University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The impact and sustainability of programs, practices and norms on student academic performance: a case study

(USC Thesis Other)

The impact and sustainability of programs, practices and norms on student academic performance: a case study

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content

THE IMPACT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF PROGRAMS, PRACTICES AND
NORMS ON STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE: A CASE STUDY

by

Ron Pirayoff

___________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2010

Copyright 2010 Ron Pirayoff
ii
DEDICATION
This manuscript is dedicated to my wife, children and both sets of parents. Thank
you for all your support and endless love. The motivation you fueled me with kept
my sights on the finish line. All that I am today is because of your love, trust, support
and patience. I am eternally grateful, I love you.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I’d like to take this opportunity to express my eternal gratitude to those who
have supported me in the completion of this manuscript.
First and foremost I thank God for blessing me with my family, health,
opportunities and determination. There isn’t a day that goes by that I’m not amazed
by your blessings.
To my loving and supporting wife, I couldn’t possibly imagine going through
life without your words of encouragement and unconditional love.
To my Brooklyn and Grady, you’re amazing blessings that push me to be
more each day of my life. Everything I do is for you.
To my mom and dad: thank you for your love and support, you did an
amazing job with what you had. Your sacrifices will always be remembered.
To mom and dad: Your love and support has been felt from the beginning,
thank you for making me one of your own.
To the rest of my family: thank you for having confidence in me and always
seeing the big picture while helping me believe I could get through this entire
process.
To Dr. Stuart Gothold: thank you for your wisdom, guidance and calming
demeanor.
To my committee members Dr. Steve Fish and Dr. Dennis Hocevar, thank
you for your guidance and mentorship.
iv
To my cohort members: Ray, Theo, Patricia, Rosalinda, Young, Sandra,
Kimberly, and Michael, thank you for being a terrific support system.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication………………………………………………………………………… ...ii
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………….. ...iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………... ...vi
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………......1
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………......17
Chapter Three: Research Methodology………………………………………… ...42
Figure 3.1: Cohort Conceptual Model…………………………………... ...47
Chapter Four: The Findings…………………………………………………….. ...56
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions And Implications……………………... ...106
References……………………………………………………………………… ...122
Appendices
Appendix A: Document Review Master List………………………….....128
Appendix B: Observation Checklist……………………………………...131
Appendix C: The Staff Input Survey…………………………………......134
Appendix D: Data Sources and Instrumentation for Research
Questions …………………………………………………………………139
Appendix E: Relevant Programs, Practices and Cultural Norms………...143

vi
ABSTRACT

Over the past several decades, there has been a greater focus on
accountability as it relates to student achievement. Students of all backgrounds are
faced with challenges that highlight areas of growth within the educational system.
Specifically, the differences in academic performance between Hispanic and African
American and White and Asian students, often referred to as the “achievement gap”,
has been targeted by legislation and researchers.
Therefore, this qualitative case study was conducted to investigate variables
implemented by a middle school that targeted a gap in achievement. The study drew
from observations, document analysis, surveys and interviews to identify the
common themes that contribute to student achievement at the middle school.
Consistent with recent research on the achievement gap, the findings in this
study suggest that the gap in achievement can be effectively narrowed by those
middle schools that possess a focus on culture, leadership, teaching and learning,
parent involvement, high expectations for students and intervention programs.
Therefore, specific programs, practices and cultural norms that narrow the
achievement gap are identified and discussed. Furthermore, implications and
recommendations are presented to further solidify the body of research.

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In the last few decades, public education in the United States has seen a shift
from improving school structure and resources to an increased emphasis on
accountability for student achievement (Lee, Wong, 2004). Higher levels of
proficiency in established standards and standardized assessments for all have begun
to shape and unify the diverse landscape of public schools (Sirin, 2005). With the
passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2008) in
2002, the public school system has become increasingly responsible for student
achievement. Public schools must consistently align their student success with the
federal government’s definition of “proficient”, while maintaining the fundamental
philosophy of free and equal education for all (Wayne, 2002 Young, 2003).
The available data over the past several decades suggests that the differences
in academic performance between Hispanic and African American and White and
Asian students, often referred to as the “achievement gap”, can be successfully
narrowed (U.S. Dept of Education. 2008). During the 1950’s and 1960’s, public
education became a focal point for a country undergoing change (Parker, 2007). The
movement towards free and equal access to public education gained momentum with
the Supreme Court’s decision to allow schools to be accessible to all students in the
Brown v. Board of Education case of 1954 (Parker, 2007). By 1965, the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act allocated federal funds to schools that were made up
of socioeconomically disadvantaged students with the intention of narrowing the
2
achievement gap (Parker, 2007). Motivated by the Coleman Report (1966), a group
of social scientists who believed student learning and family factors were directly
linked, began the “Effective Schools Movement”. Field research aligned with this
particular perspective, began identifying schools that were ostensibly demonstrating
equitable student achievement regardless of socioeconomic status or family make-up
(Lezotte, 2001).
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics (2001), between
the years 1971 and 1982, roughly the same years that the factors relevant to
successful student achievement were being identified, the disparity in graduation
rates between African Americans and Whites fell 15 percentage points. And while
the high school completion gap has remained steady between Hispanics and Whites,
Hispanic students have experienced an increase in the percentage of graduates from
48 percent to 65 percent between 1971 and 2007 (U.S. Dept of Education, 2008).
By the 1980’s, the Reagan administration began to compare American
students with each other nationally as well as internationally with students from
other countries. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, was the
title of a 1983 report created by the Reagan administration’s National Commission
on Excellence in Education (Gutek, 2000). Motivated by an increasingly
competitive global environment, the report addressed critical issues such as falling
SAT scores and decreasing student achievement relative to other countries (National
Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). Although the report addressed how
American students were not meeting achievement standards, lost in the evaluation
3
was the need to address the clear and present disparity between American students
(U.S. Department of Education, 2008).
Between 1990 and 2007, Hispanic and African American students saw a
decrease in standardized test scores. The progress that was once being made in
narrowing the achievement gap between Hispanics and African Americans and their
White student counterparts, has considerably slowed, and indeed the scholarship
would indicate, has actually been widening over the last 18 years. The National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is the nation’s only assessment of
student knowledge across subject areas (U.S Dept of Education, 2008). According to
the NAEP, over the last three decades (1971-1999), student achievement overall has
moderately improved, however, substantial differences exist between racial and
ethnic groups. In a comparison of NAEP test results in the early 70’s and late 90’s,
the results illustrate that the African American -White achievement gap narrowed in
reading and mathematics. A closer look at the data suggests that the African
American -White achievement gap narrowed until the mid to late 1980’s, but began
to widen once again thereafter (Lee, 2002). Reading and math scores for African
Americans, Hispanics and Whites have maintained consistent gaps in the elementary
grades, while increasing in disparity for middle and high school grades (National
Educational Statistics, 2008). The growing disparity between students has
researchers taking aim at the achievement gap, examining various aspects of the
public school structure and the policies that guide them (Parker, 2008).
4
Attempting to narrow the disparities in student achievement, the federal
government enacted the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001. The legislation
was designed to address the gap in achievement between students of color, those
living in poverty, and English language learners (Darling-Hammond, 2007). A
system of standardized tests, evaluations and reports were created to align schools
and districts with common goals. Researchers are continuing to identify
commonalities that are associated with student performance and achievement
(Gardner, 2007). Instructional leadership, clear and focused objectives, high
expectations, frequent and consistent monitoring of student progress, school to home
communication, and student accessibility to programs are just a few common factors
which have been identified as being shared by successful schools (Lezotte, 2001).
Cultural norms are a set of formal or informal, rules, conventions, principles
and standards that are accepted by individuals within a setting (MacCormick, 1998).
Within the context of a school environment, norms can range from arrival and
departure times for teachers and staff, to an area of campus where students migrate to
for lunch (1998). Norms also become a valuable aspect of the schooling experience
as it relates to student achievement when examining the discontinuities between the
student’s culture at home and that of the school environment (Ogbu, 1982). Within
the context of school leadership, norms can become a source of support or rejection.
Leaders can struggle with adapting, changing and molding norms that are already in
place (MacCormick, 1998).
5
The field research has also noted that teaching and learning practices that
have been proven to reduce the achievement gap include a variety of methods aimed
at efficacy and motivation (Dagget, 2004). Janzti, Leithwood and Menzies (2000)
add that raising expectations, creating precepts and engaging student motivation are
all factors within teaching and learning that can narrow the learning gap.
According to the research, programs aimed at raising academic expectations
and parental involvement has also been effective tools for reducing the gap in
achievement. Barton (2003) adds that tutoring and mentoring, combined, can be an
effective “one-two” punch in the battle for student achievement. Students can gain
confidence and see positive results modeled for them with the use of mentors (2003).
Consequently, a relationship of respect and trust is established when students can
identify with tutors and mentors (2003).
Statement of the Problem
The achievement gap pertains to race and class where a disparity in academic
achievement persists between minority and disadvantaged students and their White
counterparts (Ladson-Billings, 2006). This disparity is illuminated by the changing
racial, ethnic and socioeconomic landscape that exists in U.S. public schools (Lee,
2002). To examine this further, Lee describes the achievement gap as a group of
trends that has stretched over the last 30 years, with key factors contributing to a
“split” in achievement for racial and ethnic groups. Culture, student behavior, school
environment and policies contribute to an achievement gap for a certain time period
or ethnic group. However, these findings create questions with regard to other
6
variations that could be contributing to the achievement disparity between students.
These questions outline some challenges when trying to transfer the reasons to other
schools or districts for the existence of an achievement gap. While inconsistencies in
programs, practices and even implementation could have occurred in schools that
were examined, further research is needed before transferable solutions can be
applied.
Cultural norms, practices and programs are all influential at the middle
school level. One of the biggest challenges students face is the transition from
middle school to high school (Lee & Berkam, 2003), specifically, the problem being
that they are unprepared for this transition. Rapid changes in hormone, physical
growth and peer pressure introduce a set of challenges that are unique to students in
middle school (Smyth, McInerney, Hattam, 2003). These challenges can sometimes
present themselves as obstacles for student achievement because these students,
more than any other time in their lives, become preoccupied and self-conscious of
the various changes they are simultaneously working through (Lee & Berkam, 2003).
Recently, researchers have increasingly focused on the transitional period between
middle and high school years because it offers an early glimpse at reasons for
dropping out of high school (Chen & Kaplan, 2003). Within this research, the
increased focus that has been given to middle school student achievement data, has
been found to be warranted. Barrington and Hendricks (1989) explain that dropping
out of high school is foreshadowed by early school failures and that middle school
efficacy is a strong predictor of subsequent attitudes towards school. Ninth graders
7
specifically, provide proof of just how challenging the transition to high school can
be. Compared with other grade levels, ninth graders have the highest dropout rates
and course failures (Hertzog & Moran, 1998).
The achievement gap that persists at the middle school level between students
of color and White and Asian students is an issue that is multifaceted and deep. An
increasing minority population coupled with a persistent disparity in student
achievement, means that further research to identify achievement gap variables is
needed.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify a school and its
cultural norms, practices, and programs which have succeeded in reducing the
achievement gap, and sustained those results over time. The study will focus on
student achievement by connecting increases in the school Academic Performance
Index and California Standardized Test scores to effective teaching and learning,
school leadership and mentoring. In this study, the definition of achievement gap
was defined as the disparity between African American and Hispanic and low
socioeconomic students and their White and Asian counterparts.
The researchers in the study identified programs, practices and cultural norms
that have been employed by a school to narrow the achievement gap and sustain
success.
8
This study was guided by the following three research questions:
1. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What cultural norms are present at the school that have allowed them to
narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
A conceptual framework was created, which utilized six steps to identify the
procedure by which a school and data were identified. They included identifying: a
high achieving school, a student subgroup performance, performance on California
Standardized Tests (CST), factors contributing to growth, the norms, programs and
practices that narrowed gaps in achievement and results.
Importance of the Study
Research within middle schools that focus on success indicators for student
achievement through the sustainability of programs, practices and an awareness of
cultural norms which narrow the achievement gap will inform practitioners in a
number of ways. First, it will allow practitioners to better identify student needs.
Second, it will create or reinforce a culture that is receptive to data and third, it will
allow practitioners to sustain their efforts towards narrowing the achievement gap.
The research provides examples of middle schools that have identified the
needs of their students by examining purposeful and meaningful data on a consistent
and sustainable basis. The analysis of data will help practitioners gain perspective
9
on the causes and effects of programs, practices and norms within a school setting,
while at the same time develop or strengthen a culture that is dependent on data.
Furthermore, the study will add to the already existing literature on the achievement
gap by acting as a reference point for teachers and administrators who are searching
for sustainable ways of narrowing the achievement gap. This case study will
contribute to the literature at large by giving a deep and thorough examination of one
middle school that has narrowed the achievement gap through sustainable programs,
practices and norms.
This qualitative case study examined one middle school to find variables that
contributed to the academic success of its students. Research has shown the unique
challenges middle school students face in the form of physical and emotional
changes and peer pressure. These experiences have motivated this researcher to
further examine the reasons for academic success in middle school aged Latino
students. While this research was limited by a particular timeframe, the variables
discovered in this study to narrow the achievement gap can serve as a reference point
for other middle schools, practitioners and policymakers who are looking to narrow
student achievement disparities. Also, it’s one of several studies aimed at revealing
programs, practices and norms that can be linked to narrowing the achievement gap.
Assumptions
1. A middle school can be representative of other middle schools in similar
categories.
2. Participants in the study were able to accurately convey their experiences.
10
3. The data collected from the school site and the California Department of
Education was accurate.
4. The researcher assumed there were other variables that contributed to the
narrowing of the achievement gap at the school site.
Limitations
1. The use of one middle school as a case study limits the transferability of
findings to other similar schools.
2. In collecting the data, the researcher’s interpretation of what was essential
and non-essential could be construed as bias.
3. The participants in the study volunteered, thereby limiting the
information gathering process.
4. The study was conducted within a limited amount of time.
5. The validity of the study only goes as far as the instruments used.
6. The level of truthfulness depends invariably with each participant’s
candor and experience.
Delimitations
1. The school site was selected by a predetermined criterion that was created
by the research group.
2. The study was confined to one middle school in Southern Orange County,
California.
3. A sample of the entire school site staff was used for the study.

11
Definition of Terms
Unless cited, most of the following definitions were retrieved from
Edsource’s (2009) web-based glossary of terms. These terms were specific to
effective teaching practices, the historical background of urban education, and
mathematics pedagogy.
Academic Performance Index (API): A number, used for school
accountability purposes, summarizing the performance of a group of students, a
school, or a district on California's standardized tests. A school's number (or API
score) is used to rank it among schools of the same type (elementary, middle, high)
and among the 100 schools of the same type that are most similar in terms of
students served, teacher qualifications, and other factors. Schools and districts also
receive separate API scores for “numerically significant” student groups, including
ethnic subgroups, socioeconomically disadvantaged students, English learners, and
students with disabilities.
Accountability : A mechanism by which students, schools and districts are
held responsible for the level of academic progress. Typically, content standards and
assessments are the means by which performance is gauged (Ed Source, 2005).
Achievement Gap: the disparity in a district, school or student’s academic
achievement based on race, ethnicity and/or socioeconomic status.
Adequately Yearly Progress (AYP): A statewide accountability system
mandates by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 which requires each state to
ensure that all schools and districts make Adequate Yearly Progress.
12
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform (A Nation at Risk):
A report created by the National Commission on Excellence in Education defining
problems and in American education providing solutions to the addressed issues.
At-Risk: Descriptor of individuals or groups who are likely to fall into the
lowest quartile based on family stability, family violence, family income, child
health and development, and educational achievement (Garcia, 2002).
Brown vs. Board of Education, 1954: United States Supreme Court decision
that reversed the Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) ruling in stating the doctrine of
“separate but equal” had no place in education. This landmark case held de jure
public school segregation to be unconstitutional (Grant & Ladson-Billings, 1997).
California Basic Educational Data System (CBEDS): An annual collection of
basic student and staff data from K–12 schools; includes data on student enrollment,
graduates, dropouts, course enrollment, enrollment in alternative education, gifted
and talented education, and more (STAR, 2008).
California Standards Test (CST): Tests that are part of the Standardized
Testing and Reporting (STAR) program and are based on the state's academic
content standards—what teachers are expected to be teaching and what students are
expected to be learning. They are primarily multiple choice and cover four subject
areas: English language arts (grades 2-11); mathematics (grades 2-11); history/social
science (grades 8, 10, and 11); and science (for grades 5, 8, 10, and high school
students who are taking specific subjects like biology, chemistry, or integrated
science). CSTs are criterion-referenced tests, and students are scored as "far below
13
basic, below basic, basic, proficient, and advanced." The state goal is for every
student to score at "proficient" or above. Only California students take these
standards-based tests so their results cannot be compared to test scores of students in
other states or nations.
Case Study: A type of qualitative research that attempts to study a
phenomenon in depth (Gall, Gall, Borg, 2003).
Content Knowledge: The body of knowledge comprising subject matter
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986; Sherin, 2002).
English Language Learners (ELL): Students whose home language is not
English and who qualify for extra help. EL students were formerly known as
"Limited English Proficient" (LEP).
Four Frames: The research that Bolman and Deal (2003) focuses on when
examining certain traits a leader may or may not have; structural, human resource,
symbolic or political.
Institutional Agent: Individuals with capacity and commitment to provide or
create opportunities to provide institutional resources and opportunities (Stanton-
Salazar, 1997).
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): A national test that is
given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. A small sample of
students representative of the state are tested. NAEP test scores can be compared to
national averages. California participates in NAEP, though not all states do.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The 2002 reauthorization of the
14
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Originally passed in 1965, ESEA
programs provide much of the federal funding for K-12 schools. NCLB's provisions
represent a significant change in the federal government's influence in public schools
and districts throughout the United States, particularly in terms of assessment,
accountability, and teacher quality. It increases the federal focus on the achievement
of disadvantaged pupils, including English learners and students who live in poverty,
provides funding for "innovative programs" such as charter schools, and supports the
right of parents to transfer their children to a different school if their school is low-
performing or unsafe.
Norm Referenced Tests: According to the California Department of
Education, an assessment that determines performance based on a comparison to a
larger group (nationwide).
Professional development: The advancement of skills or expertise to succeed
in a particular profession, especially through continued education.
Program Improvement: An intervention program for schools and districts that
fail to make “adequately yearly progress” (AYP) for two consecutive years. The
interventions become more severe if the school/district continues failing to reach
AYP, to the point where some restructuring is required.
School Accountability Report Card (SARC): The result of California voters
passing Prop 98. This ballot initiative provides California public schools with a
stable source of funding. In return, all public schools in California are required to
annually prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the public.
15
Similar Schools Ranking: A comparison of a school with 100 schools with
comparable demographics to compare API scores. A school’s similar school ranking
differs from their statewide ranking.
Socioeconomic status (SES): A measure of an individual or family’s relative
economic and social ranking (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009).
Standardized Testing and Reporting Program (STAR Program): California’s
program of standardized testing primarily consists of a battery of California
Standards Tests (CSTs). These tests cover state-adopted academic content standards
in English, math, science and history/social science. Students in grades 2-11 take
various CSTs. Students in grades 3 and 7 also take a short, norm-referenced test in
English and math that compares their scores to a national sample. And certain
Spanish-speaking English learners in grades 2-11 take an additional test in Spanish.
Student Mobility: A reference to fluctuations in student enrollment at a
school.
Title I: To improve basic programs operated by local educational agencies
(LEAs) by consulting with LEAs, teachers, principals, pupil services personnel,
administrators, other staff, and parents.
Triangulation: A data analysis method that cross-checks various data sources
to maximize validity (Patton, 2002).
Organization of the Study
Chapter one provided an introduction to the study, including a detailed
description of the problem and the aims of the study. Chapter Two details a review
16
of the literature on the achievement gap. Variables that narrow the gap are presented
and discussed. Chapter Three presents the methodology and research design for the
study. The presented topics include the conceptual framework, the study’s sample,
instrumentation used, the procedures for data collection, and data analysis. Chapter
Four explains the findings of the study while discussing the research questions and
their answers. Chapter Five provides a summary of the findings and discusses
implications for future study along with recommendations.
17
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
As we navigate our way through an era of increased accountability in public
education, we can better evaluate the impact of measures that support academic
achievement. The disparity in academic achievement between minorities and low
income students and their White counterparts has become more evident with the help
of recent reform measures (Borman, Hewes, Overman, Brown, 2003). Additionally,
with the passage of accountability policies such as NCLB, the achievement gap has
become ever more visible in standardized tests and annual school progress reports
(Borman et al., 2003). Strategies to close the gap have focused on district and state
level programs, teaching strategies and even parental support. The purpose of this
chapter is to review the literature on the demonstrable differences in academic
performance between non-minority and minority students, and low-socioeconomic
families. A historical context for public schools is included in the review, as that
explains the evolution of public schools and their adaptation to an industrialized
economy, followed by a movement towards reform and accountability. In order to
examine the attributes of successful student achievement, programs, cultural norms
and practices that have successfully enabled a narrowing of the gap in achievement,
will be analyzed. This chapter concludes by examining the role intervention
programs play in closing the achievement gap.
18
Historical Background
Public schools have evolved from a variety of factors, some being exclusive
to the urban setting and others which impact schools in alternate settings. Social
factors are significant in shaping public schools because they represent the
backgrounds of both the students and the community. Technology, the learning
environment, politics, parent involvement and legislation are all social factors that
can shape public schools (Barton, 2003). The impacts these social factors have are
long lasting and in most cases perpetuated by a lack of available resources (2003).
Poverty, large populations of English language learners and high student mobility
rates all have an impact on the shaping of public schools (2003). For example,
researchers have found that low socioeconomic status (SES), and high mobility is a
predictor for negative student outcomes among the Latino and African American
populations (Epps, 1995). Public schools are shaped by these inherited factors and
become reflections of their communities (1995).
Early forms of education included sparse and non-uniform policies that were
usually reinforced by teaching skills for an agrarian society (Tyack, 1974). With the
inception of high schools in the early 1900’s, education progressed from its early
rural beginnings to city centered public-funded institutions (Tyack, 1974). With
growing populations and a changing economic landscape, high schools in the United
States began to shift away from traditional structures and emphasis (Tyack, 1974).
This included a shift from a primarily agrarian culture and society, to one that was
significantly more industrialized—an evolution which caused population increases in
19
cities (Tyack, 1974). Correspondingly, public Schools increased in number, and
agrarian jobs were outnumbered by industry jobs (Tozier, Violas, Sense, 2003). The
educational system in the U.S. shifted to meet the demands of a changing world.
Compounded by an increase in immigration, education was charged to facilitate the
needs of a demanding economy, as well as, a change in demographics.
As the population of immigrants began to grow, so did the amount of jobs
available to immigrants (Goldin, 2001). The industrial revolution created a demand
that could not be filled by existing citizens alone (Goldin, 2001.) As populations
grew and areas became urbanized, ethnic diversity (which was common to these
urban areas) began shaping schools, while the density of population created racially
divided schools (Tyack & Hansot, 1992.) While urban schools were always racially
and ethnically diverse, they also included religious diversity, as Catholics, Jews and
other religions added to the already diverse demographic (Tyack, 1992.) While not
inclusive of race or ethnicity, urban public schools did have religious diversity.
Catholics, Jews and Protestants attended the same school in some instances (Tyack,
1992.) Poor immigrants were often forced to attend separate schools where the
emphasis was in learning a skill that would be useful in an industrialized economy
(Tyack, 1992). High school immigrants were filling the demand for industrialized
positions such as factory and assembly workers (Pratte, 1973; Tozer, Violas, &
Sense, 2002). Between 1940 and 1970, millions of uneducated immigrants and
minorities migrated to urban cities (Rury, 1999). One of the impacts illustrated by
20
this movement was that the population of Whites in urban cities began to decline,
with many of them migrating to outlying suburban areas (Rury, 1999).
During the industrial revolution, the American educational system produced
students with industrialized skills to meet the needs of a changing global economy
(Tyack & Hansot, 1992). Big business and a changing economy fueled a demand for
schools with an emphasis in science, specialized labor and large-scale retailing
(Goldin, 2001). Public schools became progressively equipped to feed the demand
of the industrial revolution while at the same time trying to accommodate and
function within an increasingly diverse student population (2001). A high school
diploma became more valuable because it represented an increased level of
knowledge that was now compatible with the growing demands of the economy
(Goldin, 2001).
As the result of a growing demand for skilled labor and globalization, the
modern day high school has emerged and redefined education in both the urban and
non-urban settings. A 1918 book, Principles of Secondary Education, written by the
Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, recommended content
areas such as vocational courses, health, civics and homemaking (Hammock, 2004;
Spring, 2001). These areas were recommended as curricular necessities so that
American students would be able to meet the growing demands of a changing
economy. The new course recommendations were communicated to students
through guidance counselors and teachers. Courses became more closely aligned
with the changing dynamics of the industrial revolution. America’s economy began
21
to grow at a rapid pace, driving the demand for students who were equipped with the
knowledge and skill set to succeed in the professional world. By the late 1950’s,
America’s high schools began developing a counseling system to help discern
between students who would be best fit for college and those who would best
succeed in vocational programs.
A Changing Landscape in Education
A growing difference between the home and school environment began to
take shape for immigrant students in the United States. Inconsistencies between the
home and school environment were largely responsible for underachievement among
many ethnic minority children (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Students
experienced challenges with language and cultural barriers, facing issues many of
their White counterparts weren’t exposed to. However, the affect of these
discontinuities between home and school have become a matter of scholarly concern
only recently, and were not a priority for education for much of the 20
th
century.
Research suggests that the inconsistencies faced by ethnic populations
between the home and school environment can be mediated by interventions (Parker,
2007). One type of intervention that can aide with the inconsistencies between the
home and school is mentoring (Jekielek, 2002). Positive relationships with adults
can exist in addition to that provided by a parent or even in place of support that a
parent does not give. Mentoring adults can bridge the communication gap between
the school and the home, breakdown language and cultural barriers, and provide
emotional support (2002).
22
Accountability
Accountability and high stakes testing has begun to shape the landscape of
American education. While always existing on some level, the processes by which
one is held accountable, and the aims and goals of accountability as concept and
practice, have evolved. Federal efforts such as The No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Act have shaped the goals and ideologies of public schools. The Act was a response
by the federal government to the demands of politicians and businesses for a more
efficient and practical public school system. While making the effort to stay ahead
of the international curve, the United States comparatively failed to recognize the
growing disparity between competitive nations in the areas of math and science. The
areas of space and technology, once strong aspects of the American school system,
were beginning to show signs of inadequacy, when compared to the comparative
achievements of the Russians. In an attempt to address the deficiencies in these
areas for American students, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act
(1958) which allocated funding for foreign language, math and science instruction.
Congress’ actions recertified the federal government’s role in public education and
paved the way for future federal measures.
By the 1980’s public education’s goals were still embattled in competition
with other nations. With the inception of the U.S. Department of Education (DOE)
in 1979, the federal government began to increase its role by analyzing and
evaluating the public school system in the United States. By 1983, the National
Commission on Excellence in Education, had put together a report that outlined the
23
literacy rates of youths in secondary education. The report revealed an alarming rate
of low student achievement for minority youth (National Commission on Excellence
in Education, 1983). While bringing to attention the rates of literacy and student
achievement, the report was not equipped with a plan to remedy what seemed to be a
growing disparity in student achievement.
No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind Act, signed into legislation in 2001, took another
step towards shaping accountability for American public schools. Signed by
President George W. Bush, the legislation took aim at directly addressing student
achievement by tying federal funding into high stakes testing, increasing
accountability at the state, district and school level and issuing an annual report on
progress (NCLB, 2001).
The federal government provides funding to states and districts under NCLB
contingent upon student achievement and annual progress. Schools are required to
report student performance in their Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). NCLB has set
a target date of 2014 for all schools to demonstrate proficiency on statewide tests.
As an added incentive, the government has tied federal funding to complying with
NCLB’s directives.
The state is responsible for setting content standards that will increase student
achievement through accountability and annual reports. Content standards are
aligned with state issued assessments so that the curriculum is aligned with state and
federal goals under NCLB. California’s Standardized Testing and Reporting
24
(STAR) program provides tests and analytical data for the following components
(California Department of Education, 2008).
1. All California Standardized Tests (CST)
2. California Modified Assessment (CMA) for grades 3,4,5.
3. California Achievement Tests
4. California Alternate Performance Assessment (CAPA)
5. Standards-based tests in Spanish
Achievement Gap
The achievement gap is specifically relevant to race and class wherein a
disparity in academic achievement persists between minority and disadvantaged
students and their White counterparts (Ladson-Billings, 2006). While a disparity in
academic achievement between minority and disadvantage students and Whites still
exists, reform measures such as NCLB have given us new ways to measure this
difference in achievement.
A lack of parent involvement, student mobility and low academic rigor are all
contributors to the achievement gap (Barton, 2003). Furthermore, Language barriers
and time spent at work are two factors that reduce parent involvement for minority
and low income students (Barton, 2003). According to a volume published by the
Citizens Commission on Civil Rights: High Classroom Turnover, How Children Get
Left Behind (Hartman, 2002), high student mobility contributes to lower student
achievement levels and slower academic pacing that can reduce the likelihood of
high school completion. A lack of academic rigor tends to lead to lower expectations
25
for students (Barton, 2003). Lower expectations for students lead to lower
achievement scores and a lack of efficacy when challenged with higher level
learning (Marzano, 2003).
With its constant references to the Coleman Report, the educational reform
movement of the 1980’s gained validity by shifting its focus from the school
environment to the family environment (Lezotte, 2001). Briefly summarized, the
Coleman Report emphasized the importance of family background when examining
student achievement (Coleman, 1966). In a follow-up publication written in 1982,
Programs of School Improvement: An Overview, Edmonds explains that families
play the most vital role in student achievement. Although Edmonds sites the schools
responsibility to create, maintain and promote a climate of learning, he adds that it’s
the introduction of values and standards that parents give their children that count the
most. As rejoinder to Edmond’s publication, educational researchers researched a
list of schools that were showing evidence of narrowing the achievement gap,
regardless of their race or socioeconomic status (Lezotte, 2001). Strategies found to
narrow the achievement gap include: teaching and learning as a school practice,
school culture, school leadership and family support (Jekielek et al., 2002).
Teaching and Learning
Availability of resources is a critical element in closing the achievement gap
in the area of teaching and learning. Reading specialists, computer technology and
advanced textbooks are all learning resources that can be used to reduce the disparity
in student academic achievement (Schwartz, 2001). Access to programs such as
26
high quality prekindergarten that is aligned to primary and secondary curriculum is
particularly imperative for poor students and students of color (O’Connell, 2008).
While the accessibility of programs is important to student achievement, the rigor of
these programs is equally important so that expectations can never be compromised.
Expectations of average and lower level students should be increased by routinely
asking them higher-order thinking skills questions (Parker, 2007). Raising the bar
for lower level and average students helps improve efficacy and gives them an
opportunity to gain a higher level of achievement.
One of the variables attributed to growth in achievement for students is
literacy. Research suggests that literacy plays a large role in forming a foundation
for factual and conceptual knowledge (Buris & Wiley, 2008). One area of focus
within the realm of literacy that has a large impact on student learning is academic
literacy (2008). Academic literacy represents an ability to understand at a higher
level of thinking while reading. Learning to comprehend and apply the concepts
within the subject area are key components of academic literacy. This is valuable
because it gives students strategies to strengthen techniques such as questioning,
clarifying, summarizing, and predicting; use of graphic organizers; and "chunking"
or breaking down sentences into manageable parts (Cziko, 1998).
Research on teaching and learning adds that teachers have effective outcomes
by observing other teachers conduct classroom instruction (Dagget, 2004). While
encouraging teachers to learn from their colleagues, leaders must first nurture trust to
encourage such openness. The rapport established between teachers and leaders
27
allows for a mutually beneficial relationship where ideas are freely exchanged and
decisions are made to support student learning (2004). Leadership then takes on a
shared role, where teachers and administrators partake in a collaborative effort to
outline best practices and essential components of the curriculum (Jesse & Pokorny,
2004).
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) add that a series of cognitive levels exists
when examining the knowledge dimensions for learning. In their Taxonomy Table,
the knowledge dimension is divided into four categories: Factual Knowledge,
Conceptual Knowledge, Procedural Knowledge, and Metacognitive Knowledge.
Factual knowledge describes the basic elements students need to know to be
acquainted with or solve problems within a subject area. Conceptual knowledge is
the interrelationships of basic concepts within the larger meaning of a subject area.
Procedural knowledge describes the steps involved to perform a task as well as how
to question and align the criteria for completing the task. Metacognitive knowledge
describes the awareness of one’s own knowledge level.
Using Anderson and Krathwohl’s dimensions of learning, teachers can gain a
research based perspective on delivering instruction. Student growth areas can be
targeted by examining which area of the learning dimension is lacking (2001). The
value of discovering student growth areas is that teachers are able to create lessons
that effectively target student deficiencies. Learning dimensions can help teachers
frame student growth areas into categories where they can be more effectively
targeted (2001). Teachers who are successful in increasing their student’s learning
28
are able to demonstrate improved problem solving and critical thinking, increased
retention of subject matter, and an increased ability to transfer knowledge from one
subject area to another (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
School Culture
Schools with a history of reform have an advantage of building on prior
reform efforts, and tend to be further along in establishing cultural norms and
expectations for improving school practices and student achievement (Copland,
2003). Previous exposure to successful change gives schools an advantage because
the staff is more likely to trust the actions of its leaders, commit to supporting each
other’s ideas and keep pace with the changing needs of their student population
(2003). However, it’s important to realize that school cultures are complex and
layered; principals and teachers are responsible for student learning, yet are isolated
and have little time to learn new educational ideas. Correspondingly, schools that
haven’t been exposed to prior successful change face the challenge of convincing
teachers and staff to join the particular efforts being advocated for. When holding a
leadership position it is important to note that attempting to change the existing
school culture is a complex and arduous task, and must take into account the
intricacies of the operation; only by being fully aware of the dynamics between all
stakeholders can one ensure sustainability of reforms that may be undertaken
(Copland, 2003, Sarason, 1971). Being aware of established traditions, values and
beliefs of the school and its surrounding community creates an understanding of the
underlying beliefs and values of a school, which ultimately lead to a promotion of
29
learning and student achievement. While trying to implement change, leaders should
also solicit stakeholders for their perspectives on the areas targeted for growth
(Sarason, 1992). Furthermore, leaders who promote a positive school culture also
help mediate differences in cultural and ethnically diverse student populations
(O’Connel, 2008).
An ongoing professional development to help teachers gain insight into new
curricula needs to be tied to the values and beliefs of the school community
(Schwartz, 2001). Being exposed to workshops, seminars and guest speakers gives
teachers the opportunity to gain insight on techniques that would better serve their
student population (2001). Change, if it occurs over time in a systematic fashion, is
more likely to be embraced by individuals because it allows opportunities for
development, understanding and support (DuFour, 2007). Specifically, teachers
should expect a consistent and meaningful model of professional development to
exist. An ongoing opportunity to communicate and learn is essential for
improvement of teaching strategies. A school culture that has educators who engage
in collaboration and professional learning community practices (PLC) has a stronger
chance of sustained substantive school improvement (Dufour, 2007).
Communication between educators becomes a practice that can enhance teaching
strategies for students of all backgrounds and ethnicities (Dufour, 2007). However
ingrained, collaboration can become a foundation for repetitive practice which in
turn becomes part of a school’s values and beliefs.
30
School Leadership
Leadership that improves teaching and learning is based on the consistent
reflection and analysis of norms, student achievement, and best practices. This
practice of reflection and analyzing works best when it is an ongoing effort to build
greater and better instructional practices and relationships between the school and
community members (Copland, 2003). Equally important is a school’s ability to
implement as well as sustain efforts that are designed to improve student
achievement (2003). Research shows a significant correlation between school
leadership and student achievement. In particular, when leadership is “distributed”,
the school gains what are called instructional leaders (Camburn, Rowan, Taylor,
2003). These instructional leaders, teachers and administrators, gain ownership over
policies and norms, by arriving at decisions with a collaborative sense of
determination (Dufour, 2007). By giving instructional leaders the opportunities to
consistently analyze data, talk about best practices and unwrap standards, school
leaders create and maintain a professional community that is focused on increasing
student achievement (2007).
Effective school leadership must be shared between organizational members
to promote ownership and sustainability of programs and practices (Herrera,
Grossman, Kauh, Feldman, McMaken, 2007). To encourage teacher ownership of
practices, leaders must make a conscious effort to empower teachers (Bolman and
Deal, 2003). Creating opportunities for professional growth is one way a leader can
build capacity for individuals within an organization. Workshops, seminars,
31
observations of other schools and even research based instructional techniques, are
all ways to empower teachers. Leaders must make a commitment to the organization
as well as themselves to maintain a consistent pace of professional growth that will,
in the long run, allow for successful programs and practices to survive tests of time
and turnover(2003).
Parental Involvement and Mentoring
Students who have meaningful parental involvement, parent-teacher
conferences and volunteering for the school, tend to have fewer behavioral problems
and better academic performance than students who do not (Barton, 2003). This is
because parents become increasingly acquainted with not only teachers and staff at
the school, but also the policies and procedures that tend to be a path to academic
achievement.
Using Lareau’s (1987) explanation of research for variations in parental
involvement, a distinction between social class lines becomes more evident when
examining why the level of involvement for parents varies. The culture of poverty,
the institutional approach and the cultural capital approach identify reasons for
variations in parental involvement between social classes. Looking through the lens
of the culture of poverty, one can see that parental involvement varies by
socioeconomics, and the prevailing conclusion appears to be that education is viewed
differently within social classes. Working class parents are less involved in their
child’s school because of time constraints and a greater separation between roles. In
the institutional approach Lareau (1987) adds that parents are less inclined to be
32
involved because schools are less accommodating of parental support. Whether this
lack of involvement is because school staff does not have the ability or capability to
involve parents, or because there are ongoing discriminatory practices, the
institutional approach focuses on the school’s ability to garner and facilitate parental
involvement. Lareau’s (1987) third approach outlines Bourdieu’s (1977) explanation
of cultural capital. This approach explains that schools are mainly middle-class
institutions with values and beliefs that perpetuate the middle-class status. The
students who are raised in such an environment have a decided advantage over
minorities who have a lower class status and come from low-income families. This
third approach actually uses the previous two approaches while emphasizing the
importance of the school and parent.
Gutman and Midgley (2000) explain that there is a correlation between parent
involvement and school achievement. Furthermore, when parents become a part of
the school environment, student achievement is impacted in a positive way.
Conversely, Gutman & Midgley (2000) add that when parents aren’t involved in the
school environment, an increase in student behavior ensues, as well as the fact that a
negative academic impact is more likely than when parents are involved. According
to the National Household Education Survey (U.S. Census, 2000), 41.5% of K-5
parents in the U.S. both attended parent conferences. The number of parent
participation in conferences drops for students in grades 6-8 to 30.1%. The Survey
also adds that in single parent families, the mother was far more likely to attend than
the father for both K-5 and 6-8
th
grade age groups. Both the single parent families
33
and the two-parent families experienced a decline in parental conference attendance
as their children got older. Employment obligations, transportation issues and
childcare logistics are all factors that contribute to a lack of parent involvement.
When parent involvement decreases as children get older, already extant issues
associated with a decrease in student achievement can become insurmountable
(Gutman &Midgley, 2000). While realizing there is no clear substitute for parent
involvement, student mentoring can be an intervention that is used to mediate school
and teacher expectations for achievement in the school environment (Herrera,
Grossman, Kauh, Feldman, McMaken, 2007).
A closer look at the research on parent involvement suggests that there can be
two types of participation, one that occurs at school and one that takes place in the
home environment (Chu & Willms, 1996). More recent studies focus on home-
based mixed with school-based parental involvement. According to Chu and Willms
(1996), there are two types of home and school involvement. Parental involvement
at home usually includes discussing experiences at school and monitoring out-of-
school activities. Parental involvement at school consists of communication between
parents and school personnel, volunteering in school and attending conferences and
school sponsored functions. The research also suggests that when parental
involvement is lacking in a school or home environment, the negative impact on
student achievement can be mediated by the socio-economic status (SES) of the
school (Chu & Willms, 1996). Chu and Willms add that similarly, high SES schools
34
were more likely to receive parental involvement from both low and high SES
families.
With over 12.9 million single-parent homes in the United States (U.S.
Census, 2006) districts and schools alike are looking for ways to mediate the effects
of varying parental involvement. As a result of this, schools have begun examining
different ways to more closely connect a student’s home to the school (Herrera et al.,
2007). While both school and community based programs exist, student mentoring
has increased in both popularity and availability in schools and districts across the
country (Herrera et al., 2007). Mentoring helps students achieve positive results in
three key academic areas; attendance, higher education and attitudes towards school
(Jekielek, 2002). Mentors can be a motivational incentive for students to come to
school (Herrera et al., 2007). Academic experiences and subject area knowledge are
ways mentors can motivate students to increase aspirations and set higher goals for
themselves (Herrera et al., 2007).
With over 3 million youths currently in formal one on one mentoring
programs in the United States, mentoring has become both popular in policy and
outcomes (Rhodes & DuBois, 2006). Mentoring programs are being used to
promote positive outcomes in academic achievement, as well as mental and physical
health (2006). The research includes studies done on the effectiveness of different
types of mentoring programs, which include community based mentoring (CBM)
programs, school based mentoring (SBM) programs, group mentoring and one on
one mentoring (Herrera et al., 2007). Each type of mentoring program offers results
35
that impact student behavior, school attendance, high school graduation rates and
relationships with adults (Jekielek, 2002). The following section includes a
summary and discussion on different mentoring programs, their focuses and
structures.
After reviewing research for parental involvement and student achievement,
the results of the studies are difficult to compare because of the variances in parental
involvement. Whether parental participation is lacking at home or at school,
students need a necessary support system to reinforce positive behavior and
academic achievement (Jekielek, 2002). A support system that can enhance learning
skills and guidance can, at times, mediate a lack of parental involvement (Jekielek,
2002).
High Expectations for Students
Since the passage of the No Child Left Behind legislation in 2001, public
schools have been held accountable for student achievement by state and federal
mandates (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Standardized testing, adequate yearly progress
and academic performance indexes have given districts the ability to measure
success in a both a relative and comparative fashion. The high expectations of
federal and state legislation have translated into higher academic standards for
students. Districts across the country have complied with the increased level of
accountability in large part due to the budgetary incentives the government has
offered if goals are met, as well as due to the threat of punitive measures that can be
imposed if goals are not met (2006).
36
According to the research, establishing high expectations for students
increases their chances of academic success (Benard, 1995). More specifically, it
decreases the number of students who drop out of school and increases the number
of youth who go on to college (Mehan et al., 1994). Schools that have clear and
consistent expectations with an emphasis on academics, experience fewer behavioral
issues with their students (1994). This is in large part due to the positive
reinforcement and structure that is inherent to this practice.
The research adds that schools have implemented high expectations in the
curriculum using instructional techniques (Menken & Look, 2000). The use of daily
agendas linked to content standards has allowed students as well as teachers to not
only set expectations for the lesson, it also serves as a guide that keeps instruction in
sync with overall curriculum goals (2000). A stronger focus on academic literacy
gives students the opportunity to build solid foundations for subject area vocabulary
(Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1994).
Programs
Research on school-wide programs has focused on numerous aspects of
student learning (Printy & Marks, 2004). From behavior to academics, schools have
created and implemented programs to target growth areas in their students (2004).
Otherwise referred to as “interventions”, because they are often aimed at mediating
behaviors, schools utilize this approach for students because they have identified
those behaviors that are detrimental to a student’s academic success (Rubie-Davies,
37
2007). Examples of interventions for students can include tutoring, mentoring,
counseling, and the list goes on (2007).
Looking more closely at mentoring as an intervention, recent research on the
impact of The Big Brothers Big Sisters School-Based Mentoring Program, Herrera et
al., add that school-based mentoring (SBM) programs have become popular because
they are effective with students who lack strong familial support and they give
students the convenience of attending school day sessions with no financial
implications. The programs target students who are need of structure and guidance.
The convenience of attending mentoring sessions are made possible by having time
for such sessions being built into the school schedule, and support from school staff.
For those same reasons, the cost of adopting and sustaining a SBM is relatively small
for both the families and the school because staff and facilities are generally not used
outside of the school day.
Herrera et al (2007) examined 10 Big Brother Big Sister (BBBS) SBM
programs across the country that involved more than 70 schools and 1,100 youth in
grades 4-9. The study randomly selected half the youth to be matched with a mentor
while the other half were placed on a waiting list to be matched with mentors 15
months later, at the end of the study. To learn about how the youth benefited from
the intervention, students were surveyed three times within a one year period.
Mentors were also surveyed to obtain information on how they communicated with
their mentee’s during the summer break. Teachers, principals and school staff were
38
also surveyed to obtain more background information on the logistics and effects of
the intervention.
Findings
The study of the intervention found that programs:
1. Were diverse in structure.
2. The BBBS was neither a tutoring program nor a community based
mentoring (CBM) program placed within a school.
3. Programs are reaching students with diverse risk factors and are
attracting a diverse group of volunteers.
4. By the end of the first year, the intervention had improved academic
attitudes, performance and behaviors.
5. The intervention needed sustainability and was not enough to result in
permanent effects on youth outcomes.
6. Lengthier time and closer matches are associated with stronger impacts.
The BBBS SBM program provided positive results as an intervention aimed
at short-term improvement. Although the study demonstrated the BBBS SBM
program produced positive student outcomes, Herrera et al. (2007) also added that
short-term interventions have unsustainable impacts unless they’re lengthened.
Moreover, a factor that can contribute to lengthening the intervention is the quality
of the matches between the mentor and the student.
39
High School Graduation
The completion of high school marks the end of a long road of primary and
secondary education, while at the same time beginning a new journey that involves a
vocation or post-secondary education (Schneider, Kirst, Hess, 2003). While the goal
of America’s high schools is to prepare students for the world’s changing economy,
origins of the success experienced in high school can be found at the middle school
level (Schneider, Kirst, Hess, 2003). Research further suggests that middle school
students who receive a failing grade in their eighth grade year are more likely to fail
multiple classes their first year of high school (Schneider, Kirst, Hess, 2003). A
student’s freshman year can be used as an indicator when determining future success
at the high school level (Swanson, 2004). As middle school students enter high
school in search of greater opportunities, accountability and achievement become the
focus for educators and policymakers (2004).
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation increased the stakes for
student achievement and accountability (Schneider, Kirst, Hess, 2003). Through its
policies, NCLB requires states and districts to report high school graduation rates
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006). States and districts become accountable for
their graduation rates by using the percentage of students that graduate ( U.S.
Department of Education, 2006).
As the stakes for high school graduation rates increase, more and more states,
districts and schools have become involved with dropout prevention programs
(Gross, Julion & Fogg, 2001). Programs that are aimed at a variety of areas from
40
parenting to tutoring to student engagement, have consumed educators and their
states (Gross, Julion & Fogg, 2001). The alternatives for students who chose not to
finish high school can be sobering: a greater chance of incarceration, increased
familial problems and a greater propensity for reliance on the government for
financial assistance can all be linked to high school dropouts (Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2006). In the U.S., average public school spending per student is roughly
$8,700 per year, well short of the over $20,000 average a state pays for operating
costs per prison inmate (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006).
With society bearing the cost for high school dropouts, researchers have
taken aim at the roots of the issue (Marks, 2000). According to the National
Education Association, NEA (2008), the elementary and middle school levels are an
impressionable time for school engagement. Students at these ages are more
susceptible to forming negative attitudes towards school (2008).
Conclusions
The evidence reviewed here suggests that the achievement gap, where a
disparity in academic achievement persists between minority and disadvantaged
students and their White counterparts, can be impacted by several factors: parental
involvement, school culture, school leadership and teaching and learning. The
research examined suggests that some form of accountability processes has existed in
our schools for many years, however only recently studies have been able to quantify
and explain the positive outcomes from increased accountability. The research has
led to a discovery of shared essential factors for successful and sustainable programs
41
and practices for narrowing the achievement gap. The positive outcomes of school
practices and programs pertains predominantly to those who share essential
variables: a) increased parental involvement; b) teaching and learning that involves
high expectations; c) consistent and shared leadership. While these variables share a
common bond between successful school-wide practices and programs, the literature
is less clear about their effects on the middle school, low income student’s academic
achievement abilities. This study will use case study research to look at one school
where programs, practices and norms have been shown to make a difference in
student achievement. This study will also attempt to identify other factors related to
increasing the academic achievement of minority and low income students. Since
many studies focus on youth in general, researching the variables that impact
minorities and low income students is notably helpful in contributing to the body of
research.
42
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the research methodology for this
study. With this being one case study from a collaboration of 9 team members, the
following aspects of this specific study are described: how the study was developed,
the research design, population and sample, instrumentation and conceptual model,
data collection, and data analysis components. The research questions dictated the
methodological approach chosen for this study. As described in the previous
chapters, the researcher examined aspects associated with high performance in an
urban school and whether or not programs, practices and sustainability played a key
role.
With a cadre of 9 doctoral students assembled, each member developed
specific study elements. Thematically, the group focused on successful ways of
narrowing the achievement gap. The group met from December 2008 to August
2009 to collaborate on the research. Beginning with a review of the literature, the
group discovered that research was limited when examining urban schools that had
showed consecutive year improvements in subgroup API scores. The literature also
demonstrated an examination of practices that increase API scores for minority and
low income subgroups, but such practices on a programmatic level and the
sustainability of those practices, had been largely unexplored in the field literature.
Therefore, programs and sustainability were included as another critical realm for
our study. After combining the initial research, the group of 9 doctoral students
43
developed a problem statement and research question to guide their study and
research instruments. Once the criteria was set, the researchers selected schools
based on the agreed upon criteria that would/could qualify a school as a probable
candidate for this study.
The cohort developed the following problem statement : “There is a
persistent academic disparity viewed between White and Asian students and ethnic
minority, ELL, and low-income students. Nevertheless, some urban schools have
made significant progress in reducing the disparity. However, what remains unclear
are the specific programs and practices which successfully contribute to reducing the
disparity and how such programs and practices are sustained over time.” To identify
those factors which contributed to significant gains in student achievement, the
cohort developed three research questions as follows:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that
have allowed them to close the achievement gap and academic growth?
2. What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and academic growth?
3. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and academic growth?
Research Design
A qualitative case study research design was chosen for this particular
research based upon the match between the problem statement and approach. By
utilizing the case study approach, the researcher could determine what was being
44
done at a school that was improving student achievement for low income and
minority students. Interviews, observations, and questionnaires were used to
specifically determine what programs and practices were in place to close the
learning gap between Whites and Asians and minorities and low income students.
Sustainability of these programs and practices was determined through interviews
and observations. Using the case study outlined in Gall, Gall and Borg (2003), the
researcher’s objective was to reveal variables that contributed to a school that was
narrowing the achievement gap. The researcher’s objective centered on exploring
the persons, events, programs and practices related to high performance in a school
that was narrowing the achievement gap (Gall et al., 2003). Patton (2002) explains
that inductive designs allow patterns to emerge without formulating judgments or
opinions regarding research outcomes.
Sample and Population
Selection Criteria
An urban school which met the specific guidelines created by the doctoral
cohort was selected for this study. The group defined urban schools and determined
that only schools that met the following criteria would be studied:
Demographic Criteria
1. A significant subgroup in the school–100 or more students, or 15% of the
school population.
2. Presence of significant risk factors–ELL, low SES, 40% or more free and
reduced lunch, Title I, minority/immigrant population.
45
3. Sustainability–results gained for a minimum of 2-3 years; API subgroups
have narrowed or closed the gap; school wide score vs. subgroup meeting
the state target, or the subgroup meeting or exceeding state averages;
significant progress toward API score of 800.
Overview of API Middle School Neighborhoods
The sample for this study was taken from a local middle school in the city of
API, California. API is located in Orange County. In 2006, the city of API had a
population of 34,839 with 33% of the population Hispanic, 62% White and 5%
other. Twenty four percent of the population reported being foreign born and 32%
above the age of five speak a language other than English at home (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2006). The poverty rate in 2007 was 10.7%.
Overview of API Unified School District
The middle school selected for this study was within API Unified School
District (APIUSD). Ten middle schools are located within the district. The student
ethnic composition for the district is as follows: White 67.4%, Hispanic 18.1%,
Asian 5.2%, Filipino 1.2%, African American 1.4% and American Indian 0.3%.
English language learners represent 16.8% of the total enrollment: 75% speak
Spanish and 15% speak Korean (EdData District Reports, 2006-2007).
Overview of API Middle School
API Middle School (APIMS) was selected for this study. Having met the
demographic and academic criteria that was established by the cohort, APIMS
46
represents the most diversity in the district. APIMS is located in Southern Orange
County, California.
Conceptual Framework
Based upon the literature and specifically Clark and Estes’ (2002) work,
effective schools were examined using a six step process:
1. Identify a high achieving school–a school that is making progress towards
an 800 API.
2. Identify Student Subgroup Performance–examine API scores for 2006,
2007 and 2008 to determine subgroup progress.
3. 2008-2009 School Achievement Goals and Subgroup Performance on
CST.
4. Identify Factors Contributing to Growth–using instrumentations,
document review, observations, surveys and interviews.
5. Using the Instrumentation–Examine cultural norms, program and school
structures, and practices.
6. Analyze and Synthesize Results.
While other factors such as accountability, globalization, national/state
influences affect school performance, the cohort decided to use Clark and Estes
(2002) gap analysis to provide a specific and deep view of a case study. The Clark
and Estes lens is displayed as figure 3.1.

47
Figure 3.1: Cohort Conceptual Model

Identify a
High Achieving
School
Identify Student
Subgroup
Performance
2008-2009 School
Achievement Goals
and Subgroup
Performance on CST
Identify Factors
Contributing to
Growth Programs/School
Structures
Analyze and
Synthesize
Results
Practices
Cultural Norms
Document
Review
Observations
Interviews
Surveys
48
Instrumentation
Instrument Development
A gathering of a wide range of qualitative data was done at the school site
over a twelve week period. Qualitative data collection methods included
observations, conducting interviews and collecting field notes (Patton, 2003). These
types of instruments allow researchers the opportunity to collect usable data that
contains opinions, perspectives and humanized numbers (Patton, 2003). Based upon
the research questions, the cohort elected to use surveys, observations, field notes,
interviews and documents to conduct the study. All instruments will be noted and
added to the Appendix. The instruments are described in greater detail in the
following paragraphs.
Surveys
A 32 question survey was developed by the dissertation group to aid in the
triangulation of data at the school site. Using Bolman and Deal’s four frames as well
as Marzano’s work, surveys were structured so that they gained insight and
perspectives that related to the three research questions. With close to 80 percent
(47) of teachers, staff and administrators answering the survey questions, the answers
given proved to be both insightful and revealing. Questions one through ten
gathered data on the first research question: “What are the cultural norms that have
been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap
and academic growth?” Questions 11 through 22 focused on research question two:
“What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have allowed
49
them to close the achievement gap and academic growth?” Questions 23 through 32
addressed the third research question: “What are the programs that have been
employed by the school that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and
academic growth?”
The answering process for the survey questions contained two approaches.
For questions one through twenty-four, participants were asked to answer the survey
questions using a four-point Likert Scale that used the following statements: strongly
agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. The purpose of this approach was to
prevent participants from giving a neutral answer to the questions. For questions 25
through 32, a free response answer was requested from participants. The purpose of
this approach was to allow participants the opportunity to expand on their answers.
All the survey’s distributed asked the respondents to comment upon programs,
practices and social norms at the school site. The cohort members developed all
survey instruments used.
Interviews
A semi-structured interview format was utilized for this study. The interview
protocol was created by the dissertation group with the intention of gathering
responses that would enable data triangulation. Administrators, teachers and out-of-
classroom personnel were interviewed with the intention of gaining a broad range of
perspectives on school programs, practices and cultural norms. The questions
developed were designed to uncover factors that contributed to the school’s overall
academic success and whether or not certain aspects of school-wide functions play
50
an integral part as outlined in the research questions. In addition to providing
responses that correlated with the research questions, interviewees were asked
questions that pertained to academic expectations, teacher collaboration and the
sustainability of programs and practices occurring at the case study school. While
conducting the interviews, the researcher explained that all conversations were
completely anonymous and that proper research protocol as outlined by the
Institutional Review Board was being closely followed.
Observations
Bolman and Deal’s (1997) four frames provided the framework for
observations of the school’s environment and interactions. Using a standardized
observation form that was developed by the cohort, data was recorded on structural,
political, human resources and symbolic frames during the school observation visits.
Areas observed included classrooms, informal and formal faculty meetings,
extracurricular events and other non-classroom settings that were on campus and
involved faculty, staff and/or students. The data collected in the observations were
analyzed so that the qualitative findings were clear, credible and addressed the
research questions (Patton, 2002). The observations provided a rich and detailed
description of not only the events taking place but also the context in which the
observations were made (Patton, 2002).
The observations of the case study school occurred over nine full school
days. Having been granted full-access to classroom instruction and staff meetings by
the principal, information was readily available and staff was extremely
51
accommodating of the process. The observation protocol adopted by the dissertation
group used Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four organizational frames. The four frames
provided a method of organizing data into categories that involved teaching and
learning, leadership, collaboration high expectations for students.
Field Notes
Detailed field notes were taken throughout the data collection process by
paper and pen as well as voice recorder. Precise and useful field notes and accounts
were taken to ensure data was captured that could otherwise be overlooked by other
instrumentation. The researcher actively participated in the setting of the subjects
who were observed, taking meticulous notes and recording observations so that
available pieces of information were captured as fully as the researcher was able
(Patton, 2003). Direct quotations from individuals and reflective notes gave the
researcher the insight that further strengthened the triangulation of the data. As
Patton has recommended, field notes were taken continually throughout the
researcher’s experience so that important information, feelings and perspectives were
captured when fresh (2002).
Student Data
Student achievement data was examined before, during and after the data
collection process. Along with published API reports, the researcher asked to gain
access to recent teacher test scores and assessment grades through a web based
program called Data Director. The program allowed the disaggregation of
standardized testing data over a span of three years. Annual data was compared and
52
divided into various subgroups that provided a relative analysis of progress. Testing
data divided by teachers within the school was also examined. Common assessments
such as the STAR exams and various subject area benchmark exams were used to
identify classes that experienced growth in scores. In this process, the following
academic indicators were included: Academic Performance Index (API), Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP), common summative assessments, California Standards Test
(CST) data.
Documents
Other than surveys, interviews, observations, field notes and student
achievement data, other documents were also reviewed. The researcher collected
data on school disciplinary numbers such as student suspensions, expulsions, awards,
school activities and attendance rates. In addition to the above mentioned
documents, a review of the school accountability report card was conducted to obtain
longitudinal data such as API and AYP growth. Also examined were agendas and
minutes from leadership team meetings, staff meetings and departmental meetings.
Additionally, the school’s mission and master plan were examined to determine
alignment to school-wide programs, practices and norms. To obtain the data, the
researcher reviewed school, district and state websites, accreditation reports and Data
Director. In addition to the above mentioned data, the researcher collected samples
of student work and teacher lesson plans.
53
Data Collection Procedures
The cohort discussed and developed a data collection protocol that
triangulated answers to the research questions. Once the instruments were
developed, they were submitted to the dissertation chair for approval. Subsequently,
a timeline was established for research and the collection of data. The initial
requirement conveyed by the dissertation chair was that there were to be a minimum
of six full days of on-site research. The dissertation chairperson further
recommended that the researchers try to spend as much time at the school site as
possible. The collection of data from multiple instruments/sources provided
corroborating evidence that increases the validity of the study’s conclusions (Bazely,
2004). The collection of a range of qualitative data was completed at the school site
over a 10 week period for this case study. The data originated from the School
Accountability Report Card, researcher observations/field notes and school
background information. Prior to the interview process, all participants were made
aware that the process was voluntary and that all responses and candor would remain
completely anonymous and confidential as outlined in the Internal Review Board
Policies.
Data Analysis Procedures
Using Creswell’s (2003) procedural steps for analyzing and interpreting data,
the researcher triangulated comprehensive information from a variety of sources.
The data collected was aligned to the three research questions by using Creswell’s
data transformation process. Additionally, the data was “coded” and placed into
54
folders that outlined the major themes discovered during the study. The data was
gathered through questionnaires, interviews, school observations, and analysis of
various documents and records. Once the data collection process was completed, the
researcher initially read the various data pieces to comprehend and reevaluate the
relevancy of the information. Next, the researcher organized the data in thematic
categories that were based on the emerging major themes of the study.
The procedural steps used by the researcher for analyzing and interpreting
data are listed below (Creswell, 2003):
Step 1: The researcher organized and prepared data by creating thematic
folders, transcribing all interviews and coding all surveys. The use of folders,
transcription and coding allowed the researcher to organize all the collected data so
that information could be readily accessed when triangulating occurrences.
Step 2: The researcher read through all the data to discover a sense of the
overall theme(s). The interpretation of data allowed the researcher to compare and
contrast themes to derive similarities that point to variables that improve student
learning.
Step 3: The researcher coded the themes and organized them into categories.
Once the similarities had been discovered and major themes identified, data was
coded by color to identify the number of appearances within the instrumentations.
Step 4: The researcher used the codes to describe events, people, categories
and themes. Once themes were discovered, the coding process helped triangulate
perspectives and opinions.
55
Step 5: The researcher used narratives to present the findings. While
conducting observations, a voice recorder became especially helpful when reporting
details of an event.
Step 6: The researcher interpreted the findings based upon the researcher’s
comprehension of the data. Once all data was collected, coded and organized, the
researcher was able to give meaning to the findings by aligning them with the overall
themes that emerged.
Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to describe the research methods that were
used for this qualitative case study. The methods used were based on researcher
discussion with the cohort as well as the use of Gall et al. (2003), Patton (2002) and
Creswell (2003). The qualitative data were organized through the creation of codes
that enabled the identification of recurring themes. The validity of this study was
maximized through triangulation, peer-review and observations. Careful adherence
to ethical and moral guidelines as described by the University’s Internal Review
Board was applied. Conclusions and results for the study can be found in chapter 4.
56
CHAPTER FOUR
THE FINDINGS
Introduction
This chapter provides the results of the case study and an analysis of the data
gathered, which help us answer the research questions which guided the study, as
stated in Chapter One. The research questions also guided the collection process for
the qualitative data that included observations, document review, staff survey results
and group/single interviews.
Research Questions
This study concerns a middle school that has successfully narrowed the
achievement gap by identifying variables that are perceived to have made a positive
impact on student achievement. Correspondingly, school-wide practices, programs
and norms were examined to determine their impact on student performance. As a
reminder, the three research questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What are the cultural norms that have been used by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices that have been used by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What are the programs that have been used by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
57
Description of the Case Study School
The school selected for this study not only met the criteria set forth by the
cohort (see Ch. 3), the site also provided a positive example of an institution that is
high performing with a diverse population. The case study school is situated in a
neighborhood that is divided between a predominantly White coastal community and
a predominantly Latino housing development. The attendance boundaries drawn for
the school require that approximately twenty-five percent of the coastal community
middle school kids attend while all of the housing development kids attend the
school. Upon entering the school, the researcher noticed that the main parking lot
was designed with a one way in and one way out function in the front of the school.
Just a few feet from the parking lot was the main building of the school, flanked by a
California Distinguished School sign, a district seal and the American and California
flags. The main office is located in the front of the school, situated between two
classrooms.
As the researcher, when I entered the school, the front office secretary
greeted me warmly. The office was bustling with school personnel: secretaries,
counselors, teachers and administrators all navigating the busy space on the way to
their destinations. The office was clean and well maintained and the researcher
received an impression of helpfulness and courtesy from the office staff. Once
signed in, the researcher walked past the office and onto the campus, and one of the
things that first comes into view is a row of college flags—displayed from the front
of the school all the way down to the back end of the school. The flags were put
58
there as a symbolic gesture by the administration for the students. The name given
to the flags is “reminder row”, meaning that every time students walk through the
main passage, they’re reminded of their goal to attend college. Most students and
teachers were dressed in red, marking the beginning of Red Ribbon Week. Red
Ribbon Week is a nation-wide event that promotes keeping kids drug free. (During
this week, each day of is divided into ceremonies and events that educate students on
the harmful effects of drugs.) The morning bell rang and students were observed
hurrying to their classes to avoid being late. Once the tardy bell rang, no students
were visible in the hallways, and teachers were observed as already having begun
instruction. While beginning the day in a math class, the researcher observed a
teacher starting her class by collecting the homework; the researcher noted that all
students had completed the assignment. The teacher spoke to his students with a
tone of structure and a sense of guidance. The instruction students were receiving,
was displayed on the classroom Whiteboard in the form of an agenda. The entire
instructional period was used to improve student learning by way of activities and
lecture, with homework being assigned at the end of the period. Visible on their
desks, each student had a copy of the student information handbook. Inside the
handbook there was a section set aside for students to use to write down their
homework assignments. This section in the handbook serves dual purpose: first as a
reminder for students, and second as a way of communicating assignments to
parents.
59
Data Collection Methods
This case study utilized qualitative research methods for the collection of
data. The various instruments, observations, surveys, document reviews, and
interviews allowed the researcher to triangulate the data sources. The 32-item survey
aligned with the three research questions was completed by 47 API Middle School
(APIMS) teachers, an approximately 80% response rate. To further examine the
programs, practices and norms at the school site, 8 APIMS teachers, an assistant
principal and the principal were interviewed, each explaining events at the school
through their perspectives. These interviewees were strategically selected to ensure
a wide base of experience and involvement with school policies and structure; the
interviews were recorded and later transcribed to provide an accurate record of the
data. In addition to the interviews, the researcher observed the site for a period of
ten days, to allow exposure to a variety of events and bell schedules at the school.
Teacher collaboration time, district collaboration time, class sessions, lunch and
break activities were all observed by the researcher during these observations. Using
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership, a shared observation protocol
was developed by the dissertation research group (Appendix B) and this allowed the
researcher to frame the observations conducted into four categories: human resource,
structural, symbolic and political. A document review was conducted to allow the
researcher to collect further evidence of the school’s norms, practices and programs.
60
Research Questions and Instrumentation
This section includes the data found during the study that supports answers to
each of the three research questions. The data was collected using a qualitative
approach that consisted of interviews, survey, document review and observations.
QUESTION 1: What are the programs that have been employed by the school
that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
The case study school has used the last 7 years as an opportunity to identify
ways to increase student achievement by creating interventions that address the
problem areas. Within the last year, the case study school has become a Title I
school, and according to the California Dept of Education:
A school that receives funds that are used to support effective, research-based
educational strategies that close the achievement gap between high-and low-
performing students and enable the students to meet the states challenging
academic standards. Title I-funded schools are either targeted assistance
schools or school wide program schools.

The funds received by the case study school are used to identify student
needs and create programs that can directly address those needs. The leadership team
at the case study middle school, under the direction of the principal, has been able to
create interventions that target student needs. Interventions are used to address a
range of issues from missing assignments to developing skills for academic success.
As one leadership team member explained during a focus interview:
When we get together as a leadership team, we’re guided by the problems
and issues we, as well as most teachers, are facing on a daily basis, missing
assignments, low test/quiz scores and the list goes on. Our main goal is to
see how we can get kids to perform better on our benchmark exams as well as
61
our CST’s, but that’s the overall goal. The strategies we’ve come up with
include interventions that target things that I just mentioned.

The intervention creation and implementation process has evolved over the
last few years from being created and sustained by the principal to a shared
responsibility with teachers and administrators. The hope of the staff is that these
programs can be sustainable over time as, the principal explained:
That’s the million dollar question because everything that I’m doing from
teaching this class to everything else, I’m worried about my sanity. So it’s
building leadership capacity and it’s easy in some instances because I have
people that really step up to the plate and do amazing things. I have some
people that are really good with running with ideas, they take something I’ve
given them and take it 10 levels above anything I would have ever thought of.
I worry about other aspects, for example this group of boys that are in my
math class and the sad choices they could make. There’s not the desire of
bending over backwards for them and making them successful. I want to see
my kids succeed. If we all share the goal then it’s a sustainable effort but if
there are only a few of us then there’s a high rate of burnout.

The fact that 39 percent of the students at the case study middle school were
identified as English learners, and others are considered to be challenged by the
district and state curriculum, caused the leadership team, guided by the principal to
incorporate a program called “Zeros Aren’t Permitted”, (ZAP). The ZAP program is
an after school program that is run five days a week for students who failed to turn in
their math homework for that day. Each day of the after school program has a
different math teacher, with Friday being run by the principal. Students from all the
math classes in the school are part of the program and this was made possible by
having a 100 percent math teacher participation rate in the program. As one teacher
reported during a focus interview:
62
We’re getting everything lined up so all of us in the department are assigning
the same homework. It’s important that we’re giving the same homework
because it allows for the ZAP program to work more smoothly. Also, we all
need to be paced pretty similarly because when we have students who miss
assignments and they’re attending after school help, the help they’re getting
is more focused and not spread out because every teacher is giving out the
same work in a similar time frame.

Additional after school support for students not meeting school-set academic
criteria is available in the form of the Lion Academy. The Lion Academy is a five
step process for students who are receiving anything below a C in any of their
classes, as identified by progress reports. Students are placed in tutoring in the
library and classrooms during lunch to receive additional help in their
underperforming areas. The inclusion of after school tutoring, in the form of the
homework club, is also used for students exhibiting a multiple of class grades that
fall below a C. The following 5 steps outline the Lion Academy:
Step 1 (1 D) = Lion Academy 5 days per week during lunch for 25 minutes.

Step 2 (2D’s or 1F) = Lion Academy, same conditions as step 1 plus 1 day of
after school homework club.

Step 3 (3 D’s or 2 F’s) = Lion Academy same conditions as step 1 plus 2 days
homework club.

Step 4 (4 D’s or 3 F’s) = Lion Academy same conditions as step 1 plus 3 days
homework club.

Step 5 (4 F’s ) = Lion Academy same conditions as step 1 plus 4 days
homework club.

When asked about the Lion Academy the principal added “Again, the sales pitch to
kids, and this is important, is that we are not trying to punish them, we are trying to
63
help them be successful because at APIMS (Academic Performance Index Middle
School), success is non-negotiable”.
To further emphasize success for its students, the case study school’s teachers
and administrators created a program that identifies students who have received
below basic and far below basic on the California Subject Test in English language
arts and math. “Block” is a program where students are placed in a block period of
instruction for the subject area they’re struggling with so that they receive added
attention in that discipline. For math students, that added attention comes in the
form of the math academy. The math academy is placed immediately after their
general math class on a student’s schedule. Similarly for English language arts
students, reading/writing academy is placed immediately after their ELA class on
their schedule. In both instances, students who performed below basic and far below
basic on the California Subject Area Tests will receive these interventions. The
Block teachers collaborate with the ELA and math teachers to target knowledge and
skills gaps through the development of vocabulary, reading comprehension, sentence
and grammatical structures and study skills.
To support these programs and the master schedule, the principal has
allocated Title I funds to pay teachers and to reduce class size averages to 25:1.
Teachers are being compensated for the non-contractual hours that are driving
APIMS interventions. New class sections were created to support the learning of
those students who are underperforming. During a focus interview one teacher
added:
64
I’m happy to see the progression of this school in terms of focus on our
students. I’ve been here for a long time and now I finally get to focus on my
subject area, both as a primary class and support, because of our Block
program. We’ve never had the money to just create sections because students
needed it. Now, it’s almost like with the freedom to create comes the
pressure to provide results. I like that kind of pressure.

Emphasizing the importance of professional learning communities, the
principal gave a copy of Rick DuFour’s book, Learning by Doing to each of her
leadership team members. Using the book as a guide to outline professional learning
communities, the principal and leadership team taught the rest of the staff the
essential components of a learning community. Beginning in 2006, the staff took
part in professional development opportunities aimed at creating a collaborative
culture. The impact of the leadership team’s effort paid dividends in the form of
better, meaningful and purposeful collaboration time. Staff members became aware
of the value in creating norms, an agenda and an atmosphere of collegiality where
information is shared and interpreted. With 94% percent responding either “agree”
or “strongly agree” to the statement “The school supports collaboration among
teachers,” participants from the case study school expressed their opinion that there
is an inherent value in sharing information. The principal explained the process in
the following way:
Back in 2006 I went to a workshop where DuFour was speaking and it struck
me. I wanted our teachers to do more than just meet and shop talk and staple
and grade papers. That’s not collaboration. I knew I had to help them find
the true meaning of collaboration. So I put together a program where our
teachers were hit with speakers, articles and modeling, every professional
development opportunity we got. Just like we drill the kids now with
concepts, we drilled the teachers and staff with the true meaning of
collaboration. The results weren’t immediately felt but look at us now. I
65
mean if you saw what we called collaboration three years ago, you’d be able
to tell we’ve come a long ways.

While learning the benefits of true collaboration, some teachers initially resisted the
idea of structure and accountability. As one teacher in a focus interview explained:
I have to be honest, I wasn’t too happy at first. I felt like there was a
disconnect with the administration and that they didn’t trust us. But as time
went on and I learned more from DuFour’s book, I realized that the
accountability piece wasn’t about making sure we were present and on task.
It was mainly used to hold ourselves to the group norms that we created.
That was the best part. We got to set the goals and agendas and we got to
hold ourselves accountable to them. If you think about it, it’s more autonomy
than anything else.

Another program that further prepares students at APIMS is the
Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) program. Since 2001, the
principal reports that the program has gained momentum in both the number of
participants and impact on student achievement. The AVID program is aimed at
those students who would be the first in their families to attend college. It creates a
blueprint for participants to gain acceptance to college by introducing them to
college requirements, financial aid opportunities and even campus tours of
prospective colleges. At APIMS, AVID uses a select number of homework
strategies to reinforce what is being taught in the classroom. These strategies were
research based and created by the teachers at APIMS, they include: writing
homework assignments in a notebook, communicating with teacher if one doesn’t
understand the assignment, plan regular time in the daily routine to complete
assignments, prepare a quiet place to work, check to see if directions were followed
and remember to bring it to school. The AVID teachers use differentiated instruction
66
techniques to engage and reinforce student focus and knowledge. Examples of these
techniques include the use of remote selection devices that enable students in the
classroom to simultaneously send in their answers to questions so that teachers can
gather real-time data to analyze responses. The use of individual whiteboards allows
each student to write answers and share them with the teacher. Other differentiated
instruction techniques involve guest speakers, small group problem solving and the
use of an in-class smartboard. Within the curriculum at APIMS, AVID is an elective
course that encourages enrollment in rigorous classes such as foreign languages and
higher level math classes. The curriculum also focuses on the value of study skills,
classroom success, and time management.
The case study middle school uses a well developed intervention model that
provides further support for students. The principal explained the intervention
identification and placement process in the research interview:
Our goal is to identify those students who are struggling, not just
academically. I really believe that when students are engaged in the
classroom, discipline issues drop dramatically. We have an intervention team
that is made up of teachers, counselors, academic advisors and
administrators. The team is assigned approximately 15 students each at the
end of the first quarter of every school year but the number of students can
grow throughout the year. Each intervention team member is responsible for
the academic, social and emotional progress of their students. It really is a
good way for students with issues to get one on one time with an adult who
cares. Our referral system allows students to be recommended to the
intervention team and that usually, besides report cards and behavior, is our
main way of identifying students who would get the most out of the program.

As a result of the intervention program, APIMS has been able to see
immediate results. Since its inception in September of 2008, the intervention
67
program has demonstrated the following results; number of D’s from first quarter
2008 to first quarter 2009 has dropped by 47 percent, number of F’s has decreased
by 110 percent and the number of school discipline referrals has decreased by 30
percent. Commenting on the results a teacher explained, “It’s nice to see our focused
effort demonstrating results, very reinforcing for us.”
In 2008, APIMS piloted the integration of benchmark assessments with the
Data Director Information system. Data Director allows teachers and administrators
to create reports, analyze disaggregated data by ethnicity, subject, California
standard, year and gender. With the help of Data Director, the case study school has
been able to create benchmark assessments that are aligned with the California State
Standards on education. The benchmark assessments are available for math,
English, social studies, and science. Each assessment is comprehensive and is used
by the department every 4-6 weeks. The assessments are used to calibrate student
knowledge with the STAR exam and classroom teaching and learning. The
benchmark assessments are common summative assessments that not only pace
instruction, they allow teachers to gauge the effectiveness of their lessons. Each
assessment uses questions that are built on state content standards. As one teacher
stated, “They really let me know if I’m off track or not using my time effectively to
teach to the state standards.” The benchmark assessments and the software for Data
Director were purchased in part with district funds and APIMS title I funds. The
Director of Secondary Education for the district explained that:
68
Using Data Director enables us to start conversations and to create a
collegiality that didn’t exist on the level it exists on now. Our teachers are
able to align their instruction with the State’s standards and move forward
from there. Teachers are able to identify and target students quicker and
easier, and more effectively. We’ve always encouraged a culture of analysis,
but this really brings it to a whole new level, right at your fingertips.

Data Director along with the benchmark assessments gives teachers and
administrators the ability to gather current data that displays trends and disparities.
Teachers and administrators can identify students that are struggling and target their
deficiencies with interventions. The data collected is then analyzed for discussions
on best practices in the classroom. One assistant principal at APIMS noted that
“teachers are becoming more and more focused on instruction and using
differentiated lessons.” The growing ability to identify and assist students who are
struggling was affirmed when 97 percent of the teachers surveyed answered
“strongly agree” or “agree” to the statement “The school has a systematic process for
identifying and assisting struggling students” and 92 percent marked “agree” or
“strongly agree” to the statement “Student data is used to identify the instructional
needs of my students.”
Another way the school supports student achievement is by giving teachers
the opportunity to attend professional growth experiences. The professional growth
that’s available to teachers ranges from paying teachers for workshops on classroom
management and discipline to educating teachers on the uses of Data Director. Each
professional growth opportunity shares the main goal of increasing student
achievement, but each opportunity also focuses on a different aspect for student
69
achievement. As one teacher pointed out, “it’s nice to be able to have an option that
educates us with practical knowledge. I can take what I learn from these workshops
and directly apply it to my students.” The principal described the securing of
funding for the professional growth opportunity in the following way:
There’s definitely a downside and an upside to being in program
improvement (PI). With this being our first year as a Title I school, we’ve
found a sense of urgency with the whole P.I. title but the difference is we
have some money to do something about it now. I challenged my teachers
last year to get better. I explained to them that if we’re not getting better,
we’re getting worse. The kids come to school every day, overcome their life
issues and challenges with the hopes of coming to a place that’s safe and
ready to educate them. We owe it to our students to get better at our craft,
there’s no way around it.

Increased parent involvement has been a goal of the case study school for the
past four years. Working collaboratively with the District Attorney’s (D.A.) office,
the school administration has been able to set up parent classes, called parent project,
that educate parents through guest speakers, discussion and modeling behaviors. The
parent project was first implemented in 2006 and is held in the library, one evening a
week. The school first partnered with the D.A’s office in 2007. The Sheriff’s
department and school officials decided to take a collaborative approach to stop the
growing number of gang related issues in the neighborhood. The preventative
approach has allowed the city to issue a gang injunction, granting extenuating
authority to local deputies, reducing the number of gang related incidents in the
neighborhood as well as the school. The principal has also bolstered the
participation of parents in the English Language Acquisition Community (ELAC)
group. Since 2005, the number of parent participants has grown and as of 2009
70
ELAC has 248 parent members. The ELAC group is an opportunity for parents to
learn techniques that will better equip them to monitor their child’s progress at
school, communicate with teachers and staff and build relationships with other
parents in the school community. With 92 percent of the faculty either “agreeing” or
“strongly agreeing” to the statement “School administration initiates programs that
promote parent involvement,” the case study schools’ commitment to getting parents
involved is evident.
QUESTION 2: What are the practices that have been employed by the school
that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
After interviewing, surveying and observing the faculty, staff and
administration at APIMS, the most prevalent school-wide practice identified was the
use of the California Academic Content Standards in math, science, English, and
social studies. Within all the data collected, there was evidence that the state
standards were consistently used to guide instruction. During observations, teachers
demonstrated their use of standards by having them visible for students on the board
as well as referring to them throughout the lesson. Each classroom visited had an
agenda posted on the board of topics to be covered. Each agenda item had the state
standards placed next to it so that students could make the connection between the
lesson and the expectations for learning. This practice was a process that involved
planning and time. As one teacher explained in an interview:
As of just a few years ago, we started talking about the importance of the
state standards in our teacher collaboration time. We all love doing things
that accentuate our lessons, like projects, presentations and reports. But the
71
fact of the matter is, we needed to tighten up our instruction so that we met
the needs of our students. To do that, we all had to take a closer look at what
needed to be reinforced within our curriculum and what we could do away
with. For some of us, that meant getting rid of some pretty traditional
projects.

The collaborative effort that produced lessons tied to state standards took
place during departmental meetings that were built into the bell schedule. These
meetings typically take place on Tuesday mornings, with students having a “late
start” to school that day. Department members use this time to identify focus areas
for each standard. Through this process, teachers are able to derive essential
questions from the standards for their lessons. Once compiled, the essential
questions are used to guide instruction and allow teachers to check for understanding
along the way with formative assessments. To further reinforce their lessons through
a collaborative process, teachers used district adopted textbooks and other materials
that were aligned with state standards in their subject area. With the principal’s
encouragement, teachers used a selective process to identify the essential learning
points in textbooks and accompanying materials. The autonomy afforded to teachers
is also present within the Data Director assessment system. Teachers can create tests
and quizzes that are aligned with content standards and subsequently have them
recorded and compiled in a “canned” report. Such reports allow teachers to create
categories that fit students with various backgrounds and needs. Data Director gives
the teacher the ability to monitor the progress of their students with each assessment
while using the teacher generated report. The Director of Secondary Education for
the district further clarified this feature by adding:
72
Our goal is twofold. We want to be able to diagnose the issues that impair
student learning and we also want to be able to have available a remedy.
Data Director helps us with both of those goals. It gives us the ability to see
things in minutes that would normally take months and many non-contractual
hours to compile. With the ability to see the issue comes an ability to target it
by way of an intervention. Our administrators and teachers can now make
performance driven decisions, in virtually real-time.

Twice a month the case study school’s intervention team (I.T.) meets with all
teachers who have a student in the intervention program. The intervention team uses
the meetings to communicate the progress students are making to their teachers.
Similarly, the teachers of those students use the meeting to discuss what instructional
and behavioral strategies have been most effective with the intervention students.
The intervention team is made up of one teacher from every department as well as an
administrator, counselor and academic advisor. The I.T. uses data from Data
Director as well as Aries, a data base of disciplinary actions and attendance records,
to monitor and target achievement obstacles. When asked about the intervention
team the principal added:
One of the ideas behind the creation of an intervention team was to create
leadership that was sustainable. I can’t do everything on my own, I’d kill
myself. As it is right now I teach a math class, I’m here running after school
tutoring and I’m running other interventions on top of being a principal. I
love what I’m doing but I also see the value in creating sustainable practices
that don’t rely on one person. I wanted some teachers to step up and take
control of something that could make a difference in the lives of their
students, something outside of the classroom. The intervention team allows
teachers to take ownership of practices such as the gathering of data,
analyzing the effectiveness of programs and collaboration.

The intervention team has been in place since September of 2008. Since then, the
requirements for being placed in a program have been raised. When the program
73
started, any student receiving an F or an unsatisfactory in citizenship or having
attendance or discipline issues could be placed in the program by a teacher,
counselor or parent. Currently, the criterion for placement is any student receiving a
D grade or below in any class with at least one unsatisfactory in citizenship and/or
issues with school attendance and discipline are placed in the intervention program.
The raising of the grade standards was best explained by a counselor when she
added, “we had to raise the bar, with all the other programs we have it was getting
difficult to locate students with an F.”
Another opportunity for teachers to learn about best practices in the
classroom comes in the form of professional development. With California’s recent
budget issues, funding for professional growth on a state and district level has all but
disappeared. Fortunately for the case study middle school, the use of Title I funds
allows the principal to offer professional development for her teachers. Teachers are
exposed to unique opportunities such as seminars, personal guidance from the
developer of Data Director and conferences on interventions and classroom
management. One English teacher described the opportunities as follows:
This is all unique and remarkable when you think about it. The rest of the
district, most of the state for that matter, doesn’t get the opportunities we’re
getting. I mean look at the whole Data Director deal, how incredible is that?
To be able to have the actual creator of the program come to our school and
talk to us about its uses, that’s pretty special. Generally speaking, I think we
take pride in getting better at our craft and to do that we need to be willing to
learn more, just like we expect our students to do.

Working with the intervention team to meet the needs of students is the school’s
leadership team. The leadership team consists of department chairpersons,
74
counselors, students and administrators. The leadership team meets monthly to
gauge the effectiveness of programs and practices. The team solicits the input from
its members to gain a well-rounded perspective of the events at the case study middle
school.
Since 2007 the case study middle school has had collaboration time for
teachers built into the bell schedule. Showing a commitment to a collaborative
approach, the case study middle school has a 9AM late start to the school day, every
Tuesday, so that teachers can use the one hour block of time for collaboration.
Teachers were asked about collaboration in focus group interviews and they
consistently responded with a need to share with each other best practices and data
driven instructional methods. In a focus group interview, the researcher asked how
collaboration is done at the school, is collaboration valued among teachers, and is
there any structure given for collaboration. A math teacher from the group
responded with:
When we first started the whole collaboration process, we didn’t really know
what to make of it. We met by department and talked about our students and
talked about building lessons. Since then, I think we’ve come a long way. I
really think collaboration is now an opportunity to get together and analyze
the data and come up with ways to challenge some of the negative data
results. I can really say that there has been an evolution of sorts, for the
better, when it comes to the use of time within collaboration.

Another teacher contributed to the group by adding: “I would have to agree with the
evolution part. We don’t meet for the sake of meeting. We have meaningful and
purposeful time together and it’s guided by the agendas of our department
chairpersons and administration. The time afforded to us has been done through the
75
building of trust. We’ve built trust with the administration, we’re responsible for
getting here on time and being productive, it’s about being professionals.” As the
collaborative model developed, teachers began to take ownership of the process by
creating their own agendas and goals for each meeting. Collaboration time went
from an administrative driven model to a teacher owned practice that fostered
communication and analytical skills. Teachers are responsible for assembling a
binder at the beginning of each school year that contains the team goals for the year
as well as strategies to accomplish those goals. As teachers meet within
collaboration time throughout the school year, they’re responsible for creating
agendas and evidence that they are working towards their goals. Answering the
researchers’ question “Is collaboration valued at this school?” a science teacher
provided the following input:
We take pride in using our time to help our students. I can accurately say that
many of us do value the opportunity to meet, analyze data, discuss best
practices and continue to develop a sense of collegiality. We don’t sit around
in a circle and say, ok, let’s collaborate. Collaboration is something that
happens as a byproduct to problem solving. And if we take a closer look, we
as educators, have lots of problems to solve.

Answering the researcher’s question “Is there any structure given for collaboration?”
a teacher gave the following response, detailing what outcomes are expected of them
as teachers using collaboration effectively:
Before, collaboration was totally administratively driven. We used to get
directives from them and then try to carry them out. Today, collaboration is
teacher driven. Although there are parameters set by the administration such
as, time we start, time we end, agendas produced, teachers ultimately are
responsible for setting goals that are aligned with our single school plan and
setting agendas that are aligned with our goals for every meeting. We’re
76
expected to use collaboration time effectively but the expectations we place
on ourselves are much more challenging and specific to our students’ needs.

The teacher response above highlights the shift from a centralized approach to
leadership to one that is a shared system, strengthened by trust. The shared
leadership at the school has allowed collaboration to evolve and become sustainable,
withstanding changes in personnel.
Complementing the collaborative process as a means of monitoring student
progress is a web based program called School Loop. School Loop was first
implemented at the case study middle school in 2006. The web program allows
parents and teachers to communicate on a daily basis through assignment reminders
and the gradebook. Teachers can post scores for tests, quizzes and assignments,
allowing parents to get a snapshot of their child’s progress in the class. When
parents have a question or concern regarding an assignment or a grade, they can send
an email to the teacher through the School Loop program. The program also allows
teachers to create their own web pages, thereby allowing them to post not only the
homework assignment but also detailed instructions and examples of how to
complete the assignment correctly. To support those parents who don’t have access
to, or otherwise lack the computer skills to use the program, the school offers a
parent education night twice a month. During the education night, parents are taught
the advantages of using School Loop as well as given the opportunity to use school
computers to monitor their child’s progress.
77
QUESTION 3: What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the
school that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
To gain a better sense of the daily routine and norms that exist at the case
study middle school, the researcher spent several weeks observing faculty meetings,
class sessions and other interactions. Of the interactions observed, none were more
telling than collaboration meetings and classroom observations. In 2007, the
principal and staff attended a presentation given by Rick Dufour on professional
learning communities. The opportunity for professional growth provided the
teachers with a meaning of true collaboration and its purpose. Dufour highlighted
three key areas that the cases study school has since employed to create collaborative
norms: trust among staff, encouragement of new ideas and collaboration time
structure. The teachers at the case study school reported that these areas are the
foundations of their collaborative culture and that they’ve been respected since their
implementation. The building of the three key areas was described by the principal
in the following terms:
When the PLC became the buzz word in the district, each member of the
leadership team was provided with the Rick Dufour book. I did the master
schedule at that time and still do, and believed that I could develop a schedule
with common preps by subject area and did. The key issue became our
norms. Could we get our staff to buy-in to a process that was different,
forced them to trust each other and rely on each other? We had issues early
on, but not as many as you would think. Being on-time, on-task and working
towards a goal were little issues that were quickly addressed in our early staff
meetings. The key was getting consensus, once we had that, we were on our
way to establishing norms.

78
Since 2007, the case study school’s leadership team has made it a priority to
establish trust and accountability within the daily norms the staff participates in.
Trust and accountability are promoted within the school through departmental
meetings, staff team-building seminars and an overall value of ideas, experiences and
opinions. Since 2007, the case study school’s staff has participated in many team-
building opportunities such as a ropes and obstacle course, staff retreats and
attending various workshops aimed at improving communication and collaboration
with staff members.
Teachers and staff at the case study middle school are encouraged to share
their ideas on a regular basis by being responsible for selected staff development
ideas. As reported through the survey question “Teachers and staff are encouraged
to share ideas through a collaborative process” 81% percent of the answers indicated
a “strongly agree” or “agree”. During collaboration, each department is responsible
for presenting a lesson that targets an area of growth for teachers. Once every eight
weeks, the selected department meets with the leadership team to express their ideas
for the professional growth lesson. Within this venue, teachers are encouraged to
share their ideas for school improvement by examining data and creating strategies
that target school-wide programs and practices. While observing a meeting that
involved the leadership team and the English department, it was evident that a
reciprocated level of respect for ideas and opinions existed. The English department
wanted a greater school-wide focus on academic literacy and as one English teacher
stated, “It feels pretty good to be able to come in here with the data that proves our
79
reasons for concern and be able to get everyone behind our cause. Even without the
data, our faculty is one that respects opinions and stands by each other, that’s pretty
powerful and it certainly makes it easier to share ideas.” During the meeting,
teachers were seen sharing ideas that could be used to strengthen academic literacy
while examining longitudinal data that targets student deficiencies in each grade
level.
While trying to steer the case study school in the direction of a professional
learning community, the principal decided to increase the structure to collaboration
time so that goals could be set and progress could be measured. Each subject area
and department are responsible for keeping a binder that displays an agenda for each
meeting, evidence of student work that is aligned with a specific goal and members
who were present for that particular meeting. A science teacher expressed the
following:
When we first got these folders we all looked at each other and thought, what
is this? Is this something we’re doing because our principal doesn’t trust us?
But as time went on, what I realized was just the opposite. She did trust us
and this wasn’t a trust issue, rather, it was a making sure we’re all headed in
the same direction issue. The folder helps us set goals together, provide
evidence for those goals–which by the way allows us to see if we’re making
progress towards the goals.

The increased structure has led to a noticeable improvement in key areas of
participation. Late start collaboration time attendance by teachers has averaged 99%
over the last three years, with 99.4% of those teachers being on time. The number of
teachers participating with student evidence has also increased from 52% in 2007 to
80
97%. As the principal explained in an interview, the gains made by increased
collaboration structure have not come without a cost:
The toughest part of my job is getting everyone to go in the same direction at
the same time. We had teachers here that didn’t want to move in the same
direction. We had teachers here that didn’t want to move at all. What I had
to do is think of what’s best for our students. So keeping that in mind, we
had to make it difficult for some teachers to be here. The fact of the matter
is, you’re either here to help kids by working within a team approach or
you’re not. I had some teachers tell me that what they’re doing is helping
kids and my response to them was, ‘Then you’d better start sharing and
showing us how to do it.’ Because if you think about it, if that really was the
case with a teacher and they were purposefully not sharing information with
us on how to help kids, then how selfish is that? It’s one thing to possess the
knowledge and skills to help kids, but it’s another to be able to communicate
that with your colleagues.

In keeping with the need for collaboration by establishing norms, the teachers
described a need for consistency and sustainability. Ninety-eight percent of the
teachers who were surveyed selected either “agree” or “strongly agree” to the survey
question “The teachers at this school believe collaboration occurs consistently
through a sustained process,” and 87 percent teachers answered “agree” or “strongly
agree” to the survey question “Collaboration at this school will continue to occur
consistently and effectively, even with a change of school-site leadership.”
Discussion of the Findings
This section examines the findings of the study based on the data collected
during the course of the investigation, while providing in-depth analysis with regard
to possible implementations of the policies and programs adopted at the research site
to other schools. Recommendations for further study are suggested in Chapter Five.
Having identified the major themes relevant to this study, in the literature review in
81
Chapter Two, the document reviews and transcriptions of interviews were examined
for reoccurring themes and issues keeping in mind the extant scholarship that could
be placed in related categories and in relationship to each other. Each category
became increasingly refined with the comparisons of data pieces and major themes.
In the end, three major themes were identified because of their frequent
reoccurrence at the case study middle school:
1. A focus on instruction and leadership through collaboration,
2. The expectation of high student achievement, and
3. The creation and implementation of school-wide intervention systems and
programs.
Each of the outlined themes is analyzed in the following section by using a
theoretical framework provided by Bolman and Deals’ Four Frames model of
organizations.
Leadership and Instruction
Structural Frame
In 2007, with the help of a district-wide introduction to professional learning
communities, the principal, assistant principals and counselors at the case study
middle school made significant structural changes to the school’s bell schedule and
leadership team to better facilitate pedagogical and collegial opportunities for
teachers. The restructuring of the bell schedule has allowed for a built-in meeting
time for teachers on a weekly basis. Classes begin at 9:30AM once a week as
opposed to the normal starting time of 8:15AM, to allow teachers the opportunity to
82
collaborate. Teachers now have a consistent and sustainable opportunity to analyze
data, align assessments with the content standards and share best practices. A
statement from the school’s 2009 School Accountability Report Card describes the
value of professional learning communities as follows: “In keeping with best
practices found in effective schools nationwide, we have created a systems-wide
structure and culture of professional learning communities that is focused on
continuous improvement in student learning.” Another change in collaboration
structure is the way the leadership team comprises its members. Prior to 2007, the
leadership team was exclusively made up of department chairpersons. Since 2007,
the leadership team has been comprised of anyone who wanted to join. This “open
membership” policy has allowed a greater number of participants to be included in
the decision making processes that impacts the entire school. Teachers can join the
leadership team and offer input and perspectives that would have otherwise gone
through a department chairperson. As a result, leadership team discussions have
become deeper and more representative of what the faculty values. Prior to
restructuring, the primary focus of the leadership team was to act as conduits for
their departments, relaying information given to them by the principal or assistant
principals. Information was often incorrect or delivered with a lack of motivation or
ownership. Teachers became frustrated at the lack of support and understanding for
their students and instruction, as expressed by one teacher:

83
We would hear back from our department chair that the leadership team
discussed several issues that they found to be the most important. That to me
said the teacher’s voices weren’t being heard. Our department chair, along
with several others, would come back to the department sometimes
undermining the efforts of the leadership team. It was difficult, because I
wanted to be a part of some of the solutions and to depend on someone else
relaying my concerns just wasn’t working for me, it was frustrating. But
now, I have a voice – we’re able to meet, hear concerns and create solutions
together. It’s definitely a more shared leadership approach.

Since the structural change, the leadership team is now responsible for creating and
disseminating programs and practices that target student achievement and
professional growth. The adoption of a collaborative model has expanded the role of
the leadership team, allowing them to work as innovators and practitioners in support
of their students and colleagues. This support has translated into a focus on
instruction and leadership, consistent analysis of data to target student interventions
and a tighter alignment of instruction to the state standards in content areas. The
administrative team encouraged autonomy and participation by sharing the decision
making responsibilities with teachers. One example of this is the restructuring of the
leadership team so that any teacher interested in being involved could join. This
made teachers less dependent on the administration and more dependent on each
other. Teachers gained a new found motivation to participate because they were now
in control of decisions that directly impacted their jobs. During an observation of a
leadership team meeting, a topic being discussed involved getting consensus on the
most valuable instructional techniques. In an interview after the meeting, one
teacher added:
84
In years past you’d have never seen this. We would have gotten the list from
the administrators of the instructional techniques we were expected to use
and that would have been it. But now, most things are consensus driven.
We’re presented the idea, and this could come from administrators or
teachers, and then we have a discussion on the idea. What you saw today
was discussions on what we all thought were the most valuable instructional
techniques. These techniques came from conversations with assistant
principals and teachers. It’s the value that our input has and the process by
which we uphold that value that means the most to us. It’s like we have
control over what goes on here.

Human Resource Frame
As a result of the teacher and administrator interviews, the common theme of
sustainability emerged to link participants to a shared belief. Once programs and
practices are created and implemented, the next critical aspect of improving student
achievement is to determine how to sustain success. Bolman and Deal describe
“building capacity” as a tool to share leadership and develop sustainability. The
development of capacity is further explained by Bolman and Deal as investing in
people to empower them by creating development opportunities, encouraging
autonomy and participation, and redesigning work. Each area of building capacity is
explained in the next paragraph as they relate to the support of students and staff.
In creating development opportunities for her teachers, the principal
encouraged them to enhance the district workshops and seminars with ones that were
held at the case study middle school site. Using Title I funds the principal arranged
various workshops for her teachers that focused on classroom management, the
analysis and collection of data and differentiated instruction for English learners.
One teacher explained her opportunities for professional development as:
85
How many other schools in our district are able to supplement the district’s
development with their own? We had some leading experts in areas such as
classroom management and data director come in and talk with us about
implementation and results. If you’re a teacher that’s interested in getting
better at your craft, and I think most of us are here, then what more could you
ask for? I was able to ask some difficult more practical questions when these
presenters were here. It was nice because they’re experts, not just someone
introducing the material to us and leaving it up to us. They had creative and
proven ways to implement these things within our daily routines.

Coupled with seminars and workshops, the principal also used observations and
modeling as an effective way to develop instructional strategies. The principal
encouraged teachers to observe each other model specific instructional techniques.
Once a semester, outside of their conference period, teachers were given an
opportunity to use a substitute for their class so that they could observe a colleague
model an effective instructional technique. Aligned with the workshops and
seminars, the observation opportunity gave teachers the ability to see what they had
learned being put into practical use.
Autonomy and participation was demonstrated when examining the structure
of collaboration at the case study middle school. While observing the faculty during
a late start collaboration day, teachers were seen holding themselves accountable for
being present, on time and on task. Each department had an internally generated
agenda that paced the meeting. Administrators visited departments offering support
and guidance rather than giving teachers directives and expectations. Teachers were
observed taking notes, presenting and analyzing data, most of which was paced and
created by fellow teachers within the department. The principal described this
86
collaborative approach as “A positive impact on student achievement that gathered
momentum and became owned by the faculty.” She also added:
Our goal with collaboration and the leadership team was to take some of it
away from the administration. We’re here today, and could be gone
tomorrow but there are leaders in the form of teachers here that have been on
this campus for over 10 years. By giving the teachers autonomy, we’re not
only motivating them, we’re also securing our school’s future by trying to
impact culture.

The principal illustrated her value of trust by explaining how she encouraged
teachers to experiment with various instructional strategies. She granted her teachers
the professional freedom to use different forms of the curriculum and technology to
appeal to various learning styles. Her efforts were evident with 91 percent of the
faculty answering “agree” or “strongly agree” to the survey question that asked “Do
you feel like you have the support of the administration when experimenting with
new teaching strategies?” As a result, teachers have written grants to fund
technology and curriculum strategies such as the use of ipod’s in the classroom as a
means of formatively assessing students.
Another characteristic of building capacity according to Bolman and Deal is
the restructuring of work. A teacher described the school’s practice of analyzing
data in the following terms: “We didn’t realize how much more efficiently our time
could be used. I think I speak for a lot of us when I say that we have an increased
level of accountability but that translates into autonomy.” Since adopting Data
Director, the teachers at the school have been able to analyze the effectiveness of
their instruction by disaggregating the data. As Bolman and Deal explain, job
87
enrichment increases the satisfaction in ones job by creating meaningful and
consistent ways to receive feedback by linking results to a teacher’s instruction. An
assistant principal described this process in the following terms:
As educators we’re so used to delivering instruction and doing things the
same way, some of us are routine oriented. So the challenge was to get our
teachers to move away from the idea that data is an evaluative tool, rather, we
tried to explain that analyzing data, using it to improve your instruction –
those are the aspects that are going to make your job easier and more
rewarding. It took some time but I think our teachers look at data and take it
as a challenge. They look for the growth areas and try to close the gaps. For
some of them it’s been a real eye opener. The availability and disaggregation
of data has really redesigned the way we do our jobs.

Another example of redesigning jobs is when the principal, while using the
data to target the needs of her students, created classes that matched her teacher’s
strengths with her student’s weaknesses. The principal explained the process in the
following way:
After looking at some of our scores a couple of years ago, there was a blatant
need for improvement for our sixth and seventh grade math students. So what
I did was I asked three of our veteran math teachers who were experienced in
teaching everything from general math to algebra I to geometry, if they’d be
interested in teaching a new type of math class. This new class was going to
be called math academy and I filled this class with students who struggled
with math.

The unique part of what the principal is describing above is that the students were
enrolled in their regular math class and the math academy at the same time for added
support. Also, the math academy classes were filled with students who had different
ability and skill levels so this put a greater emphasis on the teachers to differentiate
their instruction. As explained in the principal’s comments above, the teachers who
had math academy classes had a broad range of experiences and strengths with math
88
so this translated into students getting the help they needed in a non-traditional
setting. While observing the math academy classes, it was evident that teachers
relied upon variations of instruction. One teacher explained her challenges in the
following way:
You have students who didn’t pass basic math, students who got past basic
math but can’t get by pre-algebra and students who can’t get beyond algebra
all in the same classroom. And you throw into the mix English learners and
you have what makes what some people might think as chaos. But in reality,
you have students who all share at least one common difficulty and that’s a
problem with math. What ends up happening is that I very rarely use lecture
or direct instruction to the entire class. We’re always grouping and tasking,
taking baby steps. One of the really intriguing things is the way some of
these students, once perceived as failures in math, have taken to helping those
who are struggling in areas they’ve already mastered.

The math academy classes have been designed to support students with their existing
math class through a non-traditional method. The principal explained that “Results
have been mostly positive since we first tried this in 2008, but we’re constantly
making changes.”
Symbolic Frame
As Bolman and Deal explain, “An organization’s culture is revealed and
communicated most clearly through its symbols.” The vision and philosophies of the
case study school is present in a number of areas including the school’s website and
mission statement. On its website, the school describes its values and shared beliefs
in the following statement:
At the [case study] middle school, our committed and caring staff works
together to maintain high standards of academic achievement and support for
all students. Standards-based instruction ensures students equal access to the
curriculum evidenced by test scores which are consistently above the state
89
average. Rigorous, student-centered, hands-on instruction enhanced by
technology is evident in every department in our school.

During a leadership team meeting at the beginning of the school year, teachers and
administrators discussed various ways of motivating students through campus
improvements. One of the areas that embodies the school’s vision while serving as a
motivational symbol is the main outdoor walkway that runs through the middle of
the campus. Lining the walkway from the front to the back of the school are flags
that represent over 60 colleges and universities. The flag holders are mounted on the
walls of the school to display what one teacher called “A row of reminders.” The
flags represent schools that are or have been attended by the case study school’s
former students. The assistant principal explained the impact the flags have had on
students in the following way:
They’re there every morning. As I put them up, I see students pointing and
referring to them. I hear students talk about which school is their favorite or
which school they’d like to someday attend. Since we started doing this in
September, kids have definitely taken notice. I’m not saying it’s had a
profound effect on their grade point average, but I will say that it’s a constant
reminder that anything is possible with hard work and goal setting.

As students became increasingly aware of the flags, teachers used them as
conversational and motivational pieces. Teachers refer to the flags as “reminder
row” and use them to help students connect their achievement in the class to future
possibilities.
Another piece of symbolism that embodies the school’s culture is the location
of the main office and principal’s office. Both offices are situated in the front of the
school and open to visitors. The principal, with input from the school staff,
90
restructured the office walls to create a sense of transparency. Prior to 2006, the
offices were buried behind rows of walls and doors, making it difficult for a visitor
to navigate their way to their destination. Today, the office is a large open space
with desks designated for each employee. The principal, counselors and assistant
principals have their own offices, all of which are attached to the main open space
that’s used for all other employees. When asked about the configuration, the
principal offered this explanation:
In staying with our theme here, some teachers recommended that we change
the office around so that it was more accessible to people. It was decided by
the staff to open it up. I wanted parents and community members to know
that this was their school and we were here to work collaboratively with them
for the best interests of our students. We couldn’t communicate that
philosophy without the input of our staff.

Political Frame
According to Bolman and Deal, organizations are living and vocal entities
that have a multifaceted grouping of interests. The variety of concerns individuals
have within the organization create a natural conflict that ultimately necessitates
negotiation and compromise. As reported by the principal, one of the main
challenges in creating a collaborative culture that benefits teaching and learning is
uniting the many interests and opinions that exist within the staff. Having been a
teacher at the case study middle school for many years, the principal had developed a
level of credibility that led to a working rapport with the teachers. The principal
acknowledges that “There’s no way I can accommodate everyone’s request at the
same time. The key to bringing everyone into alignment was to listen to their
91
concerns.” Furthermore, the varying interests of the staff had one common ground
from which everyone stood, and that was making decisions that are in the best
interest of the students. Citing students as the highest priority, the teachers in a focus
group interview further acknowledged that negotiating their interests had to start
with the idea of prioritizing and compromising.
The Expectation of High Student Achievement
Structural Frame
Since the passage of the No Child Left Behind legislation in 2001, public
schools have been held accountable for student achievement by state and federal
mandates. Standardized testing, adequate yearly progress and academic
performance indexes have given districts the ability to measure success in a relative
fashion. The high expectations of federal and state legislation have translated into
higher academic standards for students. Districts across the country have complied
with the increased level of accountability in large part due to the budgetary
incentives the government has offered if goals are met.
Bolman and Deal offer two explanations for a shift in expectations for public
schools. The first, is that the growing accountability levied by state and federal
legislation necessitates districts and schools to have a strategy and goals. While
strategy is explained as “The determination of long-range goals and objectives of an
enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and allocation of resources
necessary for carrying out these goals,” it’s important to note that the goals become
embedded within the strategy (Chandler, pg. 94, 1962). Secondly, public schools
92
have had a change in the central process of aligning resources, teaching and
philosophies with student achievement and the use of data. The expectations set by
NCLB have changed the organizational structure for schools across the country.
Schools are now held accountable for student test results through state and federal
mandates which can be compiled with various data analyzing methods. Data tools
such as Data Director collect the standardized data and disaggregate the numbers,
creating reports that analyze subgroups, and trends.
Having been a teacher and assistant principal at the case study school, the
principal has gathered an accurate account of what strategies, goals, and changes in
central processes have been effective in moving the school and its students towards
high academic expectations. Since her introductory year in 2004, the principal has
implemented changes that have been designed to meet the growing needs of her
diverse student population. The following interview response explains the process of
change that was initiated when she first became principal at the school:
Having come from here, I kind of knew what I was getting myself into. I
understood from the beginning who was going to be on board and who I was
going to have a tough time with. My initial attempts to get our staff to
increase their focus on our students through a more collaborative culture fell
flat. I met some resistance, I think I became stronger and wiser for that. I
understood that change was something that wasn’t going to be easy, but I also
made it understood that you’re either with us or you’re not.

With the help of the school’s leadership team, the principal created a protocol
for analyzing student test results and monitoring student progress. The goals and
strategies created for the school by the leadership team were communicated to the
rest of the staff during professional growth days. Once understood, teachers used
93
collaboration time to access test results and create reports that outlined any gaps in
achievement. The Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) tests along with past
school assessments were gathered to paint a clearer picture of student history and
proficiency level. Teachers disaggregated the data into ethnic and socioeconomic
groupings so that growth areas were more accurately targeted. Using their common
summative and benchmark assessments, which provided more generalizable data,
teachers were able to identify students were struggling and monitor their progress
with quarterly data. A strategy developed by the leadership team for those students
who were identified as basic or below proficiency level, included the use of a
Referral to Intervention (RTI) system that placed students in a school program that
fit their needs.
Human Resource Frame
One vital component for effective leadership is having the “right people on
the bus” (Collins, 2001). A clearly defined vision and philosophy helps mediate the
hiring process for an organization. According to Bolman and Deal’s human resource
frame, the right hire benefits both the organization and the individual, creating an
incentive for mutual success. Organizations must appeal to people’s needs to
achieve this mutual success. Bolman and Deal describe these basic needs as safety,
physiological, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization.
When asked about her staffs’ response to a change in school expectations for
students and teachers, the principal added the following:
94
Some of my teachers had a real tough time at first. They didn’t like some of
the things we were doing. Needless to say, those people didn’t fit in and they
found a way out either through transfer or relocation. I’m not saying we were
able to get one hundred percent buy-in, but we were able to outlast just
enough of the naysayers to now have the majority heading in the right
direction.

Highlighting a value in self-actualization and belongingness, one teacher in a focus
group interview had the following to say about the school’s high expectations for
students:
She [the principal] had our willingness because she solicited our input and
put it to use. It was a good move on her part to bring us together by listening
to our concerns. It led to a kind of uniting process where we were all here for
the same thing, our students. I think there were moments last year that I
began seeing myself making a difference in students lives, that’s what sold
me on what we’re doing here, it actually works.

Although some were skeptical at first, most teachers responded to the principal’s
goals with enthusiasm and support. Teacher’s explained in the focus group interview
that a movement towards a collaborative culture “wasn’t the issue.” Rather, prior to
the current leadership, teachers grew weary of the frequency of change that took
place in leadership. One teacher added “We couldn’t be sure if this principal was
going to stick around and tough it out with us. So we became skeptical with each
change in principal.”
Symbolic Frame
According to Bolman and Deal, “The difference between ritual and ceremony
is subtle. Ceremonies are grander, more elaborate and less frequent occasions,
rituals are simpler, day-to-day routines” (p.264). Bolman and Deal explain that
ceremonies serve four major purposes when they take place. First, they socialize the
95
organization by allowing members to come together for a positive cause. Second,
ceremonies stabilize conflict or disagreement by attempting to unite participants for a
celebratory cause. Third, they provide a sense of reassurance by giving individuals
positive feedback. Lastly, ceremonies convey messages to external entities. The
organization becomes transparent, demonstrating and explaining a celebration to
outside entities.
Placing an emphasis on high expectations for student achievement, the case
study middle school combines the use of rituals and ceremony to recognize the
progress and effort students make throughout the school year. At the beginning of
each year, the school intervention team uses the first 3 days of school as an
opportunity to teach students rituals for success. During this time, students are split
by grade level as they rotate from each informational station. Intervention team
members along with other teachers are at each station with a different topic. Topics
include behavior, time management, organization and accessing grades. Students are
given an in-depth lesson on all topics over the course of 3 days. One teacher who is
part of the intervention team explains the value of this practice in the following way:
Our goal is to teach these kids not only the proper way to behave but also
some key ingredients for success. We really feel like these three days pay
dividends throughout the school year. Kids are made aware of our
expectations early on, so there’s really no excuse for anything else. For our
sixth graders, it’s a great opportunity to see what expectations at the middle
school are all about. For our seventh and eighth graders, it serves as a
refresher course that reminds them ‘Hey, remember what we expected of you
last year, well that’s still the case.’ When we first started this, it was tough to
see the value of it. We had teachers really upset about the loss of
instructional time those first three days of school. But as time went on, we
96
could all really tell the difference with student behavior, especially the first
semester of school.

To emphasize the value of progress and overcoming adversity, the case study
middle school recognizes students of the month in a ceremony that has parents,
teachers and administrators in attendance. Students are selected by each department
based on achievement and exemplary behavior and are rewarded with a gift
certificate. The principal described the value of this ceremony in an interview:
We have to reward our students and not just for doing well on tests and
assessments. We decided to expand the criteria for the student of the month
because we had the same kids showing up every month, the ones that were
high achievers. We wanted the award to be worth something more that
painted a broader picture of how well the students were doing. We decided
to include any student that has shown progress in either academics or
behavior. We also encourage our teachers to acknowledge those students that
go out of their way to help others. Test scores and achievement is one thing,
a deeper focus on character and overcoming adversity, I think, is more
telling.

The combinations of rituals and ceremony have been used effectively to
establish high expectations for students at the case study middle school.
Communicating expectations and rewarding students who achieve have become an
integral part of motivating students to excel.
Political Frame
According to Bolman and Deal, “The political frame views authority as only
one among many forms of power.” Furthermore, the scarcity of resources and
differing agendas force the needs of individuals to meet. Within the case study
middle school, the political frame was demonstrated when the principal and the
teachers union had differing opinions on contractual hours and obligations to the
97
school. The principal successfully bargained an agreement with the union to allow
teachers to be present for after school interventions. The two political roles in this
example differed in agendas but were bound by the scarce common resource of time
to make a decision that was in the best interest of the students. In a focus group
interview, one teacher had the following to say about the conflict:
As a site union representative, I felt like at the time, I was caught between a
rock and a hard place. We didn’t want our teachers to work longer and
harder just because our administration was interested in promoting some
programs. At least that was our initial thought on things. But after some
negotiating, we were able to come up with a way to compensate people for
their time and it turns out, that’s the way people started participating in the
programs after school and on Saturdays. The toughest thing for me was
knowing this would help my students but feeling like my time and efforts
were being minimized by not having compensation. If you fast forward to
today, money isn’t as central of an issue as it was a couple of years ago. Sure
teachers still get paid to run the afterschool and Saturday programs, but
because we’ve seen results, you can see teachers working outside of their
contractual hours on a pretty regular basis because they’re believers in all this
extra effort working.

The negotiation of time and contractual obligations was a tough balancing act for the
principal as well. She explained some of the challenges she faced in the following
way:
Having been a teacher at this school and coming up through the ranks so to
speak, I definitely had some hesitation in asking our staff to contribute
beyond the school day. But what overcame that trepidation was my belief in
doing what’s best for our students. I really believed that our students needed
these interventions. I had a tough time lobbying for these programs but
through my conversations with the union, I was able to broker their support.
The interesting thing is that people just want to be compensated for their
time.

98
The principal had been able to negotiate with the union based on her experience and
rapport with the staff as a teacher at the school. She used her relationships to create
a compromise with the union which ultimately led to both parties benefiting.
Intervention Systems and Programs
Structural Frame
Within the structural frame, Bolman and Deal explain that there are basic
questions that must be answered for an organization to be successful. First, the
question of how to allocate work and coordinate roles can be answered by matching
individuals’ strengths with tasks that benefit the organization. Secondly, an
organization must group people into “working units” based on the following options:
knowledge or skill, time, product, clients, geography or by process. The creation of
roles takes advantage of specialization at the expense of coordination, however,
successful organizations are able to align roles with organizational-wide goals.
Beginning in the 2005-2006 school year, the principal along with the
leadership team began their efforts to restructure the referral system so that staff
members could target student needs more effectively. With the help of input from
the leadership team, staff members, parents and an observation of a similar school,
the principal was able to revamp the behavior referral system so that it included
academic assistance.
The reorganization led to two areas of focus. First, the leadership team had
to identify the student growth areas that included both behaviors and academics. The
principal incorporated what she learned from an opportunity to observe another
99
middle school with the intervention system already in place as well as the input from
various school stakeholders. The identification process involved using academic
data, behavioral data and soliciting input from teachers to target growth areas for
students. Once identified, the focus became the creation of programs that could
directly impact student growth areas. Ultimately, the programs became part of an
intervention matrix that identified students and placed them into the proper
intervention program. The second area of reorganizational focus that the principal
and leadership team faced was matching teachers with specific interventions. In an
effort to solicit assistance, the leadership team and principal used a staff meeting to
explain the school-wide intervention plan to the staff. The presentation was met with
interest and optimism as explained by one teacher who is a member of the leadership
team:
When we were going over it as a group, we weren’t so sure the staff would
buy into it right away. It was a pleasant surprise hearing the interest and
looking at the glass half full, so to speak, in their voices. What we had were
teachers who were thirsty for something like this. We actually met a need
before it became vocal so in that respect we were successful.

The staff meeting led to a greater willingness to be a part of the intervention system
and the principal and leadership team welcomed the support. The principal
explained her next steps in the process as trying to match personnel with a process:
Once we had momentum from our staff meeting, the next step was to take
that support and use our strengths to run the intervention process. I had to
look at teachers who had strengths in different areas. I looked at teachers
who were strong with classroom management to run our behavioral
interventions, I also looked at teachers who were strong with differentiating
their instruction in key subjects such as math and science, to head up our
100
tutoring interventions. It was a process that didn’t take as long as you might
think because I had enough people on board from the beginning.

The principal along with the leadership team structured the intervention
system so that teachers ran the programs and students were identified and placed by
a central committee. The intervention team is made up of teachers and
administrators and their purpose is to identify students using data and a newly
adopted school-wide referral system. Each teacher has copies of a form that when
submitted, acts as a referral to intervention (RTI). Teachers use the form to help
identify students they suspect of having difficulties in areas such as academics and
behavior. Once filled out by the teacher, the referral form is sent to the office where
a member of the intervention team reviews it and recommends a student to a specific
intervention. The restructuring of the referral system aligned individual and
collective efforts to align interventions with the school-wide goals.
Human Resource Frame
According to Bolman and Deal, the human resource frame explains the
concept of investing in employees to empower them to be productive individuals for
the organization. Furthermore, undertrained workers create greater costs for the
organization over the long run, making workers more likely to create products that
are substandard and unreliable. The concept of empowerment, according to Bolman
and Deal has organizations encouraging “autonomy” and “participation” for the
purpose of fostering high level thinking and ideas that benefit the organization.
101
The principal and the leadership team developed the idea of an intervention
system that used programs and teacher expertise. The value of teacher experiences
translated into an interdependency between all groups involved. Relying on her
teachers’ expertise, the principal gave autonomy to the staff members who became
involved with interventions, thereby empowering her staff and giving sustainability
to her programs. The principal gave the following account when asked about getting
staff members involved with the intervention process:
If I’m looking at areas for improvement, that’s one of them. We need to get
better at building capacity with our teachers because we want our programs
to be sustainable. One of the key areas of strength at the middle school I
observed had was that almost every teacher on campus was involved in some
sort of an intervention program. We don’t have that here yet. I can’t do it all
myself, but when I’m forced to choose between doing something myself or
not having it done at all, then it’s a no brainer. The goal is to get everyone
involved, the chances of our work lasting over team increase that way.

Evidence of building capacity is present at the case study middle school. The
principal has sent teachers who are willing to be part of the intervention system to
observe other schools and to hear speakers on a variety of behavioral and academic
topics. Combined with the professional growth opportunities the principal has
afforded her staff, she’s also created opportunities for her teachers to observe other
teachers on campus. As one teacher in a focus group interview explains, the gesture
by the principal was well received:
When we decided to get this intervention thing going, I know some teachers
had the motivation but they didn’t have the knowledge. So our principal, you
could say, helped educate us on the topics we needed to be educated on. She
prepared us to a certain degree so that we could be effective in our areas of
intervention. I remember going to another school to see how they applied my
102
specific intervention. That was pretty valuable because I was able to network
with those teachers and use them as a resource.

The concept of empowerment didn’t stop with the teachers. The principal asked her
assistant principals to also attend workshops and observe other schools with similar
interventions to increase their leadership capacity. The principal herself researched
interventions in a similar process, demonstrating to her staff that the intervention
system was a learning opportunity for all that are involved.
Symbolic Frame
Bolman and Deal explain that, “Symbols embody and express and
organizations’ culture: the interwoven pattern of beliefs, values, practices, and
artifacts that defines for members who they are and how they are to do things.” An
organizations culture is unique and embodies its spirit and philosophies. Symbols
come in various forms such as vision and values, which “are basic elements of
organizational culture.” The vision and values of the case study middle school are
conveyed in many structural, human resource, and political frames and are used to
remind individuals the role of the school. Two examples of symbols being found
through the vision and values of the case study school are explained below.
When the principal took her position as an administrator at the school, she
noticed that students had no examples of individuals who had overcome adversity to
be successful in the classroom. Many of the students had come from homes where
parents didn’t have a high school diploma and couldn’t provide the guidance and
motivation necessary for their children to be high achieving students. The principal
103
and the administration at the school began searching for individuals who could
motivate students by having similar experiences of adversity with successful results.
Their search led them to school alumni who had overcome familial and academic
adversity to reach their career and life goals. The principal secured a commitment
from the contacted alumni to rotate on a bi-monthly basis at the school, providing
motivational talks to students and helping with academic and familial issues. The
principal explained the impact of the alumni program in the research interview
below:
Our students needed to identify with someone. They needed to believe that
they could succeed and see that it was possible. The alumni program has
allowed us to demonstrate an end result for the student. Although I don’t
believe there’s ever an end result, in this case, I think the students could
finally aspire to something, using practical proof. The alumni have been so
gracious with their time and efforts. Out of the 75 alums I’ve received
commitment from, about three quarters of them are returners.

Another example of how the case study school conveyed their vision and
values through the use of symbols is the creation of a student information handbook.
The book is in Spanish and English and on the front cover there is a quote, which
reads: “All students have the ability to demonstrate good citizenship while at school.
To be successful at our school, our students will meet high expectations.” Aligning
with that message are the various topics covered within the book, including behavior,
academic expectations, test preparation, school bell and the school calendar. The
book is given to every student at registration and teachers and administrators hold
students accountable to it by mandating students have it in their possession on a daily
basis. Teachers use the student information handbook as a means of conveying
104
classroom expectations and administrators use it to communicate school-wide
behavior and academic expectations. A teacher explained the use of the book in her
class in the following way:
The first day of classes I let my students know that the student information
book must be present with them each day. We go through the handbook,
discussing some highlights and getting acquainted with effective time
management and study techniques. To further drive the point home, I
actually give them a quiz on the book once every quarter, that way my
expectations are clear to the students and the students can take the book
seriously because it has an impact on their grade.

Political Frame
Within the political frame, Bolman and Deal explain that “goals, structure,
and policies emerge from an ongoing process of bargaining and negotiation among
major interest groups.” Furthermore, those who obtain power through this process
and use it in the most effective way will hold on to it. The process by which the
principal recruited teachers to participate in the school-wide intervention system
used bargaining and negotiation. The principal offers an explanation of her efforts
below:
Good or bad, it’s always about what people can do for each other. I had to
negotiate with and motivate our staff. I had to sell this idea that was going to
help students, but was going to demand more time and effort from people
who felt they were giving enough. It’s a constant, not necessarily power
struggle but like a bartering relationship. Kind of a ‘What can you do for me’
approach to get some staff members on board.

The major interest groups on campus consist of the teachers union, the leadership
team and the administration. Out of those three groups, the one with the greatest
ability to negotiate is the leadership team because it has members of the other two
105
groups within its coalition. In a focus group interview with the leadership team, a
teacher explained the following:
We were on board with our principal’s ideas and her direction. The issue was
how we were going to convince the staff to work outside of the school day
for our intervention system. I think since a lot of us had already built rapport
with our staff, we used that to our advantage when trying to get people to buy
into our concept. The main issue was compensation at first, but as time went
on, teachers began seeing the difference in their students and that’s what led
to a school-wide belief that ‘Hey, this stuff is actually working’ mentality.

Through the inclusion of the leadership team, the principal was able to explain her
agenda and ideas, solicit support and ultimately create a coalition. The coalition led
to increased bargaining power with the staff which allowed people to be convinced
that the idea of a school-wide intervention system was best for the students.
After gathering the data from the case study school, major themes that
supported student learning were identified. The identification of variables that lead
to successful school programs, practices and norms emerged as a result of
triangulating data. The findings that appeared in this study contribute to the existing
research on student achievement.
106
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
In the last few decades, public education in the United States has seen a shift
from improving school structure and resources to an increase of accountability for
student achievement (Lee, Wong, 2004). High proficiency standards and
standardized assessments have begun to shape the diverse landscape of public
schools (Sirin, 2005). With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S.
Department of Education, 2008) in 2002, the public school system has become
increasingly responsible for student achievement. Public schools must consistently
align their student success with the federal government’s definition of “proficient”,
while maintaining the fundamental philosophy of free and equal education for all
(Wayne, 2002 Young, 2003).
While identifying student achievement disparities in public education, current
research also continues to examine approaches at reducing educational inequities
associated with academic performance (Parker, 2007). The factors associated with
reducing disparities in student achievement according to the extant research are:
parent involvement, leadership and instruction, high expectations for students,
positive school climate and culture, assessments, just to name a few (Ladson-
Billings, 2006; Davis & Pokorny, 2005). Much of the data that has been associated
with current research includes document reviews, standardized test scores, interviews
and school observations. The purpose of the data is to derive variables that have
107
successfully narrowed the gap in achievement. Although variances do exist at each
school site, the common themes above may be replicated with a clear understanding
of school culture and personnel.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify a school and its
cultural norms, practices, and programs which have succeeded in reducing the gap in
achievement between Whites and Latinos and African Americans, and sustaining it
over time. The study focused on student achievement by connecting increases in the
school Academic Performance Index and California Standardized Test scores to
effective teaching and learning, school leadership and mentoring. In this study, the
definition of achievement gap was defined as the disparity between African
American and Hispanic and low socioeconomic students and their White and Asian
counterparts.
The study identified programs, practices and cultural norms that have been
employed by a school to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success.
This study was guided by the following three research questions:
1. What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
2. What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
3. What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that
have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
108
A conceptual framework approach was utilized in the study which formulated
six steps to identify the procedure by which a school and data were identified. They
include identifying: a high achieving school, a student subgroup performance,
performance on California Standardized Tests (CST), factors contributing to growth,
the norms, programs and practices that narrowed gaps in achievement and results.
Summary of Findings
QUESTION 1: What are the programs that have been employed by the school
that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
With the leadership of the principal and the administrative team, the case
study school created an intervention program that targeted student needs in the areas
of discipline and academics. Using Title I funds as a way to compensate teachers
who led interventions, the leadership team created a system that identified student
problem areas through the use of data and teacher referrals. The system serves as a
tool to identify students who can benefit from interventions and also by placing them
in the most effective program.
The fact that 39 percent of the students at the case study middle school were
identified as English learners and others challenged by the district and state
curriculum, the leadership team guided by the principal incorporated a program
called “Zeros Aren’t Permitted”, (ZAP). The ZAP program is an after school
program that is run five days a week for students who failed to turn in their math
homework for that day. Each day of the after school program has a different math
teacher, with Friday being run by the principal. The ZAP program targets any
109
student who failed to turn in their math homework that day. Students from all the
math classes in the school are part of the program and this was made possible by
having a 100 percent math teacher participation rate in the program.
Another area of school support for students who do not meet academic goals
is available in the form of the Lion Academy. The Lion Academy is a five step
process for students who are receiving anything below a C in any of their classes, as
identified by progress reports. Students are placed in tutoring in the library and
classrooms during lunch to receive additional help in their underperforming areas.
The inclusion of after school tutoring, in the form of the homework club, is also used
for students exhibiting a multiple of class grades that fall below a C.
Further emphasizing success for its students, the leadership team created a
program that identifies students who have received below basis and far below basic
on the California Subject Test in English language arts and math. The program
called, “Block” places students in an extended period of instruction for the subject
area they’re struggling with the intention students receive a greater focus on subjects
they struggle with. Math academy is an example of a Block where a student’s
schedule includes their normal math class and the math academy class. Similarly for
English language arts students, reading/writing academy is placed immediately after
their ELA class on their schedule. In both instances, students who performed below
basic and far below basic on the California Subject Area Tests will receive these
interventions. The Block teachers collaborate with the ELA and math teachers to
110
target knowledge and skills gaps through the development of vocabulary, reading
comprehension, sentence and grammatical structures and study skills.
Emphasizing the importance of professional learning communities, the
principal gave a copy of Rick DuFour’s book, Learning by Doing to each of her
leadership team members. Using the book as a guide to outline professional learning
communities, the principal and leadership team taught the rest of the staff the
essential components of a learning community. Beginning in 2006, the staff took
part in professional development opportunities aimed at creating a collaborative
culture. The impact of the leadership team’s effort paid dividends in the form of
better, meaningful and purposeful collaboration time. Staff members became aware
of the value in creating norms, an agenda and an atmosphere of collegiality where
information is shared and interpreted.
Students at the case study school also benefit from the AVID program.
Effects of the program can be seen in completed assignments, assessment grades and
attitudes towards school. In a focus group interview, one teacher commented on the
program in the following way:
Since AVID has been available to our students, I’ve honestly seen an increase
in the motivation to come to school from our students. Students who are in
the program are taking school more seriously because they’re exposed to a
blueprint for success. I mean, they can actually see, right in front of them,
what it takes to get to college. Before AVID and that approach, I think some
kids wondered what’s the use, I don’t know how therefore I’m not interested.

The program is aimed at students who are the first from their family to attend
college. Combined with academic support, the AVID program gives students the
111
guidance and knowledge to prepare for college. In a two day observation of the
AVID class, relative to other classes, AVID students were exposed to a greater
emphasis on study techniques and time management. The AVID teacher was
observed motivating students by reminding students of their goals and building their
confidence with a guest speaker from Stanford University. While learning about the
academic requirements to being accepted to college, students in the AVID program
are also exposed to campus life and information on how to pay for college. An
annual trip up through the state allows the students to gain insight to various colleges
and universities. Students are encouraged to set goals for their academics by gaining
a realistic perspective of campus life.
QUESTION 2: What are the practices that have been employed by the school
that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
The case study school in accordance with the California Academic Content
Standards utilizes specific instructional techniques to impact student learning in the
classroom. Having specific standards visible for students, creating a daily lesson
agenda and connecting lessons to student experiences has allowed the case study
school to align daily instruction with organizational goals. Coupled with a built-in
the bell schedule collaboration time, instructional methods gained value for teachers
when they had the opportunity to share their benefits to student learning.
With the Data Director system, teachers can create tests and quizzes that are
aligned with content standards and subsequently have them recorded and compiled in
a “canned” report. Such reports allow teachers to create categories that fit students
112
with various backgrounds and needs. Data Director gives the teacher the ability to
monitor the progress of their students with each assessment while using the teacher
generated report. The data process gained value when the principal incorporated it
with collaboration time. Teachers used a collaborative approach to analyzing data
and recognizing best practices in the classroom. The generation and analyzing of
data has become an expectation that the staff has developed for itself. Supporting
this notion was the fact that 91 percent of those surveyed answered either “strongly
agree” or “agree” to the statement “Leadership and decisions are shared among
school personnel.”
Twice a month the case study school’s intervention team (I.T.) meets with all
teachers who have a student in the intervention program. The intervention team uses
the meetings to communicate the progress students are making to their teachers.
Similarly, the teachers of those students use the meeting to discuss what instructional
and behavioral strategies have been most effective with the intervention students.
The intervention team is made up of one teacher from every department as well as an
administrator, counselor and academic advisor. The I.T. uses data from Data
Director as well as Aries, a data base of disciplinary actions and attendance records,
to monitor and target achievement obstacles. Since 2008, the criterion for a
recommendation to the I.T. has changed twice. When the program started, any
student receiving an F or an unsatisfactory in citizenship or having attendance or
discipline issues could be placed in the program by a teacher, counselor or parent.
Currently, the criterion for placement is any student receiving a D grade or below in
113
any class with at least one unsatisfactory in citizenship and/or issues with school
attendance and discipline are placed in the intervention program.
In an effort to continue professional growth, the principal has created
opportunities for teachers to attend workshops, seminars and conferences. Using
Title I funds, teachers are encouraged to become better at their craft by learning from
other organizations that have demonstrated success. From classroom management to
differentiated instruction, teachers have taken the opportunity to grow professionally
as a tool to impact student learning.
Since 2007 the case study middle school has had collaboration time for
teachers built into the bell schedule. Showing a commitment to a collaborative
approach, the case study middle school has a 9AM late start to the school day, every
Tuesday, so that teachers can use the one hour block of time for collaboration.
Teachers were asked about collaboration in focus group interviews and they
consistently responded with a need to share with each other best practices and data
driven instructional methods. Furthermore, a binder containing agendas, goals and
samples of student work is created and used as a reference for teachers. The built-
into the bell schedule time for collaboration along with the binder each subject area
creates serve as evidence for structure and accountability. In interviews, teachers
agreed that the school’s approach to collaboration highlights a shared leadership
experience for all that are involved.
Another school-wide practice that promotes student learning is the use of
School Loop to monitor and communicate assignments, assessments and grades.
114
The case study school first implemented the web based program in 2006. It allows
parents and teachers to communicate on a daily basis through assignment reminders
and the grade book. Teachers can post scores for tests, quizzes and assignments,
allowing parents to get a snapshot of their child’s progress in the class. When
parents have a question or concern regarding an assignment or a grade, they can send
an email to the teacher through the School Loop program. The program also allows
teachers to create their own web pages, thereby allowing them to post not only the
homework assignment but also detailed instructions and examples of how to
complete the assignment correctly.
QUESTION 3: What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the
school that have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?
To gain a better sense of the daily routine and norms that exist at the case
study middle school, the researcher spent several weeks observing faculty meetings,
class sessions and other interactions. Of the interactions observed, none were more
telling than collaboration meetings and classroom observations. In 2006, the
principal and staff attended a presentation given by Rick Dufour on professional
learning communities. The opportunity for professional growth provided the
teachers with a meaning of true collaboration and its purpose. Dufour highlighted
three key areas that the case study school has since employed to create collaborative
norms: trust among staff, encouragement of new ideas and structure. The teachers at
the case study school reported that these areas are the foundations of their
collaborative culture and that they’ve been respected since their implementation.
115
The leadership team has made it a priority to establish trust and accountability within
the daily norms the staff participates in. Trust and accountability are promoted
within the school through departmental meetings, staff team-building seminars and
an overall value of ideas, experiences and opinions. Since 2006, the case study
school’s staff has participated in many team-building opportunities such as a ropes
and obstacle course, staff retreats and attending various workshops aimed at
improving communication and collaboration with staff members.
Teachers and staff at the case study middle school are encouraged to share
their ideas on a regular basis by being responsible for selected staff development
ideas. Once every eight weeks, the selected department meets with the leadership
team to express their ideas for the professional growth lesson. Within this venue,
teachers are encouraged to share their ideas for school improvement by examining
data and creating strategies that target school-wide programs and practices. As a
result of this norm, the school staff has gained the ability to teach and learn from
each other, promoting a forum where ideas can be freely exchanged within the
organization.
While trying to steer the case study school in the direction of a professional
learning community, the principal decided to increase the structure to collaboration
time so that goals could be set and progress could be measured. Each subject area
and department are responsible for keeping a binder that displays an agenda for each
meeting, evidence of student work that is aligned with a specific goal and members
who were present for that particular meeting. The increased structure has led to a
116
noticeable improvement in key areas of participation. Late start collaboration time
attendance by teachers has averaged 99% over the last three years, with 99.4% of
those teachers being on time. Teacher participation with student evidence has also
increased from 52% in 2007 to 97% of teachers attending collaboration demonstrate
evidence of student work that is aligned with school-wide goals.
Conclusions
Through their collaborative efforts, students and staff at the case study school
have demonstrated consistent academic gains as measured by the California
Standardized Tests and in the school’s Academic Performance Index (API). From
the 2006-2007 school year API of 722 to the 2008-2009 school year point total of
785, the case study school has recorded increases of 41, 13 and 9 over the last three
years. Within this study, the individuals that were interviewed consistently attributed
student academic achievement to the programs, practices and norms that have
evolved over the past eight years.
When examining the relationship between student achievement and these
school wide programs, practices and norms, it must be concluded that gains were
correlational rather than causational. The correlations were strengthened and
highlighted with the support of Bolman and Deal’s four frame theoretical
frameworks. Furthermore, the data made available through observations, interviews,
and document analysis was easily highlighted with Bolman and Deal’s four frames,
emphatically suggesting evidence of full organizational development.
117
While gathering the data pieces and organizing them into subsequent
thematic categories that aligned with Bolman and Deal’s four frame categories, it
became clear that the inception of change and the direction for improvement started
with the principal. Her dedication to student achievement by way of communication,
accessibility of resources, motivation of students and staff, has created an
organization that is dedicated to student success. Her vision has gathered the
attention of her staff, changing a culture to meet the needs of the students.
The ability to track and analyze test data in custom reports was viewed by the
staff, leadership team and the principal as a critical vehicle for student learning. The
collaborative process highlighted by the use of Data Director has given teachers a
systematic approach to identifying and targeting student growth areas. Depending
on the use of benchmark assessments and the timing of California Standardized Test
results, data from assessments can be readily available for teachers, categorized with
custom built reports. Teachers can disaggregate data to interpret growth areas for
specific populations and individuals. Furthermore, the data provides teachers an
effective way to design lessons and share best practices.
A focus on communication has allowed the case study school to improve
instructional methods. Participating on the leadership team allows teachers to give
and receive input on school-wide programs, practices and norms. Since membership
is open to any staff member, the team benefits from a wide range of organizational
members. The use of teacher driven professional development has been an effective
tool for building leadership capacity. While each department may play a different
118
role with presenting best practices during staff meetings, a common theme shared by
all teachers is a goal to improve instruction.
Implications for Further Research
Over the last several decades, schools have been faced with growing
demands for student achievement and a closing of the achievement gap. The
Legislative reaction to and the culmination of these growing demands came in the
form of the No Child Left Behind Act, enacted by congress in 2002, where local and
state agencies were required to demonstrate ongoing student improvement. The
movement towards accountability and narrowing the achievement gap has also
gained momentum with researchers, identifying common themes associated with
improving student learning. Curriculum and instruction, parent involvement, school
leadership, student accessibility to resources, and school climate are just a few
factors that have appeared numerous times in the research to suggest ways of closing
the achievement gap (Herrera, 2003; Grossman, Kauh, Feldman & McMaken, 2007).
The research conducted for this study explored variables that are linked with
the programs, practices and cultural norms that are present at one case study school
and may be associated with increasing student achievement. If the findings can be
generalized to other schools, teachers and school leaders can benefit from the results.
While the data and evidence revealed are exploratory, they offer clear
recommendations for school and classroom practice.
School leaders may benefit from reflective analysis of decisions and
philosophies to evaluate their impact on variables deemed to improve student
119
learning (Printy & Marks, 2004). In particular, this study highlighted the dedication
and motivation exemplified by the principal and her ability to work tirelessly
towards the goal of closing the achievement gap. Through the creation of programs
and practices, the principal along with the leadership team has been able to create a
culture that has embraced challenges, while working under the timeline of measured
success. The impact of a collaborative culture where expectations are set high for
students and teachers, and the consistent and comprehensive use of data to target
student growth areas, has led the case study school in a direction of sustained
success.
Although this study did reveal many existing variables and traits associated
with student success, further study may be needed to uncover how these variables
react to rising state and national expectations and changing student demographics. In
addition, further research is also needed to determine the impact of fiscal and budget
fluctuations on student learning. Further study in this area might provide a more
comprehensive depiction of what support local and state agencies need to support a
narrowing of the achievement gap.
School Leadership
Leadership that improves teaching and learning is based on the consistent
reflection and analysis of norms, student achievement, and best practices (Ormrod,
2006). Effective leaders create a collaborative culture that embraces analysis aimed
at improving instructional methods. Guiding the school culture, leaders can pave the
way for teachers to take advantage of scheduled meeting times and available data.
120
However, further research is needed in the area of leadership preparation, and the
dynamics within school cultures to better understand effective uses of collaboration
to benefit student learning.
Parent Involvement
Students who have meaningful parental involvement, parent-teacher
conferences and volunteering for the school, tend to have fewer behavioral problems
and better academic performance than students who do not (Barton, 2003). This is
because parents become increasingly acquainted with not only teachers and staff at
the school, but also the policies and procedures that enable a path to academic
achievement. To further add to the existing literature, additional evidence is needed
in the area of opportunities for parental involvement within the school, parent and
school communication, and effectiveness of parental involvement in different student
age groups.
Programs
From behavior to academics, schools have created and implemented
programs to target growth areas in their students (Printy & Marks, 2004). Otherwise
referred to as interventions because they are often times aimed at mediating
behaviors, schools utilize this approach for students because they have identified
those behaviors that are detrimental to a student’s academic success (Rubie-Davies,
2007). Consequently, this study does not address the impact that district and state
budgets have on the availability of such programs. Furthermore, a closer
121
examination of the effectiveness of these programs in relation to a students’ age
would also be beneficial to the field literature.
Finally, it is recommended that further research is completed at other schools
that are effectively working to narrow the gap in achievement. Discovering variables
that have not been included in the existing research may contribute to a deeper
understanding on how to meet the challenges faced by many schools and districts.
Combining this study with existing and future research will offer a more
comprehensive and practical understanding of variables that contribute to narrowing
the achievement gap.
As the accountability movement gains momentum with NCLB, many
variables still exist when determining how to narrow the achievement gap. What is
still unclear is how legislation and funding will support student learning and how
schools will respond to that ambiguity. In its current state, education resembles a
movement built on increased accountability, financial uncertainty and an ideology on
the cusp of change. While standardized tests linked to common standards pave the
way for instruction, it remains unclear how districts and schools will use this data to
benefit student learning. To mitigate the uncertainties, districts and schools must
have effective leaders who can be flexible, analytical and able to implement change.
The changing demographics of schools and the evolving learning styles of students,
necessitate those qualities from educational leaders. As we enter the next decade,
education will undoubtedly experience more change, what remains unclear is how
we will respond to the changing needs of our students.
122
REFERENCES
Barton, P. E. (2003). Parsing the achievement gap baselines for tracking progress.
Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations artistry, choice and
leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Borman, G.D., Hewes, G.M., Overman, L.T., & Brown, S. (Summer
2003).Comprehensive school reform and achievement: A meta-analysis.
[Electronic version]. Review of Educational Research.73(3), 135-250.

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J.G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of
theory and research for the sociology of education. New York: Greenwood
Press.

Burris, C. C., Wiley, E., Welner, K. G., & Murphy, J. Accountability, rigor, and
detracking: Achievement effects of embracing a challenging curriculum as a
universal good for all students Teachers College Record v110 n3 p571 607
2008 (37 pages).

Callahan, R. M. (2005). Tracking and high school English learners: Limiting
opportunity to learn. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 305-
328. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3699378

California Department of Education (2007-2008). Testing Results. Retrieved
November 5, 2009 from, http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/.

Camburn, E., Rowan, B., Taylor, J. (2003). The case of elementary schools adopting
comprehensive school reform models. American Educational Research
Journal, 25(4), 347-373. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3699378

Chen, Z. Kaplan, H., School failure in early adolescence and status attainment in
middle adulthood: a longitudinal study. Sociology Education, 76(2), 110-
127. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3699378

Clark, R.E., Estes, F. (2002). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the
right performance solutions. Atlanta: CEP Press.

Sui-Chu, E. H., & Willms, J. D. (April 1996). Effects of parental involvement on
eighth grade achievement. Sociology Education, 69, n2. p.126 (16). Retrieved
February 08, 2010, from Expanded Academic ASAP via Gale.
123
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Darling-Hammond, (2007). The flat earth and education: How America’s
commitment to equity will determine our future. Educational Researcher, 57,
305-357.

Davis, J. & Pokorny, N. (2005). High-achieving middle schools for Latino students
in poverty. Retrieved on January 29, 2009 from www.centerforcsri.org.

Elmore, R.F. (2003). Knowing the right thing to do: School improvement and
performance-based accountability. Washington, D.C: NGA Center for Best
Practices.

Gall, Meredith, Joyce P. Gall, and Walter Borg. 2003. Educational Research: An
introduction. (7
th
ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Gallimore, R. & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing Cultural Models and Settings to
Connect Minority Achievement and School Improvement Research.
Educational Psychologist, 36, 1, 45-56.

Gardner, D. (2007). Confronting the achievement gap. Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 542-
547.

Goldin, C. (2001). The human-capital century and american leadership: Virtues of
the past. The Journal of Economic History, 61(2), 263-292. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2698021

Goldin, C. (2001). The human-capital century and american leadership: Virtues of
the past. The Journal of Economic History, 61(2), 263-292. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2698021

Gross, D., Julion, W., & Fogg, L. (2001). What motivates participation and dropout
among low-income urban families of color in a prevention intervention?
Family Relations, 50(3), 246-254. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/585876

Gutek, G.L. (2000). American education 1945-2000: A history and commentary.
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.

124
Gutman, L. M., & Midgley, C. (2000). The role of protective factors in supporting
the academic achievement of poor African American adolescents during the
middle school transition. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (2), 223-248.

Hammock, F.M. (2004). What should be common and what should not? InF.M.
Hammock (Eds.), The comprehensive high school today (pp.9-33). New
York: Teachers College Press.

Hartman, C. (2003). Introduction and overview: Student mobility: How some
children get left behind. The Journal of Negro Education, 72(1, Student
Mobility: How Some Children Get Left Behind), 1-5. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211286

Herrera, C., Grossman, J. B., Kauh, T. J., Feldman, A. F., McMaken, J., &
Public/Private Ventures. (2007). Making a difference in schools: The big
brothers big sisters school-based mentoring impact study. Public/Private
Ventures. 122 East 42
nd
Street, New York, NY 10168. Tel: 212-822-2400;
Fax: 202-949-0439; e-mail: publications@ppv.org; Web site:
http://www.ppv.org: Public/Private Ventures.

Hertzog, C. J., & Morgan, P. L. (1998). Breaking the barriers between middle school
and high school: Developing a transition team for student success. NASSP
Bulletin, 82(597), 94-98.

Institute of Education Sciences. (2007a). Interventions for preventing high school
dropout. Retrieved on November 7, 2009 from
http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/reports/ dropout.

Jekielek, Susan, Moore, Kristin, Hair, Elizabeth C, & Scarupa, Harriet. (2002,
February) Mentoring: A Promising Strategy for Youth Development. Child
Trends Research Brief.

Jesse, D., Davis, A., & Pokorny, N. (2004). High-achieving middle schools for
Latino students in poverty. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk,
9, 23-45.

Lee, J. (2002). Racial and ethnic achievement gap trends: Reversing the progress
toward equity? Educational Researcher, 51, 13-27.

Lee, V.E., & Burkam, D.T. (2003). Dropping out of high school: The role of school
organization and structure. American Educational Research Journal, 2,
353393.

125
Lee, J., & Wong, K. K. (2004). The impact of accountability on racial and
socioeconomic equity: Considering both school resources and achievement
outcomes. American Educational Research Journal, 41(4), 797-832.

Lezotte, L. W. (2001). Revolutionary and evolutionary: The effective schools
movement. Retrieved on February 5, 2009 from
http://www.cascade.k12.mt.us/pages/administration/jsprout/Pages/EffectiveS
chools/RevEv.pdf

Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action.
Alexandria, Virginia: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development.

Menken, K., & Look, K. (2000). Meeting the needs of linguistically and culturally
diverse students, Schools in the Middle, 9, 20-25.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2009). Retrieved on April 2, 2009 from
http://nces.ed.gov/

Menken, K., & Look, K. (2000). Meeting the needs of linguistically and culturally
diverse students, Schools in the Middle, 19, 29-47.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The
imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2009). Glossary retrieved July 6, 2009
from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/glossary/index.asp

No Child Left Behind (2001). Retrieved November 15, 2009, from
http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/catalog/index.shtml.

Ogbu, J. (1982) Cultural discontinuities and schooling, Anthropology and Education
Quarterly,13(4), 290–307. Retrieved from
http://www.edb.utexas.edu/education/assets/files/ci/publications/pdf

Parker, W. C. (2008). "International education": What's in a name? The Phi Delta
Kappan, 90(3), 196-202. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20493590

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3
rd
ed). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

126
Printy, S. & Marks, H. (2004). Shared leadership for teacher and student learning,
Theory Into Practice, 45, 125-132.

Ramburuth, P., & McCormick, J. (2001). Learning diversity in higher education: A
comparative study of asian international and australian students. Higher
Education, 42(3), 333-350. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3448000

Reagan, G. M., & Pratte, R. N. (1973). An understanding of schools: An aspect of
teacher competence. Theory into Practice, 12(1, Beyond Teacher
Competence), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1475492

Rhodes, J., & DuBois, D. (2006). Understanding and facilitating the youth mentoring
movement. Social Policy Report, vol. 20, no. 3.

Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2007). Classroom interactions: Exploring the practices of high-
and low-expectation teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 7,
282-316.

Rury, J. L. (1999). Race, space, and the politics of chicago's public schools:
Benjamin willis and the tragedy of urban education. History of Education
Quarterly, 39(2), 117-142. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/370035

Schneider, B., Kirst, M., & Hess, F. M. (2003). Strategies for success: High school
and beyond. Brookings Papers on Education Policy, (6), 55-93. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20067254

Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-
analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417-453.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3515987

Smyth, J., McInerney, P., & Hattam, R. (2003). Tackling school leaving at its source:
A case of reform in the middle years of schooling. British Journal of
Sociology of Education,24(2), 177-198.

Spring, J. (2001). The American School: 1642-2000 (5
th
ed.). New York: McGraw-
Hill.

Swanson, C.B. (2001). Who graduates? Who doesn’t? A statistical portrait of public
high school graduation, class of 2001. The Urban Institute Education Policy
Center. Washington D.C.

127
Tozer, S.E., Violas, P.C., & Senese, G. (2002). School and society: Historical and
contemporary perspectives (4
th
ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Tyack, D.B. (1974). The one best system: A history of American urban education.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Tyack, D. (1992). Health and social services in public schools: Historical
perspectives. The Future of Children, 2(1, School Linked Services), 19-31.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1602459

Tyack, D., & Hansot, E. (1982). Hard times, hard choices: The case for coherence in
public school leadership. The Phi Delta Kappan, 63(8), 511-515. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20386431

U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Dropout rates in the United States: 2001.
Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

U.S. Department of Education. (2009). No child left behind. Retrieved on February
5, 2009 from http://www.ed.gov/nclb.

United States Census Bureau. (2006). Factfinder Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 5,
2008 from, http://www.census.gov/

Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1994). What helps students learn?
Educational Leadership, 21, 64-89.

Wayne, A. J., & Youngs, P. (2003). Teacher characteristics and student achievement
gains: A review. Review of Educational Research, 73(1), 89-122. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3516044

Zimmerman, J.F. (1997). The Belmont Report: An ethical framework for
protecting research subjects. The Monitor, Summer 1997, 1-5.
128
APPENDIX A
DOCUMENT REVIEW MASTER LIST
Categorized
District
1. Textbook adoption list
2. Modified or year-round school
3. Board policy
4. Vision statement
5. Mission statement
6. Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners
7. LEA Plan
8. District policy for ELM placement
9. District policy for SEI placement
10. LEA code of conduct policy
11. LEA discipline policy
12. LEA drug/alcohol use prohibition policy
13. LEA firearms/weapons policy
14. LEA Gun-Free Schools Act policy
15. LEA plan describing availability of Tobacco Use Prevention Education
services
16. LEA policy regarding tobacco use
17. Full desegregation
18. District-established criteria/procedures for reclassification
19. LEA catch-up plan for monitoring and overcoming any academic deficits
20. District policy on qualifications for instructional aides

School level artifacts
1. Meeting schedules
2. Staff Development plan/School site plan
3. Instructional minutes/Master Schedule
4. Assessment tools
5. Preschool availability or pre-kinder offerings
6. Literacy programs
7. Character education
8. SST
9. RTI
10. Tutorial programs
11. Saturday school
12. Interventions during the school day
13. Summer school
129
14. Student-parent handbook
15. Discipline assembly
16. Vision statement
17. Mission statement
18. Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners
19. Equitable groupings of minority students in classrooms
20. Parent Involvement Policy
21. School Accountability Report Card
22. Teacher and paraprofessional assignments
23. Student profile data
24. Counseling availability and function
25. Entitlement funding ie Title I funding
26. School-parent compact for NCLB/Title I
27. Public reports of suspension, expulsion, and truancy rates from Uniform
Management Information and Reporting System
28. Safe school plan (including disaster procedures, crisis management, or
emergency plan)
29. Attendance reports

Instructional
1. Department meeting notes
2. Common planning/Common Assessments
3. Classroom Objectives or standards posted in rooms
4. SMART goals or action plan documents
5. Teacher lesson plans

Differentiated or special services
1. Re-classification of LEP
2. Descriptions of English-language mainstream program
3. Descriptions of structured English immersion program design
4. English learner program evaluation report
5. GATE student identification criteria
6. GATE teacher specifications
7. Analysis of California Healthy kids survey (CHKS) core module data
8. Analysis of CHKS resiliency and youth development module
9. California Healthy kids survey
10. Physical education instructional minutes report

California Department of Education website
1. School data to analyze student proficiency (CST and CELDT)
2. School demographic data
3. School data on Program Improvement status ie: AYP and API information

130
Pertains to High Schools only
1. College prep/AP/IB offerings
2. School data to analyze % of students in CP/AP/IB/Honors courses
3. Freshman advisory
4. AVID
5. Freshman assembly/freshman first day
6. Student placement criteria into CP/Honors/AP/IB
7. CST data, CAHSEE, AP, and college-bound statistics
8. District career technical education plan and course offerings
9. Work Experience Education District plan
10. Process for adding new courses
11. Description of alternative programs
131
APPENDIX B
OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success
Date: __________________________ Page _________ of __________
Time: __________________________
Type of Observation (Circle One): School Class Leadership Meeting
• In all observation situations keep in mind the 4 frames of Bolman/Deal
o Structural Frame: organization and structure of groups and teams to
achieve goals
o Human Resource Frame: organizational ability to meet human needs,
positive interpersonal and group dynamics
o Political Frame: power and conflict, coalitions, internal and external
politics and their impact on the organization
o Symbolic Frame: positive culture that gives purpose, esprit de corps
through rituals, ceremony, story, shared experiences

• An organization demonstrates what is important to it by what it emphasizes in
daily practice

• First Impressions
o Note time of observations and what expected activity at those times
may look like
o Condition of surrounding neighborhood
o Approach to school
 Exterior condition of structures
 Plants and foliage
 Bus turn-arounds, parking lot: teachers and students
 Supervision around/ in front of school
o The Office
 Entrance/security
 Condition of office compatible with exterior?
 Staff interaction, with guests, parents, community, and peers
132
o Initial Meeting
 With whom? Principal, Asst. Principal…
 Restrictions on access?
 Are you greeted?
 Staff traffic to administration, open door or appointments
o Staff
 Designated representatives, restricted choice, or free access to
staff
 Teacher leaders
• Empowered? Figure heads?
• Emergent leaders or formal structures of leadership
• Experienced or non-experienced?
 Collaboration?
• Structured, non-structured
• Common assessments, formative, summative
• Attitudes towards collaboration
o Students
 Student centered culture?
 Connection with staff at all levels? Any levels?
 Student run events?
 Posters? School spirit?
• Curriculum
o Levels of curriculum
 ESL
 SDAIE
 SPED
• RTI
• Full Inclusion
• Co-teaching Model
• RSP
• SDC
• ED/SED
• SH
 Standard Levels
 College Prep
 Advanced Placement
 International Baccalaureate
 Open Access or restricted entrance
o Support Programs
 AVID
 Credit Recovery
 Concurrent Enrollment with junior college
 Distance Learning credit
133
• Classroom Observations
o Physical condition of room
o Desks or tables
o Student work displayed
o Learning Goal
o Related to Content standard
o Demonstration of Learning
o Asset Development
 Caring
 High Expectations
 Meaningful Participation
o Strategies
 Direct instruction
 Guided practice
 Scaffolding
 Visuals/Graphic Organizers
 Compare and Contrast
 Summarizing or note taking
 TAPPLE (Teach, Ask, Pick, Pause, Listen, Explain, Expand,
Emphasize)
 TPR
 Check for Understanding, summative
o Technology
 Extent available
 Extent used
 Teacher use
 Student use
Student/teacher feedback on its use
134
APPENDIX C
THE STAFF INPUT SURVEY
Your school was chosen for this study based on the success and sustainability in
student achievement. The purpose of this study is to identify your school’s
cultural norms, practices and programs that contributed to the closing or
narrowing of the achievement gap. The results of this study could be useful to
schools with a similar student population. Your input on this survey is
anonymous. This research project is being conducted by a doctoral student from
the University of Southern California. The survey will take about 10-15 minutes to
complete. Thank you for your cooperation.

Please circle the appropriate response:

1. The school supports collaboration among teachers.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

2. The teachers at this school believe that students can achieve at high levels.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

3. School administration creates a positive school culture for teachers and
students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

4. Leadership is shared among school personnel.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

5. Teachers collaborate to discuss student data to improve student learning.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

6. The school addresses the needs of struggling students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

7. School administration conducts classroom observations frequently.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

8. The school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling
students.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

9. School administration communicates vision and goals to the staff.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never
135
10. School administration ensures the analysis of student assessment data.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

11. School administration provides support for implementation of new
instructional practices.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

12. School administration provides ways to improve instructional strategies to
meet the needs of students with diverse backgrounds.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

13. CST scores and District Assessments are used to plan your instructional
program?
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

14. Student data is used to identify the instructional needs of my students.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

15. You utilize the California State Standards to plan and deliver instruction.
a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never

16. You provide differentiated instructions to meet the needs of all students.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

17. School administration initiates programs that promote student achievement.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

18. The school utilizes a specific program to analyze student data.
a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree

Please circle all that apply:

19. Who leads the collaboration sessions?
a) Teachers b) Administrators c) Counselors d) Coaches
e) Other:__________

20. What topics are discussed in the collaboration sessions?
a) Curriculum b) Instruction c) Intervention d) Data Analysis
e) Operation f) Standards g) Other: _________________________________
136

21. How does the school make collaboration possible?
a) Substitute release time b) Minimum Days c) Partial Day Release
d) After School Time e) Bank Time Activity f) Staff Meetings
g) Preparation Periods h) Other: ______________________________________

22. What type of intervention practices are used for struggling students?
a) Peer Tutoring b) After School Tutoring c) In-class intervention
d) Pull-Out Intervention e) Homework Assistance f) Summer School
g) Off-Track Classes h) Other: _______________________________________

23. Who organizes professional development sessions related to intervention
programs?
a) Teachers b) Administrators c) Department/Grade Level Chairs d) Coaches
e) Other: ____________________________________________________

24. Rate the following instructional strategies you used to enhance student
learning.
Extremely Important 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Important

___ Direct instruction ___ Guided practice
___ Pre-teaching ___ Re-teaching
___ Visual aids/graphic organizers ___ Note-taking
___ Summarizing ___ SDAIE Strategies
___ Cooperative grouping ___ Peer tutoring
___ Individual instruction ___ Higher Order Thinking Questions
___ Scaffolding ___ Using Prior Knowledge
___ Metacognitive Skills ___ Other (please list)
________________

25. What specific program does the school use to promote collaboration?
_________________________________________________________________

26. What intervention program(s) at your school have contributed to closing the
achievement gap?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
137

27. What instructional programs do you use in your classroom that has helped
close the achievement gap?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

28. Comments about the role of intervention in closing the achievement gap at
your school:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

29. Comments about the role of data analysis which helped close achievement
gap at your school:
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

30. Comments about the role of school leadership which helped close the
achievement gap at your school:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

31. Comments about the role of collaboration which helped close the
achievement gap at your school:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

32. Comments about the role of your classroom instruction which helped close
the achievement gap at your school:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
138

Although this survey is anonymous, please provide the following information:
Your position at the school:
For Elementary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Grade level Chair
For Secondary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Department Chair
Number of years as an educator: ____________________________
How long have you worked at this school?: ____________________________

Thank you for completing this survey.
139
APPENDIX D
DATA SOURCES AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR RESEARCH QUESTIONS
RQ 1: What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that
have allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?

Data Needs Data Sources Instrumentation
Teacher Collaboration—
common planning,
common assessment,
data review
• Dept. meeting notes
• Meeting schedules
• Staff development
plan/school site plan
Document Review
Challenging, rigorous
curriculum
• Textbook adoption list
• College prep/AP/IB
offerings
• Instructional minutes
• Assessment tools
• School data to analyze %
of students in
CP/AP/IB/honors courses
Document Review,
survey
Preventions for at-risk
populations
• Preschool availability
• Literacy Programs
• Pre-kinder offerings
• Character education
• Freshman advisory
• AVID
Interviews,
document review,
observations
Interventions for at risk
population and whole
school
• SST
• RTI
• Tutorial Programs
• Saturday School
• Intervention during the
school day
• Summer school
• Modified year-round
school
Document review
Behavioral Expectations • Character education
• Student-parent handbook
• Board policy
• Discipline assembly
• Freshman
assembly/freshman day
Document review,
observations,
140
Leadership--Vision for
success with high
expectations
• Vision
• Mission statement
• Teacher evaluations
• Assessment tools
Document Review
Professional
development/Staff
development focusing
on at-risk and ethnic
minority students
• Staff development plan to
meet the needs of diverse
learners
Document review,
surveys, interviews
Data-driven decision
making
• SMART goals
• Assessment tools
• School demographic data
• Student profile data
• Student placement into
CP/AP/IB/honors classes
• CST data, CAHSEE, AP,
and college-bound
Document review,
surveys, interviews
Recognition of diverse
student population
• Re-classification
• Equitable groupings of
minority students in
classrooms
• Full desegregation
• Counseling
• Entitlement funding
Document review,
surveys, interviews
Standards are key to
curriculum and
instruction
• Textbook adoption
• Standards posted in every
room
• Teacher lessons
• Assessment tools
Document review,
observations,
surveys
141
RQ 2: What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?

Administrative leadership
on instructional practices
of teachers
Teacher’s observation
student performance data
Teacher interview,
teacher survey
Instructional practices of
teachers
Classroom observation
Teachers practice in
Professional development
PD records, PLCs Teacher interviews,
observations during PD
meetings
Response to Intervention School data Documents; Interviews

Classroom organization
on SLC, class size, block
schedule
Schoolwide record Master schedule,
observation
ELD CELDT scores, course
placement
Course placement,
benchmarks
Documents; interview,
observations
School safety, student
behavior
Emergency
Suspension records Interventions
142
RQ3: What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to narrow the achievement gap and sustain success?

Information on the
program:
How program
works/description of the
program
Who is involved in the
program
Length of program
Goal of program
Level of implementation
Key
players/Stakeholders:
Start up sources/
Implementation
Questions on
Interviews/Survey
Assessments: Test scores;
CST Benchmarks; District
Wide Assessments (DWA)
Test scores/assessments CDE / Benchmark data
system
School Artifacts:
Attendance,
Agendas/minutes:
Agendas/minutes/student
and teacher attendance
List of documents that
are being reviewed
Professional Development
Who
Material
What type: trainer of
trainer/facilitator
Program Environment
Observations
Classroom observation
forms
143
APPENDIX E
RELEVANT PROGRAMS, PRACTICES AND CULTURAL NORMS
RESEARCH QUESTION 1
What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have allowed
them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?

1. School administration initiates programs that promote student achievement.
2. The school utilizes a specific program to analyze student data.
3. What specific program does the school use to promote collaboration?
4. What intervention program(s) at your school have contributed to closing the
achievement gap?
5. What instructional programs do you use in your classroom that has helped
close the achievement gap?
6. Comments about the role of intervention in closing the achievement gap at
your school.
7. Comments about the role of data analysis which helped close achievement
gap at your school:
8. Comments about the role of school leadership which helped close the
achievement gap at your school:
9. Comments about the role of collaboration which helped close the
achievement gap at your school:
10. Comments about the role of your classroom instruction which helped close
the achievement gap at your school:

RESEARCH QUESTION 2
What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have allowed
them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?

1. School administration conducts classroom observations frequently.
2. The school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling
students. School administration communicates vision and goals to the staff.
3. School administration ensures the analysis of student assessment data.
4. School administration provides support for implementation of new
instructional practices.
5. School administration provides ways to improve instructional strategies to
meet the needs of students with diverse backgrounds.
6. CST scores and District Assessments are used to plan your instructional
program?
144
7. Student data is used to identify the instructional needs of my students.
8. You utilize the California State Standards to plan and deliver instruction.
9. You provide differentiated instructions to meet the needs of all students.
10. Who leads the collaboration sessions?
11. What topics are discussed in the collaboration sessions?
12. How does the school make collaboration possible?
13. What type of intervention practices are used for struggling students?
14. Who organizes professional development sessions related to intervention
programs?
15. Rate the following instructional strategies you used to enhance student
learning.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3
What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have
allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success?

1. The school supports collaboration among teachers.
2. The teachers at this school believe that students can achieve at high levels.
3. School administration creates a positive school culture for teachers and
students.
4. Leadership is shared among school personnel.
5. Teachers collaborate to discuss student data to improve student learning.
6. The school addresses the needs of struggling students.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Over the past several decades, there has been a greater focus on accountability as it relates to student achievement. Students of all backgrounds are faced with challenges that highlight areas of growth within the educational system. Specifically, the differences in academic performance between Hispanic and African American and White and Asian students, often referred to as the "achievement gap", has been targeted by legislation and researchers.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The impact of programs, practices, and strategies on student academic performance: a case study

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap and sustaining success: a qualitative study of the norms, practices, and programs of a successful high school with urban characteristics

PDF

Perceived factors for narrowing the achievement gap for minority students in urban schools: cultural norms, practices and programs

PDF

Sustainability of a narrowed achievement gap: A case study

PDF

Factors including student engagement impacting student achievement in a high performing urban high school district: a case study

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: Factors that support English learner and Hispanic student academic achievement in an urban intermediate school

PDF

Sustaining success toward closing the achievement gap: a case study of one urban high school

PDF

The impact of restructuring the language arts intervention program and its effect on the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

Achievement gap and sustainability: a case study of an elementary school bridging the achievement gap

PDF

A case study of factors related to a high performing urban charter high school: investigating student engagement and its impact on student achievement

PDF

The relationship of parental involvement to student academic achievement in Latino middle school students

PDF

An evaluation of the impact of a standards-based intervention on the academic achievement of algebra students

PDF

Student engagement in high performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

Closing the achievement gap: successful practices at a middle school -- a case study

PDF

Student engagement in a high-performing urban high school: a case study

PDF

A case study of student engagement in a high performing urban continuation high school

PDF

A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

PDF

Globalization in curricular elements and instructional practices in California schools: A high school case study

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of one outperforming urban school making a difference

PDF

An evaluation of the impact of a standards-based intervention on the academic achievement of English language learners

Asset Metadata

Creator Pirayoff, Ron (author)

Core Title The impact and sustainability of programs, practices and norms on student academic performance: a case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/12/2010

Defense Date 02/26/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,culture,interventions,leadership,middle school,norms,OAI-PMH Harvest,practices,Programs,School,sustainability

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Fish, Steven (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member)

Creator Email pirayoff@usc.edu,pirayoff@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2888

Unique identifier UC1434386

Identifier etd-Pirayoff-3545 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-293817 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2888 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Pirayoff-3545.pdf

Dmrecord 293817

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Pirayoff, Ron

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu