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Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of an urban school

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Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of an urban school

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Content NARROWING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: A CASE STUDY OF AN URBAN SCHOOL by Rosalinda Lugo ____________________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2010 Copyright 2010 Rosalinda Lugo ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family and friends for all their support. I know I could not have finished this work without their encouragement and understand- ing. I dedicate this dissertation to my sister Terry for her support and encouragement, and to my nephews and nieces—Jonathan, Lisa, Mark, Adam, Jacob, Zachary, John, Tommy, and Mary—for watching ‗SC football together, celebrating mini parties, and just sharing their lives with me. I also dedicate this dissertation to my brother Jose, sister-in- law Lucina, and brother-in-law Mike who gave their support and tolerated my bossiness. I especially thank Mom and Dad for working hard all of their lives and for being life-long learners. I also dedicate this dissertation my cousins, Carol and Claudia, and their children—Phylana, Julian, and Diego—for their support. I thank my Panera group (Theo and Patricia); my friend Mike (who is responsible for my being in this program); my birthday club (George, Mike, Ramona, Ari, Randy, and their kids); the Palm Springs group ((Ana, Anna, Monica, Shane, Karla, Mary Jo); my high school friends, Sandra and Monica, and their families; and my long-time friends, Marisela and Xavier, for years of friendship. Special thanks go to Ralph and Becky for always supporting me and helping me to celebrate the conclusion of this program by taking me to our special place. Special thanks also go to the ―Click‖ (Karen and Al) for our work as principals. I thank the children and staff at 68th Street School for 9 wonderful years. I thank my former administrative team—Ray, Alan, Manuel, Dyshon, Dora, Josefina, and Jody— iii for the work and dedication to our students. I also thank Dr. Barbara Lake for her valuable lessons regarding expectations for our schools, especially regarding ―green‖ cement. (I have to remember all those who influenced my life but are no longer with us: Mama Tere, Mama Cotita, and even Scruffy.) iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the staff at Great Street School for their work and dedication to the children of that community. I extend special acknowledgment to the principal of Great Street School for her ability to turn a school around and create an environment with high expectation for all students. I acknowledge Dr. Gothold for his work as my disserta- tion chair. I definitely could not have done this work without his ambitious timeline, support, and vast knowledge of the dissertation process. I thank Dr. Ortiz and Dr. Hocevar for agreeing to serve on my committee. I acknowledge the Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF) for 15 years of training and opportunities, from the first organizer who challenged me by asking, ―Why don‘t you go get your Masters?‖ to all those UNO, SCOC, EVO, and VOICE leaders and organizers who helped put our ―faith into action.‖ The ―universals‖ learned through the organizing process allowed me to be a more effective administrator. I give a special thanks to Michael Clements who was my mentor for many years and to Larry McNeil for chal- lenging and believing in me. ―Somos Uno!!‖ A special acknowledgement is extended to the Sisters of the Presentation and the Benedictine Monks who worked at Our Lady of Lourdes Church in East Los Angeles. The Sisters of the Presentation taught me the importance of social justice. The Benedic- tine Priest allowed the organizing process to empower leaders like me. I thank Sister Patricia, Sister Catherine Mary, Fr. Martin, Fr. Brendon, Fr. Matthew, and the rest of the Lourdes Family, for being there for me during those important formative years. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii Acknowledgments iii List of Tables ix List of Figures x Abstract xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Background of the Problem 2 Statement of the Problem 3 Purpose of the Study 5 Research Questions 6 Framework and Process Model 6 Significance of the Study 7 Methodology 7 Assumptions 8 Limitations of the Study 9 Delimitations of the Study 11 Definition of Terms 12 Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation 16 Chapter 2: Literature Review 17 Historical Review of the Achievement Gap 17 Current Accountability for Schools 20 Assessments 22 Achievement Gap 22 Definition of the Achievement Gap 22 Causes of the Achievement Gap 23 Socioeconomic Causes of the Achievement Gap 23 Racism and the Achievement Gap 24 African American Males and the Achievement Gap 25 Latino Students and the Achievement Gap 26 The Role of Schools in the Achievement Gap 27 Best Practices at Reducing the Achievement Gap 28 School Leadership and the Achievement Gap 29 Leadership and Sustainability 31 Standards-Based Instruction 33 Effective Teachers 34 Professional Learning Communities 36 Summary 38 vi Chapter 3: Research Methodology 40 Purpose of the Case Study 40 Development of the Case Study 41 Research Design 42 Process Model 43 Population 47 Sample 50 Instrumentation 50 Staff Survey 51 Staff Interviews 52 School Observations 52 Document Review 52 Framework for Research Questions 53 Research Question 1 54 Research Question 2 55 Research Question 3 55 Triangulation 56 Institutional Review Board Process 56 Data Collection 58 Data Analysis 59 Conclusion 62 Chapter 4: Great Street Elementary School 63 Surrounding Community 63 Campus 64 Description of Classrooms 65 Stakeholders Interaction 66 First Day of the Visit 67 Fifth-Grade Teachers‘ Professional Development Session 67 Research Questions 70 Research Question 1: Cultural Norms 70 Cultural Norm of High Expectations 71 Cultural Norm of Leadership 73 Cultural Norm of Collaboration 79 Cultural Norm of College-Bound Culture 81 Summary for Research Question 1 82 Research Question 2: Practices 83 Collaboration/Grade-Level Planning 84 Time for Collaboration 85 Topics in Collaboration Sessions 85 Leading Collaboration Sessions 87 Professional Development 88 Research-Based Professional Development 89 Lesson Studies 90 Substitute Release Days 91 Professional Development for Teacher Assistants 91 Instructional Practices 92 Sight Word/High Frequency Words 93 Teacher-Created Instructional Material 95 Other Instructional Strategies 96 vii Data Analysis 98 Student Intervention 100 Data Monitoring 100 Standards-Based Instruction 102 Exposure to All State Standards 102 Standards and the Classrooms 103 Summary for Research Question 2 104 Research Question 3: Programs 104 Intervention Programs 105 Core Instructional Programs 110 Summary for Research Question 3 115 Discussion 116 Collaboration 116 High Expectations 117 Leadership 118 Intervention 121 Data Analysis 122 Standards-Based Instruction 122 Summary of Discussion 123 Chapter 5: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations 125 Purpose of the Study 125 Research Questions 126 Summary of Findings 126 Research Question 1 126 Research Question 2 127 Research Question 3 127 Emergent Themes 128 Implications for Practice 130 Recommendations for Staff 131 Recommendations for Administration 132 Recommendations for the District 133 Recommendations for Policy Makers 135 Recommendations for Future Research 136 District Reform Efforts 136 ―Red Team‖ 137 QAR 138 Basic Sight Words 139 Great Street Elementary School‘s Sustainability 139 Conclusion 139 References 141 Appendices Appendix A: Instrument: The Staff Input Survey 145 Appendix B: Instrument: The Staff Input Interview 150 Appendix C: Instrument: Class Observation Form 152 Appendix D: Document Review Master List, Categorized 160 Appendix E: Correlation of Data and Their Corresponding Research Questions 163 Appendix F: Research Questions/Survey Protocol Correlation Grid 164 viii Appendix G: Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 1 166 Appendix H: Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 2 168 Appendix I: Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 3 169 Appendix J: Participants and the Contact With the Researcher 170 Appendix K: Script for Interview and Survey 171 Appendix L: Dates of Visits 172 Appendix M: Classroom Visits, Interviews, and Teacher Codes 173 Appendix N: Checklist for Principals 174 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Academic Performance Index (API) Growth by Student Group: Three-Year Comparison 49 Table 2: Data Analysis Codes 60 Table 3: Data Collected During School Site Visits 71 Table 4: Responses to Survey Item 20: ―What Topics Are Discussed in Collaboration Sessions?‖ 86 Table 5: Responses to Survey Item 24: ―Rate the Following Instructional Strategies You Used to Enhance Student Learning (Extremely Important = 1 to Not Important = 6)‖ 94 Table 6: Responses to Survey Item 26: ―What Intervention Program(s) at Your School Have Contributed to Closing the Achievement Gap?‖ 106 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Clark and Estes‘s turning research into results process model 46 Figure 2: Closing the achievement gap process model developed by University of Southern California cohort of doctoral candidates 46 Figure3: Bolman and Deal‘s four frames as applied to Great Street Elementary School 121 xi ABSTRACT The goal of this case study was to identify the cultural norms, practices, and programs of an urban school that narrowed the achievement gap. The reason for identi- fying these factors in a successful school was to add to the body of literature regarding the achievement gap and what a struggling school was able to do to narrow the gap. This case study identified the cultural norms of high expectations, collaboration, leadership, and a college-bound culture, as well as the practices that the school identified as instru- mental to narrowing the achievement gap: collaboration, instructional practices, pro- fessional development, data analysis, and standards-based education. The programs that the staff identified as instrumental to the school‘s academic success were their interven- tion programs, including Saturday School, after-school tutoring and pull-out programs, and fidelity to the implementation of the school‘s core instructional programs. A prin- cipal‘s checklist was developed to provide suggestions and guidance to schools seeking to narrow the achievement gap. 1 CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM The major challenge that educators in public schools have faced during the past 50 years has been to provide all students a quality, equitable education. Unfortunately, an achievement gap for African Americans, English learners, and Latino students is prevalent in many schools. For the purpose of this study an achievement gap is defined as a disparity in academic achievement between minority and low-socioeconomic students and their White and Asian counterparts, as demonstrated by standardized testing. The achievement gap for students of color, English Learners (ELs), or students with special needs, has continued to grow despite numerous reform efforts. Lee (2002) stated that ―this achievement gap in schools is often argued to have lifetime consequences, limiting opportunities for minority student in higher education, employment, and earnings‖ (p. 3). The federal government, through the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation, has been instrumental in forcing attention on the academic gap for students of color. ―NCLB has shone a spotlight on the academic performance of poor and minority students, English language learners, and students with disabilities—students whose lagging achievement had previously been hidden‖ (Haycock, 2006, p. 38). Due to the accountability measures found in NCLB educators have increased efforts to bring equity and access for all students. There have been numerous efforts and opinions from policy makers, academic circles, practitioners, and the business sector on what districts, schools, principals, teachers, and students need to do to close the achievement gap. 2 Since the 1990s the word accountability has permeated the field of education, from elementary schools to high schools. The NCLB goal of 100% of the students scoring proficient or advanced by 2014 affects all school in the country. Through the NCLB legislation the federal government holds schools and districts accountable for not reaching certain academic goals on an examination selected by the state. In California all public schools are expected to administer the California Standards Test (CST) to their students. The schools are held accountable for students scoring proficient or advanced at the performance goal established by the federal government. Schools that fail to meet the NCLB goals, schoolwide and for significant subgroups, enter Program Improvement status and receive progressive sanctions. In addition, the state of California imposes sanctions on public schools that fail to show growth on the California Department of Education (CDE)‘s Academic Performance Index (API). Background of the Problem In the field of education the achievement gap for students of color has deep roots in this country‘s history, for example, the denial of educational programs for slaves; federal court cases such as Plessey v. Ferguson, which reinforced the idea of ―separate but equal‖ education, and Latino immigrants forced to be educated in substandard schools where their language and culture were maligned. Critical court cases attempted to change these situations for children of color. For example, the landmark 1954 Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas overturned Plessey and instituted for this country that separate was not equal, thereby theoretically equalizing 3 educational programs and schools for people of color. Unfortunately, the disparity in the quality of schools for children of color has remained years after the Brown decision. Despite numerous efforts and attempts by courts, politicians, educators, and practitioners, the achievement gap has continued to be a problem in this country. According to Kuykendall (2004), African American and Latino students ―are still being seen as passive, docile, dependent, non-enterprising, inferior, and less attractive than Whites‖ (p. 13). In addition, in many schools the teachers‘ negative attitudes and beliefs about the students they teach has contributed to the achievement gap (Thompson, 2004). The achievement gap has been perpetuated in many schools through teachers‘ low expectations, a lack of exposure to standards, teacher isolation, ineffective teachers, and a lack of accountability. Despite significant legislation, such as NCLB, which places accountability goals for all students, the achievement gap continues to be a factor for students of color, English Learners (EL), and special education students. Many researchers have described teachers‘ beliefs and attitudes as instrumental in the achievement gap. Thompson (2004) stated, ―As a result of deficit theories, many Americans believe that children from nonmainstream backgrounds are innately inferior to middle-class and upper-class White children‖ (p. 32). Statement of the Problem The achievement gap between Caucasian or Asian students and ethnic minorities (such as African Americans, Latinos), ELs, Standard English Learners, and low-income students, was an impetus for the NCLB legislation. This achievement gap plaguing urban schools must be addressed for students of color to reach social and economic parity with 4 their White peers. NCLB focuses attention on the growing achievement gap for students of color. For the purpose of this study, the achievement gap is defined as a disparity in academic achievement between minority and low-socioeconomic students and their White counterparts, as demonstrated by standardized testing. The reasons for this gap are numerous and require differentiated strategies in the schools and strong, multilayered leadership from the district, principals, and teachers. The list of factors identified as affecting racial and ethnic achievement gaps may include socioeconomic and family conditions (educational attainment, income, poverty, single household); youth culture and student behaviors (motivation and effort for learning, alcohol and illicit drug usage, crime); and schooling conditions and practices (instructional resources, teachers, course taking, dropout, segrega- tion). The sheer number of factors reflects the complexity of studying racial and ethnic achievement gaps. (Lee, 2002, p. 6) This achievement gap has affected schools, communities, and businesses because the students who are not successful are unable to take their rightful places in the work force, the community, and families. The students who are part of this achievement gap are a threat to national security and the future of this country due to low academic skills and an inability to compete in a world market society. Fortunately, some schools located in urban areas have closed or narrowed the achievement gap, offering lessons and best practices for schools struggling with a gap for students of color. The research on the achievement gap includes historical factors that caused the gap, the reasons that contributed to the gap, and the characteristics of schools with achievement gaps. The research includes examples of schools that narrowed the achievement gap, focusing on a specific program, method, or practice. There is a lack of research on what teachers in schools that narrowed the gap perceived to have been 5 reasons for their school‘s academic gains. In addition, there is a lack of research on the academic progress of southern California schools after the implementation of Proposition 227, NCLB, standards-based instruction, and the Reading First initiative, which included a focus on direct instruction, phonics, and consistent professional development for the teachers. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative case study is to identify the cultural norms, practices, and programs of a high-performing urban school that narrowed the achieve- ment gap and sustained academic success over time. Fortunately, some schools have narrowed the achievement gap despite being situated in urban settings with the multiple social problems typically found in these communities. In addition, this case study attempts to identify the strategies used by the school leadership team to sustain the academic growth over an extended period of time. Identifying the factors in a school that sustains the academic growth is important if the federal goal of not leaving any child behind is to be reached. This case study was developed by nine doctoral students from the University of Southern California‘s Rossier School of Education who studied the cultural norms, practices, and programs at urban schools throughout the southern California area. Each researcher attempted via a separate case study to identify the reasons, the school selected for his/her study, narrowed the achievement gap. The knowledge gained from these case studies will assist schools or educators grappling with similar achievement problems. 6 Research Questions Three research questions guided this case study which focused on the cultural norms, practices, and programs used by a successful school in an urban area. In addition, the research questions included a focus on the method by which the school sustained the academic growth. 1. What cultural norms, practiced within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 2. What practices employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 3. What programs employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? Framework and Process Model One framework and one process model was used for this case study, with the goal of understanding the work and success of the school. The framework was used to view the principal‘s leadership actions and decisions that created opportunities for the teachers to provide students with a quality education. The framework used for this case study was Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) four frames which offer leaders opportunities to address complex organizational problems using the four frames. This framework allowed the researcher to view the actions of the principal through these four frames. The process model used for this case study was the basis for the three research questions. Clark and Estes‘s (2002) Turning Research Into Results Process Model identified organizational performance gaps. A modified version of Clark and Este‘s 7 process model was used for the school in this case study with the goal of identifying factors perceived by the staff as instrumental to their academic success. Significance of the Study This study could benefit educators and those interested in the future of public schools through the identification of actions taken by the staff of an urban school in narrowing the achievement gap. This study provides insight into the actions perceived by the staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap for African American students and English learners. This case study has the potential of identifying for other schools and educators ways in which to improve student outcomes through the effective work demonstrated by this successful school. In addition, this case study is an attempt to identify strategies used by the school leadership team to sustain academic growth over an extended period of time. It is vital for schools to develop a strategically sustainable academic plan to allow their academic accomplishments to continue. Unfortunately, many schools have narrowed the achievement gap for a period of time but then the school‘s academic gains diminish when there is a change of leadership or a change of program implementation at the district level. Identifying the factors that sustain the academic growth is important for school and district leaders, the business community, and government officials if the achievement gap is to close permanently. Methodology This qualitative case study focused on one school that met the criteria of narrowing the achievement gap as demonstrated by the scores on the state‘s standardized tests. According to Patton (2002), qualitative findings result from three kinds of data 8 collection: (a) in-depth, open-ended interviews, (b) direct observation, and (c) written documents. The methodology used for this case study included staff interviews and surveys, classroom and school observations, and review of school data and artifacts. To collect this data the researcher spent 6 days at the school interviewing staff, conducting a survey, observing classrooms, attending professional development activities and attending staff meetings. Creswell (2009) stated that ―the process of data analysis involves making sense out of text and image data‖ (p. 183). The data was coded based on the research question being addressed. For data triangulation, each research question was addressed in the interviews, the surveys, the observation tools, and the review of school artifacts. Assumptions The researcher made several assumptions in this case study. First, there was an assumption that the school staff completing the survey and participating in the interviews were truthful in their responses to the questions. The second assumption was that the staff at the school did not acting differently when the researcher observed in the class- rooms, the staff meetings, or observed professional development sessions. The third assumption was that the school was able to narrow the achievement gap due to the practices and programs identified by the staff in the interviews and survey. The fourth assumption was that the selection criteria developed and used for this case study was a good indicator of students‘ success and therefore an indicator of a successful school. 9 Limitations of the Study A limitation of this case study was that it focused on only one school. However, this limitation allowed the researcher to obtain rich and thick description of the school and staff. In a qualitative study generalization is not the goal; rather, the ―the value of qualitative research lies in the particular description and themes developed in context of a specific site‖ (Creswell, 2009, p. 193). This case study method offers practitioners insight into how this particular school dealt with the challenges of poverty, the instruc- tional practices, and other stresses of an urban school. The information gained from the 9 case studies can expand the knowledge of best practices used in the 9 schools. Another limitation of this qualitative case study was the inability to prove cause and effect. Therefore, the cultural norms, practices, and programs identified by the staff as instrumental to their achievement could not be proven as the cause or effect of the narrowing of the achievement gap. Instead, this case study identified what the staff perceived as important to their success at narrowing the gap. The direct correlation to the school‘s Academic Performance Index (API) or the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and the actions of the school staff could not be proven in this case study. Another limitation was that the student population of the selected school was 99% Latino or African American which meant that the school did not have White or Asian students scoring higher than the minority student population. Therefore, based on the definition of the achievement gap, the test scores of the students of this school were compared to the scores of students at neighboring schools, district-level scores, and state scores. Despite this limitation the school was selected for the case study by the 10 researcher due to the academic gains that this urban school accomplished these past 4 years. An additional limitation was the amount of time spent at the school. The researcher spent 6 days at the school conducting interviews, administering the survey, and making observations. If money and time had not been factors, the researcher could have spent months or years at the school. The amount of time spent in this study allowed the researcher a glimpse of what happened in the school, the leadership factors that influenced student achievement, and the interaction among staff and students. This case study described, through rich and detailed language, the situation faced by the school staff and how they dealt with the challenges. An unintended personal bias by the researcher could be considered a limitation. This unintended personal bias could include her personal philosophy, experiences as a school site principal and her current district-level administrative position which could influence her views of the school. The researcher had to set aside any personal bias, while on the school site, while using the observation tools, and while analyzing the collected data. As an experienced educator, the researcher viewed the school site and staff without infusing her own beliefs of successful practices. Another limitation was that the researcher taught at the school from 1982 to 1990 and still knew several staff members. The relationships and experiences with these staff members created a comfort level with the rest of the school staff that allowed them to welcome the researcher and open themselves to participating in the surveys, interviews, and classroom observations. The recent assignment of the researcher to a district-level 11 position could also be a limitation because the staff of the school was aware of the researcher‘s new position. To address this factor, the researcher conducted the 6 days of the study in casual attire in order not to be conspicuous. In addition, even though the school had an open door policy for administrative classroom observations, the researcher sought permission from each teacher before entering the room to observe. The researcher ate lunch in the teachers‘ staff lounge during the 6 days to create a comfort level with the staff. An unexpected limitation occurred the month before the study was conducted, when the principal at the target school, herein Great Street Elementary School, received a promotion and moved to a district-level position in the same local district as the researcher. The researcher conducted the 6 days of the study when the school had an interim (retired) principal. This limitation could influence the way the staff acted at the school, their instructional practices in the classroom, and their comments during the interview. Delimitations of the Study A delimitation of this study was related to the criteria established by the nine cohort doctoral students for selecting the school for this case study. The criteria included a specific Socioeconomic Status (SES) level for the student population, a specific academic criterion, and enrollment of a minority student subgroup that had narrowed the achievement gap. These requirements limited the schools that were eligible for participation in this case study. 12 Another delimitation was the decision by the nine researchers not to have students participate in the study and to use only the students‘ performance on standardized tests as a criterion. The inclusion of students would have added a perspective on how their scores had improved and how they had gained academic success. Definition of Terms This case study included terms that were central for understanding the study. The definitions for these terms originated from EdSource (2007). These terms were related to school accountability, school practices, and school leadership characteristics. Academic Performance Index (API): The API was created as part of the state‘s Public Schools Accountability Act. California measures academic growth in the schools by scoring the results from 200 to 1000 points. The state established a goal of having each school score 800 points. The API scores are used by the state to rank all public and charter schools. Schools with similar demographics are compared by API scores. The state also gives each school a target API goal for the entire school and for subgroups. Accountability: The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an organiza- tion (e.g., a school, school district, or state department of education) should be held responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or sanctioned for their success or lack of success in doing so. Achievement gap: A consistent difference in scores on student achievement tests between certain groups of children and children in other groups. The data document a strong association between poverty and students‘ lack of academic success as measured by achievement tests. While poverty is not unique to any ethnicity, it exists in 13 disproportionate rates among African Americans and Hispanics, and among English learners. The reasons behind the achievement gap are multifaceted. They stem to some degree from factors that children bring with them to school; however, other factors that contribute to the gap stem from students‘ school experiences. Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The AYP is used by the federal government to determine whether states, districts, and schools are progressing toward the federal goal that 100% of the students score proficient or advanced by 2013-2014. The federal government has set goals that increase each year until 2014, when 100% of the students should score proficient or advanced. California Department of Education (CDE): The CDE has the responsibility to oversee the education of all students from ages 3 years to adult. The CDE is responsible for curriculum and standards, testing, accountability, and the school finance system. California‘s elected Superintendent of Public Instruction oversees the CDE and the State Board of Education acts as its policy-making body. California Standards Tests (CST): The state of California uses the CST to assess students on the state‘s academic content standards. These content standards are what students are expected to know and what teachers are expected to teach. Students in Grades 2 through 11 take the test take the language arts and mathematics CSTs in the spring. Students in Grades 5, 8, and 10 take the science test. Students in Grades 8, 10, and 11 take the history/social science tests. The results of the CST are released in August. Students score at one of five levels: advanced, proficient, basic, below basic, or far below basic. The federal goal requires all students to score advanced or proficient. 14 Content standards: Content standards describe what students should know and be able to do in core academic subjects at each grade level. In 1997 more rigorous K-12 academic content standards were adopted by California. Because these standards are technically ―voluntary,‖ school districts may vary widely in the extent to which they have aligned their curriculum and teaching strategies to these state standards. Criterion-referenced test: A criterion-reference test measures specific perform- ance or content standards, often along a continuum from total lack of skill to excellence. These tests can have cut scores that determine whether a test taker has passed or failed the test or has basic, proficient, or advanced skills. Criterion-referenced tests, unlike norm-referenced assessments, are not created primarily to compare students to each other; the goal of this type of assessment is to have everyone attain a passing mark. English Language Learner (EL): Students whose home language is not English and who qualify for extra help. EL students were formerly known as Limited English Proficient (LEP). Free/reduced-price meals: A federal meal program provides food, typically lunch and/or breakfast, for students from low-income families. The number of students partici- pating in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is increasingly used to measure the poverty level of a school or district population. The number of children in this program can affect the school‘s or district‘s eligibility for grants or other funding aimed at helping lower-income families. 15 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): The NAEP is a national test given to specific grade levels in specific subjects every other year. NAEP test scores can be compared to national averages. No Child Left Behind (NCLB): This is federal legislation was enacted in January 2002 as the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). NCLB federal guidelines require all schools to work toward having students score proficient or advanced. Schools that receive Title I funds and fail to meet the target growth for 2 consecutive years are placed in Program Improvement status. Program Improvement (PI): Schools that fail to meet the Federal AYP goal of having students score proficient or advanced enter Program Improvement status. These schools receive intervention support or sanctions to assist the school to meet the AYP goal. The sanctions affect control of the budget and could lead the removal of the staff and other restructuring requirements. School Accountability Report Card (SARC): Proposition 98 requires an annual report on specified aspects of a school‘s operation. The report card measures staffing, facilities, test scores, and other issues. Significant subgroup: A group of students based on ethnicity, poverty, English learners‘ status, or Special Education designation. Under both California and federal accountability rules, various data must be reported for significant subgroups of students. To be considered significant, a subgroup must include 100 students, or a smaller number if they represent at least 15% of the overall school population. 16 Standardized Testing and Reporting Program (STAR): California‘s standardized testing process is organized through the STAR program. Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature that provides the historical back- ground by which to view the problem of the achievement gap. This historical component includes the accountability movement that forced all practitioners and government officials to view the work of schools in a different manner. The chapter also includes a definition of the achievement gap. A literature review is provided in this chapter regard- ing the achievement gap with a focus on leadership, collaboration, standards, and teacher effectiveness. This chapter reports best practices found in the literature regarding programs and practices that reduced the achievement gap. Chapter 3 includes the methodology for this case study, including the research design, population, sampling, instrumentation, and theoretical framework. Chapter 4 describes the results from the case study conducted at the selected urban elementary school serving Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 5. This chapter includes a description of the school, a summary of the findings from staff interviews, the survey, classroom observations, and document review. In this chapter the research questions are addressed based on what was observed and learned at the school. Chapter 5 includes the findings, conclusion, and implications from this case study. In addition, in Chapter 5 recommendations are presented for school staff, district-level staff, and policy makers. The chapter also presents recommendations for future research based on the findings from the study. 17 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The achievement gap plaguing urban schools should be eradicated so that disad- vantaged students of color could reach social and economic equality with their White peers. Since the 1990s, accountability provided the focus on education reform efforts throughout the United States. NCLB placed pressure on all states and school districts to focus on the achievement gap of students of color, low-income students, and English Learners (Haycock, 2006). The purpose of this literature review was to establish an understanding of the achievement gap for students of color, students who were limited English speakers, students in special education, and students from low-income families. In addition, this literature review established a definition of the achievement gap, provided the history of the gap, stated reasons for the gap, explored actions needed to close the gap, and examined examples of schools, districts, and programs that had narrowed or closed the gap. The literature review focused on the accountability aspects of the education reform efforts. The section devoted to best practices focused on the leadership of the principal, the use of standards and academic rigor, the implementation of professional learning communities, and effective teachers. Historical Review of the Achievement Gap African Americans have sought education as a means of freedom since the time of slavery. Unfortunately, learning to read and write were prohibited activities for the African slave. In fact, an adage in the African American culture regarding education was ―freedom for literacy and literacy for freedom‖ (Perry, Steele, & Hilliard, 2003). Federal 18 court cases, such as Plessey v. Ferguson, reinforced the idea of ―separate but equal‖ and permitted segregated, substandard schools for African Americans (Verdun, 2005). The landmark 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka overturned Plessey and instituted the principle that separate was not equal, thereby theoretically equalizing educational programs and schools for people of color. Unfortunately, years after Brown, this country maintained a system of inequality in schools attended by children of color. The role of the federal government increased in the area of education in the 1960s, primarily due to President Johnson‘s War on Poverty, which led to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. This law established the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, which focused on providing compensatory funds to schools. The 1964 Civil Rights Act required a study to be conducted by the government to assess the impact of inequality in education. This study, the Equality of Educational Opportunity Study, was led by James S. Coleman and resulted in the Coleman Report in 1966, concluding that a child‘s family situation had greater impact than the role of schools on a child‘s educational outcome (Coleman et al., 1966). The Coleman Report was used for many years as a rationale for spending extensive funds on social programs with the goal of strengthening the child‘s family structure and, thereby, the child‘s educational opportunities. The achievement gap between African American students and White students narrowed in the 1970s and the early 1980s (Haycock, 2001). Through this era the scores for White students demonstrated no academic progress while those of African American 19 students demonstrated significant progress. Numerous reasons were given for this testing phenomenon. For example, Lee (2002) attributed this academic increase for African Americans to the implementation of school desegregation, since African American students were attending schools with more resources. In addition, during this period there was a focus on basic skills, which some believed was the reason for the narrowing of the achievement gap. In fact, some researchers stated that in the 1970s schools attempted to increase achievement by African Americans by lowering academic standards (Harris & Herrington, 2006). In addition, during this time when the achieve- ment gap lessened for African Americans and their test scores increased, the economic situation for these families improved (Lee, 2002). Many of the schools also had an infusion of funds from federal and state compensatory programs that benefited African American students (Lee, 2002). The National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE) published a report, A Nation at Risk in 1983, highlighting the dismal state of education in the United States. This report led to many state and local reform efforts, including increasing the school calendar year, increasing academic requirements, and increasing salaries for teachers. The increase in academic rigor and standards caused the achievement gap between African American and White students to widen because academic achievement by White students increased while academic achievement by African American students failed to increase at the same rate as that of the White students (Lee, 2002). 20 Current Accountability for Schools A Nation at Risk set the stage for the 1990s, which not only increased academic standards for all students but included an enhanced role for the federal government in the area of education. Under the leadership of President George W. Bush the federal govern- ment reauthorized Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 and renamed it NCLB of 2001. This new law augmented the accountability pressure on the states to raise academic rigor for all students and to be held accountable for academic achievement by all students, including students of color. In addition, the NCLB legislation mandated that all states adopt standards in reading, mathematics, and science. The students were to be taught lesson based on state standards and assessed yearly using a testing instrument reflective of the standards. NCLB legislation allowed each state to determine content standards and assessment mechanisms (Stecher, Hamilton, & Gonzalez, G., 2003). Since the 1990s, the word accountability saturated the field of education and schools were held accountable for the academic growth of all students. Schools that failed to reach the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) goals entered Program Improvement status and received sanctions. One of the sanctions was a requirement for the failing school to enter a self-assessment process headed by the local education agency (LEA). This process assisted staff in identifying reasons the school failed to meet the targeted goals. Clark and Estes (2002) stated that, ―to close performance gaps and achieve business goals, we first have to identify the cause of the gap and, therefore, the type of performance improvement program required‖ (p. 41). 21 The NCLB legislation established accountability measures to assess the imple- mentation of a standards-based academic program and the academic progress of all students, including those who were part of a minority subgroup. Students participated in a state assessment once a year, with the goal of scoring at a level of proficient or above. The federal government established AYP target goals that increased every year. Schools with 100 students or more of a specific subgroup (ethnicity, language learner, special education, SES) were held accountable for these students scoring at a level of proficient or above. Schools that failed to meet the AYP for 2 consecutive years, school-wide and for significant subgroups, were placed in Program Improvement status. Each year that a school was in Program Improvement status, the federal government increased the sanctions, including loss of budget authority, parental school choice, change in school governance, and even staff reconstitution. The accountability component included increased sanctions on the local schools, the district, and the state for not meeting academic achievement for all students (Zigler & Finn-Stevenson, 2007). The federal government set a goal, that by the year 2014, 100% of the students would score proficient or advanced on the state test. This lofty NCLB goal was viewed by many as unreachable and unrealistic, considering the social factors faced by many students and their families. Schools received no credit for making academic gains on their state tests, thereby providing limited incentives to the school or staff (Lynn, 2005). This performance goal applied to all public and charter schools, even though 22 there were additional sanctions on schools that receive federal Title I funds (Stecher et al., 2003). Assessments In 1969 the federal government established the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) to assess students nationwide. The students who participated in this assessment were selected randomly from schools throughout the country. The NAEP results were the only measure available to compare the academic achievement of students state to state. This was one of the reasons why the NAEP, considered the nation‘s report card, was used by researchers for their studies. Under NCLB legislation, each state was given the task of establishing a state- wide assessment, the performance bands, and the criteria for proficiency to determine whether students were the meeting AYP goals. In California, students from Grades 2 through 11 participated in the CST, based on the California state standards. Students in elementary schools were tested in language arts, mathematics, and science. California used the results of the CST to determine whether a school or a district met the NCLB goals schoolwide and for significant subgroups. Schools that failed to meet the federal goals were placed on Program Improvement status and identified as failing. This was one way by which the achievement gap was measured at a school level or district level. Achievement Gap Definition of the Achievement Gap For the purpose of this case study the achievement gap was defined as a disparity in academic achievement between minority and low SES students and their White 23 counterparts, as demonstrated by performance on standardized tests. The results from the NAEP consistently demonstrate an academic disparity between minority students and White students. For example, the NAEP demonstrated that, when African American students reached Grade 12 they were at least 4 years behind their White counterparts (Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). An example of this achievement gap for ELs was demonstrated by the fact that 51% of 8th-grade EL students were academically behind White students in language arts and mathematics (Fry, 2007). Causes of the Achievement Gap Numerous reasons for the widening achievement gap were cited by researchers. Some members of the general public concurred with the Coleman Report (Coleman et al., 1966), which placed responsibility for a child‘s academic success solely on the child‘s family economic, social, and cultural conditions. Others contended that schools were responsible for the growth of the achievement gap due to teachers with low expectations, an ineffective curriculum, or a lack of qualified teachers (Harris & Herrington, 2006; Haycock, 2001; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003). Some cited socioeconomic reasons, such as racism and poverty. Therefore, issues must be addressed in the child‘s home, school, and community to narrow the achievement gap (Rothstein, 2004). Socioeconomic Causes of the Achievement Gap The achievement gap was influenced by the socioeconomic factor, which affected families and children. This gap was considered an economic gap by many researchers (McCall, Hauser, Cronin, Kingsbury, & Houser, 2006). These factors included poverty, 24 unemployment, family condition, educational attainment, and single-family household (Lee, 2002). According to the research in order to narrow the achievement gap it was important that the social factors affecting a child‘s life be addressed. Even though the achievement gap was also an economic gap, schools were assigned primary responsibility, due to their proximity to the actual problem (McCall et al., 2006). Unfortunately, the general public, including politicians, educators, and policy makers placed responsibility for the achievement gap on the child‘s cultural setting: home life, culture, language, community, and family. Instead of viewing the child‘s cultural setting as a positive factor, many viewed the child‘s cultural background through a deficit lens (Thompson, 2004). When a school viewed the child through a deficit lens, the child‘s achievement was affected ―through the curriculum and through instructional prac- tices‖ (Thompson, 2004, p. 35). This deficit lens included low expectations, negative teacher-student interaction, and a lack of appreciation for the child‘s cultural capital. ―According to Bourdieu (1970), cultural capital is socially inherited cultural competence that facilitates achievement in school‖ (Perry, Steele, & Hilliard, 2003, p. 67). Racism and the Achievement Gap The achievement gap among students of color was viewed by some as the continuation of racial inequality that African American and Latinos experienced in the United States. Unfortunately, despite years of court decisions, billions in federal funds, and countless research studies, the achievement gap continued to exist. Many questions were raised as to the role of schools in closing the achievement gap. For example, some held that educators ignored or failed to establish an environment that promoted 25 higher achievement by African American or Latino students. In addition, it was important to remember that only for the past 30 years were African Americans allowed to access educational opportunity fully (Perry et al., 2003). Kuykendall (2004) stated that African American and Latino students were punished for not exhibiting behavior required by the schools. This type of judgmental actions by the schools contributed to the achievement gap for children of color. Many schools evaluated and judged students of color based on the expected middle-class behavior of White students. African American and Latino students were deemed by the schools to be defiant, hyperactive, or having behavior issues if they failed to comply with the expected mainstream culture. This type of school behavior enhanced the achievement gap among children of color. Therefore, schools with a significant minority student population had an obligation to establish a learning environment that accepted and valued the child‘s culture, including their language, family, and community. African American Males and the Achievement Gap Wells, Griffth, & Kritsonis (2007) stated that schools had the responsibility for the achievement gap among African American males due to the manner in which school affected African American boys. According to Wells et al. (2007), schools caused African American males to feel ―invisible and undermine their interests in learning‖ (p. 2). Consequently these students had the belief that education was not worth the work and the effort. Therefore, it was important to provide for students a chance to ―study a rigorous curriculum‖ (p. 3). Wells et al. (2007) stated that it was important for teachers to learn creative ways by which to teach students of color. The students must 26 have access to resources that were essential to good instruction, lessons that were engaging and teachers who were effective and motivated students. Latino Students and the Achievement Gap The influx of Latino first- and second-generation immigrants to the schools in the United States focused attention on the achievement gap between Latino EL students and English-only speakers. Under NCLB guidelines schools were held accountable for the academic achievement of second language learners on state tests. This achievement gap was attributed to numerous social factors, such as immigrant status, lack of English skills, societal racism, families‘ views of education, and SES. Fry (2008) stated in a Pew Hispanic Center report that the achievement gap increased for EL students when they attended high-poverty schools characterized by low standardized test scores, over- crowded conditions, increased class size, and students living in high-poverty settings. Fry stated that the achievement gap decreased for EL students when they attended high- performing or low-poverty schools. According to Fry, this occurred because these schools had teachers who demonstrated high student expectation, rigor in instructional lessons, and effective teaching strategies. Another factor in the achievement gap for Latino students was the NCLB require- ment for ELs to participate in the state assessments in their second language. Despite time required to obtain proficiency in a second language, Latino ELs were held accountable for the same assessment as their English-only peers (Hakuta, Butler, & Witt, 2000). 27 The Role of Schools in the Achievement Gap Schools were given a critical role in narrowing the achievement gap. Choi and Kim (2006) stated, ―Most researchers have agreed that schools do have a measurable impact on student achievement, even though the source and the magnitude of the school effect are still heavily debated‖ (p. 1). Choi and Kim indicated that ―effective schools not only increase student achievement on average, but also reduce the gap between student achievement levels‖ (p. 20). The quality of the teachers, the use of standards, and the delivery of the instructional strategies were key components that districts and schools controlled and influenced. They controlled what was taught, who taught the material, and how it was taught. In addition, the schools had control over their acceptance of a child‘s culture, including family and language. According to Haycock (2006), when students were taught by ineffective teachers, the achievement gap widened. Unfortunately, research had demonstrated that students in low-performing schools were taught primarily by underqualified or underprepared teachers, which causes the achievement gap to increase (Thompson, 2004). Research additionally demonstrated the importance of providing students of color the most effective teachers in order to narrow or close the gap (Haycock, 2001). In fact, some claim that the achievement gap was in reality a teaching gap that should be addressed by districts and schools (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). An important action that schools needed to address to narrow the achievement gap was to establish a school environment that accepted and valued the students‘ culture, including their language, family, and community. School staff should understand the 28 diverse learning styles that African American and other minority students required to meet state standards (Gay, 2000; Hale, 1982; Kuykendall, 2004; Perry et al., 2003). According to Butcher and Kritsonis (2008), to narrow the academic achievement gap, it was vital that students be provided with a rigorous curriculum that had various components and that reached the diverse cultural needs of student of color. Butcher and Kritsonis (2008) indicated the importance for students to be exposed to instructional practices that were meaningful and sustained the child‘s interest. They conclude that instructional practices should allow students to construct, develop, and apply knowledge they had learned. They reinforced the idea that high expectations by teachers who taught students of color was important for the diverse populations found in schools. Gay (2000) noted the importance for students ―to learn knowledge and skills that they can apply in life and how to meet high standards of academic excellence, rather than wasting time on fanciful notions about cultural diversity‖ (p. 21). Best Practices at Reducing the Achievement Gap This section highlights best practices used by schools, teachers, and districts to reduce the achievement gap. Researchers (e.g., Haycock, 2001; Thompson, 2004) identified best practices that schools, teachers, principals, parents, and district officials established to close or narrow the achievement gap. This section reviewed the research on best practices focusing on school leadership, standards and academic rigor, professional learning communities, teacher efficacy, and sociocultural settings. 29 School Leadership and the Achievement Gap Effective principal leadership was essential for improving student achievement. Schools that narrowed the achievement gap credited the principal‘s leadership for establishing effective instructional practices, school culture, and demonstrated best practices (EdSource, 2006). Various researchers identified the traits and actions essential for principals to possess in order to narrow the achievement gap. McEwan and McEwan (2003) identified 10 traits that effective principals possessed. For example, an effective principal was a good communicator, an educational leader, someone who had a vision, a facilitator, a change master, a culture builder, an activator, a producer and character builder, and a contributor (pp. xxx-xxi). McEwan and McEwan (2003) focused on specific principals who represented these traits in their schools. According to McEwan and McEwan (2003), ―all of the ten traits are essential to some degree in order to be a highly effective principal‖ (p. 164). McEwan stated that principals who were effective worked to cultivate these traits. The importance of McEwan‘s 10 traits was the realization that since the principal was important to a school‘s success; the principal needed to enhance these leadership traits. Thernstrom and Thernstrom (2003) stated that effective principals established a school culture with high expectation for students and teachers. Effective principals demanded an instructional program that was standards-based, rigorous, and scaffolded to the needs of diverse learners. These principals were habitually in the classrooms, supporting teachers on instruction, and providing teachers multiple opportunities to collaborate as professionals. In addition, effective principals set the vision for the school, 30 use school data to drive instruction, provided for teachers the type of support they needed to become effective teachers. In addition, these effective principals sought assistance for the students who were falling behind (EdSource, 2007). Marzano et al. (2005) identified 70 studies on principal leadership and concluded that leadership mattered to student achievement. Through this research Marzano et al. (2005) identified 21 leadership responsibilities that principals addressed in their everyday work. They correlated these 21 responsibilities to student achievement: affirmation, change agent, contingent rewards, communication, culture, discipline, flexibility, focus, ideals/beliefs, input, intellectual stimulation, involvement in curriculum instruction and assessment, knowledge of curriculum, instruction and assessment, monitoring and evaluating, optimizer, order, outreach, relationships, resources, situational awareness, and visibility. Marzano et al. (2005) concluded that the 21 leadership responsibilities were vital to the leadership of an effective school. EdSource (2006) conducted a study entitled Similar Students, Different Results: Why Do Some Schools Do Better? The study was conducted by having 5,500 teachers and 257 parents respond to surveys covering key questions regarding school qualities, school policies, and practices affecting student achievement. There were 550 California schools that scored from the 25th to 35th percentiles on the School Characteristics Index. In this study the schools served mostly ELs, low-income students, and African American students. The schools had similar student populations but varying degrees of test results, as reflected on the API. The survey responses identified four areas as significant: prioritizing student achievement, standards-based instructional program, use of 31 assessment to improve instruction, and sufficient resources. The researchers found that schools with higher API had higher expectations for students. Schools where the teachers stated that the principal had a clear vision and high standards for students were also high- performing schools. The leadership role of the principal was instrumental in having schools with higher API scores. The principal set high standards for the staff. These school had detailed plans on how they were going to meet the state goals and were working together to ensure that their students were successful. The study concluded that a shared culture of student learning and a responsibility for this learning was characteris- tic of schools that were higher performing. The conclusion was similar to other studies with regard to the importance of using standards and data to improve student achieve- ment. The EdSource (2006) report concluded that what a school did to address student achievement had an important impact on the school‘s overall academic achievement. Leadership and Sustainability One of the goals for this case study was to identify the component or actions that assisted the school in sustaining their academic growth. This sustainment component to closing the achievement gap was important for schools and districts if the federal goal of not leaving any child behind was to be reached. The leadership role of the principal was identified as critical in a school‘s effort to provide students with a strong academic program and school reform (Buffum, Mattos, & Weber, 2009; Marzano, 2003; Marzano et al., 2005; Thernstrom & Thernstrom, 2003; Waters et al., 2003). The issue of establishing sustainability through the leadership role of the principal and teachers was viewed using Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) four frames. These four 32 frames or lenses were developed with the goal of providing organizational leaders opportunities for multiple views of organizational problems or situations. These four frames or lenses were described as ―windows on the world of leadership and manage- ment. A good frame made it easier to know what you are up against and what you can do about it.‖ (p. 12). Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) identified the four frames as the structural frame, the symbolic frame, the human resource frame, and the political frame. The structural frame focused on the ―architecture of organization—the designs of units and subunits, rules and roles, goals and policies—that shape and channel decisions and activities‖ (p. 18). Examples of the structural frame found in a school included the leadership role of the various staff members, the schedule used at the school, the use of time, and the vision and mission of the school. The human resource frame ―emphasizes an understanding of people, with their strengths and foibles, reason, and emotion, desires and fears‖ (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p.18). The human resource frame provided the leader the opportunity to give employees a sense of satisfaction due to their ―individual talent and energy‖ (p. 159). The human resource frame included an organization‘s investment in its people. This ability to invest in the staff created a positive sense of belonging. An example of the human resource frame used at a school was the manner in which the principal provided professional development opportunities for teachers and other staff member to improve instruction. Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) symbolic frame ―focuses on issues of meaning and faith. It puts ritual, ceremony, story, play, and culture at the heart of organizational life‖ (p. 19). The symbolic frame was important to organizations because it was vital to 33 their life and provided an explanation and a way of understanding their actions and belief systems. An example of this frame was how the school leader allowed teachers and students to celebrate their successes. The political frame was defined as ―competitive arenas characterized by scarce resources, competing interests, and struggles for power and advantage‖ (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 18). The political frame included the ability of members of an organization to gather power and make decisions. This frame was especially important regarding the issue of how staff viewed these students‘ abilities to succeed. The political problem of racism, both subtle and overt, which caused low expectations for children of color, offers principals an opportunity to address this problem through the political frame. Standards-Based Instruction To bridge the achievement gap, students must be exposed to high standards with a challenging, rigorous curriculum. These standards should be uniformed throughout the school, the districts, and the state. Even though most states established a requirement for standards-based education, some states still had a curriculum with minimal rigor (Elmore, 2002; Haycock, 2001). This factor was especially true in low-poverty/low-performing schools. Haycock (2001) stated that, to address the achievement gap, students must be exposed to an academic program characterized by a standards-based curriculum delivered by highly effective teachers who provided rigorous activities to their students (p. 6). In addition, Haycock indicated that students of color were not always exposed to the academic rigor and standards-based instruction required to narrow the gap. 34 According to Haycock (2001), these standards should be aligned to a curriculum challenging to the students and taught by effective teachers. Harris and Herrington (2006) indicated the importance of teaching standards to the students. ―In short, standards affect academic rigor that, in turn, drives achievement‖ (p. 217). They concluded rigorous standards had an affirmative effect on student achievement. Marzano (2003) noted the importance of providing for all students a ―guaranteed and viable curriculum.‖ To provide all students the opportunity to have access to this curriculum, state, district, and school leaders should provide the clear message to teachers that this curriculum was to be taught to all students. Unfortunately, as many researchers discovered, the same curriculum was not made available to the students even in the same school (Marzano, 2003; Schmoker, 2006). Effective Teachers The achievement gap would narrow if minority and low-income students were exposed to effective teachers. Effective teachers possessed the skills to provide multiple learning opportunities for their students. The achievement gap would not be narrowed until the teaching quality gap was addressed. According to Marzano (2003), ―Ineffective teachers might actually impede the learning of their students.‖ (p. 75). Unfortunately, in many cases the students who required the most assistance were assigned teachers considered weak or who had limited experience (Haycock, 2001). Teachers‘ instruc- tional actions mattered, especially for minority students in high-poverty schools. The effective teacher was vital to the future of a student and for student achievement (Gay, 35 2000; Goldring, Porter, Murphy, Elliott, & Cravens, 2007; Haycock, 2006; Marzano, 2003). According to Stigler and Hiebert (1999), ―Standards set the course, and assess- ments provide the benchmarks, but it is teaching that must be improved to push us along the path to success‖ (p. 2). Harris and Herrington (2006) stated, ―These findings suggest that attracting and retaining effective teachers in low-performing schools is critical to reducing the achievement gap‖ (p. 224). Researchers who focused on the achievement gap agreed that effective teachers were important to narrowing the gap. Wenglinsky (2002) concluded that a teacher‘s classroom practice was vital in narrowing the achievement gap. Despite the students‘ background, an effective teacher was able to assist the students to achieve academic skills. Wenglinsky‘s (2002) study demonstrated that the teacher‘s instructional practices improved student achievement. The instructional decisions made by the teacher could either hinder or assist the student in gaining necessary skills. The study reinforced previous research that teachers who provided higher-order thinking activities to students improved student achievement. These findings indicated that a school must have a critical mass of active teachers to provide for the students the type of classroom experience that would help them reach academic achievement. Wenglinsky (2002) described the difference between active and passive teaching. Active teachers taught students beyond the students‘ educational back- ground; in other words, the active teacher provided multiple instructional strategies that allowed students access to the standards being studied. Passive teachers allowed students to learn at their own level and with available resources; these teachers provide linear 36 instructional activities with only one answer and limited opportunities for accessing the curriculum. Professional Learning Communities To have students exposed to effective teachers, time must be spent on effective professional development. ―Professional development that focuses on student learning and helps teachers develop the pedagogical skills to teach specific kinds of content has strong positive effects on practice‖ (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009, p. 48). Research demonstrated that professional development was effective when it was not approached in isolation from what took place in the classroom. ―To avoid disparities between what teachers learn in professional development work and what they can actually implement in their classroom, schools should seamlessly link curriculum, assessment, standards, and professional learning opportunities‖ (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009, p. 48). Professional learning communities were important in providing teachers opportunities for effective professional development relevant to the work in their classrooms (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009; DuFour & Eaker, 1998). Professional learning communities allowed teachers to collaborate and engage in discussions regarding students, instructional practices, and joint effective strategies. Professional learning communities had the ability to create change in instructional practices and in student achievement (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009). DuFour and Eaker (1998) identified the characteristics of professional learning communities: a shared mission, vision and values, collective inquiry, collaborative teams, action orientation and experimentation, continuous improvement, and results orientation. 37 Professional learning communities allowed teachers to enhance their teaching skills by collaborating. This collective professional development was helpful to the entire school, as opposed to just individual growth. Professional learning communities allowed a school to build capacity in the area of instruction and student achievement. Professional learning communities built teachers‘ capacity through collaboration and allowed the school to sustain growth. The challenge of sustaining the change effort to transform schools into pro- fessional learning communities is to challenge of developing a critical mass of teachers who are prepared to function as change agents (Fullan, 1993). The keys to developing this ―critical mass‖ of educators within a school are found in the three C‘s of sustaining an improvement initiative—communication, collaboration, and culture. (DuFour & Eaker, 1998, p. 106) Professional learning communities were critical to schools seeking to provide staff learning and collaboration opportunities. DuFour and Eaker (1998) established 10 guidelines for principals to follow in schools with professional learning communities. The principals were to: attend to the building blocks of professional learning community; communicate the importance of mission, vision, values, and goals on a daily basis; create collaborative structures with a focus on teaching and learning; shape the school culture to support a professional learning community; foster an approach to curriculum that focuses on learning rather than teaching; encourage teachers to think of themselves as leaders; practice enlightened leadership strategies; establish personal credibility; be fixated on results; and recognize that continuous improvement requires continuous learning. These guidelines were important because they addressed ways in which principals supported professional learning communities. For example, the daily communication of the 38 school‘s mission, vision, was important in establishing productive and effective professional learning communities. Summary The research on reducing the achievement gap demonstrated the need to identify schools and programs that narrowed the gap. Most of the research showed that small schools were successful at closing the gap; unfortunately, poor students and students of color attended large elementary and secondary schools. Therefore, further research should be conducted on large urban school that narrowed the achievement gap and the practices they used to sustain their academic growth. Most of the research on schools that narrowed the gap considered the leadership role of the principal as important in schools with students of color. There have been many studies on the actions, characteristics, and best practices taken by these effective instructional leaders. Unfortunately, the research failed to identify a school‘s ability to sustain academic growth once the effective principal was reassigned or retired. In fact, the research on the practices needed to sustain the academic growth at a school was minimal. Therefore, to ensure compliance with the NCLB goal of 100% of students scoring proficient or above, additional research should be conducted to identify factors that assisted successful school in sustaining growth once the effective principal was moved to another school site. An area that required further study was the academic gap between English learners (ELs) and African American students. This phenomenon calls for further research because, as native English speakers, African American students were outper- 39 formed by English learners in California. The factors that closed or narrowed the achievement gap must be identified to allow practitioners to offer all students a quality education. This case study added to the literature because the practices, programs, and cultural norms used by the school in this study can inform schools struggling with an achievement gap. Much of the research on successful schools focused on one particular program or practice identified as critical to the school‘s success. This case study was developed to obtain a holistic view of all actions identified by the staff as critical to their success in terms of practices, programs, and cultural norms. 40 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Chapter 3 identifies the purpose of this case study and the research questions addressed in the study. The chapter describes the population and the sample used in the study, the instrumentation used to collect data, and the methods used to analyze the data. The conceptual framework is discussed to provide a context by which to view the results. Purpose of the Case Study The achievement gap plaguing urban schools must be addressed for students of color to reach social and economic parity with their White peers. The purpose of this case study was to review the instructional and administrative practices identified by the staff with closing or narrowing the achievement gap at an urban school. Patton‘s (2002) typology of research identified this type of research as applied research because it is an opportunity to ―illuminate a societal concern‖ (p. 213). The education gap persistent in schools is indeed a major societal concern. This research study required a qualitative case study because the researcher conducted an analysis of one successful school instead of multiple schools. This case study of a school allowed the researcher to study activities that this urban school utilized to meet federal, state, and district achievement requirements. This case study is important because many educators are searching for successful practices and examples of schools in urban areas that closed or narrowed the achievement gap for students. The school selected for this case study offers examples of cultural norms, practices, and programs utilized by the school‘s staff to address achievement by minority students. This 41 case study is important in light of the academic struggles that schools face in meeting the goals set by No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Development of the Case Study The components of this case study were developed by nine researchers who conducted individual studies at nine urban schools in southern California. Each researcher attempted to identify the perceived reasons the selected school for their case study closed or narrowed the achievement gap. The nine researchers identified specific criteria for the selection of the schools. The selection criteria for a school to participate in this case study included a specific level of Socioeconomic Status (SES) for the students, a specific academic criterion, and school enrollment of a minority subgroup of students who narrowed the achievement gap. The school needed to have over 40% of the student body qualifying for the National School Lunch Program (NSLP). In addition, the school must have demonstrated sustainability by having academic growth for a minimum of the past 2 years, as demonstrated by progress toward meeting California‘s API goal of 800 points. The schools must have met the NCLB goals as demonstrated by their scores on the AYP report and therefore, not be in Program Improvement status. There were two major goals for this case study. One goal was to identify the cultural norms, practices, and programs that staff perceived as contributing to closing or narrowing the achievement gap. The second goal was to identify the factors or actions that assisted the school in sustaining academic growth. These two goals were addressed through three research questions developed by the nine researchers: 42 1. What cultural norms, practiced within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 2. What practices employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 3. What programs employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? Research Design This study was a qualitative case study which focused on one school that met the criterion of narrowing the achievement gap, as demonstrated by scores on the state‘s standardized tests. Since this study was conducted to address questions about the achievement gap, which is a current social dilemma, with far-reaching consequences, a qualitative study was appropriate. Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning indi- viduals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the parti- cipants setting, data analysis inductively building from particular to general themes, and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data. (Creswell, 2009, p. 4) According to Creswell (2009), qualitative research should be conducted in the natural setting. The researcher should conduct the study in the field where the problem occurred, as opposed to bringing the participants into an artificial setting. The researcher could then view and speak to the people participating in the study in their own comfortable environment. In a qualitative study the researcher collects various forms of data through observation, interview, and document review. 43 Since this qualitative study was being conducted at one school within a specific period of time, the best qualitative research to use was a case study. Case studies are a strategy of inquiry in that the researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are bound by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. (Creswell, 2009, p. 13) Case studies usually answer one or more question connected and restricted to certain conditions or events. A case study allows the researcher to view and understand complex issues and gather data in the setting of the problem. This case study of a successful school that narrowed the achievement gap provides a holistic view of the school‘s cultural norms, school practices, and school programs perceived by the staff to be instrumental in closing or narrowing the gap. According to Patton (2002), ―Qualitative findings grow out of three kinds of data collection: (a) in-depth, open-ended interviews, (b) direct observation, and (c) written documents‖ (p. 4). This case study used all three forms of data collection. Process Model Numerous businesses, schools, universities, government agencies have had performance gaps due to faulty product, high turnover of staff, lack of financial gains, or lack of growth. These gaps are costly in terms of staff morale, product development, growth, and ultimate monetary gains. Many theories have been developed and utilized to address institutions not considered successful. Clark and Estes (2002) noted the importance for struggling companies and institutions to participate in a performance gap analysis process in order to identify and address achievement gaps in the organization or 44 institution. They highlighted the importance for the organization to conduct a gap analysis that would ―diagnose the human cause behind performance gaps‖ (p. 21). They suggested that, to identify a performance gap, the organization should recognize the knowledge and skills gap, the motivation gap, and the organizational gaps. A company or organization must identify the knowledge and skill gap ―when people do not know how to accomplish their performance goals, and second, when you anticipate that future challenges will require novel problem solving‖ (Clark & Estes, 2002, p. 58). The solution to a knowledge and skill gap could require additional informa- tion, job aids that act as guides for how to conduct the job, and training that was defined by Clark and Estes (2002) as ―any situation where people must acquire ‗how to‘ knowl- edge and skills, and need practice and corrective feedback to help them achieve specific work goals‖ (p. 58). A knowledge and skill gap could also require additional education that would assist with the new challenges. According to Clark and Estes (2002), ―Motivation gets us going, keeps us mov- ing, and tells us how much effort to spend on work tasks‖ (p. 80). They identified three features to motivation performance: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice is reflected when the worker‘s decision is to complete the goal. Persistence is reflected when people continue to work even when there are distractions. Mental effort is reflected when people are confident in their ability to complete the task and put forth mental effort based on previous experience. As motivation increases, the performance goal will be accomplished. 45 Organizational gaps focus on work process and material resources. Work process includes ―how people, equipment, and materials must link and interact over time to pro- duce some desired result‖ (Clark & Estes, 2002, p. 104). When these are misaligned or underfunded, the organizational gap increases. In addition, materials resources must be available to the people assigned to a specific job. If material resources are not sufficient or available, the performance gap increases. According to Clark and Estes (2002), establishing performance goals, determining performance gaps, and analyzing what caused the gaps is vital to organizations struggling with performance gaps. Clark and Estes‘s (2002) Turning Research Into Results Process Model (Figure 1) describes the following six steps to identify a performance gap: Step 1, identify the goals of the organization; Step 2, identify the performance goals; Step 3, identify the performance gaps of the organization; Step 4, analyze gaps to determine cause; Step 5, identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational gap solutions and implement; Step 6, evaluate results, tune systems, and revise goals. To study an urban school that narrowed the achievement gap, the nine researchers modified the Clark and Estes‘s (2002) process model. The nine researchers replaced the six steps in the Clark and Estes‘s model with six new steps that focused on what the staff of a successful school indicated they did to narrow or close the achievement gap (Figure 2). This modified process model was used to review the cultural norms, practices, and programs perceived by the school staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. This modified process model could be used by other schools seeking ideas for their struggling schools on how to close or narrow their gap. 46 Figure 1. Clark and Estes‘s Turning Research Into Results Process Model. Figure 2. Closing the achievement gap process model developed by University of Southern California cohort of doctoral candidates. 47 Step 1, in this new model, includes identifying a high-achieving school, using a specific criterion. Step 2 includes data analysis of the significant subgroup to ensure that the achievement gap narrowed or closed. Step 3 includes a review of state and federal performance goals to determine whether the school met the goals. Step 4 identifies the research tools used to recognize the cultural norms, practices, and programs. Step 5 is the identification of the cultural norm, practices, and programs cited by the school staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. Step 6 is an analysis and synthesis of the results of the study. This process model was used by this researcher to identify factors the staff attributed to narrowing or closing the gap. Other researchers can follow this process model to identify cultural norm, practices, and programs of high-achieving schools. Population The unit of analysis for this case study was an urban school that narrowed the achievement gap. A holistic view of the school provided a view of the cultural norms, school practices, and school programs attributed by the staff as assisting in narrowing the gap. Patton (2002) emphasized the importance of remembering that the ―key issue in selecting and making decisions about the appropriate unit of analysis is to decide what it is you want to be able to say something about at the end of the study‖ (p. 229). Therefore, the researcher‘s goal was to identify specific factors attributed by the school staff to their success in closing or narrowing the achievement gap as demonstrated by the school‘s cultural norms, programs, and practices. 48 The school selected for this study was a Pre-Kindergarten through Grade 5, urban school that exited Program Improvement status 2 years earlier after being 5 years plus in Program Improvement status. For the purpose of this study the school was assigned the fictitious name of Great Street Elementary School. The school was part of a large urban school district in southern California. The school had a student population of 12% African American and 87% Latino; 95% of the students qualified for the federal government‘s NSLP. The school was located one block from a federal urban develop- ment housing project. The school had a population of 924 students for the 2009-2010 school year. Great Street Elementary School exited Program Improvement status in the 2006- 2007 school year, having reached the NCLB goal of 24.4% of the students scoring proficient or above on AYP. In the 2007-2008 school year the school met the state API goal and the federal AYP goal schoolwide and for all subgroup categories. In 2003, Great Street Elementary School‘s California AYP report indicated that 12% of all students scored proficient or above. The 2007-2008 Accountability Progress Report (APR) indicated that the school had 40.1% of the students scoring proficient or above. This significant increase in the school‘s AYP scores was one of the reasons the school was selected for this case study. The school‘s API in 2002 was 477. In 2003 the API score went up 101 points to 578. In 2008 the API score was 777, 20 points from the state‘s goal of 800. The school had a California Similar Schools API rank of 10 and Statewide API rank of 4 (Table 1). 49 Table 1 Academic Performance Index (API) Growth by Student Group: Three-Year Comparison 2007-2008 Actual change in API by year growth 3-year API Group 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 API score subgroups All students 69 7 41 777 117 Hispanic 80 3 39 787 122 Poor 69 8 40 777 117 English Learner 73 1 36 763 110 To understand how these academic milestones were accomplished, the study focused on the cultural norms, practices, and programs identified by the staff as being instrumental in narrowing the gap. According to the 2007-08 SARC, the school had a total enrollment of 911 students. The school had an exemplary School Facility report and a Good Repair Status (school year 2008-2009). In the area of school staffing, 97.7% of the teachers met the NCLB ―highly qualified‖ criteria. The SARC indicated the school met the Williams Textbook requirements at the level of sufficiency. According to the district‘s School Profile, attendance rate for the 2007-2008 school year was 94.93%, with 12 suspensions for an average number of 1.67 days. There were 49 teachers, including 28 with 6-10 years experience and 10 with more than 10 years experience. The District‘s School Profile page indicated that in the 2007-2008 50 school year there were 527 English learners, with 11.8% of the students meeting the state requirement for reclassification. Sample The sample in this case study consisted of the teachers, and administrators at Great Street Elementary School that narrowed the achievement gap for English learners and African American students. This sample allowed the researcher to view the school‘s cultural norms, programs, and practices through the view point of the staff. The research design allowed the researcher to focus on actions taken by the school‘s leadership in sus- taining the academic growth over a period of time. Once the school was identified as meeting the case study‘s criteria, the researcher approached the principal of the school and obtained permission to have the school participate in the study. The study was conducted in the fall of 2009 for a total of 6 days. The staff participating in the study included the principal, three members of the administrative team (coaches, coordinators), and 43 teachers. Instrumentation According to Patton (2002), ―Qualitative findings grow out of three kinds of data collection: (a) in-depth, open-ended interviews, (b) direct observation, and (c) written documents‖ (p. 4). In this case study the researcher collected data via a staff survey, staff interviews, classroom and school observations, and a review of school artifacts. The survey and interview tool were developed by the nine researchers to address the three research questions. The Staff Input Survey focused on collaboration opportunities, school leadership, data analysis, intervention, and classroom instruction. To obtain 51 triangulation, the data analysis process included information from the staff interviews, the survey, and the school observations. These interviews were conducted by the researcher using the Staff Interview Form. The interview questions were coded to facilitate data analysis. The classroom observations were conducted using the Classroom Observation Form and focused on instructional practices addressed in the school‘s professional development sessions. The researcher used the Classroom Observation Form to seek commonalities in instructional practices and classroom management techniques across grade levels and across the entire school. Staff Survey The researcher used the Staff Input Survey (Appendix A) to identify the school‘s cultural norms, school practices, and school‘s programs that the staff perceived to be instrumental in closing or narrowing the gap. The items on the survey addressed practices, such as the leadership actions demonstrated by the school administrator, the collaboration opportunities provided to teachers, how teachers used data, and how at-risk students were provided intervention support. The survey contained 32 items with a response scale of Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree or All the Time to Never. The survey included a question that allowed staff to select from a variety of responses. The last page of the survey invited open-ended responses to questions regarding cultural norms, practices, and programs used by the school to address the achievement gap. The survey was field tested at an elementary and middle school. 52 Staff Interviews The questions on the staff interview (Appendix B) focused on the school‘s cul- tural norms, practices, and programs perceived by the staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. The questions were organized into nine main topics: collaboration, school leadership, program implementation, data analysis, intervention, practices that supported the closing of the achievement gap, classroom instruction, and professional development practices that supported the closing of the achievement gap, and sustainability. Each of these topics had 3-7 questions related to the topic; the 10th item was an open-ended invitation for the interviewee to add anything to the interview regarding the narrowing of the achievement gap and sustaining success. School Observations The purpose of the observations was to determine the cultural norms, practices, and programs of the school demonstrated by the social interaction of the staff with each other and with the general public. The researcher used the School Observation Form (Appendix C) to identify symbols and practices the school used to create a positive school environment. The researcher was a nonparticipant in these observations. Document Review The researcher used the Document Review Master List (Appendix D) to gather information for the case study via six categories. The District category included the school calendar, the district‘s code of conduct, textbook adoption list, district‘s mission, vision, staff development plan, and so forth. The School Level Artifacts included meeting schedule, staff development plan, Single Plan for Student Achievement (SPSA), 53 assessment tool, literacy plan, intervention during the school day plan, vision, mission, SARC, discipline policy, and safe school plan. The Instructional category included lesson plans, department meeting notes, common planning, common assessments, class- room objectives or standards posted in rooms, and so forth. The Differentiated or Special Service category included the reclassification of LEP, Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) student identification, description of English-Language mainstream program, and so forth. The CDE website category included school data, demographic data, and AYP and API information. The last category of documents pertained only to high schools. Framework for Research Questions The three research questions developed for this study addressed the school‘s cultural norms, practices, and programs which the staff attributed to narrowing the achievement gap. These research questions were established using the processing model developed by the nine doctoral students. Each question addressed the issue of sustainability and the plan developed and implemented by the school leaders so that academic achievement could continue despite any human resource change. To identify which of the research questions were addressed by the various data collection instruments, the Correlation of Data and Their Corresponding Research Questions (Appendix E) was developed and used during the data analysis portion of the study. This form lists the three research questions and the correlation with the instruments used in this study. Appendix F presents a correlation grid of the research questions and the survey protocol. 54 Research Question 1 Research question 1 asked, What cultural norms, practice within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? This question addressed the cultural norms the school followed to narrow the achievement gap. Numerous definitions of culture have been used by various authors and in different fields of study. Bolman and Deal (2003) reviewed these definitions: Schein (1992, p. 12) offers a more formal definition of culture: ―a pattern of shared basic assumptions that a group learned as it solves its problems of external adaptation and integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relations to those problems.‖ Deal and Kennedy (1982, p. 4) define culture more succinctly as ―the way we do things around here.‖ Culture is both a product and a process. As a product, it embodies accumulated wisdom from those who came before us. As a process, it is constantly renewed and re-created as newcomers learn the old ways and eventually become teachers themselves. (p. 243) Clark and Estes (2002) defined culture as a ―way to describe the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes learned as people develop over time in our family and in our work environments‖ (p. 108). Ward (2004) defined school culture as ―the traditions, beliefs, policies, and norms within a school that can be shaped, enhanced, and maintained through the school‘s principal and teacher-leaders‖ (p. 1). For the purpose of this case study, cultural norms included the belief system, rituals, routines, and activities practiced daily to provide meaning and a sense of belonging to the students and staff. The cultural norm of the school incorporated the values of the organization. ―Values define what an organization stands for, those qualities worthy of esteem or commitment for their own sake‖ (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 252). The cultural norms included how communication occurred among stakeholders (parents, teachers, students, 55 classified staff, and administration). In this study the school‘s cultural norms were identified through the staff survey, classroom observations, and staff interviews. The Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 1 (Appendix G) identified instrumenta- tion required for this question and used by the researcher to identify the cultural norms. Research Question 2 Research question 2 asked, What practices employed by the school were per- ceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? This question was addressed through the survey, the interviews, and the classroom observations. For the purpose of this study a school‘s practice was identified as a specific activity used frequently by the staff in the areas of instruction, assessments, and sociocultural factors contributing to closing or narrowing the achievement gap. Covey (1989) defined prac- tices as ―a specific activity or action . . . situationally specific‖ (pp. 34-35). The 16 items in the survey addressed practices employed by the staff. The interview and the school observations provided information regarding practices perceived by the staff as having narrowed the achievement gap. The Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 2 (Appendix H) identified instrumentation required for this question and used by the researcher to identify the school‘s practices. Research Question 3 Research question 3 asked, What programs employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? This question dealt with the programs the staff attributed to closing the achievement gap. For the purpose of this study a program was created by the teachers or purchased by the district 56 or school from an outside vendor to address instructional needs of students. A program had a specific implementation plan, a training component, and a set of materials for teachers and students. To have school-wide effect, a program had to be implemented with fidelity. Research question 3 was formulated to identify specific programs credited by the staff in narrowing the gap. Identifying the programs could assist schools seeking ways to close the achievement gap. The researcher observed the implementation of these programs during classroom observations. The Staff Input Survey contained 5 items by which teachers identified the programs used at their school. The staff interviews offered participants opportunities to identify programs used by the school. The Data Needs/Data Sources by Research Question 3 (Appendix I) identified the instrumentation required for this question and used by the researcher to identify the school‘s programs. Triangulation According to Patton (2002), validity in a qualitative research proposal ―depends on careful instrument construction to ensure that the instrument measures what it is sup- posed to measure‖ (p. 14). To gain validity and confidence in the study, the researcher used data triangulation to ensure that the data were consistent. Triangulation of data in a case study was important. Patton (2002) stated, ―Triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods‖ (p. 247). Therefore, using data triangulation as part of the research design assisted with the validity of this study. The data triangulation occurred through the data collected via staff interviews, surveys, and school/classroom observations. These data collection tools included questions regarding the cultural norms, practices, and programs credited by the school staff for raising student achievement. This data 57 triangulation provided validity and confidence in the results. In addition, the research findings were shared with the former principal to verify the findings and the emergent themes (Creswell, 2009). Institutional Review Board Process To address the ethical consideration regarding human subject research, this case study was approved by the University of Southern California‘s Office for the Protection of Research Subjects. Due to numerous examples of unethical behavior by researchers, the federal government imposed an institutional review process that required a researcher interested in conducting studies using human participants to reveal the actions of the study. The review board determined whether the proposed study met the guidelines as cited in the Title 45 Part 46 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Therefore, each university required those interested in conducting a study to carry out an IRB process for each study sponsored by or conducted in the university. The researcher received approval for the study from the principal of the large urban school and from the district. A fictitious name was assigned to the school in the study in order to protect the people involved in the study. Each staff member who participated in the study was assigned a letter and number code (e.g., T1 for the first teacher) to protect the identity of participants. The tapes used for the interviews, the transcripts of the interviews, and the completed surveys were kept in a secure location at the researcher‘s home. Surveys were administered with confidentiality to ensure protection of participants‘ identities. The school‘s artifacts reviewed for this study were masked to prevent identity of the staff and school. 58 Data Collection According to Patton (2002), ―Qualitative findings grow out of three kinds of data collection: (a) in-depth, open-ended interviews, (b) direct observation, and (c) written documents (p. 4). The researcher spent 6 days at the school collecting data by interview- ing staff, conducting a survey, observing classrooms, and attending professional develop- ment activities and staff meetings (Appendices J, K, L, and M). The researcher presented the survey to the staff at a staff meeting. She explained the purpose of the study, reviewed the research questions, and provided a copy of the Institutional Review Board form with the researcher‘s information. The survey took the 40 staff members 10-15 minutes to complete. Teachers who were off track were invited to complete the survey when they returned to duty. The researcher interviewed the former principal, the literacy coach, the mathe- matics coach, the categorical program coordinator, the intervention teacher, the union chapter chair, and 12 classroom teachers, guided by questions on the Staff Interview Form. Interview participants volunteered to participate. The interviews were held in the teachers‘ classrooms, staff lounge, library, or the coordinators‘ offices during recess, after school, or during a time when the staff members were available. The former principal was interviewed in the district office. The interviews took about 20 to 40 minutes. The researcher recorded most of the interviews with permission from the participants. The researcher spent 6 days conducting observations of classroom instruction and professional development sessions. The school observations took place in the office, on the yard, and in the teachers‘ classrooms who volunteered to participate. The 59 researcher also observed the school‘s Fall Festival, which included parents‘ math and literacy training and community engagement activities. In the classroom observations the researcher identified common instructional practices used by the teachers and discussed in professional development sessions. The grade-level professional development sessions demonstrated staff collaboration for the implementation of instructional programs. Furthermore, the researcher conducted observations throughout the campus, including the playground, lunch area, front office, perimeter of the school, and front of the school. The researcher collected documents using the Document Review Master List. The researcher gave copies of the Document Review Master List to a staff member and obtained copies of the following documents: professional development agendas, SARC, staff development plans for the year, communication to the parents, formative and summative assessments, staff weekly bulletin, and Single Plan for Student Achievement. These documents included the school‘s daily activities, mission, vision, and Single Plan for Student Achievement, as well as information on professional development activities that supported the teachers in their work. These school documents demonstrated the teachers‘ level of collaboration and common planning activities. Data Analysis Creswell (2009) stated, ―The process of data analysis involves making sense out of text and image data‖ (p. 190). Survey response and records of interviews were coded to assure confidentiality. Bogdan and Biklen (1992, as cited in Creswell, 2009) noted the following coding possibilities: ―Setting and context codes, Perspectives held by subjects, 60 Subjects‘ ways of thinking about people and objects, Process codes, Activity codes, Strategy codes, Relationship and Social Structure codes and Pre-assigned coding schemes‖ (p. 193). In this case study the researcher used the codes shown in Table 2 for the major themes found in the research questions and for the theoretical framework: Table 2 Data Analysis Codes Theme Code Color Cultural norm CN Blue Practice PRC Green Program PRG Yellow Sustainability SUST Orange Leadership LDSP Red Structural frame StrF None Human resource frame HrF None Political frame PolF None Symbolic frame SymF None The researcher coded the three research questions, the theme of leadership, and sustainability with colored dots. During the 6 days of data collection the researcher used these colored dots to identify cultural norms, practices, and programs. Bolman and 61 Deal‘s (2003) four frames were also coded. Names of participants were coded to ensure confidentiality. Creswell (2003) identified several ways to conduct data analysis. Creswell‘s data analysis process was followed in this case study as described below. 1. Organize and prepare. The data was organized and prepared throughout the data collection process. The researcher captured observations in a spiral notebook during the 6 days of observations. Recordings were labeled with name, date and time. Surveys were numbered and maintained in a separate notebook to secure the data. 2. Read for general impressions. The researcher read the data soon after the data collection process was completed. Then the data was read again to ensure that informa- tion was correctly identified. 3. Code and categorize. The data was coded by the three major themes of the research questions: sustainability, leadership, and Bolman and Deal‘s four frames. The research questions were coded with colored dots to identify various themes. In addition, the dialogue sections in the spiral notebooks were coded with the following labels: Teacher and a number (e.g., T1, T2), member of the administrative team (ATM), and parent or community member (P for parent, C for community member). 4. Narrate. The results of the 6 days of visits were described in rich detail to provide specific description of the actions taken by the school staff. A description of the school, based on gathered data, was included. 5. Interpret data. The data collected during the 6 days were interpreted and described to provide a thick description of the school. 62 6. Describe and select themes. The data was analyzed and emergent themes were identified based on the survey responses, the interviews and the observations. Findings revealed in the research process were described. Conclusion This chapter described the methodology for this case study. It described the data tools and the data analysis process. The theoretical basis for the study was presented and discussed. The processing model used for this case study was based on Clark and Estes‘s (2002) Turning Research Into Results Process Model but modified by the nine researchers. This new process model was the basis for the three research questions reviewed in this chapter, along with an explanation of the data and the collection process. 63 CHAPTER 4 GREAT STREET ELEMENTARY SCHOOL This chapter presents and discusses the finding of this case study, including a description of the school, survey responses, results of the interviews, and results of the school observations. The data report includes statements from the interviews and the survey. Emergent themes derived from triangulation of data are identified and discussed. This case study identifies the cultural norms, practices, and programs that the staff at Great Street Elementary School acknowledges as instrumental to their success in reducing the student achievement gap between White/Asian students and poor/minority students. The study also focuses on factors that sustained the school‘s academic growth. The data was collected via the following instruments: a survey, staff interviews, document review, and classroom/school observations conducted during 6 days at the school. The data was triangulated with the goal of identifying recurring trends. The findings of the case study are presented and discussed related to each of the three research questions, with a focus on sustainability and leadership. Surrounding Community On the first day of the visit, I noted that the school was located in a community made up of scrap-metal shops and single-family dwellings that showed evidence of care. The cars parked on the driveways and the streets were a mix of medium-size sedans that were functional, rather than high-end models. The school was located two blocks from a Housing and Urban Development (HUD) federal housing project. The student population 64 consisted of students who lived in the single-family dwellings and the federal housing project. The community had a per capita income in 1999 of $6,720 dollars, according to census data. According to the City of Los Angeles website, the total population of this community was 34,830. According to City of Los Angeles Population by Community and Race 2000 Census (City of Los Angeles, 2000), the population was 14% White alone, 38% African American, and 60% Hispanic. According to the school‘s Single Plan for Student Achievement (SPSA), [Great Street School] is located one block from the second-largest housing project in Los Angeles County . . . . Approximately 30% of the housing project popula- tion resides within our neighborhood school boundary. We are located in what the federal government classifies as an Empowerment Zone. This is a federal program that offers businesses/manufacturers low-interest loans for being located in this area. 69% of the parents who send their children to our school only speak Spanish. (SSPA of the anonymous targeted study school) Campus During the 6 days that I spent at the school, the physical plant was clean and well organized. The campus seemed to have been painted within the past few years. There were planters throughout the campus that had flowers and other type of foliage. There were murals that had been at the school for over 10 years. The murals were well main- tained and reflected important African American and Hispanic leaders. The campus followed the district‘s closed-campus policy, with the only entrance being through the main office. The school had a parent center where parent workshops took place. During my visits the school psychologist conducted parent workshops entitled, ―Back in Control.‖ A Healthy Start Center provided support to families in the community. The 65 campus consisted of an auditorium, staff lounge, library, parent center, Health Start rooms, an indoor cafeteria, and an outside eating pavilion. Classrooms were housed in a one-story brick building and several bungalows. The yard included a grassy area, three kickball areas, a handball court, and a play structure, plus a small, separate yard for younger students. Description of Classrooms I visited 23 classrooms during the 6 days on the campus. In 5 of the classrooms I spent less than 15 minutes; in 18 of the classrooms I spent more than 15 minutes observ- ing the teachers and classroom activities. I interviewed 12 teachers from the 23 class- rooms visited. All visited classrooms were well organized, with the teachers providing either direct instruction to the whole class or small group support. I noticed that in the classrooms with Teacher Assistants (TAs), the teacher had them working with students either in intervention work or providing students with support on the current assignment. The classrooms were well furnished and print rich. The bulletin boards were organized with standards, criteria charts, and rubrics. All classrooms had evidence of students‘ work posted for the content areas. All classrooms had components of the Open Court Reader (OCR) program, such as a Concept Question board and Sound Spelling cards. There was evidence of the EnVision mathematics program, such as manipulative kits and Problem of the Day signs. There was a Question Answer Relationships (QAR) chart in each classroom. These charts were created at the school site and included the title QAR, with the focus areas of QAR. In some cases the teacher used the QAR chart in 66 their lessons. The room environment reinforced practices identified by the staff as instru- mental to narrowing the achievement gap. Stakeholders Interaction Based on observations and interviews, the teachers at Great Street Elementary School related well together. They greeted each other warmly and were respectful of each other during professional development sessions. When questioned during an interview about the professional relationship among the staff, Teacher 1 stated, ―It‘s just about mutual respect.‖ Teacher 7 stated, ―That‘s just the way things are done.‖ The staff acknowledged that all stakeholders were expected to work hard and actually did work hard. Teacher 8 stated, ―I think we have really good work ethics here; I think we really work hard, we put in a lot of effort.‖ The teachers stated they had good relationships with parents and communicated with them regarding their child‘s progress. According to the principal, the expectation was that the teachers would communicate with the parents. The principal informed the teachers they were to make themselves available to the parents, regardless of the time. The principal stated that it was their professional responsibility to communicate with the parents even if they had to meet with the parents before school or stay until 4 o‘clock. Several staff members mentioned that parents communicated with them if their child‘s college-bound essay was not posted on the bulletin board or if the child did not earn a trophy for academic excellence. The incentives provided for academic achievement motivated the students and the parents. 67 First Day of the Visit On the first day of the visit, I asked to speak with Ms. Smith, the retired principal who was serving as interim principal until a new principal was selected. The office was quiet, with three office staff working at their desk. One of the office staff provided me with the visitor sign-in sheet and a clip-on visitor‘s badge. I entered the principal‘s office and introduced myself to Ms. Smith. We reviewed the purpose of this case study and the 6 days that had been scheduled by the previous principal. The interim principal said that I had access to the school and to check with her if I needed other information. I was given a staff roster and informed that the fifth-grade classrooms had substitute teachers because the regular teachers were participating in an onsite professional development session. I decided to observe the fifth-grade teachers‘ professional development session. Fifth-Grade Teachers’ Professional Development Session The fifth-grade teachers were sitting in a room that housed the literacy and mathe- matics coaches and served as a media retrieval room. There were four teachers in the room: Teacher 1, Teacher 2, Teacher 3, and Teacher 4. The conversation focused on the development of questions for Literary Response and Analysis, a fifth-grade strand. Teacher 1 and Teacher 3 were the leaders in discussing the topic. Teacher 3 made a statement regarding using Bloom‘s taxonomy in the development of the questions. Teacher 4 was quiet but made a statement regarding the difficulties students had using prior knowledge. The teachers were discussing the language of the standard and the best way for students to be exposed to questions that would facilitate comprehension of the passage they read. Teacher 1 led the conversation and seemed to be in charge of the 68 professional development session. The teachers listened to each other and, despite differing points of view, the discussion was focused, amicable, and peppered with humor. The teachers seemed safe to contribute ideas. They developed about nine questions that students would use after reading a selection in the OCR anthology. After about 30 minutes of discussion, Teacher 1 took butcher paper and cut a 4 feet by 2 feet shape of the letter L. She wrote at the top Check Your Understanding Literary Response and Analysis. She wrote the questions the grade level had developed for the strand Literary Response and Analysis. She told the teachers they could trace her L shape and cut out the L shape for their classrooms. The teachers took yellow butcher paper and traced Teacher 1‘s model. They were engaged in the work of cutting paper and writing their questions. Teacher 1 asked one of the teachers to trace the model for a teacher on maternity leave who was set to return the following week. Teacher 1 stated that she would cut and write the questions for this teacher on leave. After observing for 1.5 hours, I left and scheduled appointments with each teacher to visit their classrooms on the following Tuesday. I arranged to interview Teacher 1, who seemed by her actions to be in charge of the professional development session. On the second day of the visit to the school I conducted classroom observations of the fifth-grade teachers who had participated in the professional development session. I observed the yellow, L-shaped Literary Response and Analysis chart hanging in each fifth-grade classroom. One of the teachers referred to the questions on the chart during the lessons. After the classroom visits I interviewed Teacher 1, who explained that she 69 was not the grade-level chair or responsible for the session. She explained that teachers at the school assumed leadership roles without official title or designation. It depends on either how well you know the area . . . depending on whatever is on hand. If we are discussing language area or a particular are of language arts, if someone feels comfortable with it or they have best practices that have worked, then they will probably be the one that will be doing most of the talking. So, it really is a true collaboration, no one person, just because you are the chair means that you are going to have control of it when we have so many people with expertise and great ideas that will work. (Teacher 1) The opportunity to not only observe the fifth-grade professional development session, interview the fifth-grade teachers after the professional development session, and observe their classrooms was vital to the study. These opportunities allowed me to observe the grade-level collaboration teachers repeatedly mentioned in the survey and interviews as important to their success. In the survey the teachers agreed on item 31, ―Collaboration is a big part of the climate at this school.‖ It is part of the cultural norms of the school, it is just accepted that everybody is going to share materials with one another that people will talk about their assess- ment with each other that sometimes it is venting and sometimes it is celebrating. (Teacher 8) The professional development session observed on the first day was an indication of the use of the distributed leadership model at this school. That is one thing that I‘ve really noticed, in any grade level there is not just one leader any more. A person will lead for a particular thing and the next time some- one else will lead for a particular thing, because there is a very strong—overall the staff is very strong and everyone is expected to be able to be a leader. (Teacher 13) Collaboration and leadership were critical in this study as identified through the survey, observations, and interviews. 70 Research Questions This case study was guided by three research questions designed to identify factors perceived by the staff of a high-performing school as contributing to the narrowing the achievement gap. The case study focused on one school that narrowed the achievement gap for students of color. Each of the questions had a main focus area, with an additional component of sustainability. 1. What cultural norms, practiced within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 2. What practices employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 3. What programs employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? In the 6 days at the school, I interviewed staff, observed classrooms, and administered the Staff Input Survey. Table 3 summarizes the types of data collected at the school during the site visits. Research Question 1: Cultural Norms Research question 1 asked, What cultural norms, practice within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? For the purpose of this case study, cultural norms included beliefs that reflected the behavior of school staff with regard to students, staff, and daily activities. The cultural norms of the school incorporated the values of the organization. ―Values define what an organization stands for, those qualities worthy of esteem or commitment for their own sake‖ (Bolman & 71 Table 3 Data Collected During School Site Visits Data collection method Description Observation 23 classrooms (5 < 15 minutes, 18 > 15 minutes) Surveys 14 surveys completed by 41 teachers and 2 administrators Interview 15 interviews: 12 teachers and 3 administrators Deal, 2003, p. 252). The cultural norms included the rituals of a school, the routines and activities practiced daily that provided meaning and a sense of belonging to the students and staff. Based on the responses to the survey, staff interviews, and observations, four cultural norms were identified as contributing to narrowing the achievement gap: high expectations, leadership, collaboration, and a college bound culture. These cultural norms were evident throughout the campus and were vital to the school‘s academic success according to the staff. Cultural Norm of High Expectations The cultural norm of high expectations was evident in what the principal and teachers stated in the interviews, the actions the teachers took in the classrooms, and the responses to the survey. The staff indicated that high expectations for the students‘ academic abilities were communicated clearly by the principal to the staff. One of the staff members stated that the principal did not allow the staff to blame students or say 72 negative things about the children. High expectations were a cultural norm of the school and the staff indicated it was a major factor in narrowing the achievement gap. In interviews and responses to the survey the teachers indicated that they had high expectations for the students. Teacher 11 stated, ―All the teachers have high expectations and I think that is very important because that helps us push the kids more.‖ The principal commented in the interview about the staff, ―I had high expectations and I learned that they did, too.‖ Observations of the school and classrooms confirmed the teachers‘ statements regarding the staff‘s and principal‘s view of high expectations. On the survey 98% agreed that teachers believed that students could achieve. An example of high expecta- tions mentioned in the interviews was the school-wide decision to expect the kindergarten students at Great Street Elementary School to read 100 basic sight words instead of the expected 35 high frequency words in the OCR program. ―Again, we always set higher standards for kids because we know that they can learn . . . they are like sponges . . . they absorb it and we tested them and the more we tested them the more the kids seem to produce‖ (Teacher 9). While conducting a classroom observation in a Kindergarten classroom I observed a bulletin board with the caption: Who will learn 100 Sight Words? This caption was surrounded by thermometers indicating every 10 words a child had mastered. Kindergarten students who learned to identify the 100 words by the end of the school year received a special certificate during their ―Kindergarten culmination ceremony.‖ This motivated parents to work with their children on recognizing these sight words. 73 Another component of high expectations the staff mentioned was the students‘ recognition programs which awarded trophies to students who scored proficient or above on the CST. According to the teachers, the principal provided numerous awards and recognition to the students to reinforce the belief that students had the ability to be successful. ―I think just encouraging them, that wow, you can do this. Our kids know they are proficient or advanced and these trophies made all the difference‖ (Administrative Team Member 3). Cultural Norm of Leadership Another cultural norm evident in the observations, interviews, and survey responses was the cultural norm of leadership. The staff mentioned the principal‘s key leadership role in narrowing the achievement gap and the impact of her leadership on the staff and in student achievement. In addition, the staff mentioned the leadership role of the teachers in the area of instruction and professional development and described how the leadership role of the teachers developed over the past few years. Principal leadership. In the survey and the interviews the staff indicated that the principal was the key to the school‘s academic success. ―The leadership was very strong. I did mention that the leadership was very clear as far as the direction of the school and because the vision was clear we kind of eliminated the obstacles that inhibited the changes from taking place‖ (Teacher 1). In the survey the staff indicated that the princi- pal was instrumental in the narrowing of the gap. ―A strong administrator has made the biggest difference at this school‖ (staff response to item 30). The staff mentioned that the 74 principal had high expectations, was a good communicator, was an instructional leader who analyzed data and held them accountable for student achievement. The staff stated that the principal had high expectations for the students and shared this with the staff constantly. According to several of the interviews, the principal communicated high expectations regarding students and high expectation regarding their work as teachers. Teacher 1 made the following statement in an interview regarding the principal‘s message to the teachers regarding student achievement: No excuses or reason not to follow through with that vision. We are going to get the kids to perform. What we have control of in the classroom…that‘s what we need to address the things that we have control of that can get us there. What is outside of the school it will always be there. There was a clear sense of directions and it was known that we were going there and we are not going to let get in our way. In response to item 30 of the survey, one of the staff members wrote, ―Our former principal had high expectations for the students and she made them feel that they had the capability to learn.‖ In an interview a staff member said, ―Her role has always been first that those children can succeed. The emphases has always been that all children at Great Street School, can succeed, and the focus was understanding that, and never saying that the kids can‘t do it.‖ In addition, the staff indicated that they were not allowed to blame the students or say negative things about them or their community. ―She communicated that, she said it straight out and if you might say something negative, she would tell you, ‗Don‘t say that about your students.‘‖ (Teacher 8) The staff indicated in the interviews that the principal was a good communicator with regard to the teachers‘ responsibilities to the students, their responsibility to com- municate with parents, and the importance of not leaving any child behind. The principal 75 was perceived by the staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. According to the staff, the principal was an effective communicator who expressed to the staff what she expected them to do and, more importantly, how to accomplish the work she expected. In one of the interviews a staff member described how the principal pulled out a teacher‘s manual and helped plan a lesson during the Stull evaluation process after the principal had observed a lesson that she did not consider to be effective. So I came up with a lesson plan and I brought it in and she said, ―This is still not the lesson that I wanted to see, go get your teacher‘s manual.‖ I went to get the teacher‘s manual and she sat down with me and planned the lesson. She said, ―This is what I want to see and I want you do this and this and this. Get this all prepared and get your materials and I will come in and watch you on this date.‖ And I did and she said the lesson was really good and it was exactly what she was asking for. But I don‘t think I could have done that if she would have just said, ―No, this is not what I want, do it again.‖ Teacher 8 stated about the principal, She‘s one of those people who is very focused and has a strong understanding of what she wants and also says exactly what she wants you to do, is not afraid to tell a person when they are not doing something right but once she tells you what she expects of you, she is capable and willing to support any teacher in meeting those goals.‖ In the survey a teacher commented on item 30, ―She provided a clear sense of directions and support to accomplish the goal.‖ According to Bolman and Deal (2003), The human resource leader believes that people are the center of any organization. If people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their personal goals, you can count on commitment and loyalty. Administrators who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don‘t communicate effectively, or who care about their people can never be effective leaders. (p. 324) The staff said that the principal knew the data for their students, for their class- rooms, and for the school. The staff indicated that the principal sat with them during 76 their professional development sessions, planned lessons, and developed instructional plans for students who were struggling. The principal was considered an instructional leader who analyzed data and expected the teachers to change their instruction based on the data. Teacher 12 stated in the interview, ―The principal was pushing, pushing us to use the data to drive instruction. In the survey one teacher wrote in response to item 30, ―Administrators helped guide teachers to understand the importance of using data to guide instruction.‖ The principal was considered an instructional leader who held them accountable but also provided assistance when needed. In addition, as the instructional leader, the principal required the teachers to maintain fidelity to the district‘s mandated language arts program. After they became experts in the area of language arts, she encouraged the teachers to develop lessons that would enhance the OCR program and allow the students to access the standards. The teachers were told to teach the program since they were not reading special- ists at first. They had to use the program the way it was set then over the years as they improved they were able to make the enhancement of the program with strategies found in QAR. (Principal) The staff indicated that the principal analyzed data and reviewed results with the staff if the students were not successful. ―She would go through that and see where every teacher was weak in and call them in individually and say, ‗What are you going to do? What do you need help in?‘‖ (Teacher 8) Teacher leadership. Teachers considered themselves to be key leaders in the success of the school. During the interviews and in the survey they mentioned their role as instructional and school leaders. In the interviews the teachers commented on their 77 role as leaders. Teacher 13 stated, ―Overall, the staff is very strong and everyone is expected to be able to be a leader and everyone is expected to come forward and basically it depends on what your individual talents are if you are noted.‖ Not only was it their role; they stated that it was their professional duty. In response to item 30 in the survey one teacher wrote, ―All teachers take the role of leaders very serious and work towards 100% success in and out of the classroom.‖ An important factor for the school in terms of the ability to narrow the achievement gap was the number of teacher leaders in the school. The principal stated in her interview, ―I am not the only leader here.‖ The increased number of leaders at the school was mentioned in several interviews. Teacher 13 stated, There is not just one leader anymore. A person will lead for a particular thing and the next time someone else will lead for a particular thing because there is a very strong, overall the staff is very strong and everyone is expected to be able to be a leader. In item 4 of the survey, the teachers indicated that 30% of the staff felt that leadership was shared among school personnel most of the time and 47% indicated that leadership was shared sometimes. In interviews several teachers were adamant that they had significant influence at the school. Teacher 8 stated in the interview, ―Generally, the meetings are kind of run by coaches, at least in the beginning, but the teachers pretty much have a strong hand in what is going on around here.‖ Another things is we have had good leadership, good roles that lead the dis- cussion. At the beginning, it was more them leading us as far as the coaches, the principal, the assistant principal but slowly we started getting more responsibi- lities. At this point we make our own agendas, we determine our own goals, and we work towards them. Those are two key factors that have helped us. (Teacher 9) 78 In the interviews the staff indicated an expectation that all teachers would assume a leadership role of some kind at the school. The leadership role for teachers had evolved and been enhanced over the past few years. The staff indicated in the interviews that at first they were provided professional development by outside providers, the administrative team, the principal, and the coaches. Eventually, the teachers were given responsibility for professional develop- ment. The principal stated that over the years as the instructional expertise of the teachers developed they were ready to assume responsibility for their professional development. The principal indicated that she told the teachers they were ready to plan their professional development but they had to plan their agendas, analyze the data, and share instructional practices with each other. ―I finally let go and allowed them to take the lead. I think it made a difference in our scores that they were able to lead the grade level meetings themselves.‖ The professional development sessions led by the teachers used a distributed leadership model in which the teachers alternated the role of leader. In the interviews the teachers stated that the professional development grade-level leaders were based on the expertise of the staff, the success of their instructional practices, or specialized interests. The leadership role alternated depending on the expertise of the staff. The coaches and coordinator also led professional development sessions but this task had been delegated more and more to the teachers. The school went through a transition several years ago as the teachers‘ expertise increased. Teacher 13 stated, ―Professional development at 79 first was guided by others but then it became that most of the professional development is really led by teachers.‖ Cultural Norm of Collaboration The principal mentioned in the interview that she had the school staff establish professional learning communities after she read the DuFour and Eaker‘s (1998) book Professional Learning Communities at Work. The staff mentioned they had been trained on the Seven Norms of Collaboration that also assisted them in establishing a culture of collaboration. The results of the data collection indicated that the staff embraced the practice of collaboration in their everyday work, including during their own personal time. The teachers mentioned in their interviews and in response to the survey that they often met as grade levels during recess or lunch and after school. They spent the time in planning, developing lessons, and sharing best practices. Therefore, the practice of collaboration evolved into a cultural norm. Several teachers mentioned in their interviews that the staff met at their lunch break and after school to collaborate on instructional programs and instructional strategies and to celebrate students‘ progress. We actually meet Wednesday at lunch time for half an hour to talk about things, share materials, talk about how we implement certain programs, or what we are doing, trying to also make sure that we are aligned teaching the same lessons. (Teacher 8) In response to the survey 97% of the staff agreed that the school supported collaboration and 93% indicated that teachers collaborated either sometimes or most of the time. The staff also indicated in the survey and interviews that collaboration not only improved their instructional practices but developed academic support for their students. ―Collaboration provides the staff with the ability to share and work together to meet the 80 needs of students. It helps the teachers to work together in planning instruction to meet students‘ needs‖ (response to survey item 31). The cultural norm of collaboration included teachers sharing ideas, materials, and instructional strategies with each other. The teachers stated in the interviews that they received strong benefits through the collaboration efforts. In response to item 31 of the survey, one teacher wrote, ―Working closely with my grade level and sharing ideas has provided me with the support I need to be successful teacher, and to help my students increase learning for those who need extra help.‖ Teacher 1 stated in the interview, ―Working with my grade level helps me more than anything we do.‖ Since the practice of collaboration was so helpful to the staff in all areas of their professional work, the staff viewed this as part of the school‘s cultural norm. ―Collabora- tion is a big part of the climate at this school‖ (response to survey item 31). It is part of the cultural norms of the school it is just accepted that everybody is going to share materials with one another that people will talk about their assess- ment with each other that sometimes it is venting and sometimes it is celebrating. (Teacher 8) According to the staff, collaboration was the way things were done at Great Street Elementary School. When asked about collaboration and trust at the school, Teacher 7 stated, ―I don‘t know, maybe you have been to other schools, but that is just the way things have been here, that‘s just the way things are done.‖ According to several responses on the survey and comments made in the inter- views, staff collaboration had established professional relationships that were characterized by support, care, and peer accountability. 81 There have been a lot of factors; the main factor is the collaboration among the teachers. We‘ve all worked really hard sticking together and trying to assist each other, sharing whatever ideas we‘ve had. That‘s the main thing that has helped us a lot. We get along well. We have the time provided to collaborate. (Teacher 9) According to DuFour and Eaker (1998), professional learning communities consisted of the following: This model requires schools to function as professional learning communities characterized by a shared mission, vision and values; collective inquiry; collaborative teams; an orientation towards action and a willingness to experi- ment; commitment to continuous improvements; and focus on results. (p. 45) This school demonstrated the results of what occurred when a school formed professional learning communities and focused on the academic needs of students. The staff formed professional learning communities and benefited from interaction with each other. The staff had a shared vision for their students. They planned lessons together, analyzed data, and shared best practices with each other. College-Bound Cultural Norm Another cultural norm apparent throughout the campus was a Going to College Culture. The school‘s main office had college pennants and a district-generated college poster. The classrooms displayed various college pennants and other college artifacts. The hallway near the auditorium contained several bulletin boards displaying student- written essays regarding the college-bound theme. According to several staff members, the college-bound essays were written as part of the school‘s contest established about 3 years ago. Each grade level competed to win prizes for the creativity of the college- bound bulletin board displays. The bulletin boards displayed the students‘ work, surrounded by elaborate three-dimensional items. One of them had a Hawaiian theme 82 and another had a scene of the White House. The grade levels received recognition and prizes for the best displays. During my visit the bulletin boards in the main hall way displayed the college- bound essays. They were in very good condition, despite having been created and displayed, 6 months prior to the visit. According to several staff members, the students took care of the bulletin boards and frequently looked at their own essays or those of their siblings. Administrative Team Member 4 explained in the interview that the college bound essays were part of school-wide event: ―The students love it and the teachers love it.‖ According to one of the staff members, on the day of the essay contest, the auditorium was decorated in a college-bound theme and the students were awarded prizes for the winning essays. The students received backpacks with items they would use at college. Parents were motivated by the essay contest and, according to Administrative Team Member 4, ―Parents love it and they come see their kids in the bulletin board.‖ In fact, Administrative Team Member 4 stated that parents asked, ―Why isn‘t my child‘s work up here. My child did well on the essay?‖ These activities reinforced the college- bound culture as the students, staff, and parents were all aware or involved in implementation of the college-bound essay contest. The college-bound culture was reinforced by the school‘s cultural norm of high expectations. Summary for Research Question 1 Analyzing the data collected during the 6 day visits, it became clear that the cultural norms of the school included (a) a cultural norm of high expectation for students, (b) a cultural norm of leadership, (c) a cultural norm of collaboration, and (d) a 83 college-bound culture. These cultural norms were visible during my visits and were mentioned numerous times in the survey responses and interviews. These norms had been established by the principal over the previous six years and had permeated all areas of the school. These cultural norms allowed staff to view students as capable of learning, with a goal of going to college. In addition, the collaboration was the means of ensuring that students were successful and prepared academically. The four cultural norms were connected and built upon each other to create a successful school. Research Question 2: Practices Research question 2 asked, What practices employed by the school were per- ceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? Research question 2 was addressed through the survey, the interviews, and the classroom observations. For the purpose of this study a school‘s practices was identified as specific activities used by the staff to deal with instruction, assessment, and sociocultural factors contributing to closing or narrowing the achievement gap. Covey (1989) defined practices as ―a specific activity or action . . . practices are situationally specific‖ (pp. 34-35). The practices identified by the staff as instrumental to academic achievement were collaboration/grade- level planning, professional development, teacher efficacy and professionalism, teacher- created material, instructional practices, data analysis, and standards-based instruction. These practices were observed during the 6 days at the school. Collaboration/Grade-Level Planning Collaboration was mentioned frequently by the staff on the survey and in inter- views as significant to their success with student achievement and professional 84 development. The terms collaboration, grade-level planning, and professional develop- ment were referred to interchangeably in the interviews with staff and in the survey. The practice of collaboration was clearly evident throughout the data collection process. Collaboration was a practice so prevalent and key to the school that it became part of the school‘s cultural norms. In the interviews the staff mentioned the importance of collaboration in terms of improving instructional practices, meeting the needs of students, and sharing materials and ideas. Administrative Team Member 3 provided the following description of collaboration: Collaboration is when a grade level is given an opportunity to sit together and they actually plan for the quarter. When we talk about plans for the quarter, what are some effective instructional strategies, what standards we need to focus on, what are some barriers that would prevent us, we looked at all that. As a grade level we planned. We looked at all that and that‘s a problem, you may have a teacher on a grade level who is weak in a certain area but because she hears other strategies or instructional methods that this other teachers shares with the whole grade level, she picks up on that, so that is a big plus. And collaboration, as far as having lessons studies, I knew they emphasis that, we don‘t do that in math, more in language arts, where teachers go and observe other teachers and observe the teacher practices. Responses to item 1 of the survey indicated that 97% of the staff agreed or strongly agreed that the school supported collaboration. In the interviews the staff repeatedly mentioned the benefits gained from collaboration activities. Teacher 12 commented, We meet at grade level; also, there is a lot of data analysis. We are constantly looking at the children‘s scores, whether it is CST or OCR or math or science; we are constantly looking at the scores to see what we can do better. We are constantly reflecting on how we can improve our practices and strategies to help students learn. 85 Staff members indicated that grade-level collaboration happened frequently. Adminis- trative Team Member 2 stated, ―A practice I would like to say helped us was collabora- tion that was one of the strategies.‖ According to the staffs‘ responses on the survey and in interviews, collaboration was instrumental in their growth as professionals and in their ability to provide support to students. ―Collaboration plays a key factor in closing the gap. Each teacher brings a wealth of information to share. Notes are typed and informa- tion passed on‖ (response to survey item 31). Time for Collaboration In response to item 21 of the survey, the staff identified the manner in which collaboration was made possible for the staff. Substitute release time was identified by 77% of the staff as the manner in which collaboration was made possible by the school, followed by bank time (70%), staff meetings (73%) and partial day release (28%). During the interviews the staff mentioned that collaboration opportunities were made possible through full day substitute release time, bank time meeting, staff meetings, and partial day release. During the school site visits, I observed three bank time collaboration sessions, two staff meetings with collaboration, and the fifth-grade substitute release time collaboration session. Topics in Collaboration Sessions In the interviews teachers mentioned that the topics for their collaboration sessions focused on core instructional programs, such as OCR, Harcourt Brace Mathe- matics, or the current mathematics program, EnVision. The teachers also mentioned that during the collaboration sessions they analyzed student data to review their students‘ 86 progress, they reviewed the students‘ data with their peers on their grade level, and they shared materials and ideas on how to assist students to access the standards. The staff used the collaboration sessions to read research-based materials, such as QAR. Table 4 shows staff responses to survey item 20, which asked staff to identify topics discussed during collaboration sessions. Table 4 Responses to Survey Item 20: “What Topics Are Discussed in Collaboration Sessions?” Topic Surveys represented % of responses Curriculum 36/43 84 Instruction 39/43 91 Intervention 29/43 67 Data analysis 35/43 81 Operations 7/43 16 Standards 31/43 72 Other 2/43 5 These responses were similar to what the teachers stated in interviews regarding topics addressed during collaboration. In the survey 16% of staff indicated that the topic of operations was discussed in the collaboration sessions. During the interview no operations topics were mentioned by the staff. 87 The staff indicated in the survey that during the collaboration sessions the staff reviewed and shared effective instructional strategies. ―Teacher collaboration is import- ant because they share effective strategies‖ (response to survey item 31). Another staff member wrote in response to question 31, ―Collaboration allows us to share ideas on how to teach a specific standard to specific students (multiple teaching strategies).‖ In the interviews and survey teachers mentioned that during their collaboration sessions they reviewed what instruction should look like in terms of the sections of OCR. Adminis- trative Team Member 2 indicated the following regarding instructional expectations: But also instructional expectations such as, ―Your green section should look like this,‖ ―Your comprehension section should look like that with this implemented and your blue section should look like that,‖ ―OK, active prior knowledge, then introduce the information, have the children think pair share and then map it and have them write about it.‖ Leading Collaboration Sessions In the interviews several staff members pointed out that the collaboration sessions used to be led by the mathematics coach, the literacy coach, or the principal. During the past few years the principal told the teachers they were to lead the collaboration sessions. In the interview the principal stated, ―I felt they were ready. I told them they had to plan everything including the agenda that had to be signed off by everyone on the grade level. I finally let go and allowed them to take the lead.‖ In response to item 19 on the survey, the staff indicated that the leadership of the collaboration sessions was as follows: teachers (74%), administrators (51%), counselors (5%), coaches (79%), and other (2%). In this survey item respondents had opportunities to circle all responses they felt applied to the question of collaboration. Therefore, in many of the surveys teachers 88 circled, teachers, administrators, and coaches. In the interviews several staff members indicated that the teachers were in charge of their collaboration sessions. Teacher 8 stated, ―Generally the meetings are kind of run by coaches at least in the beginning but the teachers pretty much have a strong hand in what is going on around here.‖ This transition of leadership supported the cultural norm of collaboration. In addition, the staff agreed that this transition of leadership helped the school sustain academic growth. Professional Development Another practice identified by the staff as significant to the school‘s academic growth was professional development opportunities provided to staff by the school and the district. In fact, the principal attributed the number of teacher leaders at the school to the professional development training they received over the years. The principal described the professional development process at the school as follows: I had read DuFour‘s Professional Learning Communities and I checked to see how we could establish these professional learning communities at the school. The first couple of years we planned the agenda and the professional development were led by the coaches. We started with half-day sessions, then full-day sessions. The coaches analyzed the data, wrote the action plan for the teachers, and then another year the teachers would observe each other, teachers visited each other‘s classrooms, and even cross articulation. But when I felt they were ready, I told them they had to plan everything. They were ready to lead their own professional development. According to the teachers‘ interviews and survey responses, professional development at Great Street Elementary School was research based and took place during grade-level collaboration sessions, lesson studies, observing best practices, and substitute release days. The sessions were led by teachers and support staff. 89 Research-Based Professional Development The staff mentioned in the interviews that some of their professional development time focused on reading research-based books such as QAR Now by Raphael, Highfield, and Au (2006), DuFour and Eaker‘s (1998) Professional Learning Communities at Work, and Marzano‘s (2004) Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Administrative Team Member 2 stated, ―We don‘t have a typical professional develop- ment. We usually take a research-based book and read it as a book.‖ The book mentioned the most in interviews and in the survey was the QAR book. The teachers mentioned in the interviews that they spent a year reading this book in their grade levels. Teacher 7 stated, ―We have been asked to read professional reads and then present and we know everything and we don‘t have to do it all on our own.‖ The staff indicated that each grade level was assigned one of the chapters in the book. After reading the chapter in their grade level, the teachers presented the information from their chapter to the entire staff. After the presentations the staff developed charts for their classrooms. These charts contained the information from the book regarding assisting the students to identify strategies for reading comprehension. These charts were visible in all observed classrooms. According to the teachers, the QAR strategies were still taught to their students. Administrative Team Member 4 indicated that during her classroom inter- vention support she provided the following support using QAR: The first lesson I do when I go into the classroom is QAR, to reinforce that QAR within them to make sure they understand that some of the questions you don‘t need to go back to the selection for, that there are key words that tell you to go back and look for these words in the selection. 90 Lesson Studies In the interviews the staff mentioned lesson studies as instrumental in their professional growth and in narrowing the gap. According to the teachers, the lesson studies were 1- to 3- day professional development session in which teachers focused on a specific topic in OCR or the English Language Development (ELD) practicum. During the lessons studies the teachers met in grade levels and received guidance from the literacy coach or the ELD lead teacher. After the information was provided to the teachers, they were given opportunities to plan a lesson together. Then the teachers took turns teaching the lesson, in their own classrooms, in front of their peers. Once the lesson was taught, the teacher received feedback from their peers on delivery of instruction and how to improve the delivery of their lessons. In the survey and the interviews the staff indicated the benefits obtained from observing each other‘s teaching practices. ―Planning together and lesson study oppor- tunities have helped us to plan effective instruction‖ (a response to survey item 31). Teacher 8 stated, ―I got to see everybody‘s practices. I think that‘s one of the things that helped create a strong educational program at the school.‖ The principal and several staff members indicated in their interviews that there were opportunities for vertical articulation that allowed teachers to discuss standards for various grade levels. These vertical articulations were scheduled during the school year and allowed the teachers to share ideas and materials across the grade levels. The vertical articulation and the lesson studies were helpful to the teachers because they could obtain feedback from their peers in regards to instruction. 91 Substitute Release Days Another practice that the school used for professional development was providing each teacher 5 days of substitute release time each school year. These 5 days were used for professional development collaboration within grade levels. During the substitute release day the school provided a substitute for the teachers while the grade-level teachers met to collaborate. The full day of substitute release time was dedicated to Language Arts professional development and the half days were spent on topics related to mathematic. The principal secured the funds to pay for these substitutes. Regarding an observed fifth-grade collaboration session during released time Teacher 1, a fifth-grade teacher, stated in an interview, ―We collaborate and we share materials. We meet on one day PD and continue planning.‖ The important part of the substitute release day was the implementation of what the teachers developed as a grade level, and which was observed in the classroom visits. This professional development session was a good example of the distributed leadership model, collaboration and grade- level professional development mentioned frequently during the staff interviews. Professional Development for Teacher Assistants According to the staff in the interviews and in response to the survey, Teacher Assistants were important to the academic success through their work with students who were struggling academically. According to one of the Administrative Team Members, the school provided for the Teacher Assistants‘ professional development to prepare them to work effectively with the students. In the interviews teachers mentioned the important role of Teacher Assistants (TA‘s) in providing academic assistance to students. 92 The TAs are working well with the classroom. We have them now where, during directed instruction, we have the TAs that are in there at that time. If there are struggling students, they should be sitting with the struggling students and trying to help them understand what it is the teachers is teaching the whole group. When they are within Independent Work Time, wherever the students have weakness, they are pulling the students and working with them. (Administrative Team Member 2) Teacher 9 mentioned, ―TAs are very helpful we just let them know what are the standards and let‘s focus on Jose. Improving the intervention a lot of one and small group and a lot of pull outs.‖ In response to survey item 27, the teachers mentioned Teacher Assistants as an instruction support used in the classroom to narrow the achieve- ment gap. ―Small group intervention with Teacher Assistant‘s to reinforce direct instruc- tion in OCR, ELD, FOSS.‖ In the interviews the staff indicated that professional development opportunities were provided to the Teacher Assistants. The literacy coach indicated that she provided OCR training to the Teachers Assistants so they could work effectively with students and to support teachers during the instructional program. Administrative Team Member 2 declared, ―When I work with them, I go in there and I show them how they can work with the students while the teachers are doing word knowledge, how to work with the students when the teacher is doing blending.‖ In the survey the staff indicated that the Teacher Assistants provided intervention support; one staff member mentioned their intervention work for struggling students. Instructional Practices In the interviews, observations, and survey responses the staff indicated that certain instructional practices were instrumental in closing or narrowing the achievement gap. Teacher 13 stated, in terms of practices that contributed to the school‘s success, 93 ―There are so many . . . being aware of the standards, high expectations, being careful about covering all of the standards not just part of them, rigorous instruction, all the things that the district says were supposed to do.‖ Responses to survey item 24 indicated that instructional strategies were identified by the staff to enhance student learning. As shown in Table 5, 39 teachers specified that direct instruction to enhance student learning was extremely important (ranked first), 70% indicated that guided practices, scaffolding, and using prior knowledge were extremely important, 67% indicated higher-order thinking as extremely important, and other instructional strategies were rated by the teachers from 40% to 53%. These survey responses were in agreement with instructional strategies observed in the classroom and discussed by the teachers in the interviews. Classroom observations revealed evidence of direct instruction, scaffolding, guided practice, cooperative grouping, and using prior knowledge. There was also evidence of the use of graphic organizers, displayed throughout the classrooms for various content areas. Some graphic organizers were written by teachers and some were written by students, the latter primarily in writing samples displayed on bulletin boards. The principal stated in the interview, ―I told them it was important to do the green sections, the red section and the blue section just the way it was done in the book. I told them they had to teach OCR using explicit models of direct instruction.‖ Sight Word/High Frequency Words Another instructional practice identified by staff in the interviews and survey was the school-wide focus on sight words or high-frequency words, beginning in 94 Table 5 Responses to Survey Item 24: “Rate the Following Instructional Strategies You Used to Enhance Student Learning (Extremely Important = 1 to Not Important = 6)” Instructional Top ranked (ranking of 1) Second ranked (ranking of 2) strategy Proportion of surveys % Proportion of surveys % Direct instruction 39/43 91 1/43 2 Guided practice 32/43 74 8/43 8 Pre-teaching 21/43 49 12/43 27 Re-teaching 23/43 53 13/43 30 Graphic organizers 34/43 79 5/43 12 Note taking 2/43 5 5/43 12 Summarizing 20/43 47 12/43 28 SDAIE strategies 21/43 49 10/43 23 Cooperative grouping 20/43 47 10/43 23 Peer tutoring 8/43 19 10/43 23 Individual instruction 19/43 44 11/43 26 Higher-order thinking 29/43 67 5/43 12 Scaffolding 30/43 70 6/43 14 Using prior knowledge 30/43 70 8/43 19 Metacognitive skills 21/43 49 12/43 28 Note. SDAIE = Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English. 95 Kindergarten. Teacher 13 stated that in the past, ―Half of my students would know less than 50 of the sight words and so they were so lost.‖ This problem was brought up at the school and it was decided to focus on sight words beginning in kindergarten. The students in kindergarten were challenged to learn 100 sight words by the end of the year. Students who learned the words were rewarded with a certificate. Classroom observations revealed sight words on students‘ desks, posted in the classrooms, and used by the Teacher Assistants. A focus on high-frequency words was also visible in classrooms of other grades. According to the teachers, this early focus on sight words influenced the narrowing of the achievement gap. A teacher indicated that when she taught first grade the focus was no longer on basic sight words, since many of the students could recognize them. Students identified as struggling academically were exposed to basic sight words in the school‘s pull-out intervention program. Teacher-Created Instructional Material The teachers indicated in the survey and interviews that they developed teacher- made instructional materials to enhance their instructional programs. They identified the following materials created during these sessions: standard- based material to enhance the district‘s core programs, pretest/posttest questions based on state and district assessments, writing questions for the chapter books, and writing prompts. The teachers created materials to enhance the OCR program in areas such as writing. They created standards- based instructional activities to assist students with accessing the standards. The teachers mentioned that their created materials were used for several years. The teachers created communication guides that students used during Language Arts 96 lessons. The communication guide was originally used for the district‘s ELD practicum but at this school the teachers used these strategies in the other content areas. On the fifth-grade, full-day professional development day, teachers worked on standards-based activities to enhance reading comprehension skills. The teachers created test preparation material based on the state standards and release questions from the CDE and placed those questions and activities in a binder. We had a lot of professional development where we worked together and we developed a pretest and posttest to prepare the students for the CST. We did the pretest administration to students and then divided it by standards to see where the areas of needs were the greatest and then worked with the students addressing those standards. We developed a whole binder of materials. I saw a big improve- ment from last year. (Teacher 11) According to the staff, the teacher-made test preparation activities were instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. In response to survey item 26, teachers indicated that ―teacher-made‖ materials were used by the school to narrow the achievement gap. Other Instructional Strategies Three additional instructional strategies were identified by the staff in the survey and interviews as instrumental to the school‘s success: looping, teacher-talk versus student-talk, and test preparation materials. Looping was mentioned in interviews by three teachers as instrumental to their success with students. Looping was defined as the ability for a teacher to follow students to the next grade. According to one teacher, looping was supported by the principal. ―As far as the leadership, the principal was very supportive of looping and she liked that, and I think it was successful.‖ 97 It‘s just been really nice going with them. I feel that the year is more productive because you don‘t spend the beginning of the year getting to know a new group. It‘s like when we started second grade, I already know where they were at and we just move right along and worked on the things that we needed to work on. (Teacher 11) A staff member said in the interview, ―One thing I did a lot here at this school is loop. I started with them at fourth and then I would go to fifth.‖ Looping was a successful strategy mentioned as helpful to the school‘s academic success. The second instructional strategy, mentioned by a member of the Administrative Team, was that staff reviewed the importance of teacher-talk versus student-talk during their professional development. Administrative Team Member 2 stated, ―That was the rule: stop talking, teachers. I know they all like to hear each other but let the students‘ talk, and write and think, pair and share.‖ In the classroom observations, I observed the students‘ willingness to express their opinions regarding the reading selection, their participation in cooperative groups, and ability to answer questions in mathematics. The third strategy that teachers mentioned in the survey and in the interviews as significant to their work in narrowing the achievement gap was the development and use of test preparation material for the CST. In response to survey item 26, teachers cited using Measuring Up, a test preparation workbook, during Saturday School. These test preparation materials were identified as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. According to the teachers, these materials were developed during professional development time. The test preparation materials were not to replace the core program. For Measuring Up we have one for every child. But you know what is one thing we did state and we made it very clear, we don‘t want to walk in and see the students just doing worksheet. We are looking for instruction. That is what the key is. (Administrative Team Member 3) 98 Data Analysis Data analysis was mentioned numerous times by the staff in the interviews and the survey as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. According to the staff, the data analysis process had an impact on instruction, assisted staff to identify students who were in need of intervention, and was monitored by the administrative team. In response to survey item 29, one staff member wrote, ―Data analysis is the key in closing the achievement gap. Continuous analysis provides the teachers with the opportunity to keep changing the curriculum to meet the needs of struggling students.‖ The staff indicated that through the data analysis process students were identified who were struggling academically and through the grade-level collaboration process the students‘ instructional programs were adjusted to meet their instructional needs. Teacher 8 indicated in the interviews the following regarding the data analysis that occurred school wide and in grade levels: Data is really important because at the beginning of the year. As soon as we get our test result for the previous year, we sit down and we look at what grade levels were really strong, what strands in the standards were really strong, what strands in the standards were really weak. We look at the data from year to year, so when we get this year, we look at the scores the year before. And within the grade level, I know that some teachers are reluctant . . . but within a grade level we are pretty open to one teacher saying, ―I had a lot of students advanced and this is what I did.‖ Looking at the data, we can see our areas of need and we can see teachers that are strong in certain areas and use them as expert to help the rest of the teachers in grade level becoming strong in the area and get some strategies that may help them. The staff mentioned data analysis as an important component of the school‘s instructional practices in narrowing the achievement gap. In response to survey item 29, 99 one staff member indicated, ―Data analysis helps teachers keep track of those students who need the extra help.‖ The staff indicated that data analysis had a strong impact on instruction and was important for growth. In response to survey item 13, 91% of the staff indicated that CST scores and district assessments were used most of the time to plan instruction. Data analysis was mentioned many times in the interviews. ―Collaboration of data analysis, drives planning and implementation. Data is studied, students are grouped, and instruc- tion is planned‖ (a response to survey item 29). Teacher 9 stated in the interview, ―Data is what guides our student learning.‖ The impact of data analysis on instruction was cited as important in narrowing the gap since the staff changed instructional practices to meet the needs of students. We are constantly looking at the children‘s scores, whether it is CST or OCR or Math or Science. We are constantly looking at the scores to see what we can do better. We are constantly reflecting on how we can improve our practices and strategies to help students learn. (Teacher 12) The impact of data analysis on instruction was important because the instructional program was adjusted based on the formative and summative data. The teachers indicated they targeted students according to the data; they changed their instructional practices and provided intervention to struggling students. Data analysis is the key in closing the achievement gap. Continuous analysis provides the teachers with the opportunity to keep changing the curriculum to meet the needs of struggling students. (response to survey item 29). These instructional changes were made in collaboration with other teachers at grade level. The teachers indicated that sharing best practices occurred after data was shared 100 during collaboration sessions. The staff indicated that data analysis was instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. Student Intervention According to the staff, the CST data and the periodic assessment were reviewed by the staff to identify areas of weakness and strength for students. From this work the teachers developed intervention plans to help students who were struggling. These plans were reviewed by the principal and coaches. In response to survey item 14, 95% of the staff indicated that most of the time student data were used to identify instructional needs. ―Data analysis helps teachers keep track of those students who need the extra help‖ (response to survey item 29). In response to survey item 3, 98% of the staff indicated that most of the time CST and district assessment were used to identify instructional programs. ―Data analysis helps teachers keep track of those students who need the extra help‖ (response to survey item 29). In the interviews the teachers mentioned the importance of data analysis in assisting them to provide intervention programs. As far as Open Court and Math data, we always pull that in and look at the kids that are intensive and need assistance. And we come up with ideas. So, we don‘t just say, ―My student missed this standards and let‘s just move on‖ . . . [rather] ―Our students missed this standards what are we going to do to reach the standards.‖ (Teacher 9) Data Monitoring The teachers indicated in the interviews that they knew there was constant monitoring of the data by the principal and the coaches. Teacher 12 stated in the interview that the principal influenced staff regarding data analysis: ―The principal was pushing, pushing us to use the data to drive instruction.‖ The coaches were instrumental 101 in assisting teachers with understanding and analyzing student data. In the survey responses teachers indicated that this kind of monitoring was helpful in closing the achievement gap. ―It was useful to have the coaches and administration analyzes the data to find out what we as teachers needed to do to help our students improve‖ (response to survey item 30). Both coaches indicated in their interviews their role with data analysis. ―I look at the data for each assessment that they do. I go back and compare the previous one to the current one to see if there are any growths or any slippage from any particular student‖ (Administrative Team Member 4). Several teachers indicated that the principal was familiar with the data not only for their class but also for individual students. They stated the principal would call them to her office to discuss a specific student or group of students who were not succeeding on the periodic assessment. The principal would ask the teacher why the student was not succeeding and what was the teacher going to do to address this academic problem. Administrative Team Member 3 commented regarding the principal and her participation in data analysis, ―The quarterly assessment . . . she would go through that and see where every teacher was weak in, and call them in individually and say, ‗What are you going to do? What do you need help in?‘‖ The principal indicated that based on the data she met with teachers who had students‘ struggling academically and reviewed their plans to address the students‘ test scores. The principal stated that the teachers knew that she would review the test data with them if the students were not successful. They knew that she would ask them how they were planning to address the achievement gap. Therefore, according to the 102 principal, the teachers often initiated the conversation regarding their students‘ test scores: ―This is what I should have focused on and this is what I am going to do to improve.‖ The principal indicated that she publically recognized teachers when their students did well on the assessments. According to the principal, the teachers were very happy and proud when she announced CST scores. Standards-Based Instruction Another instructional factor identified by the staff on the survey and in interviews as significant was the school-wide focus on standards-based instruction. The staff mentioned the importance of standards in the school‘s instructional program. In response to item 15 of the survey, 98% of the staff responded that most of the time they used state standards to plan and deliver instruction. In response to survey item 20, 72% of the staff indicated that standards were discussed in collaboration sessions. Exposure to All State Standards In the interviews and the survey the staff indicated the importance of standards- based instruction. The teachers reported they enhanced the OCR program to ensure that students were exposed to all state standards. For example, one of the teachers explained in the interview that, since the CST test was administered to the students before Unit 5 of the OCR program was taught, the teachers reviewed the standards found in Unit 5 and incorporated them into earlier units to make sure that students were exposed to all standards before the CST. Another practice identified by the staff that the school used to close the achieve- ment gap was to make sure that students were exposed to all standards in their grade 103 level. The teachers did backward planning and identified the standards and created scaffolded lessons to allow students to access the standards. Several teachers indicated in their interviews that they knew it was more important to teach to the State standards than to teach just from the materials in the text book. The principal told the teachers that they were to teach the sections of OCR with fidelity as prescribed by the publishing company. The principal stated to the teachers that sometimes the OCR program had to be enhanced with standards-based activities. The principal indicated it was important for teachers to understand and know the standards entirely. Teacher 7 stated, ―I think that, more than anything, the fact that you have to look at the standards, look at what the students have to know more than look at the program.‖ The staff organized and planned an intervention curriculum for Saturday School and after-school tutoring based on the practice of pre-teaching or re-teaching California standards. ―Intersession and Saturday school instruction geared specifically on the standards‖ (response to survey item 26). Standards and the Classrooms Classroom observations revealed evidence of the state standards on bulletin boards and in classrooms. One of the comments in response to survey item 32 was, ―I believe being a qualified teacher with the knowledge of standards and what to teach and how makes all the difference.‖ This statement reflected the way teachers and the administrative team viewed the use of standards and its impact on narrowing the achievement gap. In the survey a staff member indicated, ―Standard books and lessons that we have designed to meet each standard‖ (response to survey item 27). Teacher 13 104 reinforced the importance of standards to the success of the school: ―There are so many . . . being aware of the standards, high expectations, being careful about covering all of the standards not just part of them, rigorous instruction, all the things that the district says we‘re supposed to do.‖ Summary for Research Question 2 The staff cited numerous practices that the school used to narrow the achievement gap. Standards-based instruction, collaboration, professional development, intervention, teacher-created materials, school-wide instructional practices, and data analysis were identified as instrumental in closing the achievement gap due to their impact on the class- room and the instructional program. The teachers were committed to using diverse practices to assist students. This was evident in the classroom visits, survey responses, and interviews. Research Question 3: Programs Research question 3 asked, What programs employed by the school were per- ceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? Research question 3 addressed programs that were perceived by the staff to assist in closing the achievement gap. For the purpose of this study, a program had a specific implementation plan, a training component, and a set of materials for the teachers and students. A program was created by the teachers or purchased by the district or school from an outside vendor to address instructional needs. For the program to have school-wide effect, the program had to be implemented with fidelity, as stated by the developers of the program. Research question 3 was designed to identify specific programs used by the school that the staff 105 credited for closing or narrowing the gap. The two main programs were (a) intervention programs, such as Saturday School and Intersession, and (b) core instructional programs such as OCR, EnVision, and the ELD practicum. Intervention Programs Staff identified intervention programs as instrumental to closing the achievement gap. In response to survey item 28, one staff member wrote, ―I feel that having interven- tion during off-track time and Saturday school was a key factor for closing the achieve- ment gap.‖ Another commented, ―When we had Saturday School, after school, or inter- session we were able to review, re-teach, or even introduce standards that I believe helped a lot.‖ Teacher 6 stated in the interview, ―Saturday school intervention really did help because we had extra time to teach specific standards that may not be taught in Open Court for reading.‖ The staff indicated they used intervention activities to help struggling students. Intersession was mentioned 20 times in response to survey item 26. Table 6 shows the intervention programs identified by staff as contributing to the narrowing the achievement gap. In response to survey item 22, the staff identified the following intervention programs established for struggling students: in-class intervention (91%), pull-out intervention (74%), peer tutoring (49%), off-track classes (42%), after-school tutoring (21%). 106 Table 6 Responses to Survey Item 26: “What Intervention Program(s) at Your School Have Contributed to Closing the Achievement Gap?” Strategy f Intersession 20 Saturday School 23 Intervention classes 6 After-school tutoring 10 Pull-out session 11 Small group instruction 5 Differentiated instruction 3 Focus on standards 4 Instructional materials a 9 Others 6 a Open Court Reading, English Language Development, Blast Off, Measuring Up, Vacation Homework Workbook, English Language Support Guide. b Collaboration, professional development, district intervention programs, teacher-created programs, test- taking skills. Saturday School. In the interviews and survey responses the staff described Saturday School as opportunities to re-teach or introduce standards. In the interviews the teachers were credited for motivating students to attend Saturday School. One teacher stated that Saturday School had so many attendees that one would think that regular 107 classes were in session. According to the coordinator, the teachers motivated the students by offering treats and incentives. Teachers used these opportunities to address theirs students‘ academic weaknesses. The teachers teamed for Saturday School and taught in their area of expertise. Administrative Team Member 3 described the Saturday teaming: When we have Saturday School or intervention, we don‘t just go in and teach, especially the upper grade level; they talk amongst each other and decide, ―Your strength is in language arts in comprehension, you will just teach just the compre- hension‖ and we do it in a little rotation. Your strength is in math so that what I taught. That‘s one way we really look at our strength and weaknesses and were able to use that effectively for the students but especially during intervention time in preparation for the CST. These comments were an indication of teacher efficacy in that teachers were asked not only to lead collaboration efforts based on their areas of expertise but also to teach Saturday classes based on their areas of expertise. Administrative Team Member 4 described the impact of Saturday School and its role in narrowing the achievement gap. Our Saturday intervention, you‘d think school was in session . . . we had 12 classes on Saturday. A teacher‘s whole class will be there. One of the motivator was the teachers. They motivated the children. In response to survey item 26, the staff mentioned 23 times that Saturday School contri- buted to closing or narrowing of the achievement gap. Saturday school was definitely a big help. You could take a standard in Open Court or in reading in language arts and work on that the whole day, a whole Saturday morning, or whatever your block of time for reading, and just work on that standard. (Teacher 6) Pull-out intervention program. Another intervention activity mentioned by the staff, as instrumental in the narrowing of the achievement gap, was the school‘s intervention pull-out programs for struggling students. They mentioned the work of a 108 retired teacher who taught students in a pull-out model. In addition, members of the Administrative Team pulled students out of the classroom for instructional support. The staff mentioned Teacher Assistants also pulled students out to provide additional support. The retired teacher worked at the school for over 24 years as a classroom teacher. Due to her ability to teach reading, the principal asked her to work with students who scored Far Below Basic or Below Basic to provide phonics instruction. This retired teacher assessed these students via her own assessment tools to identify gaps in phonics abilities. This pull-out program was instrumental in helping students who were non- readers. I observed the intervention teacher as she worked with 8 third graders on phonic skills. The intervention teacher reviewed the students‘ targeted basic sight words, a word family, a vowel pattern review, the OCR program‘s Sound Spelling Cards and a review of the OCR vowel cues such as ―Green Box‖ for a vowel sound. This was taught to students as a scaffolding technique to remember the short vowel sounds. The retired teacher indicated that she provided the students with incentives for academic growth. The literacy coach, mathematics coach, and coordinator provided pull-out intervention support for targeted students. Last year the Administrative Team pulled students who scored Advanced on the CST and who scored close to a perfect score of 600 on language art, whom they called the 600 Club. This year they were planning to work with students who scored Basic on the CST. Intersession. Great Street School, a year-round school, provided off-track intersession classes for students who were on vacation. These classes usually total 80 hours of instruction. The teachers indicated in the survey that intersession provided 109 opportunities for struggling students to receive academic support. The principal cited intersession as important, especially when teachers taught writing and reading compre- hension and focused on that area. In response to survey item 26, a staff member said, ―Off track intersession has helped tremendously in the past.‖ Intersession was mentioned 20 times in the survey as an intervention program that staff felt contributed to the narrowing of the achievement gap. Beyond-the-Bell tutoring. When the school was in Program Improvement status, the students qualified for tutoring from outside providers. The students received 30 hours of individual or group tutoring. This support was provided at the students‘ home, in the library, or in a community center. Parents enrolled their children by selecting an outside provider and submitted an application to the district. According to the staff, Great Street Elementary School had the most students participating in this program. Regrettably, once the school exited Program Improvement status, this academic support was not available. Budget constraints. The staff mentioned in the interviews and survey responses that these intervention opportunities were no longer available due to the economic crisis in California and in the district. Programs such as, off-track intersession, Saturday School and after-school tutoring, were instrumental in reducing the gap but were no longer available due to the state‘s budget shortfall. The lack of services was cited as a concern by the staff at the school. ―It is important however the lack of funding has forced detrimental cutbacks‖ (response to survey item 28). ―Intersession (that unfortunately will 110 no longer be offered) provided invaluable time to prepare students to achieve on the CST‖ (response to survey item 28). Core Instructional Programs The data indicated the staff at Great Street Elementary School used the district- mandated core programs for language arts, mathematics, ELD, and science with fidelity. The school used McGraw Hill‘s OCR as the core language arts program, Harcourt Brace‘s mathematics program, and the newly adopted district mathematics series, EnVision Math. For English Language Development, the school used Hampton Brown‘s Into English Program, with enhanced lessons developed by the school district. The survey offered an open-ended question regarding instructional programs used in the classroom (survey item 27). In response, 31 of 43 surveys mentioned some aspect of OCR, including the OCR ELD Intervention Guide. The staff indicated they considered the following instructional programs used in their classrooms to be instrumental in closing the achievement gap: 31 of 43 (72%) cited OCR, 38 of 43 (88%) cited English/ Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), 15 of 43 (35%) cited mathematics, 8 or 43 (19%) cited Foss, and 6 of 43 (14%) cited QAR. Language arts. OCR had three major sections: The Green Section contained the phonics component, the Red Section focused on reading comprehension, and the Blue Section focused on grammatical and writing skills. The OCR program included Sound Spelling Cards to teach phonics and the sound spelling patterns. The OCR program recommended that the students‘ seats faced the Sound Spelling cards so that teachers could use them to teach and reinforce specific sounds or spelling patterns. 111 Classrooms were supposed to have in front of the class a Concept Question Bulletin board for each unit to assist in building prior knowledge and enhancing comprehension of the theme. The OCR reader consisted of five units in Grades 2 through 5. Each unit required 6 weeks of instruction, with a periodic assessment at the end of the 6 weeks. The Kindergarten and first-grade programs were divided into more than five units. The program used a direct instruction model. Another important component of the program was the Unit Opener activity that took place on the day the unit was introduced. Teachers were supposed to plan an interesting activity for the Unit Opener to motivate the students regarding the unit. Observations revealed that the OCR program was implemented with fidelity. Some of the OCR instructional practices observed during the classroom visits included Clues Problem and Wondering, decodable, the Green Section, the Red Section, Word Knowledge, and the Sound Spelling Card. For example, in one classroom the teacher reviewed the <aw>sound found in the Hawk card. The teacher had the Hawk card close to the white board and pointed to the card as she reviewed the <aw> sound and the sound spelling pattern. The classrooms were set up with the recommended OCR areas, such as the Sound Spelling Cards in the front of the room and the students facing the Sound Spelling Cards. Each classroom had a comprehensive Concept/Question board with evidence of building prior knowledge through the use of realia and questions. The staff indicated in interviews that it was expected that the teachers implement the core instructional programs with fidelity. Teacher 9 stated, ―This is our adopted program and this is what we want to see according to the coaches and the principals.‖ 112 The staff indicated that at times they had to enhance the program to address standards, address students‘ academic needs, or deal with areas of weakness, such as the writing component of the OCR program. Teacher 8 stated, ―I started teaching when Open Court was implemented and I saw over the first 3 years that I was here the improvements that it made because it had that direct improvement model.‖ The teachers said that the principal told them which areas in the OCR program were important to focus on and that it was important to implement the OCR program with fidelity. The staff stated that the principal told them to focus on the standards and to use the reading program as a way to help students access the standards. The principal indicated that at the beginning teachers were told to implement the OCR program with fidelity, since they were not reading specialists, but over the years, as they improved, they were able to enhance the program with strategies found in QAR and other resources. The principal told the teachers that it was important to teach specific sections of the OCR program, just the way it was recommended in the teacher‘s manual. Mathematics. In the interviews and survey responses the teachers mentioned the mathematics program of Harcourt Brace that the school had used for many years. In the current year the school district had adopted a new program called EnVision. In response to survey item 27, 15 of the 43 staff members indicated the school‘s math program as instrumental in closing the gap. ―In math, hands-on activities have helped close the achievement gap‖ (response to survey item 27). The interviews included some mention of mathematics instruction but nothing specific about the Harcourt Brace training pro- 113 gram. One teacher remarked, ―Through math we do hit just about every standard, just going through the course of the instruction but Open Court I think does miss things.‖ ELD. The ELD Practicum was developed by the district using the Hampton Brown Into English materials but enhanced with lessons utilizing second language learner strategies. The ELD Practicum included cooperative strategies, TBLT, and com- munication guides to develop language in second language students. The components of the TBLT included collaborative strategies and other ELD methodologies. In the survey responses 38 teachers mentioned the Into English program, ELD, and TBLT as factors in narrowing the achievement gap. One of Administrative Team members indicated the importance of the ELD Practicum: What was really nice was when teachers started taking those strategies, that were just good teaching strategies and bringing it over into comprehension, the use of the ELSEIG, language form and functions and that is when comprehension picked up as well. . . . It think it is very explicit. It is very scripted and with the demon- stration lesson basing them on research-based teaching and strategy. . . . It was Open Court but for ELD. In the survey response for item 27, 38 of 43 teachers noted that they used ELD to narrow the achievement gap. Additional instructional programs. Three other programs were mentioned in the interviews and in the survey responses as instrumental in narrowing the achievement: Thinking Map, Measuring Up, and QAR. Thinking Map. Thinking Maps (graphic organizers) were prevalent in the class- room observations. Eleven of the 23 classrooms observed had graphic organizers developed by the teacher or by the students. (Eight classrooms observation visits were made without using the Classroom Observation form, so it is possible that there were 114 graphic organizers in those 8 rooms that were not identified.) In item 24 of the survey, 39 of the 43 teachers indicated that they used visual aids/graphic organizers to enhance student learning, ranking them 1 or 2 in importance. One teacher remarked, ―I think one of the excellent trainings was the Thinking Map training. It is an ELD strategy but we used it in language arts in writing.‖ Measuring Up. Measuring Up was reported in responses to survey item 26 as used for test preparation. In addition, in the interviews several teachers mentioned using Measuring Up as their intervention material for Saturday School and test preparation. Measuring Up workbooks were seen in the classrooms and in the media center room but not in use by students. We have Measuring Up and Measuring Up diagnostic test . . . they kind of create a pacing plan and they go into each one of these test prep materials and they don‘t do the whole booklet, they just pull out things that have to do with key standards. (Administrative Team Member) As stated earlier, the school administration indicated to the teachers that they were not to use the test preparation book as an instructional program. QAR. QAR was mentioned in both interviews and survey responses as instru- mental to the school narrowing the achievement gap. Observations revealed a teacher- made chart based on the QAR book in every classroom. These charts appeared to be used frequently, due to their worn condition. The QAR process was developed based on the book QAR Now, Question Answer Relationships by Raphael et al. (2006). The book, which focused on improving reading comprehension skills, was used as part of the professional development process in the 2007-2008 school year. According to the staff and school documents, teachers were assigned to read a chapter per grade level. Accord- 115 ing to one of the school‘s documents reviewed for this case study, the grade levels were identified as co-facilitators of this process. They were to read the chapter and use the discussion questions at the back of the book in their grade levels. After reading that chapter, the grade-level teachers were assigned a date to present the content of the chapter to the rest of the staff. The teachers developed QAR charts based on the content of the book and used them in the classrooms to deepen reading comprehension. In response to survey item 27, the teachers mentioned QAR 6 times as an instruc- tional program that helped to narrow the achievement gap. Administrative Team Member 4 mentioned the use of QAR in the instructional program: As far as there are things we have done like QAR. You‘ll hear that in the class- room. Did you find the answer right there? Did you have to search for it? Because we really want them to know the relationship on how to find the answer to the question that is one of the things that I am promoting with my test taking strategies. The first lesson that I do when I go into the classroom is QAR, to reinforce that QAR within them to make sure they understand that some of the questions you don‘t need to go back to the selection for, that there are key words that tell you, OK, you have to go back and look for these words in the selection and things like that. Scholastic skill cards. Staff members indicated they used Scholastic Skill Cards in the classroom. While use of these cards was not observed during the 6 days at the school, they were mentioned twice in interviews and twice in survey responses. Summary for Research Question 3 The practices identified in this case study included implementation of the core program and intervention programs. The implementation of the core program was done with fidelity, based on the recommendation from the principal. As the teachers improved in delivery of instruction, they began to enhance the program to allow students to access 116 the standards. Staff also identified additional programs, including professional develop- ment received as part of these programs, and intervention programs, including Saturday School, intersession, tutoring through a pull-in and pull-out model. However, the staff expressed concern about the closure of many of these programs due to budget restraints. Discussion The 6 days spent at the school were helpful in identifying cultural norms, practices, and programs perceived by the staff as helping in narrowing the achievement gap. The data was analyzed and triangulated to identify recurring themes. Based on the triangulation, the following emergent themes were identified: (a) collaboration among staff, (b) high expectations for students, (c) leadership by the principal and the teachers, (d) intervention activities and programs, (e) data monitoring/data analysis of formative and summative assessments, and (f) standards-based instruction. These themes were evident throughout the observations, interviews, and survey responses. Collaboration Collaboration emerged as a recurring theme based on the comments made by the staff in survey responses and interviews. According to DuFour and Eaker (1998), ―Schools that are successful in implementing a significant change regard collaborative time for teachers as a critical resource-an essential tool that enables teachers to enhance their individual and collective effectiveness‖ (p. 122). Collaboration was prevalent in the responses staff made and the behaviors witnessed on the campus during the 6 days at the school. Collaboration was identified not only as a cultural norm but also as an important practice in narrowing the achievement gap. 117 Collaboration was observed in three professional development sessions and in the planning of the Literacy and Math Night. The staff reported that they met to collaborate on lunch breaks and after school to enhance their classroom‘s instructional program. This collaboration was a vehicle by which the work of the teachers was conducted. The sharing of ideas, materials, and instructional strategies was done in collaboration sessions. Collaboration permeated the entire school and was credited by the staff as critical to narrowing the achievement gap. The school established professional learning communities that assisted staff in developing teacher efficacy, student-enhanced lessons, and a sense of community. High Expectations High expectation was identified as an emergent theme influencing the academic achievement by the students. This theme affected the ways teachers taught, their partici- pation in professional development, and the way students‘ viewed themselves. High expectation was a cultural norm established by the school leader. According to the teachers, the principal expressed high expectations for students and insisted that all teachers work to make students successful. The principal set the tone for the school and the teachers followed her example of having high expectations. Research supports that teachers, who work with students of color, must demonstrate high expectations for their students (Thompson, 2004). The principal of this school had high expectations for students and expressed and modeled this belief to the students and the teachers. The teachers indicated that the principal did not allow them to talk negatively about the children or their families or to blame the students for not being successful on 118 the formative or summative tests. ―The essential job of the principal in implementing a belief in students‘ potential is to move teachers from blaming the victim to assuming accountability for what and how much children can learn‖ (Haberman, 1999, p. 38). The fact that the teachers could not blame students for low test scores forced the teachers to reflect and identify instructional practices essential to the success of their students. Therefore, the teachers participated in the collaboration sessions with the goal of learning new strategies from their peers to use with their students. Leadership Leadership was a key factor for this school in narrowing the achievement gap. Based on comments by the staff in interviews and survey responses, the leadership of the principal and the teachers were critical to the school‘s success. Bolman and Deal‘s (2001) four frames demonstrated leadership from a structural frame, human resource frame, political frame, and symbolic frame. In the school the structural frame was demonstrated through the principal‘s actions in establishing clear goals regarding student achievement. Professional learning communities provided the school with a strong structural frame by which to organize staff collaboration and professional development. Another structural frame that helped the school was the principal‘s firmness in requiring from the staff that the school‘s core instructional program be taught with fidelity. In the area of the human resource frame, the principal established an environment in which the teachers‘ professional development was important and valued. The oppor- tunity for improvement of skills and teaching abilities created a positive environment for the staff. The professional learning communities provided an environment of support for 119 teachers. The principal demonstrated the use of the human resource frame through promotional opportunities offered to staff. For example, the coordinator and the mathe- matics coach had been teachers at the school before they were selected for their current positions. The principal‘s action in demanding from the teachers high expectations for their students was reflective of Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) political frame. The principal made it clear to the staff that they were not to blame the students for a lack of academic achievement. Instead, the principal forced the teachers to assume responsibility for the students‘ test scores. Viewed through the political frame the principal‘s action of demanding high expectations was one way of addressing racism and low expectation found in many high-poverty schools. Since the teachers could not blame the students for a lack of academic achievement, they were forced to look at themselves and their ability to teach. This created an environment in which the teachers participated in professional development activities in a motivated and enthusiastic manner. Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) symbolic frame was viewed at Great Street School through the principal‘s implementation of academic achievement trophies and certificates for students. According to the staff, these trophies were very important to the students and the parents. These trophies became symbols of students‘ success and school success. Teacher 11 stated about the principal and students‘ incentives, ―She does seem to celebrate it a lot with these kids . . . trophies, ribbons.‖ The symbolic frame included the telling of stories from the past. During the interviews various staff members talked about the time when the school was in Program 120 Improvement status and the District‘s ―Red Team‖ visited the school. The staff described it as a horrible experience when the team walked into their classrooms and observed. We were the first school, one of the only schools that were visited by the Red Team. That was pretty dramatic experience. They sent about 15 people from district level and state level and they would come in with their suits and they would never really talk to the teachers, they would interview the students. They did this for a month and in any given time there could be people in the classroom talking to your kids, looking at you, making notes. At the end of this whole pro- cess they came in and gave us a report and the entire report was negative and they said, ―This was the process.‖ (Teacher 8) The staff mentioned the ―Red Team‖ and compared these visits, and the way the school was during that time, to the school‘s current situation, now characterized by high academic success for all students. Many of the teachers who spoke of the ―Red Team‖ were new to the profession of teaching when the team visited the school and have since evolved into effective teachers. The memories of these visits were negative but the staff attested to the important lessons learned from the visits. Another symbolic frame established by the school was the Fall Harvest Literacy and Math Night. This combination fund raiser, parent training activity, and carnival was symbolic of the staff‘s commitment to the school. The teachers volunteered their time in parenting classes, the carnival, and fund raising. This activity was a community affair that benefited students and provided parents and teachers, opportunities to share an enjoyable event. The school established a tradition that the staff enjoyed and that benefited the community. Figure 3 summarizes the application of Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) four frames at Great Street Elementary School. 121 Structural Frame: goals, specialized roles, formal relationships, responsibilities to participants, rules, polices, procedures Professional Learning Communities Distributed leadership Fidelity to core language arts program Human Frame: extended family, individuals with needs, feelings, prejudice, skills and limitations, capacity to learn, challenge get the job done while feeling good about what they are doing Teachers care about students Teacher efficacy Professional development Political Frame: arenas, contests, or jungles, compete for power and scares resources, conflict, differences in needs, bargaining, negotiation, coercion compromise High Expectations Teacher accountability for student achievement Symbolic Frame: organization as tribes, theaters, or carnivals, rituals, ceremonies, stories, heroes, myths Going to College bulletin board contest Fall Literacy and Math night Stories of “Red Team” Trophies Data meetings with principal Figure 3. Bolman and Deal‘s four frames as applied to Great Street Elementary School. Intervention Intervention was a recurring theme since the staff mentioned this practice in the interviews and surveys. Saturday School, off-track intersession, and after-school tutoring were mentioned frequently by staff during data collection. These intervention opportuni- ties became significant to the school‘s ability to narrow the gap due to the organization of these programs. For example, the staff mentioned that these intervention activities were organized with a focus on teaching or re-teaching state standards, departmentalized so the staff taught in their area of expertise, and implemented as an extension of the regular 122 core program. These intervention activities were instrumental in providing students required academic support. A standards-based focus to these programs assisted the school in narrowing the achievement gap. Data Monitoring/ Data Analysis Data monitoring/data analysis was a recurring theme in interviews and survey responses. The staff used this practice to identify students who were struggling and to modify their instructional classroom practices. According to Johnson (2002), ―A data- informed monitoring process allows for midcourse corrections, reinforces positive direction, and rewards success‖ (p. 37). The staff was aware that the data was monitored constantly by the principal and the coaches. This accountability made the teachers conscious of the data and willing to change their practices to help students to succeed. Data monitoring/data analysis was mentioned in the survey numerous times, for example, ―Data helped to help teachers focus on what the students need or where the gaps were.‖ The data analysis process was not observed but teachers described the process as a review of the data, a way of seeking ideas from each other, and then being held accountable by the principal and coaches. The staff indicated that this type of accountability was helpful. Through data analysis teachers identified struggling students, provided intervention, and adjusted the students‘ instructional program. Standards-Based Instruction Another important theme was the emphasis on standards in the classroom, in the delivery of instruction, and in professional development sessions. During the interviews teachers mentioned standards as important and as part of their intuitive thinking. 123 Haycock (2001) noted the importance of standards in addressing the achievement gap: ―Clear and public standards for what students should learn at benchmark grade levels area crucial part of solving the problem. They are a guide—for teachers, administrators, parents, and students themselves—to what knowledge and skills students must master‖ (p. 6). The staff mentioned in the interviews and survey responses the importance of enhancing the core instructional program with standards based activities. The staff was aware that students should be exposed to all the standards for their grade level. They were clear that this included standards not taught in the core program. The teachers were aware of the standards for their grade level and ensured that their classrooms were reflective of the standards through bulletin boards, student work and explicit instruction. Summary of Discussion The work of the staff and administrators at Great Street Elementary School was reflective of the literature on schools that narrowed the achievement gap. The literature reiterated the importance of collaboration opportunities, distributed leadership, and standards-based curriculum. In addition, the literature stated the importance of data analysis in closing or narrowing the achievement gap. These emergent themes offer schools struggling with an achievement gap, oppor- tunities to examine their own schools, to adjust their area of focus or to establish cultural norms, practices, or programs proven to work for schools in urban areas. The work done at Great Street Elementary School was accomplished by a dedicated staff and strong leadership. The results of this case study demonstrate that schools with an achievement gap should establish high expectations and conduct standards-based instruction 124 developed via collaboration activities. This case study offers much to be examined in terms of compare the actions of the staff at Great Street Elementary School and the recommendations found in the literature on how to narrow the achievement gap for students of color. 125 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter provides a summary of the study, including an appraisal of the findings and a summary of the data analysis. Included are conclusions reached based on the results. Implications and recommendations for future studies are presented. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this case study was to identify cultural norms, practices, and programs of a high-poverty, high-performing school. This was a qualitative case study of a successful school that narrowed the achievement gap for African American, Latino, and EL students. The achievement gap was identified as a serious problem for many schools especially due to the ambitious goals set by NCLB. The achievement gap was found prevalent in many urban and non-urban schools with minority and/or low-SES students. For the purpose of this study, achievement gap was defined as a disparity in academic achievement between minority and low-socioeconomic students and their White and Asian counterparts, as demonstrated by scores on standardized tests. Whether the gap was with students of color, language learners, or students with special needs, the gap continues to grow for African Americans, English learners, and Latinos. The achievement gap has narrowed in some schools but in many other schools the achievement gap has either growing or stagnated. This achievement gap has been deemed harmful to the future of this country because the number of minority and low- SES students continues to grow. If the achievement gap is not narrowed at every school, the economic, social, and cultural future of this country is in jeopardy. 126 Research Questions The following research questions were addressed in this research case study: 1. What cultural norms, practiced within the school, were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 2. What practices employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? 3. What programs employed by the school were perceived to have narrowed the achievement gap and sustained success? Summary of Findings The researcher analyzed data from 23 classroom observations, 43 completed surveys, and 15 staff interviews. Data were related to individual research questions. The following is a summary of the findings for each research question. Research Question 1 Research question 1 focused on the cultural norms of the school that the staff perceived as narrowing the achievement gap. This question was addressed through triangulation of the data from the interviews, survey responses, and classroom observa- tions. The data established that the school had a culture of high expectation, a culture of leadership, a culture of collaboration, and a college-bound culture. These cultural norms were evident throughout the school, whether displayed in bulletin boards demonstrating the students‘ goals to go to college, or professional development sessions in which teachers collaborated, or high expectations expressed for students. 127 Research Question 2 Research question 2 focused on the school-wide practices that the staff indicated was instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. Practices identified frequently by the staff in interviews and survey responses were collaboration, professional development (substitute release days, lessons studies, and research-based professional development), teacher-created materials, use of data monitoring/data analysis (impact on instruction, impact on student intervention), and school-wide instructional programs (basic sight words, looping, test preparation materials). These practices were noted in observations, survey responses, and teacher interviews. Research Question 3 For research question 3 the programs used by the school, and perceived by the staff as important in narrowing the achievement gap, was the use of the district‘s core programs and intervention programs (Saturday School, pull-out intervention, intersession) developed by the school. The principal of the school demanded that the staff implement the instructional program with fidelity but they were also encouraged to view the standards and enhance the instructional program with standards-based activities. The intervention programs were instrumental to the staff as they enabled them to spend additional time with students. The teachers stated they taught additional standards, provided additional support, and spent more time on core programs through the intervention programs. Unfortunately, the budget situation in California and in the district, led to a loss of funds for these programs. 128 Emergent Themes The following emergent themes were identified related to the research questions: (a) high expectations, (b) collaboration by staff members, (c) leadership by the principal and the teachers, (d) intervention activities and programs, (e) data monitoring/ data analysis, and (f) standards-based instruction. In the analysis of data it was clear that the cultural norm of high expectations was critical to the school‘s success. These expectations were communicated to the teachers by the principal. Teachers were not allowed to blame the children, their family, or the community for low test scores, but were forced to examine their teaching practices to explain the students‘ scores. Research has demonstrated the importance of high expectation for student success; at Great Street Elementary School this message was communicated to students by the principal through the staff. Research has supported the importance for schools with a high-poverty index to provide students access to the standards through rigorous instructional activities, high expectations for all students, and exposure to highly qualified teachers who were competent and effective in providing rigorous instructional lessons (Haycock, 2001). The other cultural norms of the school stemmed from the cultural norm of high expectations. Since the teachers were not able to blame students for low test scores, they were forced to examine their own professionalism and efficacy as teachers. The cultural norm of collaboration was used by the staff to improve their teaching craft. Therefore, the norm of collaboration supported the teachers‘ efficacy, through the opportunities to collaborate and observe each other‘s instructional practices. 129 Great Street Elementary School established professional learning communities that enhanced teachers‘ efficacy, their delivery of instruction, their ability to develop materials, and skills in analyzing data. Through these professional learning communities the teachers gained knowledge about pedagogy and best practices. As DuFour and Eaker (1998) stated, the professional development sessions in a professional learning community focus on teachers as central to student learning, yet include all other members of the school community, focuses on individual, collegial, and organizational improvement, respects and nurtures the intellectual and leadership capacity of teachers, principals, and others in the school community. (p. 239) The collaboration by staff offered the teachers opportunities to learn and refine their instructional program. Collaboration was both a cultural norm and a practice perceived by the staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. Leadership by the principal and the teachers was an emergent theme. The teachers were expected to lead, be knowledgeable about their work, and respectful of each others‘ expertise. The principal‘s leadership role was perceived by the staff as instrumental in narrowing the achievement gap. According to the staff, the principal had clear teacher expectations, a communicated vision, high expectations for the students, and knew the students‘ data. She held the staff accountable for students‘ success but also provided support. She did not accept excuses for students not succeeding. Bolman and Deal‘s (2003) four frames were applicable to the principal‘s leadership role as she demonstrated clear understanding of the human resource frame, the structural frame, the political frame, and the symbolic frame. For example, the principal was highly organized and developed effective systems that allowed the school to run smoothly. The 130 principal demonstrated the symbolic frame through incentives for students. The principal demonstrated the human resource frame through a focus on leadership and professional development. The staff described the key role of intervention programs in narrowing the gap. These programs were used in other urban schools but not with the success found at Great Street Elementary School. The intervention program used here included a focus on standards, participation by all teachers in intervention classes, and staff assumption of responsibility for their students to attend through motivational activities. Data monitoring/data analysis was critical to the work of the school. The principal and the teachers acknowledged they used data to identify students who were struggling, to modify instructional programs, and to drive the overall instructional program. The use of formative and summative data was important to the school‘s success. The principal expected students to succeed and held teachers responsible for student success. The teachers assumed responsibility for the students‘ data. Implications for Practice This case study highlighted the important steps that school leaders must take to narrow the achievement gap. As this school demonstrated, there are no silver bullets to magically increase student achievement. School leaders, including teachers and adminis- trators, must implement sound instructional practices and have high expectations for students‘ success. The staff at Great Street Elementary School work hard and they work smart. They collaborate to distribute their work load. The urgency with which schools are facing the challenge to narrow the achievement gap creates opportunities for school 131 leaders to communicate and implement the messages found in this case study. Principals in schools struggling with an achievement gap should review their message to teachers regarding high expectations for students. The following recommendations are presented for consideration, based on the critical findings of this case study. 1. School leaders must have high expectations for students. 2. Professional learning communities are critical to building teacher efficacy. 3. Principals must be instructional leaders who provide explicit directions to the teachers and support. 4. School programs must be implemented with fidelity. 5. Standards should be a focus of the school staff, instructional programs, and professional development programs. Recommendations for Staff First, and most important, teachers who serve students of color or low-SES status should have high expectations for those students and assume responsibility for their academic success. Second, teachers should participate fully in professional learning communities, including collaboration, data analysis, and sharing of best practices. In many schools, collaboration occurs but the staff does not fully participate. The element of trust and sharing of best practices benefits and enhances the teachers‘ ability to teach. Third, teachers must establish a pacing plan related to the standards for language arts and mathematics programs. Since the students are being assessed using a criterion reference exam, based on the California standards, students should be exposed to all of the standards in order to become familiar with the content of the test. Fourth, the 132 staff of a school struggling with an achievement gap should be willing to unpack the standards in order to understand what the standards are asking the student to do and to know. Teachers must provide students with instructional activities that expose the students to the highest level of rigor found in the standards. Fifth, teachers should identify instructional activities that address the standards, related to what students are expected to do and to know. Recommendations for Administration First, the administrator should communicate to the staff an insistence on high expectations for students. The administrator should not allow staff to make negative statements about students, their community, their family, or their language or culture. The administrator should model this behavior and not accept excuses from teachers regarding student achievement. Second, the administrator should establish professional learning communities for teachers and provide time for them to collaborate, share best practices, analyze data, and develop standards-based instructional activities. The administrator is responsible for establishing norms and protocols for these professional learning communities. An important role for the administrator is to designate pro- fessional development time for teachers to become knowledgeable about the standards. It is the administrator‘s responsibility to allocate funds from the school budget for professional development time and collaboration. Third, the administrator must know how to analyze student data. The principal should be clear about how to identify performance trends in summative and formative data. The principal should review the data to identify students‘ and classrooms‘ 133 performance trends. Based on these trends, the principal should support teachers with instructional strategies which could be used to re-teach students that fail to meet benchmark. The principal should train staff on data analysis and require the staff to establish plans for student improvement. Teachers should know that the principal has reviewed the data and will hold them accountable for student performance growth. Fourth, the principal should be an instructional leader with knowledge of strategies and pedagogy. The principal should provide step-by-step support for teachers regarding instruction, curriculum, and student achievement. The principal who is knowledgeable about these important instructional strategies can provide support to the teachers. Teachers must view the principal as an instructional leader and be held responsible for student achievement. Teachers who do not view their principal as an instructional leader will have difficulties being held accountable for the implementation of programs aimed at student achievement. A checklist (Appendix N) was developed for administrators interested in narrowing the achievement gap at their school. The checklist contains the factors identi- fied by the staff at Great Street Elementary School as instrumental in the narrowing of their achievement gap. This checklist contains suggestions that administrators could utilize after reading this case study of Great Street Elementary School and their success in narrowing the gap. Recommendations for the District First, districts in urban areas should establish a hiring screening process for new administrators with a focus on the candidates‘ demonstrating high expectations for 134 students. This process could include questions in the interviews, a portfolio with evidence of high expectations for students, essay questions demonstrating beliefs about student achievement, and letters of recommendation attesting to the high expectations for students and teachers held by the applicant. While high expectations are generally regarded as important, districts rarely require evidence of high expectations on the part of candidates for leadership positions. Second, districts should train principals regarding the importance of professional learning communities and how to form and maintain them. This training should be provided to administrators at the beginning of each school year. The training should include reading the work by DuFour and Eaker (1998) and methods for establishing collaboration norms that would allow staff members to work together. Third, the district should develop a standards-based pacing plan for instructional programs. These pacing plans should focus on the current language arts and mathematics programs, with emphasis on addressing all of the standards before CST testing. The pacing plan should include instructional activities based on the standards to provide students maximum exposure to the standards. Fourth, in light of the critical fiscal crisis facing many states, district, and schools, it is recommended that districts protect intervention funds from budget cuts. Even though there is a serious budget crisis, schools that are struggling with an achievement gap should be provided funds for intervention and intersession programs. Since the NCLB legislation continues to increase goals for students‘ scoring proficient and above, inter- vention activities are important for these schools. The ability to provide students tutor- 135 ing, additional instruction during Saturday School, and summer school or intersession is important for narrowing the achievement gap. Fifth, districts should review their guidelines for intervention programs. For example, districts should require that all intervention programs be standards based rather than program based. Instead of requiring a specific program, the district should require intervention programs that focus on the standards and activities that will expose students to these standards. Class size for intervention classes is important. Current intervention classes typically have a student/teacher ratio of 20:1; a more effective intervention pro- gram ratio would be 10:1. Districts should allow flexibility for intervention programs in terms of class size and standards-based activities. Recommendations for Policy Makers First, policy makers should ensure that the state standards are clearly written and rigorous. The number of standards required for each grade level should be reduced to allow the standards to be addressed at a deeper level. Fewer standards will not necessarily remove the rigor from instruction; instead, teachers can work longer at having the student master the standard. Second, policy makers should provide districts and schools with flexibility regarding intervention programs. For example, instead of enforcing the intervention class ratio of 20:1, the state should allow schools to design an intervention programs with a ratio of 10:1 or 15:1. The current required intervention ratio of 20:1 is not effective. Policy makers should allow schools to design their own intervention programs with the expectation that the program will be standards based. Schools could be held accountable 136 for students‘ progress through the next formative assessment. Policy makers should protect intervention programs from budget cuts in schools struggling to close the achievement gap. Schools that are not funded adequately for intervention programs should not be held accountable for NCLB goals until adequate funding is provided Third, policy makers should provide incentives for schools to develop and maintain professional learning communities. These incentives could include additional funds, waivers for certain budget requirements, and waivers in terms of class size, intervention programs, or even curriculum. Recommendations for Future Research This case study of this successful school has raised topics for future studies. The journey that this school has taken from a status of Program Improvement year 5+ to the current success in student achievement has revealed areas that merit future research. High expectations, a focus on standards, intervention programs, and leadership exercised jointly by principal and teachers create opportunities for research. Great Street Elementary School has demonstrated success with strong leaders, committed teachers, and implementation of effective professional learning communities in which teachers collaborate. This school is a model for other schools facing an achieve- ment gap in its implementation of recommended research-based strategies, such as high expectations, collaboration, professional learning communities, and teacher/ principal leadership. The following are suggested areas for future research. 137 District Reform Efforts This case study focused on a school in a large urban school district in California. Over the past 10 years this district has implemented many reforms efforts and has provided professional development programs for teachers in the area of language arts, mathematics, and ELD. This large urban district should conduct a major study to docu- ment the effectiveness of their reform efforts. For example, the implementation of OCR, including the professional development component should be evaluated through a research study. This district has also developed an ELD Practicum that has provided teachers a structured English Language Development program focusing on theories of second language acquisition. The teachers in Kindergarten through fifth grade participated in training sessions in a lesson studies format in which teachers observed each other teaching. Research should be conducted on the effectiveness of these professional development programs and the long-range effect of this type of professional development. “Red Team” The teachers reported in their interviews the role of the ―red team‖ as a catalyst for change when they were a Program Improvement 5 school. The ―red team‖ used a process to support and guide the work of schools in Program Improvement 5 status with zero or negative academic growth. The district sent teams of district staff to the schools to observe and provide written feedback with recommendations. Great Street Elementary School went through this process, which the teachers described as ―horrendous,‖ while at the same time acknowledging that this process assisted them on the road to success. 138 According to the principal, the team left recommendations in areas such as the need to focus on standards, rubrics, and criteria charts. This process was vehemently opposed by the teachers‘ union and the schools that participated in this process. The principal reported that she was assigned to the school after the ―Red Team‖ visits and implemented their recommendations during her first few years. The ―Red Team‖ process should be studied to determine its effectiveness at this school and why it failed at other schools. There should be a comparison of schools to determine which schools used the process to narrow the gap and which schools did not narrow the gap, and why. With so many schools struggling with an achievement gap, this type of process should be evaluated carefully. From the teachers‘ comments the process was stressful due to the negative comments made by the team but the recommendations offered strategies that the school eventually used. Additional research is needed to determine what worked and what did not work in the ―Red Team‖ process. QAR This school has implemented the QAR concept in reading comprehension in all classrooms. Through QAR students are taught explicitly to identify whether questions are found in one of three areas: Text Explicit (the answer is in a specific section of the text), Text Implicit (the answer could be located in the text but the student must used inferential thinking to identify the answer), or Script Implicit (the answer comes from the reader‘s own background knowledge). Since reading comprehension is an area in which most students have difficulties on tests, such as the CST, additional research is needed to determine whether explicit reading comprehension strategies, such as those found in 139 QAR, are beneficial. A study should be conducted to measure the effectiveness of these reading comprehension strategies. Basic Sight Words The kindergarten staff at Great Street Elementary School increased the number of basic sight words for their students. This requirement could be explored by the state to determine if the standards for kindergarten should be increased. Many students come to school with limited English vocabulary but this school demonstrated that these students could learn more sight words than originally expected. Research is required to measure the effectiveness of increasing the number of required sight words for Kinder students. Great Street Elementary School’s Sustainability The school has a new principal but the staff is confident they will maintain their academic growth. The new principal has expressed high expectations for students to the staff and teachers. In addition, the school is using the same programs and practices as the previous years. Longitudinal studies should be conducted in 2 years and 5 years to determine whether leadership by the teachers, the professional learning communities, and collaboration has sustained the academic success of the school. In terms of measuring the school‘s sustainability, consideration should be given to the current fiscal crisis, including increased class size, elimination of intervention programs, and changes in staffing due to reduction-in-force personnel cuts. Conclusion This case study has demonstrated that a school in an urban setting can experience success with a strong leader, committed teachers, and effective professional learning 140 communities where teachers collaborate. This school is a model for other schools facing an achievement gap. The students are living in a socially stressed community, yet they have gained literacy and numeracy skills that have allowed them to succeed. Schools can learn from this school in terms of what must be accomplished to narrow the achievement gap for students of color and poor students. Schools struggling with an achievement gap should explore the ability to demonstrate high expectations for all students, explicit communication by the principal regarding expectations in the area of instruction, and assistance to teachers in terms of instructional best practices. 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D., Griffith, K. G., & Kritsonis, W. A. (2007). The achievement gap between African American and non-minority students: How can we close the gap? The Lamar University Electronic Journal of Student Research, 4. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED497496) Wenglinsky, H. (2002). How schools matter: The link between teacher classroom prac- tices and student academic performance. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(12). Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n12/ Zigler, E., & Finn-Stevenson, M. (2007). From research to policy and practice: The school of the 21st century. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(2), 175-181. 145 APPENDIX A INSTRUMENT: THE STAFF INPUT SURVEY The Staff Input Survey Your school was chosen for this study based on the success and sustainability in student achievement. The purpose of this study is to identify your school’s cultural norms, practices and programs that contributed to the closing or narrowing of the achievement gap. The results of this study could be useful to schools with a similar student population. Your input on this survey is anonymous. This research project is being conducted by a doctoral student from the University of Southern California. The survey will take about 10-15 minutes to complete. Thank you for your cooperation. Please circle the appropriate response: 1. The school supports collaboration among teachers. a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree 2. The teachers at this school believe that students can achieve at high levels. a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree 3. School administration creates a positive school culture for teachers and students. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 4. Leadership is shared among school personnel. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 5. Teachers collaborate to discuss student data to improve student learning. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 6. The school addresses the needs of struggling students. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 7. School administration conducts classroom observations frequently. a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree 146 8. The school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling students. a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree 9. School administration communicates vision and goals to the staff. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 10. School administration ensures the analysis of student assessment data. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 11. School administration provides support for implementation of new instructional practices. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 12. School administration provides ways to improve instructional strategies to meet the needs of students with diverse backgrounds. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 13. CST scores and District Assessments are used to plan your instructional program. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 14. Student data is used to identify the instructional needs of my students. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 15. You utilize the California State Standards to plan and deliver instruction. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 16. You provide differentiated instructions to meet the needs of all students. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 17. School administration initiates programs that promote student achievement. a) Strongly Agree b) Agree c) Somewhat Disagree e) Strongly Disagree 18. The school utilizes a specific program to analyze student data. a) Most of the time b) Sometimes c) Rarely d) Never 147 Please circle all that apply: 19. Who leads the collaboration sessions? a) Teachers b) Administrators c) Counselors d) Coaches e) Other:_____________ 20. What topics are discussed in the collaboration sessions? a) Curriculum b) Instruction c) Intervention d) Data Analysis e) Operation f) Standards g) Other: _____________________________________________ 21. How does the school make collaboration possible? a) Substitute release time b) Minimum Days c) Partial Day Release d) After School Time e) Bank Time Activity f) Staff Meetings g) Preparation Periods h) Other: ___________________________________________________ 22. What type of intervention practices are used for struggling students? a) Peer Tutoring b) After School Tutoring c) In-class intervention d) Pull-Out Intervention e) Homework Assistance f) Summer School g) Off-Track Classes h) Other: _______________________________ 23. Who organizes professional development sessions related to intervention programs? a) Teachers b) Administrators c) Department/Grade Level Chairs d) Coaches e) Other: ___________________________________________ 24. Rate the following instructional strategies you used to enhance student learning. Extremely Important 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Important ___ Direct instruction ___ Guided practice ___ Pre-teaching ___ Re-teaching ___ Visual aids/graphic organizers ___ Note-taking ___ Summarizing ___ SDAIE Strategies ___ Cooperative grouping ___ Peer tutoring ___ Individual instruction ___ Higher Order Thinking Questions ___ Scaffolding ___ Using Prior Knowledge ___ Metacognitive Skills ___ Other (please list) ________________ 148 25. What specific program does the school use to promote collaboration? ___________________________________________________________________ 26. What intervention program(s) at your school have contributed to closing the achievement gap? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 27. What instructional programs do you use in your classroom that has helped close the achievement gap? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 28. Comments about the role of intervention in closing the achievement gap at your school: ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 29. Comments about the role of data analysis which helped close achievement gap at your school: ___________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 30. Comments about the role of school leadership which helped close the achievement gap at your school: ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 31. Comments about the role of collaboration which helped close the achievement gap at your school: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 149 32. Comments about the role of your classroom instruction which helped close the achievement gap at your school: ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Even though this survey is anonymous, please provide the following information: Your position at the school: For Elementary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Grade level Chair For Secondary Schools -- Administrative Team Teacher Department Chair Number of years as an educator: ________________________________ How long have you worked at this school?: ________________________________ Thank you for completing this survey. Your responses are appreciated. 150 APPENDIX B INSTRUMENT: THE STAFF INPUT INTERVIEW 1. Collaboration: a. What does collaboration look like at this school? b. Who leads the collaboration sessions? c. With whom do you collaborate? How often? d. What are the outcomes for student learning? e. What programs, practices, and cultural norms does the school have in place to ensure that students achieve? 2. School Leadership: a. What is the school mission and vision? b. How is the mission/vision/goal communicated? c. What is the primary goal for this school? d. Who is the school leader? Why? e. How does the leadership foster or help student learning? f. Is the leadership shared among the various school personnel? How? g. How does the leadership meet the needs of at-risk populations? h. Are school decisions based upon student needs? Give an example 3. Program Implementation a. What programs have been employed that have allowed the school to close the achievement gap? b. Are there programs that have improved attendance? And how is this affecting achievement? c. What programs have improved the school climate? d. What programs have improved content learning for all students but specifically for students with diverse needs? e. What programs have improved student achievement in literacy skills? f. What programs have improved student achievement in mathematics? 4. Data Analysis a. How is data used to support student learning? b. Who is responsible for disaggregation, dissemination, and review of data? c. How is this information shared among the various school stakeholders? d. Does your school utilize a specific data analysis program? If so, which program? e. How often is data analyzed at your school site? 5. Intervention: a. What are the supports that are in place for students and their families? b. Who determines which students get support? c. How are supports implemented and monitored? d. What is intervention is offered to students who are underperforming academically? e. How are these implemented? Who is involved? 151 f. How do you make sure that every student has his or her academic needs met? g. Can you explain the way things are done to support learning in student groups that are traditional underperforming? 6. Practices that Support Closing the Achievement Gap: a. What are the school-wide practices that support student learning? b. Who determined that this practice happens? c. How is effectiveness measured? Or what data is collected? d. How do you know that it is successful? e. Has this practice been modified since the beginning?  How do you know that all (EL, low SES, Special Ed, African American, Hispanic) students have access to these practices?  How do you know students are appropriately placed in classrooms or courses? f. What are the departmental or grade level practices that support student learning? 7. Classroom Instruction a. What are the classroom practices that support student learning? b. What are teachers supposed to know and be able to do? c. How do you know that they have done it? d. How is classroom instruction differentiated to meet the needs of all students? List some classroom examples. 8. Professional Development Practices that support closing the achievement gap: a. What are the professional development opportunities available to teachers? b. What is the role of the teacher in professional development? c. What is the role of the administrator in professional development? d. How do you know that teachers are utilizing skills learned? e. In the classroom? In specific content areas? 9. Sustainability a. Do you believe that your school has sustained success? b. How do you believe that you have sustained success? c. What advice would you give to other schools that want to emulate your cultural norms, programs and practices to close the achievement gap? Do you have anything you would like to add to this interview in terms of closing the achievement gap and sustaining success? 152 APPENDIX C INSTRUMENT: CLASS OBSERVATION FORM University of Southern California Rossier School of Education Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools Date:_______________________ Page ____of_____ Time: ___________ Type of Observation (Circle One): School Class Leadership Meeting Observation Log First Impression Condition of Surrounding Neighborhood Approach to School § Exterior condition of structures § Plants and foliage § Bus turn-around, parking lot: teachers and students § Supervision around and in front of the school The Office § Entrance/security 153 § Condition of office compatible with exterior? § Staff interaction, with guest, parents, community, and peers Initial Meeting § With whom? Principal, Asst. Principal… § Restrictions on access? § Staff traffic to administration, open door or appointments Staff § Designated representatives, restricted choice, or free access to staff ►Teacher leaders ►Empowered/Figure heads? ►Emergent leaders of formal structures of leadership § Collaboration? 154 ►Structured, non- structured? ►Common assessments, formative, summative Students § Student-centered culture? § Connection with staff at all levels? Any levels? 155 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools Date: ________________ Page: ______ of _______ Time: _______________ Levels of Curriculum Curriculum § ESL § SDAIE § SPED ►RtI ►SDC ►ED/SED ►SH Standard Levels College Prep 156 Advanced Placement International Baccalaureate Open Access or restricted entrance Support Programs § AVID § Credit Recovery § Concurrent Enrollment with junior college § Distance Learning Credit 157 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education Focus: Factors Closing the Achievement Gap with Sustained Success in Urban Schools Date: ________________ Page: ______ of _______ Time: _______________ Classroom Observation Physical condition of room Desks or tables Student work displayed Learning Goal Related to Content Standard Demonstration of Learning Asset Development § Caring § High Expectations § Meaningful Participation 158 Strategies § Direct instruction § Guided practice § Scaffolding § Visuals/Graphic Organizers § Compare and Contrast § Summarizing or note taking § TAPPLE (Teach, Ask, Pick, Pause, Listen, Explain, Expand, Emphasize § TPR (Total Physical Response) § Check for Understanding Technology § Extent available § Extent used § Teacher use 159 § Student use § Student/teacher feedback on its use 160 APPENDIX D DOCUMENT REVIEW MASTER LIST, CATEGORIZED District 1. Textbook adoption list 2. Modified or year-round school 3. Board policy 4. Vision statement 5. Mission statement 6. Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners 7. LEA Plan 8. District policy for ELM placement 9. District policy for SEI placement 10. LEA code of conduct policy 11. LEA discipline policy 12. LEA drug/alcohol use prohibition policy 13. LEA firearms/weapons policy 14. LEA Gun-Free Schools Act policy 15. LEA plan describing availability of Tobacco Use Prevention Education services 16. LEA policy regarding tobacco use 17. Full desegregation 18. District-established criteria/procedures for reclassification 19. LEA catch-up plan for monitoring and overcoming any academic deficits 20. District policy on qualifications for instructional aides School level artifacts 1. Meeting schedules 2. Staff Development plan/School site plan 3. Instructional minutes/Master Schedule 4. Assessment tools 5. Preschool availability or pre-kinder offerings 6. Literacy programs 7. Character education 8. SST 9. RTI 10. Tutorial programs 11. Saturday school 12. Interventions during the school day 13. Summer school 14. Student-parent handbook 161 15. Discipline assembly 16. Vision statement 17. Mission statement 18. Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners 19. Equitable groupings of minority students in classrooms 20. Parent Involvement Policy 21. School Accountability Report Card 22. Teacher and paraprofessional assignments 23. Student profile data 24. Counseling availability and function 25. Entitlement funding (i.e., Title I funding) 26. School-parent compact for NCLB/Title I 27. Public reports of suspension, expulsion, and truancy rates from Uniform Management Information and Reporting System 28. Safe school plan (including disaster procedures, crisis management, or emergency plan) 29. Attendance reports Instructional 1. Department meeting notes 2. Common planning/Common Assessments 3. Classroom Objectives or standards posted in rooms 4. SMART goals or action plan documents 5. Teacher lesson plans Differentiated or special services 1. Re-classification of LEP 2. Descriptions of English-language mainstream program 3. Descriptions of structured English immersion program design 4. English learner program evaluation report 5. GATE student identification criteria 6. GATE teacher specifications 7. Analysis of California Healthy kids survey (CHKS) core module data 8. Analysis of CHKS resiliency and youth development module 9. California Healthy kids survey 10. Physical education instructional minutes report 162 California Department of Education website 1. School data to analyze student proficiency (CST and CELDT) 2. School demographic data 3. School data on Program Improvement status (i.e., AYP and API information) Pertains to High Schools only 1. College prep/AP/IB offerings 2. School data to analyze % of students in CP/AP/IB/Honors courses 3. Freshman advisory 4. AVID 5. Freshman assembly/freshman first day 6. Student placement criteria into CP/Honors/AP/IB 7. CST data, CAHSEE, AP, and college-bound statistics 8. District career technical education plan and course offerings 9. Work Experience Education District plan 10. Process for adding new courses 11. Description of alternative programs 163 APPENDIX E CORRELATION OF DATA AND THEIR CORRESPONDING RESEARCH QUESTIONS Data Collection Instruments RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3 General Data Collection  SARC  Meeting notes and agendas  SPSA  Professional Development X X X Interviews Face to face interviews with site administrator, non math teachers, most math teachers, and new teachers X X X Observation Survey X X X Teacher Survey X X X Classroom Observations X X School wide Observations X X X 164 APPENDIX F RESEARCH QUESTIONS/SURVEY PROTOCOL CORRELATION GRID Research Question #1 What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success? 1. The school supports collaboration among teachers. 2. The teachers at this school believe that students can achieve at high levels. 3. School administration creates a positive school culture for teachers and students. 4. Leadership is shared among school personnel. 5. Teachers collaborate to discuss student data to improve student learning. 6. The school addresses the needs of struggling students. Research Question #2 What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success? 7. School administration conducts classroom observations frequently. 8. The school has a systematic process for identifying and assisting struggling students. 9. School administration communicates vision and goals to the staff. 10. School administration ensures the analysis of student assessment data. 11. School administration provides support for implementation of new instructional practices. 12. School administration provides ways to improve instructional strategies to meet the needs of students with diverse backgrounds. 13. CST scores and District Assessments are used to plan your instructional program? 14. Student data is used to identify the instructional needs of my students. 15. You utilize the California State Standards to plan and deliver instruction. 16. You provide differentiated instructions to meet the needs of all students. 19. Who leads the collaboration sessions? 20. What topics are discussed in the collaboration sessions? 21. How does the school make collaboration possible? 22. What type of intervention practices are used for struggling students? 23. Who organizes professional development sessions related to intervention programs? 24. Rate the following instructional strategies you used to enhance student learning. 165 Research Question #3 What are the programs that have been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success? 17. School administration initiates programs that promote student achievement. 18. The school utilizes a specific program to analyze student data. What specific program does the school use to promote collaboration? What intervention program(s) at your school have contributed to closing the achievement gap? What instructional programs do you use in your classroom that has helped close the achievement gap? Comments about the role of intervention in closing the achievement gap at your school: Comments about the role of data analysis which helped close achievement gap at your school: Comments about the role of school leadership which helped close the achievement gap at your school: Comments about the role of collaboration which helped close the achievement gap at your school: Comments about the role of your classroom instruction which helped close the achievement gap at your school: 166 APPENDIX G DATA NEEDS/DATA SOURCES BY RESEARCH QUESTION 1 RQ 1: What are the cultural norms that have been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success? Data Needs Data Sources Instrumentation Teacher Collaboration— common planning, common assessment, data review  Dept. meeting notes  Meeting schedules  Staff development plan/school site plan Document review Challenging, rigorous curriculum  Textbook adoption list  College prep/AP/IB offerings  Instructional minutes  Assessment tools  School data to analyze % of students in CP/AP/IB/honors courses Document review, survey Preventions for at-risk populations  Preschool availability  Literacy Programs  Pre-kinder offerings  Character education  Freshman advisory  AVID Interviews, document review, observations Interventions for at risk population and whole school  SST  RTI  Tutorial Programs  Saturday School  Intervention during the school day  Summer school  Modified year-round school Document review Behavioral Expectations  Character education  Student-parent handbook  Board policy  Discipline assembly  Freshman assembly/freshman day Document review, observations, 167 Leadership--Vision for success with high expectations  Vision    Mission statement  Teacher evaluations  Assessment tools Document review Professional development/Staff development focusing on at-risk and ethnic minority students  Staff development plan to meet the needs of diverse learners Document review, surveys, interviews Data-driven decision making  SMART goals  Assessment tools  School demographic data  Student profile data  Student placement into CP/AP/IB/honors classes  CST data, CAHSEE, AP, and college-bound Document review, surveys, interviews Recognition of diverse student population  Re-classification  Equitable groupings of minority students in classrooms  Full desegregation  Counseling  Entitlement funding Document review, surveys, interviews Standards are key to curriculum and instruction  Textbook adoption  Standards posted in every room  Teacher lessons  Assessment tools Document review, observations, surveys 168 APPENDIX H DATA NEEDS/DATA SOURCES BY RESEARCH QUESTION 2 RQ 2: What are the practices that have been employed by the school that have allowed them to close the achievement gap and sustain success? Data Needs Data Sources Instrumentation Administrative leadership on instructional practices of teachers Teacher‘s observation student performance data Teacher interview, teacher survey Instructional practices of teachers Classroom observation Teachers practice in Professional development PD records, PLCs Teacher interviews, observations during PD meetings Response to Intervention School data Documents; Interviews Classroom organization on SLC, class size, block schedule School-wide record Master schedule, observation ELD CELDT scores, course placement Course placement, benchmarks Documents; interview, observations School safety, student behavior Emergency Suspension records Interventions 169 APPENDIX I DATA NEEDS/DATA SOURCES BY RESEARCH QUESTION 3 Data Needs Data Sources Instrumentation I. Information on the program: o How program works/ description of the program o Who is involved in the program o Length of program o Goal of program o Level of implementation Key players/Stakeholders: Start up sources/ Implementation Questions on Interviews/Survey II. Assessments: Test scores; CST Benchmarks District Wide Assessments (DWA) Test scores/assessments CDE / Benchmark data system III. School Artifacts: Attendance, Agendas/minutes: Agendas/minutes/student and teacher attendance List of documents that are being reviewed IV. Professional Development Who , Material, What type: ex. trainer of trainer/facilitator Program Environment Observations Classroom observation forms 170 APPENDIX J PARTICIPANTS AND THE CONTACT WITH THE RESEARCHER Instrument Research Questions Time Setting The Staff Input Survey Teaching Staff and Administrative Team RQ # 1 RQ # 2 RQ#3 After School 10-15 minutes Staff Meeting The Staff Interview Form 6-8 staff members: 1site administrator 2 members of administrative team 5 teachers RQ # 1 RQ # 2 RQ#3 30-45 minutes Various parts of the campus. In classroom, offices. School Observation Form 3-5 Classrooms 2 Grade Levels 1 Staff Meetings Front Office Staff RQ # 1 RQ # 2 RQ#3 Classrooms: 20 minutes PD Sessions: 20 minutes Front Office: 15 minutes Classrooms Front Office Professional Development (PD) Sessions Staff meeting 171 APPENDIX K SCRIPT FOR INTERVIEW AND SURVEY My name is Rosalinda Lugo and I am currently a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study with eight other doctoral students. We are examining the factors that are significant in closing the achievement gap among white and affluent students and students of color and poverty in the state of California. Each of my colleagues is conducting a case study at an elementary, middle or high school in California. The purpose of our research is to study schools where there is significant achievement among subgroup populations and the factors that are contributing to that achievement. Your participation is voluntary. You must be aged 18 or older to participate. I will be specifically interviewing and surveying participants that are employees of both the school and the district in which the research study is being conducted. There are no limitations on the number of years experience, the type of credential held, the grade level, the department, or your current job assignment. I will primarily be interviewing credentialed employees, although classified employees who interact with students may also be included. Your participation may include a 15-20 question survey, a 45-60 minute interview, and/or an observation. Your portion of the research project will take place at your school site. If you have further questions regarding the research project or the process, please feel free to contact me at (626)-487-4149. 172 APPENDIX L DATES OF VISITS Date Activities Activities Activities Activities August 2009 Met with principal regarding Case Study. Scheduled visit for Fall Signed school authorization letter. Tuesday, October 6, 2009 Professional Development: Introduce study to staff Friday, October 23, 2009 Observations 5 th grade Professional Development Spoke with Campus Security…long time resident Tuesday, October 27, 2009 Classroom visits Professional development Friday, October 30, 2009 Literacy and Math Night Community Observation Tuesday, November 3, 2009 Interviews: Classroom Intervention: Teacher Professional development session: Tier I Bulletin RtI Survey Document Review Thursday, November 5, 2009 Interviews: Teachers, Intervention Teachers Coordinator Literacy Coach Classroom Visits Thursday, November 10, 2009 Interviews: Teachers Classroom Observation Staff meeting 173 APPENDIX M CLASSROOM VISITS, INTERVIEWS, AND TEACHER CODES Grade Walk Through 15 minutes or longer Interviews Other Information K X 100 words fluency chart K X 1 st –Teacher 7 X X 1 st X 1 st X Wavier to Basic 1 st X 2 nd -Teacher 8 X X 2 nd - Teacher 9 X X 2 nd X Wavier to Basic 2 nd -Teacher10 X X 2 nd X 3 rd X 3 rd - Teacher 11 X X 3 rd X 4 th – Teacher 12 X X 4 th X 4 th X 5 th - Teacher 1 X X 5 th grade PD 5 th – Teacher 2 X 5 th grade PD 5 th - Teacher 4 X 5 th grade PD 5 th – Teacher 5 X 5 th grade PD 5 th – Teacher 6 X X Teacher 7 X X Admin. 1 X Admin 2 X Admin 3 X Admin 4 X 174 APPENDIX N CHECKLIST FOR PRINCIPALS Narrowing the Achievement Gap Checklist for Principals In order to begin the process of narrowing the achievement gap a principal should focus on the following 6 steps: A. Establish a Culture of Collaboration 1. Read DuFour and Eaker‘s (1998) Professional Learning Communities at Work, Solution Tree. 2. Establish professional learning communities with staff using Du Four and Eaker (1998) book. 3. Establish Collaboration Norms with staff 4. Schedule collaboration time for staff 5. Monitor the collaboration sessions 6. Establish collaboration norms for the staff 7. Identify the time when the teachers are ready to collaborate on their own B. Establish a Culture of High Expectations 1. Publically state and model high expectations for all students 2. Monitor the teachers and staff‘s comments regarding children‘s abilities 3. Publically demonstrate high expectations through school-wide activities, classroom activities and written communication to the parents C. Establish a Culture of Leadership 1. Have high expectations for all students 2. State explicitly to the staff what is expected in terms of instructional practices and be willing to provide assistance. (Tell them what to do and more importantly, How to do it) 3. State explicitly to the staff what is expected in terms of professional behavior 4. Encourage teachers to assume leadership responsibilities in the area of instruction 175 D. Establish intervention activities and programs 1. Make sure the intervention programs are standards based 2. Provide teachers collaboration time as they plan intervention programs 3. Teachers must motivate students to attend intervention classes E. Establish the practice of data analysis among all staff 1. Know the formative and summative data of the students 2. Let the teachers know that you know the students data 3. Meet with teachers and have discussion regarding student progress 4. Celebrate successes regarding student achievement with the staff F. Establish the practice of having all instruction standards-based 1. Provide teachers with opportunities to know and understand the standards 2. Communicate the importance of standards to the teachers 3. Require fidelity to the instructional core program 4. Enhance instructional core program with standards based activities

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The goal of this case study was to identify the cultural norms, practices, and programs of an urban school that narrowed the achievement gap. The reason for identifying these factors in a successful school was to add to the body of literature regarding the achievement gap and what a struggling school was able to do to narrow the gap. This case study identified the cultural norms of high expectations, collaboration, leadership, and a college-bound culture, as well as the practices that the school identified as instrumental to narrowing the achievement gap: collaboration, instructional practices, professional development, data analysis, and standards-based education. The programs that the staff identified as instrumental to the school’s academic success were their intervention programs, including Saturday School, after-school tutoring and pull-out programs, and fidelity to the implementation of the school’s core instructional programs. A principal’s checklist was developed to provide suggestions and guidance to schools that are seeking to narrow the achievement gap.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lugo, Rosalinda (author)

Core Title Narrowing the achievement gap: a case study of an urban school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/27/2010

Defense Date 02/25/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,case study,collaboration,data analysis,high expectations,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,standards-based education,urban schools

Place Name California (states)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Ortiz, Gustavo (committee member)

Creator Email rlugo@roadrunner.com,rlugo6@lausd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2885

Unique identifier UC1426240

Identifier etd-Lugo-3539 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-296057 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2885 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Lugo-3539.pdf

Dmrecord 296057

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lugo, Rosalinda

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu