
federal efforts to desegregate schools ended (Clemmitt, 2007). Former Presidents
Richard Nixon, Ronald Regan, and George Bush promised to appoint federal judges to
move slowly in the area of school desegregation (Hunter & Brown, 2003). According to
Hunter and Brown (2003), the preceding presidents along with supporters in Congress
made it unlawful for any federal agency to spend federal money on eliminating racial
segregation in schools.
20
Hunter and Brown (2003) emphasize that the major choice and privatization
movement began with the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. Hunter and
Brown (2003) allude that residents of Southern states that enrolled their children in
racially segregated schools used choice plans and vouchers to get around enrolling their
children in racially integrated schools. Politicians seeking re-election promised their
constituents public vouchers, protection of neighborhood schools, magnet schools, and
the elimination of public funds to support transportation for the purpose of racially
desegregating public schools (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Hunter and Brown (2003)
indicate that cries from politicians for educational reform have become metaphoric for
individual political, economic, and educational agendas.
Perceptions
According to Hunter and Brown (2003), many minority students in urban schools
underachieve academically. The authors indicate that minority students enroll in fewer
academic courses and fall behind in literacy (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Hunter and Brown
(2003) further conclude that many explanations for the educational failure of minority
students are shaped by the assumptions of educators that because the students‘ socio-
cultural backgrounds may be deficient, or because the students are economically
disadvantaged, or because students may have limited English proficiency, that these
factors equate to a lack of academic potential. As a result of educators‘ beliefs and
assumptions about these students, they are placed in lower-track classes with the least-
demanding curricula, almost guaranteeing low academic success (Hunter & Brown,
2003).
21
Payne (2008) describes the practice of inner city teachers dividing minority
students by presumed ability, and the consequences of these practices. Teachers are
described as knowing which students would ―get it‖ and which students would not, by
whether they were light- or dark-skinned, whether they had body odor, their attire, and
language use (Payne, 2008). Based on their perceptions, teachers began to teach and
interact with the ―low‖ students differently. In response to teacher interactions, the low
students began to act as low students by withdrawing, participating less, and becoming
easily distracted (Payne, 2008). The low students were described as eventually
disengaging from the learning process even when they knew the right answers (Payne,
2008).
Clemmitt (2007) explains that policy-makers in the early 20
th
century felt that
there was little need for most students to learn more than basic reading and writing skills,
so the failure of poor urban schools was seen as acceptable. There was a conscious
decision made to develop a two-track system; an academic track and a general track, with
mostly immigrant and poor people in the general track because they would work the
assembly lines (Clemmitt, 2007). Clemmitt (2007) further explains that current debates
over U.S. education are not looking at education historically, and are expecting schools to
do things with students that schools were never designed to do. ―The school system that
we have, was never set up to educate all students to the level of proficiency now being
asked for‖ (Clemmitt, 2007, p. 372). Clemmitt (2007) indicates that today, few people
question whether all students should learn at high levels, but rather whether we have the
resources in poor urban schools to help students ―catch up‖.
22
Teacher Preparation
According to Payne (2008), urban, bottom-tiered schools are less likely to get
highly effective teachers, and it is difficult to retain them once they do. In New York
City, 44% of new teachers leave by their fourth year, and in Chicago 40 % of new
teachers are gone within five years, citing discipline problems, lack of administrative
support, and too little freedom to do their jobs as the main reasons for leaving (Payne,
2008). Payne (2008) reports that, nationally, children in the highest-poverty schools are
assigned novice teachers almost twice as frequently as children in low-poverty schools.
―In 2002, approximately half of the 7,400 new teachers hired in New York City were
uncertified, meaning they failed the state exams, lacked required course-work, or both‖
(Payne, 2008, p. 71).
Clemmitt (2007) reports additional challenges facing our nation‘s teaching force
pointing to their lack of preparation. The effects of immigration, especially with our
Hispanic population, can be witnessed and are heavily concentrated in urban schools
(Clemmitt, 2007). With the increased Hispanic population, comes a language barrier and
the question of how our teaching force will overcome this barrier to better meet the needs
of our English learners. In addition to language challenges, our nations‘ teaching force
continues to be dominated by white, monolingual, middle-class women (Clemmitt, 2007).
Clemmitt (2007) indicates that many teachers, especially white women, shy away from
making tough demands on minority students.
According to Hunter and Brown (2003), dealing with issues of diversity and
language within urban schools is a community responsibility. Educational leaders will
23
need the skills to establish positive relationships with parents and communities, and make
them partners in the educational process. ―…if community conversations are to be a
mechanism for providing effective education for all children, an effort must be made to
ensure that all members of the greater community are engaged in the conversations‖
(Hunter & Brown, 2003, p. 21).
In order to combat the inequities of racially-segregated urban schools there will
need to be a neighborhood focus around these schools. Hunter and Brown (2003) suggest
that these urban schools and districts will have to take on a community control
philosophy. Hunter and Brown (2003) explain that new school leadership will be needed
to respond to this new neighborhood design. Educational leaders will need the skills to
engage and collaborate with community members so they feel empowered to exercise
more control over their children‘s education. Crew (2007) describes a community
control philosophy through the ―Parent Academy‖, designed to create a way for parents
to engage in their students‘ learning. The author emphasizes, ―…it was possible…to
teach parents how to use the school system, how to interact with school and engage in
their children‘s education, but to do that, we had to offer information that would be
valuable to the parents personally…‖ (Crew, 2007, p. 167). The Parent Academy offered
free classes in English, Spanish, and Creole in the following eight categories: (a) Early
Childhood, (b) Health and Wellness, (c) Help Your Child Learn, (d) Financial Skills, (e)
Languages, (f) Parenting Skills, (g) Personal Growth, and (h) Technology. According to
Crew (2007), reaching out to parents is part of the mission of making schools connected
and strengthens the whole organization.
24
Skill Needs—Globalization in Education
―Globalization is what happens when the movement of people, goods, or ideas
among countries and regions accelerates‖ (Suarez-Orozco, Qin-Hilliard, & Baolian,
2004, p. 1). The authors suggest that education systems across the globe continue
mimicking practices familiar to those who attended school more than two generations
ago, such as curricula, instructional strategies (―chalk and talk‖), and assessments
(Suarez-Orozco et al., 2004). Stewart (2007) indicates that students in today‘s schools,
across the globe, will encounter a vastly different world from that of their grandparents.
Stewart (2007) suggests that students will need a new skill set that goes beyond the focus
on mathematics, English, science, social studies, and technology. Students will need new
global skills demonstrating their ability to work for international companies, collaborate
with people all over the world, and tackle global problems (Stewart, 2007). According to
Stewart (2007), ―To be successful global citizens…students will need to be
knowledgeable about the world, be able to communicate in languages other than English,
and be informed and active citizens‖ (p. 9).
According to Suarez-Orozco (2005), the fuel that gives globalization its speed
comes in the form of new information, communication, and media technologies that
connect people, ideas, and data across the world instantaneously. The August 27, 2007,
issue of Business Week, featured an article discussing the future of work (as cited in
Suarez-Orozco, 2005). The article discussed how globalization and technology together
are changing how we do our jobs and determining the location of the work (as cited in
Suarez-Orozco, 2005). Off-shoring jobs can be divided into smaller tasks and
25
redistributed around the world. New technologies provide the creation of virtual offices,
transforming the concept of what it means to be at work (as cited in Suarez-Orozco,
2005).
Stewart (2007) reports that U.S. schools are not adequately preparing students to
meet these global challenges. Surveys conducted by the Asia Society (2002) and
National Geographic-Roper (2002) report that U.S. students lack knowledge of world
geography, history, and current events, and few U.S. students learn to speak languages
that large numbers of people speak, such as Chinese and Arabic (as cited in Stewart,
2007).
Snyder et al. (2008) mention the following about our bureaucratic school system:
Transforming the purpose and nature of schooling for twenty-first-century
conditions will require us…to shed bureaucratic thinking…and adopt an
entrepreneurial mindset with habits of systemic thinking…The old rules of the
game will not lead schools to a global future, for the habits of mind for a global
age will require continuous adaptation, exploration, imagination, creativity,
caring, and bold action from leaders ( p. 5).
Snyder et al. (2008) indicate that principals will need new skills to develop and empower
work teams that progress toward a common vision of redesigning schools that will
prepare students to compete in a global context. Snyder et al. (2008) suggests that the
greatest challenge principals will need to overcome when moving from a bureaucratic to
systems thinking is letting go of assumptions about control. The success of these teams
26
will be directly related to the ability and willingness of principals to manage broad-scale
change and alter the organization‘s power structure (Snyder et al., 2008).
Skill Needs—Changing Demographics in Education
“But globalization should not be reduced to global competition in economy and
work; it is also about demographic and cultural transformations‖ (Suarez-Orozco, 2005,
p. 210). Globalization has influenced the migratory patterns in most regions of the world.
Countries are either sending emigrants to new destinations or receiving immigrants, and
with these global migrations come demographic changes and cultural formations (Suarez-
Orozco, 2005). Several of these changes will have a direct impact on education and the
development of new skills for principals.
Demographer Harold L. Hodgkinson (2008) uses a simple formula to make
predictions about the population and demographic changes in the United States—
population equals births minus deaths plus immigrants (those moving in and those
moving out). The author reveals that there are approximately 4 million births per year,
approximately 2 million deaths per year, and approximately 1 million immigrants per
year. Because of Hodgkinson‘s formula, it is easy to predict that the U.S. population
continues to grow and is estimated to reach 363 million by 2030 (Hodgkinson, 2008).
The Condition of Education, 2008 reported a record high school enrollment of 50 million
with 43% of all students from minority backgrounds (as cited in Tirozzi, 2001). By 2017,
enrollment is projected to reach a new high of 54 million students, and by 2025, 61% of
the nation‘s population growth will be comprised of Hispanics and Asians (as cited in
Tirozzi, 2001).
27
Tirozzi (2001) reports that along with our changing migratory patterns, population
growth, and demographic shifts will be the ongoing issue of school construction. Tirozzi
(2001) indicates that the issue will not be whether there will be enough schools but
whether these schools will be built in the right locations. Most franchised businesses and
fast food restaurants engage in a business process called geodemographics, in which they
carefully research their business locations based on its ability to demonstrate a solid
clientele base at that location for a 15-year period (Hodgkinson, 2000). According to
Hodgkinson (2000), public school locations, which are not researched as thoroughly, will
shift from the ―beltway suburbs‖ to ―edge cities‖. Hodgkinson (2000) reports that over
the next 20 years the greatest demand for school construction will be in cities that do not
exist yet. Hodgkinson (2000) further notes that because of the changing migratory
patterns there will be a significant number of secondary schools built within the next few
years that will be half-full or closed in 10 years.
Hodgkinson (2000) indicates that transience, a major factor in crime rates, poor
health, and poor performance, is also a demographic reality with school leadership
implications. The U.S. has the highest transience rate of any developed nation, of which
there are an estimated 43 million people moving each year (Hodgkinson, 2002).
According to Hodgkinson (2000), teachers having 24 students at the beginning of the
school year may end the year with 24 different students, which bring up the issue of
trying to teach those students who are considered ―strangers‖. Hodgkinson (2002)
indicates that the worst performing states, in terms of college admittance of new
graduates from high school, are Texas, Florida, California, Georgia, Arizona, and Nevada
28
(25% to 30%); these also are the states with the highest mobility and crime rates. Tirozzi
(2001) aptly states, ―How can schools effectively develop continuity when students who
start in September leave mid-year and new students transfer into the school?‖ (p. 435).
In light of the presented demographic changes facing the U.S. and its education
system, educational leaders will need to prepare themselves for the challenges that come
with the changes. Principals will need the skills to develop a common vision for learning
addressing the significant number of students who will be entering our schools speaking
another language. Principals will need to be visionary leaders that take notice of building
plans, population shifts, and migratory patterns. Principals will need to be constantly
aware of its mobile population and find ways to develop continuity for its transient
students. Senge (1990) refers to this skill as being ―system thinkers‖ and being able to
see the ―big picture‖. ―We know that a key element is the principal. Without well-
qualified, motivated leaders in every school, reform will succeed sporadically…‖
(Suarez-Orozco, 2001, p. 439).
This section of the study has illuminated practices within urban schools and issues
facing urban schools influencing the learning gap with our minority students. These
included the failure of urban schools to meet minority student needs, the impact of
globalization on education, and the issue of our changing demographics. The topics
covered present a strong rationale for the need for urban high school principals to acquire
additional skills to create schools designed to prepare all students to compete in a global
context. The next section will present a review of literature on the specific skills needed
29
and will address the research inquiry of, what are the skills needed by urban high school
principals, to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context.
Skills Needed by Principals
Skills Model: A Theoretical Framework
Northouse (2007) reviewed a study conducted in 2000 by Mumford, Zaccaro,
Harding, Jacobs, Fleishman, and Yammarino. Mumford et al. (2000) assert that a
leader‘s effectiveness depends on the leader‘s ability to solve complex organizational
problems and suggests that leadership capability can be developed over time through
education and experience (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Mumford et al. (2000) suggest
that along with the competencies designated in the model, with positive individual
attributes, career experiences and environmental experiences, the leader will demonstrate
effective problem solving ability and performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007). This
model known as the Capability Model examines the relationship between a leader‘s
knowledge and skills and the leader‘s performance and addresses the questions: What
accounts for why some leaders are good problem solvers? What specific skills do high-
performing leaders exhibit? (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Mumford et al. (2000) five
components of the Capability Model as cited in Northouse (2007, p. 53) are:
1. Competencies – key factors accounting for effective performance
a. Problem Solving Skills – a leader‘s creative ability to solve
organizational problems
b. Social Judgment Skills – the capacity to understand people and social
systems
30
c. Knowledge – the accumulation of information and the mental
structures used to organize that information
2. Individual Attributes:
a. General Cognitive Ability – also called fluid intelligence which
includes processing, reasoning, creativity, and memory
b. Crystallized Cognitive Ability – intellectual ability that is learned over
time
c. Motivation
d. Personality
3. Leadership Outcomes
4. Career Experiences
5. Environmental Influences
Figure 1: Skills Model – A Theoretical Framework (Northouse, 2007)

31
Using the Skills Model Framework, this study will examine the researched-based skills
used by principals enabling them to prepare students to compete in a global context.
According to The National Association for Secondary School Leaders (NASSP,
2010), every principal should regularly ask, ―What impact do I have on my school‘s
success through my knowledge, skills, and dispositions—not simply through the
programs initiated?‖ (NASSP, 2010, p. 1). Over a period of thirty years, NASSP,
through the analysis of principalship, observation, and research, has identified ten skills
needed by principals in the 21
st
century (NASSP, 2010). These ten skills are further
classified into the following four categories:
Educational Leadership
 Setting instructional directives
 Teamwork
 Sensitivity
Resolving Complex Problems
 Judgment
 Results orientation
 Organizational ability
Communication
 Oral communication
 Written communication
Developing Self and Others
 Developing others
32
 Understanding own strengths and weaknesses
According to NASSP (2010), our world is changing and being driven by factors
such as greater accountability, technological innovation and complexity, and greater
diversity of school communities (NASSP, 2010). In order to prepare for the changes
principals will need to exhibit a high degree of educational leadership. Principals will
need to have the skills to establish a unifying vision, ensure collaboration exists at every
level, and ensure there is respect for the professional experience of others throughout the
school (NASSP, 2010). NASSP (2010) indicates that to prepare for these complex issues
facing our society and influencing education, principals will need the skills to resolve the
issues with judgment, an orientation toward results, and organizational ability.
Additionally, NASSP (2010) emphasizes the importance of effective communication
skills and developing others, to bring about the desired results.
Senge (1990) indicates that new roles will be needed for educational leaders. He
states, ―The traditional authoritarian image of a leader…has been oversimplified and
inadequate for some time…building an organization‘s culture and shaping its evolution is
the unique and essential function of leadership‖ (Senge, 1990, p. 10). Senge (1990)
emphasizes that new leadership roles require the following new leadership skills:
 Building Shared Vision
 Surfacing and Challenging Mental Models
 Engaging in Systems Thinking
However, Senge (1990) also suggests these skills must not be limited to the leaders, but
must also be distributed throughout the organization. He, emphasizes the importance of
33
creating a shared vision, and that by this, people are now partners and co-creators (Senge,
1990). This method allows the vision to rest on the shoulders of all stakeholders, and
thus having an ―our vision‖ mentality, instead of a ―my vision mentality‖ (Senge, 1990).
Senge (1990) indicates that the skills involved in building shared vision include
encouraging personal vision, communicating and asking for support, visioning as an
ongoing process, blending extrinsic and intrinsic visions, and distinguishing positive and
negative visions.
According to Senge (1990), one reason the best ideas never are put into practice is
that they conflict with established mental models. ―The task of challenging assumptions
without invoking defensiveness requires reflection and inquiry skills…‖ (Senge, 1990, p.
14). Senge (1990) speaks of balancing inquiry and advocacy skills and suggests that
most leaders are skilled at articulating their views and the art of persuasion; however,
advocacy can become counterproductive as leaders confront increasingly complex issues
requiring collaboration. Senge (1990) mentions that part of challenging mental models
include recognizing and defusing defensive routines. Senge (1990) suggests that nobody
talks about an issue at an 8:00 in the morning business meeting the way they would talk
about it at home or over drinks at the end of the day. He emphasizes that these
―defensive routines‖ are used to protect ourselves from the embarrassment or threat that
come with exposing our thinking (Senge, 1990). According to Senge (1990), these
―defensive routines‖ lessens learning, and leaders must have the skills to recognize,
reveal, and defuse these routines.
34
Senge (1990) indicates that successful leaders are system thinkers and are able to
help people see the big picture. System thinkers focus less on day-to-day events and are
more intuitively focused on trends, and feel frustrated that others do not see the world the
way they do (Senge, 1990). According to Senge (1990), system thinkers see
interrelationships; they move beyond blaming each other and outside circumstance for
problems; they understand the strategic importance of dynamic complexity that arises
when cause and effect are distant in time as opposed to focusing on detail complexity;
they understand the importance of focusing on areas of high leverage, and that small,
well-focused actions can produce significant, lasting improvements; and system thinkers
focus on the underlying causes.
Similarly, Reeves (2006) describes seven dimensions of leadership necessary in
every leadership team as follows:
 Visionary Leadership
 Relational Leadership
 Systems Leadership
 Reflective Leadership
 Collaborative Leadership
 Analytical Leaders
 Communicative Leadership
Goleman (2002) as cited in Reeves (2006) makes an important distinction not mentioned
in the previously defined skills. Senge (1990) alludes to the importance of relational
leadership when he discusses the importance of co-creating a shared vision. NASSP
35
(2010) also identifies the importance of teamwork , however Goleman (2002)
emphasizes the importance of relational leadership by indicating that relationship skills
account for nearly three times as much impact on organizational performance as
analytical skills (as cited in Reeves, 2006). Reeves (2006) emphasizes that relational
leaders listen to their colleagues without interruption; relational leaders respect
confidences; relational leaders practice empathy through deliberate inquiry.
Acker-Hocevar et al. (1995) designed the EQBS Framework as a means to assist
educators to create new structures for the work in schools. They believed that schools
and districts are mostly bureaucratic and are unresponsive to the needs of today‘s
students and are inadequate for preparing our youth for the challenges of the 21
st
century
(Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995). According to Acker-Hocevar et al. (1995), the EQBS was
designed to examine what systems need to be improved so that more students are
successful and are based on the following skills:
 Visionary Leadership
 Strategic Planning
 Systems Thinking
 Information Systems
 Human Resource Development
 Quality Services/ Customer Success and Satisfaction

36

Acker-Hocevar et al. (1995) mention two skills not addressed in the previously
defined skills. According to Acker-Hocevar et al. (1995), principals will need the skills
to ensure they are providing Quality Services and Customer Success Satisfaction.
Although these fall within analytical skills, Acker-Hocevar et al. (1995) make a further
distinction about the need to routinely gather data to learn about the effects of programs
and services, and customer satisfaction. Table 1, above, highlights the similarities of the
presented skills in relation to the Mumford et al. (2000) Framework.
This section provides an analysis of the literature on skills needed by principals to
prepare students to compete in a global context. An analysis of these skills indicates
consistency with Mumford‘s et al. (2000) Capability Model. Skills presented in this
study fall within two categories in the model, including Problem Solving Skills, and
Table 1
Global Skills: Using Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model as cited in
Northouse (2007)
Mumford‘s Problem
Solving Skills
Mumford‘s Social Judgment
Skills
NASSP Resolving Complex
Problems
Educational Leadership
Communication
Developing Self and Others
Senge‘s
Leadership
Skills
Engaging in Systems
Thinking
Building a Shared Vision
Surfacing and Challenging
Mental Models
Reeves‘s
Dimensions of
Leadership
Systems Leadership
Reflective Leadership
Analytical Leadership
Visionary Leadership
Relational Leadership
Collaborative Leadership
Communicative Leadership
Snyder‘s Global
Leadership
Skills
Systems Thinking
Information Systems
Quality Services
Customer Success and
Satisfaction
Visionary
Strategic Planning
Human Resource
Development
37
Social Judgment Skills (Northouse, 2007). Neither of the skills presented in this study
fell within the Knowledge Skills category of the Capability Model; however, Northouse
(2007) indicates that knowledge is the accumulation of information and mental structures
used to organize the information, and can be accumulated through career experiences and
through training. The next section will present a review of literature on professional
development opportunities, and will address the research inquiry indicating to what
extent urban high school principals are equipped to redesign schools that will prepare
students to compete in a global context.
Professional Development Available
Webb and Norton (2009) state, that professional development is the ongoing
process of providing opportunities for leaders and school staff to improve their
knowledge and skills. Webb and Norton (2009) mention that in order for employees to
engage in professional development, they must be motivated to participate. Using
Vroom‘s (1964) expectancy theory, Webb and Norton (2009) explain that before
employees are willing to devote time and effort to a particular professional development
activity, they must believe they will actually acquire specific knowledge and skills and
that this will connect to a positive outcome. This is in alignment with the Mumford et al.
(2000) Capability Model, previously discussed, which emphasizes that when leaders
demonstrate good competency skills, including knowledge skills, they will demonstrate
effective problem-solving ability and performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007, p 43).
Using Vroom‘s (1964) expectancy theory and the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability
38
Model, the impetus for urban school principals‘ participation in professional development
is to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context.
This section of study will provide an analysis of three professional development
programs designed to give principals the skills to prepare students to be global citizens; a
university-level program, a district-level program, and a private organization. Two of the
professional development programs affirm the preparation of urban principals, which are
The Center of Urban School Leadership at Berkeley, California and the Superintendent’s
Urban Principals Initiative within Miami-Dade County Public Schools (M-DCPS). One
of the programs, Leadership for Sustained Development, implies the preparation of all
principals, including urban principals.
Leadership for Sustainable School Development
Snyder et al. (2008) developed a training program built upon chaos theory and
designed to prepare principals to shape schools for the global age. The Leadership for
Sustainable School Development (LSSD) original design consists of a ten-day program
providing a systematic orientation to school development functioning in a global context
and digital culture (Snyder et al., 2008). Snyder‘s et al. (2008) key capacities offered by
the LSSD program include:
 Developing a shared vision by continuously studying the local, national, and
global context for living and learning, and by building a strong personal
network system to support development.
 Engaging staff and community in gathering data for setting organizational
goals.
39
 Designing and facilitating the organization‘s work systems of learning
communities, and fostering external partnerships and networks.
 Designing and building a high-performing organization for learning and
working.
 Leading the organization‘s development process toward the vision and
accountability.
Since the original design of the training, a new capacity of Networking was added and the
training has morphed into a two-year training program (Snyder et al., 2008). The refined
two-year program features a local and a global networking component, along with
creation of a digital culture to redesign school programs that prepare students as global
citizens. The LSSD classroom seat time is ten days, with performance outcomes during
year one and an international project during year two (Snyder et al., 2008). Snyder et al.
(2008) emphasize that the goal is for schools to use the Global Learning Center (GLC)
benchmarks in transforming their schools, which are as follows:
 Benchmark 1: The curriculum reflects global forces
 Benchmark 2: A school vision and plan connecting students with the global
community
 Benchmark 3: Educators participate in professional development in a globally
networked environment
 Benchmark 4: Partnerships with global businesses enhance the school‘s
development
 Benchmark 5: Students demonstrate high levels of academic achievement
40
 Benchmark 6: Current knowledge about learning guides student activity
 Benchmark 7: International projects are included in the curriculum
 Benchmark 8: Students develop global workforce capacities, including
technology
 Benchmark 9: Students use democratic decision-making processes
 Benchmark 10: Students care about the global community and its
sustainability
Another key feature of the LSSD training is teaching principals how to build
responsive work teams. According to Synder et al. (2008), ―The concept of working
alone has virtually disappeared from the work environment…Schools…are simply too
complex today for a few leaders to direct and control all the work…Teamwork, however,
has great potential for strengthening the organization….‖( p. 251). Mozingo (2003),
defines the work team as, ― a highly trained group of employees who work together to
complete a segment of work‖ (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). Monzingo (2003)
mentions that many schools still operate under Taylor’s Scientific Management Model
(1911), which consists of a clearly define hierarchy of authority, division of labor and
specialization, rules and regulations, and is impersonal and career-oriented (as cited in
Hunter & Brown, 2003). Yet more than 40 years ago in the American Bureaucracy,
Bennis (1970) stated that, although these bureaucratic principals were formulated to
enhance rationality and efficiency in the Industrial Era, they have outlived their
usefulness (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). According to Bennis, ―Organizations of
the future will be adaptive, rapidly changing temporary systems, organized around
41
problems-to-be-solved by groups of relative strangers with diverse profesional skills‖ (as
cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003).
The Center for Urban School Leadership
The University of California at Berkeley (UCB) recognizes that strong leaders are
the driving force behind strong schools. UCB (n.d.) indicates that fewer educators are
aspiring to become urban principals and fewer are deciding to stay on the job for more
than a few years. In the Bay Area in San Francisco Unified School District, a 30%
attrition rate in principals and assistant principals it is projected over the next five years.
According to UCB (n.d.), Oakland Unified, San Francisco Unified, and Contra Costa
Unified School Districts project a need for approximately 80 new administrators per year.
UCB (n.d.) indicates that along with the demands of an urban principalship and
accountability measures, principals must have the skills to link resource allocation to
achievement; they must be able to tap into community resources to meet the needs of
their students. The Center for Urban School Leadership provides the means to equip
aspiring principals to meet the demands of an urban principalship by focusing on the
following leadership dimensions:
 Instructional Leadership
 Organizational Change
 Strategic Thinking and Planning
 Equity
Within the Center for Urban Leadership is their anchor program, the Principal
Leadership Institute (PLI), a fourteen-month training in which all graduates must commit
42
to work in a California public school for a period of four years (UCB, n.d.). The goal
over the next ten years is to recruit and prepare 500 leaders who will transform the Bay
Area urban schools into powerful learning communities (UCB, n.d., p. 2). UCB (n.d.)
believes this will be accomplished partly through collaboration with local school districts
and supporting districts in formulating their policies through the Center‘s Research-Into-
Practice Institute. This will also be accomplished through the Center‘s Coaching
Initiative (CI). The CI provides surrounding districts with UCB-led coaching and
professional development with a team of over forty retired urban principals (UCB, n.d).
Superintendent’s Urban Principals Initiative
During the 2004-2005 school year, the superintendent of M-DCPS instituted an
urban principal initiative in response to the leadership gap (The Education Fund, n.d.).
M-DCPS‘s neediest secondary schools, like many schools in urban districts throughout
the nation, were facing a shortage of qualified principals. According to The Education
Fund (n.d.), from 2002 – 2005, there were 191 changes in the county‘s 1,053 school
administrators, with most at the secondary level, fewer applicants in high need areas, and
projections that more than 18% of the principals would retire. The superintendent of M-
DCPS understood that an effective principal was the key to raising student achievement
and consequently piloted the Superintendent‘s Urban Principal Initiative (SUPI) with two
primary goals of identifying high-potential urban school leaders and preparing and
inspiring them for principalships in M-DCPS‘neediest schools (The Education Fund,
n.d.). The success of the pilot program spurred the development of an expanded new
version of the SUPI, and garnered community and national support in the form of a
43
multi-million dollar federal grant. M-DCPS‘ SUPI was able to expand its efforts to a
three-year training program, consisting of coaching/mentoring, principal retention, and
increasing science achievment (The Education Fund, n.d.). M-DCPS‘ SUPI features a
nine-week internship and a week-long workshop at the National Institute for Urban
School Leaders at Harvard University‘s Principal‘s Center.
An important characteristic of the SUPI training was the incorporation of Action
Research. The Education Fund (n.d.) found that Action Research helped participants
immediately focus on student learning and achievement using a cycle of inquiry process
which included:
 Formulating a list of school challenges expressed as questions
 Gathering data, formalizing research questions, and choosing instructional
interventions
 Analyzing the data, reaching conclusions, formulating policy
recommendations, and determining future action steps
Two components of the SUPI training are the Accelerated Administrator
Preparation Program (ASAP) and the Educational Leadership Assessment (ELA). The
Education Fund (n.d.) indicates that the ELA consists of online assessment modules
administered to current and prospective principals to evaluate their leadership potential
by identifying strengths and development needs based on the following ten dimensions of
educational leadership:
 Shared Vision
 Communication
44
 Instructional Leadership
 Decision-Making Strategies
 Human Resource Development and The Learning Environment
 Learning, Accountability and Assessment
 Technology Competency
 Community and Stakeholder Relationships
 Ethical Leadership
 Diversity
An important distinction of M-DCPS‘ ten dimensions of educational leadership is
that they align with the global skills, presented in the previous section, principals need to
prepare their students to become global citizens. Additionally, they align with the
Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model presented in the previous section.
Scores of 70% or above on the modules are considered to be areas of strength. A
score below 70% on any module is considered as an area of growth, and participants are
sent to ASAP post-test module, where additional supports are available.
The purpose of this section was to provide a review of the literature on
professional development initiatives available for urban principals to acquire the skills
needed to prepare students to become global citizens. This section reviewed university-,
district-, and private organizational-level initiatives. Common themes presented in each
of the professional development initiatives were: the need for positive change in our
education system, that effective principals are an impetus for change, and that principals
need appropriate knowledge skills, social judgment skills, and problem-solving skills
45
achieved through professional development to influence change. Additionally, each
professional development model stated or inferred global skills preparation for urban
principals. The next section will provide a review of literature on time management for
principals and will address the research inquiry of, the extent to which urban high school
principals demonstrate skills designed to prepare students to compete in a global context.
Time Management
―There was a time when principals were expected to do little more than ‗hold‘
school…So long as discipline and order prevailed—and the busses ran on time—a
principals job was secure‖ (Bottoms and O‘Neill, 2001, p. 4). Bottoms and O‘Neill
(2001) emphasize that with the demands of the principalship, increased accountability,
and the demands of a global economy, these times are long gone. Principals today must
understand how to focus their time and attention on what is being taught to students, how
it is being taught, and what students are learning (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). In the
article, The Artistry of Leadership, Tirozzi (2001) explains that the ―landscape‖ of
schooling has changed, and that principals are to be the instructional ―artists in
residence‖. Tirozzi (2001) indicates that the principal‘s time should not be diverted by
managerial issues, but instead be directed toward instructional issues and putting forth a
vision that will better prepare students to compete in a global context. According to
Tirozzi (2001), ―The time has come to put the principal‘s leadership brush to the canvas
to paint a vision of what tomorrow‘s schools can and will be‖ (p. 434).
NASSP (2010) reports from a survey given to high school principals, that
curricular leadership and establishing a learning climate are among their most important
46
roles, yet though important, more time is spent addressing discipline-related issues,
community and parent issues, and facilities management issues. Table 2, below,
highlights the survey results of how principals spend their time.

47
Table 2
How Principals Spend Their Time (NASSP, 2010)

Activity

Average number of hours per week:
All high school principals
Percent indicating ―More than 11
hrs./wk.‖: All high school principals

Dealing with parent issues

7.64 20.9
Discipline 6.77 20.2
Community relations 6.12 14.3
Facilities management 5.86 13.3
Teacher evaluation 5.15 7.9
Program evaluation 4.85 7.2
School safety 4.64 9.3
Curriculum development 4.35 6.2
Budgets 4.16 6.3
Strategic planning 3.96 6.1
Professional Development 3.82 4.2
Student assessment 3.62 4.2
Lesson demonstration 1.26 0.7
48
Marshall (2008) suggests that the ten top priorities for principals include giving
staff members a clear direction, making school a safe place, aligning curriculum and
assessments with state standards, getting teachers needed resources, ensuring quality
teaching in every classroom, hiring quality teachers, using data to improve teaching,
providing quality professional development with a focus on results, and securing parent
engagement (p. 18).
Similarly, the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) conducted a focus
group consisting of 15 exemplary principals and discussed what they did to improve
student learning and achievement, and how they spent their time. The exemplary leaders
were selected from a sampling of principals in the High Schools That Work (HSTW)
network, and because they were successful in turning around low-performing schools
with diverse student populations (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The results of the focus
group are as follows.
Vision
Participants reported that successful principals spend time collaborating around a
shared vision of improving student learning and achievement (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
These principals understand that the vision is the driving force of an organization, and as
such, time is spent engaging in visioning for curriculum, instruction, school practices, and
the organization that will produce gains in student learning and achievement (Bottoms &
O'Neill, 2001).

49
Setting High Expectations and Instructional Practices
According to Bottoms and O‘Neill (2001), successful principals have deliberate
conversations with teachers, parents, and community members about the belief that all
students can learn. Principals should spend time investigating curriculum choices and
challenging belief system. These leaders understand that increasing academic rigor and
eliminating low-level courses have a positive impact on student learning and achievement
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). These principals are very visible in their schools and spend
time conducting observations, giving timely feedback, and ensuring there is a constant
focus on quality instruction (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
Personalized Learning Environment and Relationships
Bottoms and O‘Neill (2001) report that these principals spend time ensuring they
have developed relationships with their staff, and that every student has a relationship
with a caring adult. These leaders also spend time developing relationship with parents
and community members.
Data Driven
The principals involved in the focus group reported spending time collecting,
disaggregating, understanding, and using various data for use in improving the direction
of the school, teacher practice, student learning, and reshaping the attitudes of teachers
and parents (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
Developing Partnerships and Parent Engagement
Successful principals recognize the correlation between high parent involvement
and increased student learning and achievement, and they therefore spend time making
50
parents partners and creating structures for parents and students to work together
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Bottoms and O‘Neill (2001) report that these principals
understand that they cannot do it alone, and they spend time garnering community
support and developing partnerships in an effort to increase student learning and
achievement.
Professional Development
According to Bottoms and O‘Neill (2001), the principals involved in the focus
group understand the importance of staff members acquiring the skills, through high-
quality professional development programs, to positively influence student learning and
achievement. These principals spend time planning, and organizing high-quality
professional development to meet the individual needs of their teachers (Bottoms &
O'Neill, 2001).
Resources
Bottoms and O‘Neil (2001) report that future leaders must be entrepreneurs and
must have the knowledge and skills to secure needed resources from various sources.
These leaders do not wait to provide what they need to support their schools and student
learning and achievement; they spend time constantly searching for grants, and
partnerships with businesses and universities (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
Research and Trends
Principals reported spending time developing networks with professional
organizations, in an effort to understand the latest research and trends. These networks
provide access to resources and opportunities to learn, and provide principals with a set
51
of practices that they and their teachers can use as a framework for school improvement
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
The purpose of this section was to provide a review of the literature on how urban
principals should spend their time in order to prepare students to become global citizens.
The literature revealed continuity in the themes that were presented. However, neither
review presented the need for principals to spend time developing work teams. As
mentioned previously, developing work teams was a necessary skill for urban principals
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001).
Conclusion
This literature review reported on the failure of urban education to meet the needs
of our students, as well as national and global trends and their anticipated effects on our
educational system. All of these made the case for the need for urban high school
principals to acquire skills, to be engaged in high-quality professional development, and
to spend their time on things that matter, so that they can better prepare students to
compete in a global context
Contributing Factors to the Failure of Urban Education (Hunter & Brown, 2003),
presented issues around the increasing diversity in our mostly urban schools; the inequity
of schools as a result of state and federal non-enforcement of the 1954 Brown v. Board of
Education; teacher and community perceptions about educating poor minority students in
urban schools; and lack of teacher preparation in inner city urban schools. Hunter and
Brown (2003) present a compelling argument for how principals can combat these
failures. According to Hunter and Brown (2003) school leaders will need to develop the
52
philosophy of community-controlled schools. Similarly, Crew (2007) indicates that
leaders need to engage parents differently, so that they become partners in engaging in
their students‘ learning.
In Skills Needed Relating to Globalization in Education, Suarez-Orozco (2005)
suggests that because of the speed of information, communication, and media
technologies—people can connect to other people, ideas, and data across the world
instantaneously. In Skills Needed Relating to Our Changing Demographics in Education,
Tirozzi (2001) reports the issue of our changing migratory patterns, population growth,
English learner population increase, and demographic shifts. The issues presented in the
study greatly impact what it means for school leaders to prepare our students to be future
citizens of the world and where we build our future schools. Senge (1990) suggests that,
in order for schools to appropriately respond to these global and demographic trends,
principals will need to develop system-thinking skills, enabling others to see the big
picture. As system-thinkers, principals will be able to focus less on day-to-day events
and will be more intuitively focused on trends (Senge, 1990).
The literature review concluded with a list of congruent skills, professional
development opportunities, and time-management priorities for urban high school
principals. Each skill and professional development opportunity presented matches with
the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model, which emphasizes that when leaders
demonstrate good Problem Solving Skills, Social Judgment Skills, and Knowledge Skills,
they will demonstrate effective problem-solving abilities and performance (as cited in
Northouse, 2007, p 43).
53
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The previous chapters presented the case for the need for principals in high
poverty urban schools to develop the skills to redesign schools that will prepare students
to compete in a global context. Hunter and Brown (2003) report that failures in our
educational system are especially seen in large, urban districts, which have high
percentages of poor African-, Hispanic-, and Asian-American students. Valverde (2003)
maintains that dynamic leadership is needed to address the educational concerns of an
urban setting (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003, p. 196). Valverde (2003) asserts that
school leaders must have a new set of skills that will enable them to improve pedagogy,
develop a thorough knowledge of the student body of the school, expand beyond learning
to serve community needs, and build capacity for schools to network and form
partnerships with the community (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003, p. 197). In addition
to the failure of our educational system to meet the needs of our urban students, there are
issues of the impact of globalization on education and the issue of our changing
demographics (Hunter & Brown, 2003). All of these point to the necessity of new
leadership skills for urban high school principals.
This is an applied, qualitative study, which addresses societal problems such as
the failure of urban education, the impact of globalization on education, and the issue of
our changing demographics and their impact on education. The theory posed in this
research inquiry is that there are specific skills, professional development opportunities,
54
and priorities that urban high school principals can acquire and be involved in that will
enable them to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context.
As a framework, this study will use the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model, which
states that leaders can have favorable outcomes if they acquire the right skills (as cited in
Northouse, 2007). This study will examine three urban high school principals who have
been successful in creating schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global
context. This study aims to uncover the specific skills, practices, and training used by
these leaders resulting in the students‘ successful preparation to compete in a global
context, by posing the following research questions:
1. What are the leadership skills needed by urban high school principals, to redesign
schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context?
2. Are urban high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context?
3. To what extent are urban high school principals actively and knowledgeably
demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global context?
This study has the potential to influence policy-makers within higher education
and district-level human resource officers, in the development or redesign of principal
preparation and professional development for school leaders.
Sample and Population
Selection of the schools for this study was based on three primary criteria: (a)
success on state and federal accountability measures, (b) possession of the characteristics
of an urban school having a relatively high rate of poverty (as measured by Free and
55
Reduced Lunch data), a high proportion of students of color, a high proportion of
students who are Limited English Proficient, or designation of high-need (Russo, 2004),
(c) location within a district having a stated vision, mission, or strategic plan with a
strong emphasis on students acquiring 21
st
century skills, or principals acquiring the skills
to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context. The method used
to select schools based on the above criteria was purposeful sampling. Patton (2002)
describes purposeful sampling as the selection of information-rich cases for in-depth
study. The information-rich cases are those from which one can learn a great deal about
issues of central importance to the purpose of the inquiry (Patton, 2002). More
specifically, this qualitative inquiry uses intensity sampling, where one seeks excellent or
rich examples of the phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2002).
This study included eighteen interviews, including three urban high school
principals of small, thematic high schools in a Southern California school district. For
the remainder of the study, these three high schools will be referred to as School A,
School B, and School C. In each of the small thematic urban high schools, one principal,
one counselor, two classified staff members, and two teachers volunteered to participate
in the interviews.
Each of the three schools meeting the sampling criteria are within a large urban
Southern California school district, whose mission is, “All…students will graduate with
the skills, motivation, curiosity and resilience to succeed in their choice of college and
career in order to lead and participate in the society of tomorrow”. School A is a small,
thematic high school serving approximately 453 students, of which 85% are students of
56
color and 74% qualify for free or reduced lunch. Table 3, below, describes School A‘s
demographic population by student group and percent, for the 2009-2010 school year:
Table 3

School A: Demographic Population by Student Group
African American 16
Asian 20
Filipino 4.0
Hispanic 44
Native American 1.0
Pacific Islander 1.0
White (Not Hispanic) 15
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 74
English Learners 32
Students with Disabilities 9.0

In March 2003, the superintendent of this school district hosted a retreat to discuss
its failing schools. The result was an official assignment by the district‘s superintendent
for three of its failing comprehensive high schools to develop a plan to redesign these
existing schools into fourteen smaller ones. After closing, each school was re-opened
and given a base API. In 2004, School A opened with a base API of 636; in 2009, the
school had a base API of 805 (DataQuest, www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010).
School A, in 2004 had a Similar Schools Rank of 4; in 2009, the Similar Schools Ranking
57
was 10. Additionally, in the 2008 – 2009 school year, the school met 14 out of 14 AYP
criteria (DataQuest, www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010).
School B is a small thematic high school serving approximately 477 students, of
which 77% are students of color and 68% qualify for free or reduced lunch. Table 4,
below, describes School B‘s demographic population by student group and percent, for
the 2009-2010 school year:
Table 4

School B: Demographic Population by Student Group
African American 18
Asian 13
Filipino 5.0
Hispanic 38
Native American 1.0
Pacific Islander 1.0
White (Not Hispanic) 23
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 68
English Learners 18
Students with Disabilities 14

In 2004, School B opened with a base API of 636; in 2009 the school had a base
API of 747 (DataQuest, www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010). In 2004, it had a
Similar Schools Rank of 4; in 2009, it had a Similar Schools Rank of 10. Additionally, in
58
the 2008 – 2009 school year, the school met 10 out of 10 AYP criteria (DataQuest,
www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010).
School C is a small thematic high school serving approximately 505 students of
which 81% are students of color and 65% qualify for free or reduced lunch. Table 5,
below, describes School C‘s demographic population by student group for the 2009-2010
school year:
Table 5

School C: Demographic Population by Student Group
African American 22
Asian 14
Filipino 8.0
Hispanic 37
Native American 1.0
Pacific Islander 1.0
White (Not Hispanic) 19
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged 68
English Learners 15
Students with Disabilities 13

In 2004, School C opened with a base API of 636; in 2009 the school had a base
API of 713 (DataQuest, www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010). In 2004, School C had
a Similar Schools Rank of 4; in 2009, it had a Similar Schools Rank of 8. Additionally,
59
in the 2008 – 2009 school year, School C met 9 out of 10 AYP criteria (DataQuest,
www.cde.ca.gov, retrieved July 1, 2010).
Data Collection Procedures
Patton (2002) suggests that applied researchers are trying to understand how to
deal with a significant societal problem. In this case study, the societal problems are
issues around the failure of our urban schools, the impact of globalization on education,
and the issue of our changing demographics. The theory this case study seeks to test, is
that there are skills that can be acquired by urban high school principals that will enable
them to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context. This
study seeks to identify the skills needed by urban high school principals.
The design of the study uses Patton‘s (2002) pure qualitative strategy approach
consisting of naturalistic inquiry, qualitative data, and content analysis. In this approach,
the evaluator conducts in-depth interviews of participants, and observes and documents
the participants‘ interactions within the social setting. These data are content analyzed to
identify patterns of experiences participants bring to the program.
A primary instrument used in collecting data for this study was the interview.
The interview allowed data collection for the three research questions contained in the
study: 1) What are the leadership skills needed by urban high school principals, to
redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context. 2) Are urban
high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare students to compete
in a global context?, and 3) To what extent are urban high school principals actively and
60
knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global
context?
Patton (2002) indicates that, ―The purpose of interviewing, then, is to allow us to
enter into the other person‘s perspective…with the assumption that the perspective of
others is meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit‖ (2002, p. 341). Patton‘s
(2002) ―Interview Guide Approach‖ was used to maximize the time available in each
interview sitting. The interview guide provided a systematic and focused approach to
gathering data while allowing for individual perspectives to emerge. Patton‘s (2002)
―Standardized Open-Ended Interview‖ was used primarily to, establish a highly focused
interview, and facilitate the analysis of data by making the responses easier to find.
However, according to Patton (2002), ―The weakness of the standardized approach is that
it does not permit the interviewer to pursue topics or issues that were not anticipated
when the interview was written‖ (p. 347). For these reasons, this study also employed
Patton‘s (2002) ―Informal Conversational Interview‖. This study used the ―Standardized
Open-Ended Interview‖ as the primary data collection tool to provide a standardized
format of addressing two of the three research questions, but embedded the ―Informal
Conversational Interview‖ to allow flexibility for the interviewer to explore additional
topics that may arise.
Another instrument used in collecting data for this study was the observation.
According to Patton (2002), ―Interview data limitations include possible distorted
responses due to personal bias, anger, anxiety,…Interview data are also subject to recall
error, reactivity of the interviewee to the interviewer, and self-serving responses‖ (p.
61
306). The observations also served to ensure validity by providing a check on what was
reported in the interview. The observations in this study addressed how urban high
school principals, who were successfully preparing students to compete in a global
context, spent their time; and also served to create an overall picture of the school setting.
Patton‘s (2002) ―Naturalistic Observation‖ was used to observe the participants in their
respective organizational environments. According to Patton (2002), observing
participants in their setting has several advantages: 1) the interviewer is able to
understand and capture the context in which people interact, 2) the interviewer has
firsthand experience and has less need to rely on prior conceptualizations of the setting,
3) the interviewer is permitted the opportunity to learn things that people would be
unwilling to talk about in an interview, and 4) the interviewer is permitted to move
beyond the selective perceptions of others (p. 263).
In addition to the interviews and observations, document analyses were utilized as
part of the data collection procedure. ―Records, documents, artifacts, and
archives…constitute a particularly rich source of information about many organizations
and programs…these kinds of documents provide the evaluator with information about
many things that cannot be observed‖ (Patton, 2002, p. 293). Documents from all levels
of the organization dealing with skills needed for urban high school principals to
successfully prepare students to compete in a global context were requested, including
vision and mission statements, core values, strategic plan, assessments, and curriculum
guides.

62
Data Analysis Procedures
This study utilized both an inductive and deductive qualitative analysis approach
to determining the skills needed by urban high school principals to redesign schools that
will prepare students to compete in a global context. ―Qualitative analysis is typically
inductive in the early stages, especially when developing a codebook for content analysis
or figuring out possible categories, patterns, and themes‖ (Patton, 2002, p. 453).
After completing the interviews, observations, and document analysis, the data
was analyzed and coded. All interviews were documented using a stenographer, tape
recorder, and video recorder and transcribed word for word. Observations and document
analysis were transcribed into field notes. An inductive analysis was conducted on the
data from interviews, observations, and document analysis to discover patterns, themes,
and develop categories (Patton, 2002). Categories were defined based on research
questions posed in this study. Following the inductive analysis, a deductive analysis was
conducted against the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model. ―Once patterns…have
been established through inductive analysis, the final, confirmatory stage of qualitative
analysis may be deductive in testing and affirming the authenticity and appropriateness of
the inductive content analysis‖ (Patton, 2002, p.454). A deductive approach was utilized
to compare the skills contained within the Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model and
patterns emerging from interviews, observations, and document analysis. After manually
coding the data, the researcher used computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software.
HyperRESEARCH, a qualitative data analysis software, was used to assist in the
coding process. HyperRESEARCH allows the coding of data collected in a variety of
63
forms, e.g., observational notes, interview transcriptions, historical documents, and
standardized questionnaires (Patton, 2002). The HyperRESEARCH software increased
the reliability and meaningfulness of the data.
Ethical Considerations
This study was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) at the University of Southern California. Participants in this study have been
purposefully selected based on set of criteria, as having a set of skills and knowledge to
address the research questions. Written consent was obtained from all participants on a
voluntary basis. Pseudo-names were used to protect the identity of all participants. All
recording devices were left in plain view. Participants were free to inquire why a
question was being asked and free to decline to questions they did not desire to answer.
64
CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS
Introduction
Globalization is changing how we experience national identity and cultural
belonging (Suarez-Orozco, 2005). Suarez-Orozco (2005) indicates that children growing
up today are more likely than in any previous generation to face a life of working,
networking, collaborating, loving, and living with others from different national,
linguistic, religious, and racial backgrounds. Suarez-Orozco (2005) further indicates that
the future of education will not be as simple as the one-way assimilation and
accommodation of ethnic, racial, linguistic,, and religious minorities learning the codes of
the majority society in order to get along and get ahead. According to Suarez-Orozco
(2005), ―An intellectually curious, cognitively autonomous, socially responsible,
democratically engaged, productive, and globally conscious member of the human family
in the 21
st
century cannot be educated in the 20
th
century factory model of education‖ (p.
212). The most successful urban school districts have embraced the challenges of our
current education system and have hired principals, and developed skills in these leaders,
to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in the 21
st
century.
The first three chapters of this dissertation provided an introduction to the failure
of urban education identifying factors contributing to its continued failure, an in-depth
review of the literature on skills needed by urban high school principals, and the
methodology used to examine the skills of three small thematic urban high school
principals, within a Southern California school district. This chapter provides a detailed
65
description of the qualitative case study of three small thematic urban high school
principals through interview, observation, and document analysis. Additionally, this
chapter provides the findings pertaining to the research questions and the conclusion of
the case study.
Initial Meeting with Study Schools
The first visit to each of the three small thematic urban high schools occurred on
November 15, 2010. The purpose of the site visits was to individually discuss the focus
of the study with each principal, to learn more about the school, and to gain approval to
include the school in the study.
School A is a small thematic high school serving approximately 453 students.
The school has a focus on international business, and it is structured to produce
innovative, principled, culturally aware, and insightful leaders of business, government,
and nonprofit organizations (SCSD, 2010). School A‘s slogan suggests that students
should move, ―beyond borders and beyond barriers,‖ in order to make meaningful
contributions to their community (SCSD, 2010). In School A, students have the
opportunity to develop fluency in world languages, while studying finance, marketing,
management, and international diplomacy (SCSD, 2010). Upon entering the front of the
school, I observed the building decorated with banners exhibiting this school‘s receipt of
the California Distinguished School Award, the National Blue Ribbon Award, the
National Center for Urban School award, the California Business for Education Honor
Roll, Title 1 Academic Achievement Award, and the US News and World Report
America‘s Best High School. When I entered the main office, I was greeted by the
66
receptionist and escorted to the principal‘s office. The principal‘s office was
approximately a 12‘ x 15‘ rectangular cubical with a small round conference table near
the door. The principal‘s desk occupied the north wall, and there was a bookcase
containing pamphlets, books, and journals occupying the east wall. The room contained
boxes, papers, books, and buttons advertising the California High School Exit Exam
(CAHSEE).
School B is a small thematic high school serving approximately 477 students.
The school has a focus on digital media. School B‘s mission is to develop exemplary
communication skills in students through authentic, media-based experiences (SCSD,
2010). Upon entering the front of this school, I observed the building decorated with
banners exhibiting multiple awards for California Distinguished School, and the National
Blue Ribbon Award. As I entered the front office, I was greeted by the principal‘s
secretary, and I immediately sensed that she was not expecting me. I was not able to
meet with the principal on that day but later returned on November 19, 2010. Upon my
return, I was escorted to the principal‘s office by the secretary, who was very cordial.
The principal‘s office was rectangular, and measured approximately 10‘ x 20‘. The
office had a large desk occupying the west wall, a large eight-foot oval conference table
in the center, and two book casings containing books, journals, and pamphlets.
School C is a small thematic high school serving approximately 505 students.
School C has a strong focus in science and exists to provide students with a stimulating
scientific learning experience that prepares them for success in postsecondary and/or
skilled employment in a science-based economy (SCSD, 2010). School C‘s mission is to
67
engage students in a rigorous and stimulating science-based curriculum and empower
students to be successful members of their local and global communities (SCSD, 2010).
Upon entering the front of the school, I observed no awards and banners signifying major
accomplishments for this school. As I entered the main office, I was greeted very
promptly and professionally by the principal‘s secretary who escorted me to a room
containing one table with two chairs, and a laptop on the table. The room was
rectangular and very small, measuring approximately 8‘ x 10‘. The table was directly in
the center of the room and measured approximately 3‘ x 5‘; the chairs did not contain
cushions. There were no pictures on the wall, no paper scattered, and was completely
spartan. The principal came in a few minutes later and informed me this was the
principal‘s office.
Each principal was accommodating and ensured the researcher that each staff
member who volunteered would be accessible for interviews and that they would provide
any documentation needed. Each principal‘s secretary assigned me a secluded room in
which to conduct the interviews. School A assigned me to a large technology room,
measuring approximately 20‘ x 20‘; the room was filled with various technological
equipment. School B assigned me to a counselor‘s office measuring approximately 6‘ x
8‘. The counselor was not available during the day of the scheduled interviews. School
C assigned me to the principal‘s office containing the one table. At the initial meeting, I
explained to each principal, that I would like to interview the principal, counselor, two
teachers, and two classified staff members. Each school informed me that they would ask
for volunteers and that they would have the appropriate personnel available for the study.
68
The data presented in the study will be organized as follows: a) Each research
question and the responses to each from those interviewed will be detailed by School A
responses, School B responses, and School C responses; and b) an analysis of the
individual interview responses will be conducted.
Research Questions
The research questions were the basis for the data gathering at each of the small
thematic urban high schools. They provided direction in testing the theory posed in this
study that there are specific skills that can be acquired and developed by urban high
school principals that will better permit them to redesign schools for students to compete
in a global context. The research inquiries that guided this study were:
1. What are the leadership skills needed by urban high school principals, to redesign
schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context?
2. Are urban high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context?
3. To what extent are urban high school principals actively and knowledgeably
demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global context?
Interview Data
Responses to Research Question 1
The first research question used to guide this study was as follows: What are the
leadership skills needed by urban high school principals, to redesign schools that will
prepare students to compete in a global context?

69
School A:
The responses to research question one from School A included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the school site technician. The
principal first addressed trends in urban high schools triggering the need for urban
principals to have certain skills. The principal believed the proximity to Mexico and the
population of students from Mexico was a concern. The principal articulated, not only
are the students non-English speaking, but also low-skilled and some are not educated in
their native language (personal communication, February 15, 2011). Because of this, the
principal stated they must continuously look for ways to assist students who are
struggling with the language and who have socio-economic issues. The principal
indicated the importance of making sure parents are trained and informed in their native
language so that they fully understand the educational system of another culture.
Additionally, the principal stated that urban communities need to be cognizant of their
African American males (personal communication, February 15, 2011). The principal
believed that if African American males were not engaged at the beginning of the ninth
grade, it would be hard to connect with them and for them to have a sense of belonging.
For many minorities, there has been a long history of failure, and a long history of not
connecting with their school; students who have a sense of belonging to their schools
tend to do better (Principal, personal communication, February 15, 2011). Based on
these trends, the principal believed that urban high school principals need relational skills
to engage and connect all students but especially minority students to their school
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The principal believed that relational and communication
70
skills should be extended to the parents and larger community in connecting them with
their schools (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The principal stated that one of the most
important skills for urban high school principals is the skill to deal with the language
barrier. Additionally, the principal believed that urban high school principals must have
a skill set around knowing instruction. Especially the literacy needs of all kids. The
principal articulated the importance of knowing how literacy is developed and how it is
taught in an effective way and really distinguishing with teachers the difference between
content English and literacy, and that these are two entirely different things (personal
communication, February 15, 2011). Furthermore, the principal believed that urban high
school principals must be compassionate toward the plight of others and equally make
sure that principals are not apologetic and hold kids to high standards. The principal
stated that it could be very easy to get in a situation where principals want to coddle and
want to protect, but they have to be able to hold students to high standards in terms of
behavior and schoolwork. Another skill stated by this principal was the need be
reflective and to be able to re-evaluate what is working and what is not working for kids.
The principal also believed that urban high school principals need collaborative skills to
be able to create a team mentality around the work and to be able to create a mindset of
being willing to do whatever it takes to get the job done for kids (Bottoms & O'Neill,
2001). The principal stated that being able to create a team environment where everyone
is working together and not individually is very important. According to the principal,
there has to be a mentality that it is everyone‘s job to create a team culture in the best
interest of our students. Finally, the principal believed that urban high school principals
71
must have the skills to be able to create a vision and the ability to bring people along with
that vision (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Otherwise, schools will not go anywhere.
The counselor stated that educational leaders often develop elaborate plans on
how to lead urban high schools, and believes these leaders collaborate with some of the
most intelligent individuals to create school improvement designs, but feels there is not
much thought taken into account on who is going to implement and ―work‖ these plans
(personal communication, February 15, 2011). Urban high school principals need to be
intelligent and respected by the staff and students, otherwise the plan will not materialize
(Counselor, personal communication, February 15, 2011). In order for this to occur, the
counselor believed an important skill for urban high school principals is relational skills
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The counselor believes it is the relationships and the culture
that counts. Additionally, the counselor stated a successful urban high school principal is
successful because they know their audience, provides good feedback, and connects well
with people. The counselor stated that another important skill for urban high school
principals is being visionary (personal communication, February 15, 2011). Principals in
urban environments need to know the direction the school is headed to increase student
learning, and how to persuade people to take ownership and move toward the vision
(Counselor, personal communication, February 15, 2011).
Teacher 1 first addressed issues triggering the need for urban principals to have
skills to prepare students to compete in a global context. There are global trends
requiring the need for more skills, centered on economic issues and concern about
Chinese businesses in the United States and China becoming the new leader (Teacher 1,
72
personal communication, February 15, 2011). Teacher 1 indicated that students need
more technology-based skills for the technological industry, and that schools need to
have a greater focus on science and environmental science (personal communication,
February 15, 2011). Additionally, Teacher 1 stated that urban schools must focus on the
global impact, because urban students do not often get exposure to issues outside of their
community or the global community (personal communication, February 15, 2011).
Urban students often do not have respect for nature because they do not always have the
opportunity to go to the beach, or to go camping; they are not always aware of the ―no
littering‖ policies; they do not always know our place in the chain of the environment
(Teacher 1, personal communication, February 15, 2011). Teacher 1 believed that if
students are not getting this at home, schools must provide it at school, especially issues
related to saving the environment, and ―going green‖ (personal communication, February
15, 2011). Teacher 1 also indicated that urban schools should teach technological skills,
computer skills, and language skills; starting early introducing Chinese language into the
school district‘s curriculum. Finally, Teacher 1 indicated the need to see more public
speaking in urban schools. Teacher 1 stated that urban schools should produce students
who are well-rounded, well-spoken individuals who can think clearly and communicate
their ideas clearly. Because of these issues, Teacher 1 believed urban principals must
develop ―system thinking‖ and ―information systems‖ skills (Senge, 1990). Teacher 1
indicated principals must have the skills to look at the data that will provide clues about
trends affecting student‘s ability to compete in a global context. Additionally, Teacher 1
stated urban principals need to know the ―big picture‖, trends, and teacher skills needed
73
to prepare urban students for the 21
st
century (Senge, 1990). Teacher 1 believed
principals should be effective communicators and collaborators. Urban principals should
be a part of the business community and business meetings; principals should collaborate
with these leaders and think about the necessary skills that students need (Teacher 1,
personal communication, February 15, 2011). Furthermore, Teacher 1 believed urban
principals should collaborate with colleges and universities to determine the skills needed
by students before they graduate.
Teacher 2 first addressed the issue that United States students in urban high
schools are not graduating as many students with the same math and science skills that
our Indian and Chinese counterparts are (Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995). Based on this
issue, Teacher 2 believed that urban high school principals must be strong instructional
leaders. Teacher 2 indicated that teaching is such an isolating experience for many
teachers, and if the leader does not understand how difficult it is to reach students and the
many things that teachers struggle with to reach students, then it is difficult for a leader to
effect change. Teacher 2 stated that the leader must have a strong instructional
background and have teaching experience (personal communication, February 15, 2011).
Teacher 2 indicated that the leader must also have a strong curriculum background so that
they may assist the teacher. Teacher 2 suggested that urban high school principals also
must have a strong knowledge of their own position in the system they are working in
(Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995). Teacher 2 explained that principals have to be competent
in their job and know such things as how to hire effective teachers within the existing
system and support or help exit those who are ineffective. Finally, Teacher 2 revealed
74
that urban principals must be able to motivate teachers and student to work together and
have a clear vision and to make sure that everyone is onboard.
The attendance clerk addressed the concern of our failing economy. Many urban
students and families are impacted by the loss of jobs and housing (Attendance Clerk,
personal communication, February 15, 2011). The attendance clerk explained that the
unemployment rate is higher than usual, and that there are fewer jobs for those graduating
from high school. Based on this, the attendance clerk indicated the need for urban high
school principals to develop the skills to look for resources to share with students and
their families to address these issues. Additionally, the attendance clerk stated that urban
high school principals must cultivate good relationships with their staff and teachers. The
attendance clerk suggested that principals must be able to authentically listen to all
stakeholders and make you feel part of the team (personal communication, February 15,
2011).
The site technician indicated that urban high school principals needed to be
superior instructional leaders particularly in the area of English, science and mathematics
(NASSP, 2010). The site technician felt that these areas are more pronounced on test
such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT). Additionally, the Site Technician stated
that urban high school principals must be visionary, motivating, effective communicators,
and effective collaborators (NASSP, 2010).
School B:
The responses to research question one from School B included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
75
first addressed factors in urban high schools triggering the need for urban principals to
have certain skills. The principal indicated that current factors triggering the need for
urban high school principal can evolve or dissolve over time, and is sometimes related to
the maturity level of the principal. The principal stated that students are not reading at
proficient levels, kids are failing out of algebra, and there is not a lot of parent
involvement (personal communication, February 18, 2011). However, the principal
indicated that the leader can often be part of the problem, and that they need to be
reflective and constantly assess their areas of improvement and engage in the necessary
training to improve their skills (Reeves, 2006). The principal suggested that a leader‘s
knowledge or lack of knowledge of a particular content area could positively or
negatively affect student learning (personal communication, February 18, 2011). The
principal also indicated that urban high school leaders need to be good listeners and able
to resolve conflict; they need to be fair and compassionate but at the same time advocate
for student learning. The principal stated that accountability is one of the most important
skills needed by urban high school principals, and with that is the belief that as an urban
high school principal you should be held accountable. Urban school principals need to
understand they are responsible for everything that occurs in school, good or bad
(Principal, personal communication, February 18, 2011). The principal explained that if
urban leaders are not ready for that level of accountability, then they need to go to a
school where everyone is already proficient. If urban high school principals really want
to roll their sleeves up and get down into the work in an urban school, the principal has to
be willing to be held accountable and willing to hold every stakeholder accountable
76
(Principal, personal communication, February 18, 2011). The principal revealed a
concern about principals who are afraid of the students and the parents, and stated if
urban leaders are afraid of parents then they will constantly defer and let go of the vision
of the organization. Finally, the principal shared that good administrators do not hide
what they do not know because they do not want their colleagues to know what they do
not know. The principal believed that urban high school leaders need to network with
other colleagues to learn; they need to be able to get together in a think tank to
collaborate and solve problems (Senge, 1990).
The counselor stated that urban high school principals need to have the skills
enabling them to involve all stakeholders in the development and implementation of a
clear vision. According to the counselor, developing a vision of how to prepare students
to compete in a global context included being able to effectively communicate and
collaborate with all stakeholders. Additionally, the counselor stated that urban high
school principals must be instructional leaders, knowledgeable in effective strategies
enabling students to learn, and knowledgeable in all content areas to be able to coach
teachers (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
Teacher 1 indicated that urban high school principals must have certain
knowledge skills such as understanding the master schedule and budget, however a
primary need for all urban principals is the belief that all students can really learn.
Additionally, Teacher 1 stated the need for urban high school principals to hold all
stakeholders accountable (personal communication, February 18, 2011). Finally, Teacher
1 suggested that urban high school principals must be effective communicators.
77
Teacher 2 suggested that there is a culture of low expectations in urban school
environments, which can only be overcome with principals who are consistent in
communicating, collaborating, and implementing a culture of high expectations. Teacher
2 stated that urban high school principals need to be able to detect, recruit, and retain high
quality teachers to work in the toughest urban high schools (personal communication,
February 18, 2011). Finally, Teacher 2 indicated that urban high school principals must
have the skills to develop and maintain a culture of accountability.
The attendance clerk and the principal‘s secretary both indicated that an important
skill for urban high school principals is to be a good listener and effective communicator.
Additionally, the Attendance Clerk stated that urban principals must have a direction in
which they want to lead the school (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
School C:
The responses to research question one from School C included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the security officer, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
stated that redesigning schools in an urban environment is not an easy job and it is not a
job for the timid (personal communication, February 16, 2011). The principal indicated
that urban high schools are often located in tough neighborhoods with issues such as gang
activity, low income housing, single parent homes with many parents working more than
one job to make ends meet, and under-educated families. These issues affect a student‘s
preparedness when they come first enter the primary grades (Principal, personal
communication, February 16, 2011). According to the principal, many white and Asian
families living in the suburbs or rural areas have solid households, the financial
78
resources, or are educated households, implying that they can provide some type of early
childhood education for their children. The principal stated that many high school
students in urban environments have not had that opportunity and are therefore at a
disadvantage when they enter school (personal communication, February 16, 2011).
Because of these issues and issues with language associated with an urban environment,
an urban high school principal has a seemingly impossible task (Principal, personal
communication, February 16, 2011). The principal stated that the task must be
approached with tenacity, and urban high school principals have to be involved in the
work for the right reasons; that is to make a positive difference in the lives of their
students, otherwise the tenure for an urban high school principal will not be a long one
(personal communication, February 16, 2011). The principal believed that the primary
skills needed for urban high school principals include being visionary, communicative,
collaborative, displaying instructional leadership, and accountability (NASSP, 2010).
The principal believed that a collaborative vision involving all stakeholders is needed.
The vision is a ―snap shot‖ of the future, and it gives community members and
stakeholders hope for a better future (Principal, personal communication, February 16,
2011). The principal stated the importance of involving all stakeholders, so that everyone
takes ownership in the direction the school is headed (personal communication, February
16, 2011). Additionally, the principal believed that instructional leadership is key and
believed that having instructional goals set, and adhered to is vital if urban schools desire
to see a significant difference in student learning. According to the principal, none of the
skills are important if you do not have a high level of accountability in your school. The
79
principal believed that each stakeholder should hold each person accountable, including
the principal.
The counselor first addressed concerns triggering the need for urban high school
principals to develop skills to better prepare students to compete in a global context. The
counselor believed there is an under-representation of minority students in colleges and
universities, which stems from those same minorities not being academically prepared
once they graduate from high school (Clemmitt, 2007). The counselor conveyed that
because of our failing economy, simply graduating with a high school diploma is no
longer acceptable. The counselor stated that even people who have college degrees are
having a hard time getting jobs (personal communication, February 16, 2011). Because
the State of California is mostly minorities, urban high schools must do a better job at
preparing students to compete in a global context (Counselor, personal communication,
February 16, 2011). Because of these concerns, the counselor suggested that urban high
school principals need to be instructional leaders and holding teachers and students
accountable for their teaching and learning. Additionally, the counselor believed urban
high school principals need to have listening and communicating skills (Reeves, 2006).
The counselor explained that listening and communication expectations and direction are
significant in meeting the needs of the students (personal communication, February 16,
2011). Furthermore, the counselor stated that principals need to consider the community,
parents, and student‘s issues and communicate them to the staff (personal
communication, February 16, 2011).
80
Teacher 1 stated that urban high school principals should be visionary,
collaborative, and effective communicators (personal communication, February 16,
2011). Teacher 1 believed that all stakeholders should be involved in constructing a
vision for the school and that it builds unity and allows stakeholders to take ownership in
their school (Reeves, 2006). Teacher 1 believed the vision is a starting point in setting
the tone and direction for the school and community. Additionally, Teacher 1 believed
that not only should the principal have the skills to collaborate with teachers, but also the
skills to develop a collaborative schedule that allows teachers to meet in interdisciplinary
teams to discuss instructional strategies or to review curriculum and units of study.
Teacher 2 first addressed concerns triggering the need for urban high school
principals to develop certain skills. Teacher 2 stated that nationally, there is concern over
the dropout rate, and that the achievement gap is not being bridged in some schools
(personal communication, February 16, 2011). Teacher 2 also explained that many urban
schools have students who are willfully unprepared for college and career in comparison
to other countries. Based on this, Teacher 2 believed that urban high school principals
need to have system thinking skills. Teacher 2 suggested that principals need to be able
to see the current conditions of our educational system, especially in urban schools, and
collaborate with business partners, community members and other stakeholders to
redesign schools that will better prepare students to compete in a global context (Senge,
1990). Teacher 2 suggested that urban high school principals need to design schools with
three times the support systems currently in urban schools, including mentors, afterschool
programs, and social workers. Teacher 2 believed that when students come to school
81
with issues, they cannot focus on the instruction. Additionally, Teacher 2 believed that
urban high school principals should be good at inspiring and adept at hiring people who
love kids and are committed to positive change; teachers who do not want to do the status
quo; teachers who are committed to change. Teacher 2 also stated that urban high school
principals should be adept at reviewing data with the staff, setting goals and ensuring
teachers know the goals and the steps to get there (Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995).
The security officer stated that urban high school principals need to have
experience with the economically challenged population, and have a true understanding
of the environment of which they are working (personal communication, February 16,
2011). The security officer believed one of the most important skills needed for urban
high school principals is the skill to develop an authentic relationship with the students
and their parents or guardians (Reeves, 2006).
The principal‘s secretary stated that urban high school principals need to have
great organizational skills (personal communication, February 16, 2011). The principal‘s
secretary explained that if principals get behind in their paperwork then that negatively
affects the workload of the principal‘s secretary. Additionally, the principal‘s secretary
stated that communication skills are important (personal communication, February 16,
2011). The principal‘s secretary believed that to make everything flow in a school, the
leader has to have a pulse on the school and the needs, and it takes an effective
communicator to be able to do that. Furthermore, the principal‘s secretary stated that an
effective communicator knows how to keep everyone in the loop and keep everyone
connected (personal communication, February 16, 2011).
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Responses to Research Question 2
The second research question used to guide this study was as follows: Are urban
high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare students to compete
in a global context?
School A:
The responses to research question two from School A included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the school site technician. The
principal stated that is important to look at the core values of the individual., and that
some principals come with a set of core values such as, caring about others, being
reflective about their practice, being motivated about working with students and teachers,
and having passion (personal communication, February 15, 2011). The principal
believed that you cannot change a person‘s core values. The principal gave an example
that you may have a teacher that does not like to teach students of color and one that
wants to learn how to teach students of color; the difference is that one teacher has a
passion to learn. The principal thought that this was the same for urban high school
principals. The principal believed urban leaders come to the job with a set of core values
and belief systems, and from there urban leaders have to be the type of people that are
willing to reflect on their practice. Training cannot change those fundamental core values
and belief systems (Principal, personal communication, February 15, 2011). However,
the principal stated that there is a certain knowledge base that can be taught to urban high
school principals such as, knowing how to manage budgets, knowing about different
cultures, knowing more about curriculum and instructional strategies, and knowing how
83
they deal with various operational items associated with being an urban high school
principal (personal communication, February 15, 2011). The principal suggested that
urban school leaders having a large ethnic population within their schools, need to have
training around that particular culture. According to the principal, urban leaders need to
know what kind of things you can do with one culture that you should not do with
another culture (personal communication, February 15, 2011).
The counselor believed that there are very few urban high school principals who
are successful and prepared for working in an urban environment. Much of leadership is
inherent, and that you cannot teach things such as passion, motivation, presence, and
tenacity (Counselor, personal communication, February 15, 2011). However, the
counselor believed that there are things all principals should know that can be gained
through training, such as budgeting, good teaching, and strategies and programs to
implement designed increase student achievement. The counselor indicated that
successful urban high school principals not only have the operational skills received
through training but also passion, motivation, presence, and tenacity (personal
communication, February 15, 2011).
Teacher 1 believed that in order for urban high school principals to be able to
redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context, urban principals need
to know the global and demographic trends and teacher skills needed to prepare our
students for the 21
st
century (Senge, 1990). Teacher 1 stated that urban principals should
be well informed with technology and they should know about environmental issues and
other trends affecting our world, and the political issues. Urban principals should have
84
the pulse of everything including, being part of the business community and business
meetings, knowing what business leaders think about the necessary skills that students
need, business leaders sharing the skills they want students to have coming into their
businesses in the community, and knowing what colleges and universities are looking for
from kids when they graduate (Senge, 1990). Teacher 1 did not believe most urban
principals have received this type of training or have engaged in this type of work.
Teacher 2 stated that some urban schools can have divided staff members and for
that reason, urban high school principals need to have training in conflict resolution and
effective communication (personal communication, February 15, 2011). Teacher 2 also
stated that urban high school principals need to be abreast of current and effective
educational practices. Teacher 2 believed that as school and district budgets get tighter,
urban leaders will not be able to send staff members to needed professional development
opportunities, therefore urban high school principals will need to be adept in providing
professional development including valuing the expertise on campus. Teacher 2 felt that
most urban high school principals can provide meaningful professional development, but
are not prepared to create schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
(personal communication, February 15, 2011).
The attendance clerk and the site technician believed that urban high school
principals spend much of their time speaking with parent, teacher, students, and
community members and therefore need to be trained on how to communicate effectively
with all stakeholders. The attendance clerked explained that sometimes conversations
with stakeholders can be combative and that urban high school principals need to have
85
the skills and training to effectively deal with them (personal communication, February
15, 2011). The site technician believed that urban high school principals also need
training on collaboration strategies (personal communication, February 15, 2011). One
of the primary responsibilities of urban high school principals is to develop, and
implement a collaborative vision, which would require a collaborative skill set and
training (Reeves, 2006).
School B:
The responses to research question two from School B included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
emphatically stated that not everyone can be a principal and not every principal can be an
urban high school principal (personal communication, February 18, 2011). The principal
believes that desire and motivation are not enough to be a successful urban high school
principal. The principal believed that these attributes are important but will not alone
move an urban school in the direction needed to improve student learning and
achievement. The principal stated that urban principals need to be grounded in
researched-based instructional strategies and practices designed to increase student
learning (NASSP, 2010). The principal also believed that urban high school principals
need to be skilled and trained in the use of data, and using that data to measure progress
toward set goals. The principal believed that desire, passion, instructional leadership, and
accountability go ―hand in hand‖ in making a successful urban high school principal.
The principal did not believe that most urban high school principals are prepared to create
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schools to prepare students to compete in a global context (personal communication,
February 18, 2011).
The counselor stated that urban high school principals need training that helps
them understand how kids learn and to use this train to coach teachers (personal
communication, February 18, 2011). The counselor also stated that to work in an urban
environment that you must first have the desire and then you must reflect on the skills
and training that you need that will make you a successful urban high school principal.
The counselor believed that the training needed to acquire necessary skills for urban
principals will vary, but believed important training to have included budgeting,
classroom management strategies, effective communication with parents, and instruction
(NASSP, 2010).
Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 believed that many students in an urban environment
enter high school not prepared to engage in the rigorous course work, and because of that,
urban high school principals need to receive training on research-based instructional
strategies designed to increase student learning and help close the learning gap (The
Education Fund, n.d.). Teacher 2 believed that because of the diverse population in most
urban environments, urban high school principals need cultural sensitivity training.
Additionally, Teacher 2 stated that urban principals need training on how to organize and
structurally set the course of the school (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 did not believe urban high school principals are prepared to
create schools to prepare students to compete in a global context.
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The attendance clerk and the principal‘s secretary both indicated that some urban
high school principals just have a natural ability to lead and there is not a lot of training
needed by those principals. However, the principal‘s secretary believed that urban
leaders can be trained to become great urban high school principals. The attendance
clerk believed that you also need to have the desire to work in an urban environment
(personal communication, February 18, 2011). The principal‘s secretary stated that
because of the diversity in languages issues associated with an urban environment,
principals and staff need to be able to speak in other languages (personal communication,
February 18, 2011). The principal‘s secretary felt that Spanish was especially important
for urban leaders to learn, and indicated that even if principals would learn enough to be
able to communicate at a basic level with students and parents. Finally, the principal‘s
secretary felt that urban high school principals need cultural sensitivity training.
School C:
The responses to research question two from School C included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the security officer, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
explained that because urban high schools are often located in tough neighborhoods with
issues such as gang activity, low income housing, single parent homes with many parents
working more than one job to make ends meet, and under-educated families, urban high
school principals need to have a passion for the work (personal communication, February
16, 2011). The principal believed that potential candidates must have an innate ability to
be a principal; they must have a desire to change lives; they must have a desire to see
people educated. The principal also stated that urban leaders must receive appropriate
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training to increase their ability to organize (personal communication, February 16,
2011). The principal indicated that urban high school principals are not prepared to
create schools to prepare students to compete in a global context.
The counselor stated if urban high school principals are trying to prepare students
to compete in the 21
st
century, principals need to have training, structures in place, and
forums allowing them to receive input from community members and business
professionals on the types of skills they are looking for from students when they enter a
particular industry. However, the counselor stated that most urban leaders or not focused
on this work and are more focused on test scores (personal communication, February 16,
2011). The counselor did not believe that most urban high school principals are prepared
to create schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global context.
Teacher 1 stated that urban high school principal need to be effective
communicators and receive necessary training ensuring this. Teacher 2 believed certain
skills are innate, like being able to judge what kind of person you are hiring. However,
teacher 2 indicated that things such as goal setting and how to progress toward goals are
skills that can be learned (personal communication, February 16, 2011). Teacher 2
reported that some urban high school principals have high levels of emotional
intelligence and believed there is not a class that can teach that. Teacher 2 believed there
are leaders that were born to be great leaders and there are certain skills, that if acquired
will assist them in being better, and felt there are some principals that have no business
being principals. Teacher 2 stated that urban high school principals need to be trained
and skilled in being able to hire people and who can bring out the best and connect with
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kids (personal communication, February 16, 2011). Teacher 2 suggested a class for
urban high school principals, were the principals would have to do a cultural plunge were
principals had to be a student for a day or shadow a student, or maybe even a student who
is constantly being kicked out of class and then see what their experiences are like and
watch how the teachers interact with them. Teacher 2 explained that this information
would be useful in the interviewing process to see how prospective teachers are going to
interact with kids. Teacher 2 suggested that there needs to be a class for urban high
school principals where they have to understand how important it is for them as role
models and the leader on campus to mirror the kids (personal communication, February
16, 2011). Teacher 2 stated that the students need to see themselves or some element of
themselves in the principal; it may be racially; it maybe culturally; it may be the way they
communicate. Teacher 2 believed this was important for diverse urban schools. Teacher
2 did not believe that most urban high school principals are prepared to create schools
designed to prepare students to compete in a global context.
The security officer stated that urban high school principals need to be effective
communicators and receive the training necessary to engage with all stakeholders
(personal communication, February 16, 2011). Additionally, the security believed that
urban high school principals should receive training on effective classroom management
to share with teachers. The principal‘s secretary believed that every urban high school
principal should attend training designed to help organize the principal. The principal‘s
secretary thought the training should include how to become more organized, arranging
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office space, calendaring and scheduling, and meeting deadlines (personal
communication, February 16, 2011).
Responses to Research Question 3
The third research question used to guide this study was as follows: To what
extent are urban high school principals actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills
designed to extend student learning into a global context?
School A:
The responses to research question three from School A included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the school site technician. The
principal stated the importance for urban high school principals to get into the
classrooms. The principal explained that urban principals should not necessarily looking
at only what the teacher is doing but also looking at what the student is doing.
Additionally, the principal shared the importance of not only going into the classroom but
also providing immediate feedback for the teacher and students (personal
communication, February 15, 2011). The principal suggested that urban high school
principals should spending time collaborating with teachers, to determine professional
development needs. The principal also believed that urban high school principals should
spend time communicating with staff and parents. However, the principal strongly
articulated that urban high school principals should spend most of their time on
instructional issues (personal communication, February 15, 2011). The principal
believed that is important for principals to try not to leave the campus and to avoid
district meetings. The principal likened staying on campus, to having young kids. The
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principal shared that most parents want to make sure their kids are nurtured and brought
up right, and the importance of not being an absentee parent. The principal and the
counselor believed this should be the same relationship between the principal and the
school, and that urban high school principals should spend time nurturing relationships
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The principal also believed the urban leaders should always
spend time reflecting on what they can do better for students and the school.
Teacher 1 believed that urban high school principals should spend their time in
the classroom, participating in the discussions, leading in lessons, coming in talking to
the kids. Everyone should know that the principal is not there just to evaluate the teacher,
but to be a part of the learning environment (Teacher 1, personal communication,
February 15, 2011). Additionally, Teacher 1 stated that urban high school principals
should be walking around interacting with the kids during lunch and walking the campus
(personal communication, February 15, 2011). Teacher 2 believed the bulk of an urban
high school principal‘s time should be spent visiting classrooms. Teacher 2 felt that
principals need to lighten their loads in terms of district business, and spend time in the
classroom observing, giving feedback, and working with students.
The attendance clerk and the site technician believed that urban high school
principals need to be at their school sites seeing and knowing what is happening in the
classrooms and with the students, and to get away from all of the district meetings
(personal communication, February 15, 2011).

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School B:
The responses to research question three from School B included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the attendance clerk, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
believed that 50% of an urban high school principal‘s day should be in the teacher
classrooms. The principal believed that urban high school principals should walk
through the school constantly holding others accountable. Additionally, the principal
believed the urban leaders should collaborate with staff member in creating instructional
expectations, and then it is the job of the principal to constantly reinforce them and hold
teachers accountable. The principal also stated that urban high school principals should
spend time giving very specific and immediate feedback, and if there are serious
concerns, principals should spend time conferencing with and supporting teachers
(personal communication, February 18, 2011). The counselor also believed that most of
an urban high school principal‘s time should be spent in the classroom, sharing
expectations with staff and students, and holding everyone accountable.
Teacher 1 believed most of an urban principal‘s time should be spent in the
classroom working with teachers and interacting with students. In order to prepare
students to compete in the 21
st
century, urban high school principal‘s need to spend time
collaborating with and soliciting input from business and community leaders on
improving student learning. Teacher 2 believed that urban high school principals should
teach at least one class each semester. It is easy to lose touch with the difficulties of
teaching in a short period of time, and staying in touch with teaching will offer urban
high school principals a ―reality check‖ (Teacher 2, personal communication, February
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18, 2011). Additionally, Teacher 2 believed that urban high school principals should
spend more time in the classrooms, and providing constructive feedback.
The attendance clerk and the principal‘s secretary believed that an urban high
school principal‘s time has to be balanced between the classroom and the daily operation
issues that come up at a school site.
School C:
The responses to research question three from School C included the principal,
counselor, two teachers, the security officer, and the principal‘s secretary. The principal
believed that one of the most important things for urban high school principals to do is to
cultivate and nurture all relationships, including those with students, parents, teachers,
staff, and business and community members (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The principal
also believed that urban high school principals must be in the classrooms interacting with
students and ensuring that teachers are honoring instructional goals and expected
behaviors. The principal indicated that providing support to teachers, giving timely
feedback, and holding everyone accountable are additional ways that urban high school
principals should spend their time (personal communication, February 16, 2011). The
counselor also indicated that urban high school principals should spend most of their time
in the classroom observing and helping teachers, and collaborating with teachers around
professional development.
Teacher 1 stated that urban high school principals should spend should spend
most of their time interacting with students and teachers (personal communication,
February 16, 2011). Teacher 1 also believed it was important for urban high school
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principals to spend time setting the tone, expectations, precedence, and standard for the
school, and holding everyone accountable for the same. Teacher 2 believed that urban
high school principals should spend most of their time helping teachers in the classroom.
Principals should also spend more time directing teachers on curriculum and instruction,
and believed that many urban high school principals spend too much time on discipline,
budgets, and meetings (Teacher 2, personal communication, February 16, 2011). Teacher
2 believed that urban high school principals are getting farther and farther away from the
kids, and that they should be present at their sites and spend time getting to know the
students. Additionally, Teacher 2 believed that considering the budget issues, urban high
school principals should spend time finding grants to support student learning. The
security officer and the principal‘s secretary believed principal‘s time should be spent in
the classroom conducting observations of teachers and interacting with students (Bottoms
& O'Neill, 2001).
Analysis
Research Question #1: What are the leadership skills needed by urban high
school principals, to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global
context?
Table 6, below, highlights eight significant findings to Research Question #1 on
the skills needed by urban high school principals: systems thinking; information systems,
reflective leadership; visionary leadership; relational leadership; collaborative leadership;
communicative leadership; knowledge (Northouse, 2007). The study also found four
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characteristics and attributes needed by urban high school principals: accountability;
tenacity; belief systems; motivation (Northouse, 2007).

Table 6
Research Question 1: Using Mumford et al. (2000) Capability Model as cited in Northouse
(2007)
Mumford‘s Problem Solving Skills Mumford‘s Social Judgment
Skills
NASSP  Resolving Complex Problems  Educational Leadership
 Communication
 Developing Self and Others
Senge‘s
Leadership Skills
 Engaging in Systems Thinking  Building a Shared Vision
 Surfacing and Challenging
Mental Models
Reeves‘s
Dimensions of
Leadership
 Systems Leadership
 Reflective Leadership
 Analytical Leadership
 Visionary Leadership
 Relational Leadership
 Collaborative Leadership
 Communicative Leadership
Snyder‘s Global
Leadership Skills
 Systems Thinking
 Information Systems
 Quality Services
 Customer Satisfaction
 Visionary
 Strategic Planning
 Human Resource
Development
School A  Systems Thinking
 Reflective
 Information Systems

 Belief System
 Relational Leadership
 Visionary
 Collaborative
 Communicative
 Motivational/Inspirational
 Accountability
School B  Reflective
 Systems Thinking
 Information Systems

 Relational Leadership
 Collaborative
 Communicative
 Visionary
 Belief System
 Accountability
School C  Systems Thinking
 Information Systems
 Resolving Complex Problems
 Tenacity
 Visionary
 Collaborative
 Communicative
 Relational Leadership
 Motivational
 Accountability
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Systems Thinking. From the literature, we learned that system thinkers are able to
help people see the big picture (Senge, 1990). System thinkers focus less on day-to-day
events and are more intuitively focused on trends, and feel frustrated that others do not
see the world the way they do (Senge, 1990). Systems leaders also understand how bus
drivers, administrative support staff, cafeteria workers, finance specialists, and a host of
other people influence student achievement and core organizational objectives (Reeves,
2006).
The three schools shared varying opinions regarding trends and ―big picture‖
items triggering the need for urban high school principals to develop or acquire skills to
redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context. School A focused on
the issue of our changing demographics. According to Hodgkinson (2000), it is projected
that by the year 2025, 61% of the nation‘s population growth will consist of Hispanics
and Asians, thereby changing the make-up of school-aged children. School A was
concerned about their proximity to Mexico and the skill level of their non-English
speaking students. It was clear to School A that in order to meet their growing language
needs of the students, the principal needed to have the skills to develop instructional
programs and methods, and develop a teaching force that will meet the needs of the
diversity in students. School A also expressed the need for more skills, centered on
economic issues and concerns about Chinese businesses in the United States and China
becoming the new leader. They believed that urban high schools are not graduating as
many students with the same math and science skills as are our Indian and Chinese
counterparts, and expressed the need for students to have more technology-based skills
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and a greater focus on science and environment science. From the literature we learned
that America is losing its comparative advantage in skills, technology, and organization
and that principals will need skills to incorporate new curriculum and technologies that
will prepare students to address our nation‘s manufacturing woes (Faux, 2007). School A
also focused on trends dealing with the impact of globalization on education, as reasons
why urban high school principals need to develop or acquire skills to redesign schools to
prepare students to compete in a global context. School A believed that many urban
students do not often get exposure to issues outside of the local or global community.
Urban students often do not have respect for nature and environment because they do not
have the opportunity to go to the beach, or to go camping; they are not always aware of
‗no littering‖ policies (personal communication, February 15, 2011). School A believed
that students need to be exposed to issues such as saving the environment and ―going
green‖ (personal communication, February 15, 2011). Stewart (2007) emphasizes that
the world is fundamentally different and is becoming increasingly more global. In our
new society, students will need to tackle global problems, such as AIDS, avian flu,
pollution, and disaster recovery. School B and School C cited the failure of urban
education as reasons why urban high school principals need to develop or acquire skills
to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context. School B stated
that in many urban high schools, students are not reading at proficient levels, kids are
failing out of algebra, and there is not a lot of parent involvement. School C stated that
there is an under-representation of minorities in colleges and university, and that our
urban schools have failed to prepare them. School B states that the failure of urban
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education can often be the fault of the principal, and that urban principals need to be
more reflective, constantly assessing their areas of improvement and engage in the
necessary training to improve their skills (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
This is consistent with the literature, which maintains that our students have failed to
demonstrate basic skills, which is supported by comparison of United States (U.S.)
elementary and middle school students in other industrialized nations (Hunter & Brown,
2003). We also learned from the literature that failures in our educational system are
worse in large urban districts, which have high percentages of poor African, Hispanic,
and Asian American students (Hunter & Brown, 2003). Valverde (2003) maintains that
dynamic leadership is needed to address the educational concerns of an urban setting (as
cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). Additionally, Valverde (2003) prescribes that school
leaders must have a new set of skills that will enable them to improve pedagogy, develop
a thorough knowledge of the student body of the school, expand beyond learning to serve
community needs, and building capacity for schools to network and form partnerships
with the community (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003).
Information Systems. Information Systems Leadership is the ability for teams to
look at quantitative and qualitative data that will provide clues about trends and effects
from programs and services (Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995). Quantitative data provides
overall trend information and qualitative data helps interpret quantitative data that
provides direction for improvement or change (Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995).
The three schools shared similar opinions regarding the need for urban high
school principals having the skills to review data to improve instruction and programs.
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School A stated that students are not graduating with the necessary skills that will prepare
them to compete in a global context, and indicated that urban high schools should teach
more technological skills, computer skills, and language skills; starting early introducing
Chinese language into school district‘s curriculum (personal communication, February
15, 2011). School A also believed that in order to increase communication skills for
urban high school students, there needs to be more opportunities for public speaking.
They believed that in order for urban schools to produce students who are well-rounded,
well-spoken individuals who can think clearly and communicate clearly, principals need
to have information systems skills. School A believed principals need to have the skills
to look at data that will provide clues about trends affecting student‘s ability to compete
in a global context. School B indicated that urban principals need to be grounded in
researched-based instructional strategies and practices designed to increase student
learning. They also believed that urban high school principals need to be skilled and
trained in the use of data, and using that data to measure progress toward set goals.
School C stated that urban high school principals should be adept at reviewing data with
the staff, setting goals and ensuring teachers know the goals and the steps in achieving
them (Acker-Hocevar et al., 1995).
Reflective Leadership. Reflective leaders take time to think about the lessons
learned, record their small wins and setbacks, document conflicts between values and
practice, and notice trends that emerge over time (Reeves, 2006). Reeves (2006)
explained that when reflecting, leaders should focus on these essential questions:
 What did you learn today?
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 Whom did you nurture today?
 What difficult issue did you confront today?
 What is your most important challenge right now?
 What did you do today to make progress on your most important challenge?
School A and School B shared similar opinions regarding the need for urban high
school principals to have the ability to be able with the intent to improve. School C did
not mention reflection as a skill. School A believed it was important for urban high
school principals to be reflective and to be able to re-evaluate what is working and what
is not working for kids (personal communication, February 15, 2011). School B believed
that when it comes to the failure of an urban high school, the principal can often be part
of the problem, and that principals need to be reflective and constantly assess their areas
of improvement and engage in the necessary training to improve their skills. School B
suggested that a leader‘s knowledge or lack of knowledge of a particular content area can
positively or negatively affect student learning.
Visionary Leadership. From the literature we learned that visionary skills is
important for leaders, and must not be limited to the leaders, but must also be distributed
throughout the organization (Senge, 1990). Senge (1990), emphasizes the importance of
creating a shared vision, and that by this, people are now partners and co-creators. This
method allows the vision to rest on the shoulders of all stakeholders, and thus having an
―our vision‖ mentality, instead of a ―my vision mentality‖ (Senge, 1990). Senge (1990)
indicates that the skills involved in building shared vision include encouraging personal
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vision, communicating and asking for support, visioning as an ongoing process, blending
extrinsic and intrinsic visions, and distinguishing positive and negative visions. Reeves
(2006) explained that when visioning, leaders should focus on these essential questions:
 Where are we headed as an organization this year?
 Where will we be three to five years from now?
 What parts of our organization will be the same, and what will change?
 Will there still be a place for me in the future?
 How will my work change?
 What will I need to learn in order to be more valuable to the organization in
the future?
 Why will I still want to be a part of this organization in the future?
The three schools shared similar opinions regarding visioning skills needed by
urban high school principals to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a
global context. School A believed that principals in an urban environment need to know
the direction the school is headed to increase student learning, and how to persuade
people to take ownership and move toward the vision (personal communication, February
15, 2011). Additionally, School A believed in having a mindset that the job of the school
is to come to work every day and do the very best for the students. School B indicated
the importance of developing a vision that leads to preparing students to compete in a
global context, and holding on to that vision. School B revealed a concern about
principals who are afraid of the students and the parents, and stated if urban leaders are
afraid of parents then they will constantly defer and let go of the vision of the
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organization (personal communication, February 18, 2011). School C believed that a
collaborative vision involving all stakeholders is need, and that involving all stakeholders
allowed everyone to take ownership in the direction the school is headed. School C saw
the vision as hope for a better future (personal communication, February 16, 2011).
Relational Leadership. Goleman (2002) emphasizes the importance of relational
leadership by indicating that relationship skills account for nearly three times as much
impact on organizational performance as analytical skills (as cited in Reeves, 2006).
Reeves (2006) emphasizes that relational leaders listen to their colleagues without
interruption; relational leaders respect confidences; relational leaders practice empathy
through deliberate inquiry.
The three schools shared similar opinions regarding relational skills needed by
urban high school principals. School A believed that urban high school principals need
relational skills to engage and connect all students but especially minority students to
their school. School A stated that it could be very easy to want to coddle and protect
students because of their circumstances, but stated that principals have to be able to hold
students to high standards in terms of behavior and schoolwork (personal communication,
February 15, 2011). Additionally, School A stated an urban high school principal can be
successful if they know and listen to their audience, provide good feedback, and connect
well with people (personal communication, February 15, 2011). School B and School C
believed it was important for principals to nurture and cultivate relationships, and listen
to all stakeholders.
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Collaborative Leadership. Collaboration implies shared decision-making and a
willingness to concede one's own agenda (Reeves, 2006). According to Reeves (2006), a
collaborative approach includes recognizing these essential elements:
 Employees in any organization are volunteers. We can compel their
attendance and compliance, but only they can volunteer their hearts and
minds.
 Leaders can make decisions with their authority, but they can implement those
decisions only through collaboration.
 Leverage for improved organizational performance happens through
networks, not individuals. If the only source of inspiration for improvement is
the imprecations of the individual leader, then islands of excellence may result
and be recognized, but long-term system-wide improvement will continue to
be an illusion.
The three schools shared similar opinions regarding collaborative skills needed by
urban high school principals. School A believed that urban high school principals need
collaborative skills to be able to create a team mentality around the work and to be able to
create a mindset of being willing to do whatever it takes to get the job done for kids.
School A stated that being able to create a team environment where everyone is working
together and not individually is very important, and that there has to be a mentality that it
is everyone‘s job to create a team culture in the best interest of our students (personal
communication, February 15, 2011). School B and School C believed that developing a
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vision of how to prepare students to compete in a global context would include being able
to effectively communicate and collaborate with all stakeholders.
Communicative Leadership. According to Reeves (2006), in the 21st century, you
can communicate with millions of people at once, but the power of personal
communication, voice to voice, pen to paper, heart to heart, is undiminished by
technology. Communicative leaders are simultaneously high tech and high touch,
maximizing their reach through technology, as they optimize their effectiveness with the
encouragement, appreciation, and nurturing that only a personal handshake, hug, note, or
the spoken word can provide (Reeves, 2006).
The three schools shared similar opinions regarding communication skills needed
by urban high school principals. All three schools believed urban high school principals
should be great communicators and use these skills to reach to teachers, students,
business partners, parents, and larger community in connecting them with their schools.
School A stated that one of the most important communication skills for urban high
school principals is the skill to deal with the language barrier (personal communication,
February 15, 2011).
Knowledge. From the literature, we learned that knowledge is the accumulation
of information and mental structures used to organize the information, and can be
accumulated through career experiences and through training (Northouse, 2007). All
three schools believed it was necessary for urban high school principals to have
knowledge of the curriculum, research-based instructional strategies, and classroom
management strategies, and operational knowledge such as budgeting. School B and
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School C indicated that urban high school principals need to have the knowledge and the
ability to hire and retain high quality teachers within our system and exit those teachers
who are low in quality.
Accountability. Each of the three schools believed there needed to be a high level
of accountability from the principal. School B and School C believed that none of the
skills are important if you do not have a high level of accountability in your school.
School B believed that urban school principals need to understand they are responsible
for everything that occurs in school, good or bad, and that principals need to be willing to
be held accountable and willing to hold every stakeholder accountable.
Tenacity. Only School C discussed tenacity as a characteristic needed by urban
high school principals (personal communication, February 16, 2011). School C believed
that issues such as the achievement gap, diversity of languages and other issues
associated with an urban environment, an urban high school principal has a seemingly
impossible task (Hunter & Brown, 2003). School C believed that the task must be
approached with tenacity, and urban high school principals have to be involved in the
work for the right reasons; that is to make a positive difference in the lives of their
students, otherwise the tenure for an urban high school principal will not be a long one.
Belief Systems. School A and School B believed that principals come to the job
with certain core values and beliefs that affect the school environment (Hunter & Brown,
2003). School B stated the importance for urban high school principals to believe that all
students can learn (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
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Motivation. Mumford et al. (2000) suggest that motivation is an attribute
consisting of three aspects (as cited in Northouse, 2007). According to Mumford et al.
(2000), leaders must first be willing and motivated to tackle complex problems; leaders
must want to lead (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Additionally, Mumford et al. (2000)
state that leaders must be willing to express dominance—to exert their influence (as cited
in Northouse, 2007). Finally, Mumford et al. (2000) state that leaders must be committed
to the social good of the organization (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Each of the three
schools believed urban high school principals needed to be motivational. School B
believed that motivation and desire was not enough, and that the principal needed to have
instructional knowledge designed to move a teacher‘s practice forward to increase
student learning (Northouse, 2007).
Research Question #2: Are urban high school principals prepared to create
schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global context?
Table 7, below, highlights significant findings to Research Question #2 on urban
high school principal‘s preparation and training. The study revealed that most urban high
school principals are not prepared to create schools designed to prepare students to
compete in a global context. However, the study revealed five significant findings
regarding training needed by urban high school principals. These findings are consistent
with the skills needed by urban high school principals and are as follows: systems
thinking; information systems; collaborative leadership; communicative leadership;
knowledge (Northouse, 2007). The study also revealed that urban high school principals
come to the job with a set of core values and belief systems, influencing whether or not
107
training is needed (Northouse, 2007). Additionally, the findings are consistent with the
literature contained in this study.

Table 7
Research Question 2:Training for Urban High School Principals
SCHOOL A
Principal  Urban principals come to the job with a set of core values and
belief system
 Budgets, curriculum, instructional strategies, different cultures,
and other operational items
Counselor  Much of leadership is inherent
 There are not many successful urban principals
 Training cannot give you passion, motivation, presence and
tenacity
 Budgeting and instructional strategies
Teacher 1  Global and demographic trends
 Teacher skills needed to prepare students for the 21
st
century
 Technology
 Collaborating and engaging with business and colleges
 Most urban principals do not receive this training
Teacher 2  Conflict resolution
 Effective communication
 Current and effective educational practices
 Meaningful professional development
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
Attendance Clerk  Effective communication
Site Technician  Effective communication
 Effective collaboration
SCHOOL B
Principal  Research-based strategies designed to increase student learning
 Using data
 Coaching teachers
 Desire and motivation are not enough
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
Counselor  Desire is important
 Learning theory
 Coaching teachers, instructional strategies
 Budgeting, classroom management
 Effectively communicating with stakeholders
Teacher 1  Research-based instructional strategies
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
108

Systems Thinking. From the literature we learned that, The Center for Urban
School Leadership provides training to equip aspiring principals to meet the demands of
an urban principalship and focuses on strategic thinking and planning (UCB, n.d.).
School A believed that in order for urban high school principals to be able to
redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context, urban principals need
to know the global and demographic trends and teacher skills needed to prepare our
students for the 21
st
century. School A stated that urban principals should be well
informed with technology and they should know about environmental issues and other
trends affecting our world, and the political issues (personal communication, February
Table 7 Continued
Teacher 2  Research-based instructional strategies
 Cultural sensitivity
 Organizational structure
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
Attendance Clerk  Leadership in inherent
 Desire is needed
Principal‘s Secretary  Great leaders are inherent and can be developed through training
 Speaking other languages
 Cultural sensitivity
SCHOOL C
Principal  Leadership is innate
 Desire is needed
 How to organize
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
Counselor  Collaborating and engaging with business leaders
Teacher 1  Communicative
Teacher 2  Some skills are innate and some skills can be learned
 Human resource (hiring quality teachers)
 Cultural plunge
 Role model
 Most urban high school principals are not prepared to create
schools to prepare students to compete in a global context
Security Officer  Communicative
 Classroom management strategies
Principal‘s Secretary  How to organize
109
15, 2011). School A did not believe most urban principals have received this type of
training or has engaged in this type of work, and therefore are not prepared to redesign
schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global context. School B and
School C did not discuss training needed in systems thinking.
Information Systems. From the literature, we learned that the Leadership for
Sustainable School Development (LSSD) developed a training program built upon chaos
theory and designed to prepare principals to shape schools for the global age (Snyder et
al., 2008). One element of the training program included engaging staff and community
in gathering data for setting organizational goals (Snyder et al., 2008).
Only School B discussed training needed for urban high school principals in this
area. School B believed that urban high school principals need to be skilled and trained
in the use of data, and using that data to measure progress toward set goals. School B did
not believe that most urban high school principals are trained or skilled in the proper use
of data to move a school forward, and therefore are not prepared to create schools to
prepare students to compete in a global context.
Collaborative Leadership. From the literature, we learned that the
Superintendent‘s Urban Principal Initiative (SUPI) was designed with two primary goals
of identifying high-potential urban school leaders and preparing and inspiring them for
principalships in M-DCPS‘neediest schools (The Education Fund, n.d.). One component
of the SUPI and LSSD training programs was collaborating and fostering relationships
with business and community members and understanding the importance of those
relationships.
110
School A believed that urban principals should have the pulse of everything
including, being part of the business community and business meetings, knowing what
business leaders think about the necessary skills that students need, business leaders
sharing the skills they want students to have coming into their businesses in the
community, and knowing what colleges and universities are looking for from kids when
they graduate. School A also believed that one of the primary responsibilities of urban
high school principals is to develop, and implement a shared vision, which would require
a collaborative skill set and training. School C stated if urban high school principals are
trying to prepare students to compete in the 21
st
century, principals need to have training,
structures in place, and forums allowing them to receive input from community members
and business professionals on the types of skills they are looking for from students when
they enter a particular industry (personal communication, February 16, 2011). School C
stated that most urban leaders or not focused on this work and are more focused on test
scores (personal communication, February 16, 2011). School A and School C did not
believe that most urban high school principals are trained in this area and prepared to
create schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global context. School B did
not discuss training needed in collaboration.
Communicative Leadership. From the literature, we learned that a component of
the SUPI was communication (The Education Fund, n.d.). All three schools had similar
opinions regarrding communicative training.
School A stated that urban high school principals need to have training in conflict
resolution and effective communication (personal communication, February 15, 2011).
111
School A also believed that urban high school principals spend much of their time
speaking with parent, teacher, students, and community members and therefore need
training on how to communicate effectively with all stakeholders. School B felt that
effectively communicating with parents, especially in other languages, was important for
urban leaders to learn. School B indicated that even if principals would learn enough to
be able to communicate at a basic level with students and parents who are English
language learners. School C stated that urban high school principals need to be effective
communicators and receive the training necessary to engage with all stakeholders
(personal communication, February 16, 2011). School A did not believe that most urban
high school principals are well trained in this area.
Knowledge. According to The Education Fund (n.d.), the SUPI also has the
following training components, designed to increase knowledge:
 Instructional Leadership
 Decision-Making Strategies
 Human Resource Development and The Learning Environment
 Learning, Accountability and Assessment
 Technology Competency
 Diversity
Each of the three schools had similar opinions about knowledge training needs for
urban high school principals. School A and School B believed that urban high school
principals should be trained in operational items such as budgeting, while School C
believed organization was an important operational item. Additionally, School A and
112
School B indicated that instructional leadership along with accountability was important
trainings need by urban high school principals. School A and School B believed without
this training and skill set, urban principals will not be successful. School B believed that
urban principals should receive training in learning theory, and train teacher in effective
strategies to help students learn. School C did not speak about instructional leadership
and accountability. School A believed that urban high school principals should be
technologically well informed and trained in innovative technologies. School C believed
that urban high school principals should receive training on hiring quality teacher and
effective classroom management strategies. Each school believed that it was important
for urban high school principals to have knowledge of the diversity and culture of their
communities, and should receive cultural sensitivity training. Additionally, each school
indicated that urban high school principals do not have the appropriate knowledge
training to redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context.
Core Values and Belief Systems.
All three schools expressed that much of leadership is inherent and that there are
some skills that can be developed through training and some things that cannot be
received through training. The principal from School A stated that is important to look at
the core values of the individual., and that some principals come with a set of core values
such as, caring about others, being reflective about their practice, being motivated about
working with students and teachers, and having passion (personal communication,
February 15, 2011). School A believed urban leaders come to the job with a set of core
values and belief systems, and from there urban leaders have to be the type of people that
113
are willing to reflect on their practice. School A believed that training cannot change
those fundamental core values and belief systems. This is consistent with the literature,
where Mumford et al. (2000) suggest that along with the competencies/skills designated
in the model, with positive individual attributes, career experiences and environmental
experiences, the leader will demonstrate effective problem solving ability and
performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Mumford et al. (2000) indicates that core
values and belief systems could be considered personality attributes that influences
effective organizational performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007). Additionally,
Mumford et al. (2000) hypothesizes that any personality characteristic that helps people
to cope with complex organizational situations probably is related to leader performance
(as cited in Northouse, 2007).
Research Question #3: To what extent are urban high school principals actively
and knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to extend student learning into a global
context?
Table 8, below, highlights four significant findings to Research Question #3 on
time priorities needed by urban high school principals. The study revealed the following
time priorities are: setting high expectations and instructional practices; developing
partnerships and relationships; professional development; resources. Additionally, the
study found that the urban high school principals identified in this study are actively and
knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to extend learning into a global context.

114

Table 8
Research Question 3:How Urban Principals Spend Their Time
SCHOOL A
Principal  Collaboration
 Communication
 Visiting classrooms
 Instructional improvement
 Interacting with students
 Nurturing relationships (remain at the school site)
 Reflecting
Counselor  Nurturing relationships
Teacher 1  Visiting classrooms
 Leading and participating in the lesson
 Interacting with students
 Evaluating teachers
Teacher 2  Visiting classrooms
 Observing instruction
 Providing feedback
 Interacting with students
Attendance Clerk  Visiting classrooms
 Interacting with students
Site Technician  Visiting classrooms
 Interacting with students
SCHOOL B
Principal  Visiting classrooms
 Collaboration
 Creating instructional expectations
 Reinforcing expectations (accountability)
 Providing feedback
 Supporting teachers
Counselor  Visiting classrooms
 Sharing expectations
 Accountability
Teacher 1  Visiting classrooms
 Interacting with students
Teacher 2  Teach one class per semester
 Visit classroom
 Provide feedback
Attendance Clerk  Visiting classrooms
 Dealing with daily running of the school
Principal‘s
Secretary
 Visiting classrooms
 Dealing with daily running of the school
115

Setting High Expectations and Instructional Practice. From the literature, we
learned principals should spend time investigating curriculum choices and challenging
belief systems (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). These leaders understand that increasing
academic rigor and eliminating low-level course have a positive impact on student
learning and achievement (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). These principals are very visible
in their schools and spend time conducting observation, giving timely feedback, and
ensuring there is a constant focus on quality instruction (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Each
of the three schools indicated that urban high school principals should spend their time
setting high expectations and instructional practice. School A stated that not only should
Table 8 Continued
SCHOOL C
Principal  Nurturing relationships
 Interacting with students
 Visiting classrooms
 Providing feedback
 Providing support
 Accountability
Counselor  Visiting classrooms
 Supporting teachers
 Collaboration
 Professional development
Teacher 1  Interacting with teachers
 Interacting with students
 Setting the tone, standard, and climate of the campus
 Holding all stakeholders accountable
Teacher 2  Visiting classrooms
 Supporting teachers
 Collaborating with teachers on curriculum and
instruction
 Interacting with students
 Securing resources
Security Officer  Visiting classrooms
 Interacting with students
Principal‘s
Secretary
 Visiting classrooms
 Interacting with students
116
urban principals visit classrooms, build teacher capacity, observe instruction, and give
timely feedback and support, but principals should also lead and participate in the lesson
(personal communication, February 15, 2011). School B explained that reinforcing
expectations and accountability is the most important thing for urban high school
principals (personal communication, February 18, 2011). School B also indicated that
urban high school principals should teach one class per semester to stay in touch with the
instructional expectations through the lens of the teacher. School B and School C stated
the importance of not just holding teachers accountable, but holding all stakeholders
accountable (personal communication, February 18, 2011).
Developing Partnerships and Relationships. From the literature, we learned
principals recognize the correlation between high parent involvement and increasing
student learning and achievement, and they therefore should spend time making parents
partners and create structures for parents and students to work together (Bottoms &
O'Neill, 2001). Principals should also spend time ensuring they have developed
relationships with their staff and that every student has a relationship with a caring adult
(Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Each of the three schools had similar opinions about how
urban high school principals spend time developing partnerships and relationships. Each
school believed that urban high school principals should spend time communicating with
staff and parents, interacting with students and nurturing relationships with students and
all stakeholders.
Professional Development. According to Bottoms and O‘Neill (2001), the
principals involved in the focus group understand the importance of staff members
117
acquiring the skills, through a high quality professional development program, to positive
influence student learning and achievement. These principals spend time planning, and
organizing high quality professional development to meet the individual needs of their
teachers (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Only School C discussed professional development,
and stated that urban high school principals should spend most of their time in the
classroom observing and helping teachers, and collaborating with teachers around
professional development (personal communication, February 16, 2011).
Resources. Bottoms and O‘Neil (2001) report that future leaders must be
entrepreneurs and must have the knowledge and skills to secure needed resources from
various sources. These leaders do not wait to provide what they need to support their
schools and student learning and achievement; they spend time constantly searching for
grants, partnerships with businesses, and universities (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). Only
School C discussed resources, and believed that considering the budget issues, urban high
school principals should spend time finding grants to support student learning (personal
communication, February 16, 2011).
Summary
This chapter presented the similarities of the skills found in the study, needed by
principals to prepare students to compete in a global context, in relation to Mumford et al.
(2000) Framework. Mumford et al. (2000) assert that a leader‘s effectiveness depends on
the leader‘s ability to solve complex organizational problems and suggests that leadership
capability can be developed over time through education and experience (as cited in
Northouse, 2007). Mumford et al. (2000) suggest that along with the competencies
118
designated in the model, with positive individual attributes, career experiences and
environmental experiences, the leader will demonstrate effective problem solving ability
and performance (as cited in Northouse, 2007). An analysis of these skills indicates
consistency with Mumford‘s et al. (2000) Capability Model. The eight significant
findings on skills in this study fall within three categories in the model, including
Problem Solving Skills, and Social Judgment Skills and Knowledge Skills (Northouse,
2007). Additionally, this chapter presented the similarities of principal‘s preparation to
create schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global context, to the
literature contained in this study (The Education Fund, n.d.). The findings stated that
most urban high schools principals do not receive the training necessary to prepare
students to compete in a global context. However, the study revealed five significant
findings regarding training needed by urban high school principals. These findings were
consistent with the skills needed by urban high school principals. Finally, this chapter
presented the similarities of school principals actively and knowledgeably demonstrating
skills designed to extend student learning into a global context, to the literature contained
in this study (Bottoms & O'Neill, 2001). The study found that the urban high school
principals identified in this study are actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills
designed to extend learning into a global context.

119
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
Summary of the Study
Schooling in the era of globalization will arguably more than ever before, shape
the current future well-being of children, as well as their chances and opportunities
(Suarez-Orozco, 2001). According to Suarez-Orozco (2001), children who thrive in
schools preparing students to compete in a global context will be better prepared to seize
opportunities available in a global economy. On the other hand, students who leave
school without acquiring the skills demanded in the global economy will be de facto
locked out of these opportunities (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). Because failures in our
educational system are worse in large urban districts, which have high percentages of
poor African, Hispanic, and Asian American students, schools will face additional
challenges in order to prepare students to compete in our global economy (Hunter &
Brown, 2003). Valverde (2003) maintains that dynamic leadership is needed to address
the educational concerns of an urban setting (as cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003). He
prescribes that school leaders must have a new set of skills that will enable them to
improve pedagogy, develop a thorough knowledge of the student body of the school,
expand beyond learning to serve community and global needs, and building capacity for
schools to network and form partnerships with the community and global context (as
cited in Hunter & Brown, 2003).
This study found eight significant skills needed by urban high school principals
and four characteristics and attributes needed by urban high school principals.
120
Additionally, this study found that most urban high schools principals do not receive the
training necessary to prepare students to compete in a global context. However, the study
revealed five significant findings regarding training needed by urban high school
principals. Finally, the study found that the urban high school principals identified in this
study are actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to extend learning
into a global context.
Emergent Themes
Four themes emerged from the data:
 Urban high school principals need to have system thinking and visionary
skills. They not only need to be able to see the ―big picture‖, global trends,
failure of urban education, and issues of our changing demographics, but they
also must have visionary leadership to know where the organization is headed
and how to get them there.
 Urban high school principals must have the ability to work cooperatively and
collaboratively within teams and across cultures, and impart these skills to
their teachers, students, and stakeholders.
 Urban high school principals must have the ability to solve complex problems,
including resolving conflicts within teams.
 Urban high school principals must be visible in their schools and spend time
conducting observation, giving timely feedback, providing support and
ensuring there is a constant focus on quality instruction.
121
These four themes could serve as foundational skills and time management
priorities for schools and districts desiring to build capacity in urban leaders.
Furthermore, these four themes provide direction for school and district leader‘s desire to
implement any program designed to develop or increase skills within urban high school
principals.
Conclusions
Through a sequence of interviews, observations, and document analysis, School
A, School B, and School C principals are on their way to redesigning their schools to
prepare students to compete in a global context. School A is a small thematic high school
serving approximately 453students of which 85% are students of color, 32% are English
learners, and 74% qualifying for free and reduced lunch. In 2005, School A had a growth
API of 651 and currently maintains a growth API of 838, and increase of 187 points.
School B is a small thematic high school serving approximately 477 students of which
77% are students of color, 18% are English learners, and 68% qualifying for free and
reduced lunch. In 2005, School B had a growth API of 622 and currently maintains a
growth API of 789, and increase of 167 points. School C is a small thematic high school
serving approximately 505 students of which 81% are students of color, 15% are English
learners, and 65% qualifying for free and reduced lunch. In 2005, School C had a growth
API of 645 and currently maintains a growth API of 744, and increase of 99 points.

122
Figure 2: API Growth 2005 – 2010

School A is preparing their students to compete in the global economy through
their curriculum choices and unique program. Students of school A will have the
opportunity to develop fluency in world languages, while studying finance, marketing,
management, and international diplomacy (SDUSD, High School Renewal, 2004).
School A facilitates learning with students who are interested in how our increasingly
interconnected business world, both local and internationally influences, personal,
national, and world growth (SDUSD, High School Renewal, 2004). Additionally, School
B is preparing their students to compete in the global economy through their curriculum
choices and unique program. School B focuses on creating an environment where
students interested in multimedia, visual arts and production will master high-level
communication, technological and critical thinking skills (SDUSD, High School
Renewal, 2004). Classes in School B emphasize multimedia and collaborative projects to
prepare students for lifelong learning, a fulfilling career, and a successful future. Finally,
School C is also preparing their students to compete in the global economy through their
curriculum choices and unique program (SDUSD, High School Renewal, 2004).
Students of School C are provided real world scientific learning experiences to prepare
123
them for success in post-secondary education and/or skilled employment in a science-
based economy (SDUSD, High School Renewal, 2004). Students in School C develop a
deep understanding of significant science concepts in rich cross curriculum approach,
which actively utilizes scientific methods, analytical, and creative thinking (SDUSD,
High School Renewal, 2004).
Recommendations for Future Research Questions
This study provides an in-depth review of skills, training, and time management
priorities for urban high school principals to redesign schools to prepare students to
compete in a global context. The study found eight significant skills needed by urban
high school principals and four characteristics and attributes needed by urban high school
principals. Additionally, the study found that most urban high schools principals do not
receive the training necessary to prepare students to compete in a global context.
However, the study revealed five significant findings regarding training needed by urban
high school principals. Finally, the study found that the urban high school principals
identified in this study are actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to
extend learning into a global context. While these urban high school principals are
progressing toward redesigning their schools to prepare students in a global context,
additional research is required, as indicated by the following:
 Investigation of the relationship between the Traits and Skills leadership
model in preparing students to compete in a global context.
 Investigation of whether certain traits such as presence or self-confidence are
needed by urban high school principals, and if so, can these traits be taught.
124
 Investigation of how urban high school principals are staying informed of
global trends, and demographic changes, and using strategic leadership to
redesign their schools.
 Exploration of methodologies urban high school principals might develop to
nurture community and global partnerships designed to prepare students to
compete in a global context.
Implications
In order to change today‘s large, impersonal bureaucratic high schools and lead
them into the global age it will require principals to have a ―revolution‖ of the mind,
where they shift priorities, purpose, processes and outcomes (Synder et al., 2008).
According to Snyder et al. (2008), principals will need to alter or abandon current skills
of what it means to create schools designed to prepare students to compete in society, and
will need to acquire new skills enabling them to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context. When urban high school principals are able to
acquire these skills, the immediate implications are globally prepared students. In order
to ensure urban principals have the required skills to redesign schools to prepare students
to compete in a global context, districts, colleges and universities, and state governments
will need to take action. Districts, colleges and universities, and state governments will
need to develop more urban principal initiates similar to those presented in this study.
These programs should be developed to provide the necessary skills for urban high
school principals. These programs should also develop assessment tools designed to
125
measure whether urban high school principals have the needed skills to redesign schools
to prepare students to compete in a global context.
Many urban schools are overpopulated and understaffed (Suarez-Orozco, 2001).
According to Suarez-Orozco (2001), qualified teachers are needed in urban schools, and
the best teachers leave as soon as they can. Suarez-Orozco (2001) reports that there is
little teaching and learning occurring in large urban districts because of diversity and
classroom management concerns. The little teaching occurring in urban high schools is
typically neither culturally relevant to the immigrant‘s background nor applicable to the
realities of our global culture and economy these students will eventually face (Suarez-
Orozco, 2001). As a result, there are unacceptable numbers of immigrant youth,
especially those from low socio-economic backgrounds, leaving school before acquiring
the tools needed to navigate in today‘s competitive global economy (Suarez-Orozco,
2001). Schools, districts, and teacher preparation programs will need to train and seek
ways to retain a quality teacher workforce designed to combat the inequities found in
urban school districts and prepare students to compete in our global economy.
126
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Webb, D., & Norton, S. (2009). Human Resource Management. Upper Saddle River:
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129
APPENDIX A

Principal, Teacher, and Staff Interview Protocol
Interview Questions
1. What are the global trends influencing school development today?
2. What are the skills needed by urban high school principals in high poverty areas to
redesign schools to prepare students to compete in a global context?
3. How should urban high school principals spend their time to ensure they are creating
a school designed to prepare students to compete in a global context?
4. Are urban high school principals prepared to create schools designed to prepare
students to compete in a global context?
5. Describe the leadership training principals should have to create schools designed to
prepare students to compete in a global context.
6. Visionary Leadership
a. Describe a vision for schools designed to prepare students to compete in a global
context.
b. Who should be involved in creating a school‘s vision and why?
c. How should schools ensure alignment of services and programs with its vision?
d. Should a school‘s vision evolve over time to keep up with the global trends?
Why or why not?
7. Strategic Planning
Describe a strategic plan designed to prepare students to compete in a global context.

130
8. Systems Thinking and Action
Describe what collaboration should look like in a school preparing students to
compete in a global context.
9. Information Systems
a. How should data be used at schools preparing students to compete in a global
context?
b. What are the data sources that can be used to improve services at schools?
10. Human Resources
a. What professional development opportunities should be available to principals,
teachers and staff members keep up with global trends?
11. Quality Services & Customer Success and Satisfaction
What processes should be in place to ensure schools are meeting customer‘s needs?
131
APPENDIX B

Table 9
Urban High School Principal Skills by each Interviewee
SCHOOL A SKILLS FOR URBAN HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Principal  Belief Systems
 Systems Thinking (ability to respond to demographic changes)
 Relational
 Communicative
 Instructional Leader
 Compassion
 Firm
 Reflective
 Visionary
 Collaborative
Counselor  Relational
 Collaborative
 Intelligent
 Visionary
Teacher 1  Systems Thinking ( see the big picture – global trends)
 Information Systems
 Communicative
 Collaborative
Teacher 2  Curriculum and Instructional leader
 Knowledge
 Motivational/Inspirational
 Visionary
 Collaborative
Attendance Clerk  Resourceful
 Relational (ability to listen to stakeholders)
Site Technician  Instructional
 Visionary
 Motivational
 Communicative
 Collaborative
132

Table 9 Continued
SCHOOL B SKILLS FOR URBAN HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Principal  Reflective
 Instructional
 Relational (listening skills)
 Accountability (all stakeholders, especially the principal)
 Compassionate
 Firm
 Systems Thinking
 Networking (help seeking)
 Collaborative
 Information Systems (data driven, research based)
 Visionary
Counselor  Visionary
 Collaborative
 Communicative
 Instructional
Teacher 1  Belief System
 Communicative
 Accountability
Teacher 2  Communicative
 Collaborative
 Human Resource (hiring and retaining high quality teachers0
 Accountability
Attendance Clerk  Communicative
 Relational (listening skills)
 Visionary
Principal‘s Secretary  Communicative
 Relational (listening skills)
SCHOOL C SKILLS FOR URBAN HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Principal  Tenacity
 Visionary
 Communicative
 Collaborative
 Instructional Leadership
 Accountability
Counselor  Instructional leadership
 Accountability
 Relational (listening skills)
 Communicative
Teacher 1  Visionary
 Collaborative
 Communicative
133

Table 9 Continued
Teacher 2  Systems Thinking
 Inspirational
 Human Resource (hiring quality teachers who love kids)
 Information Systems (reviewing data and goal setting)
Security Officer  Relational (students and parents)
Principal‘s Secretary  Resolving Complex Problems (organizational ability)
 Communicative

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The job of principals in the 21st century is to find the future and take their people to it, which will require them to keep an eye on the big picture of life to relentlessly ask, “For what kind of life are we preparing our students?” (Synder, Acker-Hocevar, & Synder, 2008). ❧ ❧ The purpose of this study was to examine principal leadership and the skill demands in a global context. This dissertation presents factors such as the failure of urban education, the impact of globalization on education, and the influence of changing demographics on education, as reasons why urban high school principals need to acquire new leadership skills. The hypothesis of this dissertation is that there are skills, professional development opportunities, and time priorities that urban high school principals can acquire and be involved in that will enable them to redesign schools that will prepare students to compete in a global context. This study utilized both inductive and deductive qualitative analysis approaches in determining the skills needed by urban high school principals. ❧ ❧ The study found eight significant skills needed by urban high school principals and four characteristics and attributes. Additionally, the study found that most urban high schools principals do not receive the training necessary to prepare students to compete in a global context. However, the study revealed five significant findings regarding training needed by urban high school principals. Finally, the study found that the urban high school principals identified in this study are actively and knowledgeably demonstrating skills designed to extend learning into a global context. ❧

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hurst, Kenneth C., Sr. (author)

Core Title Principal leadership -- skill demands in a global context

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/15/2011

Defense Date 06/14/2011

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century skills,global leadership skills,Globalization,OAI-PMH Harvest,principal leadership,urban leadership,urban principals

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crew, Rudolph F. (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy M. (committee member), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member)

Creator Email hurstkc@usc.edu,khurstsr@roadrunner.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c127-616646

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