University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Children's motivation to engage in physical activity during recess

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Children's motivation to engage in physical activity during recess

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Content CHILDREN’S MOTIVATION TO ENGAGE IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
DURING RECESS

by

Merav W. Efrat

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

Copyright 2010 Merav W. Efrat
ii

Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my husband Rafi Efrat for his enduring support and
understanding throughout the doctorate program and his confidence in my abilities. Also
to my children Maya, Danielle, and Neev who I hope will be inspired to explore their
intellectual curiosity and pursue their dreams. Lastly to my parents, Arieh and Tamar
Warshel and sister, Yael Warshel, who instilled in me the value for higher education.

iii

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi,
for her time, guidance, insight and unwavering support throughout the dissertation
process. To the other members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Helena Seli and Dr.
Michelle Riconscente, I thank for their support, time, and willingness to answer my
questions. To Dr. Hocevar thank you for your kindness, patience and willingness to assist
me with the data analysis for this study.
To the principals, Debra Hirsch, Barbara Cohen and Liane Jacob, who provided
me with permission and the necessary support to conduct research at their schools. To the
classroom teachers, Mr. Hollinger, Mrs. Hernandez, Mrs. Passerino, Mrs. Ismail, Mrs.
Marquez, and Mrs. Garza, for their cooperation and support during the data collection
period of this study. In particular a special thank you to the teachers, Mrs. Mosely, Mrs.
Izumi, and Ms. LaRussa who not only provided me with support during the data collection
period, but also enthusiastically implemented the teacher’s verbal persuasion protocol. To
my research assistants Anya Hobley and Keylaundra McClelland who helped throughout
the data collection process. To the Senior Director of YMCA Psychomotor Program,
Thaddeus S. Molnar and coaches, Henry Maldonado and Jason who assisted in
implemented the modeling intervention.
In addition, I would like to give special recognition to John Schneider from
Actigraph for his technical assistance with utilizing the Actigraph monitors. I also want to
thank the Active Living Research Program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the
National Center for Health Statistics and the National Cancer Institute for the loan of the
accelerometer equipment used for this study.
iv

A very special thanks to my husband, children, parents, sister and in-laws whose
support during this entire process was essential.

v

Table of Contents
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Abstract ix
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Background to the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 7
The Purpose of the Study 8
Research Questions 8
Significance of the Study 9
Definition of Terms 11
Organization of the Study 13

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 15
Physical Activity and Children’s Health 15
Self-Efficacy and Children’s Motivation to Engage in Physical
Activity 27
Determinants of Children’s Physical Activity Self-Efficacy 35
Modeling by a Competent Adult and Children’s Motivation to
Engage in Physical Activity 49
Verbal Persuasion and Children’s Motivation to Engage in
Physical Activity 50
Interventions to Promote Free-Time Physical Activity 52
Summary 55

Chapter 3: Methods 58
Research Questions 58
Research Design 59
Population and Sample 59
Instrumentation 61
Data Collection 65
Treatments 70
Data Analysis 75

vi

Chapter 4: Results 77
Preliminary Analysis 77
Research Question One 80
Research Question Two 81
Research Question Three 84
Chapter 5: Discussion 87
Summary of Study’s Findings 88
Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy 89
The Relationship between Physical Activity Self-Efficacy and Effort 92
The Influence of a Teacher’s Verbal Persuasion on Physical Activity
Self-Efficacy and Effort 93
The Influence of Modeling by a Competent Adult on Physical Activity
Self-Efficacy and Effort 95
Implications for Research and Practitioners 97
Limitations 99
Recommendations 101
Conclusions 103

References 104
Appendices:
Appendix A: Parental Consent Form 121
Appendix B: Recess Time Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale 126
Appendix C: Child Assent Form 132
Appendix D: Accelerometer Instructions 134
Appendix E: Descriptions of Games 135
Appendix F: Handout on the Benefits of Moderate to Vigorous Physical
Activity 139
Appendix G: Teacher’s Verbal Persuasion Daily Checklist 140

vii

List of Tables
Table 1: Participant Demographic Information by Treatment Group 60
Table 2: Student Demographic Information by School 61
Table 3: Data Collection Time Line 67
Table 4: Rotated Component Matrix Results 78

Table 5: Means, Standard Deviations for Other Barrier Self-Efficacy, Adult
Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy, Light Physical Activity Task
Self-Efficacy, Moderate Physical Activity Task Self Efficacy, Vigorous
Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, and Effort, Pre-Treatment 79

Table 6: ANOVA Table Gender Effect Pre-Treatment 79
Table 7: Spearman’s Rank Correlation between Other Barrier Self-Efficacy,
Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy, Light Physical Activity
Task Self-Efficacy, Moderate Physical Activity Task Self- Efficacy,
Vigorous Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, and Effort 81

Table 8: ANCOVA Adjusting for Gender with Pre-test as a Covariate 83

viii

List of Figures
Figure 1: Gender by Treatment Interaction Effect on Effort 82
Figure 2: Main Effect of Treatment on Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier
Self-Efficacy and Vigorous Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy 84

Figure 3: Main Effect of Treatment on Physical Activity Effort 84
Figure 4: Interaction Effect for Effort by Time 86

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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore strategies that may increase children’s
motivation to engage in physical activity during unstructured in-school free-time, such as
recess. One hundred and sixty-two students, recruited from three elementary schools and
nine fourth grade classrooms, were randomly assigned to one of three groups: 1) a
teacher’s daily verbal persuasion to engage in physical activity during recess; 2) a
modeling of active recess time games by a competent adult; and 3) a comparison group
that received no treatment. Pre-and post-treatment self-efficacy and effort data were
collected utilizing a recess time physical activity self-efficacy instrument and
accelerometers.
A Spearman’s rank correlation analysis determined that, in the context of recess,
self-efficacy and effort are not related. A series of 2 x 3 ANCOVAs with pre-treatment
scores as covariates determined that following treatment, the verbal persuasion group
participants, compared to the modeling group participants, had significantly greater self-
efficacy and effort mean scores. A borderline significant gender by treatment interaction
effect on effort indicated that verbal persuasion was slightly more effective at increasing
males, compared to female’s effort. A series of 3 x 2 repeated measures ANOVAs
determined that from pre- to post-treatment only participants in the verbal persuasion
group spent a significantly higher percent of their recess time engaged in moderate to
vigorous physical activity. Lastly, a principal component analysis with varimax rotation
indicated that the barrier self-efficacy scale utilized in this study consisted of two types of
barrier self-efficacy: adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and other barrier self-
efficacy.
x

Given school districts current budget and curriculum constrains, this study
provides strong evidence that one cost effective strategy for increasing children’s daily
physical activity levels is a small dose of social prompting in the form of a teacher’s
verbal persuasion. In light of evidence suggesting that physical activity is linked to lower
obesity rates, and substantial health and academic benefits, social prompting may be a
useful strategy for addressing the childhood obesity epidemic, and improving students’
academic and health outcomes.

1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A significant number of American children are obese. Over the last three
decades, childhood obesity prevalence rates have increased to epidemic proportions
(Koplan, Liverman, & Kraak, 2005; Story, Kaphingst, & French, 2006). While obesity
prevalence rates have increased among children of all ages, obesity rates are highest
among elementary school-aged children. Results from the 2007-2008 National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) estimated that 34.1% of children between
the ages of 6-11 are obese (at or above 95
th
percentile of Body Mass Index for their age)
compared to 17.3% of children between the ages of 2-5, and 30.6% of adolescents
between the ages of 12 -19 (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lamb, & Flegal, 2010).
Along with unhealthy eating practices, one significant modifiable factor linked to
the current childhood obesity epidemic is insufficient physical activity among children
(Strong et al., 2005). Data reflecting elementary school-aged children‟s current physical
activity levels suggests the majority of children do not meet the recommendations of 30
to 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on a daily basis (Center
for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003; Corbin, Pangrazi, & Le Masurier, 2004;
Garber, Woods, & Castilli, 2007; San Diego State University, 2007; Troiano et al., 2007).
Elementary school-aged children‟s deficient physical activity levels are reflected in their
limited physical activity before, during, and after school. For example, data indicates that
less than 16% of children walk or bike to school (United States Environmental Protection
Agency, 2003). Once at school, elementary school-aged children engage in very little
2

physical activity. For example, a recent study of physical education programs in the K-
12 setting indicates that the quantity and quality of California elementary schools‟
Physical Education (PE) programs are severely deficient (San Diego State University,
2007). According to the 2006 California Center for Public Health Advocacy report, at
least 51% of school districts in California are not in compliance with the current
mandated 100 weekly minutes for PE instruction (California Center for Public Health
Advocacy, 2006). When children do receive PE instruction, findings indicate that
children spend 18 minutes during an average 30 minutes PE class being sedentary
(UCLA Center to Eliminate Health Disparities and Samuels & Associates, 2007). In
addition to limited physical activity during PE, research indicates that elementary school-
aged children spend only 35% of their recess time engaged in physical activity (Babkes &
Sinclair, 2004). Lastly, evidence suggests that the majority of elementary school-aged
children do not engage in after school physical activity Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2003).
Background to the Problem
It is important to address the childhood obesity problem through the promotion of
elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity rates. Extensive research suggests
that insufficient physical activity during the elementary school-aged years can contribute
to a variety of health and academic problems (Buck, 2008; Buck, Hillman, & Castelli,
2008; Castelli, Hillman, Buck, & Erwin, 2007; Daniels, 2006; Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard,
Lazarus, & Dean, 2001; Grisssom, 2005; Hillman, Castelli, & Buck, 2005; Strong et al.,
2005). For example, elementary school-aged children who engage in low levels of
3

physical activity, compared to their more active peers, have poorer cardiovascular risk
profiles, bone health, and mental health (Strong et al., 2005). Aside from adverse health
consequences, inactive elementary school-aged children, compared to their more active
peers, have inferior performance on a variety of cognitive tasks, as well as inferior scores
on various academic assessments (Buck, 2008; Buck et al., 2008; Castelli et al., 2007;
Dwyer et al., 2001; Grissom, 2005; Hillman et al., 2005).
In spite of the substantial health and academic benefits associated with physical
activity, many environmental and social barriers prevent elementary school-aged children
from meeting current physical activity benchmarks. For example, the increased distance
of a child‟s home from their school, as well as traffic danger along walking routes,
prevents many children from walking to school (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2005). Recent educational policy (i.e., No Child Left Behind (NCLB) also
prevents many children from obtaining sufficient physical education instruction during
the school day. Under NCLB legislation, schools are held accountable for core subjects
such as math, reading, and science. However, NCLB does not hold schools accountable
for physical education. Consequently, teachers and administrators focus school hours
and homework assignments on math, reading, and science, and place significantly less
emphasis on physical education. Finally, an increase in the number of dual working
parent families has contributed to children‟s inability to participate in a variety of
afterschool physical activity programs (Davison, Cutting, & Birch, 2003; Hertz &
Marshall, 2001; Paxson, Donahue, Orleans, & Grisso, 2006; Sallis, Alcaraz, Mckenzie,
4

Hovell, Kolody, & Nader, 1992; Sallis, Alcaraz, Mckenzie, Melbourne, & Hovell, 1999;
Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000).
Given these various environmental and social barriers, one approach to increasing
physical activity levels is to increase elementary school-aged children‟s motivation to
engage in physical activity during their in-school non-curriculum free-time (i.e., recess).
Research demonstrates that unstructured environments, such as recess are the optimal
setting for children to accumulate physical activity (Pate, Baranowski, Dowda, & Trost,
1996). Further, recess time provides the greatest opportunity for school-aged children to
accumulate physical activity (Robert Wood Johnson, 2007). Specifically, research
indicates that children spend much more time per week in recess than they do in either
physical education classes or other after school programs (Robert Wood Johnson, 2007).
While students must utilize a portion of their recess time to eat a snack, the majority of
this time frame can be utilized to engage in physical activity.
Despite its potential, many children lack the motivation necessary to fully
maximize recess to reach current physical activity benchmarks (Ridgers, Stratton, &
Fairclough, 2005; Stratton, 1999, 2000). Motivation to engage in physical activity can be
inferred through three indices: choice, effort, and persistence (Weiner, 1990). Choice to
engage in physical activity refers to a child making the choice to engage in physical
activity (e.g., choosing to engage in physical activity during recess). Effort refers to the
intensity with which children engage in physical activity (e.g., MVPA). Persistence
refers to time spent engaged in physical activities (e.g., minutes engaged in physical
activity). Research findings demonstrate that elementary school-aged children have
5

problems with choice, effort, and persistence that prevent them from engaging in
adequate amounts of physical activity during recess (McKenzie et al., 1997; Ridgers et
al., 2005; Stratton, 1999, 2000).
Children currently lack motivation to engage in adequate amounts of MVPA
during recess. Accordingly the design of interventions that are effective at enhancing
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess is warranted. To design
such effective interventions, it is important to understand what motivational constructs
are related with elementary school-aged children‟s choice, effort, and persistence to
engage in physical activity. One of the strongest predictors of motivation to engage in
physical activity is physical activity self-efficacy (Trost, Pate, Ward, Saunders, &
Riner,1999a; Van Der Horst, Paw, Twisk, &Van Mechelen, 2007; Zakarian, Hovell,
Hofstetter, Sallis, & Keating, 1994). Self-efficacy “is a judgment of one‟s capability to
accomplish a certain level of performance” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Accomplishing a
certain level of performance requires both confidence in one‟s capabilities, as well as
confidence in one‟s abilities to overcome potential barriers to execute the particular
action (Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002). Research demonstrates a strong relationship
between physical activity self-efficacy and children‟s choice, effort, and persistence to
engage in physical activity (Annesi, 2006; Annesi et al., 2007; Chase, 2001; Foley et. al.,
2008, Norton, 2003; Sharma, Wagner., & Wilkerson, 2005; Trost et al., 1999a ; Trost,
Pate, Ward, Saunders, & Riner,1999b). However, to date no study has explored whether
physical activity self-efficacy is related with children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess.
6

Since research provides evidence of a strong relationship between physical
activity self-efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity, it is
important that interventions aimed at promoting elementary school-aged children‟s recess
time physical activity focus on enhancing physical activity self-efficacy. Research
suggests that modeling of a physical activity task by a competent adult, and adult verbal
persuasion are determinants of elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity self-
efficacy (Chase, 1995; Lirgg & Feltz, 1991; Trost et al., 2003). Modeling involves an
individual judging their own capabilities to perform a particular action by observing a
model perform the behavior of interest (Bandura, 1997). Verbal persuasion is any
message that enhances an individual‟s beliefs that they are capable of performing a
particular task, such as engaging in physical activity during recess (Bandura, 1997).
Further, physical activity interventions that utilize a competent adult model have been
found to have a significant positive impact on increasing children‟s physical activity
(McKenzie et al., 1997; Pangrazi, Beighole, Vehige, & Vack, 2003; Sallis et al., 1997).
Lastly, there is a positive relationship between an adult‟s verbal persuasion and children‟s
physical activity (Biddle & Goudas, 1996; McKenzie et al., 1997; Ommundsen, Klasson-
Heggebo, & Anderssen, 2006). One adult who can verbally persuade elementary school-
aged children to be active during recess is the classroom teacher. One form of verbal
persuasion that has been linked to children's motivation to engage in physical activity is a
message that prompts children to be active (Trost et al., 2003; McKenzie et al., 1997).

7

Statement of the Problem
The problem this study aims to address is children‟s lack of motivation to engage
in physical activity during recess. There is evidence that there is a strong relationship
between physical activity self-efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity (Annesi, 2006; Annesi et al., 2007; Chase, 2001; Foley et al., 2008; Norton,
2003; Sharma et al., 2005; Trost et al., 1999a, 1999b). However, it is unknown whether
this same relationship exists in the context of recess. Research suggests that verbal
persuasion can influence children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and is related to
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity (Biddle & Goudas, 1996; Chase,
1995; McKenzie et al., 1997; Ommundsen et al., 2006). Literature also indicates that
modeling of physical activity by an adult model can influence children‟s physical activity
self-efficacy and motivation to engage in physical activity (Lirgg & Feltz, 1991;
McKenzie et al., 1997; Pangrazi et al., 2003; Sallis, Mckenzie, Alcaraz, Kolody, Faucette,
& Melbourne, 1997). In the context of recess, both modeling by a competent adult and a
teacher‟s verbal persuasion were found to be effective at increasing motivation to engage
in physical activity during recess (Pagrazi et al., 2003). However, because modeling and
verbal persuasion were coupled with self-monitoring, it is not clear if either of these
strategies alone are effective at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess. Prior research has found that multi-component interventions,
compared to interventions that utilize one strategy, do not result in greater increases in
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess (Loucaides, Jago, &
Charalambous, 2009). Therefore, it is important to determine whether adult verbal
8

persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone, are effective at increasing
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and their motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess (Loucaides et al., 2009). To date, no study has examined the
influence of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone,
on children‟s recess time physical activity self-efficacy and recess time physical activity
effort. Subsequent references to self-efficacy and effort made in this chapter will
specifically relate to recess time physical activity self-efficacy and recess time physical
activity effort.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was threefold: 1) to examine whether there is a
relationship between children‟s self-efficacy and the motivational index of effort (i.e.,
MVPA); 2) to examine whether one treatment (verbal persuasion or modeling) is more
effective at enhancing boys or girls‟ self-efficacy and effort; and 3) to examine whether
one treatment (a teacher‟s verbal persuasion or modeling by a competent adult) is more
effective at influencing children‟s self-efficacy and effort.
Research Questions
This study aims to answer three research questions. Those questions are:
1) Is self-efficacy related with fourth grade students‟ effort?
2) Does a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, or modeling by a competent adult,
influence fourth grade girls and boys' self-efficacy and effort?
3) Is there a significant difference between pre- and post-treatment self-efficacy and
effort by group membership (verbal persuasion, comparison, or modeling)?
9

Based on prior research suggesting that physical activity self-efficacy is positively related
to physical activity effort, it was expected that this same relationship would exist in the
context of recess. Further, given that the research suggests that verbal persuasion and
modeling may influence self-efficacy and effort, it was expected that that treatment (i.e.,
verbal persuasion or modeling), would influence self-efficacy and effort.
Significance of the Study
This study extends the research on children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity during unstructured in school free-time, such as recess. For instance, this study
extends the literature on children‟s physical activity self-efficacy by exploring whether in
the context of recess, physical activity self-efficacy and the motivational index of effort
are related. Further, this study extends the literature on strategies that are effective at
enhancing children‟s effort to engage in physical activity during recess. Specifically,
findings from this study may help policy makers, administrators, coaches, and teachers,
determine more cost effective ways to enhance children‟s motivation to engage in
physical activity during recess. Low cost has been identified as a key to sustainability of
effective school-based physical activity. Recess time provides the greatest opportunity
for school-aged children to accumulate physical activity. Therefore, research
demonstrating cost effective ways to increase physical activity during recess is warranted
(Owen, Glanz, Sallis, & Kelder, 2006; Robert Wood Johnson, 2007).
Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of a multi-component intervention
consisting of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, modeling, and self-monitoring to increase
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. However, research has
10

found that multi-component interventions, compared to interventions consisting of a
single strategy, do not necessary result in greater increases in children‟s motivation to
engage in physical activity during recess. Therefore, it is important to determine whether
adult verbal persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone, are effective at
increasing children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and their motivation to engage in
physical activity during recess. A teacher‟s verbal persuasion and modeling by a
competent adult are both relatively low cost strategies. However, an intervention
involving a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone would be more feasible for schools to
implement. A brief message that prompts children to be active during recess can be
easily incorporated into the school day. On the other hand, due to resource constraints,
many schools have either no physical education coach or they have very limited hours of
physical education instruction. In schools with limited physical education instruction, the
physical education coach could easily model physical activities that fourth grade students
can engage in during recess. In schools without access to a physical education coach,
administrators would have to either secure the funds needed to hire a competent adult or
train classroom teachers to model recess time games. Enhanced recess time physical
activity self-efficacy, along with enhanced recess time physical activity effort, can enable
more children to reach physical activity benchmarks. Children who reach physical
activity benchmarks are healthier, have higher academic test scores, and have lower
absenteeism rates and less behavioral problems that can negatively impact their school
work (Castelli et al., 2007; Datar & Sturm, 2004; Dwyer et al., 2001; Geier et al., 2007;
11

Grissom, 2005; Schwimmer, Burwinkle, & Varni., 2003; Strong et al., 2005; Tershakov,
Weller, & Gallagher, 1994; Zeller , Reiter-Purtill & Ramey, in press).
Definitions of Terms
Effort
In this study, effort will be defined as the amount of physical energy an
individual expends during physical activity. Physical activity effort is typically classified
into the three distinct categories (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).
Those categories are: light-intensity physical activity (LPA), moderate-intensity physical
activity (MPA) or vigorous-intensity physical activity (VPA). LPA refers to light
activities that require very little physical effort, such as walking slowly. MPA refers to
any activity which results in the increase of an individual‟s breathing or heart rate. VPA
refers to any activity that results in large increases in breathing or heart rate during which
conversation is difficult (“Physical activity for everyone”, n.d).
Effort assessed in this study. For the purpose of this study, effort will be defined
as the percent of available recess time a child spends in moderate to vigorous physical
activity (MVPA).
Recess
Recess refers to the time allocated by schools between instructional lessons for
students to engage in free choice physical activities. Specifically, in this study, this time
was the morning recess.

12

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy “is a judgment of one‟s capability to accomplish a certain level of
performance” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Accomplishing a certain level of performance
requires both, confidence in one‟s capabilities, as well as confidence in one‟s abilities to
overcome potential barriers to execute the particular action (Glanz et al, 2002).
Researchers examining the impact of the construct of self-efficacy either assess the
impact of the global construct of self-efficacy or differentiate between two types of self-
efficacy: task self-efficacy and barrier self-efficacy (Annesi, 2006; Foley et al., 2008;
Sharma et al., 2005). Task self-efficacy refers to an individual‟s perceptions of their own
abilities to execute the task. Barrier self-efficacy refers to an individual‟s perceptions of
their ability to overcome the personal, social, and environmental barriers associated with
executing the task (Annesi, 2006).
Self-efficacy assessed in this study. In this study, three types of task self-efficacy
were examined. 1) Light physical activity task self-efficacy which relates to a child‟s
confidence in their capability to engage in light intensity physical activity during most of
their recess time. 2) Moderate physical activity task self-efficacy which relates to a
child‟s confidence in their capability to engage in moderate intensity physical activity
during most of their recess time. 3) Vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy which
relates to a child‟s confidence in their capability to engage in vigorous intensity physical
activity during most of their recess time. In this study two types of barrier self-efficacy
were examined. 1) Adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy which relates to a child‟s
confidence in their ability to initiate physical activity without an adult prompting them to
13

do so. 2) Other barrier self-efficacy which relates to a child‟s confidence in their ability
to overcome various personal, social, and environmental barriers to engaging in physical
activity during recess.
Verbal persuasion
According to Bandura (1997) verbal persuasion is any type of message that
enhances an individual‟s beliefs that she or he is capable of performing a particular
behavior, including engaging in physical activity. In this study, verbal persuasion will be
a message that prompts children to be physically active during recess.
Organization of the Study
Chapter one of this study, has presented a brief introduction and background to
various problems relating to children‟s lack of motivation to engage in physical activity
and the current childhood obesity epidemic. It was established that there are gaps in the
literature relating to the children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during
recess. It is not clear whether, in the context of recess, there is a relationship between
self-efficacy and the motivational index of effort. Further, it is not clear whether utilizing
modeling by a competent adult alone, or a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone, has a
positive impact on children‟s recess time physical activity self-efficacy, as well as their
recess time effort. The gaps identified led to a discussion of the purpose of the study and
the research questions for the study, as well as the significance of the study. Lastly,
relevant terms that will be utilized throughout this study were identified and defined.
Chapter two is a review of the literature related to this present research study.
The review will include the following main topics: 1) Physical activity and children‟s
14

health; 2) self-efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity; 3)
determinants of children‟s physical activity self-efficacy; 4) modeling by a competent
adult and children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity; 5) verbal persuasion and
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity; and 6) interventions that promote
free-time physical activity. These topics will be reviewed and synthesized leading to a
discussion of the research questions that guided this study.
Chapter three will present the methodology utilized in the current investigation
including the research design, sample procedures, instrumentation and reliability and
validity information, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis preformed.
Chapter four will present the results of the current investigation. Chapter five will
include a discussion of the main findings, implications for research and practice,
limitations of this study along with recommendations for future research and practice and
conclusions.
15

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In spite of the substantial health and academic benefits associated with physical
activity many elementary school-aged children do not accumulate sufficient physical
activity. Research suggests that recess provides the single biggest opportunity to increase
the number of children who meet physical activity benchmarks (Robert Wood Johnson
Foundation, 2007). Despite its potential many children lack the motivation necessary to
fully maximize recess time. This chapter will explore the literature relating to children‟s
motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. In particular, this review will
explore literature in the following areas: 1) Physical activity and children‟s health; 2)
self-efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity; 3) determinants of
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy; 4) modeling by a competent adult and
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity; 5) verbal persuasion and children‟s
motivation to engage in physical activity; and 6) interventions that promote free-time
physical activity. Lastly, this review will suggest exploring the effectiveness of a
teacher‟s verbal persuasion of physical activity or modeling by a competent adult on
influencing children‟s and recess time physical activity self-efficacy and children‟s recess
time physical activity effort.
Physical Activity and Children‟s Health
The Obesity Epidemic and Physical Inactivity
Over the last three decades, childhood obesity prevalence rates have increased to
epidemic proportions (Kaplan, Liverman, & Kraak, 2005; Story, Kaphingst, & French,
16

2006). One age group with high obesity rates is elementary school-aged children.
Among elementary school-aged children obesity prevalence rates have increased from
4% in 1960 to 34.1% in 2002 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005; Ogden et
al., 2010). Along with unhealthy eating practices (e.g., consumption of large portions of
foods, insufficient consumption of fruits and vegetables, and consumption of sugar
sweetened beverages), one significant modifiable factor linked to the current childhood
obesity epidemic is insufficient physical activity among children (Anderson & Butcher,
2005). Evidence suggests that a relationship exists between children‟s inactivity levels
and current obesity prevalence rates (Krishnamoorthy, Hart, & Jelalian, 2006; Strong et
al., 2005). Strong et al. (2005) found that both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
indicate that, compared to their less active peers, elementary school-aged children who
participate in high levels of physical activity have less adiposity or fatness.
Most experts agree that one effective strategy for impacting the childhood obesity
epidemic is to increase children‟s physical activity levels (Goran, Reynolds, & Lindquist,
1999; Sherry, 2005). To promote physical activity, efforts aimed at facilitating physical
activity behaviors should focus on elementary school-aged children. Research indicates
that children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity begins to rapidly decline in the
fourth grade (Trost et al., 2002). Further, physical activity behaviors consolidate by sixth
grade and tend to remain stable into adulthood (Kelder et al., 1994; Lindquest, Reynolds,
& Goran, 1999). Once children are in middle school their physical activity behaviors are
more resistant to change. For that reason, to promote lifelong physical activity habits,
interventions should target elementary school-aged children and specifically focus on
17

preventing declines that have been documented among fourth grade children (Trost et al.,
2002).
Elementary School-Aged Children‟s Current Levels of Physical Activity
In order to acquire health benefits associated with physical activity it is
recommended that elementary school-aged children accumulate about 30 to 60 minutes
of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on a daily basis (Corbin, Pangrazi, &
Le Masurier, 2004; Garber, Woods, & Castilli, 2007; Strong et al., 2005). Despite this
recommendation, data examining elementary school-aged children‟s current physical
activity levels suggest that the majority of children do not meet these recommendations
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003; Corbin, Pangrazi, & LeMasurier,
2004; Garber, Woods, & Castilli, 2007; San Diego State University, 2007; Troiano et al.,
2007). Data indicate that less than half of elementary school-aged children are meeting
the physical activity recommendations of 30 to 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous
physical activity (MVPA) on a daily basis (Troiano et al., 2007).
Elementary school-aged children‟s deficient physical activity levels are reflected
in their limited physical activity before, during, and after school. For example, few
children walk or bike to school. In 1969, 48% of children walked or biked to school. By
2001, less than 16% of children walked or biked to school (United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 2003). Once at school, elementary school-aged children engage in
very little physical activity. Researchers estimate that on average, elementary school-
aged children participate in eight minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity each
school day (San Diego State University, 2007). A U.S. Department of Education survey
18

of 1,198 elementary schools indicated that only 20% of elementary schools provide daily
physical education classes (Persad & Lewis, 2006). Research findings also indicate that
on average boys spend only 32%, and girls only 23%, of their recess time engaged in
physical activity (Ridgers, Stratton, & Fairclough, 2005). In addition to deficient
physical activity levels during the school day, the majority of elementary school-aged
children do not engage in after-school physical activity. A recent Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) survey found that as much as 61.5% of children between
the ages of 9-13 do not participate in any structured physical activity outside of school
hours (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003).
Consequences of Physical Inactivity
Physical activity and health. Insufficient levels of physical activity during the
elementary school-aged years can contribute to a variety of health problems (Strong et
al., 2005). Elementary school-aged children who engage in low levels of physical
activity, compared to their more active peers, have poorer cardiovascular risk profiles,
bone health, and mental health (Strong et al., 2005). As mentioned previously, inactivity
among elementary school-aged children has also been linked to higher adiposity or
fatness levels. High adiposity levels in elementary school-aged children are associated
with a substantial number of health consequences. Compared to healthy weight children,
children with high adiposity levels are more likely to have asthma, obstructive sleep
apnea, nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases, gastroesophageal reflux, tibia vara (Blount
disease), slipped capital-femoral epiphysis, polycyctic ovary syndrome, and Pseudotumor
cerebri leep (Daniels, 2006). Also, overweight children are likely to experience social
19

discrimination due to their adiposity levels (Anderson, 2003). Lastly, research shows that
being overweight during the elementary school years is associated with heart disease in
early adulthood (Baker, Olsen, & Sorensen, 2007).
Physical activity and optimal cognitive and academic performance. In addition to
health problems, insufficient physical activity levels among elementary school-aged
children may inhibit optimal cognitive and academic performance (Buck, 2008; Buck,
Hillman, & Castelli, 2008; Castelli, Hillman, Buck, & Erwin, 2007; Dwyer, Sallis,
Blizzard, Lazarus, & Dean, 2001; Geier et al., 2007; Grissom, 2005; Hillman, Castelli, &
Buck, 2005; Schwimmer et.al., 2003; Tershakov, Waller, & Gallagher, 1994). Elementary
school-aged children who engage in insufficient amounts of physical activity, compared
to their more active peers, perform worse on various cognitive tasks. According to
Barratt, Tugade and Engle (2004), one cognitive process that influences success on a
wide variety of cognitive tasks is working memory capacity. Children with greater
working memory capacity, compared to their peers with poorer working memory
capacity, are better able to process information, temporarily store information, shift
attention, and recall information. Research demonstrates that unfit elementary school-
aged children, compared to their more fit peers, have inferior working memory capacity
(Buck, 2008; Buck et al., 2008; Hillman, Castelli, & Buck, 2005). One indicator of
working memory capacity is the ability to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant
stimuli (Hilman et al). Researchers can assess an individual‟s ability to discriminate
between relevant and irrelevant stimuli by measuring P3 amplitude during a visual
discrimination task. P3 is a measure of neuroelectric activity shortly following the
20

introduction of stimuli. Higher P3 amplitudes are associated with higher levels of
attention allocation during working memory operations. Hillman et al. demonstrated that
high aerobically fit children, compared to low aerobically fit children, had increased P3
amplitudes following a visual discrimination task. These findings suggest that
elementary school-aged children who engage in regular physical activity, compared to
their less active peers, have better cognitive function. Moreover, Buck et al. (2008)
demonstrated that aerobically fit elementary school-aged children have better
performance on three tasks requiring use of the executive control. The executive control,
which is a component of working memory, helps individuals effectively plan, monitor,
and retrieve specific information to be used in a cognitive task.
Additionally, elementary school-aged children who engage in insufficient
amounts of physical activity, compared to their more active peers, have poorer scores on
various academic assessments. Cross-sectional studies have found a positive correlation
between children‟s fitness levels and academic achievement (Castelli et al., 2007; Dwyer
et al., 2001; Grissom, 2005). For example, Castelli et al., (2007) found a positive
relationship between third and fifth graders cardiovascular fitness and performance on the
Illinois State Achievement Test, a standardized reading and math test. This relationship
still remained after controlling for a child‟s income level. Grissom also found a positive
relationship between fifth graders‟ math and reading scores on the Stanford Achievement
Test and the Fitness Gram fitness assessment test. Grissom found that this relationship
was stronger among females than males. Additionally, Dwyer et al. found a positive
association between achievement and physical activity. In contrast to these findings,
21

Tremblay, Inman and Willms (2000) did not find a positive relationship between physical
activity and academic performance. However, Tremblay et al.‟s contradictory findings
may be explained by their reliance on children‟s self-report data which have limited
reliability (Trost, Morgan, Saunders, Ward, & Pate, 2000).
Lastly, obesity, which as was mentioned earlier is linked to physical inactivity,
hinders optimal academic performance (Datar & Sturm, 2004; Schwimmer et al., 2003;
Tershakov, Waller, & Gallagher, 1994). Findings indicate that obese children, compared
to normal weight children, have higher absenteeism rates which negatively impact their
academic performance (Geier et al., 2007; Monk & Ibrahim, 1984; Schwimmer et al.,
2003). Even after adjusting for age, gender, race, and ethnicity, obese children are absent
1.9 times more times than normal weight peers (Geier et al., 2007). Obese children,
compared to their normal weight peers, have more behavioral problems that can hinder
optimal academic performance (i.e., depression, low-self esteem, and aggressive
disruptive behavior) (Datar & Sturm, 2004; Tershakov, Waller, & Gallagher, 1994; Zeller
& Reiter-Purtill, & Ramey, in press).
Barriers to Elementary School-Aged Children‟s Physical Activity
Opportunities for children to accumulate physical activity occur at different
segments of the day such as active travel to school, physical education classes, recess and
extracurricular activities (McKenzie & Kahan, 2008). Despite the documented benefits
of physical activity, various social and environmental barriers prevent children from
accumulating sufficient amounts of physical activity throughout their day.
22

First, few elementary school-aged children walk or bike to school. As mentioned
earlier, a recent study found that less than 16% of children walk or bike to school (United
States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003). The 2004 Consumer Styles Survey
indicates that parents of elementary school-aged children believe that the two most
significant barriers preventing their children walking to and from school are the distance
that they live from their school and traffic danger along walking routes (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2005).
Secondly, a de-emphasis on physical education in school results in children
engaging in little physical activity during their school day. Recent data from the School
Health Policies and Programs Study indicates that only 13.7% of elementary schools in
the United States provide students of all grades at least three days per week of physical
education (National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, n.d.).
A recent study of physical education classes in the K-12 setting found that elementary
schools provide the poorest quality and quantity of physical education classes (San Diego
State University, 2007). No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation is partly the cause of
elementary schools‟ limited physical education programs. Under NCLB legislation,
schools are held accountable for core subjects such as math, reading, and science.
However, NCLB does not hold schools accountable for physical education.
Consequently, teachers and administers are forced to focus the school hours and
homework assignments on math, English and Science, and place significantly less
emphasis on other non-core subjects that are not tested under NCLB, such as physical
education (King & Zucker, 2005). Lastly, due to an increase in the number of dual
23

working parents, elementary school-aged children have limited access to after-school
physical activity programs or sports (Davison, Cutting & Birch, 2003; Hertz & Marshall,
2001; Paxson, Donahue, Orleans, & Grisso, 2006; Sallis, Alcaraz, Mckenzie, Hovell,
Kolody, & Nader, 1992; Sallis, Alcaraz, Mckenzie, Melbourne, & Hovell, 1999; Sallis,
Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000). Both a cross-sectional study conducted by Sallis et al.
(1992), as well as a prospective study conducted by Sallis et al. (1999) demonstrate that
availability of transportation by parent to physical activity programs or sports is a
significant predictor of elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity behaviors.
In light of these environmental and social barriers preventing children from
engaging in physical activity in most segments of the day, one solution to increasing
children‟s physical activity levels is to increase their motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess. In fact, the barriers often preventing children from engaging in
physical activity during other segments of the day do not pertain to recess. For instance,
while distance and traffic concerns prevent many children from actively commuting to
school, the playground is easily accessible and devoid of traffic dangers. While lack of
transportation prevents many children from engaging in afterschool extracurricular
physical activity, children do not need transportation to access the playground during
recess time. Lastly, while NCLB has led many schools to eliminate or significantly cut
back on physical education instruction, recess still occurs in most elementary school
across the nation (National Center for Education statistics, 2006). On average,
elementary school-aged children across the nations receive 125 minutes per week of
scheduled recess (National Center for Education statistics, 2006). Further, children spend
24

more time per week in recess than they do in physical education classes or afterschool
extracurricular activities. Research indicates that recess time provides almost half of all
of the opportunities available for children to accumulate physical activity during their day
(Robert Wood Johnson, 2007). Lastly, elementary school-aged children accumulate
more physical activity in unstructured, rather than structured environments (Pate et al.,
1996).
Despite the potential of accumulating significant amounts of MVPA during
recess, many elementary school-aged children have motivational problems that prevent
them from engaging in physical activity during recess. Motivation researchers agree that
motivation is inferred through the presence of three behavioral indicators: choice, effort,
and persistence (Weiner, 1990). Choice is when an individual who is given alternatives
voluntarily chooses to engage in a particular behavior. Effort entails the amount of
cognitive or physical effort an individual invests when accomplishing a particular task.
Persistence relates to the time an individual spends on a particular task. Accordingly,
individuals who are motivated are likely to: voluntarily choose to engage in a particular
task; expend extra effort in accomplishing a particular task; and spend more time engaged
in that task.
In the context of elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity, choice to
engage in physical activity relates to a child voluntarily choosing to engage in physical
activity. For example, when a child chooses to play handball during recess, he or she is
demonstrating free choice to engage in physical activity. On the other hand, participation
in a mandatory physical education class would not be an example of free choice to
25

engage in physical activity. Effort relates to the amount of physical energy an individual
expends during physical activity. Physical activity intensity or effort is frequently
classified in three distinct categories (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1996). Those categories are: light-intensity physical activity (LPA), moderate-intensity
physical activity (MPA) or vigorous-intensity physical activity (VPA). LPA refers to
light activities that require very little physical effort, such as walking slowly. MPA refers
to any activity which results in the increase of an individual‟s breathing or heart rate.
VPA refers to any activity that results in large increases in breathing or heart rate during
which conversation is difficult (“Physical activity for everyone”, n.d). Lastly, physical
activity persistence relates to how long someone spends engaging in physical activity.
Elementary school-aged children have problems with choice, effort, and
persistence that prevent them from engaging in sufficient amounts of physical activity
during recess time. Many elementary school-aged children do not choose to engage in
physical activity during their recess time (Ridgers, Stratton, & Fairclough, 2005; Stratton,
1999, 2000). Zask, Van Beurden, Barrnett, Brooks and Dietrich (2001) observed that
during recess time approximately 50% of elementary school-aged boys, compared to
26.5% of elementary school-aged girls, chose to engage in physical activity during
recess. In addition to problems with choice, data suggests that elementary school-aged
children do not expend sufficient effort when they engage recess time physical activity.
For example, Stratton (1999, 2000) found that children spent only 15% to 40% of their
recess time engaged in MVPA. Elementary school-aged children also have problems
with persisting when engaged in recess time physical activity. McKenzie et al. (1997)
26

found that most elementary school-aged children only spent the first three minutes of
their recess time engaged in MVPA.
Gender and age differences exist, with research typically finding that girls and
older elementary school-aged children, compared to boys and younger elementary
school-aged children, exhibit more motivational problems engaging in physical activity
during recess. For example, Sarken (1997) and Lopes, Vasque, Pereira, Maia, and
Malina (2006) found that girls, compared to boys, engaged in significantly less MVPA
during recess. Lopes et al. (2006) found that nine-year-olds, compared to eight, seven,
and six- year-olds, engaged in significantly less MVPA during recess.
Researchers have attributed gender difference in children‟s recess time physical
activity to both biological predispositions and socialization (Brustad, 1993; Chase &
Drummer, 1992; Dunbar & O‟Sullivan, 1986; Jago et al., 2009; Harper & Sanders, 1975;
McKenzie et al., 1997; Meaney, Stewart & Beatty, 1985). For instance, Harper and
Sanders (1975) and Meaney, Stewart, and Beatty (1985) suggest that gender differences
in recess time physical activity are due to boys biological predispositions to be more
vigorously active than girls. Whereas, other literature suggest that these differences may
be related to the more frequent encouragement or social prompting to be active that boys,
compared to girls, receive from parents, coaches, yard supervisors and peers (Brustad,
1993; Chase & Drummer, 1992; Dunbar & O‟Sullivan, 1986; Jago et al., 2009;
McKenzie et al., 1997).
In summary, the literature reviewed provides evidence that elementary school-
aged children have problems with physical activity choice, effort, and persistence during
27

their recess time. These motivational problems prevent many children from meeting the
daily physical activity recommendations.
Self-Efficacy and Children‟s Motivation to Engage in Physical Activity
Increasing Children‟s Motivation to Engage in Physical Activity
Given the difficulty in modifying the social and environmental barriers described
earlier that contribute to children‟s physical inactivity during most segments of the day,
increasing motivation to engage in recess time physical activity is a promising approach
to enabling children to reach physical activity benchmarks. One way to increase
children‟s motivation to engage in recess time physical activity is to design interventions
that incorporate motivational constructs that are associated with of children‟s physical
activity. Both qualitative and quantitative methods have been utilized to gain a better
understanding of various factors that may motivate children to engage in physical
activity. These studies have focused on understanding what motivates children to be
active, as well as what barriers most often prevent children from being active (Coakley,
& White, 1992; Mulvihill, Rivers, & Aggleton, 2000; Trost, Pate, Saunders, Ward,
Dowda, & Felton, 1997; Zakarian et al., 1994). Qualitative studies have found that: self-
efficacy, social support, being with friends, fun, enjoyment, learning and improving skills
are associated with children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity (Mulvihill,
Rivers, & Aggleton, 2000; Mutrie, & Biddle, 2008; Weiss, 1993). Qualitative research
on barriers to physical activity in children indicates that children choose not to engage in
physical activity for a variety of reasons including: low self-efficacy, negative memories
of school PE including feelings of boredom and incompetence, lack of choice and
28

negative evaluation from a peer (Coakley &White, 1992). Further, a significant number
of quantitative studies have identified various modifiable personal, social, and
environmental correlates of children‟s physical activity: including: self–efficacy,
perceptions of competence, interest, enjoyment of physical activity, parental
encouragement, parental modeling, friends and family support, access to facilities,
community program time outdoors (Biddle & Goudas, 1996; Craig, Goldberg, & Dietz,
1996; Ferguson, Yesalis, Pomrehn, & Kirkpatrick, 1989; Garcia, Broda, Frenn, Coviak,
Pender, & Ronis, 1995;Stucky-Ropp & DiLorenzo, 1993; Trost et al. 1997; Zakarian et
al, 1994).
While many modifiable correlates of children‟s physical activity have been
identified, evidence indicates that physical activity self-efficacy is the strongest predictor
of physical activity among elementary school-aged children (Trost, 1999). Self-efficacy
“is a judgment of one‟s capability to accomplish a certain level of performance”
(Bandura, 1986, p. 391). Accomplishing a certain level of performance requires both
confidence in one‟s capabilities, as well as confidence in one‟s abilities to overcome
potential barriers to execute the particular action (Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002).
Trost et al. (1999) examined the correlates of children‟s objectively measured
physical activity and found that self-efficacy was a leading predictor of MVPA for both
boys and girls. Robust evidence demonstrates that the construct of self-efficacy is related
to many health behaviors, including physical activity (Glanz et al., 2002). Accordingly,
the construct of self-efficacy has been integrated into several frequently utilized health
29

behavior theories including: Health Belief Model, Transtheoretical Model, and the
Integrated Behavioral Model (Glanz et al., 2002).
Researchers examining either the relationship or influence of the construct of self-
efficacy among children typically measure the global construct of self-efficacy or
differentiate between two types of self-efficacy: task self-efficacy and barrier self-
efficacy (Annesi, 2006; Foley et al., 2008; McAuley & Mihalko, 1997; Ryans &
Dzewaltowski, 2002; Sharma et al., 2005). Task self-efficacy refers to an individual‟s
perceptions of their own abilities to execute the task. Barrier self-efficacy refers to an
individual‟s perceptions of their ability to overcome the barriers associated with
executing the task (Annesi, 2006). Most studies suggest that the construct of physical
activity self-efficacy consists of two types of self efficacy (task self-efficacy and barrier
self-efficacy). A limited number of studies have found evidence of other types of
physical activity self-efficacy that may be useful in understanding children‟s motivation
to engage in physical activity. For example, three types of physical self-efficacy emerged
when Saunders et al. (1997) and Trost et al. (1997) examined the relationship between a
uni-dimensional construct of physical activity (does not account for variations in time of
the day or whether the physical activity environment was structured or unstructured ) and
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy. The three types of self-efficacy were: support
seeking self efficacy, barrier self-efficacy, and positive alternative self-efficacy. In the
context of afterschool physical activity, Ryans and Dzewaltowski (2002) provide
evidence that in addition to barrier self-efficacy two other types of self efficacy maybe
useful in understanding how children can successfully overcome various barrier that are
30

associated with engaging in afterschool physical activity. Those types of efficacy are:
environmental change efficacy, which relates to a child‟s ability to find and create
environments that support physical activity, as well as asking efficacy which relates to a
child‟s ability to ask other to be with him or her. To date no study has examined the
relationship between physical activity self-efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage
in physical activity in the context recess. Therefore, it is not clear whether other types of
physical activity self-efficacy may be useful in understanding children‟s motivation to
engage in physical activity during recess.
Self-Efficacy and the Three Indices of Motivation
Bandura suggests that both task self-efficacy and barrier self-efficacy influence an
individual‟s choice, effort, and persistence (Bandura, 1986). Research findings link self-
efficacy to these three indices of motivation (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Multon, Brown,
& Lent, 1991; Pajares, 1996). For example, researchers found that children with high
math self–efficacy completed more math problems in free choice situations, than children
with low math self-efficacy (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Additionally, Collins (1982)
found that children with higher self-efficacy, when compared with children with lower
self-efficacy, persisted longer and expended more mental effort when completing and
reworking math problems that they missed. Lastly a meta-analysis, which included
elementary school-aged children, found a significant effect size between self-efficacy and
persistence in the academic contexts (Multon et al., 1991).
Since researchers have found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and
choice, effort, and persistence in various contexts, it is important to examine whether a
31

similar relationship exists in the context of children‟s physical activity (Bandura &
Schunk, 1981, 1989; Multon et al., 1991; Pajares, 1996). As such, this can help
determine whether enhancing children‟s physical activity self-efficacy can influence their
choice, effort, and persistence to engage in physical activity during recess.
Self-efficacy and choice to engage in physical activity. Evidence suggests that
there is a positive relationship between physical activity task and barrier self–efficacy and
elementary school-aged children‟s choice to engage in physical activity (Annesi, 2007;
Sharma et al., 2005). For example, Annesi et al. (2007) found that several variables,
including the global construct of physical activity self-efficacy, predicted 24% - 73% of
the variance in free-choice after school physical activity among elementary school-aged
children.
Sharma et al. (2005) also found a significant relationship between physical
activity task and barrier self-efficacy and elementary school-aged children‟s choice to
engage in afterschool physical activity. While Annesi (2007) and Sharma et al. (2005)
found that elementary school-aged children with high levels of task and barrier self-
efficacy, compared to their less efficacious peers, exhibited a higher frequency of free-
choice physical activity, Chase‟s (2001) findings were mixed. Chase examined children
in three age groups including: 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds, and 13-14 year olds. Chase
only found a significant positive relationship between the 13-14 year old group‟s physical
activity self-efficacy and choice to engage in future physical activity. The results for the
children in the 8-9 year old group indicated a positive, yet not statistically significant,
relationship between self-efficacy and choice. The results in the 10-12 year old group
32

found a negative relationship between physical activity self-efficacy and choice to engage
in physical activity. Chase attributed these inconsistent findings to the significantly
smaller sample size of children in the 8-9 year old group and the 10 -12 year old group
when compared to the 13-14 year old group. The findings may also be explained by the
researchers‟ measure of future intention rather than actual choice to engage in physical
activity. These studies provide evidence that there is a positive relationship between
physical activity task and barrier self-efficacy and elementary school-aged children‟s
choice to engage in physical activity.
Self-efficacy and effort to engage in physical activity. In addition to the
relationship to choice, evidence also suggests that physical activity self–efficacy is
related to elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity effort (Foley et. al., 2008;
Trost, 1999a, 1999b). For example, Trost (1999b) found a significant relationship
between the global construct of physical activity self-efficacy and elementary school-
aged children‟s objectively assessed physical activity effort. In that study, children who
engaged in three or more 20 minute bouts of MPA or VPA per week were classified as
active, while children who did not meet this criteria were classified as low active.
Findings demonstrated that active children, when compared to their low active peers, had
higher physical activity self-efficacy. These results suggest that elementary school-aged
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy is related to their physical activity effort.
In addition to Trost (1999b), Foley et al. (2008) found a positive relationship
between task and barrier self-efficacy and elementary school-aged children‟s objectively
assessed effort to engage in physical activity. Foley et al. found that more efficacious
33

children, compared to less efficacious children, exerted more physical effort when
engaging in physical activity. Foley et al. also found that there was a trend effect for both
MPA and VPA. Children with high physical activity self-efficacy spent more time in
VPA than children with lower physical activity self-efficacy. Likewise, children with
high physical activity self-efficacy spent more time in MPA than children with lower
physical activity self-efficacy.
In another study, Trost et al. (1999a) found a positive correlation between
elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and objectively-assessed
VPA. Trost et al. (1999a) found that among girls, physical activity self-efficacy was the
highest predictor of VPA, and that among boys, physical activity self-efficacy was the
second highest predictor of VPA. Chase (2001) also found a positive but not significant
relationship between physical activity self-efficacy and elementary school-aged
children‟s physical activity effort. The results of these four studies provide evidence that
there is a positive relationship between physical activity task and barrier self-efficacy and
elementary school-aged children‟s effort to engage in physical activity.
Self-efficacy and persistence to engage in physical activity. Similar to choice and
effort, evidence suggests that there is a positive relationship between physical activity
task and barrier self-efficacy and elementary school-aged children‟s persistence to engage
in physical activity (Chase, 2001; Foley et. al., 2008; Trost et al., 1999b; Norton, 2003).
Sharma found that self-efficacy explained 72% of the variance in the number of minutes
elementary school-aged children engaged in physical activity. Further, Foley et al. found
that children with high task and barrier self-efficacy, compared to children with low task
34

and barrier self-efficacy, spent an additional 259 minutes per week engaging in moderate
to vigorous physical activity. Lastly, Chase (2001) found a positive but not significant
relationship between physical activity self-efficacy and elementary school-aged
children‟s persistence to engage in physical activity.
Analysis of the literature on the relationship between physical activity self-
efficacy and children‟s choice, effort, and persistence to engage in physical activity
suggests that there is a positive relationship between these variables. Accordingly, this
suggests that elementary school-aged children who have high levels of both task and
barrier self-efficacy are more likely, than their less efficacious peers, to choose to engage
in physical activity during free time, such as recess. It also suggests that children with
high physical activity self-efficacy are more likely to exert higher levels of physical
effort, and spend longer amounts of time engaging in physical activity during recess.
Limited evidence suggests that psychosocial correlates of children‟s physical
activity, such as self-efficacy, can vary during different segments of the day
(Ommundsen et al. (2006). The majority of the literature reviewed linking physical
activity self-efficacy and physical activity choice, effort, and persistence considered
children‟s physical activity as a uni-dimensional construct which does not account for
potential location and time specific variations on children‟s physical activity (Foley et al.,
2008; Trost et al.,1999b, 1999b; Zakarian et al., 1994). Children‟s physical activity is far
from uni-dimensional as children can accumulate physical activity during different times
of the day and in various contexts (e.g., commuting to school, at recess, afterschool
structured, unstructured). Studies reviewed linking physical activity self-efficacy and
35

choice to engage in physical activity primarily examined physical activity in the context
of afterschool physical activity and used self report physical activity data which is
unreliable in children under the age of 10 (Trost, Morgan, Saunders, Ward, & Pate, 2000).
While the studies linking physical activity self-efficacy to effort and persistence utilized
more reliable assessments of physical activity (accelerometers), they considered physical
activity as uni-dimensional construct. Accordingly, it is not clear if physical activity self-
efficacy is related to children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity in the context of
recess. Research has established a positive correlation between physical activity self-
efficacy and children‟s motivation to engage physical activity. However, to date, no
research has established this relationship in the context of recess.
Determinants of Children‟s Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Prior research has demonstrated a relationship between physical activity self-
efficacy and children‟s choice, effort, and persistence to engage in physical activity.
Thus, it is important that interventions aimed at promoting elementary school-aged
children‟s recess time physical activity focus on enhancing physical activity self-efficacy.
To effectively enhance a child‟s physical activity self-efficacy, it is necessary to
understand what sources of information children utilize to appraise their physical activity
self-efficacy. Limited research exists on factors that specifically enhance children‟s
physical activity self-efficacy, especially in the context of recess. Hence, this literature
review will draw from the general literature on the sources of information that enhance
self-efficacy, including elementary school-aged children‟s self-efficacy in the academic
context, as well as adults‟ physical activity self-efficacy.
36

According to Bandura (1997), four sources of information may influence an
individual‟s cognitive appraisal of his or her self-efficacy. Those four sources are
enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experience, affective and physiological states,
and verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1997). These four sources of information can provide
individuals with cues about their personal capabilities to successfully perform a variety of
behaviors. When individuals pay attention to these cues and integrate them into their
self-efficacy beliefs they can enhance their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
Enactive Mastery Experiences
Enactive mastery experiences or successfully performing a particular behavior
can enhance self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Compared to vicarious experience, verbal
persuasion and affective and physiological states, enactive mastery experiences typically
provide the most powerful source of information for an individual‟s appraisal of one‟s
self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Gist, Schwoerer, & Rosen, 1989). In general, successfully
performing a particular behavior results in high self-efficacy, whereas failing results in
low self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). However, individuals who have frequently been
successful performing a behavior and hence developed a high sense of efficacy are less
likely to experience set backs or lowered self-efficacy following a failure (Bandura,
1997).
Research on physical activity consistently demonstrates that engaging in physical
activity provides information for self-efficacy appraisal. Participating in physical activity
interventions enhances physical activity self-efficacy (McAuley, Courneya, & Lettunich,
1991; McAuley, Pena & Jerome, 2001). However, these enhanced levels of physical
37

activity typically diminish within approximately six months post program participation
(McAuley et al., 2001). While it seems that physical activity interventions can enhance
self-efficacy, to date, no research has determined the most effective way to not only
increase physical activity self-efficacy, but maintain it.
Various factors influence an individual‟s appraisal of his/her self-efficacy after
performing a particular behavior. Those factors include task difficulty, contextual factors
(e.g., amount of assistance received, conditions under which the task was performed),
pre-task self–efficacy, and perceptions of progressive success. For instance, when an
individual succeeds on a task that is easy or on a task with which he/she received
substantial assistance, the successful performance typically does not enhance his self-
efficacy. Further, an individual‟s failure under adverse conditions is unlikely to harm the
individual‟s self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
An individual‟s pre-task self-efficacy also influences their future self-efficacy.
This is often referred to as confirmatory bias or the tendency to only notice information
that confirms our previous experiences (Bandura, 1997). For instance, if an individual
has failed performing certain exercises in her physical education (PE) class, she is likely
to focus on subsequent failure experiences in PE while not noticing successful
experiences in PE. Evidence demonstrates that even fictitiously created pre-task self-
efficacy can bias appraisal of self-efficacy during and after task completion (Bandura,
1997; Cervone & Palmer, 1990). For example, Cervone and Palmer (1990) manipulated
high or low pre-task self-efficacy on an unfamiliar problem-solving task among college
students. The researchers found that the students with manipulated high pre-task problem
38

solving self-efficacy, compared to their peers with manipulated low pre-task problem
solving self–efficacy, maintained higher self-efficacy during and after completing
unfamiliar problem solving tasks.
Similarly, perceptions of progressive success can enhance previously low self-
efficacy (Bandura, 1997). When individuals perceive that they are improving their
competencies, occasional failure does not harm their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997;
Schnuck, 1985). On the other hand, perceptions of slow progress adversely impact an
individual‟s self-efficacy. Research suggests that one way to help children perceive that
they are progressing and increase their self-efficacy is through self-assigned proximal
goals and performance contingent rewards (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Schunk, 1983b,
1984b; Schunk, 1985; Schunk & Rice, 1989). Performance contingent rewards are
rewards given after an individual has successfully reached a specified performance
standard (e.g., student ran a set number of laps around the school). For instance, Schunk
(1985) found self-assigned proximal goals, compared to assigned proximal goals resulted
in the highest level of math self-efficacy among children. Further, Schunk (1984b) found
that combining performance contingent rewards with proximal goals, compared to
proximal goals alone or rewards alone, was most effective at increasing children‟s math
self-efficacy. Taken together these studies suggest one effective way to enhance
children‟s self-efficacy is to offer rewards contingent on achieving proximal goals that
are linked to progress.

39

Vicarious Experience
Vicarious experience (also referred to as modeling) involves an individual
judging their own capabilities to perform a particular action by observing a model
perform the behavior of interest (Bandura, 1997). For instance, a child may appraise his
or her own physical activity self-efficacy through observing various other models such as
parents, teachers, coaches, peers, other family members, or symbolic models (e.g., media
figures) engage in physical activity. According to Maddux (1995), vicarious experience
is typically considered the second most powerful source of information for an
individual‟s cognitive appraisal of one‟s self-efficacy.
Certain model characteristics can particularly enhance the impact modeling has on
self-efficacy. Observing a live, symbolic or visualized model successfully execute a
particular behavior can raise the observer‟s self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Bandura,
Adams, Hardy & Howells, 1980; Kazdin, 1979). However, models are especially
influential on self-efficacy when they are similar to the observer and perceived as
competent (Bandura, 1997). A model's similar attributes such as gender, ethnicity and
age are hypothesized to influence self-efficacy (Bandura, 1998; Schunk, 2003). Research
suggests peers of a similar age and gender can have a significant influence on a child‟s
self-efficacy (Schunk & Hanson, 1985). For example, Schunk and Hanson (1985)
demonstrated that among children with low math self-efficacy, observing peers of
similar gender and age solve math problems had a more powerful positive influence on
self-efficacy than observing a teacher solve math problems. Further, visualizing a model
(also called cognitive or covert modeling) with similar attributes can also enhance self-
40

efficacy (Bandura et al, 1980; Kazdin, 1979). Kazdin (1979) demonstrated that adults,
who had low assertiveness self-efficacy, improved their assertiveness self-efficacy by
visualizing a model of similar age and gender, assertively handle a variety of situations.
Lastly, Bandura et al. (1980) demonstrated that covert modeling was useful in enhancing
phobic‟s coping self-efficacy.
A model with similar performance levels can have a positive impact on self-
efficacy as well (Bandura, 1997; George, Feltz, & Chase, 1992; Suls & Miller, 1977;
Wood, 1989). Typically, individuals who are similar in performance capabilities or just
slightly superior in performance capabilities provide valuable efficacy appraisal
information (Bandura, 1997; Suls & Miller, 1977; Wood, 1989). For instance, George et
al. (1992) found that when non-athletic individuals observed a non-athletic individual
modeling strength, compared to athletic individual modeling strength, their self-efficacy
improved.
Observing coping models, rather than mastery models, is also effective at
enhancing self-efficacy among children who have low self-efficacy (Kornhaber &
Schroender, 1975; Schunk, Hanson & Cox, 1987). Coping models are models that
initially lack competence in performing a particular skill. However, through repeated
attempts, coping models demonstrate the ability to cope and successfully execute the skill
(Komhaber & Schroeder; Schunk et al., 1987). Mastery models are models who quite
quickly demonstrate the ability to flawlessly execute a particular skill (Komhaber &
Schroeder; Schunk, et al., 1987). Some studies have found no difference between
utilizing a coping model, compared to utilizing a mastery model, to influence an
41

individual‟s self-efficacy (Klorman, Hilpert, Michael, LaGana & Sveen, 1980; Schunk &
Hanson, 1985). However, other studies have found that coping models are more effective
than mastery models at enhancing self-efficacy among children who have low self-
efficacy. (Kornhaber & Schroender; Schunk et al., 1987). For example, in the context of
children‟s physical activity, Weiss, McCullagh, Smith, and Berlant (1998) found that
peer coping models, compared to peer mastery models, had a significantly higher impact
on children‟s physical activity self-efficacy.
Observing multiple models also has a powerful influence on self-efficacy (Schuck
et al., 1987). For instance, Schunk et al. (1987) demonstrated that observing multiple
mastery models had a more significant impact on a child‟s self-efficacy than observing a
single mastery model. Lastly, research suggests that competent adult models are more
effective than competent peers (Lirgg & Feltz, 1991). Lirgg and Feltz (1991)
demonstrated that observing a competent teacher perform a physical activity task,
compared to an incompetent peer perform the same physical activity task, had a more
positive impact on a child‟s self-efficacy.
Affective and Physiological States
Affective and physiological states are another source of information that can
enhance an individuals‟ appraisal of their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Forgas, Bower, &
Moylan, 1990; Kavanagh, & Bower, 1985; Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989). Many
researchers define affect as consisting of both moods and emotions (Forgas, 2000).
Moods are low intensity affective states that have no specific antecedent or cognitive
content. Emotions are typically short-lived intense phenomena that usually have an
42

identifiable cause. According to Affective Priming Theory, past successes and failures
are stored in memory and impact our affect (Bower, 1983). Hence, a positive mood can
trigger memories of past success, and negative mood can trigger memories of past failure.
In other words, when an individual is in a good mood, positive affect is triggered and the
individual is more likely to appraise their self-efficacy as high even if his capabilities
would suggest otherwise.
Several studies provide evidence that induced positive affect enhance self-
efficacy (Forgas, Bower, & Moylan, 1990; Kavanagh & Bower, 1985; Salovey &
Birnbaum, 1989). Through the use of hypnosis, Kavanagh and Bower (1985) induced
sad, happy, and neutral moods among each college student participating in their study.
They found that within subjects, self-efficacy in a variety of domains, including physical
activity, was highest under an induced happy mood. Salovey and Birnbaum (1989) also
found that induced affect has a significant impact on subjects‟ appraisal of their self-
efficacy. Salovey and Brinbaum (1989) used a tape-recorded mood induction procedure
to induce happiness, sadness, or neutral feelings among college students who had either a
cold or flu. They found that students with induced happy moods, compared to students
with induced sad or neutral moods, had higher illness alleviating behavior self-efficacy.
In other words, happy students felt most confident in their abilities to perform various
health behaviors associated with alleviating their cold or flu.
Affect‟s influence on self–efficacy can sometimes be so powerful that it may bias
an individual‟s appraisal of their own self-efficacy. Wright and Mischel (1982)
demonstrated that affect can result in selective interpretations of performance situations.
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Wright and Mischel manipulated happy, sad or neutral affect among undergraduate
college students and subsequently exposed the students to either success or failure
outcomes. Researchers found that when college students were happy and failed on
problem solving tasks, they overestimated their capabilities. On the other hand, when
these college students were sad and succeeded on problem solving tasks, they
underestimated their capabilities.
In addition to affect influencing self-efficacy, there is evidence that self-efficacy
influences affect. McAuley and Courneya (1992) demonstrated that individuals with
high physical activity self-efficacy, compared to individuals with low physical activity
self efficacy, have more positive affective states during physical activity. McAuley,
Talbot, and Martinez (1999) found that even when high physical activity self-efficacy is
fictitiously created, it can enhance positive affect experienced during exercise. McAuley
et al. (1999) randomly assigned low and moderately active college-aged women into high
and low efficacy groups. Subsequently, they manipulated these women‟s physical
activity self-efficacy by providing them with bogus fitness feedback. Women in the high
self-efficacy group were told that their fitness levels exceeded fitness norms; whereas
women in the low self-efficacy group were told that their fitness levels were lower than
fitness norms. During a subsequent bout of physical activity, women in the high physical
activity self-efficacy group, compared to women in the low self-efficacy group, reported
higher levels of self-efficacy and more positive affective states. Together these studies
suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between affective states and self-efficacy.
The reciprocal relationship between these two factors indicates that interventions that
44

enhance physical activity self-efficacy, may enhance positive mood, and thereby further
enhance physical activity self–efficacy.
Similar to affective states, physiological states can enhance self-efficacy as well
(Bandura, 1997). Physiological states include autonomic arousal such as increased heart
rate, muscle tension, and sweating (Bandura, 1997). Physiological states during activities
that are physical include: fatigue, energy, breathlessness, low stamina, high stamina,
weakness and strength (Bandura, 1997). During activities that are physical, individuals
often interpret fatigue, windedness, weakness, and low stamina as negative physiological
states that are a sign of low physical activity self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Individuals
differ in their susceptibility to physiological states (Bandura, 1997; Carver & Scheirer,
1981). Some individuals are more likely than others to let physiological states impact
their self-efficacy.
In addition to physiological states impacting self-efficacy, self-efficacy can
impact physiological states. McAuley and Courneya (1992) found that highly efficacious
undergraduate students, compared to their less efficacious peers, reported significantly
lower levels of physiological symptoms, such as strain, while engaging in physical
activity. Rudolph and McAuley (1996) found that among undergraduate males high pre-
physical activity self-efficacy, compared to low pre-physical activity self-efficacy,
resulted in less physiological symptoms, such as strain and effort during physical activity,
and higher post physical activity self-efficacy.
As with affective states, evidence demonstrates that there is a reciprocal
relationship between physiological states and self-efficacy. This reciprocal relationship
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suggests that interventions that enhance physical activity self-efficacy may also lead
children to experience less physiological symptoms during physical activity, thereby
further enhancing physical activity self–efficacy.
Verbal Persuasion
In addition to affective and physiological states, verbal persuasion from a
credible person or from the individual himself can enhance self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
Verbal persuasion is any type of message that enhances an individual‟s beliefs that she or
he is capable of performing a particular behavior, including engaging in physical activity.
Verbal persuasion can be communicated before, during, or after an individual has
performed a particular task. When communicated after an individual has performed a
task, the verbal persuasion is communicated as evaluative feedback on the task.
Evaluative feedback that enhances self-efficacy includes attributional effort feedback,
attributional ability feedback, strategy-value feedback and constructive criticism.
Attributional effort and ability feedback involves communicating to an individual that he
was either successful or unsuccessful due to the amount of effort he put into completing a
particular task or the amount of natural ability he possesses (Weiner, 1986). According to
Maddux (1995) verbal persuasion typically has a weaker impact on self-efficacy than
vicarious experience. However, evidence suggests that among elementary school-aged
children, verbal persuasion from significant adults (e.g., coaches, teachers, parents) is an
especially powerful source of information for enhancing physical activity self-efficacy
(Biddle & Goudas, 1996; Chase, 1995, Trost et al., 2003). Research indicates that young
children rely immensely on an adult‟s feedback as a source of information for developing
46

perceptions of their physical abilities (Horn & Weiss, 1991; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Horn,
1997). Research also indicates that during the elementary school years, peers begin to
exert increasingly more influence, and adults increasing less influence, on a child‟s
perceptions of physical competence (Weiss et al., 1997). Research indicates that peer
influence may become more powerful than an adults‟ influence around the fifth grade
(Horn &Weiss, 1991).
Social influences such as teachers, coaches, parents and other family members
who provide attributional effort and ability feedback can enhance a child‟s self-efficacy.
Research indicates that attributional ability feedback, compared to attributional effort
feedback, is more effective at enhancing children‟s math self-efficacy (Schunk, 1983a;
Schuck, 1984b).
Another form of verbal persuasion that has been shown to be effective in
enhancing self-efficacy is strategy-value feedback. An individual can verbally persuade a
child that he/she is capable of performing a task, thereby enhancing the child‟s self-
efficacy, by emphasizing that the child will be successful if he/she uses a particular
strategy (Schunk & Gunn, 1985; Schunk & Rice, 1992). Schunk and Rice (1992)
demonstrated that among elementary school-aged children with reading deficiency skills,
teaching a reading strategy along with strategy value feedback, compared to just teaching
a reading strategy, had a more significant impact on reading self-efficacy.
In addition to studies on elementary school-aged children in the academic context,
research on adults in the physical activity context provide evidence that verbal persuasion
can enhance physical activity self-efficacy. Turner, Rejeski, and Brawley (1997) found
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that verbally persuading college-aged women that they are capable of performing the
physical activity of ballet enhanced their physical activity self-efficacy. When Tuner et
al. (1997) examined the impact of verbal persuasion (i.e., praise, constructive criticism,
and ability feedback), compared to neutral and slightly negative feedback (i.e., vague
feedback, feedback focused only on negative corrections, and ignoring accomplishments)
on physical activity self-efficacy, they found that, verbal persuasion significantly
enhanced physical activity self-efficacy. However, it is important to note the research
examining the impact of praise on children‟s self-efficacy has found that praise can have
a negative impact on a child‟s self-efficacy (Weiner, Graham, Taylor, & Meyer, 1983).
In particular, praising a child for success on an easy task can send a message to the child
that one does not expect that child to be particularity successful at accomplishing more
challenging tasks.
Lastly, research suggests that there is a positive relationship between verbal
persuasion and adolescent‟s physical activity self-efficacy (Trost et. al, 2003). For
example, Trost et al. examined the relationship between various types of parental support,
including verbal persuasion, and adolescent‟s physical activity self-efficacy. Parental
support included the frequency with which parents: encouraged their child to engage in
physical activity; provided transportation so their child could engage in physical activity;
watched their child engage in physical activity; and told their child that physical activity
is good for his or her health. Trost et al. found that parental support accounted for 4% of
the variance in adolescent‟s physical activity self-efficacy. Parental support, physical
activity self-efficacy, age, and gender accounted for 17% of the variance in adolescents‟
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motivation to engage in physical activity. These findings suggest that verbal persuasion
(i.e., frequent encouragement to be active) is related to elementary school-aged child‟s
physical activity self-efficacy and motivation to engage in physical activity.
In summary it was established that it is important that interventions aimed at
promoting elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity during recess focus on
enhancing physical activity self-efficacy. The literature reviewed on the determinants of
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy drew from the general literature on sources of
information that enhance self-efficacy including elementary school-aged children‟s self-
efficacy in the academic context, as well as adults physical activity self-efficacy. In
general, the literature suggests that enactive mastery experiences, affective and
physiological states, vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion are sources of
information that may influence a child‟s appraisal of their physical activity self-efficacy.
However, only vicarious experiences in the form of either peer coping models, or a
competent adult models and an adults‟ verbal persuasion have been found to specifically
be related to children‟s physical activity self-efficacy. Given that elementary school-aged
children rely on adults, more than peers, for sources of information on their physical
activity abilities, it appears that a competent adult, compared to a peer coping model, may
be a stronger determinant of children‟s physical activity self-efficacy (Horn, & Weiss,
1991; Weiss, Ebbeck, Horn, 1997). Taken together, it seems that an adult‟s verbal
persuasion and modeling by a competent adult are two strategies that may be effective at
enhancing children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess. It is important to note that the evidence suggesting a competent
49

adult model and an adult‟s verbal persuasion may influence children‟s physical activity
self-efficacy were not established in the context of unstructured free-time physical
activity, such as recess. As mentioned previously, some researchers have suggested that
correlates of physical activity may vary in different segments of the day (Ommundsen et
al. (2006). Accordingly, determinants of physical activity self-efficacy may also vary by
segment of the day in which physical activity is measured. It is not clear whether there
would be a positive relationship between competent adult models or an adult‟s verbal
persuasion and self-efficacy in the context of unstructured free-time physical activity that
occurs during the school day such as recess.
Modeling by a Competent Adult and Children‟s Motivation to Engage in Physical
Activity
As mentioned previously research establishing a relationship between a
competent adult and children‟s physical activity self-efficacy is limited to one study done
in the context of structured in-school physical education instruction. A slightly larger
body of evidence exists linking competent adult models to children‟s motivation to
engage in physical activity. Several physical activity interventions that have been
effective at increasing children‟s physical activity rates have incorporated a competent
adult model (Dobbins, De Corby, Robeson, Husson, & Tirilis, 2009; Pangrazi et al.,
2003; Sallis et al., 1997). For instance, researchers found that competent adult models,
(i.e., physical education teachers and trained classroom teachers) compared to less
competent adult models, (untrained classroom teachers) were significantly more effective
at increasing children‟s physical activity levels during physical education instruction
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(Sallis et al., 1997). Additionally, in the context of recess, a multi-component
intervention incorporating modeling by a competent adult was effective at increasing
recess time physical activity (Pangrazi et al., 2003). During regularly scheduled
classroom time, teachers participating in this intervention modeled games children could
play during recess.
Adult Verbal Persuasion and Children‟s Motivation to Engage in Physical Activity
Research linking adult verbal persuasion to physical activity self-efficacy is
limited to parental verbal persuasion in adolescent children. A slightly larger body of
evidence links other social influence‟s (e.g., coaches and teachers) verbal persuasion to
children‟s motivation to engage physical activity (Barnett, Smoll & Smith,1992; Biddle
& Goudas, 1996; McKenzie et al., 1997; Ommundsen et al, 2006). For example, Barnett,
Smoll, and Smith (1992) found that coaches who provided children with encouragement
and specific feedback on their errors and successes reported higher levels of enjoyment
during sports, as well as lower levels of sports discontinuation. These findings suggest
that when coaches provide verbal persuasion for physical activity it can increase
children‟s persistence to engage in physical activity.
Similarly, correlational and longitudinal studies suggest that teachers‟ verbal
persuasion may influence children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity. Biddle
and Goudas (1996) found a strong correlation between adolescents‟ perception of their
teacher‟s verbal persuasion and their effort to engage in physical activity. Further,
Ommundsen et al. (2006) found that a teacher‟s verbal persuasion for physical activity
significantly predicted recess time physical activity. Aside from these correlational
51

studies, McKenzie et al. (1997) provides longitudinal evidence suggesting that a teacher‟s
verbal persuasion can influence children‟s motivation to engage in recess time physical
activity. McKenzie et al. examined the influence of a teacher‟s verbal and physical
prompting of physical activity on children‟s physical activity levels. Verbal prompting
included verbal persuasion in the form of a message that prompts physical activity such
as, “why don‟t you play handball.” Physical prompting included physical acts that
prompted physical activity such as throwing a ball to a child. McKenzie observed that
when children were in elementary school, compared to when they were in preschool, they
received significantly less prompting which corresponded with lower levels of physical
activity. These findings suggest that verbal persuasion from a teacher may play a
significant role in children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity.
In summary the literature reviewed on determinants of children‟s physical activity
self-efficacy suggests that adults such as coaches, teachers, and parents can utilize verbal
persuasion to enhance children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and their motivation to
engage in physical activity. Certain forms of verbal persuasions may be especially
effective at increasing elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity self-efficacy
and motivation to engage in physical activity. Those forms of verbal persuasion include:
attributional ability feedback, strategy value feedback, constructive criticism, and a
verbal message that prompts children to be physical active.
Adults who can verbally persuade students to be physically active during recess
include coaches, yard aides, and classroom teachers. Due to resource constraints, many
schools cannot afford to hire a coach. Yard aids have limited contact with students.
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Also, yard aids are charged with supervising a significantly large number of students
which limits their influence on individual children during recess time. On the other hand,
classroom teachers have a considerable amount of contact with their students. Hence, in
the context of recess, teachers may be especially effective at providing their students with
verbal persuasion to engage in recess time physical activity. Teachers‟ interactions with
their students primarily take place in the classroom. Several forms of verbal persuasion
that are effective at increasing elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity self-
efficacy and motivation were reviewed. Of these reviewed forms, the most appropriate
and effective type of verbal persuasion a classroom teacher could provide his or her
students with is a message that prompts students to be physically active.
Interventions that Promote Free-Time Physical Activity
As mentioned previously one approach to increasing children‟s physical activity
rates is to increase children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during their free
time, such as recess. Most intervention studies designed to increase children‟s motivation
to engage in free-time physical activity have centered on school-based interventions that
focus on promoting free-time either after school or during recess. Dobbins et al. (2009)
recently conducted a systematic review examining school-based interventions‟ impact on
children‟s motivation to engage in after school free-time physical activity. Analysis of
the studies reviewed found that effective and ineffective interventions generally utilized
similar strategies: printed education material, school curricula, and physical activity
sessions. The only distinction found between effective and ineffective interventions was
that effective interventions used a more competent adult to model physical activities.
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This suggests that use of a competent model may be an effective strategy for increasing
motivation for engaging in free-time physical activity. Findings also indicated that
increases in children‟s motivation to engage in structured in-school physical activity (e.g.,
physical education), typically did not transfer to the context of after school free-time
physical activity (Dobbins et al., 2009). It is not clear why increased levels of
motivation to engage in physical activity during structured in-school physical activity
opportunities did not transfer to after school free time opportunities. Some research
suggests that increased physical activity levels in one segment of the day are inversely
related to physical activity levels in other segments of the day (Mallam, Metcalf, Kirkby,
and Wilkin, 2003; Pellegrini & Davis, 1993). For example, Mallam et al. (2003) found
that children attending schools that provide more, compared to less, physical education
instructional minutes engaged in less afterschool physical activity. Other research has
found no relationship between physical activity levels in different segments of the day.
For instance, Dale Corbin and Dale (2000) found that when children‟s opportunity to
accumulate physical activity during both recess and physical education were limited, they
did not compensate by increasing their afterschool physical activity levels. Lastly,
Faulkner, Buliung, Flora, and Fusco (2009) found that when children actively commute
to school by walking, riding their bike, or skateboarding, compared to commute to school
by car or bus, they engage in significantly more physical activity throughout the day.
More research is needed to determine the relationship between physical activity levels in
different segments of the day.
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Aside from research on the impact of school-based interventions on after school
free-time physical activity, some researchers have recently examined the impact of
school-based interventions on non-curriculum in-school free-time physical activity, such
as recess. While research in this area is still in its infancy, several strategies have been
found to be effective at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity
during recess. For example, Pangrazi et al. (2003) found that the combination of a
teacher‟s verbal persuasion, modeling, and self-monitoring had a positive impact on
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. Connolly and
Mckenzie (1995) found that training yard aids to implement an organized physical
activity, such as an obstacle course or games, significantly increased children‟s effort to
engage in physical during recess (i.e., MVPA). Additionally several researchers have
found that environmental promoting such as: painting colored markings on the
playground, placing new playground equipment on the playground, and allocating on
different days of the week play spaces for team games were effective at increasing
children‟s recess time physical activity effort (Loucaides et al., 2009; Statton, 2000;
Stratton & Mullan, 2005, Verstraete, Cardon, De Clercq, & De Bourdeaudhuij, 2006).
Further, research on recess time physical activity interventions suggests that multi-
component interventions are not necessarily more effective, than interventions that utilize
one strategy, at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during
recess. For instance, Loucaides et al. (2006) found that only painting markings on the
playground compared to painting markings on the playground, placing new equipment on
55

the playground and allocating on different days of the week courts for sports, was equally
effective at increasing children‟s effort to engage in physical activity during recess.
While some effective strategies have been identified, researchers contend that
more research is needed to determine which strategies are most effective at increasing
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. For instance, to date,
only one study has found that utilizing teachers‟ verbal persuasion and modeling by a
competent adult is effective at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess (Pangrazi et al., 2003). However, as mentioned earlier that study
coupled verbal persuasion, modeling, and self-monitoring, thereby preventing
researchers from being able to ascertain the impact that each of these strategies alone
have on children‟s motivation to engage in recess time physical activity. Research
suggests that physical activity self-efficacy is related to children‟s motivation to engage
in physical activity. Also, both modeling by a competent adult alone, and an adult‟s
verbal persuasion alone, are related to children‟s physical activity self-efficacy.
Therefore, it is expected that each of these strategies alone would be effective at
influencing children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess. However, to date no research has explored whether a teacher‟s
verbal persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone, are effective at
increasing children„s physical activity self-efficacy and motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess. Given resource constraints in the school environment, it is
important to ascertain if certain strategies can be effective on their own at increasing
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children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. Further, it is important
to explore if one strategy is more effective than the other.
Summary
This literature reviewed has discussed the impact of children‟s physical inactivity
levels on the current childhood obesity epidemic. One solution presented to increase
children‟s physical activity rates is to increase children‟s motivation to engage in more
physical activity during recess. To design interventions that effectively increase
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess, it is important to
understand what motivational constructs are related to elementary school-aged children‟s
choice, effort, and persistence to engage in physical activity. Evidence suggests that the
motivational construct of self-efficacy is related with elementary school-aged children‟s
choice, effort, and persistence (Annesi, 2006; Annesi et al., 2007; Chase, 2001; Foley et
al., 2008; Norton, 2003; Sharma et al., 2005; Trost et al., 1999a, 1999b). However, to
date no study has explored whether physical activity self-efficacy is related with
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess.
Further, modeling by a competent adult is effective at increasing children‟s
physical activity self-efficacy (Lirgg & Feltz, 1991). One of the most influential
determinants of elementary school-aged children‟s physical activity self-efficacy is adult
verbal persuasion (Chase, 1995). In recess context, both modeling by a competent adult
and a teacher‟s verbal persuasion were found to be effective at increasing motivation to
engage in physical activity during recess (Pangrazi et al., 2003). However, because
modeling and verbal persuasion were coupled with self-monitoring, it is not clear if either
57

of these strategies alone are effective at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in
physical activity during recess. Prior research has found that combining strategies does
not necessary result in greater increases in children‟s motivation to engage in physical
activity during recess (Loucaides et al., 2009). Therefore, it is important to determine
whether adult verbal persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone, are
effective at increasing children‟s physical activity self-efficacy and their motivation to
engage in physical activity during recess. To date, no study has examined the influence
of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone or modeling by a competent adult alone on
children‟s recess time physical activity self-efficacy, as well as their recess time physical
activity effort.

58

CHAPTER 3
METHODS
This chapter will restate this study‟s research questions and describe the research
design. It will also include a discussion of the population, sampling procedures, data
collection instruments, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis that were
utilized in this study. Throughout the remainder of this document references to self-
efficacy and effort made will specifically relate to recess time physical activity self-
efficacy and recess time physical activity effort.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the present research study:
Research Question One: Is self-efficacy related with fourth grade students‟ effort?
Based on prior research it was expected that self-efficacy would be positively
related to effort.
Research Question Two: Does a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, or modeling by a
competent adult, influence fourth grade girls and boys' self-efficacy and effort?
Based on prior research it was expected that treatment (i.e., verbal persuasion or
modeling), would influence self-efficacy and effort.
Research Question Three: Is there a significant difference between pre- and post-
treatment self-efficacy and effort by group membership (verbal persuasion,
comparison, or modeling)?

59

Research Design
In this present study a quasi-experimental design and quantitative approach were
used to assess fourth grade students‟ exposure to a teacher‟s verbal persuasion versus
their exposure to a competent model. Three elementary schools were selected and three
fourth grade classes from each of these schools were randomly assigned to one of three
groups. The three groups were: 1) fourth grade students who received no treatment and
served as a comparison group; 2) fourth grade students who, over the course of six
weeks, received a teacher‟s verbal persuasion of physical activity during recess; and 3)
fourth grade students who participated in a six-week physical activity treatment
implemented by a competent model who modeled eight physical activities that the
students could engage in during recess. The independent variables for this study were: 1)
verbal persuasion, 2) comparison, and 3) modeling. The dependent variables for this
study were: 1) physical activity self-efficacy; and 2) physical activity effort (i.e., the
percent of available recess time that a child spent engaged in MVPA).
Population and Sample
One hundred and sixty five students (68% of total sampling frame) were recruited
from three elementary schools and nine fourth grade classrooms located in the San
Fernando Valley, California. Students in the fourth grade were selected to provide the
researcher with the opportunity to explore the effectiveness of strategies that may address
declines in physical activity effort that have been observed to begin in the fourth

grade
(Trost et al., 2002). Table 1 provides a summary of the demographic information of the
sample of students participating in this study.
60

Table 1
Participant Demographic Information by Treatment Group
Verbal Persuasion
Number (%)
Comparison
Number (%)
Modeling
Number (%)
Total Number of
Participants
59 51 51
Gender:
Male 22 (37.3%) 25 (49%) 22 (43.1%)
Female 37 (62.7%) 26 (51%) 29 (56.9%)
Age:
8 14 (23.7%) 5 (9.8%) 6 (11.8%)
9 43 (72.9%) 43 (84.3%) 43 (84.3%)
10 2 (3.4%) 3 (5.9%) 2 (3.9%)
Ethnicity:
White 18 (30.5%) 19 (19.6%) 17 (33.3%)
Hispanic or Latino 28 (47.5%) 25 (49 %) 24 (47.1%)
African American 7 (11.9%) 7 (13.7%) 4 (7.8%)
Asian 5 (8.5%) 5 (9.8%) 3 (5.9%)
Filipino or Pacific
Islander
0 (0%) 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%)
American Indian or
Alaska Native
1 (1.7%) 1 (2%) 0 (0%)
Other 0 (0%) 1(2%) 2 (3.9%)

Three schools were selected to provide the researcher with a large enough sample
size to detect statistically significant results. These schools were selected because they
had similar characteristics enabling comparisons to be made between the schools
following treatment. For example, all three schools were Title One schools with similar
demographics and were located in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD).
Further, slightly less than 50% of the student population in all three schools participated
in the national school free and reduced lunch program which is a frequently utilized
proxy for identifying low-income students. Also, the ethnic background of the student
population was similar with Hispanics composing the largest ethnic group at all three
schools. Table 2 summarizes the demographic information of the students at each of the
three elementary schools.

61

Table 2
Student Demographic Information by School
School Hispanic
or
Latino
White African
American
Asian Filipino Pacific
Islander
American
Indian or
Alaska
Native
English
language
learners
Students
participating
in free and
reduced lunch
program
1 40% 25% 13% 11% 8% <1% 2% 15% 45%
2 43% 25% 11% 10% 8% 2% <1% 14% 49%
3 44% 34% 8% 7% 6% <1% <1% 14% 41%

Further, none of the participating schools received any physical education instruction
from credentialed physical education teachers. The investigator selected schools with a
comparable quantity of psychomotor instruction (i.e., one hour per week). In LAUSD,
psychomotor is referred to any physical activity instruction implemented by someone
who does not hold either a multiple subject credential or a single subject credential in
Physical Education (C. Fendrick, personal communication, September 6, 2007).
However, due to budget cuts occurring prior to study implementation, one of the
participating schools completely cut out its psychomotor program, another reduced it to
once every other week and the third school kept its‟ once a week hourly program. Lastly,
each of the three schools provided students with one daily morning recess lasting a
similar duration of twenty minutes.
Instrumentation
The current study used several data collection instruments to assess whether
verbal persuasion and modeling had an impact on children‟s physical activity self-
efficacy along with children‟s effort to engage in physical activity during recess. The
Recess Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale was used to collect self-efficacy data.
Accelerometers were used to collect effort data. Further, the parental consent forms were
used to collect basic participant demographic data. The following is a detailed
62

description of how each instrument was developed along with support regarding the
reliability of each of these instruments.
Parental Consent Form
As part of the parental consent form, all parents of children participating in the
study answered various demographic items about their child including: their age, gender,
and ethnicity (see Appendix A).
Recess Time Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale
In this study self-efficacy was measured using the Recess Physical Activity Self-
Efficacy Scale (see Appendix B), which was an interval scale. Stems 1 to 11 in this
instrument were adapted from the Exercise Barriers Self-Efficacy Scale for Children
developed by Annesi et al. (2005) to assess 7-to12-year-old children‟s ability to
overcome personal, social, and environmental barriers associated with engaging in
physical activity. Cronbach‟s alpha for Annesi‟s instrument include: 0.67 and 0.70 in
girls ages 9 to 10 and 0.78 and 0 .85 for boys 9 to 10 (Annesi et al., 2005). Additionally,
one week test-retest reliability of 7 to 12 year old girls and boys was 0.78 and 0.75
respectively. In this study the modified barrier self-efficacy items had a coefficient alpha
of .78.
Annesi‟s barrier self-efficacy scale is based on earlier self-efficacy research
(Marcus, Selby, McAuley, Niaura, & Rossi, 1992; McAuley, 1991; McAuley & Mihalko,
1998). To assess physical activity barrier self-efficacy in the context of recess, Annesi‟s
physical activity barrier scale was slightly modified. Instead of all items beginning with
the stem, “I am confident I can exercise three or more time per week even if”; items
63

began with the stem, “I am confident I can exercise during recess even if.” Also an
original item stating, “I am sure I can exercise even if an instructor did not offer me any
encouragement” was slightly modified. The word instructor was substituted with other
adults in the school context that potentially can encourage or verbally persuade a child to
engage in physical activity: specifically, teacher, yard aid, and coach. The instrument
used a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all confident) to 5 (definitely
confident).
The last three items (items 12 to 14) on the self-efficacy instrument for this study
assessed task self-efficacy. These items were adapted from a task self-efficacy
instrument developed by Foley et al. (2008) to assess 11-to-13 year-old children‟s
physical activity self-efficacy. Foley et al.‟s instrument which was piloted before use
was very reliable (α =0.95) and assessed children‟s confidence engaging in various levels
of physical activity intensity (i.e., light, moderate, vigorous) over a progressively longer
period of time (i.e., 10, 20, and 30). Since this study focused on physical activity during
recess, which is only 20 minutes in duration, items were slightly modified to assess
children‟s confidence to engage in various levels of physical activity intensity during the
entire duration of recess time. Specifically, three single item measures were used to
assess each of the following types of task self-efficacy: 1) light physical activity task self-
efficacy; 2) moderate physical activity task self-efficacy; and 3) vigorous physical
activity self-efficacy. The same 5-point Likert scale described previously to assess
barrier self-efficacy was utilized to assess each of the three task self-efficacy items.
Recess Time Physical Activity Effort
64

In this study children‟s effort was measured using a ratio scale. Specifically the
unidirectional Actigraph AM7164 accelerometers were used to determine the percent of
available recess time a child spent engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Although all three of the schools participating in this study formally provided their
students with the opportunity to engage in a 20-minute morning recess, classroom
teachers occasionally release their students to recess a bit later than the formal recess start
time. To account for these variations, the researchers and research assistants
documented, on all data collection days, the exact time students in each participating
class were released to recess along with exact end time of recess. Utilizing this
information the investigator was able to calculate the percent of available recess time
each participant spent in MVPA during recess.
Accelerometers are small non-invasive devices that measure vertical acceleration
of human motion and can be attached onto an individual‟s hip, waist, or ankle (Bjornson,
2005). Research findings indicate that the accelerometers used in this study are a valid
instrument for discriminating between sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous physical
activity in children (Puyau, Adolph, Vohra, & Butte, 2002). Prior to the start of this
study, the Active Living Foundation, who loaned the investigator the accelerometers,
calibrated the accelerometers using a standard protocol to ensure reliability of
measurement. To determine the participants‟ physical activity effort, the investigator
utilized the accelerometers‟ default activity counts, which are similar to those used by
Trost, Pate, Sallis, et al. (2002) and set the monitor to a 15 second sampling interval or
epoch. The recorded activity counts for each 15 second epoch were downloaded to a
65

personal computer. Utilizing the Actilife 4.2.0 software, the 15 second movement counts
were re-integrated into one minute movement counts and converted into an Excel activity
output file. Data from the activity output file was utilized to calculate the percent of
available recess time that each participant spent engaged in MVPA. This variable was
utilized for all later data analysis relating to the variable of effort.
Data Collection
Before collecting data and implementing the treatments, the researcher obtained
Institutional Review Board approval from the Los Angeles Unified School District
Committee for External Research Review and the University of Southern California
Office for the Protection of Research Subjects. Prior to data collection, the researcher
provided students with an overview of the research study and sent home with study
participants a parental consent and child assent form (see Appendix B & C). Incentives
in the form of erasers were utilized to recruit the maximum number of participants. Both
a signed parental consent form and a child assent form were required for participation in
the study. The parents and participants were told that the researcher was interested in
studying children‟s recess time behaviors. The parents and participants were also told
about any potential psychological or physical risks to participants exposed to the
treatments. One hundred and sixty five students were initially recruited to participate in
this study. Three of these students returned their consent forms after data collection had
already begun and were therefore excluded from participating in the study. Following
recruitment efforts, the investigator randomized participating schools into one of three
groups. Specifically, names of each school were randomly drawn out of a paper bag and
66

the first school selected was assigned to be the comparison group, the second to be the
verbal persuasion group and the third to be the modeling group. The comparison group
consisted of three classes and 51 participants. The verbal persuasion group consisted of
three classes and 60 participants. The modeling group consisted of three classes and
51participants. By the end of the study each group lost one participant. One student was
absent during pre-treatment data collection and therefore the investigator was unable to
collect his baseline data. Also, two students moved away before post-treatment data
collection had occurred.
Data collection for this study was staggered over the course of 12 weeks. Due to
the limited number of accelerometers (i.e., 30 monitors), it typically took the investigator
and research assistants three days to collect data from the participants in each of the three
groups. (i.e., two days to gather data from most participants and one reserved for make
ups). Make ups were needed when participants were absent, monitors malfunctioned,
and weather prevented students from engaging in their regularly scheduled recess.
During the pre-treatment data collection period, the investigator was able to return to
each of the schools within the same week to collect make up data. However, during the
post-treatment data collection period this was not possible as the investigator was
concurrently implementing the modeling treatment and two holidays fell during that
period. Therefore, it was necessary to schedule make-ups at the beginning of the
following week. Table 3 provides a timeline of all data collection related tasks that were
implemented for this study.

67

Table 3
Data Collection Time Line
Week Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Randomization into
treatment groups

Verbal persuasion
group‟s pre-
treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data
collection

Comparison group‟s
pre-treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data
collection

Modeling group‟s
pre-treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data collection

Six week teacher‟s
verbal persuasion
treatment

Six week
comparison no
treatment

Six week Modeling
treatment

Verbal persuasion
group‟s post-
treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data
collection

Comparison group‟s
post-treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data
collection

Modeling group‟s
post-treatment
self-efficacy and
effort data
collection

Note. Shaded areas indicate time spent in each task.
To ensure that self-efficacy data and effort data collected during the pre- and post-
treatment recess period was from the same participant, students were assigned student
identification number. Before administering the recess time physical activity self-
efficacy pre-test paper and pencil instrument, the researcher and her research assistants
68

implemented several brief activities. The purposes of these activities were to increase
participants‟ understanding of survey items relating to self-efficacy. Research findings
indicate that providing children with concrete examples of physical activities and
sedentary activities increases children‟s understanding of the definition of physical
activity (Trost et al., 2000). Additionally, Bandura (2006) suggests that providing
children with concrete examples of the scale that will be used to assess self-efficacy may
decrease children‟s misconceptions relating to values used on a self-efficacy scale.
To increase participants‟ understanding of the concept of physical activity, the
researcher provided a verbal description of physical activity, various physical activities
children can engage in during recess, as well as sedentary activities children commonly
engage in during recess. To increase participants‟ understanding of the concept of light,
moderate, and vigorous physical activity, the researcher read participants a definition of
each physical activity intensity level and encouraged them to engage in a brief bout of
activity at that particular intensity. For instance, after reading the definition of light
intensity physical activity, the researcher had participants walk at a slow pace. After
reading the definition of moderate intensity physical activity, the researcher had
participants walk at a brisk pace. Lastly, after reading a definition of vigorous physical
activity, the researcher had participants sprint a short distance.
Additionally, the investigator and her research assistants marked the playground
area with 5 chalk markings which were progressively farther in distance from each other.
Subsequently participants were asked to rate their level of confidence as it relates to their
ability to jump to each of the distances. They used the same scale descriptors used on the
69

physical activity self-efficacy instrument to rate their level of confidence (i.e., not at all
confident, somewhat confident, definitely confident). After assessing their level of
confidence, the participants attempted to jump the specific distance. After participants
jumped, the investigator and her research assistants ensured that participants understood
the scale descriptors that would be utilized to assess their level of confidence on the self-
efficacy instrument. They did so by explaining the difference between the levels of
confidence when clarification was necessary (e.g., defining definitely confident vs.
somewhat confident).
Following these activities, the investigator and her research assistants
implemented the recess time self-efficacy physical activity pre-test paper and pencil
instrument. To accommodate activities scheduled at the school during data collection
days, the investigator and her research assistants implemented this instrument in a variety
of locations including: the participants‟ classroom, the school cafeteria, the school
library, and the school auditorium. To maximize children‟s understanding of each item,
the investigator read each question aloud to study participants.
The investigator and her research assistants also used the Actigraph 7164
accelerometer to collect the participants‟ pre-treatment effort data. Before attaching
accelerometers on study participants, the investigator described the function of the
accelerometer (see Appendix D). To prevent the participants from intentionally increasing
their activity levels when wearing an accelerometer, they were informed that the
investigator was writing a non-fiction book about children‟s physical activity during recess.
Further participants were told that to ensure that this book provided adults with valuable
70

information on ways to keep children healthy, it was critical that participants engage in their
normal recess time activities. Lastly, participants were informed that should their
accelerometer become loose during recess they should seek out the investigator or her
research assistants who would properly re-attach the monitors.
Following accelerometer instruction, the investigator and her research assistants
placed the accelerometers on the participants‟ right hip by clipping it onto their waist using
the elastic belt that comes with the accelerometer. Research suggests that in free living
conditions, such as during recess, placing the accelerometer on the hip may be most accurate
(Heil, 2006). At the end of the data collection day, participants took off their accelerometer
and the investigator downloaded the effort data to a computer. Following treatment, which
will be described in the following section, the participants from all three groups
completed the same recess time physical activity self-efficacy paper and pencil
instrument and their physical activity effort levels during recess were again assessed with
the accelerometer.
Treatments
The Modeling Treatment
The modeling treatment involved six 50-minute sessions during which
participants were taught a total of eight games they could play during recess (See
Appendix E: Description of the Games). All games taught meet standard 3.7 of the
fourth grade physical education model content standards for California Public Schools set
forth by the California Department of Education. Each of the games were selected from
two professional resources that provide sample activities that are both developmentally
71

appropriate for fourth grade students and suitable for recess (Arizona Department of
Health Services, n.d.; Sports 4Kids, n.d.). Using her expertise in physical activity, the
investigator selected and slightly modified games to increase potential MVPA a child
could accumulate while playing the particular game. For example, traditional tag was not
selected. In traditional tag games, children who are unmotivated to be physically active
can easily avoid engaging in physical activity by either hiding in remote areas where the
tagger does not see them or intentionally getting tagged out so they are off the hook from
engaging in physical activity. Games selected included jumping jack tag, a tag game
with rules which make it much more difficult for unmotivated children to be inactive.
For instance, the allocated tagging play area was small, preventing unmotivated children
from hiding in remote areas and remaining inactive throughout the game. Further, to be
safe from the tagger, participants were required to either do jumping jacks, push-ups or a
plank. If the participant was tagged out they must do 20 jumping jacks to get back in the
game. Also, when possible the investigator modified games by substituting equipment
that is typically limited in access, such as, balls with more accessible equipment such as
erasers and jackets.
The investigator intended to implement the modeling treatment on six consecutive
sessions during the participants‟ regularly scheduled psycho-motor instruction. However,
two holidays fell on the day of participants‟ regularly scheduled psycho-motor instruction
and therefore two sessions were implemented on days that best fit the investigator and
classroom teachers‟ schedules. To ensure for adequate supervision of the participants,
two regularly scheduled psycho-motor coaches or the two research assistants were
72

present during each of the modeling treatment sessions. Prior to implementing the
modeling treatment, the investigator reviewed with the research assistants and the YMCA
psycho-motor coaches each of the treatment games. The first session included a brief
educational component which entailed a program overview, education on the difference
between light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity, a description of the benefits of
engaging in MVPA during recess, and a review of playground conflict resolution skills.
Research suggests that conflicts are an integral event in elementary school–aged
children‟s lives and most frequently occur on the playground (Hartup & Laursen, 1993).
When children possess conflict resolution skills they are likely to productively manage
inevitable conflicts thereby resulting in continued social interaction (Hartup & Laursen,
1993). Accordingly, when children engage in active games on the playground during
recess it is expected that they will be involved in conflicts. If they possess effective
conflict resolution skills they are likely to effectively resolve the conflict and continue
engaging in physical activity. It is for this reason that the investigator included in the
modeling treatment a brief discussion of conflict resolution skills. Specifically,
participants were encouraged to resolve playground conflicts by either: walking away,
talking, or playing the game Rock, Paper, Scissors. Further, during the treatment when a
conflict arose between participants, the investigator reinforced participants‟ use of
conflict resolution skills. Other than the first session, which began with the brief
educational component, each session followed a similar structure beginning with a 5-
minute warm-up followed by instruction and the opportunity to play each of the games
taught during that particular session. Lastly, to increase the likelihood that the
73

participants would learn all eight of the games taught, each game was played a total of
three times during the treatment period.
The Verbal Persuasion Treatment
The investigator utilized the literature to develop a teacher verbal persuasion of
physical activity during recess protocol. A small focus group, consisting of fourth grade
teachers, determined the feasibility of teachers implementing this protocol on a daily
basis. Before the treatment began, the three fourth grade teachers who implemented the
verbal persuasion treatment were instructed on the verbal persuasion protocol and talking
points for facilitating a discussion on the benefits of MVPA with students. Also, these
teachers were consulted to determine what strategy would best ensure their regular
implementation of the protocol. It is important to note that discussing the benefits of
MVPA is one of the fourth grade Health Education Content Standards for California
Public School (4.1.N.7). Each participating teacher was given a daily checklist and
handout with talking points to facilitate a discussion on the benefits of engaging in
MVPA (see Appendix F and G). The checklist included: a reminder to the teacher to
implement the verbal persuasion protocol on a daily basis before recess, the verbal
persuasion protocol script, and a checkbox where teachers can check off each day that
they implemented the verbal persuasion protocol. Per the teachers‟ recommendations for
ensuring their adherence to the protocol, the investigator enlarged the verbal persuasion
protocol handout to the size of a 50 cm x 50 cm poster. Two of the teachers were given
the large poster size verbal persuasion protocol and one teacher was given her preferred
20 cm x 29 cm size version of the protocol.
74

Finally, the teachers were instructed to implement, over a 6-week period, the
protocol every day before the morning and lunch time recess. The investigator utilized
two sources of data to monitor the teachers‟ adherence to the verbal persuasion protocol:
teachers‟ self-reported data, and observations. According to self-reported data, the
teachers implemented the verbal persuasion protocol an average of 21 out of the 28
possible days of implementation. It is important to note that it rained on two treatment
days, therefore preventing teachers from implementing the protocol on those days. To
assess fidelity to protocol, the investigator and her research assistants conducted a total of
three observations of each of the teachers. These observations detected that all three
teachers were regularly implementing the protocol with slight modifications. For
instance, instead of repeating verbatim the verbal persuasion protocol, two of the teachers
turned it into an interactive conversation. For instance, instead of just reminding the
students to engage in physical activity during recess these teachers asked their students:
why is it important to engage in MVPA; and what types of games they were planning on
playing during recess. Further, when students reported that they planned to play games
that entailed light intensity physical activity, the teacher provided them with corrective
feedback indicating that the particular activity was not moderate or vigorous in intensity.
The other teacher used a bell and transformed the protocol into an announcement.

75

Data Analysis
All data from the paper and pencil instrument (i.e., demographic data and self-
efficacy data) and accelerometers were coded and prepared for statistical analysis. All
data were imported into the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) program and
analyzed using SPSS. Before data was analyzed, the researcher ran an exploratory factor
analysis to determine the number of constructs the self-efficacy instrument was
measuring as well as a Cronbach‟s alpha test to determine the instrument‟s reliability.
Descriptive statistics for pre-self-efficacy variables and pre-effort were computed. A
series of 2 X 3 one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVAs) were run to examine the main
effect of gender on all of the study‟s dependent variables before treatment.
The aim of this study was to determine whether self-efficacy was related with
fourth grade students‟ effort (research question one). Also, the study explored the
difference between three treatments (i.e., no treatment, verbal persuasion, and modeling)
on the mean scores of five interval variables (adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy,
other barrier self-efficacy, light physical activity task self-efficacy, moderate physical
activity task self-efficacy, and vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy) and one ratio
scale variable (effort) (research question two). Lastly, this study explored whether there
were significant pretest-posttest changes in self-efficacy and effort within treatment
groups.
A Spearman‟s rank correlation was run to answer research question one and
determine whether there was a relationship between self-efficacy and effort. To answer
research question two, a series of 2 x 3 one way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
76

were run, adjusting for gender with pre-test score as a covariate. Lastly, to answer
research question three a series of three by two repeated measures ANOVAs with
repeated measures on the dependent variable were run. A two tailed p-value of 0.05 was
selected to determine the statistical significance of the statistical tests which were
conducted. The results of this study are reported in Chapter four. Chapter five will
include a discussion of the main findings, implications for research and practice,
limitations of this study along with recommendations for future research and practice and
conclusions.

77

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
This chapter presents statistical outcomes for the research questions that guided
this study.
Preliminary Analysis
Barrier Self-Efficacy
The barrier self-efficacy scale used in this study differed from prior physical
activity barrier self-efficacy scales in that it included three items, rather than one, that
specifically assessed a child‟s ability to be less dependent on an adult‟s verbal persuasion
to prompt them to be active during recess. A principal component analysis with varimax
rotation was conducted to ascertain whether the three items relating to adult verbal
persuasion might measure a construct that differs from the rest of the barrier self-efficacy
items. Analysis found that the barrier self-efficacy scale did consist of two types of
barrier self- efficacy. As shown in Table 4, analysis identified one construct consisting of
items 1– 8 with unique factor loadings greater than 0 .32 and another construct consisting
of items 9 - 11 also with unique factor loadings greater than .70. Close examination of
the items falling into these two different constructs suggest that one construct was
measuring a type of barrier self-efficacy that is associated with a child‟s ability to be less
dependent on an adult‟s encouragement to prompt them to be active in unstructured
environments such as recess. For instance, items 9, 10, and 11 related to a child‟s
confidence in their ability to engage in physical activity during recess even if they did not
receive encouragement from an adult in the school context, such as a teacher, a coach, or
78

a yard aid. In contrast, the other construct was measuring a child‟s confidence in their
ability to overcome other common personal, social, and environmental physical activity
barriers. For instance, items 1–8, were related to other common barriers preventing
children from engaging in physical activity such as: boredom, having to exercise alone,
lack of fun, and disliking of a particular activity. Therefore, subsequent analysis utilizing
the barrier self-efficacy variable examined adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy
and other barrier self-efficacy. Reliability Cronbach‟s alpha for, adult verbal persuasion
barrier self-efficacy and other barrier self-efficacy were respectively, 0.70, 0.74.
Table 4
Rotated Component Matrix Results
Component
1 2
preSE5 .795 .012
preSE1 .720 .116
preSE3 .690 .122
preSE7 .545 .192
preSE6 .497 .326
preSE2 .432 .252
preSE8 .406 .154
preSE9 .216 .789
preSE10 .166 .759
preSE11 .051 .733
preSE4 .324 .457
.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for all participants were computed. Table 5 provides the
descriptive statistics for other barrier self-efficacy, adult verbal persuasion barrier self-
efficacy, light physical activity task self-efficacy, moderate physical activity task self-
efficacy, vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy and effort, pre-treatment for all
study participants. As mentioned previously, self-efficacy items were assessed utilizing a
5-point Likert scale with 5 being the highest level of efficacy. Effort was assessed
79

utilizing the percent of recess time a child spent being engaged in MVPA, with a score of
100% indicating that the child spent all of their recess time engaged in MVPA.
Table 5
Means, Standard Deviations for Other Barrier Self-Efficacy, Adult Verbal
Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy, Light Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy,
Moderate Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, Vigorous Physical Activity
Task Self-Efficacy, and Effort, Pre-Treatment
N Mean Std. Deviation
Pre-Other Barrier Self-
Efficacy
158 3.43 0.86

Pre-Adult Verbal
Persuasion Barrier Self-
Efficacy
158 4.17 0.97
Pre-Light Physical
Activity Task Self-
Efficacy
158 4.14 1.19
Pre-Moderate Physical
Activity Task Self-
Efficacy
158 4.01 0.96
Pre-Vigorous Physical
Activity Task Self-
Efficacy
156 3.75 1.25
Pre-Recess Time Physical
Activity Effort
158 34% 0.24

Gender Effects
A series of one way ANOVAs were run to examine the main effect of gender on
the following variables before treatment: other barrier self-efficacy, adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy, light physical activity task self-efficacy, moderate
physical activity task self-efficacy, vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy and
effort. Significant mean differences were detected between gender groups. Those
differences are reported in Table 6 below.
Table 6
ANOVA Table Gender Effect Pre-Treatment
Sum of
Square
df Mean square F p
Pre-Other Barrier Self-Efficacy 2.66 1 2.66 3.63 .058
Pre-Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy 0.48 1 .48 .51 .474
Pre-Light Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy 8.71 1 8.71 6.40 .012
Pre-Moderate Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy 0.53 1 .053 .057 .812
Pre-Vigorous Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy 4.25 1 4.25 2.74 .100
Pre-Recess Time Physical Activity Effort 1.90 1 1.90 42.78 .001

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As shown in the table 6, significant mean differences were found between males
and females‟ pre-treatment light physical activity task self-efficacy, and pre-treatment
effort mean scores. Examination of the adjusted means found that prior to treatment
females reported significantly higher light physical activity task self-efficacy mean
scores, compared to males, respectively 4.34, 3.87. This indicates that prior to treatment
females were more efficacious, than males, in their ability to perform light intensity
physical activity during most of recess. Lastly, analysis found that prior to treatment;
male participants put forth significantly more effort while engaging in physical activity
during recess, than female participants. Specifically, males spent 46.8% of their recess
time engaged in MVPA, while females spend only 24.5%. In contrast, as shown in the
Table 6 above no significant differences were detected between males and females on
other barrier self-efficacy, adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, moderate physical
activity task self-efficacy, and vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy.
Research Question One
Research Question One: Is self-efficacy related to fourth grade students‟ effort?
A Spearman‟s rank correlation analysis was run to determine whether self-
efficacy was positively related to effort. As presented in Table 7, results indicated that
adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, other barrier self-efficacy, light physical
activity task self-efficacy, moderate physical activity task self-efficacy, and vigorous
physical activity task self-efficacy were not significantly related to effort. These findings
were unexpected.

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Table 7: Spearman‟s Rank Correlation between Other Barrier Self-Efficacy, Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-
Efficacy, Light Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, Moderate Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, Vigorous
Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy, and Effort
Pre-Recess Time Physical Activity Effort
Pre-Other Barrier Self-Efficacy .14
Pre-Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy .08
Pre-Light Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy -.07
Pre-Moderate Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy .02
Pre-Vigorous Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy .15
Pre-Other Barrier Self-Efficacy 1

Research Question Two
Research Question Two: Does a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, or modeling by a competent
adult, influence fourth grade girls and boys' self-efficacy and effort?
Research question two was analyzed using a 2 (gender) x 3 (group) ANCOVA with pre-
test as a covariate.
Interaction Effect of Gender
To determine whether there was any gender by treatment interaction effects, a
series of ANCOVAs were performed with pre-test scores as covariates. The interaction
effect was non-significant for all dependent variables: post-other barrier self-efficacy,
post-adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, post-light physical activity task self-
efficacy, post-moderate physical activity task self-efficacy, post-vigorous physical
activity task self-efficacy and post-effort. This indicates that there was no significant
interaction between the treatment and gender on self-efficacy and effort. However, it is
interesting to note that a borderline significant gender by treatment interaction effect on
effort, p=.095 was found. Figure 1 displays a profile plot of this interaction effect.
These results indicate that the verbal persuasion treatment was slightly more effective at
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increasing males, compared to females, effort to engage in physical activity during
recess.

Treatment Effect
The ANCOVA analysis was also used to determine the main effect of verbal
persuasion or modeling on participant‟s self-efficacy and effort. Adjusting for gender,
ANCOVA with pre-test scores as covariates revealed no main effects for treatment on
post-other barrier self-efficacy, post-light physical activity task self-efficacy, and post-
moderate physical activity task self-efficacy. In contrast, a significant main effect was
detected for treatment on post-adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, post-vigorous
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physical activity task self-efficacy, and post-effort. Table 8 below provides details
relating to these findings.
Table 8: ANCOVA Adjusting for Gender with Pre-test as a Covariate.
Mean Difference F p
Post-Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Comparison Group
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Modeling Group
Comparison vs. Modeling Group

.12
.51
.39
7.29 .001
.391
.001
.006
Post-Vigorous Physical Activity Task Self-Efficacy
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Comparison Group
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Modeling Group
Comparison vs. Modeling Group

.29
.73
.44
5.48 .005
.117
.001
.047
Post-Recess Time Physical Activity Effort
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Comparison Group
Verbal Persuasion Group vs. Modeling Group
Comparison vs. Modeling Group

12%
14%
2%
5.97 .003
.007
.002
.655

These results indicate that verbal persuasion, compared to modeling, was
significantly more effective at influencing a child‟s confidence in their ability to be less
dependent on an adult‟s encouragement to prompt them to be active during recess, and
their confidence in their ability to engage in vigorous intensity physical activity for most
of recess time. This also indicates that no treatment, compared to no modeling, was
significantly more effective at influencing a child‟s confidence in their ability to be less
dependent on an adult‟s encouragement to prompt them to be active during recess, as
well as their confidence in their ability to engage in vigorous intensity physical activity
for most of recess time. Figure 2 displays the significant main effects of treatment on
physical activity self-efficacy.

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Figure 2: Main Effect of Treatment on Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy and Vigorous Physical Activity
Task Self-Efficacy
0
1
2
3
4
5
Adult Encouragement Barrier
Self-Efficacy
Vigourous Physical Activity Task
Self-Efficacy
Verbal Persuasion
Control
Modeling

The results also indicated that verbal persuasion was more effective than
modeling or no treatment at influencing a child‟s effort to engage in physical activity
during recess. Figure 3 below displays the significant main effect of treatment on effort.
Figure 3: Main Effect of Treatment on Physical Activity Effort

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
Recess Time Physical Activity Effort
Verbal Persuasion
Control
Modeling

Research Question Three
Research Question Three: Is there a significant difference between pre- and post-
treatment self-efficacy and effort by group membership (verbal persuasion, comparison,
or modeling)?
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To determine whether a teacher‟s verbal persuasion or modeling by a competent
adult influence children‟s self-efficacy or effort a series of 3 (group) x 2 (pre- to post-
treatment) repeated measures ANOVAs with repeated measures on each of the dependent
variables were conducted. Gender differences as well as pre-test scores differences
between the groups were previously examined (research question two). Therefore,
research question number three was focused on determining whether there were
significant pre-test-post-test self-efficacy and effort changes among both boys and girls in
any of the three groups.
Results indicated that there was a significant increase for adult verbal persuasion
barrier self-efficacy from pre- to post-treatment for all three groups, F (1,155) = 20.41,
p=.001. This indicates that from pre-to post-treatment, boys and girls in all three groups
experienced significant gains in their ability to rely less on an adult‟s verbal persuasion to
prompt to them to be active during recess.
As shown by figure 4, a significant and disordinal interaction effect for effort by
time, F (2, 57) = 26.85, p =.001 was also found. This indicates that change from pre-
effort to post-effort mean scores were significant among the verbal persuasion boys and
girls. No significance was detected for the other examined dependent variables.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
This chapter provides a summary of the study and a discussion of the main
findings. Implications for research and practitioners, limitations, and recommendations
for future research are also explored, finally ending with conclusions. There is a gap in
the current literature relating to evidence-based strategies that are effective at increasing
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. Prior research has
found a significant positive relationship between children‟s physical activity self-efficacy
and choice, effort, and persistence to engage in physical activity. However, no research
has established this relationship in the context of recess. Research suggests that two
determinants that may increase children‟s physical activity self-efficacy are adult verbal
persuasion and modeling by a competent adult. Further research has found that verbal
persuasion, modeling by a competent adult, and self-monitoring collectively are effective
at increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess.
However, because modeling and verbal persuasion were coupled with self-monitoring, it
is not clear if either of these strategies alone is effective at increasing children‟s
motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. Multi-component interventions
are more costly and not necessarily more effective than interventions involving one
strategy (Loucaides, Jago, & Charlambous, 2009). Given that cost is a key determinant to
the sustainability of school-based programs, it is important to establish cost effective
strategies for increasing children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess
(Owen, Glanz, Sallis, & Kelder, 2006). To date, no study has examined the influence of
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a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone, on
children‟s recess time physical activity self-efficacy, as well as their recess time physical
activity effort.
The aim of this study was threefold: 1) to determine whether in the context of
recess, physical activity self-efficacy and the motivational index of effort are related; 2)
to examine whether one treatment (verbal persuasion or modeling) is more effective at
enhancing boys or girls‟ self-efficacy and effort; and 3) to examine whether a teacher‟s
verbal persuasion of physical activity alone, or modeling by a competent adult alone,
have an influence on children‟s self-efficacy and effort.
Summary of the Study‟s Findings
The following is a summary of the main findings of this study. A Spearman‟s
rank correlation analysis determined that, in the context of recess, self-efficacy and effort
are not related. A series of 2 (gender) x 3 (group) ANCOVAs with pre-treatment scores
as covariates determined that following treatment, verbal persuasion group participants,
compared to modeling group participants, had significantly greater self-efficacy (adult
verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy)
and effort mean scores. A borderline significant gender by treatment interaction effect on
effort was found suggesting that verbal persuasion was slightly more effective at
increasing males, compared to female‟s effort. A series of 3 (group) x 2 (pre- and post-
treatment) repeated measures ANOVAs determined that from pre- to post-treatment all
three groups experienced significant gains in adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy.
In contrast, from pre to post-treatment only participants in the verbal persuasion group
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spent a significantly higher percent of their recess time engaged in MVPA. Lastly, a
principal component analysis with varimax rotation indicated that the barrier self-efficacy
scale utilized in this study consisted of two types of barrier self-efficacy: adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy and other barrier self-efficacy. Each of these findings is
discussed in greater detail in the following sections.
The Relationship between Physical Activity Self-Efficacy and Effort
It was expected that there would be a positive relationship between self-efficacy
and effort in the context of recess. This did not occur. While this study found evidence of
two types of barrier self-efficacy, adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and other
barrier self-efficacy, neither of these types of barrier self-efficacy, nor light physical
activity task self-efficacy, moderate physical activity task self-efficacy or vigorous
physical activity task self-efficacy were found to be significantly related to effort. As
mentioned previously, studies that have found a positive relationship between physical
activity self-efficacy and children‟s physical activity effort have assessed physical
activity as a uni-dimensional construct which does not account for potential location and
time specific variations on children‟s physical activity. Children‟s physical activity is far
from uni-dimensional, as children can accumulate physical activity during different times
of the day and in various contexts (e.g., commuting to school, at recess, afterschool,
structured, and unstructured). This may explain why in the specific context of recess, a
relationship between self-efficacy and effort was not found. Further, these findings are in
line with the limited research suggesting that psychosocial correlates of physical activity
can vary during different segments of the day (Ommundsen et al., 2006).
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The Influence of a Teacher‟s Verbal Persuasion on Physical Activity Self-Efficacy and
Effort
This study found that social prompting in the form of a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion was more effective than modeling at influencing physical activity self-efficacy
(adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, vigorous physical activity task self-
efficacy) and effort. The verbal persuasion groups‟ adjusted post-adult verbal persuasion
barrier self-efficacy and post- vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy mean scores
were significantly higher than the modeling groups. To the investigator‟s knowledge this
is the first study to assess physical activity task self-efficacy in the context of recess.
Findings indicate that a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, compared to modeling, may be
particularly effective at improving children‟s confidence in their ability to: engage in
physical activity during recess even when an adult does not verbally persuade them to do
so, as well as, engage in vigorous intensity physical activity during most of their recess
time. This study did not find that adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy or vigorous
physical activity task self-efficacy were related to effort. However, given the significant
changes from pre- to post-treatment in verbal persuasion group participants‟ effort, it
seems that an adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and vigorous physical activity
task self-efficacy may play some role in children‟s recess time physical activity effort.
A teacher‟s verbal persuasion was also more effective, than no treatment and
modeling, at influencing effort. Further, results indicated that only participants in the
verbal persuasion group spent a significantly higher percent of their recess time engaged
in MVPA. This suggests that social prompting in the form of a small dose (daily over a
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6-week period) of teacher‟s verbal persuasion is an effective strategy for influencing a
child‟s effort to engage in physical activity during recess. These findings are consistent
with the research that found a positive relationship between adults‟ verbal persuasion of
physical activity and children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess
(McKenzie et al., 1997). However, this is the first study to find that a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion produced significant gains in children‟s effort to engage in physical activity
during recess.
Additionally, results indicate that social prompting in the form of a teacher‟s
verbal persuasion to be active was slightly more effective at influencing males‟ effort
than females. Perhaps these results can be explained by the interaction between the
verbal persuasion treatment and the more frequent social prompting to be active that boys
receive compared to girls. As mentioned previously, some research suggests that
physical activity gender difference may be related to the more frequent prompting to be
active that boys, compared to girls, receive from parents, coaches, yard supervisors, and
peers (Brustad, 1993; Chase & Drummer, 1992; Dunbar & O‟Sullivan, 1986; Jago et al.,
2009; McKenzie et al., 1997). Accordingly, the findings from this study suggest that
perhaps if girls were prompted to be active, as frequently as boys, they may engage in
similar amounts of physical activity.
The Influence of Modeling by a Competent Adult on Physical Activity Self-Efficacy and
Effort
This study indicates that modeling was less effective than a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion at influencing children‟s self-efficacy. Modeling was also less effective, than
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verbal persuasion and no treatment, at influencing effort. With exception to adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy, children who participated in the six week modeling
treatment did not have significant increases in their self-efficacy nor their effort. These
finding may be explained by the context in which modeling occurred, the context in
which self-efficacy was measured, as well as the type of skills that were modeled.
Prior research has found that competent adult models are effective at increasing
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy (Lirgg & Feltz, 1991; McAuley, 1985). This
prior research involved a competent adult who modeled a specific physical activity skill
in a structured physical activity context and then self-efficacy was measured in the same
context. In contrast, this study entailed a competent adult who modeled physical activity
skills (recess games and conflict resolution skills) in a structured physical activity
environment (supervised psycho-motor instruction) yet self-efficacy was measured in
another context (recess time). Perhaps if modeling took place during recess time or self-
efficacy was measured in the context of psycho-motor instruction it would have resulted
in a more significant increase in physical activity self-efficacy. Further, it appears that
the skills modeled in the modeling treatment did not include all of the skills needed to
make an active choice to engage in physical activity in unstructured environments. For
instance, in unstructured environments such as recess, children must be able to initiate
among their peers a request to play a particular game, and get equipment needed to play
the particular game. This may explain why post-treatment participants in the modeling
group did not have significant gains in other barrier self-efficacy, light physical activity
task self-efficacy, moderate physical activity task self-efficacy, and vigorous physical
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activity task self-efficacy. These finding suggest that modeling games and conflict
resolution skills is not enough to increase children‟s confidence in their ability to
overcome various barriers associated with making the active choice to engage in physical
activity during recess, as well as their confidence to engage in physical activity of
varying intensities (i.e., light, moderate, and vigorous) during recess.
Similar to the findings relating to physical activity self-efficacy, the findings
relating to physical activity effort can also perhaps be explained by the context in which
modeling occurred and the skills which were modeled. The investigator observed that the
majority of modeling participants put forth effort while playing games taught during
implementation of the intervention. However, findings from this study indicated that
physical activity effort did not transfer to unstructured physical activity environments
(recess). This lack of transferability is consistent with research on school-based physical
activity interventions (Dobbins et al., 2009). That is, school-based physical activity
interventions are effective at increasing physical activity effort within structured in-
school curriculum instruction time (e.g., physical education instruction). However, these
interventions do not influence unstructured free-time physical activity (Dobbins et al.,
2009). It appears that unstructured physical activity environments, such as recess, are
significantly different than structured physical activity environments, such as physical
education instruction. In structured physical activity environments, children do not need
to make an active choice to engage in physical activity. Instead, an adult chooses the
activity in which the child will engage, and puts forth the necessary effort to locate
necessary equipment and an appropriate location to play the game. When a conflict
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arises between children, the adult is there and can help the children resolve the conflict so
that they may resume accumulating physical activity. In contrast, for a child to
accumulate MVPA during unstructured physical activity environments, such as recess,
the child must make an active choice to be engaged in MVPA. He or she must also put
forth the necessary effort to initiate and maintain physical activity during recess (i.e., be
able to ask their peers to be active with him or her, make the effort to get any necessary
equipment or locate an appropriate location to engage in the particular game, and be able
to resolve conflicts on their own). Perhaps the modeling intervention would have had a
more significant impact on effort if it were implemented in the context of recess and
included modeling of the skills children need to make the active choice to engage in
MVPA during unstructured environments.
Further, the limited dose (frequency and duration) of the modeling treatment (a
50-minute session, once a week over 6-week period) could explain the modeling
treatment‟s limited influence on effort. However, this explanation is less probable as
prior physical activity interventions that have utilized greater doses of modeling by a
competent adult (30 minute sessions, 3 days a week over a 2 year period) have also found
that increases in children‟s physical activity did not transfer to free-time.
Adult Verbal Persuasion Barrier Self-Efficacy
This study found evidence of a type of barrier self-efficacy, adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy, which may be useful for understanding children‟s
physical activity self-efficacy. One common barrier associated with children‟s
insufficient motivation to engage in physical activity is lack of adult verbal persuasion to
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be active (Annesi, 2006). Prior research assessing children‟s confidence in their ability to
overcome barriers associated with physical activity has utilized only one item to
specifically assess a child‟s confidence in their ability to overcome this barrier (lack of
adult verbal persuasion to be active). In contrast, this study utilized three items to assess
a child‟s ability to overcome this particular barrier. Factor analysis conducted indicated
that the three items relating to lack of adult verbal persuasion were measuring a construct
that differed from the rest of the barrier self-efficacy items on the Recess Time Physical
Activity Self-Efficacy Instrument. Specifically findings indicated that there were two
types of barrier self-efficacy: adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and other
barrier self-efficacy. Adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy relates to a type of
self-efficacy that is associated with a child‟s confidence in their ability to engage in
physical activity during recess even if an adult does not verbally persuade them to do so.
Other barrier self-efficacy is a type of self-efficacy associated with children‟s confidence
in their ability to overcome other personal, social, and environmental barriers associated
with physical activity during recess. These findings were unexpected. While a few prior
studies have found evidence of different types of physical activity barrier self-efficacy,
no study has found evidence of adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy (Ryans &
Dzewaltowski, 2002; Trost et al., 2003). The factor analysis findings indicating that
adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy is a construct different from other barrier
self-efficacy is in line with current research indicating that adult verbal persuasion has a
powerful influence on young children‟s (fourth grade and younger) perceptions of their
physical ability and physical activity self-efficacy (Chase, 1995; Horn & Weiss, 1991).
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This study also found that all three treatment groups experienced increases in
adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy mean scores from pre to post-treatment. That
is, post-treatment all participants regardless of treatment indicated that they felt more
confident engaging in physical activity during recess even if an adult did not verbally
persuade them to do so. Increases in adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy among
all groups may be explained by evidence mentioned previously indicating that during the
elementary school year, peers begin to exert increasingly more influence, and adults
increasing less influence, on a child‟s perceptions of physical competence (Weiss et al.,
1997). These findings suggest that perhaps as adults‟ influence on children‟s perceptions
of their physical competence begin to decline, so too does an adult‟s influence on
children‟s physical activity self-efficacy begin to decline.
Further, significantly higher increases in post-adult verbal persuasion barrier self-
efficacy among the verbal persuasion group, compared to the modeling group were
found. These findings may be explained by a possible interaction between a teacher‟s
verbal persuasion and a child‟s normal developmental processes (i.e., rely less on adult
influence). That is, perhaps when a child receives a small dose of a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion to be active, it speeds up the typically observed developmental processes
which results in adults having less influence on older children‟s perceptions of their
physical abilities. Together these findings suggest that adult verbal persuasion barrier
self-efficacy may be a useful construct in understanding young children‟s physical
activity self-efficacy in general, as well as in the specific context of recess.
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Findings indicate that the construct of adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy
may also be useful for understanding children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity
during recess. Contrary to structured environments, during recess adults are not present
to prompt or initiate and maintain children‟s physical activity. Therefore, in such
contexts children must rely less on adults and more on other types of prompting to initiate
and maintain physical activity. Research indicates that environmental prompting (e.g.,
brightly painted playground markings) is particularly effective at influencing children‟s
motivation to initiate and sustain MVPA during recess. This study provides evidence that
social prompting in the form of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion is also very effective at
influencing children‟s motivation to initiate and sustain MVPA during recess time.
Findings also indicate that social prompting in the form of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion,
compared to modeling by a competent adult, resulted in significantly higher increases in
adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, and effort. Although this study did not find
a significant relationship between adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and effort,
these findings suggest that the construct of adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy
may be useful in understanding children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity
during recess. Perhaps when children receive a small dose of a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion they become less dependent on adults to prompt them to be active during
unstructured environments such as recess.
Implications for Research and Practitioners
The findings from this study have implications for research on children‟s
motivation to engage in physical activity during unstructured in-school free time such as
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recess. This study provides additional evidence to support the growing body of evidence
suggesting that there are different types of physical activity self-efficacy and that
motivational constructs associated with children‟s physical activity vary with context.
(Ommundsen et al., 2006; Ryans & Dzewaltowski, 2002). This study also extends the
research by finding evidence of a type of physical activity self-efficacy, adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy, which may be unique to the context of recess. Results
also indicate that adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and vigorous physical
activity task self-efficacy may be useful in understanding children‟s recess time physical
activity behaviors. Findings also extend the current literature on children‟s physical
activity self-efficacy by providing evidence that in the context of recess time, neither
physical activity barrier self-efficacy nor physical activity task self-efficacy are related to
physical activity effort.
Further, this study provides additional support to the growing body of evidence
that prompting is an important factor that can increase children‟s motivation to engage in
physical activity during recess (Loucaides et al., 2009; Statton, 2000; Stratton & Mullan,
2005, Verstraete et al., 2006). Findings extend the research on evidence-based practice
that influences self-efficacy and effort. This study also provides strong evidence
suggesting that a teacher‟s verbal persuasion alone is significantly more effective at
influencing physical activity self-efficacy than modeling by a competent adult alone.
Results from this study extend prior research that found a significant positive relationship
between verbal persuasion, or social prompting and effort. This study is the first study to
provide quantitative evidence that social prompting in the form of a teacher‟s verbal
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persuasion can increase children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during
unstructured in-school free-time (recess). Lastly, these findings provide additional
support to the body of evidence suggesting that socialization that prompts boys more than
girls to be active may contribute to current physical activity gender disparities (Brustad,
1993; Chase & Drummer, 1992; Dunbar & O‟Sullivan, 1986; Jago et al., 2009;
McKenzie et al., 1997).
Results from this study also have implications for education and public health
practitioners working to improve children‟s health and academic outcomes. Specifically,
this study suggests that a small dose (daily over a six week period) of teachers‟ verbal
persuasion is significantly more effective, than modeling by a competent adult, at
increasing the percent of MVPA girls and boys engage in during recess. Given school
district‟s current budget and curriculum constraints, one cost effective strategy for
increasing children‟s daily physical activity levels may be district-wide implementation
of a teacher‟s verbal persuasion. Given that research suggests that cost is a key
determinant to the sustainability of physical activity interventions, if an intervention that
is inexpensive, such as a teacher‟s verbal persuasion, is adopted by a school district it is
very likely to be sustained (Owen et al., 2006). In light of the evidence suggesting that
physical activity is related to health and academic outcomes, school wide adoption of a
the teacher verbal persuasion intervention may be a useful strategy for improving
students‟ academic and health outcomes.

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Limitations
This study has a few limitations that have to be taken into consideration when
interpreting the current findings. Most importantly, the investigator was not able to
control for all of the confounding variables at the teacher and school level that can
potentially influence recess time physical activity effort. Although the investigator
selected three schools with similar characteristics, it was not possible to control all of the
confounding variables. Those variables include: the amount of playground equipment at
each school, the quantity and quality of implemented physical education instruction,
classroom teacher‟s enthusiasm for physical activity, and school recess time practices.
Implementing this study at one school rather than three would have eliminated the school
level confounding variables, however, could have resulted in contaminated results. Prior
research assessing the impact of a school-based physical activity intervention at one
school site found that the cross-contamination that results when children from different
classrooms play together during recess makes it difficult to detect differences between
treatment and comparison groups (Kulinna, Cothran, Brusseau, & Tudor-Locke, 2008).
Perhaps future research could explore utilizing a nested design analysis to accommodate
for potential school and classroom differences (Goldstein, 1995).
Along those same lines, one confounding variable that is especially important to
note relates to recess time practices. When schools were contacted to participate in this
study, to the investigators knowledge, none of the schools had recess time practices in
place that might have influenced self-efficacy and effort. However, prior to study
implementation a new recess time practice was implemented at the verbal persuasion
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school which may have contributed to the influence observed on self-efficacy and effort.
Following the first 10 minutes of recess, yard aids at this school were charged with
announcing to students to get up from the cafeteria tables and go and play. Although this
practice was in place during baseline data collection, it is unclear how this practice may
have interacted with the teachers‟ verbal persuasion. It is possible that a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion alone may not have yielded the same significant results.
Another limitation of this study is that it did not measure the impact of either
modeling or verbal persuasion on overall physical activity. In light of mixed findings
concerning the relationship between in school and out of school physical activity
behaviors, it is not clear whether the verbal persuasion treatment or modeling treatment
had an impact on the overall amount of daily physical activity participants accumulated.
To determine whether the verbal persuasion or modeling treatment had an impact on
children‟s overall daily physical activity effort, future research should examine the
impact of a teachers‟ verbal persuasion alone or modeling alone on children‟s effort to
engage in physical activity during all segments of the day. Lastly, since this study took
place in a Southern California suburban elementary school, results may not be
generalizable to rural or urban elementary schools.
Recommendations
The following is a discussion of recommendations for future research aimed at
understanding how to increase elementary school-aged children‟s motivation to engage in
physical activity during recess. This study did not find evidence that adult verbal
persuasion barrier self-efficacy and vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy are
102

related to effort. However, given that findings did indicate that participants in the verbal
persuasion group, compared to the modeling group, had significantly higher post-adult
verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy, post-vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy
and post-effort, it seems that both adult verbal persuasion barrier self-efficacy and
vigorous physical activity task self-efficacy may play some role in influencing children‟s
motivation to engage in recess time physical activity. Future research should further
explore the role that these two types of physical activity self-efficacy may play in
motivating children to engage in physical activity during recess.
Findings from this study indicate that modeling of games and conflict resolution
skills by a competent adult during structured in-school psycho-motor instruction is
ineffective at influencing self-efficacy and effort. However, future research may consider
examining the impact of modeling conducted during unstructured in-school environments
(recess) that not only includes the modeling of games and conflict resolution skills, but
also modeling of the skills needed to make the active choice to initiate and maintain play
with one‟s peers during recess time.
Further, this is the first study to provide evidence that a small dose of teacher‟s
verbal persuasion can significantly increase boys and girls effort to engage in physical
activity during recess. Future research should continue to explore the efficacy of recess
time interventions utilizing verbal persuasion. Perhaps future research could explore the
added value of combining the verbal persuasion of other adults working in the school
context (e.g., yard aides, coaches, principals) along with a teacher‟s verbal persuasion to
engage in physical activity during recess. Also, in light of research that has demonstrated
103

that environmental prompting (i.e., playground markings) is effective at increasing
children‟s recess time physical activity effort, future research also should explore the
added value of combining a teachers‟ verbal persuasion along with environmental
promoting (Statton, 2000; Stratton & Mullan, 2005).
Conclusions
This study attempted to address the childhood obesity problem by exploring
strategies that may motivate children to engage in more physical activity during
unstructured in-school free-time, such as recess. Given that physical activity is linked
with lower rates of obesity as well as a substantial number of health and academic
benefits, it important for research to establish evidence based strategies that can increase
children‟s motivation to engage in physical activity during recess. This study provides
strong evidence that a small dose of social prompting, in the form of a teacher‟s verbal
persuasion, significantly increases the amount of MVPA children engage in during
recess. Given school districts current budget and curriculum constrains, a small dose of
social prompting from a teacher may be a cost-effective strategy schools can utilize to
address the childhood obesity epidemic, and improve students‟ academic and health
outcomes.
104

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121

Appendix A: Parental Consent Form

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4031

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
PARENTAL PERMISSION

************************************************************************
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Promoting Physical Activity during Recess Study
Your child is invited to participate in a research study conducted by Merav Efrat, MPH
and Dr. Hirabayahsi, Ph. D. from the University of Southern California. Your
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions
about anything you do not understand before deciding whether or not to participate.
Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You and/or your child
may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you and/or your child decide
to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to learn more about effective ways to increase children‟s
physical activity levels during recess.
PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you or your child to do the
following things: complete a survey about his or her confidence to engage in physical
activity during recess, his or her interest regarding physical activity, and his or her current
physical activity levels. Also, to measure your child‟s physical activity levels, we would
ask your child to wear on their hip an accelerometer. This is a small device that does not
interfere with usual daily activities. Both activities described above will take place at the
beginning of the study period, six weeks later and again four weeks later. Additionally,
your child will be randomly assigned to one of three groups which may involve a six
week one hour a week physical activity program, a teacher‟s encouragement of physical
activity or no particular activity. The name of your child‟s school, along with two other
schools will be written on a piece of paper. These three pieces of paper will be folded in
122

Appendix A continued
half and placed in a brown bag. The researcher will reach into the bag, the first school
selected will be group one, and so forth for the second and third group. The study will
take place at your child‟s school. The physical activity program will take place during
your child‟s regularly scheduled weekly one hour psycho-motor class. Should your child
choose not to participate he or she will attend their regularly scheduled psycho-motor
class. The survey your child will complete will take place in his or her classroom and
take approximately 25 minutes to complete. If your child chooses not to participate in this
study, he or she will continue to work on their regular school work (i.e., the day‟s class
work, or the evening‟s homework) while the students who have chosen to participate
complete the surveys.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
The risks from participating in this study include possible negative feelings associated
with your child reporting about their confidence and interest relating to engaging in
physical activity, and the inconvenience of wearing an accelerometer during recess.
Also, your child could fall and injure him or herself while engaging in physical activities
he or she may be taught while participating in the study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There may be specific benefits which your child can expect as a result of participation in
the study, including learning new physical activities and receiving encouragement to
engage in physical activity. Also, the findings from this study may assist policy makers
to develop laws and practitioners to develop programs that would help children engage in
more physical activity during recess time.
POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
1. The investigator of this research does not have any financial interest in the sponsor or
in the product being studied.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as
required by law.
Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator‟s office in a password protected
computer. To maintain your child‟s confidentiality, your child will be assigned an
identification number. All data connected with your child will include only this
123

Appendix A continued
identification number. The researcher will be the only individual who will have access to
documents that connect your child‟s name to his or her identification number.
The data will be stored for three years after the study has been completed and then
destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your identity. No photographs, videos, or
audio-tape recordings of you will be used in this study.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which you or your child are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your
consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving
any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research study.
The investigator may withdraw your child from this research if circumstances arise which
warrant doing so.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or you would like to speak
with someone independent of the research team to have questions answered about the
research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached, please contact the
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:
Merav Efrat, MPH Efrat@usc.edu or Dr. Hirabayashi Ph.D. (213) 740-3470
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4031

SIGNATURE OF PARENT(S)
I/we have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I/we have
been given a chance to ask questions. My/our questions have been answered to my/our
satisfaction, and I/we agree to participate in this study and/or have our child(ren)
participate in this study. I/we have been given a copy of this form.
124

Appendix A continued

Name of Subject

Name of Parent (1)

Signature of Parent (1) Date
[Note: Second parent signature required when research study is deemed by the IRB
to fall under 45 CFR 46.406 or 45 CFR 46.407 – greater than minimal risk
classification]

Name of Parent (2)

Signature of Parent (2) Date
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the subject and his/her parent(s), and answered all of
their questions. I believe that the parent(s) understand the information described in this
document and freely consents to participate.

Name of Investigator

Signature of Investigator Date
SIGNATURE OF WITNESS (If an oral translator is used.)
My signature as witness certified that the subject or his/her parent(s) signed this
consent form in my presence as his/her/their voluntary act and deed.

125

Appendix A continued

Name of Witness

Signature of Witness Date

Date of birth _________________________
Gender (please circle the answer)
Male Female
Ethnicity (please circle the answer)
White Hispanic or Latino African American
Asian Filipino Pacific Islander American Indian or
Alaska Native Other _____________________
Please fill in your child’s information below:
126

Appendix B: Recess Time Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale

The researcher you have met is from the University of Southern California.
She is trying to find out information about children‟s physical activity during
recess.

You have been asked to take part in this study. This study will look at what
you do during recess and your thoughts about how sure you are that you can
exercise during recess.

To find out this information she would like you to compete this
questionnaire. This questionnaire includes a few simple questions that will
take you about 15 minutes to complete. If you have any questions you can
ask the researcher.

You do not need to tell anyone else what you write on the questionnaire. If
you are worried about anything or have any questions, please let your
teacher, parents, or the researcher know.

Does anyone have any questions?
127

Appendix B continued
Name _______________________ Teachers Name ______________________
Section One:
The sentences below are common reasons children do not exercise. Using the scale
below, please say how confident you are that you could exercise during recess if the
following happen. The word “confident” refers to the belief that you have in
yourself that you can do something well. Using the scale below, please circle the
answer that best describes how you feel.
1. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if the weather is bad (very hot,
rainy, and/ or very cold).
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

2. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if I am bored by the activities
I could play.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

3. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if I feel physically
uncomfortable while exercising.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5
128

Appendix B continued
4. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if I have to exercise alone.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

5. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if exercise is not fun.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

6. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if it is difficult to get to the
planned exercise location.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

7. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if I do not like the activity I
was involved in.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5
129

Appendix B continued
8. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if I am nervous being around
other people.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

9. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if the yard aid does not offer me
any encouragement.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

10. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if my teacher does not offer
me any encouragement.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5
11. I am confident that I can exercise during recess even if my coach does not offer me
any encouragement.
Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5
130

Appendix B continued
In answering the following questions you will be asked to think how confident you
are that you can participate in exercises that are described as light, moderate or
hard. Using the scale below, please circle the answer that best describes how you
feel.
LIGHT INTENSITY EXERCISE is when you are moving around, but your heart rate
and breathing do not increase very much. You probably will not be sweating doing these
unless the weather is really hot. You would be able to talk easily through the activity.

12. How confident are you that you can exercise at a light intensity for most of
recess?

Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

MODERATE INTENSITY EXERCISE is when your breathing and heart rate increase.
You may start to sweat, your legs might feel a little bit tired and you may feel out of
breath. You may also find it hard to talk during the activity.

131

Appendix B continued

13. How confident are you that you can exercise at a moderate intensity for most of
recess?

Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5
HARD INTENSITY EXERCISE is when your heart beats very fast, your breathing is
fast and you start sweating. You may also feel exhausted and out of breath. Your legs
would probably be feeling pretty heavy. It would be very hard to talk during the activity.
14. How confident are you that you can exercise at a hard intensity for most of recess?

Not At All Confident Somewhat Confident Definitely
Confident
1 2 3 4 5

132

Appendix C: Child Assent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4031

ASSENT FORM FOR RESEARCH

Page 1 of 2
ASSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Promoting Physical Activity During Recess Study
1. My name is Merav Efrat.
2. I am asking you to take part in a research study because I am trying to learn more
about children‟s physical activity during recess.
3. If you agree to be in this study, I will ask you to answer questions about physical
activity and ask you to wear a small gadget on your hip that will measure your
physical activity levels. If you choose to join this study you will be assigned to one
of three groups. One group will learn new games they can play during recess, another
group will receive encouragement from their teacher to exercise and one group will
not do anything different. The decision about which group you will be in will be
based on a drawing. The researcher will write the name of your school, along with
two other schools‟ names on a piece of paper. These three papers will be folded and
placed in a bag. The researcher will reach into the bag; the first school selected will
be in group one and so on. Here is what will happen if you choose not to join in the
study. First, you will do your normal school work while other students who have
decided to join the study answer questions from a survey. Secondly, if your school is
assigned to the group that will learn new games you will go to your regular PE class,
while students who have decided to join the study will learn new games.
4. There are some things that could happen to you if you choose to join this study. You
may feel uncomfortable answering some of the questions about physical activity
and/or wearing the physical activity gadget. You may fall while playing some
exercise games you are taught.
133

Appendix C continued
Page 133 of 2
5. There are some benefits to joining this study. If you choose to participate in this
study you might learn some new games that you can play during recess and you may
receive encouragement to exercise.
6. Please talk this over with your parents before you decide whether or not to join. We
will also ask your parents to give their permission for you to take part in this study.
But even if your parents say “yes” you can still decide not to do this. Please take as
much time as you need to read this form. You may also decide to discuss it with your
family or friends. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form.
7. If you don‟t want to be in this study, you don‟t have to join. Remember, being in this
study is up to you and no one will be upset if you don‟t want to join or even if you
change your mind later and want to stop.
8. You can ask any questions that you have about the study. If you have a question later
that you didn‟t think of now, you can email me at Efrat@usc.edu or ask me next time.
9. If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or you would like to
speak with someone who isn‟t part of the research team to answer questions about the
research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached, please contact the
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier
Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
10. Signing your name at the bottom means that you agree to be in this study. You and
your parents will be given a copy of this form after you have signed it.
_________________________________ ____________________
Name of Subject Date
____________________________________
Subject‟s Signature
___________________________________ ____________________
Name of Investigator Date
___________________________________
Investigator‟s Signature
134

Appendix D: Accelerometer Instructions

Thank you for agreeing to participate in the accelerometer component of the study.

What is an accelerometer?

An accelerometer is a motion sensor that is similar to a step-counter, but instead of
measuring the number of steps, an accelerometer measures physical activity by recording
how often and how quickly movements are made. Accelerometers are small, devices that
are worn on a belt around the waist and do not interfere with usual daily activities or
function.

How do I use an accelerometer?

1. We will put the accelerometer on right before you go out to recess, so that all
of your movement during recess is measured.
2. Wear the accelerometer around your waist near your right hip during your
entire recess time.
3. Since the accelerometer is not waterproof avoid getting it wet.
4. When you return from recess you will take the accelerometer off and give it
back to the researcher.

These monitors are very expensive. Please take extra care with them!

If you have any questions or concerns, please contact:

Merav Efrat
At: Efrat@usc.edu

135

Appendix E: Description of Games
Eight Games Fourth Grade Students Can Play During Recess

The following eight activities were adopted from three resources: 1) Promoting Lifetime
Activity for Youth developed by the Arizona Department of Health Services; 2) Spark
Active Recreation: A Fusion of Fun, Fitness and Learning, and; 3) Putting Play Back into
the Playground Developed by Sports4kids.

Game #1: Jumping Jack Tag
During the intervention, the researcher will demonstrate safe tagging. Safe tagging is like
a butterfly touch, on the shoulders. On the other hand, unsafe tagging is any tag that
might cause the person being tagged to fall. This type of tagging is unacceptable during
any tag games. One person is it. The other children can try to avoid being tagged. They
are considered safe if they: 1) do jumping jacks, 2) do push-ups, or 3) hold a plank
position.
Game #2: Pig Out
One player is “it” and stands in the center of the area between two lines established about
50 feet apart. The class selects four types of food from each of the food groups (e.g.,
cheese, watermelon, chicken, and tomatoes). Each student then selects one of the four
foods, but does not tell anyone what it is. The tagger calls out a food. All students who
selected that food attempt to run to the other line without getting tagged. The tagger calls
out the foods until all students have run. When a child gets tagged, he must dance or do
136

Appendix E continued
jumping jacks on the spot where he or she was tagged. He or she cannot move but may
tag other students who run too near. When the one who is “it” calls out “Pig out”, all of
the foods must go. The game is played until all students have been tagged.
Game # 3: Hide the Coin
One child, the searcher, stands to the side with their eyes covered. The group selects one
child to hide a coin in their pocket. If a coin is not available, children can use an eraser.
The searcher moves among the class trying to locate the coin, as the students walk and
run in place. They walk and run faster as the searcher nears the child with the coin. The
searcher tries to identify the student with the coin based on the reactions of the group.
After the searcher finds the coin, the searcher gets to select the next person to hide the
coin. The person who hid the coin in the previous round becomes the new searcher.
Game #4: Super Snake
Two students are turners, everyone else is a jumper. The two turners kneel or sit on the
ground and hold the rope to the ground. The turners‟ job is to move the rope back and
forth first slowly then increasingly faster while the jumpers try to jump over the rope
using a variety of jumps including: the one-footed jump. Students are encouraged to
create different athletic jumping patterns such as, 4 jumping jacks, jump over the rope
and 4 more jumping jacks. The challenge is to try jump over the rope without touching
the rope. Once a jumper touches the rope he or she switches with one of the turners.

137

Appendix E continued
Game #5: Wall-less Handball.
Play handball without a wall. A line separates two children. If line has not been
previously painted on the black top, children can use a piece of chalk to create such a line
on the black top. Play begins when the server drops the ball once into his/her side of the
line, then the ball should hit the other side of the line. The ball can only bounce once on
any side of the line. Each player needs to hit the ball with any part of their hand into an
opposing player‟s side of the line after it has bounced only once on their side of the line.
Game #6: Down, Down, Down
Start with a ball and throw the ball continuously back and forth until somebody drops the
ball. If balls are not available students can use an eraser, or jacket. When someone drops
the ball, the other child says, “Down” and that person has to stand on one foot. If the
same person drops the ball again they switch to standing on their other foot. Drop it
again and they have to go down into a squat position. If they drop the ball again they are
out and their partner earns one point. Partners play game until one person earns 10
points.
Game #7: Band-Aid Tag
Every player is a tagger. Any player who is tagged must cover with one hand the body
area that was touched. Students may be tagged twice but must be able to hold both tagged
spots and keep moving. A student who is tagged three times must go to the “doctor‟s
office”. To pay for his or her doctor‟s bill he or she must do 20 jumping jacks. After he
138

Appendix E continued

or she does 20 jumping jacks they are free to start tagging other children again. Restart
the game when most of the students have visited the doctor‟s office twice.

Game # 8: Twist-n-Turn
Four children pair up. Each pair stands back to back. While back to back, students twist
and turn at the waist in order to pass the ball (or sweater if ball is unavailable) to each
other. The challenge is to exchange the ball as fast as possible ten times. The pair that
manages to pass the ball ten times first, earns a point. The pair that earns ten points first,
wins the game.

139

Appendix F: Handout on the Benefits of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity

Talking points for teachers to guide a brief discussion with students on
the benefits of moderate to vigorous physical activity

Why should we be physically active?
 Not being active can lead to many health problems such as heart
problems, diabetes, high blood pressure, and some kind of cancers.
 Physical activity can increase your energy.
 Being active helps us feel good.
 Physical activity is fun!

What are some physically active games you can play during recess?
 List games students are allowed to play at school during recess

What are the best activities to do?
 Ones that you enjoy and keeping you moving at a moderate to hard
intensity.

140

Appendix G: Teacher‟s Verbal Persuasion Daily Checklist

 It is important to do exercise that is of moderate and/or
vigorous intensity.

 Recess and lunch are great times to exercise!

 After you eat your snack or your lunch, play active games
during the rest of recess and lunch time.

Please check off each day that you implement the verbal persuasion
protocol before your students go out to recess and lunch.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Recess Lunch Recess Lunch Recess Lunch Recess Lunch Recess Lunch
Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Week 4

Week 5

Week 6

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore strategies that may increase children’s motivation to engage in physical activity during unstructured in-school free-time, such as recess. One hundred and sixty-two students, recruited from three elementary schools and nine fourth grade classrooms, were randomly assigned to one of three groups: 1) a teacher’s daily verbal persuasion to engage in physical activity during recess

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Asset Metadata

Creator Efrat, Merav W. (author)

Core Title Children's motivation to engage in physical activity during recess

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/21/2010

Defense Date 04/05/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Children,Modeling,OAI-PMH Harvest,physical activity,recess,self-efficacy,verbal persuasion

Place Name California (states), San Fernando Valley (city or populated place)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee chair), Riconscente, Michelle (committee member), Seli, Helena (committee member)

Creator Email Efrat@usc.edu,merav.efrat@csun.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3095

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